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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.20 No.9

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 9 (September 2021) Print version: 1694-2493 Online version: 1694-2116

IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 20, No. 9

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the fields of learning, teaching and educational research.

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Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website http://www.ijlter.org. We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue. We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration. The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers. We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal with this issue.

Editors of the September 2021 Issue

VOLUME 20

NUMBER 9

September 2021

Table of Contents Strategies to Prevent Leaner-on-Educator Violence in South African Schools ............................................................... 1 RJ (Nico) Botha, RP Zwane Correlation between Lecturers’ Professional Development Activities and their Competencies in Maldives Higher Education Institutes .............................................................................................................................................................. 18 Zuha Aishath, Intan Marfarrina Omar, Waheeda Aishath International Graduate Students’ Experiences of English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) Courses in a Korean University .............................................................................................................................................................................. 38 Yong-Jik Lee, Robert O. Davis, Yue Li Transformative Intervention Strategies for Teacher Leaders During the Pandemic and Beyond ............................. 52 Edwin Darrell De Klerk, Natalie Smith The Influence Mechanism of Loneliness to Learning and Its Coping Strategies in Chinese College Students ........ 68 Dong Yang, Usaporn Swekwi Student Response Systems in a Technology Enhanced Flipped Classroom: A Qualitative Investigation in Higher Education ............................................................................................................................................................................... 86 Sebastian Åhman, Jonny Nguyen, Naghmeh Aghaee, Kevin Fuchs Using Pixton for Teaching EFL Writing in Higher Education during the Covid-19 Pandemic ............................... 102 Paola Cabrera-Solano, Paul Gonzalez-Torres, Cesar Ochoa-Cueva Poor Academic Performance of Students in Agriculture at Primary Schools in Botswana: Analysis of Causes and Ways to Improve ................................................................................................................................................................. 116 Som Pal Baliyan, Kagiso Malebalwa, Keregero J B Keregero, Kgomotso Mabusa Students’ Problem-solving Difficulties and Coping Strategies in Mathematics: A Model- Building Study ........... 136 Dinah C. Vidad, Maria Ana T. Quimbo The Relationship between Musical Aptitude, Self-efficacy and Achievement of Elementary School Pre-service Teachers ............................................................................................................................................................................... 174 Seungyoun Hong Motivational Teaching Strategies and EFL Students’ Essay Writing Proficiency ...................................................... 192 Puspa Dewi, Abdurrachman Faridi, Mursid Saleh, Sri Wuli Fitriati Factors Impacting the Application of an Inclusive Education Policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment, and Support of the Learners at Schools in South Africa ........................................................................................................ 207 Mantheme Florina Matolo, Awelani M. Rambuda The Abilities Related to Organizing Experiential Learning Activities for Vietnamese Undergraduate Teacher Training Students................................................................................................................................................................ 222

Huong Thanh Ngo, Thanh Dac Nguyen The Differential Impact of the Experiential- Entrepreneurial Learning Method on the Entrepreneurial Intentions of Higher Education Students ........................................................................................................................................... 236 Yasin Mohammed Ali, Reda Darge Negasi Grade 12 Learners’ Perceptions of Opportunities to Learn Imperfect Market Structures: Frances Baard District 255 Wellington Itai Manzi, Moeketsi Mosia, Boitumelo Moreeng, Thomas Masvosve Pedagogical Challenges in the Teaching of N-Level 4 Economics ............................................................................... 272 Letlhoname Boitumelo Nkwadipo, Msebenzi Rabaza University of Applied Sciences Students’ Engagement with Scientific Literature for Final Year Projects: An Exploratory Study ............................................................................................................................................................... 287 Abdul Rauf, Hanna Rahma Abdelwahab, Dadi Chen, Peter Birdsall Exploring University Instructors’ Challenges in Online Teaching and Design Opportunities during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review ....................................................................................................................................... 308 Sungmin Na, Hyunggu Jung

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 1-17, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.1 Received Jun 09, 2021; Revised Sep 12, 2021; Accepted Sep 27, 2021

Strategies to Prevent Leaner-on-Educator Violence in South African Schools RJ (Nico) Botha and RP Zwane University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5425-8635 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6021-2388

Abstract. School violence is singled out by many researchers as an area of salient concern, both nationally and internationally. Moreover, learneron-educator violence has become a phenomenon of great concern in schools worldwide; and no school is ruled out of this challenge. Various studies in the field of school violence focus on the safety of learners at schools, with inadequate attention paid to violence perpetrated against educators in school environments. Although some local studies on school-related violence do focus on educator-on-learner violence and the causes thereof, little or no studies have been conducted on coping strategies to deal with this concern. This literature study focused on learner-on-educator violence in South African schools and the coping strategies that educators use or can use to manage and restrict violence perpetrated against them. Located in the constructivist research paradigm, this study emanated from an empirical study by the authors on how educators, as victims of school violence, experience and understand learner-on-educator violence in the school environment. The findings of the current study revealed that South African educators use different coping strategies such as departmental directives; collegial support; in-school training programmes; monitoring of classroom access; collaboration with the school environment and participation of parents. It is concluded that these strategies are pertinent in stimulating the reduction of learner-on-educator violence in South African schools. Keywords: learner-on-educator violence; coping strategies; South African schools

1. Introduction Extensive studies have been conducted on school violence in South African schools over the past decade (cf. De Wet, 2016; Mncube & Netshitangani, 2014; Payne & Smith, 2013), but a very limited number of studies have been conducted locally on learner-on-educator violence (cf. Baruth & Mokoena, 2016; Cornelissen, 2016; Grobler, 2018; Mncube, 2014; Singh & Steyn, 2014). None of these studies however suggests effective counter-strategies to negate the impact of learner-on©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

educator violence. In their recent publication, The Teachers Handbook, the South African Council for Educators (2020) stress the importance of introducing more effective coping strategies for the reduction of learner-on-educator violence in local schools. Learner-on-educator violence is deeply embedded in school violence. Educators are at the heart of delivering national education goals and their well-being is essential for the continuity of sound educational practices. In many instances, educators are at the receiving end of physical attacks by learners. In an earlier study, the Centre for Disease Control in the United States found that more than 5% of educators were physically attacked by learners in 2013 and 2014 (Linda et al., 2015). This finding is widespread, as reported in countries such as Taiwan, Turkey and Israel (cf. Chia et al., 2013; Espelage et al., 2013; Reddy et al., 2018). In 2014, for example, the rate of violent actions against educators in the aforementioned countries was almost double that of the United States. Almost a quarter of all nonfatal injuries and illnesses that caused educators to miss work, stemmed from violent actions against them at schools (APA, 2016). This scenario is by no means any better in South African schools as they seem to be under siege because of the scourge of learner-on-educator violence (Grobler, 2018). School principals and educators find themselves in an unpleasant situation. They do not only have to pay attention to ineffective schools and learner underachievement but are also under pressure to find a means of responding to violence against them by the learners they teach and to reinstate schools as safe havens (Singh & Steyn, 2014). Among the most dominant problems faced by educators is the fact that they are not adequately equipped to counter violent incidents; thus, they have reacted similarly in violent and obnoxious means (Davids & Waghid, 2016). The aftermaths of violence against educators are serious and have a negative bearing, not only on educators, but also on learners, taxpayers and school systems alike (Baruth & Mokoena, 2016). In addition, facing hostile conditions in a working environment cannot be industrious or reassuring, specifically if it embraces violence (Makhasane & Khanare, 2018). Teacher maltreatment may result in a loss of income; teaching time and productivity; amplified damages and compensation costs; lawsuit costs; negative publicity for schools and negative learner behaviour (Le Mottee & Kelly, 2017; Singh & Steyn, 2014). When looking at this holistically, the school environment should not only afford learners academic knowledge, but also the prospect of personal development and socialising skills (Baruth & Mokoena, 2016). Violence in schools has a negative influence on all aspects of personality development. This in itself renders school environments where young people learn to mistrust and fear; develop a distorted cognition of their individuality and character and where their confidence is destroyed and antisocial behaviour rewarded (Collet 2013). Given these significant challenges, immediate solutions are required that will allow for a comprehensive understanding and approach to the phenomenon of violence perpetrated against educators in South African schools. To this end, this

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article focused specifically on the phenomenon of learner-on-educator violence and coping strategies which can be pertinent in stimulating the prevention and/or reduction of learner-on-educator violence at schools. This literature study focused on learner-on-educator violence in South African schools and the coping strategies that educators use or can use to manage and restrict violence perpetrated against them. Located in the constructivist research paradigm, this study emanated from an empirical study by the authors on how educators, as victims of school violence, experience and understand learner-oneducator violence in the school environment. Against this background, the purpose of the research was to answer the following research question: What entails learner-on-educator violence and what coping strategies can educators use to counteract violence against them in South African schools?

2. Evidence and Theories Overview 2.1 The concept, overview and possible causes of learner-on-educator violence Learner-on-educator violence, according to previous studies (cf. De Wet, 2016; Mncube & Netshitangani, 2014; Payne & Smith, 2013), is a subcategory of school violence since it manifests in learners who are violent towards educators. Such conduct can have several consequences. Therefore, the literature describes it as a result of aggressive behaviour, be it physical or emotional (or both), where the aim is to harm the educator or cause pain by bullying, insulting, raping or even killing the educator (De Wet, 2016). Learner-on-educator violence can take on any form (verbally, emotionally or physically) with the express purpose to cause harm in any form. In light of the explanation by Ncontsa and Shumba (2013) and for the purpose of this study, the concept refers to all forms of physical and verbal abuse conducted by learners aimed at educators. Even though much attention has been devoted to training programmes for educators to better equip them for their work, there are few or no guidelines or directives that can be used to combat violence against educators (De Cordova et al., 2019). According to Martinez et al. (2016), school violence perpetrated by learners is currently a general phenomenon worldwide, while approximately 40 years ago it was something unusual. Although this phenomenon is largely viewed superficially, school violence can actually be seen as an expression of socioethnical needs that can be harmful with damning psychological consequences (Berg & Cornell, 2016). This condition is, for example, similar to post-traumatic anxiety (a condition where someone does not recover after having gone through or witnessed a terrifying experience); and, consequently, it may also have detrimental physical consequences (Avunduk, 2021; Bass et al., 2016; Buonomo et al., 2017). Violence in the school context also brings with it psychological problems for educators and this is exacerbated daily by the increase in school violence (Rapoport, 2009; Reddy et al., 2018; Benevene et al., 2019). As confirmed by Bass et al. (2016), there is a clear link between social aspects relating to the youth and violence in schools. The school ground is a place that is beset with all sorts of related crimes and is therefore the ideal place where learners and educators can be exposed to fighting, abuse, antisocial behaviour, bullying,

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the possession of weapons, drug abuse and hooliganism perpetrated by groups (Kent & Simkins, 2018; Won & Chang, 2020). It is required of educators to maintain discipline and manage their classes when learners are distracted; furthermore they also have to promote the safety and security of everyone at school in the interest of the learners. According to Petlak et al. (2019), learner-oneducator violence negatively affects the quality of teaching and learning in schools and should therefore be dealt with urgently. The effect of learner-on-educator violence on the safety of educators differs from one country to another and depends on diverse personal, environmental and other interactive influences (Benevene et al., 2019). It is therefore helpful and essential for the purpose of this study to investigate and compare the experiences of violence against educators of some countries to find local solutions. International studies categorise learner-on-educator violence under the umbrella term “school violence”. This categorisation makes it difficult to define the concept and researchers therefore have different views of the term (Bounds & Jenkins, 2018). According to various reports (cf. Ajaps & Obiagu, 2021; Bass et al., 2016; Espelage, et al., 2013), school-based violence is on the increase worldwide and there could be many reasons for this trend. It could be linked to poorly managed education systems; poor organisation of infrastructure (for example poor facilities or a lack of facilities); incompetent and inexperienced educators and/or the ongoing marginalisation of the youth. Recent data on school violence and learner safety in the United States undeniably indicates that public schools experience more problems in this regard than private schools (Sorlier & Ogden, 2018). Problems relating to aspects such as quality of teaching, learner performance, educator–learner ratios, resources, gang activities, hate speech, hate-based graffiti, poverty, greater levels of incompetence and drugrelated problems are greater in public schools than in private schools (Musu et al., 2019). Research has shown that school violence flourishes in public schools where these factors are present (Bass et al., 2016; Berg & Cornell, 2016). In a similar study about crime and safety in schools in Norway the same tendency, as described above, was observed (Montuoro & Mainhard, 2017). Lastly, several international studies have further shown that education is a stressful vocation that makes immense psychological demands, including the need to develop positive relationships with learners and their parents; relationships that eventually play a significant role in the development of educators’ self-esteem and sense of self-preservation (Skaland, 2016). The effect of any violence perpetrated against an educator by a learner or even a parent, is often very serious and is a typical example of the material vocational wellness anxiety educators are increasingly exposed to each day (Reddy et al., 2018). 2.2 The extent of learner-on-educator violence in South African schools Despite the fact that schools are supposed to be places that promote effective teaching and learning, security in many South African schools is currently a matter of grave concern (Ngatane, 2019). Several local schools have deteriorated into places of violence and crime where assault, drug abuse, sexual violence and

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gang activity is the order of the day (Riaan, 2019). Local media very often report on incidents in which educators are the victims of violence (cf. Naidu, 2019; Seleka, 2020). According to Waghid and Davids (2020), educators have very often accepted that they have lost control over their classrooms; very often they do not know of methods that can be used to replace corporal punishment with other nonviolent corrective techniques. Although the main focus of a South African study by Burton and Leoschut (2013) is not on violence against educators, it is found in their study on violence in schools that as many as three out of five educators have been verbally abused by learners and one out of ten educators have already been sexually assaulted by learners. It is also found that educators in primary schools and secondary schools feel unsafe in the classroom and that classrooms are usually the place where school violence occurs. Although the study emphasises that it is disconcerting that educators are increasingly becoming the victims of violence, the study does not offer possible solutions that can help to combat this type of violence. Other local studies conducted in this regard (cf. Coetzee, 2017; De Wet, 2016; Grobler, 2018; Magwa & Ngara, 2014; Mncube & Harber, 2013; Mncube & Netshitangani, 2014), have all indicated that a huge percentage of educators have already experienced learner-on-educator violence during their careers. Sibisi (2016) has, among others, also found that one in every five educators in South Africa fall victim to learner-on-educator violence each year. He has also determined that instances of threats of violence, assault, sexual assault (including rape) and robbery of educators in local schools are still on the increase. 2.3 The link between learner-on-educator violence and society Violence in communities is a phenomenon which, as indicated earlier, occurs worldwide, specifically in conflict-riddled countries. It is thus by its very nature a multidimensional problem which includes several dimensions and variables. Educators and learners have no control over such violence and can do very little to stop it from further increasing in intensity. Such violence potentially has serious consequences for educators (Grobler, 2018; Robarts, 2014). According to Williams (2020), community violence can usually be linked to aggression among the youth, especially in low-income areas. According to Opic et al. (2013), not all learners who experience community violence display aggressive behaviour at school. Magwa and Ngara (2014) found that factors such as poverty; a lack of resources as well as access to alcohol and unlawful drugs that are linked to violence in communities can be associated with learner-on-educator violence. Pas et al. (2015) emphasise the importance of schools developing a strong and healthy relationship with the broader community in which it functions. Good, healthy relationships can contribute positively towards improving learners’ behaviour towards educators. Such school-community relationships create a positive bond of unity between schools and their surrounding communities. Healthy relationships between the school and its community and between learners and their parents will create an environment in which violence against educators would be discouraged. This, in turn, could lead to a stable and more

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peaceful school environment (Barnes et al., 2012; Coetzee 2017). In this regard, Nako and Muthukrishna (2018) refer to a few “opposing forces” which are those community factors that encourage violence against educators, such as poor parenting, drug abuse and inadequate safety measures.

3. Discussion 3.1 Coping strategies to manage learner-on-educator violence The research literature reveals that different countries use different approaches to prevent violence and maintain safe schools (cf. Bounds & Jenkins, 2018; Reddy et al., 2018). Various forms of legislation, policy documents, training programmes and other means had been introduced, but the problem of learner-on-educator violence has yet to be eradicated and are actually getting worse (cf. Dicke et al., 2015; Petlak et al., 2019). In the South African context, there is no single coping strategy employed by educators and education authorities (Le Mottee & Kelly, 2017). This explains the complexity of the problem and the need for a multipronged and a continuous approach in dealing with learner-on-educator violence (Mishna et al., 2006). The next paragraphs take a closer look at some learner-on-educator violence preventative strategies available to South African educators. 3.2 The introduction of prevention programmes One of the best strategies to cope with learner-on-educator violence is to introduce and implement violence prevention programmes (Dicke et al., 2015). The increase in incidents of school violence against educators over the past ten years have drawn the attention of governments world-wide to develop programmes designed to prevent and reduce the problem (Siegle, 2010). The success of specific programmes against school violence include a few interventions that have been tested and implemented globally to tackle verbal and low-level physical victimisation, classroom abuse and school violence incidents in general. The violent incidents at schools also relate to learner-on-educator violence. Programmes introduced in schools focus on aspects such as emotional harm to the victims; the rights of learners and educators; the educator’s ability to teach and the learner’s ability to learn; the negative effect on surrounding communities; the negative impact on a country’s growth objectives and financial costs for the country (cf. Birolim, et al., 2019). According to Peña-López (2009), the review of the specific school violence programmes has been analysed in the context of countries affiliated to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The OECD is a forum where the governments of 36 member states worldwide with similar market economies work together to promote and encourage economic growth, prosperity, safety, security and sustainable development of member states (Yaffe, 2017). The analysis of these intervention programmes is important for the purpose of this study, to understand the broader global school violence regulatory strategy by the OECD member states. This will help to create a more concrete understanding of educator victimisation by identifying the characteristics that

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distinguish threats against educators and an understanding of deep-seated intimidation and/or attacks against educators. Some of these intervention programmes deal with more serious types of school violence, such as sexual abuse, drug and alcohol abuse, armed assault and physical violence against educators, for example, stabbing and assassinating educators in that they focus on the origin, effects, intervention and prevention of school violence. Martinez et al. (2016) describe three common intervention programmes implemented globally to reduce incidents of school violence perpetrated against educators, namely surveillance (metal detectors and security guards), deterrence (rules, regulations and zero tolerance policies) and psychosocial intervention (integrated trauma healing and recreation activities, evidence-supported interventions, such as cooperative play and cognitive behavioural therapy). The discussion below is a summary of the effectiveness of the three types of intervention programmes to counter learner-on-educator violence at school to protect educators and school community members. It is important to focus attention on the effectiveness of these intervention programmes because reduced school violence incidents also means a reduction and/or elimination of violence against educators at schools. a) Surveillance programmes Surveillance strategies have been imported from criminal justice and the military into education (Petlak et al., 2019). Most frequently, the use of surveillance methods have been introduced locally amid fears of escalation of school violence and a growing realisation that, school safety is becoming a major public concern (Reddy et al., 2018). According to Petlak et al. (2019), surveillance means to watch (someone or something) closely, specifically to prevent or detect a crime for the sake of proper direction or control. Internationally, the use of surveillance in schools has been established as a critical approach to help schools perceive crimes and offences occurring in schools timeously before they actually cause havoc in the school social climate (Collins, et al., 2020; Kitzmiller, 2013). For effectiveness of surveillance, most OECD countries seem to encourage the formation of school and law enforcement partnerships (Florian & Rouse, 2009; Kitzmiller, 2013). As part of curbing school violence, governments from the OECD member states are expected to fund schools by providing financial assistance to schools to remunerate school resource officers (SROs). SROs are officers who are permanently stationed at public schools where part of their duty is to establish a `school–police’ partnership that focuses on law enforcement (Simon, 2007). They have three roles namely, law enforcement, counselling and teaching duties. These duties differ from one country to another (Wodtke & Parbst, 2017). SROs work hand in hand with district and regional education officials. With the surveillance approach, district officials are obliged to pay weekly visits to schools to do classroom observation and check interaction between educators and learners, for example, hallway interactions between school breaks, at school canteens or cafeterias during lunch breaks and observations at school

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playgrounds (Berg & Cornell, 2016). By observing such interactions, suspected learner aggressors can be identified and timeous decisions can be made to help school management control incidents of a similar nature and to curb the recurrence of such incidents in the future. By doing so, immediate intervention and prevention of an occurrence is sought and severe consequences diverted. The focus of the SROs is to identify the type of school crime or offence, security measures that can be taken and possible learned experience for future reference (Maman, et al., 2019). The work of SROs take up a significant amount of time during the day and SRO officers are expected to be well-trained, disciplined, law abiding and fully committed (Berg & Cornell, 2016). b) Deterrence programmes “Deterrence” is a concept which refers to believe that people choose to obey or violate the law after calculating the gains and consequences of their actions (Shelton, et al., 2009). According to Doss et al., (2015), there are two basic forms of deterrence namely, general deterrence and specific deterrence. General deterrence is a calculated notion of deterrence that is used for crime prevention in the population of a community or country (in this study reference is made to the school community). For example, a country’s punishment of lawbreakers works as an illustration for others who have not yet taken part in unlawful dealings (Doss et al., 2015). Thus, a country’s punishment order is enacted to create awareness of the state’s intentional terrors of authorised sanctions that are meant to deter wrongdoings for example, imposing the death penalty (Clark & Stancanelli, 2017). By state’s intentional terrors, it is meant what the state intentionally carries out to sanction a public sentence or penalty on wrongdoers (Petlak et al., 2019). As people are logically self-absorbed, they will not commit crimes if the costs of committing crimes triumph over the profits of engaging in objectionable acts (Ungar et al. 2013). If the only purpose of punishment is to prevent crime in society, punishments are unjust when their harshness exceeds what is necessary to achieve deterrence (Evans et al., 2014). In other words, it means this will not reduce the effect of violence but will rather result in an increase in criminality. An example of this in the school set up is the use of corporal punishment which was outlawed by many countries, including South Africa. Locally it was replaced by progressive corrective discipline and discipline management legislation. As general deterrence is intended to discourage people that witness the sanctions directed at the convicted from committing crime, corporal punishment was traditionally used and is still used in some countries to instil fear and witness the pain of committing criminal incidents (Kent & Simkins, 2018). Some general deterrence factors such as ruthlessness and credibility of the threat; the problem of communication; type of offense; differences between individuals and nature of conflicting group norms are still evident and applied in most African countries and largely account for brutal forms of discipline rather than

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counteractive ones (Global Initiative, 2016). This study sought for scientific and acceptable counteractive methods to combat violence against educators. Thus, violence in any form is a violation of the rights of children and educators and breaches the respect for human dignity and physical integrity (Maman et al., 2019). Specific deterrence is intended to deter an individual offender from committing a crime in future (Shelton et al., 2009). Promoters of specific deterrence also believe that punishing wrongdoers harshly will make them disincline to re-offend in future. For example, a drunk driver would be discouraged from drinking while driving because of the unkind experience he/she had to endear during arrest, or having his/her driver’s license confiscated or his/her car impounded. The state applies profuse discomfort to offset the extent of pleasure resulting from drinking (Clark & Stancanelli, 2017). Deterrence places believe in that if people know that their undesirable acts will be reprimanded, they will refrain from offending in future. Furthermore, their reprimand must be swift to deter crime (Tresco et al., 2010). Likewise, the criminal justice concept, as borrowed by the education fraternity globally, has been implemented by most schools through policies and procedures aimed at deterring the more serious criminal conduct by learners (Tuppince, 2017). c) Psychosocial intervention programmes School-based psychosocial interventions have been in existence since the early 1900s (Evans et al., 2014). In the last decade, the development of positive psychosocial programmes have brought about new intervention models aimed at improving mental health and encouraging well-being in education for educators and learners alike (cf. Eiraldi et al., 2012). This epitomises a shift in the research direction in the educational psychological sciences where positive progress has resulted in major developments in understanding human disorders, impaired functioning and the prevention of all other psychosocial syndromes, but fundamentally excluding the development of human potential and well-being factors (Tresco et al., 2010). A number of schools worldwide have tried out different psychosocial interventions with the aim of improving their school climates (Eiraldi et al., 2012). Some of these programmes have been found to be effective in reducing the need for school disciplinary actions, decreasing the incidence of behavioural problems, consequently making those schools seem safer (Tresco et al., 2010). There are two major approaches to psychosocial interventions, which have been experimented to yielding better results: the Expert Behavioural Consultancy system (EBC) and the Effective Behavioural Support system (EBS). Both these systems aim at targeting the entire school climate (Vancraeyveldt et al., 2015). Traditionally, school punitive practices were volatile and the marginalisation of learners were punished and often detached from instruction for behavioural infringements following the incident (Doss et al., 2015). Punitive practices fail to communicate the more socially accepted behaviours and are, atypically,

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frequently the least effective for learners with challenging behavioural problems (Musu‐Gillette et al., 2018). In an attempt to deal with this problem, psychosocial experts designed the EBC system, which is a system that can be used by educators and behavioural health professionals (Evans et al., 2014). Expert consultants such as child and adolescent psychiatrists, school and clinical psychologists and other behavioural health specialists play a major role in implementing and reducing behavioural incidents which lead to violence against educators in the school environment (Eiraldi et al., 2012). These experts can support school districts or regional officials with the improvement of existing systems or the creation of new ones where they are nonexistent; and mechanise the use of EBCs and available training and support to behavioural teaching staff (Evans et al., 2014). For the sake of this study, EBCs provided a context for acquiring important skills that affect academic productivity, classroom behaviour and educator-learner relations. In this regard, EBCs provide an effective platform with psychosocial strategies that could be used to reduce learner-on-educator violence. The EBS system is designed to deal with the behavioural performance of all learners in a school where they are charged with the responsibility of adjusting classroom habits and expectations with intention to decrease the effects of learner’s shortfalls on performance hindrances (Vancraeyveldt et al., 2015). This is completed to assist an individual educator in staying on track with control of learners in his/her class. This is also understood to reduce or eliminate aggressive behaviour towards educators, because there is an increased healthy social interaction between the educators and the learners (Tresco et al., 2010). The programme is completed through an Adapted Instruction Plan (AIP), a plan designed to provide a context of special education and customised package that embraces adjustments to daily classroom habits such as class work, tests and puzzles and homework for learners (Eiraldi et al., 2012). Collective special cases for the classroom embrace adapted seating plans where the learner identified to be a potential aggressor, sits closer to the educator and away from sources of potential environmental distractions (Evans et al., 2014). For example, learners with attention challenges are kept far from doors, windows or other learners with attention difficulties; and the educator makes use of isolated attention reminder to prompt the learner to stay on track with a given activity (Florian & Rouse, 2009). With reference to this study on learner-on-educator violence, EBS could be applied to lay hold of strategies that reduce disruptive and other problematic behaviours. An increase in learners’ exposure to tuition by decreasing disruptions during tuition; increasing the number of learners attending school by reducing out-of-school deferrals; and by decreasing the possibility of excluding learners from classrooms, for example, learners who are often referred to school offices for discipline referrals (Vancraeyveldt et al., 2015). The length of time spent on tuition

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predicts academic achievement (Austin & Jones, 2016). So increased tuition time because of improved learner behaviour should consequently lead to improvement in academic achievement and less confrontations with educators that lead to violence against educators. 3.3 Prevention strategies through the culture of rights and responsibilities As sites for championing human rights activism, schools should advocate and uphold an obligation to promote, protect and encourage the rights of learners and educators (Collins et al., 2020) and expedite a nontoxic teaching and learning environment. Preventive strategies designed to decrease acts of violence ought to be initiated from a human rights approach, with attention to growing awareness and understanding all fundamental human rights. In principle, learners in the South African context have the legitimate right to the maximum practicable protection. Yet, what seems to be frequently ignored, is the preparedness to equally educate learners to exercise responsibility along with their human rights. It is crucial to take into account that all human rights hold certain limitations and that one individual’s rights may not violate or disregard the rights of others (Makhasane & Khanare, 2018). The South African Constitution of 1996 (RSA, 1996) stipulates some enactments that safeguard the rights of learners and educators – that learners must learn in a conducive environment and educators ought to teach in an innocuous environment, devoid of all practices of victimisation, including learner-oneducator violence or paranoia. The Constitution (RSA, 1996) further provides other fundamental rights to learners and educators which include the rights to human dignity, equality, freedom of expression, protection, security and life. Such rights are, however, most often impinged on through the proliferation of school violence. Actions that are emotional, verbal or attacks of a violent nature all infringe the rights of the injured party to dignity and equality; the right to life; the right to freedom and security of the person; the right to protection from maltreatment; neglect and abuse or degradation (Sibanda, 2015). Thus, the inability to handle educator victimisation, including learner-oneducator violence and cruelty of any form, seriously violate human rights. Regrettably, the rights of educators at schools seem to be continuously disrespected and experiences of learner-on-educator violence do not stop as the culture of disrespect in schools is growing; with a partially distorted promotion of human rights– that learners seem to have more rights than educators. 3.4 Prevention via strong collegial support at schools In the South African context, educators generally work collaboratively through inventive methods that they find suitable for their unique circumstances. In this regard educators use collegial support to discourage learner-on-educator violence at school (Grobler, 2016). This strategy seemingly highlights the importance of unity and educators working together to promote synergy when running a school. Most educators believe that this strategy considerably reduces direct confrontation with learners. A female teacher who feels victimised by a learner will, for example, request the support of a male educator to address the threat

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against her as learners most often have more respect for male educators and are more hesitant to confront them. 3.5 Parental and community engagements A close relationship between parents and educators and collaborative functions ensure the development of self-discipline among learners and reduces the workload of educators and time spent on disciplining learners (Mishna et al., 2006; Lekalakala, 2019). When educators and parents form closer relationships with one another it closes the gap for learners to misbehave (Le Mottee & Kelly, 2017). Thus, involving parents and encouraging accountability in sustaining educators’ endeavours is key in clamping down on the negative effects of violent disciplinary measures. Children who grow up in homes without parents have the potential to promote violence among children that spill over to schools. Thus, there is a dire demand for uniformity and regularity in the corrective model at home and at school for discipline to be successful. Preferably, as suggested by the South African Council for Educators report (SACE, 2020), corporal punishment ought to be articulated as outlawed at home and in schools. Thus, parents and caregivers require patronage and regulation on the use of substitute, nonaggressive methods of child-discipline. The most critical position to consider is that not only parents, but all role players and stakeholders with a direct interest in education affairs communicate an undertaking that prevents and stops violence from being perpetrated against educators at schools (Lekalakala, 2019). This stresses the need for learners, educators and other stakeholders to work together towards a vision of fostering an environment in which everybody experiences safety socially, emotionally and physically (Le Mottee & Kelly, 2017). Building harmonious stakeholder relationships, specifically between educators and learners, is important to combat violence against educators. Their perception of one another is critical in this context. According to Espelage et al. (2013), forming healthy relations is a practice that amplifies and reshapes school discipline positively.

4. Conclusion Although educators react to learner-on-educator violence in various ways, it is evident that different schools in South Africa do not have formalised learner-oneducator violence broad preventive programmes. In addition, educators in South African schools are not adequately trained in conflict management skills to protect themselves against violence in the school context. As a result, authority in schools continue to decline with a corresponding increase in learner-educator negative confrontations. This deteriorating status of authority seems to encourage learners to disrespect educators and being scornful towards authority. With this in mind, the South African Department of Basic Education and the South African Council for Educators are starting with training initiatives to equip educators with coping skills and knowledge to counteract violence against them. However, the challenge is the inability of the training to provide focus on effectively managing interpersonal conflicts and violent episodes which might occur at schools. Equipping educators through training should be done by

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precautionary engagements with learners as leading contributors to educator victimisation, by aiming to carry out and evaluate evidence-based examples appropriate to the specific environmental situation and context of the school involved. Training therefore necessitates the provision of non-violent teaching and disciplinary approaches. In principle, a practical and responsive approach to learner-on-educator violence proved inescapable for all schools. Educators need user-friendly prevention strategies and programmes. Although some schools do have such programmes, major modifications are required for the effectiveness of their strategies.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 18-37, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.2 Received Jul 15, 2021; Revised Sep 18, 2021; Accepted Sep 27, 2021

Correlation between Lecturers’ Professional Development Activities and their Competencies in Maldives Higher Education Institutes Zuha Aishath* and Intan Marfarrina Omar University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7460-9589 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7302-1504 Waheeda Aishath Islamic University of Maldives, Malé, Maldives https://orcid.org/0000- 0002-4072-3727 Abstract. The quality of higher education (HE) is one of the key areas the higher education system of the Maldives focuses on to develop and expand the sector. Two of the factors that contribute to and influence the quality of HE are professional development (PD) and lecturers’ competency. However, in the context of Maldives, although efforts are made in the area of PD, little to no research has been conducted in this area. Hence, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between lecturer PD activities and their competencies in Maldives’ higher education institutes. A quantitative research design was adopted, which conducted a cross-sectional survey by administering a structured online questionnaire. A total of 171 lecturers participated, which included both full-time and part-time lecturers from two public and two private institutions. Data analysis revealed that there is a weak positive correlation between PD activities and lecturers’ competency; rs(129)=0.232, p=0.008. It is also possible that PD activities conducted do not cater for the needs of lecturers, and a culture where structured and individual PD activities are supported and encouraged is not efficiently established. In light of these findings, it is important to strengthen and expand the existing PD policies and focus on providing effective PD sessions on topics and areas that are most needed for lecturers, rather than on generic topics. This study contributes to the empirical literature on PD in the context of Maldives and to the overall development of the HE sector. Keywords: professional development activities; higher education; lecturers’ competency

Corresponding author: Zuha Aishath, xuha.rafiu@gmail.com

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

1. Introduction According to the Maldives higher education (HE) master plan 2016–2021, the HE system of the Maldives seeks to expand and develop the sector, focusing on five main areas, one of them being the quality of HE (Department of Higher Education, 2015). Among several factors which contribute to the quality of HE are professional development (PD) activities. Webster-Wright (2009) argued about the way PD is conceptualized in contemporary research. She reframed PD, focusing on aspects such as “learning rather than developing” and “holism rather than atomism”, which means that PD should be viewed with a larger lens that may include any form of activities adopted by lecturers to become better educators (Çelïk & Dïkïlitaç, 2015). One of the other factors which has been found to determine the quality of education is the competency of educators (Suryati, Arfin, & Yarnest, 2020), which is perceived to be enhanced by PD activities (Apriliyanti, 2020). In simple terms, competence is the skills required to do a job effectively. In the field of education or HE, the concept of competence becomes more complex. Imron et al. (2019) defined “competency as rational behavior in order to achieve the required goals in accordance with the expected conditions” (p. 94). According to Maldives Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), PD activities conducted at the institutes include training, workshops, courses, seminars, conducting research, and taking academic programs (Islamic Univeristy of Maldives (IUM), 2016; Maldives National University (MNU), 2020; Villa College, 2017). Some of the training and courses are from universities overseas. Moreover, in 2017, two public universities in the country signed a memorandum of understanding for five years, with one of the objectives being to share expertise, collaboration, and organization of PD activities such as training, workshops or seminars (MNU, 2017). Nonetheless, inadequate PD programs were identified as one of the weaknesses found during a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis done at IUM in 2015 (IUM, 2016). Another problem is that most lecturers resist integrating new technologies; thus, a positive attitude toward Information and Communication Technology (ICT) will help uptake ICT in PD activities (Kinaanath, 2013). However, owing to the Covid-19 pandemic, PD training in ICT is expected to increase. In spite of these efforts, no empirical literature has been published in the context of Maldives which indicates the PD activities lecturers take part in or their relationships to lecturers’ competency. In the context of the Maldives, making strategic plans and affiliating with other institutions for better PD, and conducting PD activities in specific competency aspects, are efforts made in recent years. Hence, it will take time to see significant impacts of PD activities on the different aspects of lecturers’ competency. The main focus of the HE sector of the Maldives has been the provision of quality HE for the increasing number of students, with the best available resources. This indicates that the HE sector of the Maldives is still in the early stages of development. The purpose of this study, then, is to examine the correlation between lecturers’ PD activities and their competencies at Maldives HEIs. Based on such purpose, the following hypothesis is tested:

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Ho: There is no significant correlation between PD activities and competency of lecturers at HEIs of the Maldives.

2. Literature Review Spencer and Spencer (1993) presented a general approach for the design of competency learning or teaching experiences which includes six steps. This approach was based on four theories: (1) adult experiential education theory, (2) McClelland's theory of motive acquisition, (3) social learning theory, and (4) selfdirected change theory.

Adult Experiential Education Theory. "Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience" (Kolb, 2015, p. 49). David Kolb published his experiential learning theory in 1984 and explained two reasons why the approach is called "experiential". The first reason was that his theory stemmed from the intellectual works of John Dewy, Kurt Lewin and Jean Piaget, and the second reason was to highlight the significant role experience plays in the learning process. According to Kolb (2015), this theory is widely used in adult learning, using the experiential learning cycle (Figure 1). There are four modes of grasping experience: Abstract Conceptualization (AC): composing a new idea or set of instructions; Active Experimentation (AE): planning how to use the composed idea or instructions and trying it out; Concrete Experience (CE): feedback on the behavior of the experiment; and Reflective Observation (RO): reflecting on the experience to modify the idea or instruction for future use. This theory is most effective in adult learning when all four modes are employed (Spencer & Spencer, 1993).

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Abstract Conceptualization

- Reading - Lecturers

Active Experimentation

Reflective Observation - Instrument Feedback - “Thinking Time”

- Simulations - Exercises

Concrete Experience - Personal feedback, feelings - Exercises

Figure 1: Adult Learning Styles Source: Competence at Work: Models for Superior Performance (1993)

McClelland's Theory of Motive Acquisition McClelland's theory of motive acquisition published in 1965 identified 12 propositions which people can use to acquire or change individual traits such as motives. He describes motives as “affectively toned associative networks” (McClelland, 1965, p. 322) within an individual. Spencer and Spencer (1993) summarized the propositions to five inputs. First, the conceptual framework given to the learner to think about their behavior and promote achievementmotivated thoughts with desirable outcomes. Second, the learner must receive feedback on their current competence and the potential competencies they could acquire to reach success goals. Third, the practice referring to the training experience of the learner, which is later used in real experiences. Fourth, the learner must set solid goals and use competency in important activities, because, once the goals are set, and feedback is received, it will increase the possibilities of achieving the goal through newly formed motivation. The fifth and last input is that learners must practice thoughts and behaviors in a socially safe and supportive environment because what is learned through training is better maintained in a membership which shares a common language and values. Social Learning Theory A vast portion of what humans learn in day-to-day life is from observation. Social learning theory is a learning process in which interpersonal skills are learned by observing or imitating effective behaviors of role models in a given situation (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). Observing demonstrations, videotapes, and tutorials to learn a particular competence and to apply or imitate in real situations are some

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of the behavior-modelling methods. For example, in the context of HE, a lecturer may learn a new method of student assessment from his/her mentor by observing the mentor teaching. Self-Directed Change Theory Over the late 20th century, researchers such as Kolb, Winter, Berlew, and Boyatzis contributed in presenting models of self-directed change. Spencer and Spencer (1993) explain that, according to self-directed research, for an adult to change behavior, three conditions must be present: dissatisfaction with the existing competency (Actual); clarity about the desired competency (Ideal); and clarity about how to go from Actual to Ideal. As learners, they must feel a discrepancy between their current and desired competencies, so that this discrepancy creates a drive for change. Subsequently, this theory came to be known as Intentional Change Theory (ICT). Boyatzis (2006) explained it as a complex system where “ICT describes essential components and [the] process of desirable, sustainable change in one’s behavior, thoughts, feelings, and perceptions” (pp. 608–609). Based on these four theories, Spencer and Spencer (1993) proposed six steps to learn competencies. These six steps are described below with their objectives, providing examples from the context of HE. 1. Recognition: Letting the learner recognize and convince him/herself that competencies are crucial to the profession, and need to be taught. For instance, a lecturer compares and contrasts a novice and an expert teacher and recognizes the competencies the novice lecturer lacks that the expert lecturer has, thereby reflecting on his/her own competence level. 2. Understanding: In this step, competency is taught to the learner, either through reading or listening to a lecture, through subject-specific training, or through videos and tutorial demonstrations. In HEIs, lecturers attend professional development training on topics such as leadership or pedagogy; lecturers learn the knowledge they lack through online e-learning platforms or watching video tutorials; lecturers take further education to get more in-depth knowledge in their disciplines. 3. Self-assessment: Giving feedback to learners on their current competency against potential advance competency levels. To self-assess, lecturers give feedback to one another on their newly learned practices, skills, and performances in training. 4. Skills practice/feedback: Practicing the newly learned competence in a realistic simulation and get coaching feedback to improve their performance. Lecturers practicing how to use a new technology that was integrated into teaching and getting feedback is an example of this step. 5. Job application goal setting: In this step, the learner sets goals and comes up with a plan to use their competency to achieve that goal in their work. Studies have found that goal setting has a positive impact on employee effectiveness (Teo & Low, 2016), and HE teachers saw it as an approach for growth (Camp, 2017). For example, a lecturer sets a goal to research a certain number of effective practices to facilitate class discussions.

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6. Follow-up support: Learner engages in support activities such as sharing competency goal achievement plans with supervisors to get feedback, sharing progress, tips, and ideas with other learners by conducting learner group meetings where they can encourage one another. This step could be done by lecturers having meetings to discuss their experience of applying new competencies, discussing what has worked and not worked for them, and supporting one another in improving competency. A holistic glance at the four theories and six steps proposed by Spenser and Spenser (1993) suggests that there is a diverse array of methods and activities one can adopt to learn new skills, knowledge and traits. When applied in the setting of HE, these methods relate to the PD activities set for lecturers by HEIs, and individually, to enhance their competencies. Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework is the structure which supports the theory of the study and guides the study, based on one or more related concepts or theories. Given that the primary focus of this study is the PD activities in HEIs of the Maldives and how these correlate to lecturers’ competency, a topology of accredited and non-accredited PD activities and a competency framework for quality assurance for HEIs are used as a theoretical foundation. The topology of PD activities (Table 1) is published by the National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education (2016) in Ireland, which is the national organization that leads and takes responsibility for enhancing the teaching and learning quality of Irish HE. The spectrum of PD activities is based on the findings of a consultation process, and there is general agreement that the activities could be considered under the umbrella of PD. Additionally, this topology of PD activities is suitable to use in the context of the Maldives HE because some of the activities are already in use in the Maldives education sector. According to Shafiya (2015), there are two types of professional learning among teacher educators in the Maldives: PD activities formally designed by the educational institutions, and informal PD activities among colleagues. As shown in Table 1, PD programs are divided into two categories: accredited and non-accredited. The non-accredited includes three types, which are collaborative, structured, and unstructured PD activities. Table 1: Topology of Accredited and Non-accredited PD Activities 1. Collaborative (Non-formal) Learning from these activities comes from their collaborative nature.

Non-Accredited 2. Unstructured 3. Structured (Non-formal) (Informal) Activities are Externally organized independently led by activities (by an institution, network, the individual. disciplinary membership body). Engagement is They are typically driven by facilitated and have individual’s identified learning needs/interests. objectives. Individuals source the materials themselves.

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4. Accredited (Formal) Accredited programs of study.

Examples Conversations with colleagues, sharing research at a conference, peer review of teaching.

Reading articles, following social media, watching video tutorials, keeping a reflective teaching journal/ portfolio, preparing an article for publication.

Workshops, seminars, training.

Professional certificates, graduate diplomas, Masters, PhD in: teaching and learning; eLearning; leadership in education; education policy, etc. Source: Conceptual model for the professional development of those who teach in Irish HE: report on the findings of the consultation process (2016)

Collaborative PD refers to learning and developing skills in groups, which could be discussions with colleagues, sharing information, peer reviewing and giving feedback; several studies have shown that collaborative PD activities are effective. Poekert's (2012) study shows that school reform efforts on collaborative PD and instructional feedback could improve teacher practice. Another study which reviewed 18 articles on team-based PD identified that it helps to gain new pedagogical knowledge, to reflect critically on teaching practices, and to improve the student-teacher relationship (Gast, Schildkamp & van der Veen, 2017). Unstructured PD activities are the efforts imposed on individuals independently, based on their needs and interest in the field. This includes reading articles and watching videos to improve skills, following works of distinguished people through social media, reflecting on teaching experiences, or conducting studies for publication. In contrast, structured PD activities are activities organized by HEIs or another agency, such as workshops, seminars, subject-specific training with identified learning objectives. There are numerous options and alternatives an academic can choose from the continuous PD activities, and these may present opportunities for career development, show commitment to the profession, enhance personal growth, and overcome shortcomings (Wall, 2013). The second category of PD activities is the accredited activities, which refers to accredited study programs such as a diploma, degree, Master’s or PhD in fields related to HE. The ENQA's quality assurance professional competency framework produced by their staff development group was published in 2016. In the framework, three core competencies are formed, namely: knowledge, systemic/technical, and interpersonal, where each of these competencies is detailed to specifics (Table 2). As these core competencies underpin the creation of a basis for recruitment, job design and staff development activities (European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education, 2016), this competency framework is suitable as a theoretical foundation for this study.

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Table 2: Competency Framework Core Competencies Knowledge

Systemic/Technical

Interpersonal

- Higher education sector knowledge. - Concept of the national system for quality assurance and enhancement, and of the internal quality practices of institutions.

- Organizational and - Political sensitivity. planning skills. - Communication (oral - Management of own and written), workload and ability to teamwork and work effectively with other flexibility. teams/ colleagues. - Autonomy and - Information technology and resilience. data skills. - Commitment and - Problem solving/ analytical responsibility. skills and continuous learning. Source: ENQA quality assurance professional competency framework (2016)

Each of the three core competencies has attributes of essential knowledge and professional and personal skills of academic staff. The first core competency, knowledge, entails knowledge of the national HE system, operational understanding of HEIs, concepts for quality assurance and improvement of the HE system and practices of the institution. The second core competency, systemic/technical, features diverse skills such as organization, planning, managing workload, working in teams, information technology, data and security, critical thinking, problem-solving and continuous learning. The last core competency, interpersonal, includes skills in regard to the phrase “underlying characteristics”. Boyatzis (1982) defines job competency as “an underlying characteristic of a person in that it may be a motive, trait, skill, aspects of one's self-image or social role, or a body of knowledge he or she uses” (Boyatzis, 1982, p. 21). This core competency includes skills such as professional attitude in the work environment, excellent oral and written communication, awareness of political sensitivity, working with teams and respecting others’ opinions, taking responsibility, commitment to work, being open to criticism and giving constructive feedback, and managing stress and challenges. Conceptual Framework A conceptual framework serves as a synthesis of theoretical framework and literature to explain the hypotheses the researcher intends to investigate. It offers a logical structure that helps to provide readers with a picture or visual display of how ideas and variables are connected in a study (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). In a quantitative research perspective, a conceptual framework depicts the relationships between the main ideas and concepts of a study. Furthermore, Tamene (2016) described such a framework as a “network/interlinked system, or relationship of assumptions, expectations, beliefs” (Tamene, 2016, p. 51). Figure 2 depicts the conceptual framework of this study and describes the hypothesized relationship among variables, defined from the theoretical framework and literature reviewed.

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PD Activities Structured Training and workshops Seminars/Forums/ Conferences Retreats Lectures and webinars Collaborative Discussions with colleagues Sharing information, ideas and research Peer learning Mentoring Individual Reflecting and action research Reading books and articles Following works of other scholars and relevant social media platforms

Lecturers’ Competencies Professional Knowledge of the HE sectors and institution Subject knowledge Pedagogy skills Planning skills Managing workload to work effectively ICT Technology knowledge Information technology and data skills Use of ICT tools

Accredited Professional certificates Degree/Masters/PhD

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework of the Study

The conceptual framework of this study (Figure 2) shows the relationship between the independent variable, PD activities, and the dependent variable, competency of lecturers working at the HEIs of the Maldives. The PD activities are divided into four dimensions: structured, collaborative, individual, and accredited. The four dimensions are based on the topology of accredited and nonaccredited PD activities (Table 2) in the theoretical framework of this study and on the categories of PD activities identified from the literature. The competency of lecturers is constructed under two core competencies: professional, and ICT competencies. The two core competencies are based on the ENQA's competency framework (Table 2) presented in the theoretical framework of this study. With the variables and dimensions explained, the conceptual framework in Figure 2 will aid in guiding this study, corresponding to the research objectives and questions. Relationship between Professional Development Activities and Lecturer Competency. Echols, Neely and Dusick (2018) conducted a study to investigate the different types of competency-based education (CBE) training provided by university faculties for CBE component development, and to determine how CBE training

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influences the perceived level of competence in five areas: content development, assessment development, technical, skills, collaboration, and communication skills. The results indicated one-on-one training, webinars, phone conferences, and self-study were significantly related to the level of competence, whereas faceto-face and online courses were not. Moreover, Echols et al. (2018) found that the amount of time spent on training affects the level of competency as well. They concluded that much work still needs to be done in determining faculty training needs. Hence recommendations were made to assess the knowledge and needs after taking part in training as this will help in designing future PD activities and completing a pre-training survey to assist in designing more fitting delivery modes of training, including knowledge (Echols et al., 2018). Another study which agrees with the above correlation is that of Yuan et al. (2017) on environmental education teachers from 25 colleges and universities in central and southern Taiwan. Data were collected from 224 valid questionnaires received from 250 distributed. One of the hypotheses tested in the study was the correlation between PD, and professional knowledge and competence; the results revealed a “positive and remarkable” correlation between them (Yuan et al., 2017, p. 3171). They further mentioned that the professional knowledge and competence of environmental education teachers could be improved by encouraging them to have more hands-on environmental experiences and opportunities for further study. Correspondingly the study by Putri et al. (2019) focusing on finding the correlation between PD training and English teachers' competence in the Pidie Regency of Indonesia found a strong relation between training and teacher competence. They also suggest participating in other forms of PD activities, such as group study, seminars, and conferences (Putri et al., 2019). In yet another study into the ICT competency of new HE teachers of Shanghai, China, after a module of ICT PD, findings showed a strong to moderate correlation between the variables of technology, pedagogy and content knowledge (TPACK) and those of ICT acceptance, except between technological knowledge and usefulness of ICT (Wu, et al., 2015). This study also states that findings indicate that the PD module of ICT should provide more current technology knowledge and ICT skills.

3. Methodology A quantitative research method was adopted as this study is quantitative in nature. A structured online, cross-sectional survey was designed to facilitate collecting data from a large group of participants in a short period of time. Questions were selected based on three factors: the participants’ demographics, their current PD activities, and their competency. Hence the questionnaire was divided into three sections, with a total of eight questions that were adopted from past studies, with the respective authors’ consent. Prior to final data collection, the survey was pilot tested. The Cronbach's alpha value was 0.934 and 0.907 for the independent variable PD activities and dependent variable lecturers’ competency items, respectively, which reflected good reliability of the instrument. The sample of lecturers was randomly selected among four HEIs. Contacts were established from institutes and requested to assist in administering the online questionnaire through email to all the lecturers

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working in their institute. The data collection period for institutes varied, based on their responsiveness; it took approximately four weeks to complete data collection. A total of 171 lecturers participated, which included both full-time and part-time lecturers from two public and two private institutes in the Maldives. Only 129 of the respondents completed the survey, and theirs were the responses used for the study. Data were analyzed employing the steps explained by Cresswell (2012) to analyze quantitative data. The first step is to prepare and organize the data collected from the survey questionnaire. This was done by first creating a codebook, which is a list of scores assigned to each question response in the questionnaire. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version. 27 was used to analyze the data. Correlation analysis was done to achieve the purpose of this study. This was followed by reporting and interpreting the results.

4. Findings Characteristics of Respondents Participants’ characteristics and information provided an exact representation of lecturers in Maldives HEIs. A summary of respondents’ characteristics is presented in Table 3. There were 99 female (63.5%) and 57 male (36.5%) respondents, showing a majority of female respondents. A significant percentage of participants (116, 74.4%) had a master’s degree, and 5 (3.2%) participants had a diploma only. An additional 22 (14.1%) and 13 (8.3%) respondents had a bachelor’s degree and a doctorate, respectively. With respect to years of teaching experience, 26 (16.7%) respondents had less than three years of experience, while 75 (48.1%) respondents had three to ten years of experience. Another 43 (27.6%) and 12 (7.7%) respondents had 11 to 20, and more than 20 years of experience, respectively. Table 3: Characteristics of Respondents Number (N)

Percentage (%)

Gender Female Male

99 57

63.5% 36.5%

Age 18 to 25 26 to 35 35 to 45 46 and above

3 46 78 29

1.9% 29.5% 50.0% 18.6%

Education Level Diploma Bachelor’s degree Master’s degree Doctorate

5 22 116 13

3.2% 14.1% 74.4% 8.3%

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Years of Experience Less than 3 years 3 to 10 years 11 to 20 years More than 20 years

26 75 43 12

16.7% 48.1% 27.6% 7.7%

Correlation between lecturers’ PD activities and their competency The correlation between PD activities and competency was examined by first carrying out a test of normality to determine whether the sample was drawn from a normal population. The normality test was carried out with a p-value of 0.05. Results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests for both independent variable PD activities and dependent variable lecturers’ competency of the study showed PD activities D (129)=0.156, p=0.00, and lecturers’ competency D (129)=0.099, p=0.003 (Table 4). Since p-values for both the variables were <0.05, the null hypothesis, which states that data are not significantly different from a normal population, is rejected, meaning the sample was not drawn from a normal population. Table 4: Kolmogorov-Smirnova Test of Normality Statistics

Sig.

PD Activities

0.156

129

0.000

Lecturers’ competency

0.099

129

0.003

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction Since the variables were not normally distributed, and data were ordinal, Spearman’s correlation analysis of alpha 0.05 was run to determine the correlation between PD activities and lecturers’ competency. Table 5 shows the output SPSS produced by the Spearman correlation analysis. It is evident that there was a weak, positive correlation between PD activities and lecturers’ competency, which was statistically significant; rs(129)=0.232, p=0.008 as the p-value was <0.05. Thus, the variables tend to increase together and the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant correlation between PD activities and competency of lecturers at HEIs of the Maldives, is rejected. This indicates that there was a weak positive correlation between PD activities and lecturers’ competency at HEIs of the Maldives. Table 5: Spearman Correlation

Spearman’s rho

PD Activities

Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed)

PD Activities 1.000

Lecturers’ competency 0.232**

0.008

N Lecturers’ competency

Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

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129 0.232**

0.003

0.008

129

Spearman’s correlation was also carried out to determine the correlation between the dimensions of PD activities and the two core competencies. Table 6 shows that structured, collaborative, and individual PD activities were positively correlated to professional and ICT competency. Further the strength of the correlation was weak and statistically significant. On the other hand, the correlation between accredited PD activities and core competencies was very weak and statistically insignificant. Table 6: Correlation between PD Activities and Core Competencies Variables 1. Structured PD

1.000

2. Collaborative PD

0.669**

1.000

3. Individual PD

0.626**

0.735**

1.000

4. Accredited PD

0.465**

0.526**

0.611**

1.000

5. Professional Competency 6. ICT Competency

0.234**

0.289**

0.213*

0.059

1.000

0.203*

0.194*

0.220*

0.109

0.638**

1.000

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

5. Discussion A strong positive correlation between PD activities and lecturer competencies was expected. However, the findings revealed a weak positive, but significant correlation, meaning the results did not turn out as they did by chance, but that a weak positive correlation exists. Thus, the null hypothesis regarding the correlation between overall PD activities and lecturers’ competency at HEIs of the Maldives was rejected. This weak correlation was found to be significant between the dimension of PD activities and lecturers’ competency, with the exception of accredited PD activity and lecturers’ competency. Past studies have found fairly consistent results. One-on-one training, webinars, phone conferences, and self-study were found to be significantly related to the level of competence, although face-to-face and online courses were not (Echols et al., 2018). Another “positive and remarkable” correlation was found between PD and professional knowledge and competence (Yuan et al., 2017), whereas a strong relation between training and teacher competence was found in Indonesia (Putri et al., 2019). Additionally, Wu et al. (2015) focused on identifying the correlation between variables of TPACK and those of ICT acceptance. They conducted their study after the completion of an ICT PD module and found that there was a strong to moderate correlation between variables of TPACK and those of ICT acceptance, except between technological knowledge and the usefulness of ICT. In contrast to the strong positive correlation between PD activities and lecturers’ competency found in previous studies, this study resulted in a weak positive correlation, implying that the PD activities in HEIs of the Maldives are not sufficiently effective. It is also possible that PD activities conducted do not cater for the needs of lecturers, and a culture where structured and individual PD

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activities is not efficiently established. Time, money, and lack of human resources could be underlying factors that influence PD activities. As mentioned before, although efforts have been made in past years to improve the PD activities provided in HEIs of the Maldives, it will take time to see significant impacts of PD activities on the different aspects of lecturers’ competency. Therefore, it appears that the weak positive correlation found in this study could be the beginning of a successful, strong relationship between PD activities and lecturers’ competency. It is also evident from the findings that all lecturers participate in some form of PD activity. This indicates their interest and provides an opportunity for institutes to provide adequate and effective PD activities. For instance, the mandatory PD sessions held at Maldives HEIs could be better designed and made more appealing by creating topic-based PD activities according to lecturers’ needs and demands.

6. Conclusion Past studies have repeatedly reported on the crucial role PD plays in enhancing skills and knowledge and keeping up with the latest tools and trends in the professional field. Since this study has examined how lecturers’ PD activities correlate to their competencies, this result helps to decide which areas to focus on, in terms of lecturers’ performance, in conducting PD activities in the future. Owing to the weak correlation between PD activities and lecturers’ competency, it is also important to create a culture that encourages PD, focuses on providing effective PD activities by maintaining certain quality standards, and perhaps monitors competency development. This could be achieved by assessing the knowledge and skills gained before and after a PD activity and identifying the areas and topics lecturers require in their PD sessions. One main limitation of this study is that it was conducted exclusively for Maldives higher education institutes, which are young and going through rapid changes. Hence, the findings of this study are limited to the Maldives higher education, and the results might change if the study were to be repeated at a later time.

7. References Apriliyanti, D. L. (2020). Enhancing teachers’ competencies through professional development program: Challenges and benefits. Acuity: Journal of English Language Pedagogy, Literature and Culture, 5(1), 28–38. https://doi.org/10.35974/acuity.v5i1.2042 Boyatzis, R. E. (1982). The competent manager: A model for effective performance. New York: Wiley. Boyatzis, R. E. (2006). An overview of intentional change from a complexity perspective. Journal of Management Development, 25(7), 607–623. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621710610678445 Camp, H. (2017). Goal setting as teacher development practice. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 29(1), 61–72. Çelïk, S., & Dïkïlitaç, K. (2015). Action research as a professional development strategy. In S. Borg & H. S. Sanchez (Eds.), International Perspectives on Teacher Research (pp. 125–138). Palgrave Macmillan. Cresswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Pearson.

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Department of Higher Education. (2015). Higher education master plan 2016–2021. Ministry of Education. Echols, D. G., Neely, P. W., & Dusick, D. (2018). Understanding faculty training in competency-based curriculum development. The Journal of Competency-Based Education, 3(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbe2.1162 European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education. (2016). ENQA quality assurance professional competencies framework. Gast, I., Schildkamp, K., & van der Veen, J. T. (2017). Team-based professional development interventions in higher education: A systematic review. Review of Educational Research, 87(4), 736–767. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317704306 Grant, C., & Osanloo, A. (2014). Understanding, selecting, and integrating a theoretical framework in dissertation research: creating the blueprint for your “house.” Administrative Issues Journal: Connecting Education, Practice and Research, 4(2), 12– 26. https://doi.org/10.5929/2014.4.2.9 Imron, A., Ariesta Dewi, V., Sonhadji, A., Suriansyah, A., & Aslamiah. (2019). Lecturer development competency management in improving the quality of education and teaching. The 4th International Conference on Education and Management (COEMA 2019), Series: Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 381, 94– 99. https://doi.org/10.2991/coema-19.2019.21 Islamic University of Maldives. (2016). Strategic plan 2016–2020. In IUM. Kinaanath, M. (2013). The use of information and communication technology in teaching and learning within higher education sector of a small island developing state: The case of the Maldives [Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand]. Kolb, D. A. (2015). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (2nd ed.). Pearson Education, Inc. McClelland, D. C. (1965). Towards a theory of motive acquisition. The American Psychologist, 20(5), 321–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022225 MNU. (2017). Signing ceremony of the memorandum of understanding between the Maldives National University and Islamic University Maldives. Maldives National University. National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. (2016). A conceptual model for the professional development of those who teach in Irish higher education. In teachingandlearning.ie (p. 28). Poekert, P. (2012). Examining the impact of collaborative professional development on teacher practice. Teacher Education Quarterly, 39(4), 97–118. Putri, Z., Yoestara, M., Aziz, Z. A., & Yusuf, Y. Q. (2019). The correlation between professional development training and english teachers’ competence. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1232, 012037. https://doi.org/10.1088/17426596/1232/1/012037 Shafiya, A. A. (2015). Professional development for enhancing technology-integrated pedagogical practice: An ethnographic study in a Maldivian teacher education context. The Maldives National Journal of Research, 3(1), 7–28. Spencer, S. M., & Spencer, L. M. (1993). Competence at work : Models for superior performance. New York: Wiley. Suryati, A. I., Arfin, S., & Yarnest. (2020). The influence of teacher performance and school head leadership on quality of education. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 22(6), 52–61. https://doi.org/10.9790/487X-2206095261 Tamene, E. (2016). Theorizing conceptual framework. Asian Journal of Educational Research, 4(2), 50–56. Teo, T. C., & Low, K. C. P. (2016). The impact of goal setting on employee effectiveness to improve organisation effectiveness : Empirical study of a high-tech company in Singapore. Journal of Business & Economic Policy, 3(1), 82–97.

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The Maldives National University. (2020). MNU strategic plan 2020–2025. Villa College. (2017). Strategic plan 2017–2022. In Villa College. Wall, J. (2013). A framework for academic professional development in higher education. In: Irish Academy of Management Conference, Waterford Institute of Technology. Webster-Wright, A. (2009). Reframing professional development through understanding authentic professional learning. Review of Educational Research, 79(2), 702–739. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308330 Wu, B., Hu, Y., Gu, X., & Lim, C. P. (2015). Professional development of new higher education teachers with information and communication technology in Shanghai. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 54(4), 531–562. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633115621922 Yuan, K.-S., Wu, T.-J., Chen, H.-B., & Li, Y.-B. (2017). A study on the teachers’ professional knowledge and competence in environmental education. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13(7), 3163–3175. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.00710a

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APPENDIX A SURVEY FORM FOR HIGHER EDUCATION LECTURERS IN MALDIVES SECTION ONE: GENERAL INFORMATION In responding to the questions in this section, choose the appropriate box. 1.1

At which of the following higher educational institutes are you currently employed?  Public institute  Private institute

1.2

What is your gender?  Female  Male

1.3

How old are you?  18 to 25  26 to 35  36 to 45  46 and above

1.4

What is your highest level of formal education completed?  Diploma  Bachelor’s Degree  Master’s Degree  Doctorate  Other (Please specify)

1.5

How many years of experience do you have in teaching in the higher educational sector?  Less than 3 years  3 to 10 years  11 to 20 years  More than 20 years

1.6

Are you currently taking any academic programs or online certified programs as a means to develop your teaching profession?  Bachelor’s degree  Master’s degree  Doctorate  Other (Please specify)  No

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SECTION TWO: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES 2.1

How strongly do you agree with the following professional development activities to improve your competency? (Competency refers to different skills, knowledge, understanding, behaviors and characteristics one must acquire to succeed in their profession)

Structured

Strongly Disagree

Neither Agree Nor Disagree Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Based on your opinion, choose one response for each statement.



e) Discussions with colleagues.



f) Group meetings (e.g., groups meet at department or faculty level based on shared interests related to education).



g) Meeting one-on-one with mentor/expert.



h) Peer learning (e.g., learning from your peers with their support through interaction).



i) Collaborative research.



a) Training (Face-to-face or online). b) Workshops (Face-to-face or online). c) Seminars/conferences (Faceto-face or online). d) Lectures. Collaborative

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Individual j) Reflective action research (Reflective action research is the process of bringing transformational changes to one's action after reflecting on and researching it). k) Reading books and professional journal articles relevant to your discipline. l) Following relevant social media platforms. m) Individual research. Accredited n) Academic programs (e.g., degree, master’s, PhD).



SECTION THREE: LECTURERS’ COMPETENCY 3.1

How strongly do you agree or disagree that the professional development activities you have engaged in have improved your competencies mentioned below?

Strongly Disagree

Neither Agree Nor Disagree Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

Based on your opinion, choose one response for each statement.

Professional Competency a) General knowledge of institutional structures and cultures (e.g., policies, priorities, missions, other service units).

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

b) Knowledge of current issues and trends in higher education. c) Knowledge of instructional development (curriculum and course development). d) Ability to provide students with relevant information to explain the points of the subjects. e) Ability to provide timely feedback about student progress of the course.



f) Strategic planning skills.



g) Project management skills.



ICT Competency a) Knowledge of educational technology. b) Ability to use online tools to enhance teaching and learning. c) Ability to use effective strategies for teaching online and/or blended/hybrid learning environments.

…………………………………………………………………………………… Thank you for taking the time to fill this questionnaire.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 38-51, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.3 Received Jul 20, 2021; Revised Sep 09, 2021; Accepted Sep 27, 2021

International Graduate Students’ Experiences of English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) Courses in a Korean University Yong-Jik Lee Woosuk University, Wanju-Gun, South Korea https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8783-2237 Robert O. Davis Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, South Korea https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6570-4477 Yue Li Woosuk University, Wanju-Gun, South Korea https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6125-2709

Abstract. Owing to to the internalization of higher education, many universities in East Asia provide English as a medium of instruction (EMI) courses for international students. However, previous studies may not have strategically explored the perception of EMI courses for graduate programmes. Recognizing the gap in the literature, this study specifically focused on international graduate students' experiences of EMI courses in a Korean university. By implementing a mixed-method design, this study explored English language learnes’ (ELLs) perceptions of EMI courses regarding i) ELLs’ opinions on the effectiveness of EMI courses, ii) ELLs' attitudes towards EMI, and iii) their self-evaluation of English language ability. Data collection consisted of an end of the semester survey (n=70) and focus group interviews (n=9). The study results showed that i) ELLs showed positive attitudes towards EMI courses; ii) they perceived that the faculty's teaching methods are the core element to EMI course effectiveness; iii) their listening and reading skills were enhanced, and iv) ELLs with low English proficiency found EMI courses challenging to follow. Based on these results, several pedagogical implications are discussed regarding how to implement EMI courses effectively for diverse international students in ELT. Keywords: EMI; International graduate students; English language learners (ELLs); English language teaching (ELT); Higher education

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

1. Introduction Owing to globalization, student populations at higher education institutions across the world are becoming more diverse (Galloway et al., 2020; Jon et al., 2014). To meet the learning needs of these diverse student populations, many universities in East Asia have adjusted course formats to include English as a medium of instruction (EMI) to accommodate international students (Hino, 2017). An EMI course is defined as the use of the English to teach academic subjects in countries where the first language of the majority of the population is not English (Dearden, 2014). Therefore, EMI bridges the needs of English language learners (ELLs) and the institutions where English is not the majority language (Dearden, 2014). According to the Ministry of Education in Korea (2019), an increasing number of international students are studying in Korean universities. Overall, a total of 160,165 international students were registered in Korean higher education in 2019 before COVID-19. Among the diverse student population, a majority of international students are from China with 71,067 registered students. Graduate programmes at private universities in Korea have benefitted the most as international students study in Korea to obtain job promotions back home. The literature on EMI courses in higher education has mostly focused on international students in undergraduate programmes (Kim et al., 2014); thus, it is not fully understood how international graduate students experience EMI courses in the East Asian context. Recognizing this gap in the literature, this study specifically focuses on international graduate students' experiences of EMI courses in a Korean university. By implementing the mixed method design, this study explored international graduate students' perceptions of EMI courses regarding i) students' opinions of the effectiveness of EMI courses, ii) students' attitudes towards EMI, and iii) their self-evaluation of English language ability.

2. Literature Review 2.1. ELLs’ Opinions on the Effectiveness of EMI Courses When considering the effectiveness of EMI courses, previous studies have reported that being a native or non-native English teacher is not a defining issue. Rather, recent studies showed that the effectiveness of EMI courses depends on the EMI faculty's linguistic competence, teaching methods, and intercultural competence (Inbar-Lourie & Donitsa-Schmidt, 2020; Qiu & Fang, 2019; Yuan et al., 2020). For example, Qiu and Fang (2019) explored ELLs’ perceptions of two types of EMI instructors: i) native English-speaking instructors and ii) non-native English-speaking instructors. ELLs perceived that native English-speaking instructors employed interactive teaching methods with various activities and multimodality but did not recognize intercultural competence regarding ELLs. However, non-native English instructors showed higher intracultural competence, which indicated that they could communicate with ELLs about their learning difficulties more effectively. This study concluded that ELLs showed a preference for interactive and efficient EMI classrooms in which EMI instructors demonstrated intercultural and linguistic competence so that ELLs could solve learning problems and overcome linguistic barriers.

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In another study, Inbar-Lourie and Donitsa-Schmidt (2020) concluded that question of the preferred EMI lecturer could not be completely answered by the dichotomy of native and non-native English teachers. Instead, the authors argued that "desired EMI lecturers should be highly proficient in English, subject matter experts, able to simulate an international learning experience, display effective teaching pedagogies in both content and second language, and be familiar with the students' local language and culture" (pp. 301-302). This finding indicated that the EMI faculty's linguistic competency, teaching methods, and intercultural experiences are the core elements of the effectiveness of EMI courses (Inbar-Lourie & Donitsa-Schmidt, 2020; Qiu & Fang, 2019; Yuan et al., 2020). 2.2. ELLs' Attitudes towards EMI Courses Students' course attitudes primarily focus on the course content, design, and administration (Hengsadeekul et al., 2014). If students favour the learning task through a positive outcome from the course, their attitudes towards the course could be enhanced (He & Chiang, 2016). This implies that if ELLs develop a positive attitude toward EMI courses, their experience can be related to positive content and language development (He & Chiang, 2016). Several studies have documented how EMI can impact ELLs' course attitudes and satisfaction (Jensen & Thøgersen, 2011; Muthanna & Miao, 2015; Reilly, 2019; Yeh, 2014). For instance, Muthanna and Miao (2015) found that ELLs showed positive attitudes towards the EMI courses. Specifically, ELLs suggested that EMI courses helped foster a global friendship, obtain global leadership, and learn about famous international scholars. Reilly (2019) also reported a similar finding with ELLs. The author found that EMI courses were perceived positively and to be suitable for ELLs. ELLs perceived English skills as a valuable resource; thus, ELLs showed positive attitudes towards the multilingual language policy. Likewise, Yeh’s (2014) study revealed that ELLs reported positive attitudes towards EMI courses. The results suggested that ELLs agreed with the benefits of EMI courses, such as enhancing English ability and future academic studies. Previous studies have shown that ELLs can have positive attitudes towards EMI courses due to potential future benefits, including their future job purposes, academic achievement, and becoming multilingual (Jensen & Thøgersen, 2011; Muthanna & Miao, 2015; Reilly, 2019; Yeh, 2014). 2.3. EMI on ELLs' English Language Ability Previous studies have assessed the relationship between EMI and ELLs' language development (Belhiah & Elhami, 2015; Coşgun & Hasırcı, 2017). For instance, Coşgun and Hasırcı (2017) investigated ELLs' perceptions of the EMI courses in relation to ELLs' English proficiency. Study results showed that EMI courses significantly improved students' reading, listening, and overall English proficiency. However, previous studies have also reported that EMI courses may not positively impact ELLs' language development. For example, Belhiah and Elhami (2015) concluded that ELLs struggled to learn the subject matter owing to their low level of proficiency in English. This study suggested that EMI programmes should consider a bilingual curriculum to enhance low proficiency ELLs’ linguistic and biliteracy skills. Previous studies have summarized the impact of EMI on ELLs' English language ability. Some studies have reported

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positive impacts of EMI on ELLs' proficiency; however, other studies showed that if ELLs have low levels of English proficiency, the EMI courses may not positively influence their English language development (Belhiah & Elhami, 2015; Coşgun & Hasırcı, 2017). By implementing the mixed-method design, this study explored international graduate students' perceptions of EMI courses regarding i) ELLs' opinions of the effectiveness of EMI courses, ii) ELLs' attitudes towards EMI, and iii) their selfevaluation of English language ability. Q1: What are international students' opinions towards EMI courses after the semester? Q2: What are international students' attitudes towards EMI courses after the semester? Q3: How do international students evaluate their English language ability after taking EMI courses?

3. Research Methodology 3.1. Research Context and Study Participants This study was conducted at a local private university in South Korea. The university has several graduate programmes that consist of international graduate students from China. This study focused on the general education department and culture and media department in the university because these two departments have the most graduate students. Three faculty members in two departments volunteered to participate in the EMI courses because they were quite confident in delivering EMI lectures. Three professors had had previous study abroad experience in the US for their doctoral degrees. International graduate students' ages ranged from 25 to 47, and consisted of firstyear master's students to third-year Ph.D. students. Out of 70 participants, three students had had previous study abroad experience in the UK or Russia before coming to Korea for graduate programmes. The purpose of studying abroad for Chinese graduate students is to promote their future job status. For instance, before coming to Korea, most Chinese PhD students were school staff, administrators, or part-time lecturers in their universities. After earning graduate degrees, these students could be promoted to tenure-track positions as full-time faculty in Chinese higher education. 3.2. Research Instruments and Data Analysis An online survey was developed based upon previous studies exploring ELLs' attitudes, satisfaction, language ability, and the effectiveness of EMI courses (Byun et al., 2011; Hwang & Ahn, 2011). Extracting relevant items from the existing literature (Byun et al., 2011; Hwang & Ahn, 2011), the research team modified survey questions to fit into the current research. A total of 20 survey items were finalized. Specifically, the survey items consisted of i) students' personal and background information, ii) students' opinions of the effectiveness of EMI courses, iii) students' attitudes towards EMI courses, and iv) students' selfevaluation of their English language ability.

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This study implemented a mixed-methods research design. Data collection consisted of post-survey and post-interview in the 2021 spring semester. Before participating in the post-survey, informed consent forms for study participants were provided from the first author's university. The post-survey was conducted in the third week of June, and post-interviews followed. Eighty graduate students registered for EMI courses, and 70 completed the survey. Among them, nine study participants volunteered to participate in focus group interviews. Interviews were conducted with three participants as one group. For the purpose of quantitative data analysis, SPSS 26 was used to carry out descriptive statistics. In relation to qualitative data collection and analysis, a graduate assistant in the education department conducted 40-50 minutes of focus-group interviews with nine volunteer participants who had completed their EMI surveys (See Appendix 1 for interview protocol). All interviews were conducted in Chinese and videorecorded through Zoom. Thematic analysis (Clarke & Braun, 2014) was used to analyze the interview data. First, video recordings for interviews were listened to, re-listened to for accurate transcription and saved to Google Drive. Second, the research team developed initial codes and sub-codes while working through the interview transcriptions. Third, the research team developed themes to identify significant patterns of meaning. Fourth, several themes, including similarities and differences among participants, were aggravated into small numbers and reduced to the most frequently referred to categories. Fifth, the research team defined and renamed themes for abstraction and data reduction. In the last step, the interview data analysis was compared and contrasted to quantitative data analysis to create a final report. Table 1 shows a description of the interview participants. Table 1: Interview participants Interview Participants

Gender / Age

ELL1 ELL2 ELL3 ELL4 ELL5 ELL6 ELL7 ELL8 ELL9

Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male

Year of the Graduate Program First year First year First year First year First year Second year Second year Second year Second year

Previous EMI Experience X X 0 0 X X X 0 0

Previous Study Abroad Experience X X 0 0 X X X X 0

4. Survey Results The post-test design evaluated international student's perceptions of EMI courses at a Korean university. The quantitative data sought to explore their opinions, attitudes, and the effectiveness of studying in English. See Table 2 for complete descriptive statistics for all opinion, attitude, and effectiveness questions. Q1: What are international graduate students' opinions towards EMI courses after the semester? International students' opinions were overall positive about EMI courses. Students strongly believed that EMI courses were necessary to help them prepare

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for a globalized world (4.311 ± 0.900), and they were satisfied with the courses offered (4.067 ± 0.837). Student opinions were positive regarding the idea that EMI courses could improve their English ability (4.022 ± 1.118); however, the standard deviation suggests that some students were somewhat negative regarding this question. International graduate students were satisfied with the EMI courses offered (3.956 ± 0.903). However, students had the lowest opinion regarding needing to have mandatory EMI credits in their department courses (3.711 ± 1.236). Q2: What are international graduate students' attitudes towards EMI courses after the semester? International graduate students' attitudes toward EMI courses were somewhat positive overall. Students were the most positive regarding their desire to improve their English through EMI courses (4.22 ± 0.850); However other aspects of attitude were lower. Their attitude toward becoming more familiar with the English language and culture (3.911 ± 0.925), willingness to spend extra time studying (3.844 ± 1.186), and attitude toward taking more EMI courses in the future (3.800 ± 1.100) were somewhat positive. The lowest ranking attitude was the burden they felt while taking EMI courses (2.978 ± 1.196), which was somewhat negative. Q3: How do international students evaluate their English language ability after taking EMI courses? The effectiveness of EMI classes ranged from positive to somewhat positive. International graduate students felt EMI courses helped them understand global education more than courses delivered only in Korean (4.178 ± 0.936), and EMI helped them better prepare for their future careers (4.022 ± 0.988). Other questions regarding the effectiveness of EMI courses, such as English ability being reduced, EMI courses being better than KMI courses for a future career, EMI improving learning motivation, and EMI courses improving the four skills, ranged from 3.778 ± 1.106 to 3.689 ± 1.104. Table 2: Descriptive statistics for EMI opinion, attitude, and effectiveness Question Opinion 1. I think that taking EMI courses is a necessary step for me to be prepared for globalization and the internalization world. 2. Overall, I am quite satisfied with the quality of EMI courses that are offered now. 3. I am quite satisfied with the diverse EMI courses that are offered in my department. 4. I think that it is necessary to take certain EMI credits as mandatory in my education department. 5. I think that opening/offering EMI courses in my department will help me improve my English ability. Attitude 1. I feel quite burdened when taking EMI courses. (R)* 2. I want to be more familiar with the English language and culture through EMI courses.

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(SD)

4.311

(0.900)

4.067

(0.837)

3.956

(0.903)

3.711

(1.236)

4.022

(1.118)

2.978 3.911

(1.196) (0.925)

3. I want to improve my English ability through EMI courses. 4. I am more willing to take EMI courses in the future. 5. I usually take more time studying materials in EMI courses as opposed to KMI courses (KMI – Korean as a medium of instruction). Effectiveness 1. If I take EMI courses, my concerns about my English ability can be reduced. 2. EMI courses can help me better understand the global educational system, such as those of the US and Korea, as opposed to KMI courses (KMI – Korean as a medium of instruction). 3. EMI courses will help me better prepare for my future career, such as job purposes and pursuing further degrees. 4. EMI courses can help me improve my knowledge related to education as a major as opposed to KMI courses. 5. EMI courses can help me improve my learning motivation and interests regarding my major (education). 6. EMI courses can help me improve my English skills, such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. *(R) denotes reversed scored

4.22 3.800 3.844

(0.850) (1.100) (1.186)

3.711

(1.160)

4.178

(0.936)

4.022

(0.988)

3.778

(1.106)

3.778

(1.042)

3.689

(1.104)

4.1. Findings from Interviews The interview analysis revealed international graduate students' perceptions in regard to i) attitudes towards EMI courses, ii) opinions of effective EMI courses, and iii) self-evaluation of English language ability. First, in terms of students' attitudes towards EMI courses, they showed a strong willingness to attend more EMI courses in the following semesters because they were quite satisfied with the EMI content and lectures that the faculty provided. This finding indicated that students showed a positive attitude towards EMI courses. Here are some examples: One EMI faculty constantly provided us with feedback on how to improve our English ability based on his own study abroad experience in the US. I want to take more EMI courses in the following semesters (Interview participant #8). Carefully listening to the professor's lecture every week was a constant input for improving my English listening skills (Interview participant #9). Some mentioned that if the courses were not in EMI format, they would probably not study English enthusiastically. They also remarked that EMI courses promoted their motivation to learn English because they will eventually become university professors in China. Thus, learning an academic language and having the ability to understand English articles is mandatory for them to pursue future academic careers. Here is one example: My previous major was in Chinese literature, so when I was in a university, I had not taken any EMI courses. Since I am currently studying abroad in Korea, EMI courses were new to me and gave me a fresh eye on the importance of learning academic English for my future

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career. I do need to explore recent research trends in English articles for a better understanding of my field and discipline (Interview participant #5). Second, in terms of effective EMI courses, most of the interview participants responded that the quality and teaching methods of the EMI faculty are the core elements of effective EMI courses. For instance, they liked how the faculty delivered the course materials. Specifically, one EMI faculty implemented flipped learning (Sams & Bergman, 2012) so that students were able to read English texts in advance. This flipped learning format provided ELLs with sufficient time and opportunities to explore English materials in advance. Professors L sent us English materials through Wechat, and we can preview those before attending zoom synchronized class. During class, we discuss what we preview in the Zoom breakout sessions through discussions. This was a beneficial course structure because we needed some time to look up academic vocabulary from the textbook that we are not familiar with previously (Interview participant #1). Another example was that the EMI faculty used various YouTube resources related to content with English subtitles. Students liked supplementary videos because those resources helped ELLs understand the content much more effectively. Students thought that it was a good strategy to learn content in English subtitles. Here is one example. I liked how professor K provided us with various YouTube videos with English subtitles. It actually helped me practice English listening skills while watching the video with texts (Interview participant #2). In relation to the effectiveness of EMI courses, ELLs emphasized that the quality of the EMI faculty was the core element. Thus, students discussed how the EMI faculty could be their role models for learning English with sufficient ability to deliver EMI courses. Here is one example: I think that the EMI professors have high English proficiency with four language skills, so I do not have much difficulty understanding their English lectures. While taking EMI courses, I also believe that I can do EMI in my future teaching when I go back to China (Interview participant #9). Third, regarding EMI on ELLs' English language ability, most of them responded that EMI courses encouraged them to study English harder than before. When asked about which language skills that EMI courses assisted them to improve, most of them responded that their listening and reading skills were enhanced. Specifically, they explained that the EMI faculty's lecture was a great source of English input to improve their listening ability. Also, all reading resources were in English; thus, they believed that their academic vocabulary skills for reading could be improved. In addition, ELLs are required to write their master's theses and doctoral dissertations in English in graduate programmes in Korea. Thus, their English academic reading and writing skills should be enhanced. The interview analysis clearly showed that they were highly motivated and realized the importance of learning academic English during EMI courses. Here is one example.

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I will start writing my dissertation in the following semester. So these EMI courses helped me learn how to write academic English papers. The faculty lecture in terms of how to write an English paper as a non-native English speaker was really beneficial (Interview participant #6). EMI faculty utilized their own studying abroad experiences and strategically guided ELLs' academic language usage for effective studying abroad experiences. Students really appreciated the faculty's conscious efforts (Interview participant #1). However, during the interview, a fourth theme emerged in terms of difficulties and challenges that ELLs faced while taking EMI courses. When students have low levels of English ability, it was quite challenging for them to comprehend lectures in EMI courses fully. In this case, they preferred to have a translatorstudent who could help them when they have questions during the class. One of the difficulties that I had was communicating with the professor directly. If I had a good English-speaking ability, I could ask more questions to the professor (Interview participant # 7). I preferred EMI courses where the translator-student attended. I saw a few students who felt frustrated when they could not fully comprehend the content. It was a challenging situation for those who have low English proficiency in EMI courses (Interview participant # 8). A few participants mentioned challenges and difficulties that they faced if their English proficiency was at beginner level and they had not taken EMI courses previously.

5. Discussion This study focused on international graduate students' EMI course experiences at a Korean university. By implementing a mixed-method assessment, this study explored i) ELLs' attitudes towards EMI, ii) ELLs' opinions of the effectiveness of EMI courses, and iii) their self-evaluation of English language ability. The survey results showed that ELLs believed that EMI courses were necessary to prepare them for a globalized world (4.311 ± 0.900). This supports findings by Muthanna and Miao (2015) that students are keenly aware that English is the medium of communication for international communication. The conceptualization of how important English is as a global commodity could be viewed as a catalyst for higher self-evaluation of learning motivation (3.778 ± 1.042) and future career preparation (4.022 ± 0.988), as participants stated in their interviews. In terms of attitudes towards EMI courses, students were motivated to improve their English, and to spend extra time studying. However, the lowest ranking was observed with the burden students felt while taking EMI courses (2.978 ± 1.196). It is possible the burden referred to by students is related to the lower language capabilities of some students, since only three of the seventy students had studied abroad in the UK or Russia. This may support previous research by Cheng and Erben (2012) that indicated language anxiety might be a factor in EMI courses where language proficiency is at lower levels (Kim et al., 2014).

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Study findings from the interviews are aligned with previous studies that highlighted the importance of i) ELLs' attitudes towards EMI courses (Jensen & Thøgersen, 2011; & Miao, 2015; Reilly, 2019; Yeh, 2014), ii) ELLs' opinions of the effectiveness of EMI (Chu et al., 2018; Corrales et al., 2016; Fang & Liu, 2020; Huang, 2015), iii) ELLs' self-evaluation of language ability (Belhiah & Elhami, 2015; Coşgun & Hasırcı, 2017), and iv) challenges that ELLs faced while taking EMI courses (Tsou & Kao, 2017; Walkinshaw et al., 2017). First, international graduate students showed positive attitudes towards EMI courses in terms of faculty lectures and the textbooks, and materials provided, including video resources with English subtitles. In addition, study participants showed a strong motivation to learn English through EMI courses for their future careers and were willing to take EMI courses in the following semester. Since most of the students are university lecturers in China wanting to promote their job status, they understood the importance of acquiring academic language skills. The interview analysis clearly showed that ELLs were highly motivated to improve their English ability through EMI courses. Second, interview analysis revealed that the faculty's teaching methods and the quality of the EMI faculty are the core elements of the effectiveness of EMI courses. Specifically, ELLs liked the flipped learning course format because it allowed them to have sufficient time to cover the content while focusing on academic vocabulary. More importantly, since the EMI faculty had a studying-abroad experience in English-speaking countries, students liked the faculty's high levels of proficiency in convening the EMI courses. ELLs believe that the faculty is their role model so that they can also teach EMI in their future classrooms. When the EMI faculty explicitly focused on language skills when teaching the content, many ELLs appreciated the professors' conscious efforts. Third, the interview analysis showed that ELLs' listening and reading skills were enhanced. After the EMI courses, self-evaluation indicated that EMI courses helped their development of listening and reading skills. They also responded that their English writing needed to be enhanced because they had to write their master's theses and PhD dissertations in English. Students said that EMI courses encouraged them to study English more diligently than before. Thus, the EMI course was a great motivator for ELLs to achieve academic English. However, when ELLs have low levels of English proficiency in EMI courses, it was challenging for some students to follow lectures. Also, some reported they had never been exposed to EMI courses previously, so it was difficult for those students to understand EMI courses effectively. Thus, students recommend that one student be designated as a translator-student, so their comprehension could be enhanced by their having the ability to communicate with professors more effectively. This finding is aligned with previous studies that EMI courses can have limitations based on ELLs' language proficiency and specific higher education contexts (Tsou & Kao, 2017; Walkinshaw et al., 2017).

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6. Pedagogical Suggestions for Effective EMI Courses The first suggestion for effective EMI courses for a diverse student population is to consider the English proficiency of the ELLs before their participation in EMI classes. Findings from this study indicated that if ELLs possess high levels of English proficiency, they mentioned that EMI improved their English ability and helped them learn content. However, if their English ability is at lower levels, ELLs may experience language anxiety in EMI courses. Previous studies have reported critical evidence that EMI courses might have a different impact depending on ELLs' proficiency levels (Cheng & Erben, 2012; He & Chiang, 2016; Kim et al., 2014). Kim et al. (2014) found that ELLs did not feel EMI courses improved their English ability owing to their insufficient language proficiency. Therefore, the EMI faculty should critically examine the level of ELLs' proficiency before compiling the EMI courses. The second suggestion is to incorporate ELLs' native language during EMI courses. The current study showed that ELLs preferred to have EMI courses when the faculty allowed code-switching between two languages with the help of a student translator. Several studies have reported that allowing the use of ELLs' native language can help them learn English and understand the content of EMI courses better (Kuteeva, 2020). Thus, it is recommended that the EMI curriculum for international students in higher education needs to advocate translingual practices that enable ELLs to learn content and language simultaneously. Many studies have found that translanguaging in EMI courses has a positive impact on ELLs' content and language learning and development (Kuteeva, 2020). Thus, when the EMI faculty allow ELLs to practise a translingual environment, ELLs' satisfaction with EMI courses can be much more positive as opposed to Englishonly instruction (Yuan et al., 2020). The third suggestion is to provide intensive professional development for university faculty. The results from the current study proved that ELLs were willing to take more EMI courses when qualified faculty offered such courses. In addition, ELLs preferred to have faculty who had been exposed to cultural and linguistic diversity, such as previous teaching experience with international students or faculty who had study-abroad experience. Several studies reported that the preferred EMI lecturer is not necessarily a native English speaker (InbarLourie & Donitsa-Schmidt, 2020; Qiu & Fang, 2019). Instead, the desired EMI faculty should be subject matter experts, obtain effective teaching pedagogy in both content and language and be familiar with the ELLs’ language and culture (Inbar-Lourie & Donitsa-Schmidt, 2020; Qiu & Fang, 2019). Since many international students visit East Asian universities through studyabroad programmes, it is crucial for higher education to provide intensive professional development for EMI faculty. Also, the faculty should be equipped with the mindset of becoming a culturally and linguistically responsive teacher (Lucas et al., 2008; Martin & Strom, 2016). When the faculty is able to conduct culturally and linguistically responsive teaching, ELLs' satisfaction towards EMI courses can be improved. Future studies need to investigate further the relationship in terms of how translingual practice can impact EMI courses because

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this research area will provide better insight into effective EMI implementation for diverse student populations (Hino, 2017).

7. Limitations Although findings from this study contribute to the field of knowledge and practice related to EMI courses for international graduate students, there are limitations that should be addressed. First, participants from this study were international graduate students at one private university in South Korea. Since EMI courses vary from university to university around the world, findings related to EMI courses at the current university may differ from findings in other programmes. Larger scale studies with longitude research design could provide additional data and insights related to this field. It should also be noted that the survey used for this study was modified by the researchers. It is possible that questions that were left out may have yielded additional findings and suggestions related to EMI courses for international graduate students. Also, it is noted that the results from this study were from ELLs' self-evaluation of their English ability. Future studies could investigate ELLs' actual English language proficiency through EMI courses by using official English level tests, such as TOEFL. Lastly, this research did not employ a pre-and post-survey. Future research should examine ELLs' opinions, attitudes, and selfevaluations before and after the course to gain a better understanding of how EMI courses impact international graduate students.

Conflict of Interests On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

8. References Belhiah, H., & Elhami, M. (2015). English as a medium of instruction in the Gulf: When students and teachers speak. Language Policy, 14(1), 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-014-9336-9 Byun, K., Chu, H., Kim, M., Park, I., Kim, S., & Jung, J. (2011). English-medium teaching in Korean higher education: Policy debates and reality. Higher Education, 62, 431449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-010-9397-4 Cheng, R., & Erben, A. (2012). Language anxiety: Experiences of Chinese graduate students at U.S. higher institutions. Journal of Studies in International Education, 16, 477–497. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315311421841 Chu, H. N. R., Lee, W. S., & Brien, P. W. (2018). Student satisfaction in an undergraduate international business EMI program: A case in southern Taiwan. Journal of Studies in International Education, 22(3), 198-209. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315317748525 Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2014). Thematic analysis. In T.Teo (Ed.) Encyclopedia of critical psychology (pp. 1947-1952). Springer. Corrales, K. A., Rey, L. A. P., & Escamilla, N. S. (2016). Is EMI enough? Perceptions from university professors and students. Latin American Journal of Content & Language Integrated Learning, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.5294/7094 Coşgun, G., & Hasırcı, B. (2017). The impact of English medium instruction (EMI) on students' language abilities. International Journal of Curriculum and Instruction. 9(2), 11-20. http://ijci.wcci-international.org/index.php/IJCI/article/view/73

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Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction – A growing global phenomenon. British Council. Fang, F., & Liu, Y. (2020). Using all English is not always meaningful: Stakeholders' perspectives on the use of and attitudes towards translanguaging at a Chinese university. Lingua, 247, 102959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2020.102959 Galloway, N., Numajiri, T., & Rees, N. (2020). The 'internationalisation', or 'Englishisation', of higher education in East Asia. Higher Education, 80(3), 395-414. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10734-019-00486-1.pdf Gregersen, T., & Horwitz, E. K. (2002). Language learning and perfectionism: Anxious and non‐anxious language learners' reactions to their own oral performance. The Modern Language Journal, 86(4), 562-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/15404781.00161 Hengsadeekul, C., Koul, R., & Kaewkuekool, S. (2014). Motivational orientation and preference for English-medium programs in Thailand. International Journal of Educational Research, 66, 35–44. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0883035514000214 He, J. J., & Chiang, S. Y. (2016). Challenges to English-medium instruction (EMI) for international students in China: A learners' perspective: English-medium education aims to accommodate international students into Chinese universities, but how well is it working? English Today, 32(4), 63-67. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266078416000390 Helm, F. (2020). EMI, internationalisation, and the digital. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(3), 314-325. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1643823 Hino, N. (2017). The significance of EMI for the learning of EIL in higher education: Four cases from Japan. In B. Fenton-Smith, P. Humphreys & I. Walkinshaw (eds.), English Medium Instruction in Higher Education in Asia-Pacific (pp. 115-131). Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-51976-0_7 Hwang, J. B., & Ahn, H. D. (2011). The effects of college-level English-mediated instruction on students' acquisition of content knowledge and English competence. Korean Journal of English Language and Linguistics, 11(1), 77-97. http://home.konkuk.ac.kr/~hdahn/pub/2011EngLecture.pdf Huang, D. F. (2015). Exploring and assessing effectiveness of English medium instruction courses: The students' perspectives. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 173, 7178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.033 Inbar-Lourie, O., & Donitsa-Schmidt, S. (2020). EMI lecturers in international universities: Is a native/non-native English-speaking background relevant? International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(3), 301-313. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1652558 Jensen, C., & Thøgersen, J. (2011). Danish university lecturers' attitudes towards English as the medium of instruction. Ibérica, Revista de la Asociación Europea de Lenguas para Fines Específicos, 22, 13-33. https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/2870/287023888002.pdf Jon, J. E., Lee, J. J., & Byun, K. (2014). The emergence of a regional hub: Comparing international student choices and experiences in South Korea. Higher Education, 67(5), 691-710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-013-9674-0 Karakas, A. (2017). The forgotten voices in higher education: Students' satisfaction with English-medium instruction. The Journal of English as an International Language, 12(1), 1-14. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED574759.pdf Kim, J., Tatar, B., & Choi, J. (2014). Emerging culture of English-medium instruction in Korea: Experiences of Korean and international students. Language and

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Intercultural Communication, 14(4), 441-459. https://doi.org/10.1080/14708477.2014.946038 Kuteeva, M. (2020). Revisiting the 'E'en EMI: students' perceptions of standard English, lingua franca and translingual practices. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(3), 287-300. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1637395 Lucas, T., Villegas, A. M., & Freedson-Gonzalez, M. (2008). Linguistically responsive teacher education: Preparing classroom teachers to teach English language learners. Journal of Teacher Education, 59(4), 361-373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487108322110 Martin, A. D., & Strom, K. J. (2016). Toward a linguistically responsive teacher identity: An empirical review of the literature. International Multilingual Research Journal, 10(4), 239-253. https://doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2016.1189799 Ministry of Education in Korea (2019). The recent statistics of the number of international students in Korean higher education. http://english.moe.go.kr/sub/info.do?m=020105&s=english Muthanna, A., & Miao, P. (2015). Chinese students' attitudes towards the use of Englishmedium instruction into the curriculum courses: A case study of a national key university in Beijing. Journal of Education and Training Studies , 3(5), 59-69. Qiu, X., & Fang, C. (2019). Creating an effective English-medium instruction (EMI) classroom: Chinese undergraduate students' perceptions of native and non-native English-speaking content teachers and their experiences. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1707769 Reilly, C. (2019). Attitudes towards English as a medium of instruction in Malawian universities. English Academy Review, 36(1), 32-45. https://doi.org/10.1080/10131752.2019.1582150 Tsou, W., & Kao, S. M. (2017). Overview of EMI development. In W.Tsou, & S-M. Kao (Eds.), English as a medium of instruction in higher education (pp. 3-18). Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-4645-2_1 Walkinshaw, I., Fenton-Smith, B., & Humphreys, P. (2017). EMI issues and challenges in Asia-Pacific higher education: An introduction. In English medium instruction in higher education in Asia-Pacific (pp. 1-18). Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-51976-0_1 Yeh, C. C. (2014). Taiwanese students' experiences and attitudes towards English-medium courses in tertiary education. RELC Journal, 45(3), 305-319. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688214555358 Yuan, R., Chen, Y., & Peng, J. (2020). Understanding university teachers' beliefs and practice in using English as a medium of instruction. Teaching in Higher Education, 25(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2020.1715936

Appendix 1. Interview Protocol 1. Why do you take EMI courses this semester? 2. What do you think about the quality of EMI courses offered this semester? 3. What do you think about the faculty's teaching methods of EMI courses offered this semester? 4. How do EMI courses influence your English ability? 5. How do EMI courses influence learning motivation and interests? 6. How do EMI courses influence your future job and career? 7. Are you willing to take more EMI courses in the future?

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 52-67, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.4 Received Jun 18, 2021; Revised Sep 03, 2021; Accepted Sep 18, 2021

Transformative Intervention Strategies for Teacher Leaders During the Pandemic and Beyond Edwin Darrell de Klerk* Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0218-5371 Natalie Smith Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7009-3060

Abstract. The Covid-19 pandemic has created an unparalleled catastrophe with significant challenges for leadership in schools all over the world. The efforts that schools have put in place for training and preparing for teachers prior to Covid-19 seem to be out of step, thus requiring a reimaging and significant transformation to remain relevant for aspiring teacher leaders. This conceptual paper aims at providing transformative intervention strategies (TIS) to empower teachers to become leaders during Covid-19. Having applied transformative leadership theory and integrative literature review (ILR) as method, this paper suggests that teachers should start with transformative listening and learning, whilst taking advantage of opportunities to be empowered to become leaders. To empower teachers to become leaders during the pandemic and beyond, prospective teacher leaders should embrace opportunities which might come from adjustments and which may enable them to better understand the reasons for transformation. As such, this paper aims to provide transformative intervention strategies to empower teachers to use opportunities afforded to them to become leaders in their schools amid the pandemic and beyond. TIS may assist schools in cultivating an environment where teachers actively work together to display transformative emotional intelligence, transformative autonomy and transformative inclusive leadership. The finding revealed that, if purposefully implemented, TIS may encourage teachers to see the value in growth towards leadership, making the process of transformation in schools that much easier. Keywords: Covid-19; teacher leaders; transformative intervention strategies; transformative leadership theory

Corresponding author: Edwin Darrell de Klerk, edwin.deklerk@spu.ac.za

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

1. Introduction The existing body of research on teacher leadership advocates that there is an unlimited necessity for shifting the paradigm and developing the scholastic community’s description of teacher leadership to embrace leading from inside classrooms (Tesik, 2017). Teachers are regarded as individuals who are aware that they can acquire knowledge from everybody and every experience. This implies that teachers should be cognisant that making mistakes and taking risks may be regarded as a method to learn, that requesting help is essential, and that modification and integration of abilities and attitudes is an enduring practice (Collinson, 2012, as cited in Hunzicker, 2017). These dispositional descriptions help to explain why teachers can be regarded as leaders who may possess a combination of knowledge, skills and personal qualities. When teachers’ knowledge, skills and personal qualities are to be considered, something must be done about it (Cosenza, 2015), because taking action implies that teachers should be empowered to develop teacher leadership abilities. The notion of teacher leadership as action goes beyond teachers’ officially allocated classroom responsibilities to initiate changes and share practices (Harris & Jones, 2020). Consequently, teacher leadership is explicated as teacher agency through creating associations, breaking down barriers, and organising resources throughout the school in an attempt to develop students’ learning outcomes and experiences (York-Barr & Duke, 2004, as cited in Shen et al., 2020). Arguably, teachers should experience a development in self-confidence and an aspiration to move beyond their comfort zone, whilst embracing the notion of exercising encouragement regarding reforms in schools (Lowery-Moore et al., 2016). COVID-19 has brought radical changes to the way we teach, learn and lead, emphasising the importance of teacher leadership development in contemporary times. Being regarded as a disorienting dilemma, Covid-19 brought discomfort to individuals’ understanding about the world. The unexpected and unplanned distress has led to intellectual uneasiness as assumptions about educational leadership have been challenged (Hart, 2020). Arguably, Covid-19 emphasised an absence of sufficient leadership skills, practices and action relevant to the current situation schools find themselves in. In this regard the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2020) has postulated that it is important to empower teachers and afford them possibilities to be change agents through reinforcement in terms of educational transformation. Empowerment can boost teachers’ readiness to initiate progressive transformation in their schools; therefore, it is significant to continuously provide opportunities to celebrate and recognise the value that teacher leadership exhibits (Behrstock-Sherratt et al., 2020).

2. Our interest in this study Both the researchers [hereafter EDK and NS] started their careers as teachers at schools. NS also performed duties as subject adviser at the district office of the Department of Education in a province in South Africa and was later appointed as a lecturer at a South African university. NS indicated that she always tries to develop transformative skills to keep track of constant changes in education—not

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only in South Africa, but also internationally—by reading about how to be a leader in the positions to which she was appointed. She continuously modifies her way of doing this, her involvement, her part to play in decision-making at school, district level and now at university. As such, she regards the empowerment of teachers to become leaders important because teacher leadership to her embraces notions of social justice, awareness and inclusivity. EDK has been a teacher, head of department, school principal and was later appointed as senior lecturer at a South African university. He tells the story that he has always been regarded as a moving teacher, one who was willing to learn and adapt to new ways of teaching as well as leadership. Having been part of school management, he indicates that teachers should lead beyond and within the classroom and inspire others to improve educational practices. Like Wenner and Campbell (2017), he regards teacher leadership empowerment as important because teachers should be afforded opportunities to lead during teacher collaboration and facilitate the sharing of best practices, whilst encouraging teacher professional learning. We contend that research regarding teacher leadership empowerment should be an ongoing activity because leadership development occurs over the course of a career and, as such, this paper underscores the significance of focusing on teacher leadership.

3. Literature Review 3.1 From teachers to teacher leadership Teacher leadership can easily be thought about as being the principal of a school or being appointed in leadership positions at a school or in the schooling system. Hunzicker (2017), in a conceptual article on teacher leadership, has highlighted that teacher leadership can easily be noted in school environments when teachers, whether appointed in leadership positions or not, merely come to the front and take leadership opportunities when the need arises. Significantly, leadership responsibilities and informal leadership pertaining to development and interactions amongst individuals may be regarded as components of teacher leadership. As such, teacher leadership should be geared towards extending individual learning, whilst influencing others to take responsibility for their own leadership development (Collinson, 2012). Teachers aspiring to become teacher leaders often try to make sense of how to become teacher leaders. Hunzicker (2017) asserts that teacher leadership may be regarded as a position, or approach of discerning and actuality, rather than a set of behaviours. Significantly, how teachers think about teaching and learning constitutes a great deal of teacher leadership. It can be deduced that teacher leadership is not limited or confined to the title or position, but is an intrinsic desire waiting to be fulfilled. The transformations regarding teaching, learning and leadership brought about by Covid-19 has required innovative thinking on the side of teachers and how they should lead in their classrooms and beyond. In this regard, Meirink (2020) holds the view that Covid-19 requires intervention opportunities to be explored so that teachers can be granted opportunities to not

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only perform their daily teaching practices, but also to perform leadership in their classroom and school. The manner in which teachers have been obliged to adapt during the Covid-19 period, has necessitated that they should be assisted to emancipate from being mere teachers because the development from teacher to teacher leader is a continuing practice that transpires over a period of time (Hunzicker, 2017). The process of progression usually takes place when teachers initially master their subject content and teaching thereof. Opportunities to reflect on their own practices, and from others, construct prospects for teachers to advance as teacher leaders both inside the class as well as outside classroom boundaries. The confidence that is gained by mastering content and pedagogy makes it easier for teachers to positively play a role as teacher leaders in schools because it can be liberating in that it may enable them to retain their individuality as teachers while preparing to be leaders (Carver, 2016). Consequently, when schools provide opportunities for teachers to step into leadership responsibilities, as well as to extend your own learning and to take risks to lead, possibilities to grow as teacher leaders may become a reality. 3.2 The role of teacher leadership in schools Makoelle and Makhalemele (2020) have highlighted that, in South African schools, teacher leadership is described mainly from two points, namely, the dialogue of practised teacher leadership and the dialogue of administrative teacher leadership. These views denote that teachers would do things differently than they are used to develop teacher leadership in schools. This is confirmed by Bush (2011, as cited in Makoelle & Makhalemele, 2020) who points out that that leadership can be articulated as, the influence one person has on others, it could mean an ability to transmit or project particular values in such a manner that they influence others and finally, leadership is associated with the ability of the person to be visionary and able to direct others towards the achievement of a particular goal. (p. 296) This view suggests that teachers can indeed be empowered to become teacher leaders. Notably, when teachers take on new roles and responsibilities as leaders, they adapt their ways of thinking and doing in terms of their teaching practices (Lieberman & Miller, 2004, as cited in Lowery-Moore et al., 2018). Thus, when teachers take opportunities provided by schools, they may become willing to initiate positive changes, nurture the development of confidence, move out of their comfort zones, and influence possible reforms in schools (Uribe-Florez et al., 2014). To get a fuller picture of what teacher leadership may denote, we dug deeper into the academic literature and found some interesting information which was written in the early 1990s and 2000s. Silva et al. (2000, as cited in York-Barr & Duke, 2004) define teacher leadership as an evolution which takes place in three waves. Firstly, teachers serve in official roles (heads of department, representatives of unions), fundamentally as administrators, whose key drive is to promote the effectiveness of school processes. Secondly, teacher leadership is

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envisioned to capitalise more entirely on the instructional capability of teachers by assigning teachers to perform roles as programme designers, motivators of staff members, and supporters of new teachers. Thirdly, teacher leadership mirrors an augmented consideration of teachers’ roles that support partnership and incessant scholarship and that identifies teachers as major architects of the culture of the school (Silva et al., 2000, as cited in York-Barr & Duke, 2004). This includes teachers as leaders equally outside and within their classrooms (Ash & Persall, 2000). Significantly, teacher leadership seems to be a process whereby teachers engage in combined action with colleagues to build school capacity. Such action should be a deliberate effort to foster respect and determination as well as opportunities for individual expression. 3.3 Covid-19 and teacher leadership Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, teachers’ leadership has become a significant subject, predominantly within the scope of action and increasing academic excellence. Covid-19 has not only demanded the improvement of capabilities and socio-emotional abilities (Hernandez Mondragon, 2020, as cited in Chan et al., 2020), but has also called for the role of teacher leaders, who can be described as co-constructors of educational change (Harris & Jones, 2019). For teacher leaders working in these circumstances, a radical shift is necessitated in the way they are performing their teaching and leadership practices. In this regard, Harris and Jones (2020) describe the situation as the impeccable storm with inadequate leadership reactions. This perfect storm, Covid-19, has created an ideal opportunity for schools to empower teachers regarding teacher leadership to seize opportunities to step up to lead at a time of national crisis (Pineda-Báes et al., 2020). This implies that teacher leaders also have to be cognisant about their own well-being as well as that of learners and colleagues. Arguably, the fast and ever-changing circumstances that the disruptive Covid-19 has brought about, require a new, transformed teacher leadership. It is thus not strange that Harris and Jones (2020) have highlighted emerging insights about teacher leadership that must be kept in place during these uncertain times caused by the pandemic. The authors (Harris & Jones, 2020) emphasise leadership, capacity building and a shift in school leadership practices, as well as new training programmes to build teacher leadership skills that are suited for the circumstances brought along by Covid-19. The Covid-19 pandemic has generated the ideal opportunity for the empowerment of teachers so that the entire school community can benefit from teacher leaders as influencers and educational change agents (Chan et al., 2020).

4. Theoretical framework: Transformative leadership theory Montuori and Donnelly (2017) affirm that transformative leadership (TL) requires teachers to accept accountability in inquiring what kind of world they would like to create through their collaborations, thoughts, actions and opinions, and to compare that with the kind of world they would like to create, and the kind of

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individuals they would like to be. This denotes that TL may be observed as a dynamic strength which should encourage teachers to be more inventive, consistent and more particular—ethics that exemplify people’s uppermost standards and allow them to make a contribution that reflects their principles, concerns and expectations (Montuori & Donnelly, 2017). Significantly, teachers’ expectations during Covid-19 have been replaced by fear and loss, not knowing how to manage themselves amid the existing catastrophe the world finds itself in (Eschenbacher & Fleming, 2020). Although Covid-19 has brought immense uncertainties in education, opportunities to learn arise out of the experience of catastrophe and confusion to explore unconventional methods of living and being in terms of actions, relationships and roles where individuals would plan innovative options of action which require innovative understanding in order to put these options of action into practice (Mezirow, 1991). Therefore, in order for teacher leadership to become more broadly acknowledged, researchers should understand and investigate practices that would cultivate teacher leadership abilities (Lieberman, 2015). In applying transformative leadership theory, this paper aims at providing TIS to build teachers’ ability to have more impact on the school system, as well as nurturing teachers’ self-assurance (Bond, 2015). An application of TIS may thus contribute to empowering teachers to use opportunities afforded to them to become leaders in their schools amid the pandemic and beyond.

5. Research method: Narrative literature review Narrative literature review (NR) allows for a description of information already in the public domain although the methods to select published information are not described (Ferrari, 2015). Researchers use NR to identify the literature gathered, and, in this paper, information is gathered to respond to the issue of teacher leadership during the pandemic and beyond. Notably, NR allows for flexibility to deal with evolving concepts and knowledge (Collins & Fauser, 2005, as cited in Byrne, 2016). We use NR in this paper to summarise literature in a manner which is not overtly systematic because the minimum requirement is that there should be a focus on existing literature (Bastian et al., 2010), whilst making a case for innovative perspectives for teacher leadership amid the pandemic and beyond. Adhering to the requirement by NR, a summary of literature indicated in this paper will be presented, followed by an argument for a transformative view on identified concepts pertaining to teacher leadership during the pandemic and beyond. From the gathered literature in this paper, we identified three aspects about teacher leadership which we intend to elaborate on: emotional intelligence, autonomy and inclusive leadership. Table 1. Teacher leaders and emotional intelligence Carver (2016) It may enable them to retain their individuality as teachers while preparing to be leaders.

Lieberman and Miller (2004 as cited in LoweryMoore et al., 2018) They adapt their ways of thinking and doing in terms of their teaching practices.

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Pineda-Báes et al. (2020) Seize opportunities to step up to lead at a time of national crisis.

The aforementioned literature provides expressions of teacher leaders’ emotions in terms of possibilities for empowerment. It also provides information about the use of feelings to motivate, plan and achieve greater well-being. Considering the information already in the public domain, this paper suggests transformative emotional intelligence for teacher leadership because research should continue to inform the practices of individuals’ emotional reality (Duffy, 2020). Table 2.Teacher leaders and autonomy Collinson (2012) Take responsibility for their own leadership development

Uribe-Florez et al. (2014) To initiate positive change, nurture the development of confidence, move out of their comfort zones and influence positive reforms

Harris and Jones (2019) Co-constructors of educational change

Evident from the literature is that teacher leaders’ autonomy should crystallise in opportunities for own voice, relationship building and setting of realistic goals. This paper suggests a stronger form of autonomy, which Nel (2014) referred to as transformative autonomy, a form of autonomy in which teachers have the urge to be involved in development initiatives towards a transformation of the self. Table 3. Teacher leaders and inclusive leadership Silva et al. (2000, as cited in York-Barr & Duke, 2004) Supports partnership and incessant learning and identifies teachers as major architects of the culture of the school.

Chan et al. (2020)

Meirink (2020)

Teacher leaders should act as influencers and educational change agents

Teachers can be granted opportunities to not only perform their daily teaching practices, but also to perform leadership in their classroom and school.

From the summary of literature above, it is clear that inclusive leadership requires that teacher leaders pay attention to individuals’ academic needs and well-being, whilst they are available to provide support. In this paper, we would like to make a case for transformative inclusive leadership amid Covid-19 because teacher leaders need tools to further develop their mindset and behaviours to navigate during times of uncertainty. This paper, therefore, suggests that transformative emotional intelligence, transformative autonomy and transformative inclusive leadership will henceforth be discussed.

6. Transformative intervention strategies for teacher leadership TL deals with how people may be enabled to learn to open themselves from unexamined methods of thinking that encumber effective action and judgment (Mezirow, 1998). Spooner and John’s (2020) opening paragraph, “all of a sudden you are free and your baggage is gone” (p. 275) places strong emphasis on the powerful intervention that may be brought about by transformative leadership.

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Intervention, from a TL perspective, aims at critiquing discomfort, disorientation and marginalisation, whilst integrating knowledge and acting on new understandings (Mezirow, 1985). This paper argues that transformative emotional intelligence, transformative autonomy and transformative inclusive leadership should be recognised as TIS, which may be useful in empowering teachers to become leaders in their schools amid the pandemic and beyond.

Transformative innovation

Transformative emotional intelligence

Schools should provide teachers with opportunities for self-awareness and selfregulation

Transformative autonomy

Schools should provide teachers opportunities for own freedom, liberation and reconstruction

Transformative inclusive leadership

Schools should explicitly recognise that teachers may display inclusive leadership

Figure 1. Transformative intervention strategies for teacher leaders during the pandemic and beyond

6.1 Transformative emotional intelligence Drawing on Walker (2017), the motivation for education, which is closely linked with a sense of transformative emotional intelligence (TEI), should be on developing self-awareness (p. 370) whilst in the present moment (like Covid-19). Learning is about the self because it allows individuals to harness the power to transform in terms of their emotional intelligence, which is associated with a set of emotional and social skills that influence the way we perceive and express ourselves, develop and maintain social relationships, cope with challenges, and use emotional information in an effective and meaningful way is emotional intelligence. (Mayer et al., 2004, p. 197, as cited in Issah, 2018, p. 1). Thus, to develop teacher leadership, schools should implement development plans that will assist teachers to improve emotionally intelligent-related skills and adapt to desired behaviour, especially during times of crisis (Gaubatz & Ensminger, 2017). This implies that teacher leaders may be empowered to see the world through the lens of complexity, as opposed to predictably and linearly, encouraging them to probe, sense, and respond to leadership requirements (Watkins et al., 2017). Two aspects regarding TEI need to be considered in terms of teacher leadership (Issah, 2018). Firstly, teacher leaders should be trained how

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to develop a sense of self-awareness, which refers individuals’ ability to understand their modes, emotions, drives and how an awareness of the self affects others. Secondly, teacher leaders should be trained in terms of self-regulation which may be regarded as an ability to control disruptive impulses or moods. The latter aspects of TEI are relevant to the disruptive features of Covid-19. Significantly, Covid-19 has required a transformation in the way teacher leadership is perceived and, therefore, teachers should be taught how to be continuously open to transformation (De Klerk & Palmer, 2021). This implies that teachers should be motivated to think beyond the current circumstances in education, whilst they open themselves to educational activities that would test the taken-for-granted beliefs of leadership. Consequently, when opportunities are provided for enhancing TEI, teacher leaders may acquire abilities to manage and understand their own feelings and others’ emotions (Alferaih, 2017). In so doing, teachers then use TEI to reason and solve problems, whilst guiding actions which are geared towards improved managerial decisions as well as enriched organisational performance (Ezzi et al., 2020; Sánchez et al., 2020). Aligned with TL as theory in this paper, TEI becomes useful in terms of how empowered teacher leaders may understand experiences, make meaning and how individuals question, converse about, and reflect on their experiences in order to improve and develop (Eschenbacher & Fleming, 2020). 6.2 Transformative autonomy In Nel’s (2014) view, transformative autonomy (TA) can be articulated as an autonomous application of human potential to create new meanings through reinterpretation of experiences whilst providing space for personal empowerment. When teachers are being provided opportunities to develop as leaders, they should be trained how to be considerate regarding the self and also how to be skilled to know what it would be to take care of the self (Rytzler, 2019). According to De Klerk and Barnett (2020), when paying attention to the self, teachers should adopt knowledge relevant to their development and, when they care for the self, they use the attained information to change themselves in an independent way. This implies that TA should serve as teacher leaders’ ability to be independent, even when they find themselves in times of disoriented dilemmas (Parker, 2015). Drawing on De Klerk and Barnett (2020), we believe that TA should render teacher leaders as active actors in education; thus, individuals who persuasively act upon opportunities to personally reconstruct themselves through empowerment. Regardless of the level of reconstruction of the self, TA requires a provocation of complete awareness-awakening and recounting of an abandoned possibility of human mindfulness (Wade, 1998, as cited in De Klerk, 2014). Interpreting the aforementioned statement, we contend that TA appears to be a practice of enacted transformation that is deliberate, with the goal of bringing about noteworthy changes in how teachers are allowed to lead within schools. When this happens, teachers’ descriptions, feelings and assumptions about their ability to lead are

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unified in their ability to transform socially, emotionally and academically (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020). Subsequently, when action is taken to bring about transformation in terms of teachers’ ability to lead, old ways of knowing are released and teachers may become open to innovative ways of inspecting the self, whilst assessing individual experiences (Mbabane, 2010), especially in new contexts brought by Covid-19. Aligned with TL, TA then signifies that to empower teachers to be leaders, implies that schools should be actively, Creating the conditions for and the skills of effective adult reasoning and the disposition for transformative learning—including critical reflection and dialectical discourse—is the essence of adult education and defines the role of the adult educator, both as a facilitator of reasoning in a learning situation and a cultural activist fostering the social economic, and political conditions required for a fuller, freer participation in critical reflection and discourse by all adults in a democratic society. (Mezirow, 2003, p. 63) When an opportunity arises, as described by Mezirow (2003), it may create conditions for teachers that are necessary for emancipation and engagement in transformative efforts in schools. Drawing on Nel (2014) as well as De Klerk (2014), we hold the view that when teachers are empowered to become leaders, they may adopt a critical stance of the self to the self in order to perform leadership in an independent manner. This implies that TA, in terms of TL, would position teachers to enjoy the respect they deserve, whilst enabling them to freely move beyond mere compliance to become the biographers of their own actions and thought (Vieira, 2010). When teachers experience this kind of respect (Vieira, 2010), teacher leadership may then involve a combination of a caring of the self with attentiveness, whilst also caring for their educational partners. 6.3 Transformative inclusive leadership The beginning of fostering transformative inclusive leadership (TIL) in schools may be referred to as the transformational method in which innovative and deeper considerations substitute what have become insufficient opinions about learning and teaching (Engstrom & Kabes, n.d.). In this regard, TIL may be utilised as a means to empower teachers in how to be leaders in schools. Teachers should be exposed to reflective and stimulating ways of learning that would include participation in developing inclusive learning and teaching experiences, participatory and active learning, as well as curriculum innovation (Tilbury, 2011, as cited in De Sousa, 2021). From a transformative perspective, inclusive leadership encompasses a set of actions intended to assist teachers’ complete incorporation as well as instituting an open standard for exclusive social individualities, leading to effectively nurturing teacher leadership (Randel et al., 2018). Schools thus play a vital part in influencing teachers’ practices of impartiality and increasing activities desirable to create an inclusive leadership environment (Andrews & Ashworth, 2015). In so doing, TIL may boost teachers to apply various ideas and views that may enhance decision-making practices, whilst enhancing the performances of diverse teams in schools (Sabharwal et al., 2018). TIL should thus provide opportunities for a sense of belonging, where

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everyone is treated as insiders, remains their authentic self and uses opportunities to voice their perspectives and ideas (Dwertmann & Boehm, 2016; Hogg et al., 2017; Mor Barak et al., 2016). An argument in favour of TIL amid Covid-19 resonates strongly with the notion that teachers, as leaders, should be afforded opportunities to explore the dilemmas that teachers face as part of their everyday work (Florian, 2015) so that they may act as role models that others will follow to create similarly inclusive surroundings (Borini et al., 2016). Consequently, when schools familiarise themselves with the dilemmas brought forward by Covid-19, they may be positioned to strengthen teacher leader roles in a transformed manner. It would thus be fair to say that, through TIL, schools would make an effort to treat teacher leaders with appreciation, admiration, and broad-mindedness, whilst listening to and recognising their contributions and opinions (Choi et al., 2016). Aligned with TL, when teachers are openly placed at the forefront of co-constructing transformation in schools, schools would experience such action as both empowering and positive (Donaldson, 2015). The proposed TIS in this paper can be associated with three important aspects of the development of teacher leaders (Harris & Jones, 2019). Firstly, teacher leadership should be regarded as action beyond formally assigned classroom roles. Secondly, teacher leaders should be offered opportunities to share practices and initiate transformation in schools. Thirdly, teacher leaders should be aware of their own biases and preferences and actively consider different views to inform decision-making.

7. Conclusion The aim of this paper is to acquire knowledge on how transformative intervention strategies may be implemented to empower teachers to use opportunities afforded to them to become leaders in their schools amid the pandemic and beyond. Covid-19 has necessitated a rethinking of the role of teachers, expecting that they instantaneously became innovative instructors capable of navigating teaching, learning and decision-making in a competent and efficient way. This paper, therefore, proposed TIS to assist schools to empower teachers to be leaders in times of the pandemic and beyond. It has been suggested that TEI, TA and TIL may be regarded as strong intervention guidelines to assist schools regarding the empowerment of teachers as leaders. Firstly, TEI suggests that teachers be trained how to lead with self-awareness and self-regulation to understand emotions and thoughts as well as how to be in control of themselves during times of dilemma. Secondly, TA advocates that schools should allow teachers to lead changes and give meaning to such changes through descriptions, feelings and expectations. Thirdly, TIL recommends that schools allow teachers to lead through opportunities to have their voices heard and their transformative ideas put into action. This paper supports previous research by Harris et al. (2017) who purport that teacher leadership should be enacted and supported so that teachers may be able to work collaboratively and purposefully. In another study, Lethole et al. (2020)

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assert that the fostering of a teacher leadership identity, driven by continuous leadership development, may result in the continuation of teacher leadership empowerment. This conceptual study contributes to the body of knowledge by having offered TIS for teacher leadership empowerment during the Covid-19 pandemic and beyond. Significantly, to lead during disruptive times requires a constant rethinking of what teacher leadership should be about. TIS reemphasises the need for a more transformative way of leadership which is geared towards innovation, a renewed sense of inclusivity, as well as leaders’ ability to act autonomously in schools.

8. Limitations This study is the first article of a research and development project on “Professional development for teacher leaders: towards transformative learning strategies for schools”. A narrative literature was undertaken to understand the teacher leadership empowerment and the relevance thereof amid Covid-19. It thus excludes the voices of teachers and their experiences regarding teacher leadership at schools.

9. Recommendations This paper recommends that an empirical study be conducted to test the applicability of the TIS. In such research, teachers’ voices regarding their experiences about teacher leadership should be as significant.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 68-85, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.5 Received Jun 23, 2021; Revised Sep 13, 2021; Accepted Sep 19, 2021

The Influence Mechanism of Loneliness to Learning and Its Coping Strategies in Chinese College Students Dong Yang and Usaporn Swekwi Suryadhep Teachers College, Rangsit University, Pathumthani, Thailand http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6382-0706 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2634-5344

Abstract. Chinese college students frequently experience loneliness during remote learning, resulting in impaired academic performance. The relationships among loneliness, mental health, and academic performance were explored for these students. Mixed method research was conducted using both investigation and interview methods. In the online survey, 437 college students were recruited from three universities in Wuhan, China. The sampling began on April 7, 2021, and ended on April 11, 2021. The reliability and validity of the scales of loneliness, mental health, and academic performance were verified by a confirmatory factor analysis model, and a higher-order model confirmed the mediating mechanism. The mediating mechanism revealed that mental health and the influence of loneliness negatively impacted academic performance. Based on this mechanism, methods for coping with loneliness were explored by interviewing 12 Chinese college students online between April 20 and April 28, 2021. Further interview data coding and classification were conducted. The interview results revealed that self-comfort and seeking assistance from others were the primary methods used by the students to alleviate loneliness. Accordingly, it is found that loneliness during independent learning significantly affects mental health, causing a decline in academic achievement among Chinese college students. Loneliness, the primary cause of the complete mediating effect of loneliness, mental health, and academic performance can be alleviated in two ways; self-comfort and asking help from others. Keywords: loneliness; mental health; academic performance; influence mechanism; coping strategies

1. Introduction The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has resulted in substantial changes in students’ lives (Aristovnik et al., 2020; WHO, 2020), such as the increase in ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

online teaching in higher education (Mahmood, 2021). Online teaching has been the best method in preventing COVID-19 transmission among students (Mishra et al., 2020; Mahmood, 2021). Therefore, the pandemic resulted in large-scale, long-term online teaching for Chinese college students in some areas, such as at universities in Wuhan city (Wang et al., 2020). Independent learning is an effective way to cope with prolonged online teaching for Chinese college students (Zhang et al., 2020). Nevertheless, Chinese college students did not adapt to online learning by improving their independent learning capabilities (Yu et al., 2020). Independent learning is an autonomous and prolonged learning method of adult learners, and involves studying alone without learning assistance (Leathwood, 2006). However, loneliness during independent learning can inhibit independent learning behavior (Kaufmann & Vallade, 2020; Marsh, 1997). Feelings of loneliness occur due to a lack of social relationships, which in turn causes negative emotional stresses (Benoit & Ditommaso, 2020; Gerino et al., 2017) and impedes learning performance (Kaufmann & Vallade, 2020; Marsh, 1997). Stress regulation theory suggests that relationships with family and friends can reduce the effects of stress on learning outcomes (Lakey & Orehek, 2011). Research on loneliness and learning has demonstrated that loneliness negatively affects academic performance (Hüseyin & Barut, 2020; Mo, 2019; Yang & Swekwi, 2021). This effect may be due to the lack of social relationships for lonely individuals (Lakey & Orehek, 2011; Margalit, 1991), and therefore, loneliness may inhibit independent learning (Leathwood, 2006; Marsh, 1997; Stoliker & Lafreniere, 2015), cause negative emotional stress, and affect academic achievement (Hüseyin & Barut, 2020; Mo, 2019; Yang & Swekwi, 2021). However, studies of negative influencing factors, mental health, and outcomes revealed that the relationship between these was not direct, but instead mediated by mental health (Gerino et al., 2017; Miranda et al., 2013). Psychological capital theory suggests that mental health is an outcome influenced by psychological capital; negative feelings can affect an individual’s psychological state and affect performance (Cavus & Gokcen, 2015; Luthans et al., 2004). Therefore, feelings of loneliness manifesting as emotional stress may first affect mental health and then affect learning outcomes. Accordingly, the mediating mechanism of loneliness, mental health, and academic performance for independent learners was explored in this research. Whereafter, when loneliness during independent learning was confirmed as a factor that negatively affects mental health which in turn impacts academic performance, this study proposes a question to explore: How can college students cope with feelings of loneliness arising from independent learning?.

2. Literature Review Loneliness, a subjective emotional stressful experience, occurs from a deficiency of social communication and feedback, and is defined as a feeling of dissatisfaction with one’s interpersonal relationships (Diehl et al., 2018; Yang & Swekwi, 2021). During independent study, feelings of loneliness can cause negative effects by causing social emotional stress (Gerino et al., 2017; Kaufmann

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& Vallade, 2020; Leathwood, 2006; Marssh, 1997). The social psychology theory of loneliness suggests that loneliness may be caused by an individual undertaking an activity alone with the absence of adequate socializing time (Peplau & Perlman, 1979; Stoliker & Lafreniere, 2015). Independent learning has the characteristic of working alone without social support (Kaufmann & Vallade, 2020; Leathwood, 2006; Marsh, 1997). Stress-regulation theory suggests that social relationships with family and friends act as a buffer for stress by assisting in problem-solving (Lakey & Orehek, 2011). As independent learners lack social relationships, they do not buffer the influence of stress on learning outcomes (Lakey & Orehek, 2011; Peplau & Perlman, 1979). Research regarding loneliness and academic performance supports this theoretical explanation; that is, loneliness is a factor negatively influencing academic performance (Hüseyin & Barut, 2020; Mo, 2019; Yang & Swekwi, 2021). However, the mediating research of negative feelings, mental health, and performance revealed that the relationship of loneliness and academic performance may be an indirect, not direct, relationship (Gerino et al., 2017; Miranda et al., 2013). Good mental health is described as possessing a relaxed and healthy mental state that can positively influence both study and work (WHO, 2004). Psychological capital theory defines psychological capital as a positive psychological state produced by an individual's optimistic and resilient characteristics (Cavus & Gokcen, 2015). The psychological state resulting from psychological capital is a mental health state (Cavus & Gokcen, 2015; Luthans et al., 2004). Negative feelings (such as stress) can negatively affect an individual’s mental health state, affecting performance (Cavus & Gokcen, 2015; Luthans et al., 2004). Mental health has been described as a mediator not only in psychological capital theory but also in research. Studies have revealed that mental health mediates positive and negative factors (such as motivation, loneliness, and negative experiences) and outcomes (Brien et al., 2012; Gerino et al., 2017). In a study regarding the history of maternal violence, mental health, and child behavior, mental health completely mediated the negative influence of negative maternal events on child behavior (Miranda et al., 2013). In the study of loneliness, mental health, and life quality, the emotional stress of loneliness decreases an individual’s life satisfaction by causing a decline in mental health (Gerino et al., 2017). Therefore, it is hypothesized that mental health is a strong mediating factor between loneliness and academic performance. In other words, loneliness can negatively affect an individual’s mental health to cause a decline in academic performance. Accordingly, the hypothesis was proposed: Hypothesis: Mental health can completely mediate the influence of loneliness on the academic performance. A lack of social support as a stress-buffering function was inferred as the reason behind an unavoidable feeling of loneliness during independent learning (Lakey & Orehek, 2011; Leathwood, 2006; Margalit, 1991; Peplau & Perlman, 1979). The stress-buffering effect of social support is described as a scenario where relaxed individuals can talk to close friends and peers about private matters and ask for valid help. The process of talking about private matters, asking for problemsolving strategies, and receiving feedback are effective ways to buffer negative feelings and stress (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Lakey & Orehek, 2011). Thus, learners

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can ask for help from members of social support system when they face stress. However, individuals can only conduct self-comfort activities (such as enjoying food, singing songs, seeing a movie, and listening to music) to buffer negative feelings when they face stress and are lacking social support (Dahlqvist et al., 2008). Thus, a question was proposed: Question: When the hypothetical mediating mechanism is confirmed, what kind of strategies can Chinese college students use to cope with feelings of loneliness arising from independent learning? According to the above hypothesis and question, a hypothetical model with a complete mediation model and coping strategies was proposed as in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Hypothetical Model

3. Structural Equation Modelling 3.1 Participants and research instruments The investigation was conducted using an online questionnaire because the COVID-19 policies in China did not permit face-to-face interviews. Table 1 shows the sample demographics, which represent the gender and grade ratio of students who participated. Purpose sampling is used to obtain samples with two features, with the sampling area experiencing the longest period of online teaching, the sampling universities containing an education and mental health center, and ever intervene online education issues, in order to ensure that samples fit the research background. University counselors assisted in recruiting participants from student dormitory groups at three universities in Wuhan city and Hubei province in China. Students from all majors were eligible for receiving the questionnaire. A total of 467 Chinese college students willingly submitted the online questionnaires by using the application WeChat. All the relevant universities had an organization facilitating the responses to issues related to student mental health or learning difficulties. Questionnaires were distributed from April 7 to April 11, 2021. A total of 30 questionnaires were extreme and were determined to be invalid. A total of 437 valid questionnaires were returned, and gender (the male-to-female ratio is close to 1:1) and grade (the proportion of students in the four grades is average) distribution ratios were in line with the group characteristics of Wuhan university students. The study protocol passed the human research ethics review of Rangsit University, Thailand, on March 5, 2021. The documentation number for the proof of

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exemption is RSUERB2021-020. The informed consent form included an explanation of the research purpose and research ethics. All college students signed the online informed consent after understanding the research purpose, voluntariness, and confidentiality. Table 1: Demographics of Chinese college students

Sex

Grade

Demographic Characteristic Male

Group Number and Rate (N = 437) 208 47.6%

Female

229

52.4%

Freshman

119

27.2%

Sophomore

102

23.3%

Junior

104

23.8%

Senior

112

25.6%

Loneliness, mental health, and academic performance were evaluated using three measurement instruments. The effect mechanisms of these latent variables were assumed to be in accordance with theory and previous research. These three factors were measured using 5-point Likert scales ranging from 1 to 5 (strongly disagree to strongly agree), and their definitions were as follows: (a) Loneliness, a distressing emotional stressful experience, results from a subjective feeling of dissatisfaction with social relationships (Benoit & Ditommaso, 2020; Gerino et al., 2017; Hays & Dimatteo, 1987). Loneliness during the independent learning process was measured by a questionnaire given to informed participants and the perceived level of loneliness during independent learning was measured using eight items on the loneliness scale. These items measured current social relationships and lonely emotional experiences (Hays & Dimatteo, 1987; Yang & Swekwi, 2021). (b) Mental health is a pleasant and relaxing mental state in which individuals can focus on working and learning (WHO, 2004). The self-evaluation of mental health included an interest in life, a focus on thinking and learning, the attitude towards oneself, and stressful feelings. The degree of individual mental health was measured using six items. Forward scoring was used for five items, and one item used reverse scoring (Yao et al., 2002). (c) Academic performance is a learning outcome indicating whether Chinese college students reached their academic potential and were prepared for future work (Yang & Swekwi, 2021). Three academic potentials (cognitive learning, communication, and interpersonal abilities) were identified, and the Chinese college students conducted self-evaluations regarding their level of academic performance. The academic performance was assessed using 14 items; four items were for cognitive learning, five for communication, and five for interpersonal abilities (Yang & Swekwi, 2021).

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3.2 Measurement validity test The measurement items for loneliness, mental health, and academic performance passed the index of item-objective congruence (IOC) evaluation. The IOC indexes were between .80 to 1 and reflected high content validities of measurement items (Table 2). In this research, structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted for modeling, including for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and for higher-order models (Byrne, 2010; Kline, 2010). Valid responses from 437 Wuhan college students were used for modeling. SPSS 21.0 was used for coding data; AMOS 21.0 was used for modeling. First, a CFA measurement model was used to verify measurement validity (Bollen, 1989; Byrne, 2010; Kline, 2010).

Figure 2: Measurement Model

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Table 2: Item contents, mean (M), standard deviation (SD), and standardized regression coefficients (SRC) for loneliness, mental health, and academic performance

Loneliness Mental Health

No L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 MH1 MH2 MH3 MH4 MH5 AP1 AP2 AP3 AP4

Academic Performance

AP5 AP6 AP7 AP8 AP9 AP10 AP11 AP12 AP13

AP14 *** p < .001

Questionnaire Items I lack companionship There is no one I can turn to I am a withdrawn person I feel left out I feel isolated from others I cannot find companionship when I want it I am unhappy being so withdrawn People are around me but not with me I enjoy my life I feel that my life is meaningful I can concentrate (thinking, studying, remembering) on what I want to do I can accept my appearance I am satisfied with myself I can use the knowledge that I learned flexibly I can easily understand what the teacher said in class I can quickly grasp the key to solving the problem I can always understand new knowledge and new skills quickly I can communicate clearly with people I know how to change the subject and can master the basic talking points I am good at listening and don't like to interrupt others I can communicate with others face to face I am willing to take initiative to communicate with others I always take initiative to help other classmates I can take care of other classmates very well In different situations, I can restrain my behavior well I can cooperate very well with other classmates I can get along well with other people

M 2.49 2.26 2.67 2.34 2.34 2.34 2.23 2.39 3.82 3.90

SD 1.16 1.15 1.18 1.07 1.12 1.10 1.11 1.11 .75 .82

SRC .68*** .76*** .63*** .79*** .84*** .83*** .77*** .76*** .64*** .62***

3.69

.83

.73***

3.75 3.65 3.50

.85 .86 .81

.74*** .73*** .72***

3.46

.87

.76***

3.49

.85

.83***

3.51

.85

.76***

3.69

.84

.69***

3.55

.86

.71***

3.80

.82

.62***

3.84

.78

.69***

3.70

.87

.71***

3.69

.86

.75***

3.69

.85

.75***

3.89

.80

.69***

3.81

.79

.74***

3.94

.75

.75***

Next, the main effect and higher-order structural models were constructed to examine mediation effects (Bollen, 1989; Byrne, 2010; Kline, 2010). On the basis of 437 valid samples and measurement variables, a CFA measurement model was structured (Figure 2). First, the factor loadings for 27 observed variables among the 28 observed variables all exceeded .50, except for one item measuring mental health (item content: I often have negative feelings, such as worry,

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sadness, nervousness, anxiety, depression, etc.) which had a low factor loading of .22. Therefore, this item was removed from the measurement model, and 27 valid items were used (Byrne, 2010). Cronbach’s α reliability coefficients for the three latent variables were .92, .82, and .92. Table 3: Model fit of the measurement model

Model Fit Index Chi-square（χ2） χ2/df Goodness-of-fit (GFI) Comparative fit index (CFI) Root mean square residual (RMR) Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) Parsimony-adjusted NFI (PNFI)

Parameter 807.77 (p < .001) 2.57 .87 .92 .04 .06 .91 .79

Next, construct validity including convergent and discriminate validities and their indices were explained by the CFA measurement model. First, the factor loadings for 27 observed variables ranged from .62 to .84 (Figure 2); all parameters reached statistical significance and did not have negative variance (Bagozzi & Yi, 2012). Second, the CFA measurement model had a reasonable model fit, as presented in Table 3 (Bollen, 1989; Kline, 2010). Third, the composite reliability (CR) for loneliness, mental health, learning cognitive ability, communicative ability, and interpersonal ability in the CFA measurement model were .92, .82, .85, .82, and .86, respectively. The average variance extracted (AVE) of the five latent variables was .58, .48, .59, .47, and .54, respectively. The CRs all met the standard of .60, and AVEs all exceeded the standard of .40 (Hair et al., 1998). Accordingly, the measurement scales for the CFA measurement model had reasonable and convergent validities. Finally, bootstrap estimated whether the correlations were within the 95% confidence interval; the correlation estimation parameters between lower values and upper values all did not include 1. Thus, the measurement scales had discriminant validities (Torkzadeh et al., 2003). 3.3 Mediating result After CFA, a direct effect model was used to reveal the main effect relationship of loneliness on academic performance (Figure 3). Loneliness can negatively predict academic performance (γ = −.23, p < .001), explaining 5% of the variance in academic performance. The factor loadings of all observed variables in the structural model of loneliness and academic performance were between .61 to .84. The model fit revealed that the structural model of loneliness and academic performance was acceptable: χ2 = 544.74 (p < .001), χ2/df = 2.66, GFI = .90, RMR = .04, RMSEA = .06, CFI = .94, TLI = .93, and PNFI = .80 (Kline, 2010).

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Figure 3. Structural Model of Loneliness and Academic Performance

Further, a higher-order structural model considering mental health as a mediator was constructed on the structural model of loneliness and academic performance (Figure 4). Loneliness explained 7% of the variation and was a negative predictor of mental health (γ = −.27, p < .001). Loneliness had no negative effect on academic performance (γ = −.03, p > .05), whereas mental health had a positive effect on academic performance (γ = .78, p < .001). Loneliness and mental health collectively explained 63% of the variation in academic performance (Figure 4). The significance of loneliness for academic performance observed in the direct effect model disappeared in the higher-order model; the path coefficient was reduced from -.23 to -.03. The factor loadings of all items in the higher-order structural model were between .62 to .84. The model fit revealed that the higher-order structural model was reasonable: χ2 = 851.35 (p < .001), χ2/df = 2.68, RMR = .04, RMSEA = .06, GFI = .86, CFI = .92, TLI = .91, and PNFI = .79 (Kline, 2010).

Figure 4. Higher-Order Structural Model

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Table 4. Interval estimation parameters of lower value (LV) and upper value (UV)

Mediating Effect Total effect (Loneliness→Academic Performance) Direct effect (Loneliness→Academic Performance) Indirect effect (Loneliness→Academic Performance) *** p < .001

Path Value

Bias Corrected LV UV

−.13***

−.20

−.07

−.20

−.07

−.02

−.06

.03

−.06

.03

−.11***

−.18

−.07

−.17

−.06

Percentile

Using the bootstrap method, interval estimation in the 95% confidence interval was performed 2000 times. The results of the interval estimation revealed that the higher-order structural model was a mediating model; mental health completely mediated the main effect of loneliness on academic performance (Table 4). First, for total and indirect effects, the absence of 0 in the confidence interval estimates confirmed that the path coefficients of total effect and indirect effect were significant. However, for direct effects, confidence interval estimates for the parameters did contain 0, indicating that direct effects were not significant. Second, the total effect of the main effect relationship reached −.13. Mental health completely mediated the main effect relationship, contributing −.11 to the indirect influence in the main effect relationship. Accordingly, the direct influence of the main effect relationship was only −.02. Therefore, mediating hypothesis of this study was confirmed.

4. Interview 4.1 Interviewees and interview method SEM mediation results revealed that loneliness during independent learning (Leathwood, 2006; Marsh, 1997; Stoliker & Lafreniere, 2015) causes lonely emotional stress (Gerino et al., 2017), affects individual mental health (Cavus & Gokcen, 2015; Luthans et al., 2004) and reduces learning performance (Gerino et al., 2017; Miranda et al., 2013). To identify interventions targeting this influence mechanism, interviews with the Chinese college students were used to explore coping methods for loneliness during independent learning. Purposive sampling was used to obtain participants with a long-term independent learning experience over the duration of online teaching. A brief online interview was conducted with 12 interviewees introduced by university counselors. The interviews were all conducted with students of the most representative university of the three sampling universities, the university in which the mental health and education center led multiple intervention activities for educational issues during COVID-19. Interviews were conducted from 20 April to 28 April 2021 at the VooV Meeting. The 12 interviewees all reported similar experiences with long-term independent learning. The interview topics passed a human research ethics review from Rangsit university on 5 March 2021. The documentation number for proof of exemption is RSUERB2021-020. All 12 interviewees understood the interview topic, agreed to participate in the interview, and signed an informed consent form. The situational interview

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method was used (Latham et al., 1980). The interview situations were constructed based on the measurement concepts and SEM results, and the primary question was as follows: How can college students cope with feelings of loneliness that arise due to independent learning? 4.2 Interview result The 12 interviewees (students A to L) comprised of eight females and four males have similar independent learning experiences. Their age ranges from 18 to 22 years old. The students described some methods that they use for coping with loneliness. The categories of coping strategies including self-comfort (Dahlqvist et al., 2008) and asking for help from others (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Lakey & Orehek, 2011), as shown in Table 5. The interview results were coded by ATLAS,ti 9. The coding in the interview results follows the "code name", "date", "gender", "grade", and "categories". For example, "Student A-20210420-M-3-2-c" reflects that Student A participated in the interview on April 20, 2021, is a male in his third year of college, and fits into coding 2 and c in Table 5. Table 5. Interview data coding

1-Self-comfort Coping strategies

2-Asking help from others

a-Learning b-Relaxation c-Friend d-Parent e-Psychological teacher

Students reported coping strategies of two categories, including self-comfort (such as studying independent learning and doing relaxation) and asking help from others, such as friends, parents, or student support staff. The interview text and coding were shown as follows. Student A explained that college students can make friends and imitate the learning techniques of others: We can make friends and study together with friends (Student A-20210420-M-3-2-c). We can also participate in video learning online and learn how others learn independently (Student A-20210420-M-3-1-a). Student B thought that college students who feel lonely during independent learning should make friends and maintain good relationships with them: They can relax for a while and go hang out with a few friends (Student B-20210420-F-3-2-c). If you have a good time with your friends, you’ll forget about feeling lonely. But if you don’t forget, you can be friendly with people and try to talk about your loneliness (Student B-20210420-F-3-2-c). If you don't maintain a good relationship with others, others won't listen to you or care for you! Student C suggested that students who feel lonely during the independent learning process could participate in leisure activities to relieve negative moods, and that they could search for learning partners:

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If someone has no good friends…. They could have some fun, like playing sports or reading (Student C-20210420-F-1-1-b). If they’re already done studying and still feel lonely they could get out and walk around so to feel better and destress (Student C20210420-F-1-1-b). Finally, I think they should find some friends. That way, they can help each other when they have trouble understanding something in school. Student D thought that students who feel lonely in the independent learning process could make friends with which to share their feelings, or try writing in a diary: I think people basically social beings, so people need to make more friends. Then if you’re in a bad mood you can share it with someone (Student D-20210424-F-2-2-c). If they don't have friends and can't are still in a bad mood, maybe they can get it out by writing in a diary (Student D-20210424-F-2-1-b). Student E stated that college students who feel lonely when learning independently might not like to make friends, and suggested that they should enjoy their independence by doing something else to divert their attention from their loneliness: I think people who feel lonely during independent learning and don't want to make friends can get along by themselves. I think students should be able to find things that interest them to divert their attention, like traveling and or playing sports (Student E20210424-F-2-1-b). Student F suggested college students who feel lonely could get help from others or help themselves by trying to have fun: They can get help from people around them to get out of that state. Of course, they can also adjust on their own. If they can't stop feeling lonely, they could get help from others, and use other people’s opinions to help them get through their problems. But some students might only rely on themselves. They could vent by doing something like going to exercise or by listening to music to get over negative emotions (Student F-20210424-M-2-1-b). Student G explained that college students could take the initiative to help their friends by motivating them to communicate their feelings and support them by helping them to understand that lonely feelings are normal during remote learning: If one of my friends has emotional trouble, I’ll take him out to get him to talk (Student G-20210424-M-3-2-c). Then I’ll take him to our lab and show him what’s going on. Our juniors are mostly working independently in the lab. Let him see that depression and loneliness are a normal thing in the independent learning process, and no one succeeds all the time.

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Student H suggested that parents should help college students who have a poor academic performance during independent learning to help them try to talk to other students and make more friends: First of all, parents should pay more attention to their kids. It might take a while, but I think he might get used to talking to others and making friends (Student H-20210424-M-4-2-d). Because once he realizes that making friends is not so hard, he will try to change himself. He will look for help from his friends when he feels lonely and doesn't want to study. Student I thought that if students feel lonely studying alone, they could find friends and study together: I think I can prepare for class together with my classmates (Student I-20210427-F-4-2-c). When we prepare for class together, I feel that someone is studying with me, so I don’t feel so lonely—I feel like we’re making progress together. Student J suggested the students who feel lonely could participate in something enjoyable or try to make friends with common interests: People should have their own way of relaxing. Do what they like, sing a song, listen to a song, or do something else (Student J20210427-F-1-1-b). I also think they could make friends with common interests (Student J-20210427-F-1-2-c). Student K said that students who feel lonely should first settle themselves and then express their emotions by communicating: They just need to calm down and find a direction. They could chat with some like-minded friends online. They could also post something (like their feelings and recent stories) on social media, and then someone might come comfort them (Student K-20210427-F-1-2-c). Student L suggested that students could ask for help from psychology teachers: We all have specialized psychology teachers in our college. I think if students aren’t willing to talk to their parents or friends, they could talk with the psychology professor, and the psychology teacher might help them (Student K-20210428-F-3-2-e).

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5. Discussion The hypothesis of this study was verified by SEM. The result of the main effect relationship of loneliness on academic performance aligned with previous research regarding loneliness and academic performance (Hüseyin & Barut, 2020; Mo, 2019; Yang & Swekwi, 2021). On the basis of the social–psychological theory of loneliness and stress-regulation theory (Lakey & Orehek, 2011; Peplau & Perlman, 1979), the predicted direct effect is that the influence of loneliness on learning outcomes is down to emotional stress. Emotional stress occurs when lonely individuals lack companionship and social support (Kaufmann & Vallade, 2020; Leathwood, 2006; Marsh, 1997). Therefore, these individuals do not have access to the stress-buffering function of social relationships and feel lonely during the independent learning process, affecting learning outcomes (Lakey & Orehek, 2011; Peplau & Perlman, 1979). However, the SEM mediating result revealed the relationship between loneliness and academic performance was an indirect relationship because mental health can completely mediate the influence of loneliness on the academic performance of Chinese college students. Loneliness can negatively affect mental health to in turn impact academic performance. The confirmation of the mediating role of mental health on loneliness and academic performance differs from previous research on loneliness and academic performance (Hüseyin & Barut, 2020; Mo, 2019; Yang & Swekwi, 2021), but agrees with the mediating research on mental health (Brien et al., 2012; Gerino et al., 2017; Miranda et al., 2013). According to the social– psychological theory of loneliness, social support stress-regulation theory, and psychological capital theory (Cavus & Gokcen, 2015; Luthans et al., 2004; Lakey & Orehek, 2011; Peplau & Perlman, 1979), the mechanism of loneliness, mental health, and academic performance for independent learners may be explained as the fact that independent learning is a learning style that takes learners into a state of loneliness, without social support (Kaufmann & Vallade, 2020; Leathwood, 2006; Marsh, 1997). The emotional stress arising from loneliness (Gerino et al., 2017) cannot be buffered by the social support system (Lakey & Orehek, 2011; Peplau & Perlman, 1979). Accordingly, emotional stress arising from loneliness can negatively affect individual mental health and reduce individual achievement in academics (Cavus & Gokcen, 2015; Luthans et al., 2004). Based on the above SEM results and theoretical explanation, independent learners who are affected by the mechanism of loneliness, mental health, and academic performance may have learning burnout or experience complete cessation of independent learning (Leathwood, 2006; Marsh, 1997). To identify an intervention for the mechanism of this negative influence and to answer the question of this study, interviews were conducted. In the interview text, all twelve students reported that self-comfort and asking help from others could reduce the effects of loneliness. The coding data combined with interview text was used to propose two suggestions to buffer loneliness arising from independent learning. The first suggestion from students was self-comfort, which is suitable for those without social support (Dahlqvist et al., 2008). College students should have their own methods for learning and relaxation during independent learning. For

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example, online resources (such as videos) explaining independent learning methods could help them understand how to learn independently and effectively. Other strategies for mood improvement mentioned by the students were traveling, writing in a diary, listening to music, singing songs, reading books, and exercising. The second suggestion was to ask for help from others (such as friends, parents, and psychological teachers), and this is suitable for students who are willing to obtain help from the interpersonal support (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Lakey & Orehek, 2011). Firstly, students can make friends to study and talk with to manage negative emotions. Friends can be learning partners; one response typical of student reasoning was “When we prepare for class together, I feel that someone is studying with me, so I don’t feel so lonely—I feel like we’re making progress together.” Emotions can be shared with friends. Assistance from friends could inspire these students to communicate more and to help them understand that lonely feelings are normal during independent learning. Expressing negative emotions on social media could facilitate receiving comfort from net friends. The rationale of making friends for emotional support was reported by one student as, “I think that people are basically social beings, so people need to make more friends. Then if you’re in a bad mood, you can share it with someone.” Further, the student added that having fun with friends can alleviate loneliness. Notably, discussing negative feelings with friends requires a good relationship with close friends who care about one’s problems. Secondly, soliciting perspectives from others could help struggling students overcome their problems. Parents could help students learn how to communicate with others and to make friends. Finally, speaking with psychology teachers at college could also be helpful for learning strategies to ease loneliness.

6. Conclusion Mental health was revealed to completely mediate the influence of loneliness on academic performance. Loneliness is commonly experienced by students during independent learning and is a key factor negatively influencing academic performance, but mental health is a mediator between loneliness and academic performance. Students perceive that loneliness during independent learning can negatively affect mental health to decrease academic performance. To mitigate the negative influence of feelings of loneliness on mental health and to protect learning outcomes, students suggested that lonely independent learners lacking social support could use self-comfort strategies to cope with independent learning methods and distract themselves and relax after learning. The lonely independent learners who do have social support can ask to study with friends or ask for help from friends, parents, and psychological teachers to ease the lonely emotional stress.

7. Research Suggestions The results indicate that to help Chinese college students adapt to online education, Chinese universities should help the students overcome obstacles for independent learning in accordance with the mechanisms revealed in this study.

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First, online teaching has become unavoidable during the era of COVID-19 (Mishra et al., 2020; Mahmood, 2021). Additionally, independent learning is essential for successful online teaching in Chinese higher education (Zhang et al., 2020). However, the negative influence of loneliness on mental health and academic achievement indicated that loneliness is harmful for independent learning and is a key reason that Chinese college students struggled when learning independently (Kaufmann & Vallade, 2020; Marsh, 1997). Therefore, we suggest that people involved in Chinese higher education should consider loneliness as a factor influencing the academic performance of Chinese college students during the pandemic, and they should assist them in adapting to independent learning, thereby becoming effective independent learners and adapting to future online education and work. Second, previous research, theory, and SEM results jointly revealed the negative effects and relationships of loneliness during independent learning, mental health, and academic performance. On the basis of the interviews conducted in this research, several methods for coping with loneliness due to independent learning were identified. Hence, we recommend that college counselors managing learning issues and mental health in Chinese higher education settings should consider assisting college students to learn coping methods for loneliness. For example, students should attempt to develop self-comfort strategies and ask for help from friends, parents, and psychological teachers when they feel loneliness and emotional pressure due to independent learning.

8. Limitations and Future Research In this research, only the relationships between loneliness, mental health, and academic performance were explored using SEM. A complete mediating relationship was identified. Therefore, the subsequent SEM-based research should explore additional factors, such as social support, which could obstruct this mechanism. Mixed method research was conducted using both investigations and interviews. However, research combining SEM and interviews is unusual. SEM was used to explore influence mechanisms, whereas interviews were used to explore methods for coping with the influence mechanisms (i.e., loneliness). Subsequent research including both SEM analysis and interviews should refer to the methods used in this study.

9. References Aristovnik, A., Keržič, D., Ravšelj, D., Tomaževič, N., & Umek, L. (2020). Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on life of higher education students: A global perspective. Sustainability, 12(20), 8438. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12208438 Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (2012). Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(1), 8-34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-011-0278-x Bollen, K.A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. Wiley. Byrne, B. B. (2010). Structural equation modeling using AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis Group.

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Miranda, J. K., de la Osa, N., Granero, R., & Ezpeleta, L. (2013). Maternal childhood abuse, intimate partner violence, and child psychopathology: The mediator role of mothers’ mental health. Violence Against Women, 19(1), 50-68. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801212475337 Mo, T. S. (2019). The interrelationship of loneliness, social desirability and academic achievement in Myanmar adolescents: Viewing social desirability from adjustment approach. European Journal of Education Studies, 5(11), 187-197. http://doi.org/ 10.5281/zenodo.2588263 Mishra, L., Gupta, T., & Shree, A. (2020). Online teaching-learning in higher education during lockdown period of COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 1, 100012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100012 Peplau, L. A., & Perlman, D. (1979). Blueprint for a social psychological theory of loneliness (pp. 101-110). Pergamon Press. Stoliker, B. E., & Lafreniere, K. D. (2015). The influence of perceived stress, loneliness, and learning burnout on university students' educational experience. College Student Journal, 49(1), 146-160. https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/prin/csj/2015/00000049/00000001 /art00015 Torkzadeh, G., Koufteros, X., & Pflughoeft, K. (2003). Confirmatory analysis of computer self-efficacy. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 10(2), 263– 275. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM1002_6 WHO. (2020). Healthy at home. https://www.who.int/campaigns/connecting-the-worldto-combat-coronavirus/healthyathome/healthyathome---mental-health WHO. (2004). Promoting mental health: Concepts, emerging evidence, practice (Summary Report). https://www.who.int/mental_health/evidence/en/promoting_mhh.pdf Wang, C., Cheng, Z., Yue, X. G., & McAleer, M. (2020). Risk management of COVID-19 by universities in China. Risk and Financial Management, 13, 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13020036 Yu, L., Huang, L., Tang, H. R., Hu, D., Feng, W. Y., & Shi, L. X. (2020). Analysis of factors influencing the network teaching effect of college students in a medical school during the COVID-19 epidemic. BMC Medical Education. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-51827/v1 Yang, D., & Swekwi, U. (2021). The mediating effect of resilience on the relationship between loneliness and academic performance in Wuhan’s college students. Asian Journal of Management Sciences & Education, 10(1), 96-107. http://www.ajmse.leena-luna.co.jp/AJMSEPDFs/Vol.10(1)/AJMSE2021(10.110).pdf Yao, G., Chung, C. W., Yu, C. F., & Wang, J. D. (2002). Development and verification of validity and reliability of the WHOQOL-BREF Taiwan version. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, 101(5), 342-351. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.466.3701&rep=rep 1&type=pdf Zhang, W., Wang, Y., Yang, L., & Wang, C. (2020). Suspending classes without stopping learning: China’s education emergency management policy in the COVID-19 outbreak. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 13(3), 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13030055

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 86-101, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.6 Received Jun 09, 2021; Revised Sep 11, 2021; Accepted Sep 27, 2021

Student Response Systems in a Technology Enhanced Flipped Classroom: A Qualitative Investigation in Higher Education Sebastian Åhman Department of Informatics, Linnaeus University, Växjö, Sweden https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6601-5243 Jonny Nguyen Department of Informatics, Linnaeus University, Växjö, Sweden https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5119-4883 Naghmeh Aghaee Department of Informatics, Linnaeus University, Växjö, Sweden https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5949-8905 Kevin Fuchs Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism, Prince of Songkla University Phuket, Thailand https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3253-5133

Abstract. Disruptive technology and a generation with an increased interest in using that technology to aid their learning has caused a need to change the current educational landscape. Student Response Systems are a contemporary means to integrate digital technology in the modern classroom. The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine the perspectives that impact students' engagement when using Student Response Systems in a technology enhanced classroom environment. The study was guided by qualitative methods of inquiry through nonparticipant observations, examination of the course material, and semistructured interviews. The in-depth interviews (n = 14) were conducted with graduate students who participated in the technology enhanced flipped classroom (TEFC) during their STEM degree studies in southern Sweden. The collected data were analyzed through the means of content analysis. The results of the study show that Student Response Systems are an effective and innovative method to increase students’ engagement in the classroom and embrace a modern learning environment. The participants expressed a positive impact on their willingness to participate in classroom discussions and share their respective views. A drawback that was mentioned is the dissatisfaction to invest more time in preparation ahead of the discussion, compared to lecture-based learning. ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

The Student Response Systems increased the graduate students’ esteem to comfortably engage in classroom discussions and offers educators an additional tool to enhance their current pedagogical methods. The study contributes to the body of knowledge by closing an identified research gap that lacks perceptions from graduate students in a STEM program in southern Sweden. There are a few limitations that the reader should consider. The collected data pertains to graduate-level studies in a STEM degree program. Further, ample data were collected through multiple sources; however, the reflections are limited to 14 interview participants and are, therefore, not generalizable to other populations than those examined in the context. Keywords: Active learning; flipped learning; student response systems; technology enhanced flipped classroom

1. Introduction Traditionally, teaching in higher education has taken a teacher-centered approach, with lecturers delivering classes and students performing out-of-class activities (Fuchs, 2021). Fuchs (2021, p. 18) further stated that “under this traditional approach, the main actor in the teaching-learning process is the lecturer, while students play a passive role”. He argued that because of new educational technologies and pedagogical approaches, the scope and impact of web-based learning in higher education have expanded in the recent decade (Fuchs, 2021). The technology enhanced flipped classroom (TEFC) promotes the students’ role as the focus of the learning environment and encourages active learning. Moreover, the growth of technology has a footprint in the ‘net generation’, which refers to students born in or after 1982. Chicioreanu and Amza (2018) stated that the characteristics of the net generation, compared to prior generations, is that they perceive the Internet as a support tool in their studies. Furthermore, the net generation gravitates towards group activity and is well versed in the use of technology, also referred to as technology enhanced learning (TEL), for information gathering and communication with their peers. Another characteristic is that the net generation is always on the move, demanding adaptable approaches in the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) to satisfy their needs (Chicioreanu & Amza, 2018; Gokbulut, 2020). The technology enhanced flipped classroom approach intends to challenge the traditional teaching methodologies by having the student access the materials outside of the classroom. This approach aims to prepare students for in-class discussions and encourages active learning during the lecture. According to Murillo-Zamorano et al. (2019), the technology enhanced flipped classroom approach increases students’ engagement in the classroom, while providing students the opportunity to review the materials repetitively. Wang (2017) claimed that the challenges of implementing the flipped classroom approach can be classified into internal and external challenges. The former involves a lack of time, support, and/or resources. In contrast to these internal challenges, the external challenges are not limited to, but include, the attitude of the students, their level of confidence, and cultural beliefs. The majority of studies

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(Wang, 2017; Pinna et al., 2019; Murillo-Zamorano et al., 2019; Fuchs, 2021) concluded that the flipped classroom has a positive effect on students’ level of engagement, knowledge development, and cognitive skills. Student Response Systems (SRS), as part of TEL, aim to enhance students’ active participation in a flipped classroom (Abeysekera & Dawson, 2014). A reoccurring claim is that active learning pedagogies require more time in preparing for a lecture, as opposed to a traditional classroom setting (Fuchs, 2021). Limited research exists that has examined the use and influences of the new generation of SRSs, which have significantly expanded functionality and positive impacts (Mayhew et al., 2020; Gokbulut, 2020). A lack of sufficient literature addressing the shortcomings of students’ perception of SRS in the flipped classroom led to the identified gap in the literature. The research gap can be filled by studying and highlighting the students’ active participation in an ongoing flipped classroom that uses TEL and engages SRS, in an effort to help students reach the desired learning outcomes. The rationale of the research is to investigate if TEL, such as SRS, can enhance a university lecture by using the flipped classroom approach, with increased active participation and influence by the students. Furthermore, the research is guided by the following research questions: (Q1) How do graduate students perceive the usefulness of SRS during their TEFC experience? (Q2) To what extent can SRS facilitate students’ participation in TEFC discussion sessions?

2. Literature Review 2.1. Interaction theory in blended learning The blended learning approach establishes a synchronous and asynchronous learning environment by using ICT to mediate information and face-to-face learning methodologies (Çardak & Selvi, 2016; Rasheed et al., 2019). Rasheed et al. (2019) argued that blended learning is believed to be the most popular and effective educational approach due to its perceived effectiveness in providing flexible and continuous learning opportunities. The approach offers the benefit of increasing interaction between teachers and students. Çardak and Selvi (2016) claimed that the learners have to participate in course activities and realize three types of interaction: student-student, student-teacher, and student-content. Furthermore, Çardak and Selvi (2016) stated that solely designing the course activities to induce interactivity will not necessarily guarantee a higher level of interaction. Therefore, it is important to link the implementation of classroom activities to specific learning outcomes, based on good practices and established methods (Owusu-Agyeman & Fourie-Malherbe, 2019). The original concepts of three types of interaction and its model were developed by Anderson (2008, p. 58), which is a development of the original idea described by Moore (1989). The three types of interaction were the core concept of facilitating learning process in different environments. Student-content refers to how students access and interact with the course content to increase the students’

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knowledge. According to a recent study by Kumar et al. (2021, p. 2), the impact of student-content interaction “contributes predominately towards the successful realization of the expected learning outcomes”, compared to other types of interaction. Moreover, Çardak and Selvi (2016) argued that student-content interaction is the only type of interaction that affects the students’ satisfaction relative to their performance. Student-teacher interaction aims to increase students’ knowledge through dialogues between the student and the teacher and is essential when considering how to enhance students’ learning outcomes and perceived satisfaction (Anderson, 2008; Çardak & Selvi, 2016; Kumar et al., 2021). Park (2015) found that a lack of facilitation can influence the quality of the learning process, and that students might perceive themselves as isolated, which may affect their interactivity level. Therefore, the teachers’ role is to motivate and encourage the students by actively involving them in the discussion (Park, 2015). Lastly, the student-student (peer) interaction refers to increasing students’ knowledge through the collaboration between students (Anderson, 2008). Çardak and Selvi (2016) expounded that student-student interaction influences the overall learning outcome. In a study with undergraduate students, Kurucay and Inan (2017) reported that student-student interactions do not affect students’ satisfaction. However, group activities are perceived positively to learning and achievement. The addition of TEL requires students to possess specific skill sets, including self-regulation and technological competencies, due to the independence of their instructor outside of the classroom (Kurucay & Inan, 2017). Furthermore, a prerequisite for blended learning, along with the use of TEL, requires the teacher to possess technological competencies and teaching methodologies (Rasheed et al., 2019). 2.2. The technology-enhanced flipped classroom The flipped classroom approach is grounded in the constructivist theory of learning. It aims to challenge the traditional academic approach of how students make a first contact with the subject, switching from inside to the outside of the classroom’s boundaries (Lewis et al., 2018). Abeysekera and Dawson (2014) highlighted the differences in acquiring knowledge between the technology enhanced flipped classroom and the traditional learning approach. In the innovative TEFC approach, the students access the assigned learning material outside the classroom (i.e. pre-class stage) to form their own opinion and knowledge. Afterward, the students attend the classroom (i.e. in-class stage) with their newly formed opinions and acquired knowledge to discuss the topic with their peers and teacher. Therefore, the students might construct their knowledge upon interaction with the lecturer and other students. Students are then tasked with take-home assignments to apply what they have learned independently; this stage is also referred to as post-class (MurilloZamorano et al., 2019). Further, Murillo-Zamorano et al. (2019) emphasized the importance of TEL for a successful implementation of the technology enhanced flipped classroom prior to, and after, the in-class discussion.

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The TEFC approach is a suitable fit for application with the blended learning approach, where TEL is vital to enhance students’ experience and the impact of the approach. Due to the benefits of portable mobile devices, the learning material can be accessed without the constraints of time and space. This creates a flexible learning environment, wherein the students can organize and devote their time to understand a specific topic better, with additional flexibility (Abeysekera & Dawson, 2014; Lewis et al., 2018; Murillo-Zamorano et al., 2019). A case study by Lopes and Soares (2018) supported the claim that knowledge can be acquired outside the classroom through pre-recorded online lectures. Instead, the in-class classroom time can be used to guide and motivate the students within more advanced and difficult concepts. Murillo-Zamorano et al. (2019) stated that the use of pre-recorded lectures gives students the control to pause and replay the content and will permit them to learn at their own pace. Furthermore, MurilloZamorano et al. (2019) highlighted the importance of the in-class stage and implementation of interactive activities (e.g., discussions). Discussions with peers are said to improve active participation and students’ learning outcomes under the supervision of a teacher (Murillo-Zamorano et al., 2019). The teachers’ role is to facilitate the discussion and encourage the students by assigning activities that provoke discussions. Furthermore, the teachers’ questioning skills are needed to elaborate on students’ ideas and answers (Buil-Fabregá et al., 2019). 2.3. Student Response Systems (SRS) in TEFC In the digital age, and especially for generation Z (i.e. students born mid-to-late 1990s and the early 2010s), where technology is a basic living factor, there is a need for educational updates, involving more technology-based and game-based elearning in educational settings, rather than only traditional instruction (Gokbulut, 2020). Turan and Meral (2017) and Gokbulut (2020) argued that students perceived their own performance as improved when using SRS in the classroom, including Kahoot!, which is game-based, and Mentimeter, a nongame-based audience response platform. Furthermore, both authors claimed that SRS have the potential to increase students’ interactions and attention in the classroom. Turan and Meral (2017) emphasized that game-based and non-gamebased SRS effects differ in the students’ achievement and engagement. However, Gokbulut (2020) argued both kinds of game-bases and non-game-based SRS systems influence positively, although in different ways, on the learning process and the result of students. Mentimeter is an audience response platform, which facilitates an active and discussion-driven dialogic approaches in teaching, to make the learning process more effective than passive learning methods (Mayhew et al., 2020). This SRS allows direct teacher-learner interaction as one of the most agile platforms, with an instant and inclusive dialogue during teaching sessions (Mayhew et al., 2020; Gokbulut, 2020). Mentimeter allows students to get involved in the learning process via their own digital devices, such as smartphones, computers, and tablets, as it can be accessed using all online devices. This is a method with which the net generation feel most comfortable and is a technology-built system,

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compatible with most or all students’ digital literacy skills in higher education. The anonymous nature of Mentimeter removes ‘answer anxiety’ among students (Skoyles & Bloxsidge, 2017); this ‘answer anxiety’ was a phenomenon that was observed during the quiz elements and game-based SRSs, in which some students are unwilling to get involved, fearing their answers may be wrong, when given points in front of their peers. In contrast, Turan and Meral (2017) showed an increase in students’ achievement and participation by using game-based SRS, compared to non-game-based. Göksün and Gürsoy (2019) stated that the competitive nature of the SRS-based game Kahoot! has the ability to stimulate, encourage, and motivate students in a desire to achieve more. A study by Licorish et al. (2018) offered similar findings as Göksün and Gürsoy (2019): that Kahoot! increases peer interactions, and the sense of winning influences the learning outcomes. The reward system proves to have a positive impact on increasing students’ motivation due to an immediate acknowledgment after using Kahoot! (Licorish et al., 2018). However, Göksün and Gürsoy (2019, p. 12). also stated that “an extremely competitive environment might have an opposite effect, which leads to negative emotions”. Licorish et al. (2018) and Wang (2017) argued that the wear-off effect for experienced users of Kahoot!, in comparison to novice users, have a minimal effect on the users' engagement and motivation, instead of showing increased boredom due to an excessive use of Kahoot!, where consistency might decrease and affect students' learning ability. Fuller and Dawson (2017) emphasized that a teacher must be prepared to use educational technologies, otherwise, the outcome will lead to unsatisfactory results by misusing SRS. SRS allow a teacher to show a set of questions onto the screen, to which the students should respond through a connected device. The instant real-time feedback capability supports the students’ needs, and the teacher has the ability to assess the students’ understanding of the assigned materials and concepts in real-time (Licorish et al., 2018). Turan and Meral (2017) highlighted that reading a text, followed by a test, improves information retention in contrast to repetitively rereading a text. Wang (2017, p. 7) described a drawback of SRS as “students who skip reading the assigned tasks, could negatively affect the classroom experience due to their fear of answering the questions incorrectly”. 2.4. Active learning as a facilitator of constructivism The constructivism theory, opposed to the instructivism theory, is a studentcentered learning approach; this refers to supporting learners’ initiative, in contrast to the traditional learning approach, where the learners are passive recipients of information (O’Connor, 2020; Mintzes, 2020). Constructivists argue that learning is based on constructing new knowledge of the students’ prior experiences, which can be achieved through social interactions (Mintzes, 2020). The role and responsibility of teachers in a constructivist-learning environment differ from the traditional learning approach. Teachers are seen as facilitators, rather than instructors, and are expected to create a collaborative problem-solving environment to involve students (Aljohani, 2017; Mintzes, 2020).

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Furthermore, according to a study by O’Connor (2020), active learning is explained as a method and set of procedures that support students in their education through actively involving and engaging them. The students’ prior state of knowledge is set as their personal standard. The teachers can adjust the level of their involvement during the lecture in response to the students’ performance and participation (Mintzes, 2020). O’Connor (2020) argued that the current western society requires specific skillsets from the student that are more complex to achieve using traditional learning approaches, in which the student acts as a passive recipient. Hence, students need to actively participate during a lecture to apply their present knowledge to solve complex problems more innovatively and creatively (Aljohani, 2017; O’Connor, 2020).

3. Methodology 3.1. Sample To examine how students perceive the use of SRS in TEFC, the following qualitative research method was utilized. The data were collected through three separate in-class observations that allowed the authors to gather initial data and as a guide to compile the open-ended questionnaire. Furthermore, semistructured interviews were conducted with graduate students in a STEM subject. The interviews were conducted virtually due to the increasing threat of COVID19 at the time. The sample size represented 20% of the total population based on student enrollment in the graduate course that used the flipped learning pedagogy. The students were enrolled at Linnaeus University in the south of Sweden. Moreover, the participants were randomly selected and invited to participate in the interviews (Table 1). Table 1: Socio-demographic profile of the interview participants Characteristics Gender

Age Range

Highest Academic Degree

Type of Student1 Years in Higher Education

1 The

Male Female Others 20 – 29 years of age 30 – 39 years of age 40 years or above Vocational Degree Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree Philosophical Doctorate Other Degree Campus Student Distance Student 3 years or less 3 – 5 years in total 6 – 9 years in total 10 years or more

Absolute 7 7 3 7 4 7 6 1 7 7 6 4 4

course was offered as a hybrid model allowing campus-based students as well as distance students to participate in the course simultaneously

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3.2. Data Collection Fourteen semi-structured interviews were conducted through online video conferencing to collect the necessary data, to examine the perspectives of graduate students concerning the use of SRS in TEFC. The data collection was carried out in the first half of 2020 at Linnaeus University in Sweden at the Faculty of Technology. The primary data collection was preceded by three non-participant observations. The authors were given access to the course material to enhance the quality of the interview questionnaire. Necessary adjustments were made based on the observations and a suitable questionnaire was developed for the semistructured interviews. The length of the interviews ranged from 25 minutes to 55 minutes with an average duration of 42 minutes. 3.3. Data Analysis The method of inquiry through observations and semi-structured interviews suggested a content analysis of the collected data. During the interview, a series of open-ended questions, that aimed to gain a more comprehensive insight into the participants’ perspectives, were asked. With the consent of the participants, the interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and categorized according to the questions posed to the participants. Moreover, the transcripts were used only for purpose of content analysis and did not reveal the identity of the participants. The content analysis was developed based on the gathered data from observations and interviews to create themes and subthemes (groups and patterns), through analyzing, bundling and grouping sets of data clusters, information, and the developed codes. 3.4. Ethics For the observations, verbal consent was obtained at the beginning of the classes that were attended by the researchers and the wider scope of the research was introduced. However, few details were revealed to avoid causing bias in the study. The observers focused on the aim of the study, and other learning objectives in the course were ignored. Confidentiality and data privacy were considered and guaranteed. The interview participants were presented with the specific aim and scope of the research, and oral consent was obtained through recording their agreements before conducting the interviews. The consent form was developed in accordance with the policies of the Ethical Advisory Board in South East Sweden (2021). Furthermore, confidentiality was extended to all 14 participants of the interviews, and only the researchers knew their identity.

4. Results During the first of the three observations, the authors witnessed that a handful of students did not prepare for the lecture (i.e., students ignored the pre-class stage and proceeded directly to the in-class stage). The students’ engagement strongly varied from passive to active participants. It was noted that most of the students did not actively participate during the discussion. Another observation was that the active students seized the opportunity to control the discussion amongst themselves. This made it even more difficult for passive students to participate and engage in the discussion. These observations helped the authors to develop the open-ended questions for the subsequent interviews with the participants.

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Later, all the interview participants commented that this course was their first experience with the TEFC concept. Most of the students noted that they liked the TEFC concept because it was a more innovative way of learning. Moreover, they attested an interest in getting the information beforehand, which allowed them to prepare for the in-class discussion. Therefore, it helped the students to be better prepared and provided them with a better general understanding of the topic at hand as shown by a representative comment (P2): “For me, it was new and more interesting, because you tend to go into the class having some information beforehand. If there is a gray area, you can go prepared with questions. It forms some sort of clarity. Even if you study and you do not really understand, and you get to class, you tend to have a better understanding of the subject” [P2] Furthermore, a few students showed their interest in the TEFC approach because it gave them an opportunity to immerse and understand the subject better. Moreover, it helped the students who disregarded the pre-class stage previously to better comprehend and gain clarity on the topic despite the lack of spending time on the pre-reading material. The students claimed that it was easier to follow a peer discussion for comprehension than reading the material themselves or attend a traditional lecture-based class. One participant commented positively about the flexibility to openly discuss and exchange ideas to further learn from each other in the classroom. Another participant agreed, but added that the shortcoming with the TEFC approach was the information gathering in the preclass, because it was perceived as one-way learning without much peer interaction or student-teacher interaction (P1). However, another concern addressed by a participant was that the in-class discussion could become lengthy, and shift focus away from the original topic. “I am not very keen on the flipped classroom concept. I would say halfhalf because watching the lecture beforehand it is a one-way thing” [P1] The participant stated that learning outside of the classroom, without a tutor, might lead to misinterpretation of the materials, because they were not able to ask questions of the teachers. Moreover, the majority of the participants attested a preference with the learning management system (LMS) called Moodle. Moodle facilitates pre-class and post-class learning material, accessible in a cloud-based system. Participants commented that the embedded notification system is particularly well received and beneficial, as it informed them of any updates on the course without the need to check the LMS. A statement by P2 is illustrative for the majority of the participants who pointed out that a direct link between their LMS and the virtual library would be beneficial and would improve their user experience (the virtual library of the university facilitates the digital storage of scientific literature). “I would not say it was difficult (to find), every material was already provided. You know with the digital library, I find it easier to find whatever material was recommended […] as long as the title was available, the library had access to the material, it was not difficult to find”. [P2]

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During the second and third observation sessions with the use of SRS, the researchers observed an increase in students’ motivation to participate. Furthermore, the researchers observed that most students appeared to be unfamiliar with the use of SRS. Here, the researchers suggested that the course instructor uploaded a video that would explain the usage of SRS in the context of the flipped classroom. However, this drawback was not perceived as significant, and most students were able to appreciate the use of SRS. Moreover, another noteworthy observation was that some students took notes during the in-class discussion, reflecting upon other students’ responses to facilitate their learning process. Most of the participants perceived some benefit in the use of SRS. They elaborated that these tools had a positive impact on their participation in the classroom. Furthermore, SRS seemed to influence the students’ learning outcomes by reinforcing their perceived knowledge. Most of the participants stated that Kahoot! and Mentimeter were easy to use, and they had no problem adopting these technologies. There was no consensus amongst the participants which tool was better suited for their learning. Some participants shared that the use of SRS supported their participation, and it also motivated them to prepare for the discussion (i.e., in-class stage). Based on this finding, it can be noted that SRS had a positive impact on their willingness to prepare for the discussion with their peers and be more inclined to use the pre-class learning material. “Using Mentimeter or Kahoot! will encourage people to participate in the classroom more. It will help them to brainstorm. Using Kahoot! is kind of fun using in the class. It also helps people to prepare themselves before coming to class by reading the materials” [P3] Another advantage of using SRS, according to the participants, is that it eliminates the risk that some participants cannot join the in-class discussion and hence reduces the feeling of being left out. Some participants who consider themselves less talkative added that TEL helps all students and gives them a chance to voice their opinions through TEL. However, the participants also commented that one of perceived issues is that even though the answer is known to the participant, due to the personality trait of the participant, the participant might reconsider sharing their thoughts and opinion openly. Therefore, the participant might share the same view as the majority of the students in the classroom, in which the use of SRS might reinforce students’ participation and remove bias. Although most students agreed that Kahoot! is pleasurable to use, some students had a contrasting opinion. They claimed that Kahoot!, with its competitive elements, had a negative impact due to not measuring real performance. A participant noted that the way Kahoot! measures performance based on a combination of speed and knowledge, whereas the participant stated that performance should not be measured by speed. The majority of the participants stated that they were interested to familiarize themselves with the new technology (i.e., SRS) and to prepare before using it inside the classroom. The students also highlighted that classroom time is precious and should be used effectively, including reducing students’ confusion at the beginning of the in-class stage.

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5. Discussion The empirical findings of this study indicate that all the participants had their first experience with the TEFC concept during the examined course. The participants perceived it as an innovative way to acquire new knowledge in contrast to prior experiences that were lecture-based. This implies that this new learning methodology is perceived as more beneficial to students’ learning outcomes, as claimed in similar case studies (Lopes & Soares 2018; Chen & Relan 2018; MurilloZamorano et al., 2019). Furthermore, the participants highlighted that the TEFC approach allows them to better prepare and immerse themselves within the subject before the discussion session, implying that other sources may be used to study a subject in-depth. The lack of familiarity with the TEFC concept might lead to a different view compared to students who are experienced with the TEFC concept (Abeysekera & Dawson 2014; Lewis et al. 2018; Murillo-Zamorano et al., 2019). The formerly mentioned studies highlight the need to shift the learning environment in the classroom, switching from inside to outside the classroom boundaries, to better prepare students before a class. Murillo-Zamorano et al. (2019) argued that a flexible environment enables students to devote their time to understand a topic better. The observed learning environment indicates a flexible learning environment, as described by Murillo-Zamorano et al. (2019), wherein the students are in focus and take responsibility for their learning. Furthermore, the TEFC approach requires both teachers and students to possess additional skillsets and competences, such as digital literacy. As earlier studies (Skoyles & Bloxsidge, 2017; Turan & Meral, 2017; Licorish et al., 2018; Mayhew et al., 2020; Gokbulut, 2020) noted, the study’s results also show that different types of SRS are positive to facilitate active learning in the discussion sessions and lectures. The students’ reflections were positive toward both game-based and non-game-based SRS, but in different ways. Kahoot!, used as a quizzing system, facilitated learning through competitions; however, using audience response platform Mentimeter, facilitated the anonymous voice and more freedom to answer the questions freely, specially by removing answer anxiety among students (Skoyles & Bloxsidge, 2017). The participants’ willingness to prepare for a lecture mostly derived from the inclass discussion. The possible disadvantages are the lack of additional incentives for participants to prepare for an open discussion, and the discussions going off topic without a good facilitator steering it in the right direction. However, these shortfalls are no less of a drawback than students who refuse to study during a lecture-based class. Furthermore, the empirical findings highlight the issue with the amount and difficulty of understanding of some of the assigned materials. Participants argued that their academic background might help them follow a specific topic easier. However, the role of SRS in-class and the way of students’ involvement and active participation may also help them to follow and learn about a specific topic. According to the participants, another consideration is the amount of the assigned materials, including videos and academic literature, in pre-class. The participants perceive that too much learning materials might affect

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their understanding of a topic because they did not manage to finish the assignments in time. According to prior studies (Abeysekera & Dawson 2014; Lewis et al., 2018), constructivism is based on constructing new knowledge through prior knowledge and experiences. Göksün and Gürsoy (2019) claimed in their study that the constructivists’ worldview sets the students’ previous state of knowledge as standard. It would be beneficial to the students learning if the teachers adjust their involvement accordingly and support the students in their learning. Göksün and Gürsoy (2019) argued that teachers need to select activities and relevant materials to the subject to stimulate active learning. The empirical findings indicate the importance of students’ prior knowledge and experience in connection to the material and the types of questions in the discussion sessions. The observed setting suggests that prior knowledge and academic background affect the students’ acquisition of new knowledge, due to a higher threshold and lack of essential knowledge. In addition, the study implies that it impacts the time that is needed to understand the assigned materials. However, going through the material in the discussion sessions (in-class) and using SRS to motivate students to have outputs and not just input from the course, would also influence learning processes. Another advantage of using SRS is that teachers could assess the students’ prior knowledge level beforehand, as well as their understanding and learning by getting their feedback, so as to adjust the topics’ difficulty level accordingly. Otherwise, the students may fail in contributing to their learning and participation during class. SRSs facilitate active and discussion-driven dialogic approaches in teaching, to make the learning process more effective (Mayhew et al., 2020) and, as the result shows, more relevant and connected to students knowledge and background, so as to learn the materials easier and faster. Students’ reflection on SRSs allows direct teacher-learner interaction (as also mentioned by Gokbulut, 2020), as one of the most agile systems of having learning iterations and getting direct feedback in a TEFC setting. The results of this study show that the teachers’ role, the use of SRSs, and the chosen teaching strategies and adjustments have a direct link to students’ engagement when using technology in the classroom. An appropriate amount of assigned materials and relevant group activities need to be selected accordingly to induce students’ engagement. Finally, the perceived factors have the potential to increase students’ willingness to participate during lectures, as part of the inclass discussion and, therefore, it can be concluded that SRS has a positive impact on students’ learning, keeping in mind the drawbacks that were mentioned. The findings imply that students are willing to learn on their own (in pre-class) and perceive their participation as an important factor to construct new knowledge during in-class discussions. Nevertheless, some of the students feel obligated to involuntarily participate in the discussion to get activity points (that are relevant for their grades). One disadvantage of having obligatory participation is that the students’ stress and anxiety levels could increase (Abdullah et al., 2021) and, therefore, negatively affect their willingness to participate during the

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discussion. However, using audience response systems, such as Mentimeter, and its anonymous nature of involvement in the discussions, may help motivate students to participate, by removing answer anxiety (Skoyles & Bloxsidge, 2017). Less stress and anxiety to give an answer in front of peer students and teachers would make active learning possible. Anonymous applications, as compared with an open discussions in-class or the game-based SRS, such as Kahoot!, may students’ involvements more comfortable. The empirical finding is further supported by the constructivist viewpoint, in which prior studies can be constructed upon prior knowledge. Çardak and Selvi (2016) claimed that students’ interaction with their peers might influence and enhance students’ learning outcomes. This was also confirmed by the participants, that getting involved in the discussions in-class, in connection to what they have learned from pre-class, would affect their learning process and outcomes more efficiently. Moreover, the quality of the discussions and students’ answers and feedback (through SRSs) may help teachers to adjust the level of the discussion and guide students to learn the materials, in the best way. This study shows that different types of SRSs may be beneficial in many different aspects of teaching and learning process, when combined with the TEFC environment. The students perceive it as an innovative way to enhance and facilitate the current modern learning environment. The results show that factors that influence students’ engagement when using technology include a shift of learning methodology. Ultimately, the students are responsible for their learning and adequate competition between peers. Moreover, the results indicate that SRS facilitate and support students in sharing their opinions and experiences with the class. In addition, the results show that the use of open-ended questions, compared to quiz-based questions approach, has a more significant impact in achieving active participation, for this group of students and in this learning setting. The use of SRS and anonymity of the answers would motivate an initiation of discussions and sharing opinions, while teacher and peer acknowledgment would also help students to feel more assured and comfortable when participating in the game-based SRS or class discussion in-class. Therefore, SRSs would increase the students’ willingness to participate and involve actively in the class discussions in the TEFC environment.

6. Conclusion This study aimed to investigate what factors influence students’ engagement to become independent and active learners in TEFC setup, and if SRS can facilitate and increase students’ active participation and engagement when using technology to enhance the flipped classroom strategy. The result of this shows that by using the SRS in the TEFC discussion sessions, more specifically for the open-ended questions approach, getting quizzes, and SRS initiation of discussions and different types of interaction was perceived positively. It supports student in contemplating and assessing their knowledge before answering questions (to support student-content interaction), which induces active learning. The quizbased questions approach was perceived to increase student engagement by applying fair competition and increasing the students’ willingness to prepare for

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the discussions and perform better with their peers (to support peer interaction). The system of getting feedback on students’ knowledge and understanding on the materials, and providing opportunities for teachers to adjust, guide, and supervise the discussions on the right direction and in-line with the course materials and learning outcomes, is the last positive influence of using SRS in TEFC settings. Therefore, both aspects of technology used in TEFC approach helped to motivate the students to prepare better for the lectures and perform better in class. In conclusion, SRS were perceived to have a good impact on students’ attention and overall participation and learning. Therefore, this study recommends the use of SRS in different ways, to facilitate students’ active participation and engagement, as well as to develop their interaction and learning in the TEFC (technology enhanced flipped classroom) learning environment.

7. Limitations and Future Works While this study contributed to the body of knowledge, the authors acknowledge the limitations of this study and the lack of generalizability of results to settings. Therefore, it should be noted that the results of this study should be interpreted in the context of the parameters that were stated. The results of the study are consequently limited to graduate students in southern Sweden. Moreover, the reader is advised to consider the limited sample size (n=14) and the amount of non-participatory observations (n=3). To investigate the research area further, a study with a larger sample would increase the reliability and validate the results. A quantitative inquiry has the potential to achieve generalizability to a larger population in a broader context and would therefore further contribute to the research area and body of knowledge. Another recommendation for future studies is to combine the observations with the interviews to investigate if the perceived usefulness is in line with what was observed, that is, pre-observation followed by interviews and concluded by another round of observations.

8. Acknowledgments 8.1. Recognition The authors would like to thank the participants who allowed the researchers to observe their classroom sessions. In particular, the researchers would like to thank the participants who shared their experiences through the semi-structured interviews. 8.2. Conflict of Interest The authors would like to declare that co-author N.A. was involved as a lecturer in the course that was used for the empirical data gathering of this study. Furthermore, the authors would like to declare no potential conflicts of interest concerning the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The empirical data collection originated and derived from two theses: A Bachelor’s thesis by the co-authors S.Å. and J.N. and a Master’s thesis by the co-author K.F., under the supervision of N.A. for both theses. 8.3. Funding No funding was received for the research project reported in the article.

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9. References Abeysekera, L., & Dawson, P. (2014). Motivation and cognitive load in the flipped classroom: definition, rationale and a call for research. Higher Education Research & Development, 34(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2014.934336 Abdullah, M., Hussin, S., & Ismail, K. (2021). Does Flipped Classroom Model Affect EFL Learners’ Anxiety in English Speaking Performance? International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 16(1), 94-108. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/218651/ Aljohani, M. (2017). Principles of “constructivism” in foreign language teaching. Journal of Literature and Art Studies, 7(1), 97-107. https://doi.org/10.17265/21595836/2017.01.013 Anderson, T. (Ed.) (2008). The theory and practice of online learning. Athabasca University Press. Buil-Fabregá, M., Martínez Casanovas, M., & Ruiz-Munzón, N. (2019). Flipped classroom as an active learning methodology in sustainable development curricula. Sustainability, 11(17), 4577. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11174577 Çardak, Ç. S., & Selvi, K. (2016). Increasing teacher candidates' ways of interaction and levels of learning through action research in a blended course. Computers in Human Behavior, 61(1), 488-506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.055 Chicioreanu, T. D., & Amza, C. G. (2018). Adapting Your Teaching to Accommodate the Net Generation/Z-Generation of Learners. eLearning & Software for Education, 3(1), 13-20. https://doi.org/10.12753/2066-026X-18-143 Ethical Advisory Board in South East Sweden. (2021). Advice and ethical assessment of projects. https://lnu.se/en/meet-linnaeus-university/collaborate-withus/projects-and-networks/ethical-advisory-board-in-south-east/ Fuchs, K. (2021). Innovative Teaching: A Qualitative Review of Flipped Classrooms. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 20(3), 18-32. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.3.2 Fuller, J. S., & Dawson, K. M. (2017). Student response systems for formative assessment: Literature-based strategies and findings from a middle school implementation. Contemporary Educational Technology, 8(4), 370-389. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/6206 Gokbulut, B. (2020). The effect of Mentimeter and Kahoot applications on university students’ e-learning. World Journal on Educational Technology: Current Issues, 12(2), 107-116. https://doi.org/10.18844/wjet.v12i2.4814 Göksün, D. O., & Gürsoy, G. (2019). Comparing success and engagement in gamified learning experiences via Kahoot and Quizizz. Computers & Education, 13(1)5, 1529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.02.015 Kumar, P., Saxena, C., & Baber, H. (2021). Learner-content interaction in e-learning - the moderating role of perceived harm of COVID-19 in assessing the satisfaction of learners. Smart Learning Environments, 8(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561021-00149-8 Kurucay, M., & Inan, F. A. (2017). Examining the effects of learner-learner interactions on satisfaction and learning in an online undergraduate course. Computers & Education, 115(1), 20-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.06.010 Lewis, C. E., Chen, D. C., & Relan, A. (2018). Implementation of a flipped classroom approach to promote active learning in the third-year surgery clerkship. The American Journal of Surgery, 215(2), 298-303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2017.08.050

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Licorish, S. A., Owen, H. E., Daniel, B., & George, J. L. (2018). Students’ perception of Kahoot!’s influence on teaching and learning. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 13(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-018-0078-8 Lopes, A. P., & Soares, F. (2018). Perception and performance in a flipped Financial Mathematics classroom. The International Journal of Management Education, 16(1), 105-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2018.01.001 Mayhew, E., Davies, M., Millmore, A., Thompson, L., & Pena, A. (2020). The impact of audience response platform Mentimeter on the student and staff learning experience. Research in Learning Technology, 28. https://doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v28.2397 Mintzes, J. J. (2020). From constructivism to active learning in college science. In J. Mintzes & E. Walter (Eds.), Active Learning in College Science (pp. 3-12). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33600-4_1 Murillo-Zamorano, L. R., Sánchez, J. Á. L., & Godoy-Caballero, A. L. (2019). How the flipped classroom affects knowledge, skills, and engagement in higher education: Effects on students' satisfaction. Computers & Education, 141(1), 103608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103608 Moore, M. (1989). Three types of interactions. American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923648909526659 O’Connor, K. (2020). Constructivism, curriculum and the knowledge question: tensions and challenges for higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2020.1750585 Owusu-Agyeman, Y., & Fourie-Malherbe, M. (2019). Negotiating co-ownership of learning in higher education: an underexplored practice for adult learning. Studies in Continuing Education, 41(1), 17-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037X.2018.1497591 Park, J. Y. (2015). Student interactivity and teacher participation: an application of legitimate peripheral participation in higher education online learning environments. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 24(3), 389-406. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2014.935743 Pinna, G., Mena, J., & Funes, S. (2019). Undergraduate students' perceptions about the use of Kahoot! as part of the Flipped Classroom methodology. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality (pp. 619-625). ACM Digital Library. https://doi.org/10.1145/3362789.3362900 Rasheed, R. A., Kamsin, A., & Abdullah, N. A. (2020). Challenges in the online component of blended learning: a systematic review. Computers & Education, 144(1), 103701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103701 Skoyles, A., & Bloxsidge, E. (2017). Have you voted? Teaching OSCOLA with Mentimeter. Legal Information Management, 17(4), 232-238. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1472669617000457 Turan, Z., & Meral, E. (2018). Game-Based versus to Non-Game-Based: the Impact of Student Response Systems on Students' Achievements, Engagements and Test Anxieties. Informatics in Education, 17(1), 105-116. https://doi.org/10.15388/infedu.2018.07 Wang, T. (2017). Overcoming barriers to ‘flip’: building teacher’s capacity for the adoption of flipped classroom in Hong Kong secondary schools. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 12(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-0170047-7

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 102-115, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.7 Received Jun 29, 2021; Revised Sep 16, 2021; Accepted Sep 28, 2021

Using Pixton for Teaching EFL Writing in Higher Education during the Covid-19 Pandemic Paola Cabrera-Solano Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3298-6671 Paul Gonzalez-Torres Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1964-2671 Cesar Ochoa-Cueva Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9047-3180

Abstract. The study examined the use of Pixton to support the teaching of English as a foreign language (EFL) writing to students at a private university in southern Ecuador. For this purpose, 52 EFL students (male and female, aged 19–24 years old) who were enrolled in a writing course participated in the study for a period of five months. At the start, most of these students had an A1+ proficiency level, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). The study employed an action research design. A diagnostic test was applied at the beginning of the instruction period, and, at the end, a final exam and a perceptions questionnaire were administered. The findings indicate positive perceptions about Pixton, and students’ online writing skills improved due to the pedagogical use of this technological tool. Furthermore, Pixton increased students’ engagement, motivation and dynamic work to a remarkable extent. Finally, an improvement was observed in aspects of students’ writing, such as grammar, vocabulary, coherence and cohesion. Keywords: digital comic strips; EFL writing; perceptions; Pixton; ICT

1. Introduction The Covid-19 pandemic poses enormous challenges to all education systems around the world (Daniel, 2020). This crisis has forced governments and institutions in the public and private sectors to implement several actions to maintain learning continuity during this difficult period. Students have had to use their own resources, and teachers have adapted new pedagogical models to ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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deliver teaching during remote learning (Schleicher, 2020). According to Azorín (2020), remote learning is being used to reduce the effects of the crisis on education systems. However, inadequate Internet connections and access to high-speed broadband or digital devices in developing countries is increasing the gap between developed and developing countries. Thus, many higher education institutions all over the world are adapting their curriculum programs to incorporate online or distance learning, since this is a way to meet students’ actual needs (Toquero, 2020). In this context, EFL teaching and learning have also faced certain challenges due to the Covid-19 pandemic, which are mainly caused by the abrupt transition to online instruction. Consequently, EFL teachers face problems related to the pedagogical use of technology, materials design, and providing student support (Son, 2018). Considering the aforementioned context, it is essential that EFL courses implemented under emergency remote teaching set realistic goals for students to acquire language skills through online components (Bailey & Lee, 2020). In fact, according to Robinson et al. (2016), some linguistic competences are more difficult to manage through online education than others; for example, teaching pronunciation and writing is not an easy task, due to the nature of these skills. With respect to EFL, writing is crucial in language education because it is regarded as one of the most challenging for learners to achieve. Indeed, writing is the most complex skill of the four fundamental English language abilities (writing, reading, speaking and listening), and it is a pivotal aspect for students to master in the foreign language they are learning in order for them to effectively communicate their ideas (Darus & Ching, 2009). Because of the importance of mastering writing, effective resources and methods must be used to teach this skill. A current teaching trend is to use technology to foster language acquisition. In the case of the EFL classroom, the implementation of technology in the teaching-learning process has accelerated in recent years, and now provides teachers and students with opportunities to achieve teaching and learning goals effectively (Isnani, 2019). There are several strategies and technological tools that instructors can use to teach EFL writing skills more effectively. One of those strategies is using comics to promote student engagement while students are learning the target language by means of technology. In this regard, there is a variety of software tools that enable the creation of digital comic strips, such as Cartoon Story Maker, Comic Life, Make Beliefs Comix, Strip Generator, Canva, Clip Studio Paint, Storyboard That, Comicker, ComicBook, Comic Strip Pro, and Comic Creator, though Pixton is popular among Ecuadorian EFL teachers, due to easy access for instructors and students in the Ecuadorian context. Furthermore, Pixton provides opportunities for providing feedback, and sharing and downloading comic strips (Lee, 2013). For this study, we selected Pixton as a resource for students to use to create comic strips to develop their EFL writing competences, and to foster collaborative work, creativity, and critical thinking.

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Studies have examined the use of digital comics for teaching writing in the EFL classroom. Some of these studies have investigated perceptions on the creation of comic strips for learning writing, and reveal positive attitudes towards this activity (Deligianni-Georgaka & Pouroutidi, 2016; Yasuta, 2018; Puspasari, 2019), and that it encourages language learners to write in English (Hadi et al., 2021). Regarding the use of Pixton, Cabrera et al. (2018) provide evidence of the effectiveness of this tool as a resource to teach EFL grammar and vocabulary – two essential components of EFL writing. Considering the aforementioned aspects, our study focused on using Pixton as a tool to teach EFL writing online. Little formal research into using Pixton as a tool for teaching this skill has been done, especially in the Latin American context. Therefore, we entertained the following research questions: ● How effective is the use of Pixton to support the teaching of online EFL writing? ● How do students perceive the use of Pixton to learn online EFL writing?

2. Literature Review 2.1 Teaching EFL Writing Skills Over the last couple of decades, English has become essential for students who live, study and work in a globalized world, which presents various demands in terms of communication (Craig, 2012). According to Rao (2019), English is the only language that is used in almost all fields and for a variety of purposes. In fact, McKay (2002) explains that English is considered to be the language of wide communication across national and cultural boundaries. Furthermore, teaching skills in the target language is fundamental if students are to acquire high proficiency levels in a foreign language (Baturay & Akar, 2007). However, according to Abdel-Haq and Ali (2017), out of the four language skills, writing plays the most important role, because it demands a great deal of effort and commitment on behalf of the students, who usually struggle with linguistic aspects when they produce texts. According to Harmer (2004), EFL writing is a process that involves joining several signs and symbols of a language together in order to convey meaning. In this process, learners have to consider important elements that deal with content, organization, grammar and mechanics. However, learning the process of EFL writing is a challenge for students, especially when they are exposed to limited practice time in the classroom, which leads to structural problems, such as choosing the right words, using correct grammar structures, and generating and developing clear ideas about specific topics (Kim & Kim, 2005). Singh (2019) suggests that EFL students usually struggle with academic writing conventions, such as synthesizing ideas, writing original texts, writing coherent paragraphs, and linking theory to practice. Likewise, Karim et al. (2017) report that some of the most common issues that students face when learning EFL writing relate to brainstorming, choosing appropriate grammar and vocabulary, and planning the different stages of this process. It is clear that writing is one of the most significant skills in EFL instruction (Ghufron & Ermawati, 2018).

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Considering the relevance of EFL writing skills, instruction by language teachers that help students acquire these abilities is critical, and teachers should be aware of practical procedures that can contribute to students’ success. In this respect, Kakan-deea and Kaur (2015) report that, even though there are a number of approaches to writing instruction, not many writing teachers have explicit insights on these approaches. Teachers should be able to enhance students’ ability to accomplish communicative competence in writing by means of active sessions that are planned to tackle the students’ actual learning difficulties (Ahmed, 2019). With respect to online teaching, different types of resources and tools can be incorporated to promote students’ writing fluency in the target language (Fithriani et al., 2018). However, it is important to emphasize that this process needs a great deal of commitment from both teachers and students if it is to achieve effective results. 2.2 Using Comics to Improve EFL Writing Skills Hayman and Pratt (2005) explain that a comic strip is a sequence of discrete, juxtaposed pictures that may or may not include text. However, they distinguish other sequences of juxtaposed pictures when they state that narrative is an essential component of comics. Furthermore, according to Courtis (2008), comics can build meaningful learning environments that encourage students to write texts according to their own personalities and artistic values. Moreover, Yunus et al. (2012) assert that using digital comics stimulates students’ interest in writing. They also believe that using comics as a tool for learning a language is an effective way to teach writing to students with low English proficiency levels. Other researchers such as Themelis and Sime (2020) posit that comics allow for creativity in English teaching, which motivates students to a significant extent. Furthermore, Susilawati (2017) states that teaching writing by means of digital comics can capture learners’ attention, facilitate comprehension of class material, encourage students to learn, expand creative thinking skills, and increase learners’ passion for learning. For instance, designing comics using Toondoo encourages students to be creative and produce different writing genres by considering the required elements and features of each genre. Learners can also express their own feelings, emotions, concepts, and beliefs, and come up with creative stories and poems. Thus, it is important to focus on creative writing techniques through the application of ICTs, instead of having lessons imparted by traditional methods (Tahsaldar & Semaan, 2018). Moreover, Wahyudin (2019) claims that using digital comics benefits students, as they can develop their writing skills in terms of content and organization. In addition, using comics has a significant effect on students’ writing ability. For this reason, it is important to include different types of activities and also to apply various teaching strategies to create a good classroom atmosphere when using comics for teaching EFL writing (Ridhwan & Ihsan, 2018). Thus, creating digital comics with the purpose of telling stories could turn EFL writing into a much more entertaining learning process. 2.3 Pixton as a Resource for Teaching EFL Writing The purpose of Pixton is creating comic strips. One of the advantages of Pixton is that this software tool runs on all operating systems and offers a free license,

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athough the free version only provides a limited use of the different functions, which could limit learners’ creativity when they design their own comic strips (Meyers, 2014). Some advantages of Pixton include a user-friendly environment and a variety of characters, backgrounds, panels, movements, expressions, and editing tools. This tool allows users to have codes for embedding, to download the files as pictures, to access it anywhere where there is an Internet connection, and to share files with others who are not Pixton users (Purnomo, 2017). As a technological resource, Pixton has great potential to enhance the teaching– learning process, due to the feature of enabling students to create comics easily on a digital platform, and have control over the content they created. In this respect, researchers have been able to determine that comics can help learners have a positive attitude towards learning and to increase motivation (Kılıçkaya & Krajka, 2012). The benefits of using these types of tools are evident in the field of language learning, where computer-based material can help teachers achieve their language teaching objectives, which translates into students improving their achievements in, understanding of, and performance in the target language (Faridah et al., 2020). Although formal research on Pixton for teaching EFL writing is not a widely explored field, there are studies that have analysed Pixton for certain purposes, such as teaching EFL grammar and vocabulary (e.g., Cabrera et al., 2018). It is also important to mention that there have been studies conducted on using other digital comic strip makers as resources to teach EFL/ English as a Second Language (ESL) writing. These studies demonstrate positive attitudes towards comic strip creation for teaching EFL writing (Muyassaroh et al., 2019; Hadi et al., 2021), and acknowledge that digital comics can attract and encourage language learners to write in English (Puspasari, 2019). In the next section, we will discuss these studies in more depth. 2.4 Studies on Using Pixton for Language Teaching A study by Deligianni-Georgaka and Pouroutidi (2016) focused on combining technology with writing, as an alternative technique to motivate students to write. This research investigated whether creating stories by using digital comics enhanced learners’ interest in writing in English, and whether it helped them to develop their writing abilities. This research was done via a case study, in which a class of sixth graders in primary education participated. Observations, interviews and questionnaires were used to collect data. The results were positive regarding combining technology and writing and, specifically, creating digital comics in the classroom. The findings show that creating digital comics promoted teamwork and collaborative writing, and created positive feelings in students. Yasuta (2018) demonstrated the potential of implementing a project-based activity using an online comic creator in the EFL classroom. The main purpose of this project was to stimulate the intellectual curiosity of 44 students of English and change their attitudes toward learning and interacting with other students. The participants worked on a group project throughout the course, and created Japanese/English comics aimed at contributing to the revitalization of a disaster-

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hit community. For this purpose, an online comic creator was used to develop a series of writing activities. The results revealed that using the comic creator was perceived by students as a fascinating experience that positively changed their perspective toward group work and learning English. Muyassaroh et al. (2019) explored a teacher’s perceptions, practices, and problems regarding using digital comics to teach writing. Participants were 60 high school vocational students and an English teacher. A case study research design was used. Data were gathered through semistructured interviews, class observations, the teacher’s syllabus, lesson plans, comics and the students’ writing tasks. The findings indicate that the teacher perceived the use of comics to be the best approach to helping students change their views on English (from a difficult course to an interesting one). Nonetheless, using digital comics along with a process approach was a challenging experience due to limited class time. The time was not enough, because implementing digital comics needs the support of electronic tools, such as laptops, projectors, and screens. Puspasari (2019) carried out an exploratory study that examined teachers’ opinions about the implementation of digital comics in the EFL teaching and learning process. Participants were 30 teachers of English who had been exposed to digital comics and had used them in their classroom. A 20-item survey questionnaire was used, and it investigated three main types of perceptions: using ICTs, advantages and limitations of using digital comics, and applying digital comics for teaching EFL. The findings indicate that the participants had favorable perceptions about the implementation of digital comics in teaching and learning of English. Furthermore, using digital comics encouraged students, increased their interest, and helped them learn English creatively by promoting an engaging environment. Hadi et al. (2021) investigated the effectiveness of Mangarock (an online comic media application) to improve students' writing skills. Participants were 200 ninth-grade students divided into five classes in Indonesia. This research used a quantitative approach, which included a pre-experimental design. Researchers gathered data by means of writing tests. A t-test was applied to determine the efficacy of using Mangarock online comics. In addition, descriptive statistical analysis measured the students’ writing skills through pre-tests and post-tests. Different learning approaches, such as a product-based learning approach, a process-based learning approach, and a genre-based learning approach, were used to support students in generating narrative texts. The results indicate that learning activities using Mangarock online comics was effective in improving students' writing skills. Considering the aforementioned studies, we conclude that formal research about using Pixton as a resource to teach online EFL writing is scarce, especially in the Latin American context. Therefore, our study attempted to provide greater insights into this field.

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3. Method 3.1. Setting and participants This study was conducted at a private university in Ecuador. The participants were selected through purposeful sampling. The sample consisted of 52 male and female EFL students, aged 19–24 years. They were in the only class at the university taking a writing course as part of a Teaching English as a Foreign Language program. The majority of them had an A1+ proficiency level, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2020). This level was determined by applying the ExamEnglish (2019) placement test. This course taught productive writing skills by employing a communicative teaching approach. This study was conducted for five months, and the participants received English instruction during a total of 30 online sessions (40 minutes per session twice a week). 3.2. Instruments After designing the surveys, they were subjected to a process of checking their validity and reliability by piloting the questionnaires with a group of 10 students, who were enrolled in other courses of the EFL program, before they were administered for the study sample. After correcting some errors found in the questionnaires, we applied the Cronbach’s alpha to measure internal consistency of the items. In the case of our questionnaires, we obtained a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.7. After this process, we decided to use the following instruments in our study. • An online placement test was administered to determine the participants’ proficiency level before the intervention process started. This test was the ExamEnglish (2019), which is aligned with the CEFR. • A pre-training questionnaire, which consisted of six closed-ended and one open-ended questions, was used to identify the participants’ previous writing skills experience, and their experience of using technological tools for learning writing. This instrument was based on the study by Puspasari (2019), and it was administered as an online questionnaire. • An online diagnostic test was administered to students to determine their level of writing skills in English. This test design used materials for teaching EFL writing. The test required students to respond to open-ended questions and write short paragraphs that were graded with a rubric. • A final online exam with the same characteristics as the diagnostic test was applied at the end of the course, to verify the participants’ improvement in writing skills after the instruction period. • A post-questionnaire was applied to the participants to determine their opinions on the use of Pixton as a resource for learning EFL writing. This instrument was designed according to the study by Puspasari (2019), it was administered online, and it consisted of four objective questions and nine items that elicited responses on a Likert scale. 3.3. Research Design This study used an action research design with a quantitative approach, because we collected data to evaluate and analyze a teaching strategy to improve instruction (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). According to Klein (2012), a quantitative

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method in action research can provide evidence about students’ improvement after using a new strategy in the classroom. Additionally, since we were interested in students’ perceptions about the use of Pixton as a tool to improve English writing skills, we also applied a survey design, which is another procedure in quantitative research (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). It is worth mentioning that there was an open-ended question in the pre-training questionnaire that would count as gathering qualitative data. 3.4. Procedure Before starting the application of instruments, we obtained the students’ consent to participate in this research. In addition, the questionnaires guaranteed that participants’ anonymity would be maintained, and that information would be treated as confidential. The process started by administration of the ExamEnglish (2019) placement test, which enabled us to obtain an immediate indication of the students’ proficiency levels. This was an online test that was easy to administer, and it was delivered at the beginning of the course. We determined that the majority of the students had an A1+ proficiency level. An online diagnostic test was also administered to determine students’ level of English writing skills, which was the starting point for designing the activities of the course. Additionally, a pre-training questionnaire was applied to identify the students’ perceptions about their EFL writing skills, and about the use of technological tools. After obtaining the results of this first stage, we conducted an instruction process, which was carried out through the Virtual Learning Management Platform (Canvas). First students had to open accounts on Pixton. Then, we requested students to create comic strips on topics that we selected according to their needs, competences and learning outcomes, which were set out in the syllabus of the course. The focus of the syllabus was to learn vocabulary, grammar structures, and coherence and cohesion. In this regard, students created a total of 10 comic strips individually, which were presented and explained to the class by means of the platform Zoom, and the corresponding teacher’s feedback was obtained. At the end of the instruction period, students took a final online exam to determine their achievement level in EFL writing skills. These results were compared with the results obtained in the diagnostic test. Later, they completed a questionnaire about their perceptions on the use of Pixton as a resource for learning this skill. The data from the placement test, diagnostic tests, final exams and questionnaires were organized and tabulated, and the results were assessed according to the aspects studied in the syllabus and relating to the students’ written production. As for the pre- and post-test results, the Student’s t-test was applied to observe the statistical significance of the difference between the students’ scores before and after instruction.

4. Results and Discussion The results of the ExamEnglish (2019) placement test indicated that 47 students had an A1+ proficiency level, 4 were on the A2 level, and only 1 student had a B1 level. With respect to the results of the pre-training questionnaire, the majority of the students (83%) had previously used technological tools to learn English. The

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most common tools used by instructors to teach writing and identified by students were PowerPoint presentations (74%), online shared documents (8%), forums (7%), social networks (5%), and videos, audio recordings, podcasts, and others (6%). As for students’ writing performance, 63% rated themselves as good, 14% as very good, and 23% mentioned that they needed improvement. The students’ diagnostic test results indicated an average score of 5.2 out of 10 points, which means that they, indeed, required a solution to enhance their writing skills. After the training process, students were administered a final test and a posttraining questionnaire. On the final test, students obtained an average score of 7.8 out of 10 points. We applied the Student’s t-test (see Table 1) to determine the significance of the difference between the pre and post-tests, and we obtained a p-value <.05, which means that the difference is significant. This means that incorporating Pixton in the students’ training was an important factor that enhanced their writing skills. Table 1. Results of the Student’s t-test applied to the scores of the pre and post test Mean SD p-value

Pre-test Post-test 5.2 7.8 2.046 1.858 0.00005706

Figure 1 compares writing exam scores. It is clear that the aspect that improved the most is organization of ideas.

Figure 1. Comparison of the writing exam scores

An aspect that enhances writing skills is positive peer feedback on the creation of digital comic strips. Another aspect is students’ motivation at the moment of executing activities related to EFL grammar and writing and using these types of comics (Kılıçkaya & Krajka, 2012). With respect to the students’ post-training questionnaire, the results showed general satisfaction about using Pixton as a tool for developing their writing skills.

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In this regard, Pixton could improve students’ performance in EFL writing skills, depending on their proficiency level (Castillo et al., 2018). Likewise, as Table 2 shows, according to students’ perceptions about the use of Pixton, most of them were totally satisfied with its use, since it developed their writing skills, allowed them to write coherently, and helped them to practice grammar and vocabulary. In confirmation, Megawati and Anugerahwati (2012) assert that using comic strips can help EFL learners to structure and generate ideas and choose accurate grammar, vocabulary, and punctuation. Similarly, students claimed that using this tool enabled them to be more involved in the activities of the course, since they were engaged and worked more dynamically when they used Pixton. Indeed, comic strips can involve students in the learning process by helping them to visually analyze and actively reflect on the topics to be learned (Popa & Tarabuzan, 2015). In addition, our results indicate that students’ interest and motivation increased through using this tool. Finally, the majority of students were very satisfied with Pixton, since it allowed them to show their knowledge of the course. Table 2. Students’ perceptions on the use of Pixton Totally satisfied

Satisfied

Neutral

Dissatisfied

Very dissatisfied

Pixton was useful for developing my writing skills

82%

Pixton enabled me to be involved in the activities of the subject

68%

16%

10%

My interest in the course increased due to the use of Pixton

59%

28%

Pixton allows me to write coherently

50%

24%

20%

Pixton was useful to put grammar and vocabulary into practice

77%

10%

The use of Pixton motivated me to do the activities in the subject

64%

22%

My attention level on the activities of the subject increased due to the use of Pixton

64%

10%

20%

Pixton allowed me to do dynamic work

82%

Pixton enabled me to show my knowledge of the course

52%

20%

22%

Items

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5. Conclusions and Pedagogical Implications At the start of the study, students’ EFL writing skills were poor, as indicated by the results of the diagnostic test. Consequently, the intervention process, which involved students creating comic strips on Pixton, with the necessary teaching support, helped them to achieve a considerable improvement in their online writing abilities, as measured by EFL proficiency level. Teaching support for using Pixton was fundamental for enhancing students’ engagement and motivation and the dynamism of their work. The second finding is that students had positive perceptions regarding using Pixton because they believed that designing comics online helped them to pay more attention to the contents of the class, to be more involved in class activities, to write coherently, and increase their interest in the course, among other factors conducive to acquiring EFL writing skills. In the third place, using Pixton helped students to improve their EFL writing skills, because it enabled them to increase their ability to organize ideas, and improved other aspects of writing, such as grammar, vocabulary, coherence and cohesion. This resource also engaged students in dynamic and interesting activities. Therefore, there was a remarkable increase in the students’ motivation for their writing lessons. Finally, most EFL teachers only use basic resources, such as PowerPoint presentations. Only a small number of teachers have used resources such as online shared documents, forums, social networks, videos, audio recordings, and podcasts. This means that using innovative technological resources was not common in this sample of participants. Therefore, this study provides evidence that Pixton is an effective tool for improving teaching of EFL writing skills, especially in higher education. Finally, there was only one class enrolled in this EFL writing course, so this is one limitation of this study. Further research regarding the use of digital comics for teaching EFL writing should be conducted by employing an experimental research design, which may result in findings that could be generalizable in other, similar contexts. Moreover, these studies should be oriented to remote learning situations, to address teaching in the current Covid-19 pandemic. Acknowledgements The authors of this research would like to acknowledge Universidad Tecnica Particular de Loja for promoting and supporting this study through the EFL Learning, Teaching and Technology Research Group.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 116-135, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.8 Received Aug 10, 2021; Revised Sep 11, 2021; Accepted Sep 27, 2021

Poor Academic Performance of Students in Agriculture at Primary Schools in Botswana: Analysis of Causes and Ways to Improve Som Pal Baliyan* Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Gaborone, Botswana https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0789-883X Kagiso Malebalwa Botswana Open University, Gaborone, Botswana https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3565-5309 Keregero J B Keregero National University of Lesotho, Roma, Lesotho https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8344-3699 Kgomotso Mabusa Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Gaborone, Botswana https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3052-6700

Abstract. This quantitative study analysed the factors that cause poor performance and identified the possible ways to improve the performance of students in agriculture at primary schools in Botswana. Data was collected using a valid and reliable questionnaire through a survey of a randomly sampled 200 students in primary schools in Botswana. A One sample t-test determined the twenty-five causes of the poor performance of students in agriculture; the six most important causes were found to be the shortage of appropriate tools and equipment, lack of libraries and laboratories, lack of out of schools activities, poor teaching methods, lack of practical work and, students’ negative attitude towards learning. Female students and students studying in schools located in urban areas perceived these causes as being more important compare to their counterparts in the rural areas. An Independent t-test determined eleven causes which showed a significant difference in performance between the male and female students as well as the students in schools located in the rural and urban areas, respectively. The six most important ways to improve the students’ performance were identified as the inclusion of more practical *

Corresponding author: Som Pal Baliyan, baliyansom@gmail.com

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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work in the syllabus, ensuring help out of the classroom, increasing practical work, providing accessible internet, providing updated textbooks and activating agricultural clubs in the schools. It is recommended that the policy makers and administrators to focus on the factors causing poor performance and the ways to improve performance while revising the existing agriculture curriculum. Keywords: academic achievement; agricultural education; academic performance; primary schools; poor performance

1. Introduction Agricultural education is essential for agricultural development as it provides an avenue for the development of knowledge and skills to the manpower for the agricultural sector. It plays an important role in developing the youth to fit into the current and future needs of the changing and challenging global environment (Hurst et al., 2015; Davis & Jayaratne, 2015). It also plays a vital role in the development of a country, particularly in the rural areas where the majority of people depend on agriculture for their livelihood (Macatta, 2016; Talathi et al., 2014). It is crucial for a country to have substantial investment in human capital for achieving sustainable economic development. Attaining a good academic performance of students is crucial in producing skilled graduates and human capital to boost the development of the human resource. Considering the importance of agriculture in the economy, agriculture was introduced as a subject in the education system of Botswana to address the needs of the diversifying economy of the country. At present, agriculture as a subject is offered at primary, junior and senior secondary and tertiary levels of education in Botswana. At primary school level, agriculture was introduced as a compulsory subject in 2005 with the aim of acquiring knowledge and skills among the young people for the improvement of the agricultural sector. The success of a learner is generally determined by the academic performance which is generally defined in terms of scores and grades obtained. Academic performance is the ability of a student to do something and is considered as the key factor in judging the students’ success, potential and capacities. Thus, the scores and grades that a student obtains measure the degree of students’ academic performance. Their poor performance in agriculture at primary school level has been a concern for the past several consecutive years in Botswana (Sibanda et al., 2016). Table 1 highlights the performance of students in agriculture and its comparison to the two other main subjects of Mathematics and English in Botswana primary schools. Performance is reported on a fivepoint grade scale of A to E, showing the levels of achievement. Grades A to C are considered credit pass grades (performance) while D to E are pass grades (Botswana Examination Council, [BEC], 2018). It is evident from Table 1 that, although the performance of students in Agriculture, Mathematics and English has improved since 2012, it is far lower in Agriculture than in the other two major subjects. While there has been a gradual improvement in students’ performance in Agriculture over the years, it is still

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not impressive as only 55.65% of students obtained Grades A to C. In fact, Agriculture had the highest percentage of candidates with grade D (26.38%), grade E (11.43%) and the lowest proportion of candidates with grade A (5.38%). Table 1: Performance of students (% of Grades A-C) in Agriculture and two other major subjects in primary schools in Botswana (2012 – 2018) __________________________________________________________________ Performance of students ____________________________________ Year Agriculture Mathematics English __________________________________________________________________ 2012 24.00 55.10 61.80 2013 39.39 58.43 61.11 2014 42.36 60.48 61.75 2015 47.35 62.88 63.20 2016 54.11 66.40 65.60 2017 55.13 65.94 66.15 2018 55.65 68.71 67.88 __________________________________________________________________ Source: Botswana Examination Council (BEC), 2012, 2015, 2018

This reflects students’ poor performance in Agriculture in Botswana primary schools (BEC, 2018). While students have shown poor performance in the other two subjects, the trend has become consistent in agricultural education (Sibanda et al., 2016). This state-of-affairs has seen the Ministry of Education and the teachers’ union trading blames, with the former blaming the teachers for their inefficiency and incompetence and the latter blaming the former for not addressing the poor morale resulting from improper teacher-student ratio, the hasty introduction of the new syllabus, inadequate resources and unfavourable working environment for teachers (Mphale & Mhlauli, 2014). Students’ poor performance in agriculture may have consequences on the socioeconomic development of the country; it may lead to the failures in their entire Primary School Leaving Examination, which may, in turn, result in unemployment, a negative attitude towards agriculture (Baliyan & Nenty, 2015a), an unwillingness to enroll in the subject (Baliyan & Nenty, 2015b), attracting fewer youths to study agriculture and a negative effecting on the economy of the country (Macatta, 2016; Mphale & Mhlauli, 2014). Thus, poor performance of students in agriculture can have implications on Botswana’s long term plan to diversify its economy (Solly & Koloi-Keaikitse, 2019) and, thus, poses a threat to the efforts of the Botswana Government to realize the objectives of its Vision 2036. The consistent poor academic performance of the students in agriculture at primary schools has been a matter of concern among the stakeholders in Botswana. Poor academic performance of students in agricultural education at primary schools in Africa may be attributed to several factors (Bayat et al., 2014; Bush et al., 2010; Spaull, 2012). No particular study has been reported in Botswana on the analysis of the causes of students’ poor academic performance in agriculture. The purpose of this study was to identify and analyse the factors

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that cause poor performance in agriculture and to identify the possible ways to improve it. The study specific objectives were to: 1. Identify the factors that cause students’ poor academic performance in agriculture at primary schools; 2. Determine the gender and location differences in the factors that cause poor academic performance of students in agriculture at primary schools; 3. Identify the possible ways to improve academic performance of students in agriculture at primary schools. The objectives of this study were achieved by answering the following research questions: 1. What are the factors that cause poor academic performance of students in agriculture at primary schools? 2. Are there any gender and location differences in the factors that cause poor academic performance of students in agriculture at primary schools? 3. What are the possible ways of improving academic performance of students in agriculture at primary schools? The following research null hypotheses were formed to answer the research questions: 1. There are no factors causing poor academic performance of students in agriculture at primary schools. 2. There are no gender and location differences in the factors causing poor academic performance of students in agriculture at primary schools. 3. There are no ways to improve academic performance of students in agriculture at primary schools.

2. Literature Review 2.1. Theoretical Framework Learning theories are important to understand what will affect the learning and performance of students. This study is anchored within the constructivist theory which considers that individuals play an active role in constructing their own knowledge about their experiences and circumstances (Jaiswal, 2019) as children learn by doing rather than by being told (Moll, 2020). Constructivists believe that the learners learn by constructing new ideas, based on their past knowledge. However, they also argue that every individual is unique in the way they learn and perceive things and process information differently as the learners have their own mental abilities which they use to make sense of any experience or situation. The Learners preform differently because of their different cognitive interpretation of the situation as they understand differently. In line with this theory, the suggested ways of applying constructivism in teaching and learning include the research projects, problem-solving, brainstorming, collaborative learning or group learning and discovery learning (Shuell, 2016). All these constitute a pool of methodologies to be drawn upon when learning agriculture so as to facilitate students’ good performance. Since agriculture is a practical subject, it ought to be taught through hands-on practice which requires active participation of students. The learners have to be instructed and then given freedom to develop skills and knowledge on their own. Teachers should use the

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learner-centred approach to suit all the learning styles and learners’ abilities. Teachers should encourage active participation during the teaching and learning process (McLead, 2018), as this theory encourages the learner-centered methods of teaching and learning and active participation. This implies that active learning escalates high order thinking and stimulates deeper learning of the subject that enables students to perform better. Since agriculture is a practical subject that requires hands-on skills together with theoretical knowledge, leanercentered approach is suitable for this study as agriculture is a practical subject where students can learn and perform better themselves when they are provided with a conducive learning environment and resources. The factors that hinder students’ learning and performance are part of the environment including teaching. Therefore, the constructivist theory is found suitable for this study as agriculture is a practical subject. 2.2. The Causes to Poor Academic Performance and Ways to Improve The factors which have been found to cause students’ poor performance in agriculture in African schools have been identified as a poor educational environment, curriculum, physical amenities, academic facilities, teachers' lack of competence as well as teaching and learning resources (Osaikhiuwu, 2014; Bizimana & Orodho, 2014). Other negative factors include inadequate teaching and learning material (Asamoah, 2018); poor teaching methods (Gegbe & Koroma, 2014). failure to use instructional material, inadequate coverage of the syllabus and practical work (Ojukwu, 2015; Moyo & Maseko, 2016), shortage of tools and equipment (Tapiwa, 2021; Waithira, 2013), lack of library and laboratories (Arshad et al., 2018; Maimela & Monyatsi, 2016; Darko et al., 2016a; Ogweno, 2015); and lack of school libraries (Jato et al., 2014; Ayaz et al., 2017). Thus, these findings on the factors causing to poor performance are not conclusive and differ from country to country. Osman et al. (2015) found a positive relationship between the teaching and learning resources and students’ performance in schools in Kenya and recommended that sufficient instructional materials be availed to students. The availability of teaching and learning resources improves students’ academic performance in students (Ogweno, 2015; Mahmood & Gondal, 2017). Therefore, it is important that all the necessary resources and infrastructural facilities for effective teaching and learning are made available (Otekunrin et al., 2019) because they enhance better teaching and learning of agriculture (Mahmood & Gondal, 2017). Maimela and Monyatsi (2016) reported that the factors that contributed to poor academic performance of the learners in primary school included lack of parental involvement, teaching and learning materials, infrastructure facilities, learner-teacher ratio, libraries, teachers’ motivation, and learner discipline. Darko et al. (2016b) determined that practical teaching of agricultural science in high schools was greatly hindered by the non-existence or lack of funds, school gardens, educational trips, educational plots and wellequipped laboratories. They found that frequent use of the lecture method by teachers, inadequate teaching and learning materials, tools, equipment, laboratories, school farms and gardens, difficulty in planning field trips, poorly motivated teachers and a poor attitude of students towards agriculture have

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been responsible for the poor teaching and learning of agriculture. In a study on resources as determinants of students’ academic performance in agriculture in secondary schools in Kenya, Ogweno (2015) found that the schools with laboratories, classrooms, farms, libraries and adequate textbooks had higher mean scores compared to schools without them. Nyandwi (2014) identified the factors that negatively affect the performance of students in Tanzania as inadequate text books, desks and chairs, shortage of qualified teachers and laboratories. David (2014) also assessed the factors that influence the academic performance of students in secondary schools in Tanzania and found that inadequate teaching and learning materials, inadequate teaching staff and lack of libraries were the major factors. A relationship between the availability of laboratories, farming facilities and students’ performance in agriculture was observed in Nigeria (Nsa et al., 2014). It suggested that students who study agriculture are motivated by teaching through active participation which involves them in hands-on practical activities. Oitsile and Oats (2020) reported inadequate resources, inability of the learners to attempt the questions and inadequate use of effective teaching methods among the causes of primary school students’ poor performance in Botswana. Boipono and Margret (2014) reported that teacher pedagogy skills, teacher training in agriculture and availability of teaching and learning materials are the major causes of poor performance of students in Agriculture in Botswana. Mphale and Mhlauli (2014) identified the contributing factors to poor performance as inadequate resources, the low morale of teachers, lack of parental involvement, lack of preparedness among teachers and students for any change, lack of incentives for teachers, lack of seriousness among students about their work, improper assessment and lack of support for homework. Kobote (2014) did not show a clear trend in the performance of students in Tanzania rural and urban schools; performance was poor in the rural schools whereas the performance of girls was poorer than that of boys in urban schools. Ezeudu et al. (2014) and, Bulala et al. (2014) did not find any significant difference in academic performance of students in urban and rural schools. Thus, these findings on the factors that cause poor performance are not conclusive and differ from country to country.

3. Methodology 3.1 Research Design This study aimed to analyse the factors that cause poor performance and to identify the possible ways to improve the performance of students in agriculture at primary schools in Botswana. A quantitative survey and descriptive research design were adopted to achieve the aim of the study. A quantitative survey research investigates attitudes or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population and using its responses to explore and describe the factors of influence on the population of interest (Creswell, 2017).

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3.2. Population and Sampling The population of this study comprised the standard seven students in the Government primary schools in Botswana. In order to identify the differences between the performance of male and female students in schools (Kabote et al., 2014; Rahmawati & Ummah, 2020; Mutua & Oyoo, 2020), two schools located in the rural areas and two schools located in the urban areas were purposively selected. Thereafter, a simple random sampling method was used to select an equal number of male and female students (n=25) from each of the four sampled schools. Thus, 100 students from the rural schools and 100 students from the urban schools gave a total sample of 200 students for data collection. 3.3 Construction of Data Collection Instruments Based on the literature and the researcher’s consultation with the agriculture teachers, a questionnaire was constructed for data collection. The questionnaire comprised three parts. The first part sought the demographic information of the students. The second part focused on 25 factors which may influence academic performance and the third part encompassed 25 items that may improve academic performance specifically in agriculture. All the items in the second and third part of the questionnaire were measured on a four-point Likert-type scale: (1) strongly disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) Agree, (4) strongly agree. The validity of the questionnaire was approved by a panel of four experts in the teaching and learning of agriculture. As a measure for ensuring the reliability of the questionnaire, Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients were calculated to be .709 and .821 for the causes of poor performance and the ways of improving the performance, respectively. This rendered the questionnaire reliable as the coefficients were greater than the acceptable minimum level of .70 (Taber, 2018). 3.4 Data Collection and Data Analysis Data was collected through a survey as this has been the method used to ascertain the perception of the stakeholders in agricultural education research (Thoron, & Myers, 2010) and was considered as being cost effective for gathering data (Saunders et al., 2016). The questionnaire was distributed among the sampled students by the teachers of agriculture and was returned to the researcher. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 25 whereby a one sample ttest was employed to identify the factors that cause poor academic performance and to identify the possible ways of improving academic performance. An Independent t-test was used to determine whether the gender of students and the location of schools have an impact on the academic performance of students in agriculture.

4. Results 4.1 The Causes of Students’ Poor Performance To identify the causes of students’ poor performance in agriculture, the null hypothesis tested was stated as: there are no significant factors that cause poor academic performance of students in agriculture. A one sample t-test was conducted to test the hypothesis where the score of all the twenty-five causes of poor performance was considered as the test variable. The finding are presented in Table 2 which shows that the null hypothesis was rejected (M=75.12, SD=8.53,

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t=20.93, p=.000). This implies that there are causes of students’ poor performance in agriculture. Table 2: One Sample t-test Determining the Causes to Poor Performance of Students (df=199) ______________________________________________________________________________ Causes of poor performance M SD t MD* p ______________________________________________________________________________ Overall causes of poor performance 75.12 8.53 20.93 12.62 .000 ______________________________________________________________________________ * Mean difference (MD) is significant at p <.05.

Further, each of the twenty-five causes of students’ poor performance were also assessed individually whereby the score of each of the causes of poor performance was considered as a test variable. The findings are presented in Table 3 where the causes of students’ poor performance are ranked according to their importance. All the twenty-five causes of students’ poor performance were found to be significant at p<.05. The six most significant causes of students’ poor performance in agriculture were found to be the shortage of tools and equipment (M=3.29, SD=.785), lack of libraries and laboratories (M=3.21, SD=.841), lack of out-of-school activities (M=3.19, SD=.853), poor teaching methods (M=3.18, SD=.753), lack of practical work (M=3.15, SD=.843) and, students’ negative attitude towards learning (M=3.15, SD=.825). Table 3. One Sample t-test determining the causes to poor performance of students (df=199) ______________________________________________________________________________ Rank Causes of poor performance M SD t MD* p ______________________________________________________________________________ 1 Shortage of tools and equipment 3.29 .785 14.13 .785 .000 2 Lack of libraries and laboratories 3.21 .841 11.86 .705 .000 3 Lack of out-of-school activities 3.19 .853 11.44 .690 .000 4 Poor teaching methods 3.18 .753 12.67 .675 .000 5 Lack of practical work 3.15 .843 10.90 .652 .000 6 Students’ negative attitude towards learning 3.15 .825 11.14 .650 .000 7 Teachers’ negative attitude toward teaching 3.27 2.314 9.29 .620 .050 8 Shortage of textbooks 3.12 .731 11.90 .615 .000 9 Poor quality teachers 3.10 .780 10.78 .595 .000 10 Poorly committed teachers 3.07 .988 8.09 .565 .000 11 Poorly motivated students 3.06 1.018 7.71 .555 .001 12 Lack of internet in schools 3.05 .939 8.28 .550 .005 13 Poor examination structure 2.99 .946 7.34 .490 .000 14 Lack of tutors/help out of class 2.98 .961 7.06 .480 .009 15 Lack of active agricultural clubs 2.97 .982 6.77 .470 .000 16 Too much practical work 2.97 .924 7.19 .241 .000 17 Insufficient time to complete syllabus 2.94 .771 7.98 .455 .000 18 Poorly committed students 2.90 .979 5.70 .395 .000 19 Poor parental involvement 2.89 .765 7.12 .385 .045

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20 Lack of homework 2.89 .854 6.29 .381 .000 21 Outdated textbooks 2.88 .990 5.43 .380 .000 22 Too much theoretical work 2.81 .817 5.37 .310 .000 23 Lack of proper school gardens 2.80 .909 4.587 .295 .000 24 Improper methods of assessment 2.76 .964 3.74 .255 .000 25 Poor curriculum/syllabus 2.72 1.057 2.94 .220 .004 ______________________________________________________________________________ * All the Mean differences (MD) are significant at p <.05.

4.2 Students’ Gender and Location of Schools Differences in the Causes to Poor Performance To determine the students’ gender and location of schools’ differences in the causes to poor performance of students, the null hypothesis tested was stated as: there are no significant gender and location of schools differences in the factors cause in primary school students’ poor academic performance in agriculture. An Independent t-test was employed to test this hypothesis. The gender of students and location of schools were used as independent variables whereas the causes to poor performance were treated as dependent variable. The results of the Independent t-test are presented in Table 4. Table 4: Independent t-test determining students’ gender and location of school differences in causes of poor performance of students (df=198) ______________________________________________________________________________ Variables Levels n M SD SE t p ______________________________________________________________________________ Gender Male 100 73.23 8.80 .88 Female 100 77.01 7.83 .78 -3.207 .002 Location Rural 100 73.16 8.59 .86 Urban 100 77.08 8.03 .80 -3.332 .001 ______________________________________________________________________________

Table 4 showed that there is a significant gender difference in the causes of poor performance of male students (M=73.23, SD=8.80) and female students (M=77.01, SD=7.83), t(198)= -3.207, p=.002. A significant difference in the location of the schools in relation to the causes of students’ poor performance in agriculture was found to be (M=73.16, SD=8.59) for the rural schools and (M=77.08, SD=8.03), t(198)= -3.332, p=.001 for the urban schools. These findings indicate that the male and female students in the rural schools perceive the causes of poor performance differently from those in urban schools. It further indicates that female students consider these causes more important (M=77.01) as compare to the male students (M=73.23). Moreover, students studying in urban schools perceived these causes more important (M=77.08) as compared to the students in the rural locations (M=73.16). In order to determine the students’ gender and location of school differences in each of the causes individually, an Independent t-test was run and the findings are presented in Table 5 and Table 6, respectively.

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Table 5: Independent t-test statistics of students’ gender and the causes of poor performance of students (df=98) ______________________________________________________________________________ Causes of poor performance Gender of students Male Female M SD M SD t p. ______________________________________________________________________________ Shortage of tools and equipment 3.25 .892 3.32 .665 -.629 .001* Lack of libraries and laboratories 3.28 .842 3.13 .837 1.264 .187 Lack of out-of-school activities 3.19 .907 3.19 .880 .354 .180 Poor teaching methods 3.13 .761 3.22 .746 -.844 .596 Lack of practical work 3.12 .902 3.18 .783 -.502 .426 Students’ negative attitude towards learning 3.13 .928 3.17 .711 -.342 .007* Teachers’ negative attitude toward teaching 2.99 .999 3.25 .880 -1.963 .438 Shortage of textbooks 3.09 .805 3.14 .652 -.483 .053 Poor quality teachers 3.09 .818 3.10 .745 -.090 .286 Poorly committed students 2.72 1.026 3.07 .902 -2.563 .036* Poorly motivated students 3.04 1.10 3.07 .935 -.208 .058 Lack of internet in schools 2.96 1.00 3.14 .865 -1.358 .107 Poor examination structure 2.90 .916 3.08 .971 -1.349 .463 Lack of tutors/help out of class 2.94 1.043 3.02 .876 -.587 .055 Lack of active agricultural clubs 2.81 1.061 3.13 .872 -2.330 .027* Too much practical work 2.74 .883 2.88 .742 -1.213 .002* Insufficient time to complete syllabus 2.77 .886 3.10 .595 -3.093 .000* Poorly committed teachers 3.00 1.128 3.13 .825 -.930 .001* Poor parental involvement 2.82 .702 2.95 .881 -1.204 .977 Lack of homework 2.73 .839 3.03 .846 -2.517 .270 Outdated textbooks 2.72 1.055 3.04 .898 -2.310 .002* Too much theoretical work 2.89 .994 3.05 .845 -1.276 .026* Lack of proper school gardens 2.67 .943 2.94 .861 -1.958 .045* Improper methods of assessment 2.68 1.034 2.83 .888 -1.101 .021* Poor curriculum/syllabus 2.57 1.027 2.87 1.072 -2.023 .700 ______________________________________________________________________________

Table 5 reflected that eleven causes show significant differences between male and female students. These causes include the shortage of tools and equipment: male students (M=3.25, SD=.892) and Female students (M=3.32, SD=.665), t(98)= -.629, p.=001; students’ negative attitude towards learning: male students: (M=3.13, SD=.928) and female students (M=3.17, SD=.711), t(98)= -.342, p=.007; poorly committed students: male students (M=2.72, SD=1.026) and female students (M=3.07, SD=.902), t(98)= -2.563, p=.036; lack of active agricultural clubs: male students (M=2.81, SD=1.061) and female students (M= 3.13, SD=.872, t(98)= -2.330, p=.027; too much practical work: male students (M=2.89, SD=.994) and female students (M=3.05, SD=.845), t(98)= -1.276, p=.026; less time to complete the syllabus: male students (M=2.77, SD=.886) and female students (M=3.10, SD=.595), t(98)= -3.093, p=.000; poorly committed teachers: male students (M=3.00, SD=1.128) and female students (M=3.13, SD=.825), t(98)= .930, p=.001; outdated textbooks: Male students (M=2.72, SD=1.055) and female students (M=3.04, SD=.898), t(98)= -2.310, p=.002; too much theoretical work: male students (M=2.74, SD=.883) and female students (M=2.88, SD=.742), t(98)=-

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1.213, p=.002; lack of proper school gardens: male students (M=2.67, SD=.943) and female students (M=2.94, SD=.861), t(98)= -1.958, p=.045; and improper methods of assessment: male students (M=2.68, SD=1.034) and female students (M=2.83, SD=.888), t(98)= -1.101, p=.021. The results reflect that the perception of the seven causes of the students’ poor performance differs according to whether the student is male or female. Table 6: Independent t-test statistics of location of school and causes to poor performance of students (df=98) ______________________________________________________________________________ Causes to poor performance Location of school Rural Urban M SD M SD t p ______________________________________________________________________________ Shortage of tools and equipment 3.28 .817 3.29 .756 -.090 .507 Lack of libraries and laboratories 3.06 .962 3.35 .672 -2.471 .035* Lack of out-of-school activities 2.97 .948 3.41 .683 -3.767 .147 Poor teaching methods 3.07 .856 3.28 .621 -1.986 .273 Lack of practical work 3.16 .950 3.14 .725 .167 .027* Students’ negative attitude towards learning 3.09 .889 3.21 .756 -1.028 .466 Teachers’ negative attitude toward teaching 3.01 1.087 3.23 .763 -1.656 .000* Shortage of textbooks 3.01 .785 3.22 .660 -2.047 .826 Poor quality teachers 3.11 .815 3.08 .748 .271 .227 Poorly committed students 2.87 1.022 2.92 .939 -.360 .177 Poorly motivated students 3.01 1.040 3.10 1.00 -.624 .700 Lack of internet in schools 2.91 1.093 3.19 .734 -2.127 .000* Poor examination structure 2.88 1.028 3.10 .847 -1.652 .007* Lack of tutors/help out of class 2.93 1.037 3.03 .881 -.735 .002* Lack of active agricultural clubs 2.92 .992 3.02 .974 -.719 .700 Too much practical work 2.93 .956 3.01 .893 -.611 .096 Insufficient time to complete syllabus 2.90 .798 2.97 .745 -.641 .299 Poorly committed teachers 2.98 1.025 3.15 .947 -1.218 .402 Poor parental involvement 2.75 .821 3.02 .681 -2.530 .003* Lack of homework 2.74 .928 3.02 .752 -2.345 .001* Outdated textbooks 2.83 1.045 2.93 .935 -.713 .034* Too much theoretical work 2.84 .896 2.78 .733 .518 .054 Lack of proper school gardens 2.69 1.012 2.90 .785 -1.640 .000* Improper methods of assessment 2.69 .971 2.82 .957 -.953 .890 Poor curriculum/syllabus 2.53 1.141 2.91 .933 -2.578 .000* ______________________________________________________________________________

Table 6 presents the eleven causes with significant difference between the rural and urban schools in the students’ poor performance. These causes were: lack of libraries and laboratories: students in the rural schools (M=3.06, SD=.962) and urban schools (M=3.35, SD=.672), t(98)= -2.471, p=.035; lack of practical work: students in the rural schools (M=3.16, SD=.950) and urban schools (M=3.14, SD=.725), t(98)= .167, p=.027; teachers’ negative attitude towards teaching: students in rural schools (M=3.01, SD=1.087) and urban schools (M=3.23, SD=.763), t(98)= -1.656, p=.000; lack of internet in schools: students in rural schools (M=2.91, SD=1.093) and urban schools (M=3.19, SD=.734), t(98)= -2.127,

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p=.000; poor examination structure: students in rural schools (M=2.88, SD=1.028) and urban schools (M=3.10, SD= .847), t(98)= -1.652, p=.007; lack of tutors/help out of class: students in rural schools (M=2.93, SD=1.037) and urban schools (M=3.03, SD=.881), t(98)= -.735, p=.002; poor parental involvement: students in rural schools (M=2.75, SD=.821) and urban schools (M=3.02, SD=.681, t(98)= 2.530, p=.003; lack of home work: students in rural schools (M= 2.74, SD=.928) and urban schools (M=3.02, SD=.752), t(98)= -2.345, p=.001; outdated textbooks: students in rural schools (M=2.83, SD=1.045) and urban schools (M=2.93 SD=.935), t(98)= -.713, p=.034; lack of proper school gardens: students in rural schools (M=2.69, SD=1.012) and urban schools (M=2.90, SD=.785), t(98)= -1.640, p=.000; poor curriculum/syllabus: students in rural schools (M=2.53, SD=1.141) and urban schools (M=2.91, SD=.933), t(98)= -2.578, p=.000. These results reflect the differences between the rural and urban student’s perception of the seven causes of students’ poor performance. 4.3 Ways to Improve Academic Performance of Students The possible ways to improve academic performance of students were identified by testing the null hypothesis: there are no significant ways to improve the academic performance of the primary school students in agriculture. A one sample t-test was conducted to test the hypothesis with the overall score of all the twenty five ways to improve the students’ performance were considered as a test variable. The findings are presented in Table 7 and the null hypothesis was rejected (M=78.93, SD=8.95, t =25.95, p=.000), implying that there are significant ways to improve the performance of students in agriculture. Table 7: One Sample t-test of overall possible ways to improve academic performance of students (df= 199) ______________________________________________________________________________ Variable M SD t MD* p ______________________________________________________________________________ Ways to improve performance 78.93 8.95 25.95 16.43 .000 ______________________________________________________________________________ * Mean difference (MD) is significant at p <.05.

Further, a one sample t-test was employed to assess each of the ways to improve students’ performance, with the score of each of the ways considered as a test variable. The findings are presented in Table 8 where the ways to improve the students’ performance are ranked according to their importance. All the twenty five ways to improve students’ performance were found significant at <.05 level of significance. Table 8 showed that the six most important ways to improve students’ performance were suggested as: including more practical work in the syllabus (M=3.47, SD=.633), ensuring tutoring/help out of class (M=3.45, SD=.735), increasing practical work (M=3.35, SD=.889), providing accessible internet (M=3.34, SD=.748), providing updated textbooks (M=3.29, SD=.719) and activating agricultural clubs (M=3.27, SD=.779).

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Table 8: One Sample t-test of the possible ways to improve performance of students (df=199) ______________________________________________________________________________ Rank Ways to improve performance M SD t MD* ______________________________________________________________________________ 1 Including more practical in syllabus 3.47 .633 21.56 .965 2 Ensuring tutoring/help out of class 3.45 .735 18.19 .945 3 Increasing practical work 3.35 .889 13.45 .845 4 Providing accessible internet 3.34 .748 15.99 .844 5 Providing updated textbooks 3.29 .719 15.45 .785 6 Activating agricultural clubs 3.27 .779 14.25 .783 7 Adopting effective methods of assessment 3.25 .932 11.30 .745 8 Improving commitment among students 3.24 .745 14.04 .740 9 Increasing time to complete content 3.24 .845 12.31 .735 10 Providing sufficient textbooks 3.22 .885 11.43 .715 11 Applying effective teaching practices 3.19 .910 10.72 .690 12 Improving out-of-school activities 3.19 .766 12.74 .690 13 Mitigating students’ negative attitude 3.19 .865 11.28 .690 14 Improving quality of teachers 3.18 .948 10.07 .675 15 Mitigating teachers’ negative attitude 3.10 .845 10.04 .600 16 Improving examination structure 3.10 .741 11.36 .595 17 Motivating students and teachers 3.08 .882 9.30 .580 18 Improving libraries and laboratories 3.08 .753 10.90 .580 19 Providing adequate homework 3.05 .841 9.17 .545 20 Improving commitment among teachers 3.05 .887 8.69 .545 21 Improving school gardens 2.99 .792 8.66 .485 22 Providing sufficient tools and equipment 2.94 .897 6.86 .435 23 Updating curriculum/syllabus 2.91 .840 6.90 .410 24 Reducing theoretical work 2.91 .793 7.22 .405 25 Increasing parental involvement. 2.90 .827 6.84 .400 ______________________________________________________________________________ * Mean Differences (MD) are significant at p <.05.

5. Discussion The study determined that there are causes of poor performance of the primary school students in agriculture in Botswana. The five most serious causes are the shortage of tools and equipment, lack of libraries and laboratories, lack of out-ofschool agricultural activities, poor teaching methods and lack of practical work. Shortage of tools and equipment was the most important cause of poor performance of students in agriculture, a finding supported by Waithira (2013) and Kabugi (2013) and Muchena (2013) who contested that agriculture involves a different type of tools and should be availed for the effective teaching and learning of agriculture. Lack of libraries and laboratories was identified as the second most important cause of the students’ poor performance. This finding was supported by findings of Maimela and Monyatsi (2016), Arshad et al. (2018) and, Ayaz et al. (2017) who reported that lack of libraries and laboratories are significant factors that influence the poor performance of students. Availability of library and laboratory in schools provide a good learning environment for students in reading, understanding content and, consequently, performing better.

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Agricultural Science as a practical subject requires the tools, equipment and laboratories for the effectiveness of its teaching and learning and, therefore should be availed to the students. Lack of out-of-school agricultural activities was identified as the third most important cause of students’ poor performance Maimela and Monyatsi (2016). Out-of-school activities are learning situations or tasks in which students participate directly to gain experience. Field trips, study tours, demonstrations and experiments are some important out-of-school activities and resources are of great value for students as they prompt students to be active seekers of knowledge (Fleming et al., 2013). An educational field trip can give Agricultural Science students an opportunity to meaningfully learn and construct knowledge that improves their performance in the subject. Such trips can be organised to the well-established public and private commercial farms, agricultural research institutions, zoos, game reserves, agro-industries and other institutions related to agriculture (Ogbuluijah, 2014). Poor teaching methods are also reported as significant causes of students’ poor performance (Modebelu & Nwakpadolu, 2013). Gegbe and Koroma (2014) reported that poor teaching methods contribute to the poor performance of students, while Ojukwu (2015) and Moyo and Maseko (2016) stated that poor teaching methods and failure to use instructional material effectively also influence the performance of students. Although teachers are encouraged to facilitate active participation in the class, the learner-centred methods should be used to suit the students’ abilities (McLead, 2018). Poor teaching methods are also related to the shortage of tools and equipment, lack of libraries and laboratories, lack of out-of-school activities and lack of time to complete the syllabus and should thus be improved upon in order to enhance effective teaching methods. Lack of agriculture-related practical work came as the fifth important cause for the poor performance of students. This finding supports the one by Lee and Sulaiman (2018) who report that students who are involved in practical agricultural work performed better than those who were not. Further, Ojukwu (2015) and, Moyo and Maseko (2016) determined that the inadequacy of practical experience influenced the performance of students negatively. With agricultural education being a practical subject, it is expected that each student should have a small plot on which to learn about gardening and practical farming (Talathi et al., 2014). This study identified the six most important suggestions to improve academic performance as including more practical work in the syllabus, ensuring tutoring/help out of class, increasing practical work, providing accessible internet, providing updated textbooks and activating agricultural clubs. The suggestion to include more practical work in the syllabus is a reflection of the existing imbalance between practical and theoretical content in the syllabus as the theoretical content dominates the practical component (Oitsile, & Oats, 2020). Increasing the practical content may expose students to the real life experiences in learning agriculture as a subject and may generate student interest in learning agriculture. Tutoring is another strategy suggested for improving students’

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achievement (Mphale & Mhlauli, 2014). Some slow learners may need extra help in order to understand the content, which requires extra time and attention. The need to ensure tutoring or help out of class is in recognition of the fact that learning is an individual process and differs from learner to learner.Private tutoring can have positive impact on students’ performance (Berberoğlu & Tansel, 2014). Increasing practical work in order to improve students’ achievement requires the facilities such as farm land, equipment and laboratories. In Botswana, some primary schools do not have garden tools and implements while others do not have adequate land for demonstrations and to accommodate all the learners. Tapiwa (2021), Darko et al. (2016a) and Waithira (2013) explained that practical teaching of agriculture in high schools was greatly hampered by lack of school gardens, educational trips, demonstration plots and well-equipped laboratories. All of these inadequacies hinder practical training and force theoretical teaching which restricts hands-on skills development. Practical training in agriculture is rooted in the constructivist perspective that children learn by doing rather than by being told. Thus, the lack of out-of-school activities and practical work in agriculture pose a serious challenge to the learning situations ought to be realitybased to enable students to develop and practise the skills on their own. In the current situation of covid pandemic it becomes more relevant as shifting face to face teaching of agriculture completely to online mode may not be possible and need to device a hybrid mode whereby students can be exposed to some out of class activities (Muthuprasad et al., 2021). In the era of Information and Computer Technology (ICT), accessible internet is a way to improve student performance. Islam et al., (2018) reported that access to internet improves academic performance. Excessive internet use can lead to abnormal behaviour (Kumar et al., 2019) leading to negative influence on students' academic achievement and should, therefore, be regulated effectively (Feng et al., 2019). Updating textbooks can also improve academic performance of students. As noted by Fernandez (2014), the availability of textbooks appears to be the most important factor in improving teacher effectiveness. Mupa and Chinooneka (2019) reported a high correlation between availability of textbooks and achievement. Thus, a school that lacks adequate textbooks and revision books is likely to have a poor performance on the part of teachers and students. Agricultural club provides a platform for acquisition and application of agricultural skills through active learning/learning by doing. Such clubs significantly improve higher learning skills and achievements than a normal classroom (Saduak et al., 2019). As agriculture is based on active learning, agricultural clubs should be an essential part of the daily school life as it promotes the acquisition of knowledge and skills among the students. Therefore, it becomes crucial to establish new or activate the existing agricultural clubs in schools.

6. Conclusion This study assessed the causes of primary school students’ poor performance and explored possible ways to improve students’ performance in agriculture in primary schools in Botswana. Twenty-five causes of poor performance of

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students in agriculture were identified and the six most important ones were identified as the shortage of tools and equipment, lack of libraries and laboratories, lack of out of schools agricultural activities, poor teaching methods, lack of practical work and, students’ negative attitude towards learning. The study also identified twenty-five ways to improve the performance of students. The six most important ways are a more practical work in the syllabus, ensuring the tutoring/help out of class, increasing the practical work, providing accessible internet, providing updated textbooks and activating agricultural clubs. Female students and students studying in urban schools consider these causes more important than others as compared to their male counterparts. The eleven causes of poor performance which showed a significant difference in performance between male and female students were determined. These causes were the shortage of tools and equipment, students’ negative attitude towards learning, poorly committed students, lack of active agricultural clubs, too much practical work, less time to complete the syllabus, outdated textbooks, too much theoretical work, lack of proper school gardens and improper methods of assessment. The eleven causes showed significant difference in the performance between the students in schools located in rural and urban areas. These causes include lack of libraries and laboratories, lack of practical agricultural work, teachers’ negative attitude towards teaching, lack of internet in schools, poor examination structure, lack of tutors help outside the classroom, poor parental involvement, lack of homework, outdated textbooks, lack of proper school gardens and poor curriculum/syllabus.

7. Recommendations In order to improve the primary school students’ performance in agriculture, it is recommended that policy makers and administrators should include more practical component in the syllabus, ensure out-of-class help for students, increase practical class work, provide access to the internet, provide updated textbooks and activate agricultural clubs in the schools. Further studies are recommended to determine the reasons for the differences in the causes of poor performance of students in agriculture between male and female students, and students studying in rural and urban schools in Botswana.

8. Limitations This study has a limitation as it only involves the respondents from four primary schools in Botswana. Thus, the findings may not be generalized to the country as a whole. This limitation can be addressed by conducting research studies with a more representative number of schools and students in Botswana.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 136-173, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.9 Received Jun 24, 2021; Revised Sep 14, 2021; Accepted Sep 22, 2021

Students’ Problem-solving Difficulties and Coping Strategies in Mathematics: A Model- Building Study Dinah C. Vidad* Mariano Marcos State University, Batac City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8730-2436 Maria Ana T. Quimbo University of the Philippines, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0797-6204 Abstract. A number of research projects in educational assessment reveal that students struggle when it comes to accomplishing problem-solving tasks in Mathematics. Such a struggle is primarily due to the complexities of problem-solving. Students deal with these struggles by employing mechanisms that could be classified into either problem-focused or emotion-focused coping strategies. The study was implemented through a design-research approach by using a model-building framework with four stages: 1) analysis; 2) development; 3) implementation/validation; and 4) evaluation. The models with the two variables were also linked to the student’s sexual orientation and academic programs. Through descriptive statistical measures, such as frequency count and percentages, difficulties were enumerated through the administration of a problemsolving test. It should be noted, however, that a respondent may have at least one difficulty in the different phases of problem-solving. Two hundred and ninety-seven of the 425 college respondents were involved in the model-development stage. The majority of both males and females experienced the same difficulty/ies in all the phases, namely; the inability to distinguish the known from the unknown information (U1), the inability to transform a problem into a mathematical equation (D1), the inability to completely perform the working procedure systematically and accurately (C1), and the inability to start the evaluation of the correctness of the obtained solution (L2). The majority of the respondents of both the STEM-related and non-STEM-related academic programs experienced the same difficulties, namely: D1, C1 and L2 in the DP, CP and the LB problem-solving phases, respectively. In the UP phase,

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dinah C. Vidad, Mariano Marcos State University, Batac City, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. Email: dcvidad@mmsu.edu.ph *

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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however, the majority of the respondents in the STEM-related academic programs experienced U2, and U1 for the non-STEM-related academic programs. Moreover, 43 acts of coping were elicited from the respondents through a coping-strategy questionnaire, 32 of which were classified as problem-focused, whereas 11 were categorized as emotion-focused. Both sexes utilized the coping strategies: UP2, DP8 and CP7 in the phases of UP, DP and CP respectively. In the LB phase, LB3 was utilized by the males and LB1 was utilized by the females. The majority of the respondents of the STEM-related academic programs preferred UP2, DP8, CP7 and LB1 coping strategies, while UP2, DP8, CP7 and LB3 opted for the non-STEM related academic program respondents. The identified relationships between and among the variables brought forth two models namely: Coping Strategy by Sex by Phase, and Coping Strategy by Academic Program by Phase. Purposive sampling factors, like the availability of the respondents and the matching of coping strategies, as presented in the models developed were taken into consideration in evaluating the effectivity of the models. From the sampled respondents in the validation group, where the frequency of their pre-identified difficulties had either decreased or were totally resolved. The study concludes that the models have the ability to address the difficulties of the students in their problem-solving encounters through their coping strategies. Therefore, this study recommends that teachers should provide students with problem-solving tasks that focus on the phases in which they struggle. Additionally, this study encourages teachers to allow their students to apply their most-preferred coping strategies, so that they could perform better in Mathematics problem-solving. Keywords: Mathematics problem-solving; problem-solving difficulties; problem-solving coping strategies; model-building

1. Introduction Studies on educational assessment show that students experience difficulties in Mathematics, particularly in problem-solving. This could be a difficulty in at least one of the four phases (Polya, 1945), namely: understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back. Moreover, other studies also examined the diverse ways in which students cope with such difficulties. These coping strategies are commonly classified under two general categories, which are problem-focused and emotion-focused (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; 1985). Nevertheless, studies that investigate how these variables are associated with learners’ sexual orientations and/or academic programs are scarce. A number of studies related to problem-solving difficulties abound in the online literature. In the scholarly work of Siniguian (2017), respondents demonstrated difficulties in carrying out the plan and looking-back phases. Sultan’s (2014) study, on the other hand, revealed that students have difficulty in translating word problems into mathematical phrases, when given word problems in Algebra. In a similar vein, the study conducted by Dela Cruz and Lapinid (2014) also found that learners not only struggle in translating word problems, but also experience difficulty in Mathematics, due to carelessness, lack of comprehension, interchanging values, and unfamiliar words. Meanwhile, Ferguson (1980)

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believed that students have “reading” deficiencies, where symbols and abstractions are concerned. This deficiency can be classified under Polya’s (1945) understanding of the problem phase. According to Ferguson (1980), reading does not simply refer to the ability to pronounce the words, or attach names to the symbols, rather, it necessitates the ability to comprehend the material. Studies embarking on different academic programs correspondingly reveal the problem-solving difficulties of students. In a science class, Nikmah et al. (2019) found that students struggle in devising a plan, when they tried to get the maximum value through the concept of first derivatives of algebraic functions. Meanwhile, in a Statistics class, problems relating to permutation and combination were found with the students. Sukoriyanto et al. (2016) showed that students make a mistake in understanding the problems that resulted to a mistake when planning the problem's solution. They too made a mistake in rechecking the given information in the problem. All of this information generally confirms that difficulties exist in problem-solving. Driven by interest and curiosity, this study specifically identified the difficulties that are particular to the males and those that relate to the females. Moreover, with the K-12 curriculum, the study compared the encountered problem-solving difficulties between the STEM-related and the non-STEM-related academic programs. Many studies, which can be observed in publications and other researchdissemination platforms, have already looked at the various ways of coping with the struggles relating to Mathematics. Generally, these coping strategies come in two forms: problem-focused and emotion-focused. Problem-focused coping strategies are efforts to reduce stressful circumstances, while emotion-focused strategies are efforts to regulate the emotional consequences of stressful events (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; 1985). Coping with strategy preferences of the individual depend on the area in which he or she experiences the difficulty. One study maintained that problem-focused strategies are most preferred by students in the Western societies (Ader & Erktin, 2012; Lazarus, 1993). A study by Rioveros (2013) revealed otherwise. Tension reduction and emotional engagement, both of which are emotion-focused coping strategies, were the coping strategies most preferred by the respondents, and seeking social support, which is a problem-focused coping strategy, was the least employed. The information presented comprises the strategies generally utilized by students in managing their painful or difficult moments relating to Mathematics. The desire to unravel the strategies classified by gender and by academic program pushed the study to employ a survey questionnaire that elicited the students' most preferred coping strategies. While many research projects deal with the difficulties and the coping mechanisms in Mathematical problem-solving, there is conversely a dearth of studies that show the relationships between difficulties and coping strategies via sex and via the academic program. Taking into account this gap in the literature, this article is directed towards developing models that are based on the difficulties

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and coping strategies of students in Mathematical problem-solving, and how these are related to the students’ sex and academic programs. Ultimately, these models are expected to effectively respond to the struggles of students, when it comes to accomplishing problem-solving tasks in Mathematics.

2. The Literature Review This section starts by discussing the different kinds and reasons for students’ problem-solving difficulties, and how these could be connected to one’s sexual orientation. The discussion then transitions to the varied ways students employ to cope with their difficulties. It is also explained how coping strategies can be influenced by one’s sex and academic program. Finally, this section concludes with explaining how model-building could serve as an educational intervention to address the gaps and the issues identified. 2.1 The Current Status of Mathematics Education The majority of people would argue that Mathematics is a subject in which students struggle to comprehend and solve mathematical word problems. In fact, several studies support this claim. The Grade 12 students of Lopez (2008) appeared to have an understanding of Mathematics that does not extend much beyond problem-solving with whole numbers. It is to be emphasised that senior high school graduates must have already acquired the knowledge on the different sets of numbers; and this knowledge is not only confined to whole numbers. This situation may have contributed to the downward trend of achievement levels and the survival rates of elementary and high school students, based on the National Achievement Tests (NAT) from 2005 to 2010, that is, from having a mean percentage score (MPS) of 49.26 to 47.40 in 2008-2009 and down to 46.30 in 20092010 (Ronda, 2011). In support of this information, the study of Banilower et al. (2013) revealed that the performance of Philippine students in the international standardized examination in Mathematics and Science is generally classified as being low. 2.2. Problem-Solving Difficulties Difficulties in solving Mathematical problems are mainly due to the lack of mathematical skills. Polya (1945) characterized the difficulties in each of the four phases as follows. There is a difficulty in understanding the problem, if one cannot identify the type of problem; while the known and the unknown information, cannot recall facts or concepts, cannot define the terminologies and notations used, and cannot rephrase the problem in one’s own words. There is a difficulty in devising a plan, if one cannot draw a picture, tables or charts out of the information; if one is unable to transform problems into mathematical sentences; and if one cannot look for patterns. If one cannot work with the systematic-working procedure (computational process) in solving the problem in ensuring its accuracy, then one is struggling with carrying out the plan, and if one is unable to evaluate the correctness of the obtained solution that would ensure consistency with the facts of the problem, then he or she has a problem with the looking-back phase.

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Several studies confirm the struggles of students in the different phases. Ferguson's (1980) study revealed reading, which is a component of understanding the problem, was the single greatest problem in learning Pre-Calculus Mathematics in college. He also added that reading should not simply mean the ability to pronounce the words or attach names to the symbols, but also the ability to comprehend the material. This belief was further strengthened by a study conducted by Pearce and his colleagues (2013), where it was revealed that the greatest percentage (45%) of his respondents had problems with reading and understanding the problem. Only one cited the problem on computation, while the remaining percentages accounted for the rest of the phase difficulties. On the other hand, Dela Cruz and Lapinid (2014) revealed that translating worded problems into mathematical symbols was the single greatest difficulty for students. This is due to carelessness, lack of comprehension, interchanging values, and to the unfamiliar words used in the problem. In addition, it was found in a study involving the subject of Physics that the students were unable to remember the relavent equations (Reddy & Panacheroensawad, 2017). In solving those problems that involved derivatives, Nikmah et al. (2019) also discovered that students struggle to devise a planning phase. This was evident when the students tried to seek the maximum value when applying the concept of the first derivative of an algebraic function. The reasons behind this difficulty include the lack or the inadequacy of exercises during classes, lack of understanding the fundamental basics, poor mathematical skills in the necessary understanding of the problem, lack of motivation and inexperienced teachers, poor comprehension skills in definitions, the laws and the basic principles of physics, in addition to the lack of materials in problem-solving. These difficulties, as discovered by Sukoriyanto et al. (2016), were also evident in a Statistics class, when they were attempting to solve the problems relating to permutation and combination. The students committed an error in understanding the problems that resulted in an error in planning the problem's solution and likewise, this led to an error in rechecking the given information in the problem. This proves that poor mathematical skills and that the lack of understanding the problem comprise the major obstacles in the domain of problem-solving skills. In other Mathematics-related courses, like Chemistry, some students could correctly solve problems without being able to represent the reactions with an illustration (Nurrenberg & Pickering, 1987; Sawrey, 1990, as cited in Finney, n.d.). This ability of the student falls under the “carrying out the plan” (computational) strategy. They were good at this stage; but they had difficulties involving the “devising a plan” phase. Meanwhile, carrying out the plan and looking back were found to be the major phase difficulties in solving mathematical problems, based on a study conducted by Siniguian (2017). The inability to translate problems into mathematical equations and the inability to apply mathematical concepts and principles correctly, were the reasons for these phase difficulties. These difficulties were also evident in describing the problem-solving skill of senior high school students of a certain high school in a

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foreign country. By administering PISA test items, the results showed a very low category for both devising a plan (DP) and looking back (LB) phases, as well as a medium category for carrying out the plan (CP) phase (Arfiana & Wijaya, 2018). Difficulties in accomplishing problem-solving tasks may also be affected by the sexual orientation of an individual. Between the two sexes, Ganley (2018) observed that there are more female respondents who encountered difficulties in each phase of problem-solving than did the male respondents. This could be attributed to the female's low levels of confidence in their Mathematical skills than with males. 2.3. Students’ Coping Strategies The term “coping” refers to the thoughts and actions, to which one resorts, when dealing with a stressful situation (Cliche, 2017). Some coping strategies, however, are not as helpful as others. While positive coping strategies give opportunities to actively work towards solving the problems, negative coping strategies make anyone wear down over time; and they often aggravate the situation. Ideally, positive coping strategies include listening to music, going out with a friend, discussing situations with a friend, making an action plan to solve a problem, or seeking counselling to deal with stress; whereas negative coping strategies involve criticizing oneself, yelling at friends, taking a recreational drug, becoming aggressive, or simply avoiding friends and family. Anybody can become stressed for various reasons in different fields and situations; consequently, we need to choose the appropriate coping strategy. Folkman and Lazarus (1985; 1980) developed and devised a measure called the Ways of Coping, which consists of a series of predicates, each portraying a coping action that people sometimes engage in when under stress. They categorized coping strategies into two categories—problem-focused and emotion-focused. a) Problem-focused coping is generally viewed as an adaptive mode of coping that involves actively planning or engaging in a specific behavior, in order to overcome the problem that is causing distress (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985). The examples of problem-focused coping include planned problem-solving, confrontive/active coping and seeking social/instrumental support, such as friends, families, supervisors and mentors. b) Emotion-focused coping involves attempts to regulate the emotions evoked by the occurrence of a stressful situation; and it can be considered active or avoidant (Holahan & Moos, 1987; Ryan, 2013). Also, emotion-focused coping may involve the use of behavioral and/or cognitive strategies, such as receiving emotional support from friends and family and positive reframing (Ogden, 2004; Ryan, 2013). How do the students cope with their stressors? There are a variety of these coping strategies, some are better and more effective to students’ learning than others. The following literature illustrates the strategies used by the respondents when confronting their stresses. The respondents of Kahraman and Sungur (n. d), as cited in Rioveros (2013) stated that they cope with their difficulty in three stages. The first involved students defining the event as an obstacle to their goals. Then,

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they think of the possible strategies to handle the negative event, and choose one among them. The last stage involves students applying the chosen solution. Moreover, an examination of the experiences of stress and the coping strategies of high school students in a university (Baluyou, 1999; Rioveros, 2013) revealed that self-control, distancing, and planned problem-solving were useful and effective coping strategies. Problem-focused coping tends to predominate, when people feel that something constructive ought to be done, whereas emotion-focused coping tends to predominate, when people feel that the stressor is something that must simply be endured (Carver, et al., 1999; Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; Ghana, 2011). Due to their action-orientation, problem-focused coping strategies are more highly valued in Western societies (Ader & Erktin, 2012; Lazarus, 1993). 2.3.1. Gender and Coping Based on sex-typed predispositions, men and women adopt different coping strategies, a theory that has been frequently explored. Men would be expected to utilize problem-focused coping more than women. Men used significantly more direct actions (Rapson, 1990), and less frequently used active-behavioural avoidance and emotion-focused coping (Billings & Moos, 1984, as cited in Rapson, 1990; Eschenbeck, et al., 2002). Women, on the contrary, are expected to use more emotion-focused coping than do men (Brougham et al., 2009; Hammermeister & Burton, 2004; Kaiseler et al., 2012). They tend to use more distraction, catharsis, seeking social support, relaxation and other types of coping (Rapson, 1990; Stone & Neale, 1984), in addition to information-seeking and emotional discharging (Billings & Moos, 1984, as cited in Rapson, 1990). Tamres and colleagues (2002) revealed that women are more likely to use strategies that involve verbal expressions to others or the self—than to seek emotional support, ruminate about problems, and use positive self-talk. 2.3.2. Academic Programs and Coping A few studies reveal that students of different courses encounter varied mathematical difficulties, hence, with varied coping strategies. In a study involving BEED (Bachelor of Elementary Education) and BSEd (Bachelor of Secondary Education) students, it was disclosed that listening attentively to the teacher was the most significant coping mechanism, if one had no focus on Math tasks and one was easily distracted by external factors (Bagasol et al., 2015). The use of diagrams and pictures out of the probles and engaging in leisure activities were found to be the least-significant coping mechanisms for the students enrolled in BEED and BSEd courses, respectively. In the field of health and medicine, nursing students experienced different levels of stress that include the caring for patients, assignments and workloads, and negative interactions with staff and faculty; thus, they utilized problem-solving strategies, such as developing objectives to resolve problems, adopting various strategies to address problems, and finding the meaning of stressful events (Labrague et al., 2016), which were all problem-focused coping strategies. Finalyson (2014, as cited in Quan, 2015), maintained in his survey paper that relaxing, building self-confidence, practice, studying and doing one’s homework

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and getting help from others were the most preferred problem-focused coping strategies. On the contrary, among general education students, active coping, which is another form of problem-focused coping strategy, was revealed as being the most frequently used strategy (Okoro, 2018). 2.4. Model-Building Model-building provides a framework that guides the researcher in addressing the objectives of this study. Some empirical studies have already employed the model-building framework as their research design; and they have found it efficient and effective in attaining research aims. Houghton and his colleagues (2012), through the model that they developed, suggested that effective motion regulation and self-leadership, mediated through positive affect and self-efficacy have the potential to facilitate stress-coping among students. In another research context, challenged with technology-education students, Ernst (2009) focused on the development of problem-solving models that employ societal, cultural, and economic considerations. The results revealed no apparent effect on the initial component selection of problem-solving modelling, whether challenged with environmental or manufacturing issues. In the area of combinatorics, a model of student's combinatorial thinking, related to counting, was developed by Lockwood (2013). This model elaborated on the relationships between formulas/expressions, counting processes and sets of outcomes. Likewise, it served as an initial attempt for providing ideas and common language that researchers could utilize in evaluating their own students' combinatorial thinking and activities.

3. The Research Methodology Figure 1 shows the model-building framework that was followed in conducting this study. It employed a design-research approach with four components— analysis, development, implementation, and validation. The data were gathered by administering a problem-solving test and a coping-strategy questionnaire. The study is generally descriptive that employed quantitative and qualitative analysis.

Figure 1: The Model-Building Framework of the Study

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The Analytical Stage. This stage dealt with the analysis of the Mathematics problem-solving difficulties of the students by administering a problem-solving test. Likewise, coping strategies were elicited from the respondents by requesting them to answer the Coping -trategy Questionnaire. Two difficulties in each of the problem-solving phases were revealed; and the students preferred the Problemfocused coping strategies for dealing with with their difficulties. The Model-Developmenal Stage. Two models associating the Mathematical problem-solving difficulties and coping strategies of the students were generated and developed, namely: the coping strategies by sex by phase model, and the coping strategies by the academic program of the phase model. These models were linked with the students' sexual orientations and academic programs. Model Implementation. This stage validated the models developed by engaging the students (validation group) through the administration of a similar problemsolving test. Purposive sampling was employed in validating the models. Factors, such as the availability of the respondents and the matching of coping strategies ,as presented in the models developed, were taken into consideration. The Model-Evaluation Stage. This stage assessed and determined whether the problem-solving difficulties of the students were addressed, or not, through the coping strategies, as modelled. A decrease, or a total eradication of the preidentified difficulties, concluded the effectivity of the models developed, that is, they could address the difficulties of the students in their problem-solving encounters through their coping strategies. A total of 425 respondents participated in the study. The distribution of these respondents, based on their sex, and on the academic program is clearly presented in Table 1. They were enrolled in Mathematics in the Modern World, offered in a certain Philippine university during the first semester of the school year 2018-2019. The respondents belonged to the same year level, within the 18-19 year-old age bracket; and they were considered to be the first graduates of the K-12 curriculum. Table 1: Distribution of respondents by sex and academic program Number of Classes STEM-related academic programs Academic Programs

Number of Males

Number of Females

Total

BS-Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering BS-Chemical Engineering

BS-Civil Engineering

113

BS-Mathematics

BS-Meteorology

BS-Nursing

134

192

326

Subtotals

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Non-STEM-Related academic programs BA-Communication

BS-Economics

BS-Sociology

161

264

425

Subtotals OVERALL TOTAL

The study needed two independent groups—the model -evelopment group and the model-validation group. The grouping scheme applied the 70-30 scheme of partitioning the students. This scheme, according to Pete (2017), is arbitrary. However, the more respondents that are included in the development stage (70%), the better the developed model. Of the 425 respondents, 297 respondents represented the 70%; and they were included in the model development with the distribution of respondents by sex and academic program, as found in Table 2. This sum was identified through random sampling, specifically done through a table of random numbers generated by stattrek.com. The selected samples, however, had their final say by their participation in this study. Table 2: Distribution of respondents by sex and academic program in the modeldevelopmental stage Course STEM-Related academic programs BS-Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering BS-Chemical Engineering BS-Civil Engineering BS-Mathematics BS-Meteorology BS-Nursing Sub-totals Non-STEM-related academic programs BA-Communication BS-Economics BS-Sociology Subtotals TOTALS

Male

Female

Total

8 48 3 8 11 100

7 31 15 4 43 128

15 79 18 12 54 228

17 16 18 51 179

22 25 22 69 297

5 9 4 18 118

Meanwhile, the developed models were validated by the remaining 128 respondents that represented the 30% of the total respondents, as can be seen in the distribution in Table 3. Their participation was primarily aimed at testing whether the developed models are appropriate, and could eventually address the problem-solving difficulties of the students in the case samples.

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Table 3: Distribution of respondents by sex and academic program in the model validation stage Course STEM-Related academic programs BS-Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering BS-Chemical Engineering BS-Civil Engineering BS-Mathematics BS-Meteorology BS-Nursing Subtotals

Male

Female

Total

8 3 20 2 3 4 40

13 4 14 6 2 19 58

21 7 34 8 5 23 98

3 3 2 8 48

7 8 7 22 80

10 11 9 30 128

Non-STEM-related academic programs BA-Communication BS-Economics BS-Sociology Subtotals TOTALS

3.1. The Research Instruments This study utilized two research instruments, in order to collect the data from the respondents. The first one was a problem-solving test, which aimed to determine the problem-solving difficulties of students in Mathematics. The second instrument was the coping-strategy questionnaire, which is appended to the last part of the problem-solving test. This instrument was used to identify the coping strategies deployed by the students, when attempting to deal with their difficulties. 3.1.1. The Problem-Solving Test This test facilitated the identification of the problem-solving difficulties of the students. The test items were routine problems, which were applications in Algebra, such as problems of age, geometry/dimensions, work, mixture, investment/interest, motion, number relations and of money. Students’ solutions were assessed by the researchers, which were then counterchecked by two of their validators. It was pilot-tested and had a Cronbach’s alpha reliability of 0.79, which was acceptable. 3.1.2. The Coping-Strategy Questionnaire This questionnaire facilitated the identification of the common coping strategies of the students in solving mathematical problems. It was appended to the last part of the problem-solving test. The students were asked to share their past experiences, particularly in problem-solving situations. They were requested to share how they had managed their difficulties through their coping strategies.

4. The Research Results This section discusses the research results, starting with the identification of the students' problem-solving difficulties. It then proceeds with the elaboration on students' preferred coping strategies. Lastly, models were developed showing the problem-solving difficulties, by sex, by phase and the students' problem-solving difficulties by academic program by phase. In this section of the paper, it should

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be noted that acronyms were used to represent the four problem-solving phases— understanding the problem (UP), devising a plan (DP), carrying out the plan (CP), and looking back (LB). 4.1. Problem-Solving Difficulties Two common difficulties in each of the four phases were revealed. The difficulties were coded with prefixes indicative of the problem-solving phase. These codes were introduced by the researchers themselves. It can be seen in Table 4, that the students encountered difficulties in the different phases of problem-solving, as supported by studies from Siniguian (2017), as well as those of other scholars. Table 4: Problem-solving difficulties in the different phases Problem-Solving Phases

Understanding the Problem (UP)

Devising a Plan (DP)

Carrying Out the Plan (CP) Looking Back (LB)

Identified Difficulties

Code

Inability to distinguish the known from the unknown information

Inability to identify the type of problem and recall basic facts

Inability to transform a problem into a mathematical equation.

Inability to draw tables/charts out of the information and organize information and connect to a concept.

Inability to completely perform the working procedure systematically and accurately.

Inability to start with the computational process.

Inability to complete the checking procedure.

Inability to start the evaluation correctness of the obtained solution.

the

The following are a few examples of the students’ solutions, illustrating some of their difficulties in each of the phases. 4.1.1. Understanding the Problem Phase (UP) Figure 2 shows the student's inability to distinguish the known from the unknown information. It can be clearly observed in the figure that the student merely lifted the words/phrases, as stated in the problem.

Figure 2. Solution of BS-ABE

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Figure 3 presents the student's immediate manipulation of his or her working equation without trying to distinguish the given/known and the unknown information of the problem. He or she was not able to identify the type of problem and to recall the basic concepts, thus, he/she left the space provided blank.

Figure 3: Solution of BA-COMM-1

Figure 4 shows the student’s inability to distinguish the unknown information in the problem; and he/she just lifted the exact words used in the problem.

Figure 4: Solution of BSCE-B1

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Looking at the solution of Figure 5, the respondent completely left the space provided for understanding the problem phase. The student did not write anything about the problem’s given and unknown information; because s/he was not familiar with the type of problem and could not recall basic facts.

Figure 5: Solution of BSN-A2

4.1.2 Devising a Planned Phase (DP) One can easily check that the student was unable to transform the problem into a mathematical equation in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Solution of BS-Econ A16

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Figure 7 shows how the student worked well for the given situation, but was not able to formulate the mathematical equation that applied to the distance/motion problem. A diagram could have helped the student to analyze the situation.

Figure 7: Solution of BS-Meteo I

Figure 8 shows the solution of the student, who incompletely formed the mathematical equation for the stated problem. Incomplete in a way that s/he missed an expression to make the mathematical equation feasible.

Figure 8: BA-Socio I

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Figure 9 shows that s/he was able to distinguish the unknown from the known information, however, s/he was unable to formulate the working equation.

Figure 9: Solution of BS-CHEM E14

4.1.3. Carrying out the Planned (CP) Phase In Figure 10, it can be observed that the mathematical equation formed is correct, but the student was not able to completely perform the working procedure accurately.

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Figure 10: Solution of BSCE-A2

It can be observed that the student (Figure 11) was unable to start with the computational process because s/he was not able to form the mathematical equation.

Figure 11: Solution of BS-ABE-B23

The difficulty of performing the computational process coincides with the findings of the study of Siniguian (2017) and Dela Cruz and Lapinid (2014) , in which they investigated the difficulties experienced by the third-year college students in solving Mathematical problems. The study revealed that the difficulties are in the inability to translate into mathematical formulae (DP) that which consequently affected the student’s computational process (CP), and the inability to use correct mathematics (CP).

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4.1.4. The Looking-Back Phase (LB) Figure 12 presents the procedure that went well; but the student was not able to complete the checking procedure.

Figure 12: Solution of BSN-A1

In Figure 13, the student succeeded in performing the first three steps of Polya’s (1945) four phases, although s/he was not able to start the evaluation of his or her obtained solution.

Figure 13: Solution of BS-Econ-15

In Figure 14, the student was able to recheck/re-evaluate the derived value; but it was not consistent with the the facts of the problem.

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Figure 14: Solution of BS-ABE-A6

Figure 15 showed that the procedures went well, as can be seen from the solutions; however, s/he was not able to check whether the conditions given in the problem were satisfied or not.

Figure 15: Solution of BSN-A1

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A summary of the common difficulties classified, according to sex and the academic program is presented in Table 5. It can be gleaned from the table that both males and females experienced the same type of difficulty in every phase of the problem-solving. Table 5: Common problem-solving difficulties by sex and by phase Problem-Solving Phases

Sex Male

Female

Understanding the Problem (UP)

Devising a Plan (DP)

Carrying Out the Plan (CP)

Looking Back (LB)

Similarly, it can be seen in Table 6 that the majority of the students in the STEMrelated academic programs had difficulties in U2, D1, C1 and L2; while the majority of the students in the non-STEM related academic programs had difficulties in U1, D1, C1 and L2. Table 6: Common problem-solving difficulties by academic program by phase Academic Programs Problem-Solving Phases

STEM-Related

Non-STEM-Related

BSABE

BSCE

BSChE

BSM

BSMet

BSN

BACom

BSEcon

BSSoc

Understanding the Problem (UP)

Devising a Plan (DP)

Carrying out the Plan (CP)

Looking Back (LB)

4.2. Coping Strategies in the Different Phases of Problem-Solving There were 43 strategies that were elicited in the coping-strategy questionnaire. Each coping strategy was coded by using acronyms indicative of the problemsolving phase, where it belonged. For instance, the acronym UP1 is used to refer to the first strategy in the understanding of the problem phase (UP). Of the 43 identified strategies, 32 were problem-focused and 11 were emotion-focused. There were 10 strategies each, for the UP and the DP phases respectively, 12 for the CP phase and 11 for the LB phase.

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Table 7a: Coping strategies in the “understanding the plan phase” Understanding the Problem

Problem-Focused

Emotion-Focused

Coping Strategies recalled and/or applied basic facts/principles/stock knowledge understood fully, analyzed and listed/enumerated all the given information and/or thought critically/logically giving the focus on the problem/needed focus familiarization of terminologies using online references and/or non-online references re-read/re-write the problem and the identified clues rephrase/translated the sentence in one’s own words/grammar construction asked seatmates/friends/teacher/tutor to help explain/solve (assistance) looked for more exercises in books, and read books related to the problem at hand/more exposure reviewed old notes/lectures taught by the teacher listened attentively to the teacher ignored

Code UP1 UP2

UP3 UP5 UP6 UP7 UP8 UP9 UP10 UP4

Table 7b: Coping strategies in the “devising a plan phase” Devising a Plan

Problem-Focused

Emotion-Focused

Coping Strategies recalled and/or applied related strategies/concepts previously studied/stock knowledge to real-life situations understood fully, analyzed/thought through critically and pondered on what the formula would be searched online for some strategies/related problems proceeded in creating one’s own strategy/plan/formulas performed trial-and-error with plans organized information expressing the variables and the other numbers connecting them to a concept asked friends/teacher/tutor to help explain/solve (assistance) looked for more exercises in books and read books related to the problem at hand/more exposure/needed more problem-solving exercises needed computing gadgets did best to advance the study

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DP1 DP2 DP3 DP4 DP5 DP6 DP7 DP8 DP9 DP10

157

Table 7c: Coping strategies in the “carrying out the plan phase” Carrying out the Plan

Problem-Focused

Emotion-Focused

Coping Strategies understood fully, analyzed/thought critically and solved the problem carefully/self-study; applied plan to answer the problem by oneself With the formulas as guides, one was able to make substitutions/computations; but one needed computing gadgets watched YouTube/online applications /tutorials on the process of computations learned/reviewed the process/computations performed trial-and-error approach asked friends/teacher/tutor to help explain further the process/computation/copied from seatmate needed to read more books/references and lots of problem-solving exercises/more practice/ more exposure questioned oneself on how to solve it just overcame through positivity shared feelings with someone Ignored Talk and pray

Code CP1

CP2 CP3 CP4 CP6 CP7 CP8 CP5 CP9 CP10 CP11 CP12

Table 7d: Coping strategies in the “looking-back phase” Looking Back

Coping Strategies rechecked/re-evaluated whether the answer was correct

ProblemFocused

EmotionFocused

understood/analyzed the problem and more/self-study looked for more exercises in books and read books related to the problem at hand/more exposure be objective in formulating the equations performed trial and error needed English-language skills asked friends/teacher/tutor to help explain the whole process/sought assistance from others thought that things would get better; thought that one would get mature enough to handle the problems next time, and not get confused with questions that have easy solutions believing in one's own self-onfidence concluded briefly Ignored

Code LB1 LB2 LB8 LB4 LB5 LB6 LB7 LB3

LB9 LB10 LB11

4.2.1. Coping Strategies by Sex and by Phase Table 8 shows the top three coping strategies utilized by the students in each of the phases. The majority of the students in both sexes revealed that they utilized the same coping strategies for the UP, DP and CP phases. On the other hand, the majority of the female students preferred the coping strategy LB1, while the majority of the male respondents employed LB3 for the males in the LB phase.

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These strategies are all classified under problem-focused coping strategies, except LB3, which is an emotion-focused coping strategy. Table 8: Top three common coping strategies by sex and by phase Phases of Problem-Solving Understanding the Problem (UP)

Coping Strategies

Problem-Focused

Sex Male UP2* UP3 UP8

Female UP2* UP3 UP5 UP8

Emotion-Focused Devising a Plan (DP)

Problem-Focused

DP3 DP4 DP8*

DP2 DP3 DP8*

Emotion-Focused CP1 Carrying Out the Plan (CP)

Problem-Focused

CP7* CP8

CP1 CP2 CP7*

Emotion-Focused Problem-Focused Looking Back (LB) Emotion-Focused

LB1 LB3* LB9

LB1* LB2 LB3

* The coping strategy utilized by the majority

Table 9a presents the top three common coping strategies of the different academic programs in the STEM track. Across programs, the majority of the students preferred the strategies of UP2, DP8, CP7 and LB1 in each of the different phases, all categorized as problem-focused coping strategies. It is worth noting, however, that the majority of the students in the BS in Civil Engineering, BS in Mathematics and BS in Nursing, applied LB3, which is an emotion-focused coping strategy.

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Table 9a: Top three common coping strategies by STEM-related academic Programs by phase Phases of Problem-Solving

Understanding the Problem (UP)

Coping Strategies ProblemFocused

Stem-Related Academic Programs BS-ABE UP2* UP5 UP8

BSCE UP2 UP3* UP8

BSCHE UP2* UP3 UP8

BSM BSMET UP1 UP2 UP2* UP3* UP8

UP8*

BSN

Majority

UP2* UP2 UP5 UP8

EmotionFocused

Devising a Plan (DP)

ProblemFocused

DP3

DP1 DP2

DP2 DP3

DP3

DP1 DP3

DP4 DP5* DP7 DP8*

DP8

DP8*

DP7 DP8*

DP7*

DP8*

CP1

CP1*

CP1

CP1* CP2* CP3

DP8*

EmotionFocused CP1 CP2 Carrying Out the Plan (CP)

CP3

ProblemFocused CP7*

CP7* CP8

CP7*

LB1*

CP4 CP7*

CP1 CP2 CP7 CP7*

EmotionFocused

Looking Back (LB)

LB1* LB2*

ProblemFocused

LB1

LB1 LB2 LB1

LB5 LB7* LB8

EmotionFocused

LB3 LB9

LB3* LB9

LB3*

LB9

* Top 3 coping strategies utilized by the majority

For the three non-STEM-related academic programs in Table 9b, students preferred the strategies of UP2, DP8, CP7 and LB3. It is to be noted that LB3 is an emotion-focused coping strategy, which was preferred by the majority of the students in the said academic program.

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Table 9b: Top three common coping strategies by non-STEM-related academic programs by phase Phases of Problem-Solving

Understanding the Problem (UP)

Coping Strategies

ProblemFocused

Non-Stem-Related Academic Programs BA BS BS-Soc Majority Com Econ UP1 UP2* UP2* UP2* UP3 UP3 UP2 UP5 UP8 UP8

EmotionFocused DP1 DP2

DP2 DP3

Devising a Plan (DP)

ProblemFocused

DP4* DP5

DP8

DP6 DP8*

DP8*

CP1

EmotionFocused CP1* Carrying Out the Plan (CP)

ProblemFocused

CP3 CP7*

CP3 CP6 CP7*

CP7

CP7*

EmotionFocused LB1*

Looking Back (LB)

ProblemFocused EmotionFocused

LB7 LB3*

LB1 LB5 LB7* LB8

LB5 LB7 LB3* LB9

LB3

* Top 3 coping strategies utilized by the majority Comparing the data presented above, it can be summarized that the two groups utilized the same coping strategies from the UP phase until the CP phase. The LB phase, on the other hand, shows that the two academic programs preferred dissimilar coping strategies; LB1 for the STEM-related and LB3 for the non-STEMrelated programs, respectively.

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4.3. Model Development After careful examination of the associations between and among the variables in this study, the following models were developed.

Figure 16: Coping Strategy by Sex by Phase Model

Figure 17: Coping Strategy by Academic Program (in General) by Phase

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Figure 18: Coping Strategy by Academic Program (STEM-Related) by Phase

Figure 19: Coping Strategy by Academic Program (non STEM-related) by Phase Model

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4.4. Model Validation Addressing the difficulties of the students through their coping strategies was one of the aims of the study, hence, validation of the models had to be undertaken. Purposive sampling was done to select the respondents that would be included in the validation group; thus, factors like availability of the respondents, together with their coping strategies that matched those presented in the models developed, were taken into account. Eight male respondents and 10 female respondents were sampled for validating the “Coping Strategies by Sex by Phase Model”. In Figure 20, the pretest of Male #1 had pre-identified difficulties, namely; DP, CP and LB. However, the post-test revealed that there was a reduction in his phase and a difficulty after incorporating the coping strategy UP2. Considering the eight males that were sampled, it can be observed in the post-test that there had been a reduction in their pre-identified difficulties.

Figure 20: Pre-Post Solution of Male #1 Difficulty/ies: DP, CP, LB; Coping Strategy/ies: UP2

Focusing on the solution of the Male #2 in the pretest in Figure 21, it can be seen that he was successful in deriving the answers for the requirements of the problem. But after looking for more exercises and reading more books with related problems (DP8), the student was able to check his derived values, and concluded consequently. Hence, the student’s difficulty, which was looking back before was finally resolved in the validation stage.

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BEFORE

AFTER

Figure 21: Pre-Post Solution of Male #2 Difficulty/ies: LB; Coping Strategy: DP8

The student struggled in the looking-back (LB) phase (Figure 22). After utilizing the strategy of looking for more exercises and reading more books with related problems (DP8), the student was able to check with the correct computation and with a concluding statement. Generally, the student’s difficulty, which is looking back before, was totally resolved after the validation stage.

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Figure 22: Pre-Post Solution of Male #5 Difficulty: LB; Coping Strategy: DP8

A summary of the pre-post test results of the validation samples (males) is presented in Table 10, showing a reduction or a total eradication of the frequency of pre-identified difficulties.

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Table 10: Model validation of coping strategies of male students by phase

Looking at the solution (Figure 23), the student failed in forming the mathematical equation (DP). She knew how to operate the equation she had formed, so that she even had a concluding statement. However, after seeking assistance from friends/teacher/tutor, she was able to form the correct mathematical equation. With this, her difficulties of devising a plan were resolved.

After

Figure 23: Pre-Post Solution of Female #2; Difficulty: DP; Coping Strategy: CP7

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This student (Figure 24) was able to perform only the first phase of the problemsolving. Then, after utilizing the strategies of looking for more exercises and reading more books with related problems (DP8), and by seeking assistance from friends/teacher/tutor (CP7), she was able to perform all the phases of the problem-solving. Hence, her difficulties were totally resolved.

Figure 24: Pre-Post Solution of Female #4; Difficulty/ies: DP, CP, LB Coping Strategy/ies: DP8, CP7

A summary of the pre-post test results of the validation samples (females) is presented in Table 1,1 showing a reduction or a total eradication of the frequency of pre-identified difficulties.

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Table 11: Model validation of coping strategies of female students by phase

Lastly, Table 12 presents the respondents from each academic program with a reduced number of their pre-identified difficulties after the post-test. Table 12: Model validation of coping strategies by academic program by phase

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5. Discussion The models are compact descriptions of a system structure; and they can provide a derivation of the specific predictions from theory that can be tested with the data (Turchin, et al., n. d.). They have the ability to demonstrate understanding through different representations. Depending on the purpose, one can develop different models for the same empirical system. Mehta (2019) explained that model-building or mathematical-modelling uses mathematics to represent, analyze, and make predictions of real-world phenomena. The analytical stage commenced with the administration of a problem-solving test and a coping-strategy questionnaire from 297 respondents. The results revealed two difficulties in each of the phases of problem-solving, and each respondent encountered at least one of these difficulties in all the phases. Both males and females experienced the same difficulty in all the phases, namely an inability to distinguish the known from the unknown information (U1), which shows partial similarity with the results of Pearce et al. (2013); that is the inability to transform a problem into a mathematical equation (D1), which validates the results of Dela Cruz and Lapinid (2018); as well as the inability to completely perform the working procedure systematically and accurately (C1), which supports the findings of Finney, (n.d.) and Siniguian (2017), and also an inability to start the evaluation of the correctness of the obtained solution (L2), as revealed by Siniguian (2017). The majority of the respondents of the STEM-related academic programs likewise experienced difficulties with U2, D1, C1 and L2; while the majority of the students in the non-STEM related academic programs experienced difficulties in U1, D1, C1 and L2. On the other hand, commonly utilized coping strategies are problem-focused strategies, which reinforces the findings of Carver et al., (1999); Folkman & Lazarus, 1980, Ghan, (2011); Ader & Erktin, (2012); Lazarus (1993). The coping strategies that were elicited reveal that both sexes utilized the same coping strategies in the first three phases of the problem-solving, namely, UP2, DP8 and CP7, respectively. For the looking-back phase, the males preferred to use LB3, an emotion-focused coping strategy, which contradicts the results of Rapson (1990) and Eschenbeck et al. (2002), and LB1 for the females, which is in conflict with the findings of Brougham et al. (2009); Hammermeister & Burton (2004) and Kaiseler et al. (2012). In addition, both groups (STEM-related and non-STEM related academic programs) adopted the same set of coping strategies in the different phases, namely, UP2, DP8, CP7 and LB1. Additionally, two coping strategies in the looking-back phase were added, which are LB3 and LB7. The students' responses were triangulated by informal conversation with unstructured interview questions to a selected number of students, and to a few teachers, who handled the identified respondents. From the identified relationships between and among the variables, two models were developed, namely; Coping Strategy by Sex by Phase Model and Coping Strategy by Academic Program (non STEM-related and Stem-reated) by Phase Model. The effectivity of the models was consequently validated through the

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validation group that comprised 188 respondents. Purposive sampling, where factors like the availability of the respondents, together with their coping strategies that matched those presented in the models developed, were taken into account. From the eight male respondents, three showed a decrease in the frequency of pre-identified difficulty/ies; while five of them totally surpassed all their difficulties. For the 10 sampled female respondents, however, three showed a decrease in the frequency of pre-identified difficulty/ies; while seven of them totally surpassed their difficulties. This information concluded that the models have the ability to address the difficulties of the students in their problem-solving encounters through their coping strategies.

6. Conclusion This study examined the students' difficulties in Mathematical problem-solving and the coping strategies that they applied in response to these difficulties. Although a number of studies have already been implemented to investigate these research variables, this study introduces a different approach of analyzing these, by relating them to factors like students’ sexual orientation and academic programs. After the data analysis, the developed models were found to help address the students’ difficulties. They were able to either reduce, or totally eradicate the frequency of the students' pre-identified Mathematical problemsolving difficulties. Such findings would input a novel contribution to the literature on educational assessment, specifically in Mathematical problemsolving, since literature and studies dealing with this area are scarce. This study recommends that future research should focus on the extensive identification of the problem-solving difficulties in each of Polya’s (1945) problem-solving phases. A larger scope on the population may be considered. The focus may not only be on the secondary or tertiary education students, rather, the pre-schoolers and the elementary pupils, could be included. The studies show that an interest in numbers and numerical phenomena starts at an early age, like the preschool, or the kindergarten. In their young minds, they should become aware of the fundamental numeric skills and other cognitive foundations that are relevant in learning through mathematics education. Through it, difficulties in problemsolving may be reduced and perhaps may become non-existent as they step up in the educational ladder. Scope in terms of locale may also be considered like provincial or regional with varied dependent variables. Furthermore, future research projects may be conducted on a long-term basis to investigate whether there would be an improvement in the Mathematics problem-solving performance of the students, as their teachers employ the recommended coping strategies presented in the models. In addition, during this time of pandemic, educators should explore students' problem-solving difficulties and their coping mechanisms in online learning. Author’s Note We have no conflicts of interests to disclose. We acknowledge the Department of Science and Technology-Science Education Institute under the Capacity Building Program in Science and Mathematics,

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University of the Philippines-Open University and Mariano Marcos State University for the completion of this paper, We acknowledge John Paul C. Vallente for editing this article.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 174-191, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.10 Received Jun 30, 2021; Revised Sep 07, 2021; Accepted Sep 18, 2021

The Relationship between Musical Aptitude, Self-efficacy and Achievement of Elementary School Pre-service Teachers Seungyoun Hong Gwangju National University of Education, Seoul, Korea https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6438-8030

Abstract. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the selfefficacy of pre-primary teachers for musical aptitude, such as pitch and rhythm, and to examine whether there is a significant change in selfefficacy through individual practice and instruction of Chorubungen exercises for eight weeks. Another purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between the musical experience and musicality of preservice teachers, and their musical experience and achievement. To this end, a survey was conducted at the end of the semester for first-year students (56 males, 84 females) of a University of Education after regular individual practice in and guidance for eight weeks in the second semester of 2020. According to the results of the analysis, the positive selfefficacy of the pre-service teachers for pitch and rhythm before class participation was about 22.1% and 34.3% of the respondents, respectively, but after participating in the class, self-efficacy increased to 82.1% for pitch and 72.9% for rhythm. In comparison with the lower five variables, namely whether they learned an instrument among musical experiences (t-test) and the degree of singing (F test), pitch sensitivity (t=2.41, p<.05), rhythm sensitivity (t =1.98, p<.05), tempo sensitivity (t=2.79, p<.01), major scale, and major harmony pattern sensitivity (t=2.67, p<.01), all showed significant differences. In comparison to the achievement groups (chisquare test), differences between the achievement groups were measured based on whether they previously had experienced musical instruments (χ2=10.11, p<.01) and whether they had been active in a club (χ2=8.70, p<.05). Keywords: pre-service musical teachers; musical experience; musical aptitude; self-efficacy; Chorubungen exercises

1. Introduction Along with the development of the 2015 revised curriculum of Korea, musical sensibility, musical creativity and fusion thinking, musical communication, cultural community, music information processing, and self-management ©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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competency are nurtured through music classes (Ministry of Education, 2015). Taking cognizance of the above features, music education is considered an essential goal of the course to build students' musicality, musical sensitivity, and musical creativity (Abeles et al., 1994; Hong, 2017). It is a well-known fact that many of the students at the College of Education in Korea begin their elementary school pre-service life by ignoring the subjects related to arts and physical education, including music, under the school curriculum focused on entrance exams (Hong, 2013). As the pitch test, which had been enough to decide whether to enter the college of education 20 years ago, was removed from the entrance requirements, even students with a very low sense of pitch are admitted, complete the prescribed college curriculum, and become elementary school teachers teaching music. The musical aptitude of pre-service teachers is also a very important issue to be considered. Gordon (2007) states that musical aptitude is a measure of an individual's potential to learn music, considering that instruments to measure musical aptitude mainly use melodies and rhythms. It cannot be denied that the sense of rhythm and pitch is the basis of musicality. In terms of enhancing students' musical aptitude, the teacher's musical efficacy, which is the subject of music and education, acts as a very important variable (Jordon, 1999; 2005). Most previous studies related to the improvement of musicality focused on whether various musical activities affect musicality of children in early childhood or elementary school (Choi, 2018; Oh, 2009), and the efficacy of pre-primary schoolteachers’ musicality. If pre-service teachers with low musical aptitude graduate without a change in their musicality after entering college, the quality of their music classes cannot be guaranteed, and it will inevitably affect the development of students' musical aptitude (Kim, 2017; 2018). When instructing music classes, it is necessary to lay a foundation to enhance the self-efficacy and achievement of pre-service teachers by correcting or reinforcing their musical aptitude according to the level of prior experience and self-efficacy (Jang, 2021). According to the study, it was found that an individual's musical experience, especially the school experience, affects the individual's musical sense, music preference, and musical ability development even after school (Lim, 2015). Results of prior studies on self-efficacy related to music, showed that pre-school teachers who had music-related hobbies and field practice experience had a high degree of music teaching efficacy (Koh et al., 2019), compared to the group of preprimary teachers' music experience and those who had no experience in music teaching (Yoon, 2018). This is not unrelated to research results that indicated that emotional responses to music may also appear sensitive or high, depending on age, musical experience, or musical training at school (Moon, 2008; Parker, 2010; Trousdale et al., 2010; Swanwick, 1973). In addition, the result of the difference in self-efficacy in the subject music between

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the groups was significant (t=3.08, p<.05) (Yoon, 2018a). A study on the relationship between music performance stress and self-efficacy in the subject music of pre-primary teachers also showed that distinct negative effects investigated were related (Yoon, 2013). It was difficult to find prior studies on the degree of pre-service teachers’ music aptitude, and whether their past musical experiences affected their musical aptitude. Most of all, no prior research could be found that determined whether sense of pitch and rhythm could be improved through eight weeks of individual Chorubungen practice. A need exists to study whether there is a way in which to improve pre-service teachers’ musical aptitude and self-efficacy through one semester class within the curriculum of the college of education, or whether the method currently used by researchers can be an alternative. In this study, instead of finding specific figures for the level of musical aptitude of elementary school pre-service teachers, the purpose was to investigate the extent of their self-efficacy for pitch and rhythm, which are the criteria for musical aptitude. Therefore, the kind of relationship that existed between the level of musical achievement of pre-service teachers and their good musical experiences, was examined, as well as the kind of relationship that existed between the level of musical achievement and the sense of musical self-efficacy. The main contribution of this study is to determine the musical aptitude and selfefficacy of elementary school pre-service teachers, based on their sense of pitch and rhythm, and to investigate whether there was an improvement in self-efficacy through individual practice and guidance for eight weeks of Chorubungen, or SongonPitch, exercises which is the standard practice song collection for chorus practice, planned by the researcher. In addition, the relationship between pre-service teachers' musical experience and musical self-efficacy, and the relationship between musical experience and achievement after eight weeks will be examined, and the results of this study will be used to increase the musical self-efficacy and achievement of elementary school pre-service teachers.

2. Problem statement for and objectives of the study The problem addressed in this study deals with pre-primary school teachers’ aptitude and self-efficacy (or lack thereof) to teach music at school. The objectives of the study were: (i) to examine the self-efficacy of pre-primary teachers for musical aptitude; (ii) to examine whether there is a significant change in self-efficacy through individual practice and instruction of Chorubungen exercises for eight weeks, and (iii) to investigate the relationship between the musical experience and musicality of pre-service teachers, and their musical experience and achievement. This study was intended to answer the following research questions: 1. What is the level of self-efficacy in musical aptitude of pre-primary teachers?

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2. Is there a correlation between the groups in terms of musical experience or the level of singing and listening to music? 3. Does the possibility exist to increase the degree of musical self-efficacy of elementary school pre-service teachers through individual practice and guidance for eight weeks of Chorubungen exercises?

3. Literature review and limitations of the study 3.1 The Conceptual Framework This study is based on Gordon’s Music Learning Theory. In Gordon’s Music Learning Theory, audiation is the main concept, and there are eight types of audiation to increase musical aptitude (Gordon, 2005), namely 1. Listening to familiar or unfamiliar music. 2. Reading familiar or unfamiliar music. 3. Writing familiar or unfamiliar music from dictation. 4. Recalling and performing familiar music from memory. 5. Recalling and writing familiar music from memory. 6. Creating and improvising unfamiliar music while performing or in silence. 7. Creating and improvising unfamiliar music while reading. 8. Creating and improvising unfamiliar music while writing. 3.1.1 Musical aptitude It is argued that musical aptitude is the potential ability to understand and make music, and that all people are born with musical aptitude, which can be developed according to the environment until around the age of nine, whereafter it becomes fixed (Gordon, 2007). Gordon’s study revealed that most people's musical aptitude is in the middle of the normal distribution curve (z value = 0), and there are only a few people with very high or low musical aptitude (z value = -1, 1, -2, 2). The purpose of the measurement is to enable individualized instruction (easy, moderate, and difficult) according to the child's musical aptitude. 3.1.2 Self-efficacy In psychology, self-efficacy is the expectation and belief that one can act appropriately in any situation (Bandura, 1977; 1986; 1997). This concept was proposed by Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura, and refers to a person’s belief in his/her capacity to accomplish tasks required to achieve specific performances; people with high self-efficacy regard challenges as things that are to be mastered, rather than threats to avoid. Self-efficacy is also called self-efficacy expectation and belief in self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is not the same as knowing what to do. As a music pre-service teacher, having enough self-efficacy or not can make the difference between being successful in their music classes in the future, or not. 3.2. Limitations of the study First, in the musical self-efficacy of pre-primary elementary teachers, using Gordon's sub-concepts of musical aptitude measurement tool, namely Tonal (tonal sense) and Rhythm (rhythm), the results of musical self-efficacy expanded to other music concepts; thus it is difficult to generalize. Second, the musical experiences of pre-service teachers in elementary school were focused on whether they learned to play a musical instrument or whether they participated in music-

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related club activities, and it is difficult to generalize significant differences with sub-variables about musical experience. Third, in eight weeks of Chorubungen practice and guidance, the practice and expression of accurate and sophisticated pitch and rhythm or time were not regarded as completion or achievement, but as a case of passing even a slight immature pitch or rhythm expression while confirming the practice of the study subjects.

4. Data and methods 4.1 Research procedure and methods The method of this study is quantitative research, and the procedures of the study are as follows. First, reviewing previous studies in this study field, the musical experience, musical aptitude, and self-efficacy of elementary school pre-service teachers. Second, preparing a questionnaire to establish the relationship between the elementary school pre-service teachers' musical experience and individual achievement (musical aptitude-related self-efficacy). Third, individual practice was conducted for eight weeks using the Chorubungen practice songs for the research target students, while the contents of individual practices were checked every week. Fourth, a questionnaire was sent to the research target students through the department representative student three weeks before the class ended. The questionnaires were distributed and delivered in person or by e-mail at the end of the class. Fifth, excluding missing or erroneous response sheets, if necessary, frequency analysis or statistical analysis was conducted for each questionnaire to derive results to apply to the research problems. Results were discussed and suggestions made on meaningful parts based on the research results through analysis. 4.2 Research tools 4.2.1 Chorubungen, a practice book for solfege As stated earlier, the researcher presented the subject Music Practice for 154 firstyear students during the second semester of the 2020 academic year. It is one of the courses designed to cultivate basic musical ability before learning the contents or methods of music and music education. The textbook used at the time was Chorubungen, a practice song book for solfege written by Wüllner (1871). Wüllner (1832-1902), a German composer and conductor, wrote a textbook for reading and singing in 1871 while serving as the choral director of the Munich Conservatory. Starting with the scale and the name of the note, the 2nd to 7th tone interval, C major to various major compositions, key changes, and chromatic practice songs are presented as examples, which pre-service teachers also can start with. Table 1 shows the 8-week programme for the Chorubungen exercises, a research tool used by the preparatory teachers participating in the study.

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Table 1: Chorubungen 8-week programme Week

Contents

Application practice (#12 a~g) 2nd, 3rd, tone-interval, section break, comma length comprehension expression

Application practice (#13 a, b) 2nd, 3rd, tie, syncopation practice

Application practice (#14 a~g) 2nd, 3rd, tie, syncopation practice

Application practice (#15 a~f) 4th, 3/2, 4/2, 3/4 meter

Application practice (#16 a~d) 4th, 3/2, 2/2, 3/4 meter

Application practice (#17 a~h) 4th, beat division, up & down beats

7 8

Application practice (#18 a~e) 4th, dotted note, 2/4, 4/2 meter Application practice (#19 a~h) 3/8, 6/8, 6/4 and 3/2 meter

Ref. achievement (lower)

achievement (middle)

achievement (upper)

4.2.2 The questionnaire As shown in Table 2 below, the questionnaire used to collect data consisted of a space in which the respondent was identified (class, number, and gender), and the participant’s class achievement. It further contained questions about whether participants played musical instruments, attended music-related clubs, and enjoyed singing and listening to music before entering the school. The questionnaire comprised a total of 20 items, divided into six areas, and related questions were asked so that the contents could be explored. All questions were in closed-ended form, except for four questions, to which a clause was added to allow for free answers. A 5-point Likert-type agreement scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree) was used for all except the two questions asking about simple experience. Specific questionnaire items are shown in Table 2 below. Table 2: Questionnaire contents and questions Division Respondent Characteristic

Contents Grade, class, gender Individual Achievement Level

Questions Basic questions

Before attending class Self-efficacy for pitch and rhythm

- The degree to which one can sing the major scale with the correct pitch - The degree to which the harmony pattern of the major triad in major can be sung with the correct pitch - Degree of accuracy or sensitivity to pitch - Degree of accuracy or sensitivity to rhythm - Degree of accuracy or sensitivity to the sense of beat

#1~#5

After attending

- Whether you think the pitch has improved after individual practice of Chorubungen pieces (8 weeks)

#6~#9

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class for pitch and rhythm self-efficacy

- Whether you think your sense of rhythm has improved after individual practice of Chorubungen pieces (8 weeks) - Whether you think the sense of time has improved after individual practice for Chorubungen pieces (8 weeks) - Whether the presence or absence of a name in the score affects one's own score

Experience learning an instrument

- Any experience learning musical instruments before entering college? - Any experience with musical instruments? - How long have you been learning an instrument? - Did the experience of learning an instrument affect the development of pitch and rhythm?

#10~#13

Experience in music club activities

- Experience in music-related clubs in elementary, middle, and high school? - Type of music club? - Period of activity in the music club?

#18~#20

Affinity for music

- Whether you like to listen to music - The type of music you like to listen to

#16~#17

Affinity for singing

- Do you like to sing? - What type of songs do you like to sing?

#14~#15

4.3 Data collection and analysis For this study, questionnaires were distributed to 154 students from the end of November to the beginning of December 2020, and by mid-December, 142 people responded in writing or by e-mail. Two of the 142 responses were excluded from analysis due to their lack of suitability for analysis and the research. All respondents in this research survey were first-year students at an Educational University in Korea. Regarding the gender of the participants, the demographic data of the respondents collected indicated that 56 male students (40.0%) and 84 female students (60%) participated. Table 3 indicates how the Chorubungen practice songs were used to divide participants into groups according to their individual achievement. Group A comprised the respondents who completed the applied practice song (based on the editing of Sekwang Music Publishing Co.), No. 17 or higher. Respondents who completed the exercises a-g or 16-a-d were grouped in the relatively middle-performing group, and group C comprised the respondents who completed the applied exercises 12 a-g or 13 a-b. The frequency and composition ratio of the groups were 35 (25.0%) for group A, 50 (35.7%) in group B, and 55 (39.7%) in group C. For the analysis, using the SPSS 25 program, the t-test was used to determine the influence of learning a musical instrument among musical experiences, and the Ftest was used to compare this with the five lower variables according to the degree of singing. Pitch sensitivity, rhythm sensitivity, beat sensitivity, major scale and major harmony pattern sensitivity were tested by t. A chi-square test was performed to compare the differences among the groups in terms of achievement according to the experience of musical instruments and the presence or absence of club activities.

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Table 3: Group of Chorubungen Practice Achievement Frequency (N)

Division Group

(N)

(%)

25.0

35.7

Group C (under)

39.3

Total

140

100

Male

Female

Group A (upper)

Group B (middle)

5. Results 5.1 Degree of self-efficacy in musical aptitude of pre-service teachers The degree of self-efficacy for the study subjects on pitch before class participation is shown in Table 4 for male and female students. 40.7% of the respondents said that their sense of pitch before participating in class was 'very low' or 'low', while about 22.1% of the respondents’ responded 'high' or 'very high'. Of these, only 2.1% were found to measure very high, indicating a sense of efficacy for their own pitch. Table 4: Degree of self-efficacy on pitch before class participation Degree Division

Very

Male (%)

Low

Usual

High

Very high

Sum

56(40.0)

Female (%)

84(60.0)

Sum (%)

10 (7.1)

47 (33.6)

52(37.1)

28(20.0)

3(2.1)

140(100.0)

low

The degree of self-efficacy in the study subjects regarding the sense of rhythm prior to class participation is shown in Table 5, for male and female students separately. Of the respondents 32.8% responded that their sense of rhythm before participating in the class was 'very low' or 'low', whereas 34.3% of the respondents were of the opinion that their sense of pitch was 'high' or 'very high'. The selfefficacy in rhythm was somewhat higher than that for pitch. Table 5: Degree of self-efficacy for the sense of rhythm before class participation Measure

Very low

Low

Average

High

Very high

Sum

Male frequency (%)

56 (40.0)

Female frequency (%)

84 (60.0)

Sum (%)

8 (5.7)

38(27.1)

46(32.9)

40(29.3)

7(5.0)

140 (100.0)

Div.

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The degree of self-efficacy of the students on whether they were able to sing the major scale with the correct pitch before participating in the class is shown in Table 6, for male and female students separately. Before participating in class, 46.4% of the respondents said that their self-efficacy for the major scale was 'very negative' or 'negative', indicating that it was difficult to sing the major scale with the correct pitch, while about 28.5% of the respondents indicated that their sense of efficacy for the scale was 'high' or 'very high'. However, in reality, of these, only 6.4% showed a very positive sense of efficacy for their scale. Table 6: Degree of self-efficacy for the sense of major tonality before class participation measure

very low

low

average

high

very high

sum

Male frequency (%)

77 (40.0%)

Female frequency (%)

63 (60.0)

Sum (%)

22(15.7)

43(30.7)

35(25.0)

31(22.1)

9(6.4)

140(100.0)

div.

The degree of self-efficacy on their ability to sing the harmonic patterns (IVI-IVVI) for the major triads with the correct pitch before participating in the class also was calculated separately for male and female students, as indicated in Table 7. More than half of the respondents, namely 57.9%, responded that their selfefficacy in expressing their major harmonic patterns before class participation was 'very negative' or 'negative', revealing that it was difficult to sing the harmonic patterns with the correct pitches. About 20.7% of respondents answered that their sense of efficacy for expressing their major harmonic patterns was 'high' or 'very high'. Of these latter respondents, only 5.7% showed a very positive sense of efficacy for the progression. Table 7: Degree of self-efficacy for the major chord progression before class participation measure

very low

low

average

high

very high

sum

Male frequency (%)

55(40.0%)

Female frequency (%)

85(60.0%)

Sum (%)

27(19.3)

54(38.6)

30(21.4)

21(15.0)

8(5.7)

140(100.0%)

div.

5.2 Relationship between musical experience and sub-variables Table 8 below depicts the responses of 114 (37 male students, 77 female students) who had handled or learned to play musical instruments before entering university and who thought their musical instrument experience influenced the development of pitch and rhythm. Although 5.1% of the respondents answered

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that they had no or little effect on their development of pitch and rhythm despite their experience of learning a musical instrument, 67.5% of the respondents answered that the experience of musical instruments developed their sense of pitch and rhythm. Of these, 27.1% answered 'very much', recognizing that the musical experience through an instrument is a variable that directly affects the development of musicality. Table 8: Degree of influence on the development of pitch/rhythm with musical instrument experience Measure

Very little

Little

Average

Some

Very much

Sum

Male frequency (%)

37(32.2)

Female frequency (%)

77(67.8)

Sum (%)

1(0.7)

5(3.6)

31(22.1)

46(32.9)

31(22.1)

114(100.0)

Div.

Instrumental experience N=114(M=37, F=77)

Table 9 below examines the relationship between sub-variables such as pitch sensitivity, rhythm sensitivity, beat sensitivity, major scale expression, and major harmony pattern according to whether the study subjects dealt with or learned musical instruments before entering college. They were compared and analysed for significance with the corresponding sub-variables. It is shown that the experience of learning a musical instrument was related to all sub-variables. First, in the pitch sensitivity part, the t-value was 2.41 between the group who had learned the instrument and the group that did not, so there was a significant difference, depending on the experience of the instrument. In the rhythm sensitivity part, it was 1.98, showing a significant difference. Also, it was found to be 2.22, which was significant (95% confidence level). Moreover, in the major scale expression part and the tempo sensitivity part, the t-test results showed that the values were 2.67 and 2.79, showing significance at the 99% confidence level. Table 9: Comparison of sub-variables with instrumental experience Experience Division

Yes (112)

No (28)

Expressing major scale

2.86

1.16

2.21

1.03

Chord progression

2.60

1.13

2.07

Tone sensitivity

2.86

0.92

Rhythm sensitivity

3.09

Meter sensitivity

3.10

*p<.05, **p<.01

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2.67**

2.73

1.16

1.05

2.22*

2.49

1.13

2.39

0.87

2.41*

2.76

0.93

0.98

2.68

1.02

1.98*

3.01

1.00

0.95

2.54

0.96

2.79**

2.99

0.97

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Table 10 depicts the findings of the analysis of the comparison of the sub-variables as experienced by participants who, before entering university, had experienced club activities, and those who had not. Based on whether the study subjects had experienced club activities, subordinate variables such as pitch sensitivity, rhythm sensitivity, beat sensitivity, major scale expression, and major harmony pattern were investigated. The relationship with the variable was examined, and the significance of the sub-variable was compared and analysed through the t-test. In the pitch sensitivity part, the t value was 1.56 between the group with experience in club activities and the group without club activity, so there was no significant difference. On the other hand, in the rhythm sensitivity part, it was 2.93, showing a significant difference at the 99% confidence level. In the rest of the major scale expression, major harmony pattern, and tempo sensitivity, the values of t-test were 1.87, 0.72, and 1.70; thus, there was no significant difference. Table 10: Comparison of sub-variables with club activity experience Yes (36)

experience division

No (104)

Expressing major scale

3.03

1.00

2.63

1.20

1.81

Chord progression

2.61

0.99

2.45

1.18

0.72

Tone sensitivity

2.97

1.00

2.69

0.89

1.56

Rhythm sensitivity

3.42

0.91

2.87

0.99

2.93**

Meter sensitivity

3.22

0.93

2.90

0.98

1.70

**p<.01

Table 11 below compares and analyses the relationship between sub-variables such as pitch sensitivity, rhythm sensitivity, tempo sensitivity, major scale expression, and major harmony pattern, according to the degree to which the study subjects enjoyed listening to music. The ANOVA F-test shows the significance with the corresponding sub-variable. In the sub-variable major scale expression part, the F value was 3.27 between the group who listened to music a lot and the group that did not, and there was a significant difference. As a result of the verification, the values were 1.44, 0.33, 0.99 and 0.07, showing no significant difference. Table 11: Comparison of sub-variables with a habit of listening to music Listening to music

Usual (23)

Much (36)

Very much (81) F

Expressing major scale

2.39

0.84

2.47

1.13

2.94

1.16

3.27*

Chord progression

2.52

1.03

2.22

0.98

2.60

1.21

1.44

Division

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Tone sensitivity

2.74

0.86

2.67

0.83

2.81

0.99

0.33

Rhythm sensitivity

2.78

1.08

2.94

0.83

3.10

1.04

0.99

Meter sensitivity

2.91

0.95

3.00

0.89

3.00

1.03

0.07

*p<.05

Table 12 below shows that there is a significant correlation in all sub-variables except for the major harmonic pattern variable in the comparative analysis with sub-variables according to the degree of singing. First, in the expression part of the major scale, which is a sub-variable, the F value was 6.69 between the group who liked to sing and the group who did not, revealing a significant difference at the 99% confidence level. Then, in pitch and rhythm sensitivity, the F-values were 8.44 and 5.95, respectively, between the group who liked to sing and the group who did not, showing a significant difference at the 99% confidence level. In the beat sensitivity part, the F value was 3.60, which showed a significant difference at the 95% confidence level. Table 12: Comparison of sub-variables with a habit of singing songs less (33)

Singing songs Division

usual (36)

much (71)

Expressing major scale

2.61

1.22

2.22

0.76

3.04

1.21

6.69**

Chord progression

2.27

1.00

2.25

0.99

2.72

1.20

2.95

Tone sensitivity

2.58

0.83

2.36

0.83

3.06

0.92

8.44**

Rhythm sensitivity

2.79

1.02

2.67

0.89

3.28

0.97

5.95**

Meter sensitivity

2.91

1.04

2.67

0.89

3.18

0.95

3.60*

*p<.05, **p<.01

5.3 Awareness of the degree of self-efficacy improvement after 8 weeks of Chorubungen exercises The tables and contents below elucidate whether the study subjects thought their pitch, and rhythm improved while practising the music in the Chorubungen textbook for eight weeks, as well as their perception of the improvement in selfefficacy. The subjects practised as many pieces of music as they could each week as assignments, and after classifying the songs they had practised during class, they went through the process of classifying them as ‘pass’ or ‘re-practise’. Table 13 is the result of answering the question about whether they thought their pitch had improved while practising Chorubungen pieces for eight weeks. Of the study subjects, 82.1% answered that their pitch had improved or improved significantly while practising Chorubungen pieces for eight weeks, suggesting that improvement in self-efficacy for pitch was perceived very positively. On the

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other hand, only 3.6% of the respondents expressed a negative perception, namely that their pitch did not improve even through music practice. The results in the table are provided according to gender group. Table 13: Degree of improvement in self-efficacy for pitch Measure

neg. & very neg.

average

positive

very positive

sum

Male frequency (%)

56(40.0)

Female frequency (%)

84(60.0)

5(3.6)

20(14.3)

87(62.1)

28(20.0)

140(100.0)

Div.

Sum (%)

Table 14 shows the results of responses to the question of whether the study subjects thought their sense of rhythm had improved while practising Chorubungen pieces for eight weeks. Of the subjects, 72.9% answered that their sense of rhythm had improved or improved very much while practising Chorubungen pieces for eight weeks. On the other hand, only 5.0% of the respondents expressed a negative perception that their sense of rhythm did not improve even through music practices. Table 14: Degree of improvement in self-efficacy for rhythm Div.

Measure

neg. & very neg.

average

positive

very positive

sum

Male frequency (%)

56(40.0)

Female frequency (%)

84(60.0)

Sum (%)

7(5.0)

31(22.1)

74(52.9)

28(20.0)

140(100.0)

Div.

neg. & very neg.

average

positive

very positive

sum

Male frequency (%)

56(40.0)

Female frequency (%)

84(60.0)

Sum (%)

7(5.0)

31(22.1)

74(52.9)

28(20.0)

140(100.0)

Measure

The following is a comparison according to achievement groups (high, middle, low), in terms of whether they had experienced musical instruments, whether they had participated in club activities, and how much they enjoyed listening to music and singing. In this case, the chi-square test method is used. Table 15 below compares and analyses the correlation with the achievement group according to the presence or absence of musical instrument experience. The result of the chisquare test, χ2=10.11 and p<.01, indicates that there was a difference between the groups.

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Table 15: Comparison between musical instrument experience and achievement Experience

Yes

Sum

Group A (upper)

32 (91.4)

3 (8.6)

35 [25.0]

Group B (middle)

44 (86.3)

7 (13.7)

51 [36.4]

Group C (under)

36 (66.7)

18 (33.3)

54 [38.6]

sum

112 [80.0]

28 [20.0]

140 [100]

Group

χ2=10.11, p<.01

Table 16 below compares and analyses the correlation between the achievement group according to the presence or absence of club activities. The result of the chisquare test, χ2=8.70 and p<.05, indicates a difference between groups. It is significant that if one does not have club activities, one still can belong to achievement groups B and C. Table 16: Comparison between music club activities Experience

Yes

Sum

Group A (upper)

14 (40.0)

21 (60.0)

35 [25.0]

Group B (middle)

15 (29.4)

36 (70.6)

51 [36.4]

Group C (under)

7 (13.0)

47 (87.0)

54 [38.6]

Sum

36 [25.7]

104 [74.3]

140 [100]

Group

χ2=8.70, p<. 05

Table 17 below compares and analyses the correlation between the group achievement according to the degree of music enjoyment. The result of the chisquare test, χ2=3.26, p>.05, did not indicate any difference between groups. In other words, the degree of enjoyment of music did not have a significant effect on the achievement group. Table 17: Comparison between listening to music and achievement Listening to music Group/ N. (%)

Not much

Usual

Much

Group A (upper)

35 [25.0]

7 (20.0)

9 (25.7)

19 (54.3)

Group B (middle)

26 [51.0]

10 (19.6)

15 (29.4)

26 (51.0)

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Group C (under)

54 [38.6]

6 (11.1)

12 (22.2)

36 (66.7)

Sum

140 [100]

23 [16.4]

36 [25.7]

81 [57.9]

χ2=3.26, p>.05

Table 18 below compares and analyses the correlation with the achievement in each group according to the degree of pleasure gained from singing. The findings of the chi-square test, χ2=6.45 and p>.05, indicated no difference between groups. In other words, the degree of singing enjoyment did not have a significant effect on the achievement group. It shows that even if the degree of singing enjoyment was high, it still was possible to be classified in achievement groups B and C, and at the same time, it shows that people with a low or moderate level of enjoyment can also belong to the groups B and C. Table 18: Comparison between favouring singing and achievement Favouring singing Group/ N. (%)

Not much

usual

much

Group A (upper)

35 [25.0]

5 (14.3)

7 (20.0)

23 (65.7)

Group B (middle)

26 [51.0]

12 (23.5)

27 (52.9)

Group C (under)

54 [38.6]

16 (29.6)

17 (31.5)

21 (38.9)

Sum

140 [100]

33 [23.6]

36 [25.7]

71 [50.7]

χ2=6.45, p>.05

6. Discussion After practising Chorubungen music pieces for eight weeks, 82.1% of the study subjects responded that their self-efficacy for pitch had improved, showing an increased rate of more than 60% compared to the 22.1% who answered that they had a high self-efficacy before participating in the class. Self-efficacy for rhythm also showed an increase of more than 38.6% compared to 34.3% that answered that they had a high sense of self-efficacy before participating in class, as 72.9% of respondents answered that they had improved after eight weeks of practice. Selfefficacy for the sense of beat also showed an increase of 40.8% or more compared to 34.2% who answered that they had a high sense of self-efficacy before participating in the Chorubungen class, as 75.0% of the respondents answered that they had improved after eight weeks’ practice. A correlation was found between the experience of learning an instrument and all five sub-variables, and in the pitch sensitivity part, the t value was 2.41 between the group with and without the experience of learning an instrument, indicating a significant difference depending on experiencing the instrument. In the sensitivity part, it was shown as 1.98, showing a significant difference, and in the major harmony pattern, it was shown as 2.22, which was significant (95%

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confidence level). Moreover, in the major scale expression part and the tempo sensitivity part, the t-test results showed that the values were 2.67 and 2.79, showing significance at the 99% confidence level. In the comparative analysis of sub-variables indicating whether there had been club activity or not, the t value of 1.56 between the groups with and without club activity experience indicated that in the pitch sensitivity part, no significant difference was found, but, on the other hand, the value in the rhythm sensitivity part was 2.93 . Here a significant difference was found at the 99% confidence level. In the remaining major scale expression, major harmony pattern, and tempo sensitivity, the values of the t-test were 1.87, 0.72, and 1.70, indicating no significant difference. The comparative analysis findings with sub-variables such as pitch sensitivity, rhythm sensitivity, tempo sensitivity, major scale expression, and major harmony pattern according to the level of music enjoyment, showed that the group that usually listens to music a lot in the sub-variable major scale expression part showed a significant difference between the group with the F value of 3.27, but in the remaining major harmony patterns, pitch sensitivity, rhythm sensitivity, and tempo sensitivity, the F value was 1.44, 0.33, 0.99, and 0.07, indicating that no significant difference was observed. The comparative analysis with sub-variables according to the degree of usual singing indicated a significant correlation in all sub-variables except for the major harmonic pattern variable. First, in the expression part of the major scale, which is a sub-variable, the F value was 6.69 between the group who liked to sing and the group who did not like singing, revealing a significant difference at the 99% confidence level. Then, in pitch and rhythm sensitivity, the F-values were 8.44 and 5.95, respectively, between the group who liked to sing and the group who did not, showing a significant difference at the 99% confidence level. In the beat sensitivity part, the F value was 3.60, which showed a significant difference at the 95% confidence level. In comparing the groups by achievement, musical instrument experience, club activity experience, music enjoyment level, and singing level were comparatively analysed as dependent variables, and the significance of differences between groups was examined based on the chi-square test result. The correlation with the achievement group according to the experience of musical instruments was compared and analysed. As a result of the chi-square test, χ2=10.11, p <.01, was recognized, the correlation between the groups was recognized, and the correlation with the achievement group according to the experience of club activities was evaluated. As a result of comparative analysis, the chi-square test result also showed p<.05 at χ2=8.70, indicating a difference between groups. A significant finding was that if participants did not have club activity experience, they still could belong to achievement groups B (in achievement) and C (under achievement). This is a comparative analysis of the correlation with the achievement group according to their degree of enjoyment of music. As a result

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of the chi-square test, p>.05 at χ2=3.26, the difference between the groups was not recognized. There was a significant difference in the achievement group according to the degree of enjoyment of music. As a result of comparative analysis of the correlation with the achievement group according to the degree of singing enjoyment, the chi-square test result showed that χ2=6.45 and p>.05, so no difference was recognized between groups.

7. Conclusion The study found that only 22.1% of the respondents believed that pre-service teachers' self-efficacy for pitch before class participation was high, indicating that most of the respondents (78%) had a low self-efficacy for pitch. Self-efficacy for rhythmic sense was higher than that of pitch, as 34.3% answered that it was high, but the remaining about 64% showed no high sense of efficacy for rhythmic sense. Their self-efficacy of the sense of beat was high at 34.2%, which is in congruence with the sense of rhythm. The self-efficacy of the major scale was 28.5% positive, but 71.5% showed that the self-efficacy was not high for the major scale. In addition, only 20.7% of the respondents answered positively in terms of selfefficacy for harmonious progression in a major key, while the remaining almost 80% indicated low self-efficacy for harmonious progression patterns. Based on the results of this study, the following conclusions can be made. First, although most of the students entering the College of Education had a low selfefficacy for pitch, rhythm, and rhythm related to musical aptitude, self-efficacy could be positively improved through eight weeks’ individual practice. Second, depending on the individual's musical environment, such as 'how much you usually sing' and 'whether you have learned or experienced an instrument', it is possible to express major scale and harmonic progression patterns, or to affect sensitivity to pitch, rhythm, and beat. However, there was no significant difference regarding 'experience of club activities' or 'usually listening to music'. Third, as the difference between groups was recognized in the relationship between achievement groups in the group with instrumental experience, it was found that instrumental experience played a more positive role in enhancing students' musical self-efficacy than other musical experiences.

8. References Abeles, H. F., Hoffer, C. R., & Klotman, R. H. (1994). Foundations of music education. Schirmer Books. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1987.4306538 Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman. Choi, J. W. (2018). The Effects of Music Activity Using Dalcroze Eurhythmics on Infant Musicality Improvement. Comprehensive Arts and Music, 2(1), 117-118. Gordon, E. E. (2007). Learning sequences in music: A contemporary learning theory. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications, Inc. Gordon, E. E. (2005). Music aptitude and related test: An introduction. Chicago, IL: GIA Publications. Hong, S. Y. (2017). An analyzing study of partial 2 part-chorus in the 5 and 6th grades'

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music textbooks. Korean Journal of Music Education Technology, 30, 55-72. https://doi.org/10.30832/Jmes.2017.30.55 Hong, S. Y. (2013). A preliminary study on instructional methods of singing activities based on Gordon's music learning theory: Concentrated on the 3rd grade in elementary school. Korean Journal of Research in Music Education, 42(3), 357-385. Jang, S. O. (2021). Trends of Early Childhood Pre-Service Teachers’ Research related to Self-Efficacy. Korean Association for Learner-centered Curriculum and Instruction, 21(1), 685-687. Jordon, J. M. (2005). Evoking sound: The choral warm-up methods, procedures, planning, and core vocal exercises. Chicago, IL: GIA. Jordon, J. M. (1999). The Musician’s Soul. Chicago, IL: GIA. Kim, Y. A. (2017). Using small groups’ effect of rehearsal plan of elementary school choir. (Master’s thesis). [Gyeongin] National University of Education, South Korea. Kim, H. Y. (2018). A study on elementary school choir rehearsal techniques for teachers. (Master’s thesis). Korea National University of Education, South Korea. Koh, S. A., Kim, M. J., & Kim, N. Y. (2019). A Study on Pre-service Early Childhood Teachers’ Music Self-concept and Music Teaching Efficacy according as Experiences related to Music. Korean Association for Learner-centered Curriculum and Instruction, 19(21), 995-998. Lim, E. J. (2015). Significant Influences of School Music Experiences on one’s Musical Development during School Years and Beyond. Research in Music Pedagogy, 15, 201. Ministry of Education. (2015). Ministry of Education Notice No. 2015-74 [Annex 12]. Seoul, Korea. Moon, J. Y. (2008). A Study on the Relation of Gender, Age, and Musical Experience with Emotional Response to Music. Music and Culture, 19, 158-160. https://doi.org/10.17091/kswm.2008.19.147 Oh, N. R. (2009). A Survey on the Influence of Musical Education before the Age of 9 on the Development of Musical Talent. Comprehensive Arts and Music, 3, 115. Parker, E. C. (2010). Exploring student experiences of belonging within an urban high school choral ensemble: An action research study. Music Education Research, 12(4), 339-352. https://doi.org/10.1080/14613808.2010.519379 Swanwick, K. (1973). Musical cognition and aesthetic response. Psychology of Music, 1(2), 7-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/030573567312001 Trousdale, A., Bach, E., & Willis, E. (2010). Freedom, physicality, friendship and feeling: Aspects of children’s spirituality expressed through the choral reading of poetry. International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 15(4), 317-329. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364436x.2010.529874 Yoon, G. K. (2018). A Study on the Correlation between Music Performance Stress and Elementary Pre-Service Teacher’s Music Education Self-Efficacy. Korean Journal of Research in Music Education, 45(1), 139-141. https://doi.org/10.30775/kmes.47.1.06 Yoon, G. K. (2018a). A Study on the Correlations Between Elementary Pre-Service Teacher`s Music Subject Self-Efficacy and Previous Experience about Music Education. Korean Journal of Research in Music Education, 45(4), 129-131. Yoon, M. J. (2013). Orff Instrumental Ensemble Programs and Self-Efficacy of Pre-service Teachers. Korean Journal of Music Education Technology, 17, 12-13. Wüllner, F. (1871). Chorubungen: Choir exercises at the Munich School. [Chorubungen] Translated by [Sekwang] Music Publishing Co.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 192-206, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.11 Received Jun 27, 2021; Revised Sep 13, 2021; Accepted Sep 22, 2021

Motivational Teaching Strategies and EFL Students’ Essay Writing Proficiency Puspa Dewi, Abdurrachman Faridi, Mursid Saleh and Sri Wuli Fitriati Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5806-3624 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6250-9692 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4049-5322 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6405-1371 Abstract. Motivation is considered a complex and challenging issue in teaching, especially in second language courses. Many studies have been conducted about motivational strategies in teaching English language, however, the research that focuses on essay writing is still rare. Therefore, this research aims to describe the effect of the motivational strategies on students’ essay writing proficiency and their response to its implementation. These strategies include Creating the Basic Motivational Condition (CBMC), Generating Initial Motivation (GIM), Maintaining and Protecting Motivation (MPM), and Encouraging Positive Retrospective SelfEvaluation (EPRS). The research participants were third-semester undergraduates in a private university, in Indonesia, that enrolled in essay writing. The data were collected by conducting essay writing tests and interviews. The results revealed that there was a statistically significant impact on the students' writing scores, as observed from the improvement from their pre-test to post-test scores In addition, the data from the interview showed the students’ positive response and consciousness of their writing progress which indicated the appropriateness of the strategies in their class. The results showed the necessity of implementing motivational strategies as a new model of English instruction by writing lecturers and English teachers in general. Keywords: English as a Foreign Language students; motivational teaching strategies; essay writing proficiency

1. Introduction Motivation is a crucial aspect of achieving one's goals while learning, It is one of the methods of assessing second language (L2) proficiency and maintaining students' enthusiasm for learning (Ruesch et al., 2012). It was stated as the primary factor that influences college students' behaviour (Covington & Teel, 1999). And it is often described as an internal controller which encourages force, wish, or desire (Deniz in Camit et al., 2014). Furthermore, it is a combination of situational ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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and personal influences that prompt people to engage in activities (Alexeeva in Lukianova, 2016). Students' motivation is the most important factor in their language learning quest (McEown & Takeuchi, 2014). It has an impact on how a learner grasp a second language and it decides whether they succeed or fail (Ditual, 2012). Motivation is important because it defines a learner's persistence in a course, level of engagement, job quality, and success (Hartnett in Panagiotidis et al., 2018). It has an effect on students' desire and need to participate in all learning experiences, as well as their academic achievement (Fairbrother in Ghbari, 2016). Often EFL teachers use motivational techniques in their classrooms to educe inspiration in English language during learning. At the university level, there are several forms of writing subjects, which include essay writing. An essay is made up of several paragraphs that are all on the same subject and have the same key concept. It usually contain three major sections, namely Introduction, body, and conclusion (Oshima & Hogue, 1998). It sometimes describe a topic directly or indirectly, in a serious or humorous tone, in order to express personal views. The writer, in the first paragraph outlines the essay's topic, gives meaning to it, presents the general overview, and piques readers' attention. The body of the essay sometimes take one or two paragraphs, because it describes the topic's subdivisions. It is the longest part of the article, and its number in essay writing varies based on the subtopics' structure. The conclusion is the general description or re-examination of the key issues raised in the body. Transition signals are critical for establishing a logical connection between the three sections of an essay (Oshima & Hogue, 1998). Moreover, there are four categories of essays, namely chronological order, cause and effect, comparison/contrast, and argumentative, depending on the organizational level. A written essay in which a sequence of incidents are described is known as chronological order. The causeand-effect essay, which is normally written in block or chain style, explains why something happened and consequences of those occurrences. In the block concept, the outcomes are discussed and analysed, while all the causes and effects are presented in a sequence, in the chain classification. Similarities and distinctions between two items are explained in the comparison/contrast essay. And argumentative essay deals with thoughts and arguments of a writer on a particular subject (Oshima & Hogue, 1998). Furthermore, motivation is important in instructing second language and its writing success (Karaca & Inan, 2020). In order to inspire pupils in the classroom, teachers should use a variety of strategies (Johnson, 2012), and one of these is the motivational approach. The teacher in this study employed persuasive techniques when teaching four different styles of essays. The strategies were CBMC, GIM, MPM, and EPRS. Motivational strategies (MSs) are instructional techniques used by teachers to increase and sustain students' interest in a subject (McEown & Takeuchi, 2014). Students grow their confidence in a course and an optimistic expectation of achievement with the aid of these techniques (Keller et al in Ghbari, 2016). Many countries, including Indonesia, have studied motivational strategies, which showed difference in students' and teachers' expectations of their application (Karaca & Inan, 2020). Astuti (2013) discovered this gap the Encouraging Positive

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Retrospective Self-Evaluation (EPRS) technique. This method was based on teaching students to assess their own learning in order to increase inspiration. It was also based on educating English teachers on establishing positive relationships with their students and choosing suitable teaching materials. While several studies on motivational strategies have been undertaken in different countries, the study which has directly investigated its effect on students' essay writing proficiency in Indonesian universities is still rare. Therefore, it became necessary to study this field as one of the factors lecturers need to consider when implementing motivational techniques as a new model of English instruction.

2. Literature Review Techniques that help language learners to accomplish their goals are referred to as motivational methods (Dörnyei in Sugita & Takeuchi, 2010; Wong, 2014). And this strategy as proposed by Dörnyei in 2001, has become the primary concern of EFL practitioners and researchers. Due to various culture-specific reasons, such as repeated tests, broad class sizes, cultural expectations, and an overemphasis on students' obedience, L2 teachers overlook certain crucial techniques. (Cheng & Dörnyei in Lee et al., 2019). One of these, is the motivational strategy (MS) which has four components, namely CBMC, GIM, MPM, and EPRS (Dörnyei, 2001). During these four steps, students' confidence is planned, created, promoted, sustained, and safeguarded. They are broken down into 35 techniques and three teaching steps, I.e., pre-teaching, in-class, and after-class teaching. In the pre-teaching step, CBMC and GIM are practiced. The first motivational strategy is important because it serves as an effective mood-booster for students to join the class. It is established from the moment the lecturer demonstrates enthusiasm for teaching, creating a welcoming and motivating environment. Some strategies invoked in the GIM category are as follows, inviting peer-role model, increasing the students’ ability to produce essay, and making the curriculum relevant to the students’ need. During the in-class teaching step, MPM category with fourteen strategies is practiced by the lecturer. The strategies at this actional phase are performed to reduce any distractions which results in demotivation. From the fourteen strategies, the lecturer pick those that are applicable. And at the after-class step, the lecturer encourages positive selfevaluation. The students’ feeling toward their accomplishment and the level of their satisfaction after completing the task influence the lecturer's method of approach. By implementing appropriate strategies, the learners are able to evaluate themselves of the progress of their learning. According to Dörnyei (2001), there are four components and thirty five subcomponents of MS. They are as follows. a. CBMC 1) Demonstrating and discussing the lecturer's enthusiasm for the subject of Essay Writing and its value to students 2) Caring about the students' efforts in writing their essays 3) Building a personal contact with the students in the classroom, both during and after lecture 4) Establishing a cooperative connection with the parents of the students

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5) Creating a welcoming and encouraging environment in the classroom. 6) Encouraging the growth of group cohesion. 7) Formulating clear group norms that are effective during essay Writing tasks and assignments, and having the learners discuss and accept them. 8) Consistently observing group norms b.

GIM 1) Presenting peer role models in writing activities, to promote the learners' language-related values. 2) Increasing the inherent interest of students in the learning process. 3) Promoting an optimistic and receptive outlook toward English, particularly in writing, to encourage ‘integrative' ideals. 4) Raising students' understanding of the instrumental values that are associated with writing skill knowledge. 5) Increasing students' confidence in their ability to succeed in specific tasks during writing class and learning in general. 6) Increasing pupils' goal-orientedness by establishing concrete class goals that they embrace. 7) Making the Essay Writing curriculum and instructional materials available to students. 8) Assisting learners in developing accurate perceptions about their writing abilities.

MPM 1) Breaking up the monotony of classroom activities in order to make essay writing lesson more engaging and entertaining. 2) Increasing the attractiveness of the writing activities in the class to make it more exciting and entertaining. 3) Enlisting students to participate in active tasks to make workshop more engaging. 4) Using motivational methods to present and administrate writing assignments. 5) During essay writing workshop, goal-setting techniques should be utilized. 6) Using contractual strategies with students in Essay writing class to encourage their objective commitment. 7) Providing students with regular examples of professional' writing success. 8) Increasing learners' confidence by encouraging them to learn to write on a regular basis. 9) Assisting in the reduction of language anxiety, by removing or reducing anxiety-provoking aspects. 10) Instilling confidence in the learners' writing talents through the instruction of numerous learner tactics. 11) Enabling students to retain a favorable social image while working on assignments. 12) Increasing student enthusiasm in writing class by encouraging collaboration among them.

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13) Increasing student enthusiasm in writing class by actively supporting learner autonomy. 14) Improving pupils' ability to self-motivate in their writing skills. d.

EPRS 1) Encouraging students to attribute effort to their writing abilities. 2) Providing positive comments to students on writing activities and assignments. 3) Increasing learners' happiness in Essay writing class. 4) Offering encouraging prizes for pupils' writing accomplishments. 5) Offering rewards for participating in activities, to allow students become interested. This is because they require creative goal-oriented behaviours, which assess students' writing achievement in a motivational method, and minimizing the demotivating effect of grades (Dörnyei, 2001, p. 29)

Motivational strategy has been researched and discovered to produce useful information on the benefits of language teaching. Harmer (2001) stated that teachers of languages have reported that students that really want to learn succeed no matter their circumstance. All the teachers recounted situations in which certain “motivated” students did significantly better than their peers. This led to the conclusion that students frequently succeed in what appear to be unfavorable conditions, even when treated with methods which experts consider unsatisfactory. This phenomenon suggests that the motivation the students bring to class is the biggest single factor which affect their success (Bahous, 2011; Dembo, 2004; Kakar & Pathan, 2017). In addition, Dörnyei in Kakar & Pathan (2017: 117) stated that motivational strategies are techniques that encourage individuals to promote their behaviors, using different methods. Furthermore, motivational strategy are defined as instructional interventions that are consciously applied by L2 teachers to promote, improve, and maintain students' good behavior. An EFL instructor revealed that to motivate learners, they employed the self-sufficiency motivational strategy. In which they discovered that it promotes learners’ autonomy, this has since being very influential in their learning procedure. Moreover, the findings of the study illustrated that teachers strongly supported learners’ independence and it resulted in their autonomy. Also,it stated that learner with high autonomy were able to increase their level of understanding to achieve the assigned task by their instructors, which familiarized the teachers with the advantages of L2 learning (Abdullah et al., 2019). It had been researched by many countries, including Indonesia, that there is a gap in the perception of students and teachers regarding the implementation of these techniques (Karaca & Inan, 2020). Motivational strategies are defined as instructional interventions consciously applied by L2 teachers to elicit, enhance, and sustain student motivated behavior, till graduation, therefore reducing potential distraction (Guilloteaux, 2013). Writing is a central feature in language learning, which involve grammatical constructions and vocabulary (Cole & Feng, 2015). For L2 learners, writing is the most difficult task to master (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991), because it necessitates the use of thought mechanisms in order to deliver successful concepts (Franscy et al.,

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2019). When students want to communicate an idea to a reader for a specific reason, writing plays an important role in that. The learner explain things, and as a result, readers gain information by reading the messages (Ratnah, 2018). In order to write a successful composition, students are to include all linguistic components (Nazri et al., 2018). Arrangement, preparation, conceptualization, composition, rewriting, and adjustments are all common requirements for writing (Vijayavalsalan, 2016). Students are to write grammatically correct sentences and link them in a readable and well-formed text (Heaton in Limbong, 2018). Based on the background of the study, the research questions of this current study are as follows, (1) What is the effect of implementing motivational teaching strategies on EFL students’ essay writing proficiency? (2) What is the students’ response to the implementation of motivational teaching strategies in essay writing class?

3. Methodology A combination of quantitative and qualitative research was utilized in this study. The pre-experimental study was carried out using the quantitative research, while a case study was utilized for that of the qualitative. In the quantitative method, the research issue was determined based on patterns on the field or the need to justify an occurrence. Defining a pattern means that a study addresses the research problem by determining the general disposition of individual responses and noting their differences (Creswell, 2012). In this study, the effect of the implementation of motivational strategies on the students’ essay writing proficiency was investigated. And for the qualitative data, interview was conducted to support the findings of the quantitative. The research sample consisted of twenty-seven students that were enrolled in the only regular essay writing class. They displayed their willingness to participate in the research by the submission of the research consent form. The saturated sampling method was utilized since there was only one class, just as in Sugiyono (2013). Rukminingsih et al. (2020) described saturated sampling as a technique in which all members of the population are utilized. Generalizations were made with as little mistakes as possible since the sample included in this study was comparatively small (less than 30 people). Arikunto (2015) explained that when the population is less than 100 individuals, the complete sample should be taken. And when it is more than 100, 10-15% or 20-25% of the population should be utilized as samples. In the previous term, the students had taken sentence and paragraph writing course. Lastly, the study was carried out at a private university in Indonesia's Central Java. The writing output was restricted to the essay writing course taught in the third semester, where assessments were conducted to determine the students' writing skills. During grading there are three types of scoring, namely, holistic, traitbased, and analytic. An analytical scoring approach was suitable for this study because it was necessary to calculate the five elements of writing, i.e., text,

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organization, grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics. By extracting and measuring individual components, this approach precisely specified the features to be quantified. This method of scoring is more accurate at distinguishing between the weaker texts. Material, organization, and grammar have their own scales in analytic scoring rubrics, where those of vocabulary and mechanics are often added separately. Each of these elements had a numerical value assigned to it (Hyland, 2003), also Brown's scoring method was taken into consideration (Brown, 2007). The participants were required to write essays that followed a certain structure (cause and effect, comparison/contrast, and chronological order) while utilizing proper writing conventions. For their writing to be considered a good composition, they are to consider the appropriate use of grammar, vocabulary, mechanics, content, and organization. Meanwhile the ten interview items utilized were adapted from Dörnyei (2001) with some modifications, to obtain deeper information about the lecturer's motivational strategies on the students. These strategies included creating the basic motivational condition, generating initial encouragement, maintaining and protecting motivation, and encouraging positive retrospective self-evaluation on their writing progress. The progress of their essays were observed from the five elements of writing, i.e. content, organization, grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics. The data were collected in sixteen meetings. The first meeting was the pre-test, where the students were assigned to write a chronological essay within 100 minutes. They were offered to choose from the following topics, How to get a driver’s license, How to break a bad habit and How to cook a special dish from your culture. The second until the fourteenth meeting were the implementation of motivational strategies. In the fifteenth meeting, an interview was conducted to determine the students’ perception on the implementation of motivational strategies by the lecturer during the semester. And the sixteenth meeting was the post-test on writing, where the lecturer offered some topics under cause and effect, comparison/contrast, chronological order, and argumentative organization essay. Two types of data analysis was utilized in this study, i.e., quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative method, the descriptive analysis was employed to measure the mean and the standard deviation of writing score. In addition, qualitative analysis was conducted to measure the effect of motivational strategies on the students’ essay writing proficiency. The data were collected from the results of the essay writing post-test, then they were analyzed using SPSS 22 statistics analysis program. For the qualitative data, the learners’ statements from interview were transcribed and coded using thematic analysis.

4. Research Results Writing assessments were used to monitor the development of the students' writing abilities. Students were given the option of writing an essay in chronological order, cause/effect, or comparison/contrast format.

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The pre-test was performed before the implementation of motivational strategies in the essay writing class. The participants were assigned to write a chronological order essay which consisted of 450-500 words. The lecturer offered three topics to choose from, (a) How to get a driver’s license, (b) How to break a bad habit, (c) How to cook a special dish from your culture. The consideration for choosing those topics was because the students had background knowledge on them. Their chronological order essays were supposed to cover introductory, three body paragraphs, and one concluding section. Based on the results, it was inferred that the highest score was 77.4, while the lowest was 58.6, and the mean was 65.6. This means that the students’ writing performance was in fair category between 65-69. The frequency distribution of the pre-test score is presented in figure 1.

Percentage of the Pre-test Score 20 15 10 5 0 0-50

50-60

60-70

70-80

80-100

Writing score

Figure 1. The Frequency Distribution of the Students’ Post-test Score

Figure 1 shows that out of 27 students, 6 or 22% belonged to the good category, 19 or 70% were in fair category, and 2 or 7% belonged to the poor classification. There was no students in the excellent category. The post-test was conducted after the implementation of the motivational strategies with encouraging positive self-retrospective evaluation component. The participants were encouraged to choose one of the patterns of essay organization which consisted of 450-500 words. The lecturer instructed the students to choose their own topic from the following “How to make or prepare traditional foods from Indonesia” (cause and effect), “opening modern market in small town (comparison and contrast), "online free-learning tutorial for students" (chronological order). The consideration was that when they choose their own topic, they enjoy writing and developing their ideas freely based on knowledge and preferences. Their essay should cover introductory, body and one concluding paragraph. It was inferred from the post-test results that the highest score was 88.6, and the lowest was 71. The frequency distribution of the post-test score was presented in figure 2.

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Percentage of Post-test Score 20 15 10

5 0 0-50

50-60

60-70

70-80

80-100

Writing score

Figure 2. The Frequency Distribution of the Students’ Post-test Score

Based on the finding presented in figure 2, it was inferred that the highest score was 88.6, and the lowest was 71, while the mean was 80.8. There was an improvement (15.25) of the means' score from pre-test (65.63) to post-test (80.88). Also, figure 2 shows that there were students in the excellent category between 80-100. Out of 27 students, 15 or 55.5% belonged to good category, and 12 or 44% were in the excellent category. Meanwhile, no student belonged to poor and fair classification. In addition, data were inputted into Microsoft Excel, then the descriptive statistics was conducted using SPSS as presented in table 1. Table 1: Descriptive Statistics N

1772 2184

65.63 80.88

.993 1.076

Std. Deviation Statistic

Std. Error

77 89

Statistic

59 72

Mean

Statistic

19 17

Statistic

27 27

Statistic

Statistic pre-test post-test Valid N (listwise)

Range Minimum Maximum Sum

5.159 5.590

Table 1 shows that both the computation using Microsoft Excel and SPSS had the same results of the students’ writing achievement in the pre-test. The standard deviation of pre-test was 5.16 and that of the post-test was 5.59. To reveal the normality of the data of pre-test and post-test, its test was carried out. The results are presented in table 2 as follows.

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Table 2: Test of Normality One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Unstandardized Residual N Normal Parametersa,b

27 .0000000 4.45101142 .122 .122 -.082 .122 .200c,d

Mean Std. Deviation Absolute Positive Negative

Most Extreme Differences

Test Statistic Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) a. Test distribution is Normal. b. Calculated from data.

c. Lilliefors Significance Correction. d. This is a lower bound of the true significance.

Table 2 shows the normality test results of students’ writing score in pre-test and post-test. The Sig. value of the writing score was higher than the level of significance 0.05 (0.200>0.05). It was clear that writing score variable was in normal distribution. In addition, to reveal the effect of the implementation of motivational strategies to the students’ essay writing score, Paired Samples test was administered. This test belongs to a parametric statistical test. The goal of the test is to determine whether the results of pre-test and post-test are statistically different. Table 3: Paired Samples Test

Mean Pair 1 pre-test post-test

Paired Differences 95% Confidence Interval of the Std. Difference Std. Error Deviation Mean Lower Upper

-15.252

5.358

1.031 -17.371 -13.132 -14.792

Sig. (2tailed)

.000

Based on table 3, the value of negative rank was 0 and that of the positive was 27 which meant the results of post-test was higher than that of pre-test. The average rank of pre-test and post-test was 14.792. In addition, the results of Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 was lower than 0.005 which meant that the alternative hypothesis was accepted that there was significant effect of the implementation of motivational strategies on the students’ writing proficiency. Furthermore, the improvement of the students’ writing proficiency was observed from each writing elements, i.e., text, organization, grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics. The mean of text improved from 63.8 to 80.9 (17.1), that of organization improved from 66 to 82.1 (18.5), grammar from 66.2 to 79.6 (13.4), vocabulary from 67.5 to 80.4 (12.9); and that of mechanics improved from 66.9 to 81.3 (14.3). The highest improvement was at organization. This indicates that the students’ essay were constructed well.

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To support the quantitative findings, interview with students was carried out to get deeper information on whether motivational strategies helped the students to improve their writing proficiency. The results of the interview are presented as follows. Table 4: The Students’ Response on Motivational Strategies to Improve Their Writing Interview Items Creating the basic motivational conditions Generating initial motivation Maintaining and protecting motivation Encouraging positive selfevaluation

Content

Coding results

Example of statements

Preparing the Students both physically and mentally ready for writing class Generating positive students attitude towards learning Making students motivated during learning process

“I became more ready to join the essay writing class than before because the lecturer gave us motivation in the beginning.” “I come to class on time than before.”

Helping students to consider their writing achievement in a more positive light Improving topic and details

“I feel happy whenever I make improvement from each task. My lecturer shows me these areas.” “I feel satisfied when my lecturer gives me score for my achievement.”

“I like learning when one of my intelligent classmates help me to understand the material.” “The lecturer negotiate the learning goals in writing class. Where I measure my own learning.” “I like when my lecturer say something funny. I am able to forget my difficulty for a moment.” “The assignments vary, therefore I learn faster.”

“Motivational strategies help me to improve my ideas in writing.” “I am able to explore my ideas and arrange them in good composition of writing.”

Organization

Improving identification and description

Grammar

Improving correct tense and agreement

Vocabulary

Improving word choice and word form

Mechanics

Improving spelling, punctuation, and capitalization

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“Motivational strategies improve the organization of my essay.” “Motivational strategies make my essay more structured.” “Motivational strategies enable students to understand the rules of writing an essay.” “Motivational strategies allow me to enhance my grammar competence.” “Motivational strategies encourage us to keep learning till the essay is properly constructed. They also enable us to acquire new vocabularies.” “Motivational strategies enhance my vocabulary because I endeavour to learn new concepts.” “Motivational strategies produce many benefits, and one of them is capitalization because sometimes I forget to use the capital letter.” Motivational strategies improved my ability to use correct spelling, capitalization, and punctuation.” “Motivational strategies allow me to know the correct spelling and capitalization.”

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Based on these results, the students showed positive responses toward the implementation of MS in their writing class. Each of the four components of MS helped them to prepare to join the writing class, kept their motivation, and have a positive attitude toward learning and achievements. In addition, MS produced positive effects on the content of their essays, it helped the students adjust the goals of writing, explore their ideas, and made their writing clear. Also motivational strategies improved the organization of the essay, where the students’ writing became more structured. Moreover, motivational strategies enabled students to know how to write an essay well by writing good composition, although they still needed a guide from the lecturer. Students had a great desire to learn, because they had high motivation. In addition, these techniques improved students’ vocabulary, which helped them to explore with words, enabling them write better essays. This technique also prompted them to keep learning, and also enabled students to understand how to write an essay correctly and structurally. It also helped the students to understand the rules of writing an essay, and enhanced their grammar competence. Furthermore, this technique helped in capitalization and it improved their abilities to use correct spelling and punctuation. Motivational strategies made them enjoy writing because it became fascinating. Finally, the students had great understanding of how to write an essay appropriately, especially in using correct spelling and punctuation.

5. Discussion According to the results, students' writing success increased after the motivational strategies were applied. The increment of the mean score from pre-test to posttest showed that with the sufficient implementation of MS in writing class particularly in essay, students learn better, and this improvement was observed in all the writing elements. The strategies which were adapted from Dörnyei (2001) where four categories were selected and implemented sufficiently by the lecturer, from considering the students’ needs to class conditions. During the fourteen meetings, different topics of writing were selected, students were asked to choose the topics and they were freely developed into essays by them through the guidance and monitoring of the lecturer. Freely developed into an essay meant that the topics were narrowed according to the students’ preference. The lecturer believed that this strategy strongly boosted the students’ motivation to write on their own. Meanwhile the role of the lecturer during the implementation of the strategies was offering assistance when dealing with writing problems. Their motivation improved the performance, which was evident from the test results. These results is in line with a research conducted by Karimi & Zade (2018) on the impact of teachers' use of motivational strategies on learners' motivation. It was discovered that the use of this strategy resulted in a substantial increase in learners' motivation, which has a crucial role in teaching and learning process. It also boost the students’ effort to obtain better achievement in learning. The results also agreed with Ghbari's study (2016), which showed that the motivational paradigm had a positive impact on tenth-grade students' success drive and academic achievement. And also with Lee et al. (2019) on the impact of teachers' motivational methods on students' learning achievement. Based on students’ selfreport via their reflective journals, the use of foreign language motivational

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strategies led to the desirable effects. Also, the study revealed that the more motivated students were, the higher the writing score they achieved, in another words motivation played important role in second language writing. From the results of the interview with the students, it was reported that there was a significant effect of the implementation of motivational strategies on the learner. There were five writing aspect that were the focus of the improvement, and the students improved in all, i.e., organization, content, grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics. This conforms to the research conducted by Bruning & Horn (2000) which stated that motivation to write, needs to be initiated by the teachers through building the students’ belief about the nature of writing and potential, authentic goals and context, supportive tasks condition, and approaches to deal with the negative effects and establishing new productive ones. In addition, it is in line with Cheng & Dörnyei (2007) which reported that language teachers that focus on setting a positive example (Teacher), making a solid rapport with students (Rapport), creating a pleasant and relaxed atmosphere in the classroom (Climate), and making sure that students understand the tasks in which they are interested in (Task), significantly contribute to the learners’ success in language learning. When teachers are concerned about teaching practices that deal with these macrostrategies, students become more interested in the foreign language classroom (Ruesch et al., 2012). Furthermore, the results of the interview support the findings from Ghanizadeh & Rostami (2015) which stated that it is important to emphasize the role of forming positive attitudes toward second language learning and in motivating learners to make intentional efforts to learn English.

6. Conclusion Motivational strategies have an important impact on students' abilities to write good essays, according to this research. Students' essay writing scores improved significantly from the pre-test to the post-test, as shown by the results. This study proposed that learning should be developed in three motivational methods, namely (1) setting specific and appropriate objectives as motives for learning, (2) engaging students to become active learners, and (3) creating and sustaining a positive learning environment. This is because motivated students are more likely to participate in the learning process than others. Furthermore, the results of this study provide insights to English teachers in Indonesia to increase their students' achievement through motivational strategies. In addition, it is highly recommended for the policymakers to provide trainings, where educators are trained to teach students using these techniques. Other variables, such as conditions affecting the success of second language learning and motivating attribution by teachers and learners, require further investigation.

Acknowledgements This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for profit sectors.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 207-221, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.12 Received Jun 29, 2021; Revised Sep 19, 2021; Accepted Sep 27, 2021

Factors Impacting the Application of an Inclusive Education Policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment, and Support of the Learners at Schools in South Africa Mantheme Florina Matolo* Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6226-7785 Awelani M. Rambuda Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2518-0832

Abstract. The purpose of this research is to establish factors impacting the application of an inclusive education policy on screening, identification, assessment, and support of learners at schools in South Africa. The paradigm of the research is interpretivist because the policy is aligned to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory which attests that, for an education system to be effectively inclusive, there should be a shift from a paradigm that views barriers within a learner in isolation to a paradigm that views the barriers in a learner. There is interconnectedness of the barriers with the rest of the systems within and outside the learner. The participants were seven school principals and five members of the district-based support team, who were purposefully sampled. Individual semistructured interviews were conducted to elicit information on factors impacting the application of the policy. Data were analysed using the themes that emerged from the responses of the participants. Results reveal that the educators’ character traits, internal training and development, perceived policy application, and internal and external support for learners experiencing learning barriers impact policy application. The study recommends that aspiring educators must be adequately trained about policy at training institutions. Educators must be capacitated on policy application and every school must appoint a psychometric assessor who will provide information to educators on how best to support learners with learning barriers. The psychometric assessor must coordinate with the district-based support team for external support needs in policy implementation.

Corresponding author: Awelani M. Rambuda, arambuda@cut.ac.za

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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Keywords: barriers to learning; identification of barriers; inclusive education; policy application; screening of barriers; SIAS 2014 policy; support of learners

1. Introduction An inclusive education system that enables access to quality education seems to be a global quest that unfortunately has not yet been achieved by many countries. Educators are believed to be key role players in rendering the application of an inclusive education policy effective or ineffective in many countries (Kurth et al., 2018). For inclusive education to be a reality in South African primary and secondary schools, educators in South Africa (SA) are required to be well capacitated regarding the implications involved in the application of policies. All schools in South Africa are expected to effectively apply the 2014 Screening, Identification, Assessment, and Support (SIAS) policy. Educators are expected to play the vital role of screening, identifying, and assessing barriers to learning in their daily teaching and then render support to any learner who may be experiencing barriers to learning. However, there are educators who never provide the interventions regarding learning barriers for learners who experience barriers. The disparity between inclusive education policy theories and their application may be the reason for their minimal application in schools. The researchers embarked on establishing factors which impact the application of the SIAS 2014 policy and profoundly advocate a shift towards the following approaches: • screening of barriers, instead of screening of learners; • identification of barriers experienced by learners, instead of identification of learners; • assessment of the level of inclusive support needed to counteract the barriers, instead of exclusion of learners; and • support of learners who experience barriers to learning in their own home space, instead of removing learners from their own home space because of the barriers they experience and not because of the level of support they may need in order for them to be supported. The researchers assume that the hindering factors to SIAS 2014 policy application generally emanate from education system barriers, as well as the calibre of educators in South Africa. For this reason, an intensified external training and development of educators is advocated by the research. The educator training institutions should capacitate aspiring educators regarding application of education policies, especially inclusive education policies such as the SIAS 2014 policy rationale, principles, and how the policy is to be effectively implemented in schools. This approach for effective education policy application is also valued by researchers such as Cologon (2019) and Muhdi (2019), who claim that thorough training and capacitation of education policy implementers forms a good foundation for an effective policy application. School-based educators need to realise that their knowledge, understanding, and application of any education policy impact on the feasibility of such a policy directly or indirectly (Adewumi & Mosito, 2019; Damiania & Oswago, 2016; Marais & Wessels, 2020). An effective implementation of a policy is the core of the policy process (Tezera, 2019). “@2018 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. ”

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2. Literature Review The South African Minister of Education, Angie Motshekga, states that education and curriculum have an important role in realising the democratic aims of the SA Constitution (Department of Basic Education [DBE], 2011). This means that educators should be conversant with any SA education policy such as SIAS 2014, because it is a vessel for improving the quality of life of all citizens and unleashing the potential of each learner. To ensure that all learners can access quality education, that helps achieve the Constitutional aims of SA, the policy on SIAS was introduced in 2014 by the DBE with the purpose of providing a standardised procedure to identify, assess, and provide programmes for all learners who require additional support to enhance their participation and inclusion in schools (DBE, 2014). The policy ensures understanding of educational inclusivity by compelling front-line implementers such as educators to bear in mind that their focus in addressing educational needs in their daily practice should no longer be on the nature of a learner, but rather on the nature of the barrier that prevents the learner from learning, as well as the nature of support that may be suitable to assist the learner. Educators should understand that SIAS 2014 policy is meant to enable a shift from focusing only on the support of individual learners owing to their disabilities to a broad mode of support on teaching and learning, so that effective learner participation is maximised in all schools (DBE, 2014). Contrary to the directives of the policy, there are still some educators who are noted to be ignoring inclusive policy practices which require that learners who experience barriers to learning be supported. Such educators do not even do screening, identification, and assessment of learning barriers experienced by learners. This means that intervention regarding learning barriers for learners who experience barriers is never provided, because schools do not play their role of ensuring that every educator engages in inclusive daily classroom practice (Gallup, 2017; Mason, 2016; Viennet & Pont, 2017). Effective application of the SIAS 2014 policy is not just dependent on the competence of the District Based Support Team (DBST) at the department level, but is also dependent on the design nature of the policy, as well as the educators entrusted to implement it. Educators are expected to have a clear understanding of the concepts of diversity in their classrooms and curriculum differentiation. In support of this stance, Burns et al. (2016) argue that educators who are efficient school-based implementers should be at the forefront of ensuring that inclusive policy objectives and principles are realised in every instructional session. The importance of inclusive education policies has also been embraced internationally. For example, the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education [EASNIE] (2017) not only advocates the importance and practice of focusing learner achievement on all learners inclusively, but also reports that a satisfactorily inclusive achievement was noted in states that had their education policies committed to the support of learners who needed intervention on learning barriers. In Africa, Kenya and Zanzibar have also been reported as investing their efforts in education policies that are not only inclusive, but also enable both educators and learners to each partake in education processes successfully (Amran et al., 2017; Ireri et al., 2020).

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Apart from the international perspective, academics seem to believe that quality education is realised when educators provide effective support to learners with barriers. It is believed that inclusive institutional practices and resources that are aimed at accommodating learners who experience barriers to learning are fundamentals of learner support for academic achievement. Furthermore, learner support is regarded as fundamental in meeting the learning needs of learners in an institution (Cologon, 2019; Elder et al., 2016; Landsberg & Matthews, 2016). In the light of this perspective, the SIAS 2014 policy is designed in such a way that it enables educators to be conversant with the support needs of learners to effectively deliver the curriculum (DBE, 2014). Adewumi and Mosito (2019) also affirm that providing support services for teaching and learning is an important strategy for building schools’ capacities to recognize and address several learning difficulties. However, some researchers have discovered that application of inclusive education policies does not seem to be easy in South Africa. This may be due to the already existing uncertainties faced by some educators, who basically are not competent enough to interpret and implement curriculum policies of their own areas of specialisation (Marais & Wessels, 2020). Nel et al. (2016) report that educators in South Africa perceive inclusive education policy practices as frustrating because they do not have adequate skills and resources for supporting learners who experience barriers to learning. As if confirming the concerns of South African educators, the members of the Portfolio Committee on Basic Education have acknowledged that the journey towards effective implementation of inclusive policies seems slow (DBE, 2016). The main pointers regarding the challenges of educational inclusion in South Africa include educator workloads being too high, a lack of resources, and inadequate training of educators on how to support learners with barriers to learning in an ordinary traditional classroom setup (Adewumi & Mosito, 2019). The researchers concur that educator training and competence are imperative for effective policy application. This implies that the application challenges of the SIAS policy as an inclusive education policy may also be prevalent among educators. Consequently, the study specifically addressed the following question: • Which factors impact the application of an inclusive education policy on screening, identification, assessment, and support of the learners at schools in South Africa?

3. Theoretical Framework The SIAS policy is based on Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory which was first initiated in 1979, but later developed as recently as 2006 and 2009. The SIAS inclusive education policy adopts Bronfenbrenner’s ecosystem perspective, which requires educators to shift from locating barriers within the learners to locating them in all the systems which form the spheres of existence of learners, and which act as barriers to learning. The theory emphasises the importance of every individual who plays an active role in the school life of a learner to maximise support of learners who experience learning barriers. There are four levels of the bioecological model. The first level of the model is called proximal processes. Here human development takes place when there is interaction between the person and their

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environment. The interactive processes are presumed to lead to particular kinds of developmental outcomes, as well as having the power for actualising genetic potential for effective functioning (Swart & Pettipher, 2017). An example is given by Swart and Pettipher (2017), who refer to an instance of language and cultural differences between home and school. The language and culture of home may be different from that of school. This difference which is said to result in anger, shame, and low self-esteem in some parents and caregivers encourages the noninvolvement of parents or caregivers and ultimately worsens the fact that they cannot assist their children with schoolwork. As a result, parents and children develop in opposite directions, with little common ground in terms of culture, language and life experiences (Swart & Pettipher, 2017). The proximal processes seem to have an implication for SIAS policy implementation in South Africa. The implication of proximal processes for SIAS application means that the prescripts of the SIAS policy need to accommodate instances of language and cultural differences between parents and learners who experience barriers to learning. Educators also need to be aware of these instances and administer care and support for learners in a way that is not going to aggravate the situation. The second level of the bioecological theory that is closely related to the SIAS policy is the person characteristics, which means that every person brings certain biopsychological characteristics that influence proximal processes and their developmental outcomes. The three characteristics of a person are demand characteristics, resource characteristics, and force characteristics. The demand characteristics are features or attributes that provoke or discourage reactions from the social environment. They may influence the initial interactions because of the expectations formed immediately (Swart & Pettipher, 2017). Educators in South Africa may be influenced either positively or negatively by the features and attributes of learners who experience barriers to learning in their classes to either render support or condemn them. Similarly, a learner who experiences barriers to learning may be influenced by the attributes of their educators to either open up to supportive intervention or reject any form of support rendered. Educators should be aware that learners have perceptions about them that may be facilitative or discouraging during the application of the SIAS policy. Apart from the demand characteristics of person characteristics, there are also resource characteristics. These characteristics mean that a lack of or the availability of resources influences the proximal processes. Resources such as skill, knowledge, and experiences contribute to effective interactive processes (Swart & Pettipher, 2017). The implication of resource characteristics for SIAS policy application is equally important and South African educators need to embrace their teaching experience, skill, and knowledge to facilitate effective implementation of SIAS policy. If the educators are not adequately skilled and knowledgeable in implementing SIAS policy, their efforts may be futile regarding the effective policy implementation process. The force characteristics (also called dispositions) are forces that mobilise proximal processes and sustain their operation or conversely interfere with, limit or even prevent their occurrence (Swart & Pettipher, 2017). Force characteristics

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bear implications on effective SIAS policy application because the District Based Support Team (DBST), School Management Team (SMT), School-Based Support Team (SBST), and School Governing Body (SGB) are examples of structural forces that can mobilise or immobilize processes of effective SIAS policy implementation. The unresponsive character of these structures to learners with barriers may cause educators to fail to sustain effective implementation of SIAS 2014 policy. This research evaluated the structural forces that impact on the feasibility of the SIAS 2014 policy. Having discussed the second level of the bioecological theory, the next level to be discussed is the Environmental Systems level (also called contexts or ecological level). The four levels of environmental systems that influence a person’s development are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. An environment or social context is viewed as a set of nested structures in which each nest is contained inside the next nest, forming an interrelated interaction (Bronfenbrenner in Swart & Pettipher, 2017). The nested systems are described as follows: • In a microsystem, there is a person and activities that are intimate to them. • In a mesosystem, there is a constant collaboration and interaction of the microsystems. • The exosystem refers to forces that interact with those at mesosystem level to indirectly influence the activities at the microsystem level. • The macrosystem refers to values and ideologies within the systems of a nation which may be influenced by other systems (Nel et al., 2012) These levels of environmental systems have implications regarding implementation of SIAS policy in South Africa. Effective implementation of the policy should be found to be maintaining the sovereignty of all the social contexts of learners’ existence. All forms of support and intervention for learners who experience barriers to learning should ensure that no order at any context is disrupted or destabilized while attempting to address an identified barrier to learning. The last level of the bioecological theory is the chronosystems or time which is essential in the bioecological theory, because all the interactive processes manifest outcomes that are a result of a short period or long period of time. This means that time brings about a big developmental change when there have been long-time (macrotime) interactive processes. Similarly, short-time (microtime) interactive processes may yield a small outcome as well. The DBE needs to invest more time in initiating educators to SIAS policy and how it should be applied. Failure to train educators thoroughly and monitor policy application may mean there will not be effective implementation taking place or, worse still, that the policy may not even be implemented. Similarly, educators need to understand that some identified barriers in the learners or in their environments are a result of a long-time manifestation and therefore may require more patience to address. Inclusive education calls for a paradigm shift from a confined view of a disability as a barrier only, to a broader perspective of what type of support can be given to a learner with a disability and how that support can be delivered to counter effect

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the intensity of the disability as a barrier (Department of Education, 2005). The theory of Bronfenbrenner is also known as the process-person-context-time model (Swart & Pettipher, 2017). Effective application of SIAS 2014 policy will maintain the sovereignty of all the social contexts of learners’ existence. All forms of support and intervention for learners who experience barriers to learning should ensure that no order in any context is disrupted or destabilised while attempting to address an identified barrier to learning.

4. Methodology This study is grounded in the interpretivist paradigm, which maintains that there are multiple socially constructed realities. Rather than trying to be objective, professional judgments and the perspective of researchers in interpretivism are considered in the interpretation of data (Bergin, 2018; Creswell & Creswell, 2018). It is a view believing that the human mind and objectivity are inseparable, because they are intricately connected such that the knower and the process of knowing cannot be separated from what is known and the facts cannot be separated from values (Salkind, 2018). Accordingly, the researchers adopted a qualitative research method. Semi-structured interviews were conducted for data collection. A semi-structured interview is a qualitative data collection method which helps a researcher to ask participants questions that help to know more about their social settings, including their opinions and beliefs about certain phenomena (Bergin, 2018; Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Salkind, 2018). Purposive sampling was used to select seven school principals and five members of the DBST, who were interviewed to elicit information about the factors impacting the application of the SIAS 2014 policy at schools. Data were mechanically recorded using a cell phone recording mode during face-to-face interviews. Data collection occurred over a three-week period. Interviews were conducted during the day, but at a time and place which the participants found convenient to them. After the interviews, data collected was analysed following the steps discussed below: Step 1: Transcription of the orally recorded interviews into a manuscript Transcription is the process of changing qualitative research data into typed text. Transcribing collected data has advantages, which include enabling a researcher to interact and internalise the finer details of the participants’ inputs (Johnson & Christensen, 2017). In the context of this research, the audio recordings of the interviews conducted with the DBST members and the school principals were transcribed by the researchers to gain thorough understanding of their inputs. Step 2: Assigning variables codes to the transcriptions Coding is the process of mating segments of data with symbols, descriptive words, or category names (Johnson & Christensen, 2017; Nieuwenhuis, 2016a; Nieuwenhuis, 2016b). There are many types of data coding, such as causation coding, dramaturgical coding, emotion coding, hypothesis coding, longitudinal coding, magnitude coding, pattern coding, process coding, and protocol coding (Johnson & Christensen, 2017). Of these various forms of coding, protocol coding was selected for the analysis of the data. Protocol coding of qualitative data involves segmenting data according to pre-established, recommended, standardised, or prescribed systems (Johnson & Christensen, 2017; Nieuwenhuis, 2016a; Nieuwenhuis, 2016b). In this research, qualitative data collected during “@2018 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. ”

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interviews with the DBST members and school principals was coded according to the SIAS 2014 policy constructs which were earlier established. Step 3: Analysing causes and effects of participants’ inputs Lastly, data were analysed focusing on the cause and effect of the participants’ inputs.

5. Results The main enquiry of the research at this juncture was to establish factors impacting the application of the SIAS 2014 policy at schools. The five members of the DBST were identified as T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5. T1 represents the first DBST member, T2 the second DBST member, T3 the third DBST member, T4 the fourth DBST member, and T5 the fifth DBST member. The seven school principals were identified as Principal 1, Principal 2, Principal 3, Principal 4, Principal 5, Principal 6, and Principal 7. The participants’ inputs were later transcribed and classified according to the following factors: educators’ character traits, inadequate training and development of educators, educators’ inability to keep pace with expected curriculum delivery, and insufficient role of the school-based support team. 5.1 Factor 1: Influence of education system on the application of the SIAS policy The general stance of the DBST about the educators’ characteristics in relation to the ineffective SIAS 2014 policy application varies. For example, some members of the DBST stated that failure to implement the policy effectively was caused by educators’ lack of passion for teaching as a career. By contrast, other members of the DBST claimed that the ineffective application of the policy emanated from the education system, not the character traits of educators. The DBST members who subscribed to the latter view also stated that, in implementing the policy, educators were demoralised by the education system. This is what T1 had to say: Some of these educators are not passionate about their work hence you see them not helping these kids (T1). In support of T1’s opinion, T2 added: Nothing will ever be okay about this policy as long as educators are not willing to embrace teaching as a career that is meant to bring light to those in the darkness instead of being so full of complaints about these learners (T2). Contrary to the views of T1 and T2, T5 argued as follows: Educators have empathy for learners, but their morale is down because they feel the system is failing them by not responding at all or in time to their requests not knowing that actually the very system through DBST has serious challenges of resources. No educator likes to see a learner suffering, but educators end up deciding not to even try to be involved with such learners because they have experience of us always not responding well to their requests, not by our choice, but often as a result of the system failing us as well by not providing us with enough resources to assist schools (T5).

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Like the views of T5, T3 said the following in support: There are teachers who really seem to be willing to be inclusive, but they are kind of hampered by our system that does not sometimes assist them to a point where our teachers just lose the interest to help their special learners (T3). Interestingly, school principals also acknowledged that it was not the character traits of educators that were causing the poor application, but the education system itself. The principals stated that an effective policy application of the policy demanded that educators invested a great deal of time on administrative work for learners who experienced barriers to learning, more than on the actual teaching of learners of whom the majority did not experience barriers to learning. Some secondary school principals further indicated that since educators were held responsible for the poor academic performance of learners by the education system and charged for not reaching the set district academic performance targets, educators had a tendency to focus on “saving” most learners – who then were those that did not experience barriers to learning. This practice, according to the secondary school principals, was done in schools to avoid the punitive consequences of underperformance. This is what Principal 3 had to say: Our teachers don’t like the policy because it causes them a lot of paperwork for only one or two learners while they neglect the rest of coping learners (Principal 3). Principal 1 supported Principal 3, by stating that: The educators don’t really want to be involved with the application of this policy not because they do not love learners who are vulnerable, but the actual time and processes to be followed are too much for them (Principal 1). Having discussed the influence of the character traits of educators, the next theme to be presented and analysed is the training and development of educators. 5.2 Factor 2: Inadequate training and development of educators Both the DBST and the school principals seemed to respond in agreement that the training and development of educators regarding the SIAS 2014 policy was inadequate, thereby hampering their effective application of the policy at schools. Similarly, the general stance of the two groups seemed to subscribe to the notion that there was inadequate training of educators by the institutions of higher learning. T1 said: The training that educators get about the SIAS policy from institutes of higher learning is not sufficient; hence there is poor performance of such educators (T1). Insufficient training was also raised by Principal 4, who pointed out that: Educators ought to have been trained about inclusivity from institutions of higher learning even before they can be appointed as educators in schools, but unfortunately this is not the case (T4). Principal 3 had the following to say: They are not well capacitated from college on how to implement the policy (Principal 3).

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In agreement, Principal 1 said that: It is not possible for educators to implement the policy that they have not been well trained on from their training colleges (Principal 1). The two groups further seem to agree that the poor application of SIAS in schools is linked to poor training and development of educators in terms of the number of years spent at tertiary institutions. For instance, this is what T1 said: There is an influx of people who have teaching qualifications from one particular institute of higher learning but whose training has not been up to scratch. Such people have done education courses for only a year and then are said to be qualified educators (T1). Principal 2 also confirmed that both novice and experienced educators in their school lack training and development on SIAS 2014 and further blamed the institutions of teacher training, as well as the DBST, by saying: Training from tertiary about SIAS is not enough and most teachers in my school do not even have adequate training for the subjects they teach. The DBST often trains principals more than educators and as a result educators get second-hand training from principals, which is often not as effective and detailed as the first-hand training (Principal 2). The two groups also accounted for the perceived application ability of educators on the SIAS 2014 policy as discussed below. 5.3 Factor 3: Educators’ inability to keep pace with expected curriculum delivery DBST members disclosed that, unlike primary school educators, secondary school educators were not able to implement the policy because they were overloaded with curriculum demands, which did not allow them to cope with the SIAS policy demands. For instance, they indicated that schools’ timetables were packed with curriculum focus to a point where it became almost impossible for educators in both primary and secondary schools to have time to implement the SIAS policy administratively. They also indicated that secondary schools were more focused on reaching the set targets by the DBE, knowing that failure to reach the targets might cause them to face serious consequences of accountability. As a result, secondary schools became compelled to spend more time on increasing the percentage pass rates for most learners than focusing on a few learners who needed inclusive support. In a similar sense, school principals concurred with the DBST, but rather added that as principals they were also so overloaded with daily curriculum and management duties that they were unable to pursue SIAS application effectively. Some principals also confessed that they were still not able to implement the policy. For example, Principal 1 said that since they could not implement the policy at their school, they had employed a permanent schoolbased psychometric assessor to assist the school. Principal 1 said: I don’t know much about how SIAS has to be implemented and my teachers also do not know much. We depend on our School-Based psychometric assessor to do all the necessary paperwork that has to be done (Principal 1). Principal 2 felt strongly about this, saying: Schools are already overloaded with so many tasks to do but when there should be a policy that removes the burden on us about these unruly “@2018 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. ”

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children, here now comes something from nowhere that adds salt to our open wounds…it is paper after paper which does not help us nix (Principal 2). Principal 5 added: This SIAS thing is not working for teachers. It only enslaves them to no end and what is even painful is that the department is doing nothing, but keeps pushing and pushing (Principal 5). These responses imply that instead of the SIAS 2014 policy providing a platform for educators to screen, identify, and assess learners with learning barriers, so that they can be assisted by the DBST, it rather creates a more stressful workload. 5.4 Factor 4: Insufficient role of the school-based support team (SBST) in the application of SIAS 2014 policy DBST members seemed to believe that the SBSTs in schools were generally not functional. The reasons given included the fact that SBST members did not get satisfactory support from the rest of the school staff. For example, a member of the DBST stated that the duty of the SBST was exaggerated in schools. They agreed that, although it was the duty of the SBST to ensure that the application of SIAS happened, schools tended to regard their SBSTs as if they were the only ones to implement the policy. Some members of the DBST said that the mind-set of educators could be changed from believing that the SBST was a certain group of people in a school to an understanding that everybody in a school was an SBST member. The DBST disclosed another reason as being that a lot of schools had an SBST operating as a “one-man show”. The DBST members also said most schools whose SBSTs were said to be non-functional were those that had their SBSTs run by one SBST member only. For example, T1 said: The SIAS policy will never be effectively implemented in our schools for as long as teachers see their SBSTs as a group of people who have to deal with learning barriers in schools while the rest wait and watch the SBST deal with the problem. It is as if teachers don’t know that the issue of intervention on learning barriers is everyone’s business (T1). T3 concurred with T1, saying: SBSTs are often not supported in school communities because they are left to deal with almost everything that requires support of leaners while their colleagues do nothing except to watch and complain (T3). T4 added: In secondary schools’ cases that are reported to schools’ principals end there and they are not cascaded to the SBST for recording and capturing by the administration clerks, so the principal affects the functionality of the SBSTs (T4). By contrast, some school principals claimed that their SBSTs were functional, giving different reasons for their stance. Firstly, Principal 4 said that in their school, they have merged the SBST with the academic committee to avoid the

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fragmentation which ends up causing a great deal of work for everyone. Principal 4 had the following to say: I think there is no need to say there is an SBST committee and academic committee when we know we are talking about same people with exception of one or two members. It’s causing too much work for these people unnecessarily (Principal 4). Secondly, some principals said their SBSTs met every month and had briefing sessions with the rest of the committees and staff about cases experienced during that month. Principal 6 confirmed this in the following manner: I can’t say our SBST is perfect but at least they try to meet monthly to discuss with some committees what they are doing and if they need our assistance where there are problems (Principal 6). Lastly, other principals said that their SBSTs were functional because their remedial educator assisted the SBST with tasks that were too much for the SBST. For example, Principal 7 acknowledged this as follows: Our remedial teacher is always hands-on. She tries to help with whatever that has to be done by our SBST though sometimes I think the work becomes too much for her also (Principal 7). The researchers have, however, noted that even though it might be true that there was functionality in these SBSTs, the principals of such schools did not relate the functionality of the SBST to the effective application of the policy. For example, none of the principals said there was effective application of the SIAS 2014 policy in their schools; instead, they all acknowledged that the policy application was still a problem.

6. Discussion The personal traits of educators are regarded as some of the vital elements that can make teaching and learning process a success or a failure (Landsberg &Matthews, 2016). As has been established earlier, the effective application of SIAS 2014 policy largely depends on the attitudes of the educators. It is strongly believed that the negative attitude of some educators towards learners with learning barriers profoundly slows down the drive to effective application of inclusive education policies. Educators need not believe that they can efficiently become inclusive in their daily practice only when they are specialists in inclusive education; instead they must have willingness to assist all learners to achieve academically, regardless of their diversity (Adewumi & Mosito, 2019). Inclusive education practices and policies need first to be embraced and viewed by classroom educators as a solution rendered to them for some existing short-term or long-term problem which may be having an impact in education practice (Florian et al., 2016; Sarton & Smith, 2019). For educators to be able to support learners who experience barriers to learning, they need to have a willing heart to help and a patient approach to challenging situations (Nel et al., 2016). At this juncture, it is reasonable to concur with Adewumi and Mosito (2019) that South African educators’ attitudes towards inclusive education may have contributed to the ineffective application of the SIAS 2014 policy that is notably prevalent. Training and development of educators are also noted as influencing policy “@2018 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. ”

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application. Ireri, et al. (2020) report that, in Kenya, one of the hindering factors to realising effective inclusive education is inadequate training of educators and ineffective school strategies. In the context of the research results presented earlier, it becomes logical to note that educators in South Africa do not effectively implement the SIAS 2014 because they have not had adequate external or internal training about the policy. Tezera (2019) argues that educators are vital for successful implementation of policies, Therefore, the training of educators is important not only for the learners, but for the educators too, because their level of competence improves. Educators who have been well trained for their work are often willing to sacrifice their time to get the work that they love done. Therefore education policies need to be entrusted in the hands of educators who understand their rationale (Adewumi & Mosito, 2019; Elder et al., 2016; Marais & Wessels, 2020). High educator workloads have been noted as contributing to poor application of inclusive education policies or practices. Educators whose workloads are too high are often known to be resistant to change or development (Ireri et al., 2020; Sarton & Smith, 2019). The SIAS 2014 policy is probably suffering the same consequence, because the research established that educators were not able to satisfactorily focus on learners who experience barriers to learning because their workloads are too high to allow them to do so (Adewumi & Mosito, 2019). An adverse result of this is that no effective administrative records of SIAS application are kept, hence the progress reports of learners being supported are sometimes not found in SBST files or are not captured on the South African-School Administrative Management System (SA-SAMS). However, the SIAS 2014 policy clearly stipulates that there should be adequate time given for every step of the policy to be executed (DBE, 2014). Adequate time is needed for educators to cover the syllabus, while at the same time rendering support to all learners including those that may be experiencing barriers to learning ((Adewumi & Mosito, 2019; Ireri et al., 2020; Nel et al., 2016). Such findings have dire implications for learners who experience learning barriers. The findings are against Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory because the identified factors are detrimental to the academic development of these learners.

7. Conclusion This research has established the factors impacting the application of the SIAS 2014 policy at schools. Educators must screen the proximal barriers in learners competently and assess the support needs of such learners. Learners’ support is linked to force characteristics such as requesting an intervention of the structural forces like the SBST and DBST. These force structures are advised by educators in relation to what works and what does not work. The unresponsive character of any structural force to learners with barriers causes educators to fail to sustain effective application of the policy Therefore, the researchers recommend that training and development of educators be intensified as per the provisions of the person characteristic of the bioecological theory. Teacher training institutions should capacitate aspiring educators about the policy’s rationale, principles, and how to effectively implement it at schools. Induction and mentoring of novice educators are essential for them to adopt a positive mind-set towards being passionate about the policy. Personal attributes of educators may influence learners who experience barriers to learning to either incorporate or reject support “@2018 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved. ”

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interventions rendered because they have their own perceptions about their educators. Similarly, educators need to realise that their learners’ personal attributes can impact their efforts to support them on the barriers they face. It is through teacher training institutions and induction processes that educators may be sensitised regarding the influence of these person characteristics. This research further subscribes to the resource characteristic, which requires that teaching experience, skills, and content knowledge form part of the essential aspects of the human resources that educators should have. Specialised human resource personnel, such as a school-based psychometric assessor, are equally important. The DBE, through the DBST, would then coordinate with the school-based psychometric assessor on what and how to continuously train educators in the application of the policy.

8. References Amran, S. S., Yat, Y., & Iddrisu, I. (2017). Education policy implementation: A mechanism for enhancing primary education development in Zanzibar. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 5(3), 172-181. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2017.53015 Adewumi, T. M., & Mosito, C. (2019). Experiences of teachers in implementing inclusion of learners with special education needs in selected Fort Beaufort district primary schools, South Africa Cogent Education, 6(1), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1703446 Bergin, T. 2018. An introduction to data analysis. Sage. Burns, T., Köster, F., & Fuster M. (2016). Education governance in action: Lessons from case studies, Educational Research and Innovation, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264262829-en Cologon, K. (2019). Towards inclusive education: A necessary process of transformation. Children and Young People with Disability Australia (CYDA). https://apo.org.au/sites/default/files/resource-files/2019-10/aponid265286_1.pdf Creswell, J., & Creswell, D. (2018). Research design. Sage. Elder, B. C., Damiania, M. L., & Oswago, B. O. (2016). From attitudes to practice: Utilizing inclusive teaching strategies in Kenyan primary schools. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 20(4), 413-434. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2015.1082648 European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. (2017). Raising the achievement of all learners in inclusive education: Lessons from European policy and practice. European Agency. https://www.europeanagency.org/sites/default/files/Raising%20Achievement%20%C2%AD %20 Literature%20Review.pdf Florian, L., Black-Hawkins, K., & Rouse, M. (2016). Achievement and inclusion in schools. Routledge. Gallup. (2017). Education Gallup Historical Trends. http://www.gallup.com/poll/1612/education.aspx Ireri, B. R., King’endo, M., Wangila, E., & Thuranira, S. (2020). Policy strategies for effective implementation of inclusive education in Kenya. International Journal of Educational Administration and Policy Studies, 12(1), 28-42. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJEAPS2019.0622 Johnson, R., & Christensen, L. (2017). Educational research. Sage. Kurth, J., Miller, A. L., Toews, S. G., & Thompson, J. R. (2018). Inclusive education: Perspectives on application and practice from international experts. Intellectual

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and Developmental Disabilities, 56(6), 471- 485. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-955656.6.471 Landsberg, E., & Matthews, L. (2016). Learning support. In E. Landsberg, D. Kruger & E. Swart (Eds.), Addressing barriers to learning (pp. 69-105). Van Schaik. Mason, M. (2016). Is thorough implementation of policy change in education actually possible? What complexity theory tells us about initiating and sustaining change. European Journal of Education, 51(4), 437-440. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12193 Marais, A. M., & Wessels, E. (2020) Investigating the interpretation and implementation of policies that guide the teaching of reading in the Foundation Phase. Reading & Writing 11(1), 106-113. https://doi.org/10.4102/rw.v11i1.277 Muhdi, M. (2019). Framework for implementation of education policy in the perspective of education management in Indonesia. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 7(12), 2717-2728. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2019.071220 Nel, N., Nel, M., & Hugo, A. (2012). Inclusive education: The necessity of providing support to all learners. In N. Nel, M. Nel & A. Hugo (Eds.), (pp. 3-23) Learner support in a diverse classroom. Van Schaik. Nel, N. M., Tlale, L. D. N., Engelbrecht, P., & Nel, M. (2016). Teacher's perceptions of education support structures in the implementation of inclusive education in South Africa. Koers, 81(3), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.19108/KOERS.81.3.2249 Nieuwenhuis, J. (2016a). Qualitative research designs and data-gathering techniques. In K. Maree (Ed.), First steps in research (pp. 118-153). Van Schaik. Nieuwenhuis, J. (2016b). Analysing qualitative data. In K. Maree (Ed.), First steps in research (pp. 80-116). Van Schaik. Republic of South Africa. Department of Basic Education [DBE]. (2011). Guidelines for responding to learner diversity in the classroom. Government Printer. Republic of South Africa Department of Basic Education [DBE]. (2014). Policy on screening, identification, assessment and support. Government Printer. Republic of South Africa Department of Education [DBE]. (2001). Special needs education: Building an inclusive education and training system. Education White Paper 6. Government Printer. Salkind, N. J. (2018). Exploring research. Pearson Education. Sarton, E., & Smith, M. (2019). The challenge of inclusion for children with disabilities – experiences of implementation in Eastern and Southern Africa. S. Chakera & S. Tao (Eds.), UNICEF education think piece series: Innovative thinking for complex educational challenges in the SDG4 era (pp.60-71). UNICEF Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office. https://www.unicef.org/esa/media/4911/file Swart, E., & Pettipher, R. (2016). A framework for understanding inclusion. In E. Landsberg, D. Kruger & E. Swart (Eds.), Addressing barriers to learning (pp. 3-26). Van Schaik. Tezera, D. (2019). Factors for the Successful Implementation of Policies. Merit Research Journal of Education and Review, 7(8), 92-95. http://meritresearchjournals.org/er/index.htm Viennet, R., & Pont, B. (2017). Education policy implementation: A literature review and proposed framework. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=E DU/WKP(2017)11&docLanguage=En

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 222-235, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.13 Received Jul 13, 2021; Revised Sep 19, 2021; Accepted Sep 27, 2021

The Abilities Related to Organizing Experiential Learning Activities for Vietnamese Undergraduate Teacher Training Students Huong Thanh Ngo Dong Nai University, Dong Nai Province, Vietnam https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0127-5439 Thanh Dac Nguyen* Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7436-7188

Abstract. Experimental learning, often known as hands-on learning, is a kind of active learning that takes place in the classroom. Many institutions globally have utilized it to build educational programmes, and it is widely regarded as a best practice in the field. Specifically, the purpose of this research was to examine the feasibility and efficacy of improving students' capacity to design experiential learning events in order to better prepare them for the job. Participants in this research included a total of 470 participants, including 420 students, 50 lecturers and representatives from the Ho Chi Minh City University of Education's Youth Union and Students Association. They responded to seven questions regarding their ability to organize experiential learning activities for undergraduate students, as part of a broader questionnaire they completed. However, while both lecturers and students recognized the critical importance of abilities related to the organization of experiential learning activities, the findings of the study revealed that these abilities were not well designed or efficiently purposed for undergraduate students in the context of experiential learning. In order for students to improve their professional skills and gain more useful experience in the area of event planning, they should be encouraged and taught accordingly. Keywords: experiential learning; professional skill; teacher training student

Corresponding author: Thanh Dac Nguyen, thanhnd@hcmue.edu.vn

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Globilization has led to continuous change and development, also in the field of education Individuals may simply enrol in online classes or training courses, while human resources recruiters are constantly looking for candidates that have excellent interpersonal and soft skills. In addition to seminars, students are given the opportunity to develop key skills that enable them to fulfil the criteria of the position they are seeking (Le & Tran-Chi, 2019). In every industry and profession, communication, cooperation, problem-solving, organization, negotiation, and persuasion are universally recognized as the most important skills and the criteria by which recruiters evaluate prospective employees (Huang et al., 2019). The quality of human resources must be improved in order to meet employment expectations as a consequence of the requirements of socioeconomic development. This raises the issue of educational innovation in the classroom. Universities must embrace well-known teaching methods and approaches to help students learn and prepare for the challenging professions that will be available in the future. Traditionally, students have usually been passive participants in their learning process with the use of conventional teaching and learning techniques such as instruction and rote learning, among others. However, many institutions globally have recently embraced more active teaching methods and approaches, such as experiential learning, in order to better engage students (Abdulwahed & Nagy, 2009; Garvin & Ramsier, 2003; Hai, 2016; Healey & Jenkins, 2000; Lan, 2017; Mason & Arshed, 2013). According to Kolb's theory, learning is a cognitive process that involves continual adaptation to and synergetic interaction with one's surroundings. Teaching and the experience that people acquire due to the learning process help them develop knowledge (Kolb & Kolb, 2009). According to Austin and Rust (2015), "hands-on" learning is regarded to be one of the most important developments in college or university education, and it is one of the most significant trends in higher education today (Katula & Threnhauser, 1999; Wang et al., 2021; Zha, 2021). Many writers have written on the beneficial effects of experiential learning, which has been addressed extensively in the literature. According to scientific studies, there are many benefits to being exposed to new situations. An investigation of the long-term effects of experiential learning was carried out by Victor (2013) via a qualitative research study involving survey participants who had participated in an outdoor experience course. In the study, it was found that experiential learning aided learners in increasing their self-confidence and developing collaboration skills such as communication, actively listening to others, accepting responsibility for mistakes, respecting colleagues as well as developing and strengthening the relationship and interaction between individuals and their environment. According to the results of this qualitative study, the findings of D'Amato and Krasny (2011), who also observed favourable effects of experiential learning in an outdoor adventure education course, were backed up by a strong body of evidence. A number of research studies have also examined the impact of experiential learning on students' knowledge and learning processes as students' self-confidence may be enhanced via the use of active teaching techniques (Girvan et al., 2016; KnechtSabres, 2010; Lee & Dickson, 2010; Simons et al., 2012; Voukelatou, 2019) and

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they could be better prepared for self-directed learning (Geng et al., 2019; Jiusto & DiBiasio, 2006; Morris, 2019; Tekkol & Demirel, 2018). Student educators in education departments must be educated and developed in the skills associated with the organization of experiential learning activities if they are to be successful educators. This instruction and development will equip students to put their newfound skills to use in training and education situations in the future. According to the researchers' findings, students should be taught the necessary skills to facilitate planning experiential activities by determining the goals and responsibilities of arranging experiential learning activities for students. A variety of factors determines the exact content of experiential learning exercises. They need to identify the necessary strategies and procedures to organize experiential learning experiences. Finding the most suitable organizational structure for experiential learning activities is a difficult task. Organizational tasks include mobilizing and coordinating human resources as well as estimating financial requirements, putting a plan into action by organizing experiential learning activities, and dealing with any unforeseen circumstances that arise as a result of organizing experiential learning activities. The question of how to improve skills linked to arranging experiential learning activities is not a new one. However, to the best of our knowledge, only a few research studies have been conducted in Vietnam on this topic. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the implementation and efficacy of developing skills linked to arranging experiential learning activities at the Ho Chi Minh City University of Education in Vietnam, specifically in the field of education. First, the empirical literature on experiential learning in the learning process is reviewed, followed by a discussion of the study questions. The second part is an introduction to the study technique, which is followed by findings and a discussion. The last section concludes the study.

2. Methods 2.1. Participants An approach was selected to recruit and administer samples from those who volunteered to participate in the research and assist with its administration. An online survey tool was used to collect data for this research, and a sample of 470 respondents was selected. Of these, 420 (89.36 per cent) were sophomore and junior students, while 50 (10.64 per cent) were lecturers and members of the Youth Union and Students Association staff and volunteers. Before taking part in the study, all participants were given the opportunity to provide informed permission and were told of the objective of the study. The university's ethical committee authorized the study conducted by Ho Chi Minh City University in Vietnam. 2.2. Measure Students enrolled in undergraduate teacher training programmes completed questionnaires that were intended to assess their skills in arranging experiential learning activities. This was cross-sectional research. The research for this project

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began in November 2017 and ended in March 2019. In the first section of the questionnaire, several socio-demographic questions were asked to determine the participants' demographic characteristics. The participants' answers are presented in five distinct levels, each corresponding to a five-point Likert scale. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used for data analysis. To code the data, a Likert scale with five levels was used: 1 representing Very Unimportant/Never, 2 representing Unimportant/Seldom, 3 representing Neither Important nor Unimportant/Rarely, 4 representing Important/Very Often, and 5 representing Very Important/Always. Following the recommendations of Malhotra and Birks (2007), the interval width of the five-point Likert scale was calculated in order to set up the group boundary value for discussion of the results.

3. Results Figure 1 depicts the relative significance of increasing one's capacity to arrange experiential learning activities at various degrees of importance. This was rated as essential by the survey participants as shown in Figure 1. In particular, 56.4 per cent of students and 64 per cent of lecturers and employees from the Youth Union and Students Association indicated that increasing the capacity to arrange experiential learning events was essential. Improved capacity to arrange experiential learning events was considered essential by 31 per cent of students, 30 per cent of lecturers, and 30 per cent of Youth Union and Students Association personnel. A modest 10 per cent of students, 6 per cent of lecturers and 6 per cent of YUSA personnel deemed an improvement in the capacity to arrange experiential learning events as essential. In only 2.6 per cent of cases students indicated that increasing their capacity to plan experiential learning activities was not essential to them. 70

64 56.4

60 50 40 30

30 20 10 0

2.6

0 Not important

Slightly important Lecturer and staff

Moderately important

Important

Student

Figure 1. Perception towards improving the ability to organize experiential learning activities

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Degree of knowledge among lecturers, members of the Youth Union and members of the Students Association regarding the organizing of experiential learning activities ‘Handling unexpected circumstances when arranging experiential learning activities’ (M = 2.3; SD = 0.61) is the indication with the greatest levels of implementation out of the seven elements of the capacity to plan experiential learning activities (M = 2.3; SD = 0.61). ‘Determining the particular topics for experiential learning activities’ has the lowest implementation level (M = 1.92; SD = 0.72). Efficacy of the capacity to arrange experiential learning events for students The indicator with the highest levels of effectiveness among the seven items of the ability to organize experiential learning activities is ‘Mobilizing and coordinating human resources and estimating the financial requirements for organizing experiential learning activities’ (M = 2.96; SD = 0.86). When it comes to determining the goals and tasks of arranging experiential learning activities for students, ‘Determining the objectives and tasks of organizing experiential learning activities for students’ has the lowest effectiveness rating (M = 2.62; SD = 0.97). Awareness of and efficacy in implementing experiential learning activities among students Implementing the plan for arranging experiential learning activities’ (M = 2.53; SD = 0.5) is the indicator with the greatest levels of implementation among the seven elements of the capacity to arrange experiential learning activities (M = 2.53; SD = 0.5). When it comes to execution, the indicator with the lowest degree of implementation is ‘Handling unexpected circumstances when arranging experiential learning activities’ (M=2.02; SD=0.66). Their capacity to plan and organize such events for other students There are seven elements in the capacity to arrange experiential learning activities, and the indicator with the greatest levels of efficacy is ‘Handling unexpected circumstances when arranging experiential learning activities’ (M = 2.92; SD = 0.67). In terms of efficacy, the indicator with the lowest score is ‘Determining the particular contents for experiential learning activities’ (M = 2.7; SD = 0.72; M = 2.7; SD = 0.72). The mean scores for each of the seven elements are depicted in the first row of Table 1:

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Table 1. Ability to organize experiential learning activities for students Lecturers and Youth Union and Students Association staff

Effectiveness

Implementation

Define the goals and responsibilities of the person in charge of arranging experiential learning activities for students. Determine specific material for experiential learning activities in advance. Determine the strategies and procedures that will be used to organize hands-on experiential learning sessions. Decide on the best organization-al structure for your experiential learning activities. Organize experiential learning activities through mobilizing and coordinating human resources, as well as estimating the financial resources required. Implement the strategy for arranging experiential learning activities that was developed. Be prepared to deal with unexpected circumstances while planning experiential learning events

Effectiveness

Implementation

Students

1.94

0.77

2.62

0.97

2.32

0.47

2.76

0.7

1.92

0.72

2.74

0.90

2.21

0.57

2.70

0.72

2.18

0.69

2.76

0.89

2.18

0.51

2.77

0.64

2.08

0.75

2.86

0.833

2.20

0.59

2.82

0.65

2.00

0.73

2.96

0.86

2.12

0.63

2.84

0.68

2.14

0.70

2.88

0.92

2.53

0.50

2.89

0.72

2.30

0.61

2.92

0.83

2.02

0.66

2.92

0.67

M: Mean; SD: Standard deviation

Table 2 shows the mean scores on seven items related to increasing one's capacity to arrange experiential learning activities by specialized modules of

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undergraduate education, with the highest values indicating more improvement. Of the seven elements that make up the capacity to arrange experiential learning activities, ‘Implementing the plan for arranging experiential learning activities’ has the greatest degree of implementation among the seven items in terms of execution. A large proportion of survey participants assessed ‘Sometimes’ (51.2 per cent), roughly one-quarter of survey participants evaluated ‘Never’ (26 per cent), and approximately twenty-three per cent of survey participants assessed ‘Often’ (23.3 per cent) for this indicator, according to the results of the survey. The indicator with the lowest level of implementation is ‘Determining the most appropriate organizational form for experiential learning activities’, with 30.5 per cent of participants indicating that they have never done so and more than half of participants indicating that they have done so occasionally (55.7 per cent). ‘Implementing the plan for arranging experiential learning activities’ is the indication with the greatest levels of efficacy among the seven components of the capacity to arrange experiential learning activities, and it is the indicator with the lowest levels of effectiveness among the others. To be more specific, a high percentage of survey participants rated this indication as ‘Moderately effective’ (54.8 per cent), 26.7 per cent of survey participants rated it as ‘Slightly successful’, and 18.6 per cent of survey participants rated it as ‘Extremely effective’. ‘Making a decision on the objectives and tasks of organizing experiential learning activities for students’ is the indicator with the lowest level of effectiveness (with 31.7 per cent of survey participants evaluating it as ‘Slightly effective’, 10.7 per cent of survey participants evaluating it as ‘Extremely effective’, and more than half of participants evaluating it as ‘Moderately effective’), followed by ‘Determining the objectives and tasks of organizing experiential learning activities for students’ (50.5 per cent). Table 2. Level of development of the capacity to organize own experiential activities through the teaching of specialized subjects Effectiveness (%)

Implementation (%) Extremely effective

Moderately effective

Slightly effective

Not effective

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Never

Sometimes

Define the goals and responsibilities of the person in charge of arranging experiential learning activities for students. Determine specific material for experiential learning activities in advance.

Often

No.

18.1

53.1

28.8

10.7

50.5

37.1

1.7

17.4

50.2

32.4

13.3

32.1

3.6

229

Determine the strategies and procedures that will be used to organize hands-on experiential learning sessions. Make a decision on the best organizational structure for your experiential learning activities. Organize experiential learning activities through mobilizing and coordinating human resources, as well as estimating the financial resources required. Implement the strategy for arranging experiential learning activities that was developed. Be prepared to deal with unexpected circumstances while planning experiential learning events

16.0

58.3

25.7

16.0

56.4

26.7

1.0

13.8

55.7

30.5

12.1

53.6

30.0

4.3

23.3

47.1

29.5

16.2

58.1

25.7

22.9

51.2

18.6

54.8

26.7

17.9

50.2

31.9

16.0

56.2

25.7

2.1

%: Percentage

Table 3 depicts the mean scores on seven criteria related to increasing one's capacity to arrange experiential learning events, as determined by the activities of the Youth Union and the Students Association. Of the seven elements that make up the capacity to arrange experiential learning activities, ‘Implementing the plan for arranging experiential learning activities’ has the greatest degree of implementation among the seven items in terms of execution. In particular, a significant percentage of survey participants rated this indication as ‘Sometimes’ (45 per cent), almost twenty-three per cent of survey participants rated it as ‘Never’ (22.9 per cent), and nearly a third of survey participants rated it as ‘Often’ (32.1 per cent). It is the indication of determining a suitable organizational form of experiential learning activities with the lowest degree of implementation. A small percentage of participants assessed it often, with more than half of participants evaluating it sometimes (53.8 per cent).

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Table 3. Improving the ability to organize experiential learning activities by activities of Youth Union and Students Association Implementation (%)

Not effective

Slightly effective

Moderately effective

Extremely effective

Never

Sometimes

Define the goals and responsibilities of the person in charge of arranging experiential learning activities for students. Determine specific material for experiential learning activities in advance. Determine the strategies and procedures that will be used to organize hands-on experiential learning sessions. Make a decision on the best organizational structure for your experiential learning activities. Organize experiential learning activities through mobilizing and coordinating human resources, as well as estimating the financial resources required. Implement the strategy for arranging experiential learning activities that was developed. Be prepared to deal with unexpected circumstances while planning experiential learning events

Often

No.

Effectiveness (%)

16.0

55.7

28.3

10.7

50.7

30.5

2.64

18.6

51.0

30.5

13.6

55.7

28.8

2.81

18.8

51.0

30.5

13.3

55.5

28.8

2.80

16.2

53.8

30.0

13.6

30.0

2.81

18.8

51.7

29.5

20.7

50.2

2.92

32.1

45.0

22.9

23.3

52.6

23.3

2.99

23.3

58.3

18.3

28.8

51.0

18.6

3.07

%: Percentage

According to the study, ‘Handling unexpected circumstances when arranging experiential learning activities’ is the indicator with the greatest efficacy among the seven elements of the capacity to arrange experiential learning activities. To be more specific, slightly more than half of the survey participants rated it as ‘Moderately effective’ (51%), 28.8% of survey participants rated it as ‘Extremely successful’, and about eighteen per cent of participants rated it as ‘Slightly effective’ (18.6 per cent). Over ten per cent of survey participants rated it as ‘Extremely effective’ (10.7 per cent), more than thirty per cent of people rated it as ‘Slightly effective’ (30.5 per cent), and the vast majority of participants rated it as ‘Moderately effective’ (70 per cent) (50.7 per cent).

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4. Discussion The main aims of this research are twofold. Firstly, to survey the perception of students, lecturers and the staff of the Youth Union and Students Association towards the role of improving abilities related to organizing experiential learning activities for undergraduate students. Secondly, to examine the implementation and effectiveness of improving the ability to organize experiential learning activities for undergraduate students. The most significant results show that both lecturers and students acknowledged the critical importance of skills linked to the organization of experiential learning activities in their respective fields. As a consequence of this finding, a prior study conducted by Victor (2013) has shown that experiential learning has a beneficial impact on students' self-confidence, cooperation abilities, and the development of a positive connection and interaction between students and the surrounding environment. Students were fully aware that they could only devote themselves to study if the training programme reflected the community's requirements and addressed social issues at the time of enrolment. Although students' organizational skills were enhanced, they were not adequately educated to arrange experiential learning events for undergraduates. Participants in the poll acknowledged that experiential learning activities had not been executed well enough to enable students to improve their professional knowledge and abilities. Prior to arranging experiential learning activities for students, organizers did not thoroughly define the goals, tasks, and particular contents of the activities, and as a result, students did not obtain the intended results as a result of these activities. Furthermore, the method of arranging experiential learning activities did not correspond to reality and did not completely represent the material that was needed to achieve the aims and goals of these activities. The failure to mobilize and coordinate human resources and accurately estimate the budgetary requirements of experiential learning activities were the factors that contributed to this outcome. Because of a scarcity of human and financial resources, it was difficult for educators to successfully develop and execute activities that were in line with the goals, tasks, and content of experiential learning activities. As a result, experiential learning should be included in the educational content and goals to guarantee sufficient financial resources (Austin & Rust, 2015). Student subjective evaluations were based on their own skills and experiences gained via direct participation in all phases of the process, as seen from the individual viewpoint. When students gave high ratings for putting the plan for arranging experiential learning events into action, they expressed high expectations of their participation in these activities. Furthermore, when comparing the efficacy of increasing the capacity to arrange experiential learning events, students gave a better score than those of the professors and the employees of the Youth Union and the Students Association of the university. This demonstrated that students always had high expectations for experiential learning that could educate them to improve their high-level professional abilities and knowledge. It is essential to offer particular methods for

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incorporating different types of experiential learning activities into specialized curriculum modules in order for students to gain information and apply it to specific circumstances to achieve success. Moreover, this is exactly in accordance with earlier results achieved by Kolb and Kolb (2009), which showed that experience acquired by learners as a result of the learning process will result in their gaining knowledge. The findings of this study also revealed that specialized modules of undergraduate curriculum and activities of the Youth Union and Students Association did not significantly enhance or successfully train participants' skills to arrange experiential learning activities. Combining specialist courses with hands-on practical learning activities is critical for success. Students would have the chance to instantly experience and apply what they have learned from the theory in order to deal with issues that arise in the educational environment if they were to acquire specialized knowledge. Experiential learning activities have not been well defined in detail the objectives and tasks for undergraduate students such as determining specific contents, methods and techniques to assist students in enhancing professional skills and applying them, and determining appropriate organizational forms to combine a variety of learning activities. The specialized courses contain both fundamental and professional information, and they have a significant impact on the professional capabilities and teaching abilities of students once they graduate. Students would acquire greater experience if they were given frequent opportunities to use their knowledge to solve hypothetical problems while engaging in experiential learning activities. As a result, they would be better prepared to deal with circumstances in the real world. Furthermore, the experiential learning activities that were conducted did not provide the anticipated outcomes and were not consistent with the significant role that experience played in the specialized modules or the activities of the Youth Union and Students Association. Experiential learning activities, according to the overall assessment, must be implemented more effectively in order to improve abilities, including determining the objectives and tasks; (determining the specific contents, methods, and techniques; determining the appropriate organizational form of experiential learning activities; mobilizing and coordinating human resources, and estimating costs. Students should be encouraged and educated so that they may develop their professional abilities and acquire more valuable experience in the field of event planning. The sampling method is, without a doubt, the most significant drawback of the current research. The sample was chosen at convenience from among students at the Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, which is located in Vietnam.

5. Conclusion A cognitive process that includes ongoing adaptation to and synergetic interaction with one's environment is known as learning. Individuals obtain knowledge as a result of the experience they have gained via the learning process. Experiential learning, sometimes known as "hands-on" learning, is regarded to be one of the most significant developments in higher education,

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and it is becoming increasingly popular. The most important finding of this research is that both lecturers and students recognized the critical importance of talents linked to the organization of experiential learning activities in their learning. Although students' organizational skills were enhanced, they were not adequately trained to create experiential learning events for undergraduates. It is vital to use all of the findings from this research in order to develop educational programmes that satisfy the needs of students while also meeting the requirements of socio-economic development. Students' perceptions of experiential learning activities and the attributes and skills of school educators should all be taken into consideration in future research to develop strategies for effective experiential education programmes. Experiential learning provides learners with the chance to put what they have learned into practice by tackling real-world problems. In order to obtain the best results, learners must be able to demonstrate their knowledge of the underlying concepts, methods, and procedures, as well as experimenting with and modifying their practice. A combination of practice and targeted coaching based on what is seen during practice is required to achieve expert status. After every experiential learning engagement, learners should participate in a debriefing session in which they get feedback and coaching from subject matter experts and other team members. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 236-254, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.14 Received Jul 12, 2021; Revised Sep 13, 2021; Accepted Sep 23, 2021

The Differential Impact of the ExperientialEntrepreneurial Learning Method on the Entrepreneurial Intentions of Higher Education Students Yasin Mohammed Ali Bahir Dar University, College of Education and Behavioral Science, Department of Psychology, Ethiopia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2879-9988 Reda Darge Negasi Bahir Dar University, College of Education and Behavioral Science, Department of Psychology, Ethiopia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3789-578X

Abstract. This study has comparatively examined the differential impact of the experiential-entrepreneurial learning method on the entrepreneurial intentions of students against the traditional entrepreneurial-teaching method of the course in Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management in Wollo University, Ethiopia. The research design appropriated was a quasi-experimental non-equivalent comparison-group design. The data for the study were drawn from 202 prospective graduating students. An entrepreneurial-intentional questionnaire (EIQ) was used to collect the data. To test the impact of course intervention, ANCOVA and SEM_path analysis were employed. As the findings indicated, a significant mean difference in the entrepreneurial intention and its antecedents were obtained between the experiential-entrepreneurial method and the traditional entrepreneurialteaching method group of the study participants. The relationships of variables included in the theory of planned behavior (TPB) have been affected by the two teaching-learning methods univocally. The findings have practical implications and recommendations for the teachinglearning processes of entrepreneurship in higher education. Keywords: entrepreneurial intention; Experiential learning; higher education

entrepreneurial

learning;

1. Introduction Ethiopia has recorded a rapid expansion in the development of higher education: a 10.2% of the enrolment rate in 2015/17, and a high graduation rate ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

237

for the past 15 years (FDRE MoE, 2018). To realize the Government’s plan of transitioning the country into a middle-income category by 2025, the gross enrolment rate needs to be at least 22%. However, the higher education participation rate remains low. Issues associated with relevance, quality, and equity have compounded the problem (MoE, 2018; Molla, 2018). The political crisis that Ethiopia has encountered for the past five years, i.e., 2017-2021, also complicated and negatively affected its fast-growing economy, stability, as well as the mission accomplishment of higher education. Hence, from employment to poverty-reduction and innovation, Ethiopian higher education learners are faced with personal, institutional, and systematic challenges. Contrary to the Higher Education Proclamation 650/2009 statements on learning and its practices, thiopian higher education institutions are still highly behaviorist (lectures, homework, quizzes, and the like) that focus on knowledge acquisition, which is known to intensify the level of lecturers’ involvement and control, learner passivity and indecisiveness (Tadesse et al., 2018; Zerihun et al., 2012) and also with a surface-learning outcome. Therefore, it is necessary to question the realisation of the Government’s call for a "student-centred" learning method. Having in mind the limitations of the framework of the assessment which they have applied, Hubb et al. (2015) investigated the practices of entrepreneurial education in Ethiopian universities. Their findings showed that the practice was in poor shape; that is, it lacked policy direction, being incongruent with the growth and development plan of the country. It further lacked basic curriculum and pedagogical appropriateness and was found to be methodologically unstructured. Likewise, Gerba (2012) indicated that entrepreneurial education in public universities was only introductory, methodologically weak, and unstructured in its objective. This study aims to understand the extent to which (a) those issues affect the entrepreneurial-intentional development of learners in Ethiopian higher education; and (b) the alternative experiential-entrepreneurial learning method, which addresses the problem under the following research questions: I. II.

Do experiential and traditional entrepreneurial teaching and learning methods affect the entrepreneurial intention of students differently? How do the experiential and traditional learning methods of an entrepreneurship course affect the association of entrepreneurial intention and its antecedents?

2. The Theoretical and Empirical Frameworks 2.1. Experiential-Entrepreneurial Learning Experiential learning provides an understanding of human learning and education as a lifelong process that depends on the knowledge pursuit of social psychology, philosophy, and cognitive psychology (Kolb, 1984). Therefore, as Kolb maintained, experiential learning is a "philosophical rationale for the primary role of personal experience in experiential learning" (Kolb, 1984, p. 18). In experiential learning, the interplay of the cognitive-learning process and affect- (emotion) related experiences determine the outcome of the learning

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content, which is being covered. Humans are not inherently empty barrels, who passively wait for agencies to fill them up (Kolb, 2014). In a humanistic psychological tradition, human experience and its interpretations are uniquely valued. Therefore, experiential learning particularly recognises and values feeling, as part and parcel of the learning process and its cognitions. Experiential learning, according to Lewis and Williams (1994; p.5), refers to “learning from experience or learning by doing”. Similarly, others have also defined it as learning from experience (Usher & Soloman, 1999). All these definitions involve experience, action, and the active participation of the learner. It is either entrepreneurial learning or any other field of study, theories of learning in psychology and education that have an eclectic, multi-disciplinary, and dynamic method on how to deal with the learning itself, the learners, as well as the learning environment. By supporting this, Béchard and Grégoire (2005) maintained that the association between the learning paradigms in educational psychology and entrepreneurial learning are close. Accordingly, when designing such teaching-learning methods for such courses, awakening to and abiding by the process to the principles of learning science in psychology are reported as being reasonable (e.g., Biggs, 2012). Experiential entrepreneurial learning involves innovative learning methods, which are highly dependent on the constructivist approach, including experiential learning; problem-solving, and project-based learning (Hägg & Gabrielsson, 2019). Jones and Iredale (2010) also suggested that for the sake of engaging (far from mere reading or listening to a teacher) and enhancing the motivation of learners, entrepreneurship in education requires experiential learning style strategies, which are predominantly problem solving and learning through practice or by actually doing. As Leal-Rodríguez and Albort-Morant (2019) indicated, experiential learning in an entrepreneurial education helps learners to have an opportunity to bring their diverse life experiences into the learning scene, and to interact in a meaningful way in which equality, freedom, and other views are adequately acknowledged. In entrepreneurial learning, where experiential learning is the framework of the process, mistakes in learning are cultural (Chapman et al., 2016), and where roleplay activities, and case presentations are rich sources of learning (Park & Choi, 2014). Entrepreneurial behaviors, or competencies, are the results of learners’ engagement with or immersion in entrepreneurial activity processes, which can grant learners an experience of how being an entrepreneur is a matter of growth (Lackéus et al., 2016). Although the context is different from that of entrepreneurship as Tadesse et al. (2020) reported, the informal cooperative learning method, which is a type of the active and experiential learning method, was significantly associated with teaching effectiveness and greater learning satisfaction among bachelor degree students, rather than with their counterparts.

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Therefore, experiential learning can be considered as a participatory form of learning that gives learners opportunity for testing their cognitive processes to analyze and synthesize information in an active and immersive learning context (Feinstein et al., 2002). 2.2. Entrepreneurial Intentions Based on Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned bbehavior (TPB), intention is the predictor of any behavior. On the other hand, intention is also predicted by the underlying belief of the individual, which comprises attitude, normative beliefs, and control beliefs. Accordingly, TPB is modelled by several studies to investigate the ipact of EE on EI and entrepreneurial-related behaviors (Liñan & Chen, 2009; Mwasalwiba, 2010). Intention is an indicator of the extent to which individuals are motivated to perform certain actions, and the energy they are willing to expend, in order to achieve that intended behavior (Lorti & Castogiovanni, 2015). Others have also confirmed the explanatory power of intention to motivate action, either for entrepreneurial behavior, or other behaviors (Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014; Laguía et al., 2019). The existing research in the area of entrepreneurship and intentional development to venture on creation shows that entrepreneurship courses have a positive impact on learners' attitude towards self-employment (Liñán & Chen, 2009; Souitaris et al., 2007; Mueller, 2011; Schlaegel & Koenig 2014). The other two predictors of entrepreneurial intention (EI), which are entrepreneurial subjective normative beliefs (ESNB) and entrepreneurial perceived behavioral control (EPBC), are also reported; and they can be influenced by proper entrepreneurial learning-intervention strategies. As TPB posited, subjective normative belief is the perceived social pressure of significant others to perform, or not, on some behavioral intentions (Solesvik et al., 2013). These influences of parents, teachers, and friends can be against, or for an individual's value system, norms, and beliefs. Through such dynamic processes, the entrepreneurial intention of an individual can be derived and shaped (Ajzen, 2001). SNBs are determined by the perceived expectations of people in the referent group formed by a given person, and the strength of that individual's motivation to comply with that expectation (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2011). Therefore, SNB can be appropriated in two ways; either by the perception or expectations of the referent people, or by the level of compliancemotivation of the individual (Panwar, 2020). According to TPB, EPBC refers to the perceived capability of mastering the tasks required for venture creation by planned intent. This perceived capability or belief of an individual on how to perform an entrepreneurial action is dependent on the knowledge and skills of entrepreneurial activities and processes (Chen et al., 1998). In terms of the impact of EE on PBC, Sánchez (2013) reported that the perceived performance of students helped with how to accomplish entrepreneurial actions, while simultaneously competencies can be enhanced by entrepreneurial education. Other researchers in the area also reported that the

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relationship between PBC and EI is positive (Fayolle & Gailly, 2015; Karimi et al., 2016). As far as the exploration of this study is concerned, research reports on the impact of teaching or learning methods of PBC are scant. Consequently, the differential impact of the EELM over the TETM will be tested by EPBC. From the 1990s, research on the impact of EE on entrepreneurial intentions and its antecedents has accumulated. Most of these studies employed the intentional models of TPB (Ajzen, 2017). The model predicts action from its intentions. As Schlaegel and Koenig (2013) described, although the two models have made recommendations on what sort of actions are needed for effective intention, a large number of research works have exclusively focused on predicting and explaining intentions. This approach lacks a complete picture of the nexus between intention and action (Van Gelderen et al., 2008). However, business ventures are only established if, and only if, the intention is followed by an action. This gap has been recently identified; efforts are required to confirm the empirical investigations of the link between entrepreneurial intentions and subsequent actions (Reuel Johnmark et al. 2016; Van Gelderen et al., 2015). According to reports of these studies, large numbers of respondents who expressed their intention to engage in a business-creation process do not appear to have produced any concrete actions (Van Gelderen et al., 2008). Accordingly, these days, in an intention, or particularly in EI literature, the intention-action gap, that is, the intention implementation or the implementation- intentional issue is becoming a popular, and an important issue in a research field. This research has tested the association among intentions, the antecedents, and the implementation-cue activities initiated by learners. According to Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2006, p.82), implementational intentions are "if-then plans that connect good opportunities to act with cognitive or behavioral responses that are effective in accomplishing one's goals. It bridges the intention to the behavioral gap.” Accordingly, they clarify or specify the behavior that individuals will execute for attaining their goal of intention, and the situation in which they pass through. Research in implementation intention is still in its infancy. Particularly in entrepreneurial intentions, the findings are scant. Therefore, followed by the previous discussions on the consecutive discussions of literature, the impact of entrepreneurship education, particularly a compulsory course provided to higher education prospective graduate students has been tested on their entrepreneurial intentions and related personal agencies. Answering such questions would help by narrowing gaps on how to deal with the relationship of intention and subsequent actions through designing theorydriven, flexible, free-sized, and adaptable entrepreneurial learning methods in higher education.

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3. The Methods 3.1. Research Design and Course-Intervention Description In this study, non-equivalent groups, and a pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design was applied. Although the uncontrollability of the data from various groups is mentioned as a limitation of the design (Lackeus et al., 2015), it has several advantages. By creating the temporal precedence of the independent variable to the dependent variable (Cook & Campbell, 1979) and consequently establishing a cause-effect relationship, the design was identified. The learning progress and any changes of the study participants were compared with the learning outcomes of the course Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management which comprised four months in duration, 48 CrHr contacts, and delivered by a semester-based linear format. Both study groups had no previous experience of entrepreneurial education or short-term training in entrepreneurship. Hence, concerning the assignment, the only supposed difference was solely the teaching-learning method employed. The experimental group of study participants was exposed to an entrepreneurial course that was enriched by the experiential learning method, whereas the control group of students learned the course in entrepreneurship by the existing traditional entrepreneurial teaching method. The main focus of this study, i.e., entrepreneurial learning methods applied for the experiential learning group of study participants, is described as follows. In the experiential group, the learning methods that are underpinned in learning by employing the principle were largely practised. Among others, a field-based feasibility study (aimed to enhance the skill of students' market analysis, opportunity identification, information seeking, planning, and riskidentification), business plan writing (a prerequisite for a student’s loan service request, and which served as a reference document in the profitability of the business-creation exercise of students) was also used as part of the entrepreneurial learning method. The other core learning method was the business-creation exercise (BCE). It was aimed at developing entrepreneurial behaviors among learners through contextualising and reinforcing personal entrepreneurial behaviors. In this package of action-oriented learning, opportunity identification, businessplan presentation, student-loan access request, and payback were properly executed. Finally, the experiential entrepreneurial learning method was also enriched by utilising experiential learning methods. These teaching-learning activities were supported by the narrative of the entrepreneurs, the experience sharing of guest entrepreneurs, business company visits, and the service descriptions of financial institutions. The control group students studied the entrepreneurship course by the conventional traditional teaching method. This method is accredited and approved by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (MoSHE). Although lecturing was the main teaching method, business-plan writing and unstructured business-creation exercises have been regarded as the main

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practical teaching methods of the traditional entrepreneurial teaching method group of study participants. 3.2. Participants and Study Groups This study was conducted at the Wollo University, Ethiopia. Both the experimental and the control groups of the participants were prospective graduating students drawn from the College of Agriculture. The demographic characteristics of the participants and their band of assignment for higher education, the credit hour allotted for the course Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management in each department were found to be evenly distributed. Therefore, it was logically justifiable to compare the experimental and the control group students’ entrepreneurial intentions and the related entrepreneurial mind set changes through their respective entrepreneurial learning and teaching methods of the same course. Accordingly, 202 participants were recruited from the four departments of the College of Agriculture, Wollo University. Accordingly, 88 students from the Control Group (in Plant and Animal Science departments), hereafter called the Traditional Entrepreneurial Teaching Method, or TETM and 114, under the Experimental Group (WSRM and RDAE departments), hereafter called the Experiential Entrepreneurial Learning Method or EELM students, participated in the study. 3.3. Data Collection Instruments Based on Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behavior (TPB) framework, Linan and Chen (2009) have developed a standardized measuring instrument of entrepreneurial intention (EIQ). Recently conducted research that used EIQ reported an appropriate psychometric quality and its acceptability (Da Costa & Mares, 2016). Regarding the psychometric quality of EIQ, Linan and Chen (2009) reported that the reliability (Cronbach α) of entrepreneurial-intention (EI), perceived behavioral control (PBC), subjective-normative belief (SNB), and entrepreneurial attitude (EAT) are 0.943, 0.885, 0.773, and 0.897 respectively. Concerning the validity thereof, construct, discriminant and convergent validities have been reported, with a recommended range of acceptance. While measuring entrepreneurial intention and its antecedents, EIQ has a different approach from that of the TPB's recommendation; considering beliefs (Fayolle et al., 2006). An aggregate of scale items that were Likert-type responses ranged from 1 (total disagreement) to 7 (total agreement) of each measured variable was employed. Thus, according to Linan and Chen (2009), in EIQ aggregate attitude, perceived behavioral control and subjective normative belief can be taken as a signiﬁcant predictor of intention, while beliefs were not considered. Consequently, this research has adopted the EIQ of Linan and Chen (2009). By using similar formats, in EIQ, the entrepreneurial intention was measured by six items (e.g., I am ready to do anything to be an entrepreneur). These are general sentences indicating the different aspects of intention. Chen et al. (1998)

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also used the same way of measuring entrepreneurial intentions. Entrepreneurial attitude also has been measured by general statements, e.g., a career as an entrepreneur is attractive for me, was chosen. In the same vein, while measuring SNB, EIQ has used one simpler scale in the validation process that includes three groups of reference people (e.g., If you decided to create a ﬁrm, would people in your close environment approve of that decision, i.e., family, friends and significant others?). Perceived behavioral control (PBC), which is, according to Ajzen (2001), broader than the concept of self-efficacy, was measured by self-efficacy items (Chen et al., 1998). Consequently, aggregate measures were also employed for measuring SNB and PBC. In measuring EPBC, the EIQ included a six-item scale, ﬁve of which measure general self-efficacy, whereas the one item is a controllability statement. In measuring entrepreneurial intention, implementation cues (EIIC) such as a self-developed questionnaire were employed. If students have a strong and genuine intention of becoming an entrepreneur, then they should show some active cues of entrepreneurial behavioral changes during the class, or after the class. These expected cues of entrepreneurial-behavioral changes are businessrelated actions, for instance, business plan preparation, saving, market research, business networking, or potential business-partner identification. Accordingly, six items were developed and the EIIC was measured. The process of item development of EIIC was guided by Gollwitzer (1999) and Gollwitzer and Sheeran (2006). Finally, before the actual administration of the data-collection instrument, the psychometric qualities of all the antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions modelled by TPB and the immediate outcome of EI, i.e., EIIC, were tested by using a pilot study. Accordingly, the reliability indicator statistics of EI, EAT, ESNB, EPBC, and EIIC, were 0.94, 0.80, 0.93, 0.86, and 0.90 respectively. They were used for the actual data-collection of the study. 3.4. Data Collection and the Organizational Communication Processes For this study, the actual data collection was conducted in two phases: the precourse intervention test and post-course intervention. The first phase (i.e., the pre-course intervention and the data for the test data collection) was conducted in February 2019 (i.e., the beginning of the second semester of the university’s academic year schedule). The second phase (i.e., the post-course intervention and the test data collection) took place on June 15, 2019 (end of the academic year of the university schedule). During the first phase of the data collection, institutional rapport formation and securing work permits were properly entertained. Based on the application of the researcher, the management of Wollo University has indicated its willingness to cooperate with the intervention of the learning method, student loan access, and the BCE week organization. For the sake of the effectiveness of the intervention, a formal agreement between the university and the researcher was signed.

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Before the actual administration of the pretest, the participants of the study were provided with all the necessary information. Following the description of the purpose of the research and its processes, the questionnaire was dispatched (under the guidance and support of course teachers), based on the identification number of the study participants. Accordingly, the pretest data collection was administered in February 2019. Following a similar procedure as that of the pretest data collection, the post-test intervention data collection was conducted on June 15, 2019. Since each group of the study had information about the purpose of the study, with some reminders and cautions, the course teachers of each study group have managed all the processes of the post-course intervention of the data-gathering administration. 3.5 Analysis Procedures The data analysis technique employed for testing the mean difference in the impact of the two methods was ANCOVA. On the other hand, the relationships of the antecedents of entrepreneurial intention and its implementation cue were determined by the SEM of path analysis. To test the inter-relationships among independent and dependent variables, by using the statistical analysis package AMOS 18.0 (analysis of moment structures), the SEM pass analysis was employed.

The Results

4.1. Mean Differences of Entrepreneurship Course Methods on EI and Its Antecedents The M and SD of the measured variables for both the EELM and the TETM are indicated in Table 1. Accordingly, EAT (M=4.43, SD= 1.3), ESNB (M=3.4, SD=1.6), EPBC (M=3.89, SD=1.14), EI (M=3.7, SD=1.2), and EIIC (M=2.4; SD= 1.2) for the TETM group of study participants were recorded. On the other hand, EAT (M= 5.7, SD = 0.94), ESNB (M=3.8, SD=1.9), EPBC (M=5.4, SD= 0.96), EI (M=5.6; SD=1.1), and EIIC (M=4.9, SD=1.1) were obtained for the participants of EELM. The mean scores of all the measured variables were higher for the study participants, who had learned entrepreneurship by the experiential entrepreneurial learning method. Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation of EI and Its Antecedents by Study Groups Variables

Group

Eat

TETM EELM TETM EELM TETM EELM TETM EELM TETM EELM

4.43 5.72 3.39 3.81 3.89 5.45 3.7 5.6 2.4 4.9

1.32 0.94 1.58 1.91 1.14 0.96 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.1

88 114

SNB PBC EI EIIC

88 114 88 114 88 114 88 114

Following the mean score presentation, through controlling all pretests, the significance of the mean differences of the various study groups was tested by

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ANCOVA. As the test results presented in Table 2 indicate, a significant mean difference in EAT and EPBC between the EELM and the TETM groups was obtained: EAT, F (1, 197) = 66.02; P<0.00; Ƞ2= 0.255; PBC, F (1,97) = 106.22; P<0.00; Ƞ2=0.35; EI, F (1,198) = 129.59; P<0.00; Ƞ2= 0.40; and EIIC, F (1,198) = 290.44; P<0.00; Ƞ2=0.60. Consequently, compared to the traditional entrepreneurial teaching method, the experiential entrepreneurial learning method was found to be higher in enhancing the entrepreneurial intention, its antecedents, and its implementation cue activities of the study’s participants. Table 2: ANCOVA Test of EELM and TETM Groups and Their Antecedents Dependent Variable Eat SNB PBC

EI EIIC

Contrast Error Contrast Error Contrast Error

Sum of Squares 84.69 252.73 7.82 609.58 114.28 211.94

Df 1 197 1 197 1 197

Mean Square 84.69 1.28 7.82 3.09 114.28 1.08

Contrast Error Contrast Error

177.26 270.83 317.71 216.59

1 198 1 198

177.26 1.37 317.71 1.09

Sig.

Ƞ2

66.02

0.00

0.25

2.53

0.11

0.013

106.22

0.00

0.35

129.59

0.00

0.40

290.44

0.00

0.60

On the other hand, although the mean score of the subjective normative beliefs of the study participants learned by the EELM were higher (M=3.8, SD= 1.9 Vs. M=3.5, SD=1.3), the difference was statistically non-significant; F (1, 197) = 2.53; P>0.11; Ƞ2= 0.013. 4.2 The Relationships between EI and the Antecedents The TPB model was tested by using the SEM path analysis. Based on the information provided in Table 3, a significant correlation between EPBC and EAT for the EELM group (r=0.251, p<0.00) and TETM group (r= 0.37, p<0.00) was obtained. On the other hand, a significant correlation between EAT and SNB (r=0.34, p<0.00) and EPBC and SNB (0.21, p<0.00) for the TETM group of study participants was obtained. Table 3: Correlations of EI Antecedents by Study Groups EELM ( N=114)

Variables

Eat

Esnb

0.15

Epbc

0.251**

0.173

TETM (N=88)

Epbc

Eat

Esnb

Epbc

1 1

0.342**

0.369**

0.210*

According to the results of the model for testing, configurable invariance revealed that the X2 was non-significant (p>0.05). The rest of the model-fit indices also suggested good model fits: GFI= 0.99; AGFI= 0.95; NFI= 0.97; CFI=

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0.1; TLI= 0.96; RMSEA= 0.00. From this information, an inference can be drawn that the hypothesized multi-group model of TPB was fitting for both the new and the existing entrepreneurial course group study participants. Having established the goodness-of-fit for the unconstrained model, the testing process was further utilised to test for the invariance of the structure across the two groups. According to the comparisons of the models indicated by Table 4, the results showed that although the parameters of the model were constrained, the three models had no significant differences X2(5, N = 202; = 7.80; p>0.167; =13.77; p>0.25). Additionally, when the structural weights of the model were assumed to be correct, the structural covariance model was also not significantly different X2(6, N = 202; = 5.97; p>0.426). This provided further evidence that the three models were homogeneous. Thus, the TPB model’s understudy was invariant across the two groups. Table 4: Comparing the Unconstrained and the Constrained Models Model

CMIN

NFI IFI Delta-1 Delta-2 Assuming the model unconstrained to be correct Structural weights 5 7.804 0.167 0.040 0.041 Structural covariance 11 13.775 0.246 0.070 0.072 Assuming model Structural weights to be correct Structural covariance 6 5.971 0.426 0.031 0.032

RFI rho-1

TLI rho2

0.079 0.081

0.088 0.090

0.002

According to the test of the regression reported in Table 5, EAT and EPBC were found to be significant predictors of EI for both the EELM and the TETM, β = 0.38, p < 0.00; = 0.24, p<.00, β=0.39, p<00;00 = 0.26, p<0.00 respectively. However, SNB was found to be a significant predictor of EI for the TETM group of participants alone; β = 0.13, p < 0.01, and it was found to be non-significant for the EELM group of participants; β = 0.012, p > 0.87. Table 5: Regression weights and level of significance of the EELM and TETM course model effects EELM Group (N=114) Variable EI EI EI EIIC EIIC EI EIIC

<--<--<--<--<---

Estimate Eat Esnb Epbc EI Epbc

0.38 0.12 0.24 0.422 0.25

S.E.

C.R.

0.066 0.048

5.79 2.612 3.503 4.640 3.066

0.091 0.082

TETM Group (N=88) P

*** 0.0022 *** *** 0.002 0.402 0.312

Estimate

S.E.

C.R.

0.392 0.012 0.264 0.245 0.109

0.0800 0.072 0.087 0.086 0.082

4.8911 0.16 3.048 2.857 1.329

*** 0.871 0.002 0.004 0.184

0.389 0.161

The remaining two findings shown in Table 5 indicate that EI significantly predicted EIIC in the EELM group, β =0.42, P<0.00, and in the TETM group, β

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=0.25, p<0.004). However, EIIC was only significantly predicted from PBC in the EELM group, β =0.25, p<0.002, and it was insignificant for the existing TETM group of participants, β = 0.11, p<0.18. In the same table, the predictors of EI and EIIC have explained 40.2% and 31.2%, and 38.9% and 16.1% of the variation of each predicted variable in the experiential and traditional entrepreneurial teaching-learning method groups of the study participants respectively.

Discussions

5.1 Differential Impacts of Experiential Entrepreneurial Learning Method on EI and its Antecedents To determine the effectiveness of the newly designed EELM, a comparative study with the existing traditional entrepreneurial teaching method was conducted. Accordingly, the EI, EAT, EPBC, and EIIC of students who learned the course entrepreneurship by the experiential entrepreneurial learning method were significantly improved more than the students who had learned the same entrepreneurship course by the existing traditional entrepreneurial teaching method. In this research, such prominent differential achievement of students can be attributed to the nature of the newly designed experiential entrepreneurial learning method. In this regard, there are different arguments on how experiential learning meaningfully and desirably affects the mind, heart, and hands of learners when compared to the conventional traditional lecture-dominated teaching method of higher education. While arguing against the effect of the lecture-based entrepreneurship course delivery and supporting the action-oriented entrepreneurial learning method, Higgins and Elliott (2011) suggested that the traditional classroom pedagogy is less effective in achieving actionable entrepreneurial learning outcomes. Similarly, Bae et al. (2014) and Nabi et al. (2017) also argued that the traditional pedagogy is questionable in enhancing entrepreneurial intention. Heinonen and Poikkijoki (2006) also reported that compared with the different types of experiential learning methods, the traditional lecture-driven entrepreneurial course delivery could inhibit the development of entrepreneurial skills in general, and critical thinking, in particular. In addition to these reports, which are consistent with the present study’s findings, many others also found that action-oriented entrepreneurial learning is effective for higher-order learning outcomes (Järvi, 2015). Mukesh et al. (2020) and Padilla-Angulo (2017) also reported a consistent finding with the present study in entrepreneurial intention and perceived behavioral control of learners. According to this research finding, among the study groups, those who have been exposed to action-learning pedagogy achieved a signiﬁcantly higher level of entrepreneurial-perceived behavioral control and entrepreneurial intention, when compared to those taught by traditional classroom pedagogy. On the other hand, although a significant improvement was observed in subjective normative belief for both methods, there was no significant difference

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between the new experiential and the existing entrepreneurial courses F (1, 197) = 2.23; P>0.12; Partial Eta Squared =0.01. In line with these findings, many researchers reported that a subjective normative belief has not been improved in entrepreneurial education. According to these groups of researchers, there was no significant direct relationship between EI and ESNB (Autio et al. 2001; Krueger et al., 2000). However, negating the present findings and those of previously reported works, a positive impact of EE on students' subjective normative beliesf has been reported (Mueller, 2011). Consequently, such univocal findings should be confirmed by future research projects. 5.2 Relationships between EI and its Antecedents The present study has confirmed that a significant correlation between entrepreneurial-perceived behavioral control and attitude for the experiential group (r=0.251, p<0.00) and the traditional teaching method group (r= 0.37, p<0.00) has been obtained. However, the relationship between attitude and subjective normative beliefs (r=0.34, p<0.00) and perceived behavioral control and subjective normative belief (0.21, p<0.00), was only found to be significant for the traditional teaching method group of students. Regardless of its statistical significance, SNB has also been found to have a positive relationship with attitude and PBC among the experiential groups of the participants. In this regard and in line with the present research findings, researchers (Autio et al., 2001; Krueger et al., 2000) reported that the relationships of SNB with intention, attitude, and PBC are weak. TPB also treated SNB as an important but weak contributor of intentions. The SEM path analysis results showed that the intentional model (TPB) was valid for representing the entrepreneurial intentional development of students. Adequate model fit was obtained and the significant paths from the three antecedents to entrepreneurial intention were found. However, subjective normative beliefs had a positive non-significant impact on the entrepreneurial intentions of the existing course model (β=0.097, p>0.054, which was closer to 0.05) and the existing entrepreneurial course group of participants (β=0.012, p>0.87). Regarding the relationship of SNB in the TPB model, consistent with the findings of the study, its impact on intention has been reported as weak. Owing to this research dispute, some researchers have omitted it from the model (Peterman & Kennedy, 2003), while others have reported that its effect was nonsignificant (Krueger et al., 2000). On the other hand, the newly added variable entrepreneurial intentional implementation cue that can be considered as a closer predictor of actual job creation behavior was significantly predicted from the entrepreneurial intention and perceived behavioral control of students taught by the experiential method. This finding was consistent with the theoretical direction (Gollwitzer, 1999) and empirical report of implementation intention planned critical cues of how

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intention could be realised by answering questions relating to when, where, and how students would carry out the intended action and the correspondence between the intended and the actual behavior (Oettingen & Gollwitzer, 2013; Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006). Accordingly, although similar findings in the relationship of entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial intention implementation cue were reported, among students taught by the existing traditional teaching-oriented method, perceived behavioral control has not predicted the entrepreneurial intentional implementation cue (β=0.11, p>0.184). The predictors of entrepreneurial intention (attitude, SNB, and PBC) have explained 40.2% (the EELM) and 38.9% (the TETM) of its variance. Accordingly, attitude, PBC and SNB have explained 28.5%, 8.1% and 3.6% (the EELM); and 32.2% and 6.6% (TETM) of the variance of entrepreneurial intention respectively. Among the antecedents, the larger share of explaining entrepreneurial intention was attributed to attitude. This has been supported by various previous research projects (Malabana & Swanepoel, 2015). However, when compared to those researchers, the present research could not replicate perceived behavioral control, which explains intention as being as large as attitude. The smaller contribution of PBC in explaining the variance of EI obtained in this research has also deviated from the research model of Ajzen’s TPB. According to Ajzen (1991), perceived behavioral control explains 20-40% variance of intention. SNB was found to be the lowest predictor and explainer of entrepreneurial intention. This finding also coincides with those of many researchers (e.g., Muller, 2011). Concerning the amount of the share that the antecedents of EI have found, the present finding supported the empirical findings. Among others, most studies of entrepreneurial intention found a value of R2 between 20% and 40%; for example, 55.5% (Linan & Chen, 2009), 35% (Krueger et al., 2000), 45% (Tkachev & Kolvereid, 1999), 30.3% (Autio et al., 2001), 32% (Souitaris et al., 2007), and 38% (Van Gelderen et al., 2008). It is noted that the contribution of the subjective norms in the TPB was generally found to be weak in previous research projects (Autio et al., 2001). As the contribution of individual predictors of entrepreneurial intention is depicted in the analytical section of this paper, the values of the path coefficients obtained are consistent with those of previous studies. For instance, the range of path coefficients of attitude was found to be between 0.215 (p<0.001) and 0.306, subjective normative beliefs range between 0.028 (p<0.05) to 0.356 (p<0.001), and perceived behavioral control ranges from 0.16 (p<0.001) to 0.380 (Autio et al., 2001; Kolvereid, 1996; Souitaris et al., 2007; Tung, 2011) in entrepreneurial education. On the other hand, entrepreneurial intention and perceived behavioral control have explained 33% (the new course) and 16.1% (of the existing course-model

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group) of entrepreneurial-intention implementation cues. Individually, entrepreneurial intention (29.8%) and perceived behavioral control (3.3%) of the experiential-model group, and entrepreneurial intention (16.1%) of the traditional model group have explained the variance of entrepreneurialintention implementation cues of the participants of the study. The relationship between intention and its implementation-critical cue (EIIC) was found to be 0.76. Similar to these findings, Ajzen et al. (2009) reported that intention can account for substantial variance in actual behavior. Others reported that the correlation is as high as 0.96 (Smetana & Adler, 1980), although in most cases, predictive accuracy is more modest. In a meta-analytical review of 185 studies conducted in the framework of the theory of planned behavior, Armitage and Conner (2001) and Sheeran (2002) reported that the average (27% of the variation in behavior) was explained by behavioral intentions. On the other hand, meta-analytical works have shown that intentions account for between 20% and 30% of the variance in any behavior (Sheeran, 2002; Armitage & Conner, 2001). Therefore, the results obtained from the present study have concurred with those theoretical and empirical reports. Of course, intentional implementation cues could not be taken for granted for the occurrence of the actual behavior (in the context of this research venture creation).

6. Conclusion In the light of the purposes of the study and the analysis presented above, specific conclusions were drawn from the findings of the present study. As the ANCOVA test result of the study confirmed, a significant mean difference in EI and its antecedents between the study groups taught entrepreneurship by the EELM and TETM has been obtained. The size effect of the experiential entrepreneurial learning method was found to be higher than the existing traditional entrepreneurial teaching method in EI, EIIC, EAT, and EPBC. However, there was no significant mean difference in ESNB between the two study groups. The relationships of entrepreneurial intention, its antecedents, and entrepreneurial intention were differently affected by the entrepreneurship course as regards the teaching-learning methods. The present research has indicated that teaching and learning in an entrepreneurial course in higher education for venture creation, which can be realized through enhancing entrepreneurial intentions and strong implementation of practical signals, demands psycho-educational learning theory-guided intervention strategies.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 255-271, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.15 Received Jun 27, 2021; Revised Sep 24, 2021; Accepted Sep 30, 2021

Grade 12 Learners’ Perceptions of Opportunities to Learn Imperfect Market Structures: Frances Baard District Wellington Itai Manzi, Moeketsi Mosia, Boitumelo Moreeng and Thomas Masvosve University of the Free State, Blomfontein, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2212-152X https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7189-0018 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3644-3140 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2702-9677 Abstract. This empirical study sought to investigate the grade 12 economics learners’ perceptions of opportunities to learn imperfect market structures in selected schools in the Francis Baard District of Northern Cape. A quantitative research approach was employed, where a questionnaire was administered to 253 Grade 12 economics learners from three schools in Galeshewe. The questionnaire was based on four Opportunities to Learn (OTL) variables; content exposure, content emphasis, quality of instruction, and instructional resources. Data were analysed through excel 365 and then through SPSS. Overall, the study showed that little or no opportunities to learn were being created for learners to master the concept of imperfect market structures. This study is significant because it helps to make known to both the learners and teachers, the factors influencing learners’ learning outcomes related to imperfect market structures. Learners must also be encouraged to exhibit a positive attitude towards the subject, while the economics teachers should put in the required effort to improve the learning outcomes in schools. Keywords: imperfect market structures; Opportunities to Learn (OTL); learning outcomes; academic achievement

1. Introduction Globally, there has been a growing realisation of the importance of education to realise the growth and development objectives of countries (Moosavian, 2015). It is increasingly becoming clear that education is one of the greatest investments a nation can make if it is to grow and develop its economy. The education system should present learners with opportunities to acquire knowledge and skills required in a global, knowledge-based economy. For the requisite knowledge and ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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skills to be attained, the education system should be concerned more with the way the content is taught, than with what is actually taught. (Marks, 2020). Economics is one of the subjects that can be used as a foundation for achieving growth and development of countries. Morgan (2015) notes that a successful economics education should produce citizens who are well informed, responsible, and critically aware of economic issues, and are able to contribute effectively to the deliberations regarding issues of social provisioning. Economics is defined by Arsaythamby and Julinamary (2014, p. 240) ‘’as a subject that integrates theoretical skills, calculations, graphs, tables, and equations to answer economic questions”. As an economics concept, imperfect market structures is one example of curriculum content that exposes learners to the knowledge and skills postulated by scholars such as Arsaythamby and Julinamary (2014). Imperfect market structures are market structures where there is some degree of unfair competition (Department of Basic Education 2014). This concept, as Hoag and Benedict (2010) would suggest, presents learners with situations that are complex, with no easy solutions; and therefore, stimulates learners’ problem solving, critical thinking, and decision-making skills. Arsaythamby and Julinamary’s (2014) assertion that, for learners to be able to calculate the above variables, they should be able to recall concepts, interpret figures and use mathematical skills to solve problems. Harsh and Schmitt-Harsh (2016) go further and argue that proficiency in graphing is considered a central element of scientific literacy, given the need for succinctly communicating complex information. In fact, Khoo and Fitzgerald (2017) believe that economics consists mainly of mathematics, graphs, and working with formula. More so, prior research reveals a clear link between mathematics training and success in economics courses (Hoag & Benedict, 2010). In trying to understand why most learners across the world struggle with content which involves mathematical concepts, Khoo and Fitzgerald (2017) opined that learners have a phobia for figures, and therefore, tend to generally struggle with mathematical and graphing skills embedded in imperfect market structures. In fact, Gultepe (2016) more specifically states that learners struggle with identifying relationships between variables, interpreting graphs, converting tables into graphs, and identifying trends in the data given. The skills of interpretation, comparison, and decision making through graphical and mathematical skills demand learners to be critical thinkers. Regrettably, as scholars like Ogbonnaya et al., (2020) posit, learners are able to tackle problems on market dynamics as they are, in most cases, not taught to think as economists. They are also not taught to learn independently, and they rarely pick up these complex skills on their own. 1.1. Problem The study problem is the mediocre to poor academic achievement in high school economics. Whilst scholars argue and present evidence that learners seem to lack critical skills developed in economics, the current paper argues that there is a gap in literature which fails to account for what opportunities to learn are provided for the grade 12 learners to acquire these skills. The foregoing argument is foregrounded by scholars such as Cueto et al. (2014), who posit that it is to get a deeper insight, not only on the academic achievement outcomes of learners, but

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also on the processes of learning that take place in the classes. Thus, this paper seeks to investigate what opportunities to learn imperfect market structures are availed to grade 12 learners of economics.

2. Literature Review and Conceptual Framework This review of literature sought to answer the question what is currently known about the constructs of OTL and imperfect market structures. The concept Opportunities to Learn (OTL) owes its origins to mathematics achievement research studies which were conducted by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IAEEA). At the time, it was used to ensure comparability and validity of cross-national comparisons undertaken in the First International Mathematics Survey in the early 1960s (Gau, 1997; Boscardin, et al., 2005). The OTL concept, as viewed by Scheerens (2016), operationalises what takes place in schools and classrooms that support learners’ learning and progress. The scholar opines that OTL helps to reveal how the way learners are taught can have an effect on their academic achievement. The scholar argues that OTL helps establish the appropriateness of both the curriculum and pedagogy relative to the standards established for the learners’ performance A study of literature (Chabongora & Jita, 2013; Cueto et al., 2014; Scheerens, 2016) reveals, there is a positive relationship between opportunities to learn and the learners’ academic performance. This OTL concept suggests that content exposure, content emphasis, instructional strategies, and instructional resources, have a bearing on learners’ academic achievement. As posited by Chabongora and Jita (2013), the nature of OTL can either enhance or hinder the learning experiences in an imperfect market structure classroom. It is because of this, that the researchers settled for the OTL concept since he wanted to investigate learners’ perceptions of opportunities to learn graphical and mathematical skills In trying to examine such opportunities,OTL researchers such as Banicky (2000), Chabongora and Jita (2013) distinguish three overlapping categories of concern; curriculum content, instructional strategies, and instructional resources. As Chabongora and Jita (2013) suggest, the facet of curriculum content is concerned with the extent to which learners are exposed to topics that are essential to attaining standards. It is their contention that content exposure, content coverage, and content emphasis all play a significant role in determining the opportunities for learning presented to the learners. Content exposure is determined by the time taken by the teacher to cover specific content. Desimore (2016) confirm the importance of time spent on tasks as their research findings suggest a correlation between academic achievement and the time taken in covering the content. Content emphasis, in the view of Cueto et al. (2014), is concerned with establishing how a topic or content area is treated; whether it was treated as a major topic or minor topic, or whether the topic or content was not taught at all. Scholars like Aguirre-Munoz and Boscardin (2008) and Boscardin, et al. (2005) opine that higher levels of content coverage have been positively associated with learners’ academic performance. According to Jita and Chabongora (2013) instructional strategies are concerned with whether students

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have been exposed to the kinds of teaching and instructional experiences that would prepare them for success. Asikhia (2010) writes that the poor academic achievement in economics is partly attributable to the ill-preparedness of teachers, and Van Wyk (2011) attributes this ill preparedness to the lack of pedagogical content knowledge. As a result of inadequate preparation, teachers may heavily rely on the teacher chalk strategies, where learners rarely take part in the learning process. The lack of pedagogical content knowledge, it can be argued, can manifest itself in teachers hurriedly going through important concepts as they are not confident to teach the concepts. Without adequately prepared and knowledgeable teachers, there is little chance that quality curriculum and instructional strategies will be implemented effectively. Instructional resource variables are concerned with such issues as textbooks and teacher preparation; including levels of education, amount of experience, type of experience, participation in in-service professional development, and attitudes (Chabongora & Jita, 2013). Teachers must make use of a variety of resources if meaningful learning is to take place. It is Chabongora’s (2011) contention that schools’ instructional resources continue to be an important OTL indicator because they can enable or constrain a schools’ ability to provide a high-quality instructional programme. Affirming the importance of instructional resources, Reche et al. (2012) observed that the adequacy and use of teaching and learning material influence the effectiveness of a lesson. As part of the early work in this body of knowledge, Reche, et al. (2012) held the belief that, if teachers fail to use teaching and learning material adequately, the effectiveness of the teacher’s lesson is compromised, and consequently, learners are denied the opportunity to learn imperfect market structures. The impact of the availability of opportunities to learn is summarised by Confucius who said “I hear, and I forget. I see, and I believe. I do, and I understand”. The challenge with opportunities to learn with regards to the teaching and learning of imperfect market structures is not a uniquely South African problem. Zhang (2017), for instance, reveals that there are many countries where teachers face challenges related to meaningfully engaging learners. A further review of literature by Minarni et al. (2016) shows that there is poor learner achievement in topics that include mathematical concepts in Public Junior High School in Indonesia. These scholars attribute this to the teaching approaches employed by the teachers, the type of learning material, and the rare engagement of learners in solving mathematical problems in economics, as is the case with imperfect market structures. Moreover, Minarni et al.’s (2016) assertion is confirmed by Zhang (2017) who also bemoans the lack of content knowledge, lack of adequate resources, and inefficient use of available instructional resources as the reasons for poor academic achievement in economics. Minarni et al. (2016) suggest that the teacher should teach the learners in such a way that the learner has an opportunity to solve mathematical problems, as well as to understand mathematical representation in the form of graphs and tables. Given the above overview, it can be concluded that the most influential factors in learners’ academic achievement correlate with the opportunities to learn in the classroom.

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The quality of interaction of the two main actors – the learner and teacher – has a bearing on learners’ academic achievement. In fact, Beniwal (2016) argues that there is need to differentiate instruction to meet individual learners’ needs, and to provide active learning opportunities for learners to master economics. He further argues that these strategies should motivate, engage, and prompt learners to learn and achieve. In her book titled Teaching at its Best, Nilson (2010) posits that learners should be taught in multiple ways. She further argues that learners should be given the opportunity to read, talk, hear, see, act, draw, and feel their learning material. This, she argued, would bring fairness and equality in the learning process, as different learners prefer to learn in different ways.

3. Research Methodology This study sought to investigate what opportunities to learn imperfect market structures were available to the grade 12 economics learners. To achieve this, the study employed a quantitative descriptive survey. Quantitative research is viewed by Leedy and Ormrod (2019) as research that is concerned with providing answers to questions about relationships among variables being measured, with the objective of explaining phenomena. Neuman (2003) argues that a survey technique is relevant for descriptive or explanatory research. The researchers found this approach relevant to describe the learners’ experiences of opportunities to learn imperfect market structures through the presentation of statistical results. 3.1 Sampling and Research participants Three Galeshewe schools with comparable characteristics, in the rural district of Francis Baard in the Northern Cape served as the context of this study after permission was sought from the Francis Baard District Department of Education and the principals of the respective schools. The study participants were 253, 190 females and 63 males, between the age of 16 and 19 years of age and voluntarily agreed to participate in this research study with parental permission being sought for those participants who were below the age of 18 years A clustered sample of learners studying Economics(n=253) in grade 12 in the three schools was used in this study. The target population was all the grade 12 Economics learners in the Frances Baard district. Because of the size of the district, it was divided into geographical areas/suburbs that formed different cluster cohorts. The three schools selected in this study belonged to the Galeshewe cluster and were randomly selected. The three schools chosen were also found to be homogeneous, since all participants came from Galeshewe(cluster) with similar socioeconomic backgrounds(Alvi, 2016). The minimums ample size was determined using the Yamane equation(Yamane,1967:886) as shown in Equation 1. Equation 1: Yamane method of determining sample size n=N/(1+N(e)2) Where: n= the sample size

N= the population under study

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e =the margin error

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3.2 Instrumentation The researcher used a questionnaire to source data. A questionnaire is described by Khuc et al. (2021) as an instrument used to collect information through questions posed to the participants in writing. The selection of this instrument was based on Khuc et al.’s (2021) assertion that the prime objective of a questionnaire is to enable a researcher to gather informed facts and opinions about a phenomenon. In pursuit of ensuring validity of the questionnaire, the draft questionnaire was presented to experts in the Faculty of Education at Sol Plaatje University, and suggestions and corrections were made before the questionnaire was piloted to 30 learners from a local school. The main study participants were not used as samples in this pilot study. To ensure reliability of the instrument, the researcher made use of the test-re-test method and consistency of the instrument was measured through the Cronbach alpha which yielded r=0.86. After two days the researcher personally went to collect the questionnaires and managed to get 240 questionnaires back, which was a return rate of 95%. Four constructs of OTL, namely; content emphasis, content exposure, quality of instructional strategy, and instructional resources formed the basis of the questionnaire. Data presentation was descriptive and a five-point interval Likert scale was used to measure the responses. Leedy and Ormorod (2019) posit that a five-point scale is easy to comprehend and enables participants to express their views in a better way. In order to get a deeper understanding of the survey, the percentages of participants choosing strongly agree, agree, unsure, disagree and strongly disagree were calculated using excel.

4. Ethical clearance The researcher obtained ethical clearance from the University of the Free State (South Africa) to conduct this research. Permission was also sought from the Francis Baard District Department of Education, principals of the respective schools, and from parents and learners. All ethical protocols were observed.

5. Data Analysis The statistical analysis of the data obtained from the five-point Likert scale questionnaire was conducted using Microsoft Office Excel 365 and statistical software SPSS. The data from all the questions was analysed through the SPSS software. Each learner’s average per construct was calculated for the four constructs on which the questions were based. Thereafter, the averages per learner for the four constructs were calculated.

6. Findings This section presents findings in response to the question “What are the grade 12 learners’ perceptions of opportunities to learn imperfect market structures?” The responses came from 240 learners of which 186 were females and 54 were males in the respective schools. 6.1 Content emphasis Using the conceptual framework of OTL, content emphasis relates to how a topic or content area was treated. It seeks to ascertain whether a topic was treated as a minor or major topic. In this study, the researcher wanted to find out whether teachers placed emphasis on calculation of costs and revenues and drawing and

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interpretation of graphs, as these are critical skills and knowledge in the study of imperfect market structures. The table below shows the learners’ responses to the three items based on content emphasis. Table 1: Results from learners’ survey (227 responses)

Table 1:

Report

N Mean

Emphasis on Calculation of Cost and Revenues 227 2.9295

227 3.1013

227 2.8370

Std. Deviation

1.07438

1.13798

1.04112

Emphasis on interpreting graphs

Detailed teaching of drawing graphs

The results presented in Table 1 reveal a mean statistic of 2.93 on the emphasis on calculation of cost and revenues. On detailed teaching of drawing graphs, a mean of 3.10 was obtained and a 2.84 mean was recorded on the emphasis of graph interpretation. This suggests that the majority of the responses were between strongly disagreeing or disagreeing options. A standard deviation on the three items on the Table1 was averaging 1.08. This shows that the responses were tightly bunched close to the mean. Learners’ responses on the three items were combined and an average for content emphasis was calculated. An average of the three on this construct was 86%. This finding suggests that learners generally feel that not enough emphasis is placed on the concept 6.2 Content exposure The construct of content exposure consisted of four items as shown in table 2. Table 2: Results of learners’ survey (233 responses) Table 2:

N Mean Std. Deviation

Time spent on calculations Cost and Revenue 233 2.9914 1.14467

Report

Time spent on how to draw graphs 233 3.1974 1.18707

Frequency of Time spent on assessment on graph graphs interpretation 233 233 3.2060 3.3047 1.03830 1.13594

We can see from Table 2 above that the mean of all the four items under this construct of content exposure ranged between 2.99 and 3.30. These results suggest that most learners’ responses were crowded on disagree option. (Option 3). The responses reveal that there is not enough time spent on calculations of costs and revenues, drawing of graphs, and interpretation of graphs. The results also show that there is less frequency of assessment of graphs. The averages of the four items of content exposure construct show that most learners did not agree that enough time was being spent on calculations of costs and revenues, graph construction, and interpretation. This is suggested by a huge percentage (88%) of learners who

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disagreed and strongly disagreed on the four items of content exposure. 6.3 Instructional strategies The table shows learners’ responses on the four items of instructional strategies Table 3: Result of learners’ survey (228 responses) Table 3:

Report

Teachers are always Teaching methods in command of Learners actively are varied content participate in class 228 228 228

Teacher uses appropriate pace in teaching 228

2.9868

3.2193

3.2368

3.1711

1.13991

1.15540

1.02224

1.15787

On whether teachers varied teaching methods, a mean of 2.99 was obtained, which points to most respondents disagreeing. The results also show a mean of 3.21 on whether teachers were always in command of their content. As in the former, the learners’ responses were clustered around option 2 and option 3 (disagree and strongly disagree). On learners’ active participation in class, a similar trend was observed where learners either did not agree or strongly disagreed with this assertion as shown by a mean of 3.23. As to whether teachers paced their lessons appropriately, a mean of 3.17 was recorded. This means that the majority of the respondents (66%) either disagreed or strongly disagreed thatteachers paced their lessons appropriately. The result shows that learners do not actively participate in an imperfect market structure classroom. The table below shows learners’ responses on the amount of time teachers spend lecturing. Table 4(a): Result of learners’ survey on time spent lecturing (236 responses) The average time teachers lecture

Valid

75% and above (1)

Frequency Percent 80 33.9

Valid Percent 33.9

Cumulative Percent 33.9

75% (2)

25.4

59.3

50% (3)

20.3

79.7

25% (4)

11.9

91.5

10% (5)

8.5

100.0

Total

236

100.0

The findings reveal that teachers talk more in an imperfect market structure classroom as shown by the responses. On average, teachers talk 75% or more of the allocated teaching and learning time.

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Table 4 (b):

Report

The average time teachers lecture N 236

Mean 2.3559

Std. Deviation 1.28841

The mean scores of learner responses on instructional strategies suggest that teachers employ less variation on strategies in class. In addition, the findings also show that learners are not actively involved in the teaching and learning of graphs and calculations in an imperfect market structures classroom. This assertion is based on most of the learners’ responses on the instructional strategies construct being spread around strongly disagree and disagree (98%). 6.4 Instructional resources Table 5: Result of learners’ responses on the frequent use of resources (240 responses) Percentages 1.1 Chalkboard 1.2 Textbooks and posters 1.3 Computers 1.4 Worksheets 1.5 Overhead projector and TV

(%)

80 85 25 39 29

The questionnaire on the use of instructional resources sought to establish how often teachers used resources such as worksheets, textbooks, chalkboards, projectors, televisions, computers, and specialised equipment such as calculators. The chalkboard and textbook were the most popular resources employed by teachers as shown by the high percentage of learner responses on the categories of the Likert scale. Computers and projectors were rarely used in imperfect market structure classrooms as evidenced by only 25% of the participants responding in the affirmative on their use.

Figure 1: Average learners’ responses on the five items of instructional resources construct

A huge percentage of the learners’ responses (66%) strongly disagreed and disagreed that there was a variation of instructional resources in the teaching and

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comfortable with. This could negatively affect learners’ graphing skills as scholars such as Glazer (2011: p. 193) argue that learners’ familiarity with content influences how they interpret and use data. Whilst Beniwal (2015) argues for differentiation in instructional strategies, the findings of this study show that classes are characterised by teacher talk most of the time. There is invariably no adoption of the learner-centred approach as a variation method to adequately cover the concept, so that learners are empowered. This beclouds the concept, and learners are left in the dark. Despite Morgan’s (2015) assertion that economics and imperfect market structures should help develop learners’ problem-solving skills, the practices by teachers in the classrooms do not seem to be tailored to develop such skills. This observation is based on the premise that learners are rarely given opportunities to illuminate their own understanding, make sense of abstract concepts, and articulate their emerging ideas. The study findings revealed that the most used resources in an imperfect market structure class were the chalkboard and textbooks. Although these can be effective resources in teaching calculations, over reliance on them might deny learners opportunities to learn calculations and graphs. This assertion is supported by Chabongora (2011) who argues that schools’ instructional resources continue to be an important OTL indicator, because they can enable or constrain a school’s ability to provide a high-quality instructional programme.

7. Discussion and Implications 7.1 Content Emphasis The findings on content emphasis suggest that there was less emphasis on calculation of costs and revenues, and lack of detailed teaching and interpretation of graphs. The reason for the difficulty in understanding these concepts was probably because of little emphasis being placed on the calculations and graphs during teaching and learning of imperfect market structures. The minimal exposure to calculations was way inadequate compared to the desired outcomes. Cueto et al (2014) argue that main topics like imperfect market structures should be emphasised as they are major topics. However, this was the case with schools which were used in this study. 7.2 Content exposure Although learners are exposed to calculations of costs and revenues, the extent of the exposure is minimal as less time is dedicated to developing these skills and knowledge. This finding conflicts with what literature recommends in terms of content emphasis. For instance, Arsaythamby and Juliminary (2014) posit that learners need to be exposed to calculations and manipulation of numbers in their pursuit for solutions to problems encountered in the economy. This was not the case in the selected schools. The study also revealed that learners were exposed to graphs as total pictures but were not taught the process of graph construction systematically. This way of teaching graphs made it difficult for learners to interpret these graphs when called to do so. For teachers, it could be the pressure to cover the syllabus playing itself out in the tension between the allocated time and the need to enhance meaningful learning. There was also the possibility, as

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argued by Van Wyk (2011), that teachers themselves had limited exposure to deeper mathematical and graphing knowledge, and they did not want to be exposed by spending more time on concepts that they themselves were not comfortable with. 7.3 Instructional strategies Whilst Beniwal (2015) argues for differentiation in instructional strategies, the findings of this study showed that classes are characterised by teacher talk most of the time. There is invariably no adoption of the learner centred approach as an alternative approach to adequately cover the concept so that learners are empowered. This beclouds the concept and leaves learners in the dark. Another concern was that the practices by teachers in the classroom were not tailor-made to develop the intended skills of the economics curriculum, which include problem solving skills suggested by Morgan (2015). It is saddening that learners are rarely given opportunities to reveal their own understanding, make sense of abstract concepts, and articulate their emerging ideas. 7.4 Instructional Resources The study findings revealed that there is overreliance on the two traditional resources (chalkboard and textbooks) at the expense of alternative resources that would have engendered hands-on engagement with concepts Whilst these can be effective resources in the teaching of calculations, over reliance on them might deny learners opportunities to learn and practice calculations and drawing of graphs. This assertion is supported by Chabongora (2011) who argues that schools’ instructional resources continue to be an important OTL indicator, because they can enable or constrain a school’s ability to provide a high quality instructional programme.

8. Conclusion and Recommendations The analysis of the study findings showed that participants were not presented with sufficient opportunities to learn mathematical and graphing skills. In order to achieve the knowledge and skills envisaged in the economics curriculum, it is imperative that teachers listen to the emerging and incomplete ideas from the learners and guide them. This can only be achieved if active learner participation is prioritised, as encouraged by Bhattacharyya and Goswami (2020). There is need for teachers to place more emphasis on calculations as well as graph construction and interpretation. The Department of Basic Education (DBE) must continuously conduct teacher development (refresher) workshops where teachers are workshopped on the content itself (imperfect markets) as well as different pedagogies of delivering meaningful lessons for abstract concepts such as imperfect market structures. The researchers also noticed that there were pockets of good practice among schools which participated in the study. The study therefore, recommend that schools must create platforms where teachers can share their good practices. Furthermore, the article recommends that a more comprehensive study be undertaken, which considers the teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge, especially in mathematical and graphing competence. Lastly, the researcher suggests that a further study be conducted, where a broader population sample is used to allow the generalisation of the findings across a broad spectrum.

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9. References Aguirre-Munoz, Z., & Boscardin, C. K. (2008). Opportunity to Learn and English Learner Achievement: Is Increased Content Exposure Beneficial? Journal of Latinos and Education, 7 (3), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348430802100089 Alvi, M. (2016). A manual for selecting sampling techniques in research. In Munic Personal RePEc Archive. https://mpra.ub.uni.muenchen.de/70218/1 Arsaythamby, V., Hariharan, N., & Abdullah, W. S. W (2015). Types of Student Errors in Mathematical Symbols, Graphs and Problem-Solving. Asian Social Science, 11(15) https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v11n15p324 Arsaythamby, V. & Julinamary, P. (2014). Students’ Perceptions on Difficulties of Symbols, Graphs and Problem Solving in Economic. Social and Behavioural Sciences, 177, 240245. http://creativecommons.org/licences/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Asikhia, Q. A. (2010). Students and Teachers’ Perception of the Causes of Poor Academic Performance in Ogun State Secondary Schools [Nigeria]: Implications for Counselling for National Development. European Journal of Social Sciences, 13(2), 229-242. Banicky, L. A. (2000, October). Opportunity to Learn Education. Education Policy Brief, Vol. 7. Beniwal, R. D. (2016). Best Practices in Teacher Education for Quality Enhancement. International Journal of Research in Economics and Social Sciences, 6(9), 258-263 http://euroasiapub.org Bhattacharyya, J., & Goswami, B. (2020). Interactive Interventions to Enhance Attention of 1st year MBBS Students during Physiology Lecture sessions. International Journal of scientific research, 1-3. October. https://doi.org/10.36106/IJSR/0911141 Boscardin, C. K. Z., Aguirre-Muñoz, Z., Stoker, G., Kim, J., Kim, M., & Lee, J. (2005). Relationship Between Opportunity to Learn and Student Performance on English and Algebra Assessments. Educational Assessment, 10(4), 307–332. Chabongora, B. N. (2011). Investigating Opportunities to Learn Grade 10 Algebra: Case studies of three Catholic secondary schools [Thesis, University of South Africa]. Chabongora, B. N., & Jita, L. C. (2013). Opportunities to learn (OTL) Grade 10 algebra in three South African Catholic secondary schools. Journal of Educational Studies, 12 (1),172-188. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC157141 Cueto, S., Guerrero, G., Leon, J., Zapata, M., & Freire, S. (2014). The relationship between socioeconomic status at age one, opportunities to learn and achievement in mathematics in fourth grade in Peru. Oxford Review of Education, 40(10), 50-72. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2013.873525 Desimore, L., Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of Convenience Sampling and Purposive Sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11 Gau, S. (1997). The Distribution and the Effects of Opportunity to Learn Mathematics Achievement [Paper presentation]. The Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois, USA. Glazer, N. (2011). Challenges with graph interpretation: a review of literature. Studies in Science Education, 47 (2), 183-210. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057267.2011.605307 Gultepe, N. (2016). Reflections on High School Students’ Graphing Skills and Their Conceptual Understanding of Drawing Chemistry Graphs. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 17(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2016.1.2837 Harsh, J., A., & Smit-Harsh, M. (2016). Instructional Strategies to Develop Graphing Skills in the College Science Classroom. The American Biology Teacher, 78(1), 49-56. https://doi.org/10:.1525/abt.2016.78.1.49

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Hoag, J., & Benedict, M. E. (2010). What influence Does Mathematics Preparation Have on Performance in First Economics Classes? Journal of Economics and Economic Education Research, 11(1), 19-24. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.964539 Khoo, Y. Y., & Fitzgerald, R. (2017). Peer Learning with Concept Cartoons Enhance Critical Thinking (CRiTT) and Performance In Secondary School Economics. Journal of Economics and Economic Education 18(1), 1-13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320728752 Khuc, Q. V., Pham, P., & Tran, T. D. (2021). Questionnaire design. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/q3um6 Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2019). Practical research. Planning and design Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching, 1(2). https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2018.1.2.15 Marks, N. (2020). Student Engagement in Improving Access to Taught Course Content at LSE Library: practicalities and Pitfalls. New Review of Academic Librarianship, 26(24), 403–418. https://doi.org/10.1080/13614533.2020.1803937 Minarni, A., Napitupulu, E. E., & Husein, R. (2016). Mathematical understanding and representation ability of public junior high school in north Sumatra. Journal on Mathematics Education, 7(1),45-58. https://files.eric.ed.gov Moosavian, S. A. Z. N. (2015). A comprehensive visual “wheel of duality” in consumer theory: An instructional tool usable in advanced microeconomics to turn “pain” into “joy”. A paper presented at the 8th annual International Atlantic Economic Society (IAES) conference, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Neuman, W. L. (2003). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. 5th edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Nilson, L. B. (2010). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college. 3rd edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ogbonnaya, C. I., Mafa-Theledi, N. O., & Ngulube, B. (2020) Economics Teachers’ Topic Pedagogical Content Knowledge Model for teaching Market Dynamics, International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(7), 320-341. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.18 Reche, R. N., Bundi, T. K., Riungu, J. N., & Mbungua, Z. K. (2014). Factors Contributing to Poor Performance in Kenya Certificate of Primary Education in Public Day Primary Schools in Namibia Division. International Journal of Humanities and Social sciences, 2(5), 127-133. https://doi.org/0.5901/mjss.2014.v5n5p273 Scheerens, J. (2016). Educational Effectiveness and Ineffectiveness: A critical review the knowledge base. Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-7459-8 Yamane, T. (1967) Statistics, an introductory analysis, 2nd edition. New York : Harper & Row. Van Wyk, M. (2011). The Use of Cartoons as a Teaching Tool to Enhance Student Learning in Economics. Journal of Social Sciences, 26(2), 117-130. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2011.11892888 Zhang, H. (2017). Accommodating Different Learning Styles in the Teaching of Economics: with Emphasis on Fleming and Mill’s Sensory-based Learning Style Typology. Applied Economics and Finance, 4(1), 72-83.

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Appendix 1 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR LEARNERS Dear Learner This survey is being carried out as part of my efforts to complete my Med study titled ‘Investigating opportunities to learn imperfect market structures in a selected grade 12 class’. Your participation is voluntary and there will be no mention of your name in the final article and any information given is treated confidentially. Please do not write your name anywhere on this questionnaire. Your cooperation and participation is greatly valued. PLEASE JUST INDICATE BY TICKING IN THE BOX OF YOUR CHOICE.

CONTENT EMPHASIS Strongly Agree agree

Unsure

Disagree Strongly disagree

Strongly Agree agree

Unsure

Disagree Strongly disagree

Unsure

Disagree Strongly disagree

1.1 Does your teacher place emphasis on calculations of costs and revenues?

1.2 Does your teacher go in detail in teaching you how to draw graphs from given tables showing costs and revenues? Strongly agree

1.3

Does your teacher emphasis on interpreting data and interpreting graphs?

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Agree

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CONTENT EXPOSURE Strongly agree

Agree Unsure Disagree Strongly disagree

2.1 Allocated time for teaching and learning is spent on the actual teaching and learning of calculations and graphs in imperfect market structures. All the Most Half times of the the times times

Very few times

Never

2.2 How often are you taught about calculations and graphs? All the times

Most of the times

Half the times

Very Few times

Never

2.3 Do you receive some Remedial/enrichment opportunities such as monitored homework, on graphs, tables and calculations ? Strongly Agree agree

2.4 Does your teacher teach you how to interpret graphs

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Unsure Disagree Strongly disagree

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QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION

3.1

Teaching methods are varied

3.2

Teachers are always command of the subject

3.3

Do you as learners actively participate during classes?

3.4

Teachers use appropriate place to cover the content.

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Agree

Unsure

Disagree

Strongly disagree

10%

25%

50%

75%

75% +

3.5 On average, the teachers talk for about what percentage of the time?

Strongly agree

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 272-286, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.16 Received Jun 20, 2021; Revised Sep 11, 2021; Accepted Sep 27, 2021

Pedagogical Challenges in the Teaching of N-Level 4 Economics Letlhoname Boitumelo Nkwadipo University of the Free State, Free State, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3802-2216 Msebenzi Rabaza* University of the Free State, Free State Province, South Africa https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2219-6131

Abstract. The lack of relevant Teacher Education Training Programme (TETP) specifically for economics teachers in Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) colleges globally, including South Africa has posed many challenges for teachers. This study reports on the pedagogical challenges of Economics teachers with Postgraduate Certificate (PGCE): Further Education and Training (FET) phase teaching N-level 4 economics in Technical and Vocational Education and Training colleges. The study investigated the pedagogical challenges experienced by economics teachers during the teaching and learning of N-Level 4 economics in one college at Motheo Technical and Vocational Education and Training College. The seven categories of teacher knowledge by Shulman's (1987), underpinned this study. In addition, the pedagogical challenges of Business Studies in secondary schools by Kimotho (2016) serve as a lens to understand the economics teachers’ challenges in a Technical, Vocational Education, and Training college. This qualitative research approach used an exploratory case study research design, and selected two economics teachers purposefully and their students who were observed in two different classrooms and later interviewed individually. The findings revealed that the economics teachers displayed five pedagogical challenges associated with content knowledge (CK), curriculum knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), knowledge of students, and the interaction with students. Based on the study’s limitation, there is a need to identify the educational implications on economics teachers’ pedagogical challenges when teaching economics to N-Level 4 students. Keywords: economics; pedagogical challenges; teaching and learning; Technical and Vocational Education; Training teachers

Corresponding author: Msebenzi Rabaza, RabazaM@ufs.ac.za

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction The Department of Higher Education and Training (2014) report on the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP) identifies the lack of relevant qualifications for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) teachers globally and in South Africa. The report specifies that TVET colleges have no specific curricula for TVET teachers. Furthermore, the DHET (2014) report also articulates a gap amongst teachers' academic qualifications for TVET colleges in the Free State. In recognising the importance of pedagogical skills, teachers in postsecondary programmes are required to follow some form of pedagogical preparation (Field et al., 2012). This preparation helps the teachers to create and maintain a positive teaching and learning environment where students provide feedback. The Department of Higher Education and Training [DHET] (2014) states that about 94% of the TVET teachers are categorised academically into three groups: unqualified teachers, qualified schools teachers (teachers who are academically qualified to teach Grades 1 to 12), and academically qualified teachers (qualified to teach at a TVET college). In the same report, 286 TVET teachers, including teachers of Economics employed at the Free State Public TVET colleges, were underqualified, with 26 teachers (9%) qualified to teach at TVET colleges. In improving the qualifications of unqualified and academically qualified teachers, the DHET introduced a five-year strategic plan for the capacity building of TVET college lecturers through open learning, in line with the White Paper on Post School Education and Training. The Teaching and Learning Development Sector Reform Forum Contract [TLDSRFC] project was launched in 2015 to develop and strengthen teacher education and to teach in the post-school education and training through the Teaching and Learning Development Capacity Improvement Programme [TLDCIP] (DHET, 2015). The TLDCIP project ended in 2020, with the view that the first TVET qualification will be in place at South African Universities in 2021. Thereafter, the first TVET degree qualification accredited by the DHET in South Africa will be awarded in 2024, and the diplomas in 2023. Hence, we investigated the pedagogical challenges that teachers of Economics with a high school qualification experience when teaching Economics at TVET colleges. There are limited studies on the pedagogical challenges of Economics teachers at TVET colleges. Hence, Kimotho’s (2016) study on the pedagogical challenges Business Studies teachers face and their impact on students’ achievement at secondary schools was used. Kimotho’s study identified nine pedagogical challenges, namely learning styles and methodology; the nature of students and teaching methodology; classroom diversity; subject matter; context or teaching environment; teachers’ awareness of the various teaching and learning methods available; time; the nature of examinations; and the research gap. Kimotho (2016) also identified the pedagogical challenges as a use of traditional teaching methods and insufficient content knowledge (CK) of the subject as affecting the teaching of business studies. However, Business Studies and Economics fall within the commerce discipline. Comparing the results for secondary school and TVET Economics teachers’ pedagogical challenges may serve as a basis for the differentiated training required for TVET College teachers teaching Economics.

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1.1. Research question • What are TVET teachers’ pedagogical challenges in the teaching and learning of Economics?

2. Literature review 2.1. What is pedagogy? There are different definitions of pedagogy, depending on how different researchers view it. For this study, we used a sociological definition of pedagogy. Pedagogy refers to the methods and principles that inform educational techniques and the distinction between what teachers purport to use and the pedagogy observed in practice (Scott, 2014). In this view, when teachers lack the pedagogy to teach at TVET colleges, they may struggle to distinguish what to use when planning for teaching and the actual practice. Various pedagogical approaches are common in schools, but some strategies are more effective and appropriate than others. However, it is easier for teachers to practise specific pedagogical approaches, such as peer instruction and group learning, in active learning classrooms (Hao et al., 2021). Moreover, connecting different methods and techniques to teach economics concepts may be challenging, especially demand and supply, when teachers lack the relevant qualification. Hence, the study selected two teachers to understand how they teach Economics, what challenges they experience, and the times they experience such challenges. 2.2. Pedagogical challenges This study used Kimotho's (2016) study on pedagogical challenges facing the teaching of the subject Business Studies and their impact on students’ achievements in national examinations in Nyandarua, Kenya. The teacher qualifications in Kenya are similar to those of South Africa. Hence, this study used Kimotho’s study to explore the pedagogical challenges teachers of Economics experience and the times when these pedagogical challenges manifest when teaching and learning Economics in N-Level 4 classrooms. The discussion and explanation of the nine pedagogical challenges are provided below. 2.2.1. Learning styles and methodology For students to learn meaningfully, a teacher of Economics needs to present the lesson to cater for students with different learning styles. In process terms, learning styles are described as how “students learn in many ways by seeing and hearing; reflecting and acting; reasoning logically and intuitively; memorizing and visualizing and drawing analogies and building mathematical models; steadily and in fits and starts” (Felder & Silverman, 2002: 1). In emotional terms, Gokalp (2013) refers to learning styles as the fact that every person has his or her method or set of strategies when learning. Significantly, Sarbazvatan et al. (2018) comprehend that understanding students’ learning styles is vital, since educational materials and teaching styles strive to fit the students’ learning styles, promoting academic achievement. Nonetheless, TVET teachers, without understanding students’ learning styles, find themselves struggling to select the relevant methodology to teach Economics to TVET Economics students. However, some studies investigated how undergraduate students of Economics

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focused on their learning styles and concluded that a traditional lecture approach was the dominant teaching method used (Malek, 2010; Leet & Lopus, 2012). This may also be the case at TVET colleges. Therefore, Economics teachers at TVET colleges need to have relevant knowledge of the students’ learning styles to teach Economics so that they understand the concepts. The assumption is that once the teacher knows how students learn, he/she may select a relevant methodology to teach N-level 4 Economics for understanding and apply the knowledge studied. 2.2.2. The nature of students and teaching methodology The Economics teachers at TVET colleges seem not to know much about the students they teach. The lack of understanding the nature of students is due to the focus on chalk and talk teaching that harms students in their learning practice (Ojo & Jeannin, 2016). Moreover, Kimotho (2016: 31) states that the students of and the teaching methods used to teach Economics need to be investigated to align with the students' abilities. However, students may feel more engaged with their studies if they see that studying Economics can help them unpack the complexities of the world they live in (Ojo & Jeannin, 2016). In other words, Economics students at TVET colleges taught by means of using chalk and talk may struggle to relate what they have learned about supply and demand to the real world. Students (passed Grade 12) at TVET colleges may have different teaching and learning needs from high school learners (in Grades 10–12). Therefore, TVET Economics teachers with high school qualifications may struggle to use a differentiated teaching approach that includes designing lesson plans based on students’ learning styles, grouping students according to shared interests topics or abilities, and continually assessing and adjusting the lesson content to meet students’ needs (Weselby, 2018). For teachers of Economics to meet their students’ needs, they need to select the teaching methodology to help them navigate and identify how N-level four students conceptualise economics concepts such as demand and supply with limited pedagogical challenges. Nonetheless, without the relevant TVET teaching qualification, Economics teachers may experience pedagogical challenges when teaching economics. 2.2.3. Classroom diversity There are different views of classroom diversity. For this study, Ottewill (2003) defines student diversity by looking at several characteristics, such as differences between students in terms of the following: their backgrounds and attitudes towards learning; ability in terms of fundamental skills such as numeracy and literacy; and their baseline knowledge of business practices and current affairs. Moreover, employing different methodologies, resources and methods of instruction to cater to these diverse students in one classroom is one of the challenges experienced by Business Studies teachers in Botswana (Sithole & Lumadi, 2012). In addition, students who grasp the content quickly might get frustrated easily and hold back if mixed with students who are slower to grasp the content (Sithole & Lumadi, 2012), which requires the teacher’s flexibility to organise the lesson in ways that accommodate diverse learners. This burden rests heavily on the teacher attempting to create a teaching environment that will benefit students with different abilities. Working to meet a classroom’s diverse

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needs and abilities might be a daunting task for teachers of Economics. Uddin and Johnson (2018) found that student bodies on campuses around the country reflect significant variations in culture, ethnicity, social and emotional health, and socioeconomic conditions. Therefore, attempting to meet these students’ needs requires that teachers develop an awareness of and explicitly respond to these ethnic, cultural, social, emotional, and cognitive characteristics. 2.2.4. Subject matter knowledge for teaching One of the critical aspects of teaching Economics is the subject matter knowledge (SMK) that teachers of Economics need to help TVET Economics students understand specific concepts, such as supply and demand. Davidowitz and Rollnick (2011) have identified the place of SMK in PCK as related to the domains of teacher knowledge. At the same time, Shulman (1987) places subject matter in CK. Shulman further states that teachers must define the concepts for students and the accepted truths in a domain must explain why a particular proposition is warranted. Moreover, it is worth knowing how the subject matter knowledge relates to other propositions within the discipline and out of the discipline, both in theory and practices (Shulman, 1987). Therefore, TVET teachers of Economics need to possess the subject matter knowledge relevant to teaching specific concepts in economics, such as demand and supply, and go deeper and broader when planning and presenting the lesson. In other words, TVET teachers of Economics’ subject matter knowledge needs to be developed for teaching in high schools and help teachers when teaching demand and supply concepts, such as descriptions of shortages and surplus and the calculation thereof (Paterson et al., 2017). Moreover, Economics student teachers at higher education institutions may not have the same subject matter as the content syllabus at TVET colleges. Therefore, if the student teachers are prepared to teach in the FET phase and are then employed to teach at a TVET colleges, the latter may have the same subject matter knowledge, but the articulation of subject matter knowledge may be inevitable without a well a developed pedagogical knowledge. 2.2.5. Knowledge of educational contexts Knowledge of educational contexts is vital for N-Level 4 teachers of Economics at TVET colleges and to identify ranges from the workings of the group or classroom, the governance, and financing of school districts to the character of communities and cultures (Shulman 1987: 8). Without understanding the educational context, teachers of Economics may experience a pedagogical challenge when they include the levels of responsibility, the students' social, religious, and cultural backgrounds when teaching N-Level 4 Economics. In addition, it will be beneficial for the TVET Economics teacher to know how the TVET college operates, its governance, and the financial implications of the college. Since they may have examples of challenges from their context and relate to the adequacy of teaching resources (Sithole & Lumadi, 2012). One asks whether the teachers of Economics at TVET colleges relate their teaching of economics to the context. If so, to what extent do TVET teachers lack an understanding of context in relation to economics teaching? The study by Lumadi (2012) further reports that teaching and learning have stopped at some colleges because of several inefficiencies. Hence, Shulman (1987) states that one aspect of

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knowledge of the educational context involves the socioeconomic level of the surrounding area, the type and size of the school, the class size, and the amount of quality support teachers and other colleagues provide to one another. Without this knowledge, teachers of Economics might not teach economics by relating it to the TVET surroundings. These are some of the many general challenges that teachers of Economics face daily. Moreover, Badenhorst and Radile (2018) state that the vocational systems suffer from inadequate partnerships with the business sector. The lack of partnership may result in teachers of Economics having inadequate knowledge of the context they teach, and it becomes difficult for teachers to provide examples in class when teaching a specific concept such as demand and supply. 2.2.6. Teachers’ awareness of the various teaching-learning methods available Teachers of Economics may have an awareness of the different teaching and learning methods to teach economics. However, Zanca (2017) has found that teachers of Economics still use lecture methods to teach economics. In contrast, Gullason (2009), Di Libedo (2010), and Umar et al. (2016) assert that economics as a social science requires teaching that is learner centred. In this view, Di Libedo (2010) indicates that there seems to be resistance from teachers of Economics to shift from the instruction paradigm to the learning paradigm. However, a lack of training or the amount of work in the learning paradigm may prevent this shift. There may be various teaching methods available to teachers of Economics, although there is still much debate about which method is best for economics teaching at TVET colleges. Learner-centred teaching approaches such as groupwork, interactive learning activities, and adaptive instruction have been identified as relevant for TVET teaching (CEDEFOP, 2015). The benefits are associated with students' motivation and engagement, learner satisfaction, dropout rates, and retention. The CEDEFOP (2015) advocates learner-centred pedagogies and discourages traditional teaching methods at TVET colleges, due to students' roles when they leave TVET colleges. 2.2.7. Allocated time for economics teaching The DHET (2021) highlights in the 2021 teaching and learning plan that sufficient time is allocated per subject in all the programmes. One would argue about the measure for sufficient time, since there are diverse learners in the classroom. Therefore, an adequate time for one learners may be inadequate for the other though they would be in the same classroom. Moreover, the DHET (2018) states that for Semester 1, there are approximately 85 lecturing days for semester modules, which amounts to 17 weeks. There are four periods allocated for Economics in Motheo TVET College, and each lasts for 1½ hours to make a total of six hours a week. For example, the Economics N-level 4 syllabus is divided into six modules to be completed within 12 weeks, with four weeks for a formal assessment, resulting in 16 full weeks for the semester. 2.2.8. The nature of examinations The nature of the examination was not relevant for this study, though it was found in Kimotho’s study since the study was longitudinal. This aspect was deemed not sufficient for teaching and learning at a TVET college.

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2.2.9. Research gap Research has been conducted on teaching approaches for economics at schools and for undergraduate studies (Becker & Watts, 1995; Malek, 2010), and few studies focus on the teaching and learning of economics globally and at the South African TVET colleges. There is a need to conduct research globally and in South Africa on the teaching and learning of economics at TVET colleges. 2.3. Theoretical framework This study’s theoretical framework used the lenses of Shulman’s (1987) seven categories of teacher knowledge, which includes, Content Knowledge (CK), General pedagogical knowledge, Curriculum knowledge, Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), Knowledge of learners and their characteristics, Knowledge of educational contexts, and Knowledge of educational ends. Below is an explanation of each category of teacher knowledge. CK refers to the awareness of the facts and the structure of their subject/s (Niemelä & Tirri, 2018). GPK refers to understanding what counts as good teaching and the best teaching approaches in a given context informed by knowledge of applicable learning theories (Rollnick et al. 2008). Thirdly, Curriculum knowledge includes awareness of various instructional materials, teaching procedures, and learning objectives (Niemelä & Tirri, 2018). The TVET Economics curriculum is not the same as the secondary school Economics syllabus. Fourthly, Berry et al. (2016) argue that PCK is assumed to synthesize and integrate all known elements needed for influential teachings, such as pedagogy, subject matter knowledge, student characteristics, and environmental context teaching and learning. In the fifth instance, learners' knowledge and characteristics are classified into two categories namely, social and cognitive knowledge of learners (Baynham & Frank, 2021). Social knowledge of learners refers to how learners of a particular age are like their behaviour, interests, and preoccupations, whereas cognitive knowledge of learners refers to their development that informs practice and knowledge context-bound to a particular group of learners (Baynham & Frank, 2021). The development of PCK is influenced by factors related to the teacher’s background and the context in which he or she works (Solís, 2009). Hence the economics teacher needs to know educational contexts. A seventh point is knowledge of educational ends that refers to the purposeful activity of teaching time both in short-term goals example, a lesson or several lessons, and a long-term purpose of education (Green & Leask, 2013). Although all the categories of teacher knowledge involve aspects of teaching, they help to identify the complexity of their interaction in the teaching of N-Level 4 Economics at a TVET college.

3. Methodology This qualitative research study used an exploratory case study research design to explore a real-life, contemporary bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information and reports a case description and case themes (Creswell, 2013). A purposive sampling technique selected two TVET teachers of Economics at one TVET college who taught 62 students, 30 and 32 students in Class A and B, respectively. A self-developed observation manual and structured individual interview schedule were sent to colleagues at the University for

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Content Validity. The comments and suggestions received on each section with the piloted instruments were amended accordingly. Data were collected from two teacher observations and two individual interviews with the participants separately. The participants taught the demand and supply concepts during the lesson observation. Both lesson observations lasted approximately an hour and 30 minutes each, and the individual interviews lasted approximately 30 minutes for each teacher. The ethical clearance number UFS-HSD2018/1627/0905 was obtained in compliance with the ethical considerations and pseudonyms such as teachers (Ann and Lethlo) referred to the participants.

4. Findings and discussion The data from the observations and individual semi-structured interviews were analysed thematically. The data were organized into one theme and presented as the results below. 4.1. List of pedagogical challenges Data from the lesson observations and interviews revealed a list of five pedagogical challenges, CK, curriculum knowledge, PCK, knowledge of students, and the interaction with students is explained below: 4.1.1. Content knowledge The paragraph below discusses the participants' CK by looking at the two categories, prior knowledge associated with the concept taught, and the concepts and sub-concepts that form part of supply and demand. Both participants did not appreciate the students' prior knowledge of supply and demand when teaching N-level 4 students. The participants requested the students to open their textbooks and to start reading, which suggests that both teachers had a challenge in planning the lesson and accommodating the students’ prior knowledge of the concepts taught. To be effective, teachers need to tap into students' prior knowledge that needs to be addressed as they come with it to the classroom (Darling-Hammond & Oakes, 2021). Furthermore, if their knowledge and beliefs are not engaged, students may fail to grasp new concepts and information taught. This suggests that meaningful learning has not taken place. When the participants were asked whether they possessed the content knowledge relevant to N-Level 4 economics during the individual interview session, their responses showed adequate content knowledge for teaching economics at a TVET college; therefore, the participants’ responses on content knowledge as highlighted below. Ann response, “I think I have enough content knowledge because I used to teach economics in the secondary school, and the syllabus is the same.” Lethlo – “I have sufficient knowledge. The content in N4 economics is not different from secondary economics. Though the two participants felt that the content is the same as the CK for secondary school economics, there may be some differences. Their responses showed that the level at which they presented N-level 4 economics concepts is not

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higher than secondary school level. The researchers observed that both teachers presented different concepts when teaching economics. Both teachers followed the concepts and sub-concepts highlighted from the textbook, such as demand and supply, the law of demand and supply, factors that determine the quantity demanded and supplied, plotting the demand and supply curve, the slope of the demand and supply curve, and changes in supply and demand. This suggests that the textbook supported the participants’ CK adequately. However, the researchers observed that both teachers relied on textbooks when teaching supply and demand concepts. The interview responses contrasted with the practical lesson; the knowledge of content could not be identified due to reliance on the textbook. This suggests that both teachers experienced a pedagogical challenge concerning the CK for teaching demand and supply. Kimotho's (2016) study agrees with this finding that insufficient content knowledge affects the teaching of business studies, which may be the case in NLevel 4 economics. 4.1.2. Curriculum knowledge Participants’ knowledge of the curriculum is organised into two categories: awareness of learning objectives, and awareness of teaching and learning materials. Knowledge of the learning objectives is understood as mathematics teachers' knowledge about planning, organising, and presenting a specific topic to achieve the learning outcomes. At the same time, the awareness of the teaching and learning material is understood as the representations that help the economics teacher to complement verbal with non-verbal explanations. Regarding the awareness of the learning objectives, it was not clear what the participants wanted the students to achieve at the end of teaching demand and supply concepts based on the observation. Mitchell and Manzo (2018) state that much of the existing assessment and instructional design strategies revolve around learning objectives. Moreover, instructional designers argue that learning objectives provide a focused mindset for students engaging in the content. Therefore, it may be challenging to focus students on achieving a planned lesson's objectives without a focused lesson plan. Hence, the participants failed to achieve to direct students into achieving something in the lesson. When the participants were asked during the interview about the guide to teach demand and supply in Economics, their responses showed that they were not happy with the same curriculum for different educational levels. The responses of the two participants are presented below. Ann – the syllabus is outdated, and the textbook does not have all the related content for Economics N4. Lethlo – the textbook needs no change, but the syllabus can be updated, since it is the same as the secondary school Economics syllabus. Both participants’ highlighted the textbooks and the curriculum as not relevant for N-level 4 economics, though they were identified as relying on textbooks when teaching. This suggests that the participants’ awareness of the curriculum was

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inadequate. Bell (2015) agrees that the the accuracy of delivering content to students is affected by the lack of training or guidance on the curriculum. Hence, teachers struggle to organise the teaching materials to suit the learning objectives of economics concepts such as demand and supply. 4.1.3. Pedagogical content knowledge The PCK is discussed and looked at in three categories: linking prior knowledge with new knowledge, representing an explanation to cater for students’ learning styles, and using teaching approaches to help students learn. The instructional models used by teachers can provide students with meaningful learning experiences such as reading, connecting prior knowledge to new information learned in the classroom, and doing investigation-based, discussion and evaluation activities (Saenab et al., 2021). At the same time, the teachers’ ability to present an explanation demand and supply concepts by catering for students’ learning styles in N-Level 4 Economics were not visible during the observation. The teachers can use representations to help students make sense of the concepts, demand and supply. The teachers’ ability to use the teaching approaches and strategies flexibly to organise the teaching and learning activities for learners to learn meaningfully according to their own pace. Both teachers did not take the opportunity to get feedback from the students on what they already knew about the concepts of demand and supply. Instead, the participants taught N-Level 4 economics following a textbook method. The finding suggests that the teachers had a challenge to organise the lesson to accommodate the feedback from the students. Both teachers of Economics struggled to use representations to create a mental image for students when explaining supply and demand concept, directing students to the textbooks while reading for them. However, Quecan (2021) asserts that it is challenging to understand images presented in a textbook that typically represents one culture. Using representations from the students' environment that relate to the concept taught will help students to engage and learn. The participants taught the lessons through verbal explanation examples, spoken and written text through whiteboard markers and whiteboard. 4.1.4. Knowledge of students The knowledge of students is categorised into two sociological and educational aspects. The sociological aspects include the teachers’ ability to know students’ family matters that affect the teaching and learning of economics concepts. The educational aspects include the teachers’ ability to know which concepts the students find challenging and how students learn. During the interview session, when teachers were asked about their knowledge of the students they teach, their responses displayed inadequate knowledge of students, and they even blamed the students’ backgrounds for their inadequate knowledge. During the observed lessons, the teachers displayed no knowledge of the students. Supporting this, teachers stated the following:

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Ann – “I have no knowledge of my students’ background. I sometimes think they have no religious background because they are so ill-disciplined.” Lethlo – “I feel as teachers we do not have enough information on the students’ background because I have students in my classroom who are from very poor backgrounds but only realise that when they tell me that they could not attend class because of lack of money for transport.” The academic aspects displayed during the observations in the classroom related to students' knowledge were minimal and negative. When both teachers asked the questions to the students, the students’ responses were either correct or incorrect and the teacher moved to the next part of the lesson. Nevertheless, the teachers’ awareness of motivation and the ability to develop a relationship with the students in the teaching process provide a framework by which the teacher can choose effective teaching methods (Halim et al., 2019). Without an awareness of how learners learn, teachers of Economics may struggle to assist students in learning economics. 4.1.5. Interaction with students The interaction of teachers of Economics with their students is categorised into teacher and content, and teacher and students. The content and teacher interaction is the ability of the economics teacher to organise, simplify and present the economics concepts to engage students in a meaning-making process. The teacher and student interaction is the teacher’s ability to create space for both students and their teacher to form a relationship through verbal and non-verbal communication about the content in the classroom. Two participants interacted with the content by reading from the textbooks and writing on the whiteboard, drawing the demand and supply graphs. Both teachers did the talking and ask whether students were still with them or not. Interaction with students provides an opportunity for thinking and analysis, uses feedback from students effectively to guide students' thinking by extending to the students' prior knowledge (Rimm-Kaufman & Sandilos, 2010). This suggests that both teachers had pedagogical challenges with student interaction, which led to limited interaction with no feedback from the students to show how much they have learned.

5. Conclusion The findings of this study suggest that the five pedagogical challenges displayed by the teachers of Economics at one campus of Motheo TVET College could be associated with lack of relevant TVET qualification. Moreover, the teachers’ pedagogical challenges affect the students' learning for understanding N-level 4 economics. The participants' responses showed that the continuous impact of the pedagogical challenges results in non-interactive students in N-level 4 economics classrooms. They were observed as struggling to interact with students to develop a conducive environment for students to learn. Alongside that, their content and curriculum knowledge appear inadequate, with reliance on the textbooks for

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examples and drawings of the demand and supply graphs. Based on the findings, it could be concluded that N-level 4 teachers of Economics at one college of Motheo TVET had pedagogical challenges that relates to CK, curriculum knowledge, PCK, knowledge of students, and the way to interact with the students. These pedagogical challenges need to be overcome to help teachers support students learning of N-level 4 economics. These categories are assumed to support Shulman’s categories of teacher knowledge (1987) and validate the attributes of PCK to overcome the pedagogical challenges (Kimotho, 2016).

6. Implications It can be seen from this study that the pedagogical challenges experienced by the N-level 4 teachers of Economics could contribute meaningfully to the development of a relevant teaching qualification for TVET teachers of Economics. According to UNESCO (2014), Quality TVET teachers have both expert knowledge in their field and can transfer this knowledge to their students. Hence, it is essential for teachers of Economics to link their expert knowledge with the current knowledge in the field, provide relevant representations, and help students to learn meaningfully. Several studies tapping into pedagogical knowledge and challenges indicate that these change over time. Hence more research should investigate this. The current study attempted to investigate the pedagogical challenges in teaching N-Level 4 economics by observing teachers in class and interviewing them after class. This study hopes to add more insights to the less-explored areas of teacher competence, specifically teachers' pedagogical challenges when teaching N-Level 4 economics.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 287-307, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.17 Received Jul 23, 2021; Revised Sep 30, 2021; Accepted Oct 03, 2021

University of Applied Sciences Students’ Engagement with Scientific Literature for Final Year Projects: An Exploratory Study Abdul Rauf*, Hanna Rahma Abdelwahab, Dadi Chen and Peter Birdsall Wittenborg University of Applied Sciences, Apeldoorn, The Netherlands https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4269-7275 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3059-8088 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9797-7309 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9903-5358 Abstract. Students at universities of applied sciences (UAS) tend to overlook the importance of using scientific literature in their final year projects (FYP), which could affect the quality of their research. This paper explores how UAS students use scientific publications and theories/research frameworks for empirical research in their FYPs. Data were collected from 1) questionnaire completed by 31 final-year and recently graduated students, and 31 academic supervisors and Research Methods teachers, and 2) evaluation of 18 FYPs in an international UAS in the Netherlands. The samples were randomly selected from the university’s formal database (i.e., sampling frame). The analysis of the data led to the discovery of some key factors, such as lack of knowledge in selecting literature, inability to conduct an effective literature review and inability to develop a suitable conceptual/theoretical framework, which hindered the engagement of UAS students with scientific literature. Students’ lack of knowledge in conducting a literature review limited the quality of their final year projects and they need specialized workshops to develop their skills in literature research and critical analysis. Keywords: Final Year Project (FYP); scientific inquiry; student research; scientific literature review

Corresponding author: Rauf, A., rauf.abdul@wittenborg.eu

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction With their increasing involvement in European research and innovation programs, Dutch Universities of Applied Sciences (UAS), which deliver higher education in the Netherlands, are creating a greater impact on knowledge society and economy. The improvement of the quality of research is becoming more important than before among the UASs (Vereniging Hogescholen, 2019). The requirements, such as understanding and application of knowledge in solving problems, and the ability to gather and interpret data, are prescribed by the Dublin Descriptors, which are used to define the graduation level of higher professional education study programs in the Netherlands and other member states in the EU (Bologna Working Group, 2005; Vereniging Hogescholen, 2019). The final year projects (FYP) of university students are commonly seen as the culmination of their learning experiences and the quality of this output often serves to assess the quality of the program as a whole (Jawitz et al., 2002). As per the guidelines of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), the FYP has to be a project leading to cutting-edge research, resulting in innovation in the relevant field (Tuononen & Parpala, 2021). This is a challenge in many UASs as fundamentally UASs students were not required to complete an academic FYP. One of the challenges for students is the use of scientific literature in their FYPs (Sodhar et al., 2020). Badenhorst (2018) described a literature review as a complex, demanding, challenging, and overwhelming task and states later that “literature reviews are a genre that many graduate students do not fully grasp and find difficult to write” (p. 263). The engagement and review of scientific literature involves searching/selecting academic sources, interpreting critically, extracting from manuscripts, and synthesizing into a comprehensive chapter based on the specific research goals. This meticulous process involving multiple steps requires a good level of competency and research skills for an effective scientific academic discourse (Carracedo et al., 2018). Chen et al. (2016) explained that recent research on FYP literature reviews focuses more on linguistic and methodological issues, neglecting key conceptual and ontological aspects. An important pedagogy aspect missing here relates to the engagement with cutting-edge scientific literature from academic sources on the selected FYP topic. At the selected UAS based in the Netherlands, one of the objectives of its integrated business and management curriculum is to expand the scientific research skills of the internationally diverse student body and to identify a variety of opportunities that will allow them to experience scientific applied research. This is achieved through core mandatory research modules in the final year of studies both in bachelor’s and master’s programs. After the taught modules, students must complete a substantive FYP, which comprises a written submission of their work together with an oral defense in front of the graduation committee. One of the objectives of the Research Methods module in this UAS is to engage students in learning how to use scientific literature. However, although students are guided by their supervisors in rationalizing their FYPs by scientific literature, the graduation committee still found most FYPs fall short in sufficient guidance on how to conduct critical literature reviews.

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Accreditation requirements and industry needs demand recent program and curriculum developments at the institutional level, which involve more engagement with scientific literature and research frameworks/models in students’ FYPs to see their contributions in connection with academic research. Drafting a critical literature review for the FYP appears to be one of the most complicated writing tasks for both graduate and undergraduate students. The goal of the current study is to investigate the possible difficulties students face in engaging with scientific literature in their FYPs with a focus on the reasons, the extent of the issue, and how they can be dealt with. These are pertinent towards ensuring quality of study programs at UASs and their research contributions to the wider scientific community in applied research. The following research questions guided this study: 1) What difficulties do students face in conducting FYP research grounded in relevant scientific literature? 2) What techniques do students use when applying scientific literature to ground academic research in a proper scientific context?

2. Literature review 2.1. Importance of literature reviews for student’s FYPs It is important to note that the subject/topic of this study is a scientific literature review so we will mainly be discussing this subject under this section, which is unusual compared to other studies on traditional business/management topics. The literature review of a research study serves the purpose of presenting the author/authors’ knowledge about the topic under investigation and includes key concepts, ideas, theories, and previous relevant research to set any new research on proper footing (Juntunen & Lehenkari, 2021). A literature review is fundamental in establishing the basis of an academic inquiry. Advancing knowledge/understanding on any particular subject begins with existing authentic literature. The theoretical framework and the literature review are intrinsically linked and often the former is used as a guide to logically develop the latter (Grant & Osanloo, 2015). The underlying functions of a literature review have been identified to note the current knowledge about a subject of inquiry, identifying knowledge gaps for future research, critically appraising and synthesizing what is known of the subject and comparatively analyzing to solve an identified research problem, or adding new knowledge to the existing body of knowledge on the topic of research investigation (Cuozzo et al. 2017). The importance of a literature review in an academic study is summed up by Snyder (2019), who stated that it is not merely descriptive summaries of research conducted between certain years, but a deeper analysis of those studies and “provides a new theory or includes a well-grounded substantial research agenda or propositions on which other researchers can build to advance the field” (p. 339). Understanding the main goals of a literature review is pertinent to useful research results/findings and it clarifies the researchers’ focus in relation to searching for, selecting, analyzing relevant literature sources, and drafting the

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literature review. Various studies have identified some challenges in this regard, indicating that many FYPs fail to interpret the relevant extant literature and/or provide researchers’ critical perspective on the information given – rather, it looks more like a list of known facts (Shahsavar & Kourepaz, 2020). For example, Walter and Stouck (2020) highlighted that “graduate students face linguistic, methodological, conceptual, and, importantly, ontological challenges when writing their literature reviews” (p. 1). Other studies discussed some of the mistakes students commit when reviewing literature. Examples of such mistakes include failing to report the search procedure, failing to define the best descriptors in identifying sources and relate the findings of the literature review to one’s own study, giving uncritical acceptance of another researcher’s findings and interpretations as valid and reporting isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them by quantitative statistical analysis, such as the chi-squared test (Hart, 2018; Snyder, 2019; Kraus, Breier, & Dasi-Rodriguez, 2020; Fisch & Block, 2018). In addition to the above issues mentioned, Snyder (2019) added that researchers often lack details on how the analysis of articles was conducted and tend to limit the search or pare the sample size to make the review manageable. Limiting the sample by limiting the number of journals, using a narrow year span, or excluding articles from related fields affect both the depth and rigor of the review, which can in effect have a serious impact on the results and contributions of the whole research. A quality literature review should be the appropriate breadth and depth with extensive analysis and synthesis, preferably based on relevant scientific literature to justify the selected research topic, selection of research methods, and rationale of conducting the proposed study (Fisch & Block, 2018). The breadth and depth of the review depends on the type of literature research, and it is up to the discretion of the researchers investigating for a particular topic. The next section will look at the process of conducting a critical literature review and the reasons why following a systematic process can add value to academic research including FYPs. 2.2. The critical literature review process for guiding, analyzing and executing FYPs It is important to carry out a comprehensive search of relevant and extant scientific literature when conducting academic research. The literature review acts as a knowledge map in advancing our understanding and knowledge for theory building and uncovers novel research areas. Many researchers have presented detailed recommendations to guide FYP students and researchers on how to conduct a literature review (e.g., Aguinis et al., 2018; Booth et al., 2016; Fisch & Block, 2018; Kraus et al., 2020; Xiao & Watson, 2019). Based on an extensive review of 92 peer-reviewed articles on literature review methodology, Xiao and Watson (2019) recommended that all reviews be conducted by following eight common steps: (1) formulating the research problem, (2) developing and validating the review protocol, (3) searching the literature, (4) screening for inclusion, (5) assessing quality, (6) extracting data, (7) analyzing and synthesizing data, and (8) reporting the findings . These steps could be grouped into three main steps for producing a critical literature review on a

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given research topic, e.g. (1) searching, (2) reading/interpreting/analyzing and synthesizing arguments/concepts/theories in the relevant literature and (3) drafting and presenting ideas clearly and systematically to guide the research investigation (Kraus et al., 2020; Hart, 2018). 2.2.1. Searching relevant literature A literature search should be systematic, explicit, thorough and rigorous. According to Mok et al. (2015), searching for relevant literature involves four stages: the initial search, filtering, visual examination and content analysis. Keywords are often used during the initial search process in relevant scientific research databases, journals and digital/online libraries. Filtering refers to the process whereby sources found in the initial stage are included or excluded for further analysis of the searched literature. Setting up clear exclusion and inclusion criteria can provide the researchers with a transparent data collection and synthesis. This will enhance the objectivity and reproducibility of the research work (Kraus et al., 2020). Visual examination requires the researcher to scan the content of the selected literature sources and screen them to identify the ones which are not relevant to the critical analysis. The final selection/collection of literature sources after the third stage will form the possible pool of relevant literature and will go through the last stage of content analysis. Adopting the above model with necessary adjustment can help students during their FYP research in filtering unnecessary and irrelevant literature in an efficient way with minimal effort. Another important aspect to consider when undertaking a literature search is the type of literature sources. Using relevant peer-reviewed scientific journals is encouraged as the process of review ensures that a consistently high standard of material is published. Wide collection of information from primary sources (e.g., empirical studies and statistical reports) and tertiary sources (e.g., government and official publications or reports) can support the research with authentic and verified facts, while secondary sources of unverified information can negatively affect the quality of a critical literature review (Roberts-Holmes, 2018; Walter & Stouck, 2020). 2.2.2. Reading, interpreting, analyzing and synthesizing literature

A literature review needs structure in order to flow and avoid becoming an aimless description of unlinked theories, concepts, definitions or ideas (Badenhorst, 2018). A large number of students appear to struggle in synthesizing prior research on their FYP research topics and/or appear to find difficulties understanding how any available theoretical framework can assist them in conducting theoretical/empirical studies (Shahsavar & Kourepaz, 2020). Cronin, Ryan and Coughlan (2008) caution that the review should not be just a description of a series of studies but instead should include a critical but objective evaluation of the literature. As Norton (2019) wrote, “an academic degree requires students to have independent thinking rather than faithfully reproducing others’ views” (p.21). A study conducted by Komba (2015) among postgraduate students in Tanzania, for example, revealed that more than 65% of the theses and dissertations surveyed failed to:

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▪ Present theoretical backgrounds ▪ Present critical literature reviews, e.g. o loose and uncritical argumentation o lack of synthesis o failure to identify areas of controversy ▪ Derive knowledge gaps ▪ Produce quality write-up in terms of English language competency Such findings underline the importance of our study and what students need to keep in mind while conducting a critical literature review for FYPs. 2.2.3. Drafting and presenting When it comes to drafting and presenting the literature review, some FYPs lack the necessary thoroughness and systematic reflection. A recent study revealed that most students were not able to synthesize, critique, or critically analyze the literature in their FYPs (Shahsavar & Kourepaz, 2020). A critical literature review is intended to present the potential reconceptualization of the expanding and more diversified knowledge through a theoretical framework, which also simplifies the research through visualization of key research variables. The next section elucidates this in detail. 2.3. Conceptual and theoretical frameworks in students’ FYPs The process of undertaking academic research involves a series of iterative steps (Saunders et al., 2019; Birley & Moreland, 2014; Robert-Holmes, 2018; Quinlan, 2011). For example, Quinlan (2011), developed the four-framework approach (conceptual, theoretical, methodological and analytical frameworks) for students as a guide to develop their FYPs. Conceptual and theoretical frameworks were used as the bases for our study while the remaining frameworks do not fall within the ambit of this investigation. The next section presents a critical reflection on conceptual and theoretical frameworks in the context of FYPs produced by university students. 2.3.1. Conceptual framework in academic research Research built on relevant theories and conceptual frameworks has a solid basis for achieving success because it will help to advance knowledge on the topics/subjects in the research (Quinlan, 2011; Illing, 2017). A concept is a key word or idea which contains a great deal of meaning (Quinlan, 2011). The conceptual framework contains all the key concepts in a research project. These key concepts point to the contemporary/extant relevant literature to be reviewed by the student to answer the research questions effectively. Badenhorst (2018) suggested that the engagement of relevant scientific literature is significant to the success of any academic research, as it ensures feasibility to investigate the selected topic before the research actually begins. Some researchers suggest that any research conducted in an academic setting should be embedded in relevant theoretical discourse which possibly emerges from a conceptual framework in making a contribution to the theory in that field (Quinlan, 2011). Ravitch and Riggan (2017) suggested that novice researchers

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should spend considerable time at the outset of their research conceptualizing, identifying, and articulating the components of their conceptual framework. 2.3.2. Theoretical framework used in academic research Emerging from the conceptual framework is the theoretical framework, or what is generally known as the scientific literature review design (Quinlan, 2011). A theoretical framework is usually constructed and designed by students from theory/theories relevant to the FYP to support the research and contains a discussion or review of the extant literature on the research subject. Such a theoretical conceptualization undergirds the students’ thinking around the whole process of the research investigation. Considering this, developing an appropriate theoretical framework for scientific research is a significant process, because it requires all four constructs of research - i.e., the research problem, purpose, significance and research questions - to be precisely aligned and intricately interwoven so that a theoretical framework can guide the students in their research design and data analysis for their FYPs (Roberts-Holmes, 2018). Despite its significance in the research process, the theoretical framework is one aspect which is often overlooked by students in general, and hence minimally covered in their research work. Grant and Osanloo (2016) found that students often express uncertainty, a lack of understanding or knowledge, and frustration with the challenge of selecting a theoretical framework in order to properly apply it throughout the FYP. Considering the above findings and reflection about the FYP literature review conducted by students, especially the systematic methods of literature research by Mok et al. (2015) and Shahsavar and Kourepaz (2020), there is a lack of research in Dutch higher education/private universities/UASs on the engagement with scientific literature in students’ FYPs. The most important aspect is the lack of systematic evaluation methods and tools for critically evaluating the previous research to add new knowledge in different disciplines. There is a need to investigate these very aspects using a valid methodology, which is discussed next.

3. Methodology 3.1. Research Design and Context This study used the exploratory sequential mixed method design, whereby a qualitative data collection and analysis were followed by quantitative data collection and analysis (Creswell, 2003). It included three parts as presented in Table 1 (Berman, 2017; Shahsavar & Kourepaz, 2020).

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Table 1: Overview of the Research Methods, Instruments and Data (Own Conceptualization) Research methods Qualitative data collection and analysis

Research instruments Semi-structured questionnaire

Quantitative data collection and analysis

Rubrics adapted from Bootes and Bailey (2005) and American Public University System rubric (n.d.) guideline. Structured questionnaire

Data Answers from Research Methods teachers and academic supervisors in a UAS. 18 FYPs: Twelve FYPs from a bachelor’s program, three from an MSc program and three from an MBA program in a UAS in the Netherlands were selected randomly. Final-year students and recent graduates from bachelor’s and master’s program in a UAS.

3.2. Participants The participants of the study included Research Method Teachers (RMTs), Academic Supervisors (ASs) and final-year or recently graduated bachelor’s and master’s students at a UAS in the Netherlands. All three groups of research participants were selected based on non-probability, purposive sampling and to ensure a representative number of respondents, a combination of heterogeneous sampling and volunteer sampling was chosen (Saunders et al., 2019). This UAS in the Netherlands was specially selected due to the ease of accessibility of data as the research population voluntarily accepted to participate in this research. Permissions were obtained from the UAS with the assurance of the anonymity of the participants and the name of the UAS. 3.3. Research Instruments Semi-structured questionnaires were designed based on the literature review and previous studies on FYPs (Hart, 2018; Chen et al., 2016; Xiao & Watson, 2019), and were administered separately for students, ASs and RMTs. The questions were developed by one of the researchers and then vetted by the coauthors to ensure the validity and reliability of the data collection instruments. The questionnaires consisted of two parts. Part I contained questions pertaining to the respondents’ demographic information. Part II contained multiple-choice and open-ended questions related to the research focus for their FYP and the FYP research. The questionnaires were first pilot-tested on four final-year students and two AS/RMTs who did not form part of the final sample in the study. In addition to the primary data collected, an archival analysis was also conducted on a sample of FYPs. A total of 18 completed FYPs were randomly selected from the secure online library database of the UAS between the years 2018 and 2020. A validated rubric by Bootes and Beile (2005) and the American Public University System iRubric (n.d.) were adapted by the researchers to evaluate the FYPs. Bootes and Beile (2005) created a five-category rubric to evaluate the effectiveness of a literature review in an academic study. The

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categories are coverage, synthesis, methodology, significance and rhetoric. The iRubric contains seven components linked with three categories, namely Evaluation of Literature Review, Evaluation of Reference Materials, and Evaluation of Conceptual or Theoretical Framework. The specific details of this rubric used for FYP analysis including results as per our analysis (Table 2). 3.4. Data Collection and analysis Emails including links to the online questionnaires were sent to the participants explaining the purpose of the research. Participation in the survey was voluntary and it was made clear that all names were anonymized, and the participants could opt out any time during the survey. In this exploratory study, the sequential mixed method design was applied. In the quantitative part, questionnaires from 31 final-year or recently graduated students (21 final-year and 10 recently graduated students, split equally between master’s and bachelor’s programs), 27 ASs, and four RMTs were analyzed. For the qualitative part, open coding was conducted using grounded theory, and themes were extracted from the data itself (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2019; Izadinia, 2014). Inferential analysis was then used to analyze significant differences between the different groups’ responses (Malechwanzi et al., 2016). Non-parametric techniques were employed as the Likert type data are ordinal in nature. Using the method developed by Braun and Clarke (2006), thematic analysis was used to transcribe verbal data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing reports (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Shahsavar & Kourepaz, 2020).

4. Results In this section, we report and discuss the main findings from the data analysis, e.g., perceptions of the RMTs, ASs and students on scientific literature in completed FYPs. 4.1 Demographic background To start, the general demographic and background characteristics of the ASs and RMTs can be summarized as follows: About 76% of the ASs and 100% of RMTs have been in the Education Service for 6 years or more. In addition, the majority of the ASs (43%) have 6 or more years’ experience as an AS; while half of the RMTs have more than 10 years’ experience as an RMT, and the other half has between 1 to 5 years’ experience. 4.2. Perception of the academic supervisors (AS) and research methods teachers (RMT) 4.2.1 Perception of FYP/RP on quality of FYPs While 40 % of ASs either strongly agreed or agreed that students submit good quality FYPs, a strong 56 % neither agreed nor disagreed with it (Fig. 1). As for RMTs, a high percentage (75 %) disagreed that students submit good quality Research Proposals (RP) (Fig. 2).

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Disagree 4%

Strongly disagree 0%

Strongly Agree 3%

Agree 37% Neither agree nor disagree 56%

To what extent do you agree that students submit good quality FYPs?

Figure 1: ASs’ Perception of the Quality of Students’ FYPs (Source: Authors)

Strongly disagree, 0%

Strongly Agree, Agree, 0% 0%

Neither agree nor disagree, 25%

Disagree, 75%

To what extent do you agree that students submit good quality RPs?

Figure 2: RMT's perception of the quality of students' RPs (Source: Authors)

Regarding whether students read relevant books/articles on how to carry out an academic research and write their FYPs or RPs, 48% of ASs agreed or strongly agreed with the statement, while 30 per cent did not have an opinion and 23% disagreed or strongly disagreed. For RMTs, 75%of them had no opinion while 25% disagreed that students with the statement. Both ASs and RMTs agreed that the top reason why students did not read relevant books/articles is because they do not think it was necessary. According to the ASs, the top three challenges faced by students when doing their FYPs are: (1) searching for relevant questions and objectives, (2) finding the right topic, and (3) writing up a critical literature review (Table 2). This is somewhat in line with the RMTs’ opinions, as they responded that the top three reasons why students failed their RPs were: (1) the topic was too wide and not

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focused, (2) the research objectives were not clear or too far-fetched and (3) the research questions were not correctly formulated. Table 2: Ranking of Top 3 Challenges

Alternatives (No. of ASs who ranked) Finding the right topic Searching for relevant questions and objectives Writing up a critical literature review Choosing the most suitable research methodology Conducting an analysis on the findings Writing conclusion and providing recommendations

1st 33% 44% 33% 26% 11% 15%

2nd 22% 37% 26% 11% 33% 7%

3rd 11% 4% 11% 30% 19% 26%

On the question of whether students engaged relevant scientific literature in their FYPs, about 59% of ASs strongly agreed or agreed that they did, while 22% had no opinion and 19% disagreed or strongly disagreed (Fig. 3).

To what extent do you agree that the students under your supervision engage in relevant scientific literature in their FYPs? Strongly disagree, 4%

Disagree, 15% Neither agree nor disagree, 22%

Strongly Agree, 15%

Agree, 44%

Figure 3: ASs’ Perception of students' engagement in relevant scientific literature in their FYPs (Source: Authors)

With regard to searching for relevant references for their research, 41% of the ASs were not sure whether their students had employed systematic “search and selection strategies”. Despite that, 11% strongly agreed and 18% agreed (total of 30% at least agreed) that they did employ some kind of systematic strategy, while 19% disagreed or strongly disagreed (Fig. 4). Examples of “search and selection strategies” referred to above are: search using Google Scholar, search using keywords, search articles within time frame, use proper filtering and discarding, read the abstract, and scan through articles.

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To what extent do you agree that students employ systematic 'search and selection' strategies? Strongly Agree 11%

Strongly disagree 11%

Disagree 19%

Agree 18%

Neither agree nor disagree 41%

Figure 4: ASs’ perception on whether students employ systematic ‘search and selection strategies’ (Source: Authors)

Thirty-seven percent of the ASs were not sure if their students knew how to conduct a critical literature review and another 30% disagreed or strongly disagreed (Fig. 5). Such a high number reflects a negative perception ASs have of their students’ capabilities. Despite this, ASs affirmed that students, in their literature reviews, analyzed articles based on themes, discussed related variables and phenomena related to the topic and mentioned previous research on their FYP topics. However, in their opinions, students failed to compare and contrast ideas related to their FYP topics (26%) or analyze articles chronologically (30%). To what extent do you agree that students know how to conduct a critical literature review? Strongly disagree 4%

Disagree 26%

Strongly Agree 7%

Agree 26%

Neither agree nor disagree 37%

Figure 5: ASs’ Perceptions on Students' Ability to Conduct Critical Literature Review (Source: Authors)

The majority of ASs (77%) strongly agreed or agreed that the use of a conceptual/theoretical framework can enhance the quality of students’ FYPs. Further, in relation to this, 63% of them agreed or strongly agreed that their students included it in their FYPs (Fig. 6). In their opinions, they believed that

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those students who had not included the conceptual/theoretical framework in their FYPs, probably did not know what it actually is or how to develop it. To what extent do you agree that students have included a conceptual/theoretical framework in their FYPs? Strongly disagree Disagree 4% 7%

Neither agree nor disagree 26%

Strongly Agree 30%

Agree 33%

Figure 6: AS’s Perceptions on whether students have included a conceptual/theoretical framework in their FYPs? (Source: Authors)

ASs and RMTs were also asked for their recommendations with regard to the following challenges faced by students in: ▪ conducting a critical literature review in their FYPs or RPs ▪ developing or adapting conceptual/theoretical framework in their FYPs or RPs ▪ how to increase students’ engagement in scientific literature in their FYPs or RPs The recommendations were analyzed and coded based on emerging themes. Three themes emerged from the analysis as follows: 1) Conduct mandatory workshops, seminars, or extra lessons in addition to RM classes to specifically teach students how to search for relevant literature; how to conduct an effective critical literature review; and how to develop or adapt a conceptual/theoretical framework. 2) Enforce compulsory reading assignments from various journal articles or theses on the above topics. ASs or RMTs can provide samples of good FYPs or articles that demonstrate how to compare, contrast, analyze and synthesize information or articles with good development or adaptation of conceptual/theoretical frameworks. 3) Enforce mandatory writing assignments, such as an annotated bibliography, or a critical review of an article. A few ASs and RMTs commented that the majority of students know what a literature review entails but are not trained well enough or not sure what strategies to employ when choosing relevant literature. This leads to them using any literature available and merely mentioning studies in their literature review

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without properly analyzing or synthesizing the information. They also commented that students do not have enough training or practice on how to read literature critically; how to select the relevant information; and how to analyze them critically. What they [the students] manage to do is merely dumping information without adding value to the topic of their research. As one of the ASs commented: “Practice the development of effective Annotated Bibliography. I offer my students a special one-hour class on the foundations of an effective Annotated Bibliography. Separate between the terms Literature Research and Literature Reviews. Students need to develop a research strategy using tools like mind mapping, Word Cloud as well as Zotero. Students should be able to gradually develop a sense of what constitutes a valuable academic source.” Another AS suggested: “1) apply marketing research techniques to research development and read, 2) constantly check elaboration of new arguments and embrace/consider arguments against his/her thesis proposal, and 3) welcome and gather constructive feedback constantly.” 4.3. Perceptions of students on scientific literature in their FYPs The findings from the questionnaire responses of the students gave more details about the challenges in using scientific literature in their FYPs. For example, 90% of students acknowledged that relevant scientific/academic literature would help in increasing the quality of their FYPs and a majority of them had included peer-reviewed journal articles, books, as well as government/official publications in their FYPs, in addition to some other sources. The average number of scientific literature sources included in their FYPs was more than 20. About 58% of the students read relevant literature, e.g., books/articles on how to carry out research, but they only read a few chapters of the books or a few articles. This coincides with the opinions of ASs and RMTs that students do not really read in detail prior to carrying out their FYPs. Furthermore, about 71% of the students included a conceptual/theoretical framework in their study. Most of them have adapted (modified) the conceptual/theoretical framework from existing frameworks because the existing frameworks fit their research needs well with minor modifications. For those who did not include the conceptual/theoretical framework in their FYPs, most of them gave the reason that it was not relevant to their research. With regard to ‘search and selection strategies’, almost 90% of students searched for articles via Google Scholar and 71% read the abstract, but less than 50% employed other strategies, such as searching using only keywords, searching within a certain timeframe, using proper filtering and discarding or scanning through articles. This is almost in line with the opinions of ASs, whereby only 30% affirmed that their students did employ such strategies in their FYPs. On average, more than 58% of students included the significance of the research problem, analysis of articles based on relevant themes, important variables and phenomena, subject vocabulary and compared and contrasted ideas related to the FYP topic in their Literature Review. This finding is supported by the similar findings for ASs, whereby the majority affirmed that their students did include

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the above components in their Literature Review. There is a discrepancy in opinion though, for compare and contrast of ideas related to the FYP topic. Only about 26 % of ASs agreed that students managed to compare and contrast ideas related to the FYP topic but 58 % of students claimed that they did. In general, the majority of students faced challenges in the following three areas: formulating the research questions; writing up a critical literature review; and choosing the correct methodology. Students emphasized the difficulty of conducting a good literature review, as they were not sure how broad they should go or how to narrow down their research topics. Students gave several recommendations, among which they emphasized the importance of spending enough time on reading and summarizing literature; collecting sufficient amount of relevant literature; and using the literature to formulate research topics and structure the FYPs. One of them commented: “Read, read, read! Make summaries or organize articles related to key words and topics. Write extensively and then narrow it down to make it more structured and analytical without forgetting things or having to read everything twice”. Another wrote, “Do lot of literature reading and spend time developing it”. A few students recommended reading model or sample FYPs to help them get a head start, which is similar to what the ASs and RMTs advised. In helping to choose research topics, one student suggested: “I would recommend reading lots of articles before choosing a research topic, because, in my opinion, the more articles you read the chances are higher that you can look for that specific gap for your topic, and if you somehow find it you can really go ahead with your topic.” 4.4. Evaluation of scientific literature in FYPs All FYPs examined in this study recorded more than 50 references and more than 30 scholarly articles from peer-reviewed journals (Table 3). This finding is supported by the students’ questionnaires that reported the average number of scholarly articles they used is more than 20. All FYPs identified the significance of the research, important/relevant variables, vocabulary and phenomena, and provided good justifications for the selected methodologies and grounded on previous research. This was also supported by the findings from ASs and students’ questionnaire. However, by using the evaluation rubric, it is obvious that much needs to be improved for the use of scientific literature in students’ FYPs. As shown in Table 2, out of the 18 FYPs, only three showed criteria for search and selection of literature sources and inclusion and exclusion of articles/book chapters and other relevant academic literature sources. This result supports the ASs’ perceptions, of which a majority of 41% neither agreed nor disagreed that there was some sort of strategies. 13 out of 18 FYPs failed to portray a coherent, clear structure of the analysis that supported the review of various literature. This proved what the ASs claimed that students failed to show a comparison and contrast of ideas from previous research to their own research topics.

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17 out of 18 FYPs presented a conceptual/theoretical framework. This is in line with the findings for ASs, whereby 75% reported that their students included a conceptual/theoretical framework in their FYPs. However, what was more evident from the analysis of the FYPs is that only eight clearly defined and linked the conceptual/theoretical framework to their own particular study. The remaining nine failed to clearly explain the theory on the selected research themes or situate the study in a larger/relevant theoretical context. One FYP did not even show any evidence of engaging with relevant theory or a theoretical framework. Table 3: Analysis of FYPs (Source: Authors) Category Coverage

Synthesis

Criterion for evaluation of Literature Review

Yes

Justified criteria for selection of articles

Justified criteria for inclusion and exclusion of articles

Yes

30 or more

10 to 29

Distinguished what has been done in the field and what needs to be done Articulated important variables and phenomena Acquired and enhanced the subject vocabulary

Methodology Significance Rhetoric

Type

Identified the main methodologies and research techniques used Rationalized the practical significance of the research problem Was written with a coherent, clear structure of analysis that supported the review Criterion for Evaluation of Reference Materials

References: Sources from journals, government documents, juried publications, theses, dissertations, conference proceedings, official reports from reputable organizations, like World Economic Forum (WEF), McKinsey Global Institute (MGI), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

Less than 10 Criterion for Evaluation of Conceptual or Theoretical Framework Theory or model is clearly defined and linked to the study. The theory is explained, and it is evident how it will situate the study into the larger theory. Theory is loosely related to the study or theoretical framework is unclear or not related to the literature review or inquiry. There is no evidence of theory or a theoretical framework

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5. Discussion This study found that students faced various challenges in submitting quality FYPs, as they find it difficult to engage relevant scientific literature in a comprehensive way. The main challenges are: 1) It is difficult for them to select relevant literature due to lack of knowledge of proper search and selection strategies, inability to conduct effective critical analysis of literature (especially compare and contrast of ideas), and inability to integrate suitable conceptual/theoretical framework into their own research topic. 2) They lack the proper skill to utilize these techniques effectively and, although their FYP is acceptable for a passing grade, the majority of ASs is not really convinced of their quality. What is clear from the findings is that the students perceived that they had engaged in scientific literature in their FYPs, but the truth is that ASs did not believe they did so. All three categories of the research participants confirmed the importance of a literature review to establish the foundation for an academic inquiry and in line with recent research (Juntunen & Lehenkari, 2021). This is because a critical review grounded in relevant scientific literature can appropriately facilitate with critically reflecting on a research subject and testing/extending theories (Paul & Criado, 2020). Despite the fact that there is a wide variety of information, knowledge, guidelines and recommendations on this topic, surprisingly, there is still a lack of clear understanding by students resulting in meagre quality literature reviews lacking the requisite scientific literature. Most of them produced a broadly descriptive critical literature review on the selected topic, without any critical reflection on key theories. This appears to be mainly because of students’ low commitment to research and reading or a lack of motivation to conducting the research investigation on a level required for a UAS student where this academic research trend is becoming a norm. This is in line with findings from Shahsavar & Kourepaz, (2020). It is recommended that developing a review strategy and protocol based on available guidelines is a crucial step for rigorous/critical literature reviews using relevant peer-reviewed scientific literature (Fisch & Block, 2018; Hart, 2018; Kraus et al., 2020; Xiao & Watson, 2019). This can help in the critical extant literature analysis on the selected FYP research topic by identifying relevant scientific theories, constructs, theoretical framework, research design and possible knowledge gaps in order to establish FYP research on a solid scientific footing (Paul & Criado, 2020).

6. Conclusion From the above findings, it can be concluded that, although students realize the importance of scientific literature in their research and writing FYPs, their knowledge was superficial and not in-depth. Although most claimed that they did read books and articles, the ASs and RMTs were not convinced that they read the books thoroughly enough to really understand and internalize the whole concept of academic research. Their opinions regarding the low quality of students’ FYPs are supported by the findings in the evaluation of scientific

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literature in the FYPs, such as the lack of connection between the conceptual/theoretical framework with their own study; the lack of use of systematic strategy in sourcing and selecting of relevant articles for the research, especially in proper filtering and discarding and the lack of comparison and contrast of ideas. Through their responses to the open questions, ASs also acknowledged that students struggled with conducting a critical literature review and ended up drafting a narrative text instead of critical evaluation, analysis, or synthesis of information. Although students claimed that they did a critical analysis of relevant literature, this is not agreed upon by the majority of ASs and the findings from the analysis of the FYPs supported ASs’ opinions. To overcome these challenges, various recommendations were given by ASs and RMTs, which are mentioned below. 6.1. Limitations of the study In addition to widespread guidelines/recommendations on this topic, a process for engaging relevant peer-reviewed scientific literature for FYPs, especially conducted by UAS students, must be developed. The research on this topic has shown a lack of this crucial information considering the wide variety of undergraduate and post-graduate programs offered by UASs. Our study is an effort to fill this gap, thereby contributing to the research on FYPs based on scientific literature at UASs in particular. One of the limitations of this study is the research population and the sample size. A limited number of research participants from one UAS was selected, hence the findings cannot be generalized. Due to the current pandemic situation, it was not possible to select a bigger sample. It was not easy to carry out a wider scope of the research involving more UAS due to of confidentiality and privacy issues. The findings are limited to the data collected and the framework applied, (e.g., Bootes & Bailey, 2005; the American Public University System framework) to analyze students’ FYPs. Applying other frameworks, such as those developed by Akindele (2008) or Hart (2018), may lead to different findings. Identifying the problem is only part of the story; the crucial point is finding an effective solution in this regard. For this, it is important to address the issue, as it is crucial these days for any UAS to produce high-quality FYPs. The primary responsibility lies with policy makers, ASs, RMTs and especially the final-year students to develop/refine the crucial skills for this purpose. Additionally, other stakeholders, such as curriculum design committees, HE policymakers, education advisors, FYP defense committee members, and faculty members in general, can play their parts as well. 6.2. Research implications The research findings in this study demonstrated the importance of students’ engagement with relevant scientific literature for their FYPs. This study provides an understanding of the perceptions of students, ASs and RMTs on the different aspects of a quality FYP. It is evident from this research that having a comprehensive knowledge and understanding of scientific literature is important on the part of students and that more effort needs to be done to ensure this. Writing an FYP is a daunting task, requiring a considerable amount

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of time, effort, knowledge and skills, therefore, students need to be better prepared before embarking on it. Future research is needed on this topic for understanding the specific barriers for UAS students in engaging relevant scientific literature for their FYPs. Questions that might be useful in this regard may include: What exactly are the problems faced by students in conducting an effective literature review? What are the similarities and differences between new and more experienced students in conducting a scientific literature review for the FYP? How is the process of conducting a scientific literature review for a UAS different compared to a research university? We hope this important research will continue and we expect that other research in this field of study will further develop the explanation for a critical scientific literature review.

7. References Aguinis, H., Ramani, R. S., & Alabduljader, N. (2018). What you see is what you get? Enhancing methodological transparency in management research. Academy of Management Annals, 83-110. American Public University System. (n.d.). iRubric: PADM Lit Review/Theoretical Framework Rubric. American Public University System. Badenhorst, C. (2018). Citation practices of postgraduate students writing literature reviews. London Review of Education. Berman, E. A. (2017). An Exploratory Sequential Mixed Methods Approach to Understanding Researchers' Data Management Practices at UVM: Integrated Findings to Develop Research Data Services. Journal of eScience Librarianshp, 6(1). Bologna Working Group. (2005). A Framework for Qualificaitons of the European Higher Education Area. Copenhagen: Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation. Bootes, D. N., & Bailey, P. (2005). Scholars before researchers: On the centrality of the dissertation literature review in research preparation. Educational researcher, 34(6), 3-15. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. Carracedo, F., Vilaró, J., González, J., Casas, P., Almiñana, J., Zaragoza, J., . . . Samsó, M. (2018). A proposal to develop and assess professional skills in engineering final year projects. International Journal of Engineering Education, 400-413. Chen, D.-T., Wang, Y.-M., & Lee, W. (2016). Challenges confronting beginning researchers in conducting literature reviews. Studies in Continuing Education, 38(1), 47-60. Chen, H. L., Chen, W. T., & Lin, Y. L. (2016). Earned value project management: Improving the predictive power of planned value. International Journal of Project Management, 22-29. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Sage. Cronin, P., Ryan, F., & Coughlan, M. (2008). Undertaking a Literature Review: A Stepby-Step Approach. British Journal of Nursing, 17(1). Cuozzo, B., Dumay, J., Palmaccio, M., & Lombardi, R. (2017). Intellectual capital disclosure: a structured literature review. Journal of Intellectual Capital. Fisch, C., & Block, J. (2018). Six tips for your (systematic) literature review in business and management research. Management Review Quarterly, 68(2018), 103-106.

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Grant, C., & Osanloo, A. (2015). Understanding, Selecting, and Integrating A Theoretical Framework in Dissertation Research: Creating the Blueprint for Your "House". Administrative Issues Journal: Connecting Education, Practice, and Research, 4(2), 1226. Hart, C. (2018). Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Research Imagination (2nd ed.). London: SAGE. Illing, J. (2014). 2014. In W. Blackwell (Ed.), Understanding Medical Education: Evidence, Theory and Practice (pp. 331-347). The Association for the Study of Medical. Izadinia, M. (2014). Authorship: The hidden voices of postgraduate TEFL students in Iran. Journal of Academic Ethics, 12(4), 317-331. Jawitz, J., Shay, S., & Moore, R. (2002). Management and assessment of final year projects in engineering. International Journal of Engineering Education, 472-478. Juntunen, M., & Lehenkari, M. (2021). A narrative literature review process for an academic business research thesis. Studies in higher education, 330-342. Komba, S. C. (2015). The perceived importance of communication skills course among university students: the case of two universities in Tanzania. African Journal of Teacher Education. Kraus, S., Breier, M., & Dasi-Rodriguez, S. (2020). The art of crafting a systematic literature review in entrepreneurship research. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 16((2020)), 1023-1042. Lederman, N. G., & Lederman, J. S. (2015). What is a theoretical framework? A practical answer. Springer. Malechwanzi, J. M., Lei, H., & Wang, L. (2016). Students' Perceptions and Faculty Measured Competencies in Higher Education. International Journal of Higher Education, 5(3), 56-69. Mok, K. Y., Shen, G. Q., & Yang, J. (2015). Stakeholder management studies in mega construction projects: A review and future directions. International journal of project management, 446-457. Norton, R. E. (2019). Herder's aesthetics and the European Enlightenment. Cornell University Press. Paul, J., & Criado, A. (2020). The art of writing literature review: What do we know and what do we need to know? International Business Review, 29(4), 101717. Quinlan, C. (2011). Business Research Methods (1st ed.). Hampshire: Southwestern Cengage Learning. Randolph, J. J. (2009). A Guide to Writing the Dissertation Literature Review. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 14(13). Ravitch, S. M., & Riggan, M. (2017). Reason & rigor: How theoretical frameworks guide. Roberts-Holmes, G. (2018). Doing your early years research project: A step by step guide. Sage. Saunders, M. N., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Doing research in business & management: An essential guide to planning your project. Pearson. Shahsavar, Z., & Kourepaz, H. (2020). Postgraduate students' difficulties in writing their theses literature review. Cogent Education, 7(1). Snyder, H. (2019). Literature Review as a Research Methodology: An Overview and Guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 333-339. Sodhar, I., Noor, D., Memon, I., & Malik, M. (2020). A survey of faced issues and challenges of undergraduate students in final year project. International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology, 649-654. Vereniging Hogescholen (Netherlands Association of Universities of Applied Sciences). (2019). The Professional Master Standard. Copenhagen: Vereniging Hogescholen.

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Walter, L., & Stouck, J. (2020). Writing the Literature Review: Graduate Student Experiences. The Canadian Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 11(1). Xiao, Y., & Watson, M. (2019). Guidance on conducting a systematic literature review. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 39(1), 93-112.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 308-327, September 2021 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.9.18 Received Jul 22, 2021; Revised Sep 28, 2021; Accepted Oct 06, 2021

Exploring University Instructors’ Challenges in Online Teaching and Design Opportunities during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review Sungmin Na University of Washington, Seattle, USA https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5370-4093 Hyunggu Jung* University of Seoul, Seoul, Republic of Korea https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2967-4370 Abstract. As the pandemic began, university instructors shifted their classes online to ensure learning for numerous students. While teaching online, the instructors soon encountered many challenges. Existing studies have explored different kinds of challenges through surveys or interviews with instructors. However, to our knowledge, no studies have reported instructors’ challenges in online teaching during COVID-19 through a systematic literature review. Moreover, there are no studies that have suggested design guidelines for creating tools to help instructors. Thus, we identified various challenges that university instructors face while teaching classes online, along with the causes of the challenges, through conducting a systematic review using the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Only the studies (a) reporting the challenges of instructors in online teaching, (b) having reported challenges regarding online teaching during COVID-19, and (c) reporting challenges of instructors from universities/colleges were considered in the systematic review. We found that the biggest category of the challenges that university instructors faced was managing/conducting online classes. Lastly, we propose design opportunities to help instructors to teach an online class more effectively and in interactive ways. This review shows the possibility of overcoming the existing challenges in online teaching with instructors receiving the appropriate support and tools for online classes. Additionally, we suggest some recommendations for future research. We hope this review contributes to a deeper understanding of university instructors’ struggle in online classes and suggests potential solutions for supporting instructors in online education. Keywords: systematic instructors; COVID-19 *

review;

challenges;

design

opportunities;

Corresponding author: Hyunggu Jung; Email: hjung@uos.ac.kr

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction The coronavirus pandemic has made innumerable changes in our society, and education is no exception, being one of the sectors hugely impacted by the pandemic, according to the United Nations (Putri et al., 2020). Due to highly transmissible coronavirus, the World Health Organization (WHO) strongly advised people to avoid crowded places and close-contact settings, and confined and enclosed spaces. Considering the classroom setting, with students and instructors in close contact, and being a confined space, schools were unsafe for everyone. As of March 12th, 2020, 46 countries in five different continents decided to close schools, and 36 of these countries ordered country-wide closures affecting 408,679,886 learners (UNESCO, 2020a). Moreover, as the virus continued to surge, 161 countries fully closed their schools by April 21st, affecting over 1.5 billion learners; this means the pandemic has interrupted learning for at least 9 out of 10 students worldwide (Force, 2020). Students had no choice but to adapt to this new normal and take their classes online. Unfortunately, some students cannot even attend online classes because, especially in developing counties with digital inequality, they do not have access to digital devices (Khlaif & Salha, 2020). Following the closure of schools, the rapid change from classroom to online teaching heavily influenced not only the learners but also the instructors (Okebukola, 2020). Instructors received immediate tasks in regard to “implementing distance learning modalities” (United Nations, 2020), such as having courses on online platforms, as the schools started to close due to the pandemic. However, these implementations were often carried out with a lack of guidance, training, or resources. For instance, in sub-Saharan Africa, Force (2020) reported, “only 64% of primary and 50% of secondary teachers have received minimum training, and this frequently does not include basic ICT skills”, which are critical for online teaching. Trust and Whalen (2021) surveyed educators around the world and shared that 12% of the respondents mentioned their exhaustion of finding and learning the right tech tools for their classes without training and onsite tech support. These current situations clearly show that instructors need additional support to teach online. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how instructors struggle to teach online during the pandemic and assist these frontline responders who ensure the learning for almost 1.5 billion students (UNESCO, 2020b). After institutions decided to move classes online amid the virus fears, instructors had to change traditional teaching methods and adjust to new online teaching platforms to maintain the delivery of significant learning experiences (Sunasee, 2020). Despite their hard work, however, various studies suggest instructors are still facing obstacles when teaching in remote classrooms. Thus, it is necessary to identify those challenges and provide appropriate support to lighten the burdens (Putri et al., 2020). The researchers have conducted a review study on literature that reported the challenges of multiple stakeholders in online education. Prior studies conducted literature reviews and reported the challenges of a variety of stakeholders, such as college students (Sailsman, 2020), instructors (Islam et al., 2015), and both noninstructors (e.g., students, administrators of the institutions) and instructors (Al-

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Samarraie, 2019; de Lima et al., 2018; Kebritchi et al., 2017; Rasheed et al., 2020), in online education before the COVID-19 pandemic occurred. Similarly, recent review studies showed the challenges faced by stakeholders, such as college students, instructors, and administrators from higher education (Aini et al., 2020; Mseleku, 2020), and students and instructors from both secondary and tertiary educations (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021), in online education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, previous studies did not identify the causes of the reported challenges that instructors faced in such scenario. Also, no prior studies suggested design considerations for creating tools to support instructors by addressing their challenges. In this paper, we aim to collect those reported struggles amidst the pandemic by answering the following research questions: • RQ1: What is the overview of the studies included in the systematic review? • RQ2: What are the challenges that university instructors face when teaching online during the COVID-19 pandemic? • RQ3: What are the causes of the identified challenges from RQ 2 that university instructors face when teaching online during the COVID-19 pandemic? • RQ4: What are some design opportunities that can address the identified challenges? Then, to answer these research questions, we conducted a systematic review of recent literature to find the ones that studied university instructors’ challenges in online teaching. Analyzing the included studies in the review, this paper’s contributions are threefold: (1) we provide an understanding of the challenges involved in teaching online in universities during COVID-19; (2) we report the causes of the identified challenges; (3) we recommend a set of design opportunities for creating tools that have a potential to support university instructors’ online teaching. To our knowledge, this is the first study that aims to answer those questions using a systematic literature review.

2. Methods To explore the challenges of instructors in online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic, we found relevant literature by conducting a systematic review, following the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines (Moher et al., 2009). Figure 1 exhibits a flow diagram that reflects the systematic review strategy adhering to the PRISMA (2009) Guidelines (Alshutwi, 2020). 2.1 Literature Search Process First, in May 2021, we queried five different databases: Scopus, ACM, IEEE, PubMed, and EBSCO. For each database, we used the search string (“teachers” OR “instructors” OR “lecturers” OR “professors” OR “educators”) AND (“online teaching” OR “distance education” OR “virtual teaching” OR “online lectures” OR “online lecture”) AND (“challenges” OR “barriers” OR “obstacles” OR “struggles” OR “difficulties”). The search query was applied for at least one of the

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following items: title, abstract, keywords, or all text fields. Next, we specified the date range from January 1st, 2020 to April 30th, 2021, hoping to include all the studies that reported the challenges of instructors in online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. Finally, the initial search found 881 articles matching the keywords and date range. We refined our search results by removing 26 duplicates. Furthermore, after title and abstracts screening, 821 studies that were either literature reviews or not focusing on instructors’ challenges in online teaching were also excluded. 2.2 Eligibility Criteria The inclusion and exclusion criteria were set to ensure that the 34 results obtained were a collection of relevant studies for the systematic review. The studies included in this systematic review were selected using the following inclusion criteria: • Reported the challenges of instructors in online teaching • Reported challenges regarding online teaching must be during COVID-19 • Articles must report challenges of instructors who are from universities/colleges only. On the other hand, we excluded studies that (a) did not meet the inclusion criteria, (b) were non-English articles, and (c) not journal articles or conference journals. 2.3 Data Collection and Synthesis Finally, considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria, eight articles were included in the systematic review. We closely read those articles and highlighted the reported challenges of university instructors and their causes. Next, those highlighted challenges and causes were recorded on Google spreadsheets. We only recorded the challenges and causes from the result sections. Then we categorized the challenges into seven different groups and the causes into nine groups.

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Figure 1: Systematic review strategy based on PRISMA (2009) Guidelines

3. Results This section answers the research questions of this study by presenting the overview of the included studies in the review, reporting the challenges of university instructors in online teaching during the pandemic. Additionally, the following section explores the causes of instructors’ challenges.

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Table 1: Overview of Included Studies in Systematic Review Article

Country of Study

Study Design

Academic Discipline(s)

Almazova et al. (2020)

Russia

Survey (quantitative); Descriptive analysis

Natural and applied 87 sciences

Bahar et al. (2020)

Malaysia

Interview (semi-structured); Natural and applied 8 Thematic analysis science; Business

Gao and China Zhang (2020)

Interview (semi-structured); Humanities Thematic analysis

Hadjeris (2020)

Interview (structured); Thematic analysis

Algeria

Sample Size

Humanities; Natural 7 and applied science

Arab Hazaea (2021) League countries

Survey (qualitative; posted on open questions to Humanities ResearchGate and Facebook); Thematic analysis

Huang (2020) China

Survey (quantitative); Descriptive analysis

Natural and applied 56 science

Joshi et al. (2020)

India

Interview (semi-structured and in-depth); Thematic analysis

Did not report the academic disciplines 19 of interviewees

Sunasee (2020)

Personal experience; Narrative analysis

Natural and applied 1 science

3.1 Overview of Included Studies A total of eight articles were included in the review (see Table 1). The studies were conducted in different countries using varied research methods and included a diverse sample of university instructors. Two studies were conducted in China, and the rest in Malaysia, Arab League countries, India, Algeria, Russia, and the US. Though the studies were conducted in various countries, we found the most common setting for studies was Asia (62.5%). The types of the study included four interviews (50%), three surveys (37.5%), and one personal experience (12.5%). Five studies analyzed their collected data through thematic analysis (62.5%), whereas two studies undertook a descriptive analysis (25%), and the other one conducted narrative analysis (12.5%). Overall, we found that interview is the most commonly used method for gathering data, and thematic analysis is the most common method used for analyzing collected data. Next, five studies included instructors who teach natural and applied sciences (e.g., chemistry, engineering, humanitarian sciences, information system, information technology, and logistics management) (62.5%) while three studies included instructors who teach humanities (e.g., English) (37.5%). Also, one study focused on instructors who teach business (e.g., accounting and finance, business administration, and marketing) (12.5%), and the other study did not specify the academic discipline of the recruited instructors (12.5%). Overall, we found that natural and applied sciences are the most common academic discipline among the included studies whereas business is the least common. Furthermore, four studies included less than 10 participants (50%), two studies included 10-50 participants (25%), and the

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other two studies had 50-100 participants (25%). However, the four studies including less than 10 participants did not report why this was the case. Table 2: University instructors’ challenges in online teaching during the pandemic Categories

Challenges

Causes

Articles

Challenges with Managing/Conducting Online Classes

Difficult to conduct class smoothly, without interruptions

Insufficient network condition

Gao and Zhang (2020)

Difficult to manage class

Students are not in the same space as teachers

Less control over the class

Students' questions cannot be answered in real time

Huang (2020)

Continuity and efficiency get interrupted during lecture preparation and delivery

External distraction

Joshi et al. (2020)

Interrupt the flow of the class

Family interference

Confused about what process to follow for online teaching

Lack of clarity and direction for online teaching

Difficult to conduct lectures smoothly without any disturbances

Lack of technical infrastructure

Being familiar with the chosen education platform & software

Teachers have to become familiar with online education platforms in a short time in response to COVID-19 pandemic

Challenges with Using Online Learning Platforms/Software

Challenges with Teaching Class Effectively

Huang (2020)

Difficult to adapt to Zoom since Rapid transition to online they have no prior experience remote teaching with the app

Sunasee (2020)

Have to use open-source online Not enough budget for teaching platforms, which lack institutional-supported efficiency technologies

Joshi et al. (2020)

Difficult to use the online platform for teaching

Lack of training in online teaching

Difficult to choose the right online platform for delivering lectures

Various online teaching platforms available

Feeling difficulty and being tired about using online platforms for teaching)

Lack of online teaching knowledge

Difficult to teach the class Lack of digital literacy effectively as instructors feel uncertain about the platform, channel, and specific skills, etc., for online teaching

Gao and Zhang (2020)

Lack of evident feedback on teaching and learning

Teachers cannot see Huang (2020) students when they are delivering online instruction

Difficult to deliver effective online teaching in home environment

Lack of facilities, comfort zone and resistance to

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change at home environment

Challenges with Interacting with Students

Difficult to teach online effectively

Lack of digital literacy

Difficult to give collaborative tasks for students despite the course needs students to work collaboratively

Inability to use active/collaborative teaching methods using certain platforms/software

Difficult to have live discussion Commonly used platforms online such as "Moodle" and "SANAKO" cannot reflect the nature of the course (students can only upload course materials) Ineffective real-time communications

Challenges with Making Absence of students' Students Participate and participation in online classes Learn in Class Students' failure to learn virtually

Hadjeris (2020)

Limited functions of school- Bahar et al. supported LMS (2020)

Unable to communicate face-to- Not reported face with students Limited teacher-student interaction

Almazova et al. (2020)

Huang (2020)

Teachers cannot see students when they are delivering online instruction Students' lacking internet connection at home/insufficient network

Hadjeris (2020)

Unavailability of technological tools

Difficult to make students Low rate of interactivity and Bahar et al. participate in class and interact interaction (2020) with students Students' poor engagement and Lack of understanding of decreased possibility of learners' characteristics and achieving learner outcomes attitude Challenges with Course Preparation

Instructors struggled to prepare Digital illiteracy their courses

Hazaea (2021)

Need to adjust teaching methods

Online education requires instructors to change from the old teaching paradigm to a new teaching method that matches the functions of digitization

Huang (2020)

Numerical, experimental and communication subjects are difficult to teach online

Course integration with technology

Almazova et al. (2020)

Technology incompetence

Bahar et al. (2020)

Lack of technical support

Joshi et al. (2020)

Challenges with Solving Instructors facing technical Technical Issues issues such as downloading errors, installation failures, slow internet connection, storage capacity, and compatibility issues with their devices Having a hard time with solving technical issues during class since technical support is not available at their home

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3.2 Challenges in Online Teaching during the COVID-19 Pandemic & Causes of the Identified Challenges Overall, we identified seven different categories of challenges (see Table 2) and listed those categories in descending order of the number of challenges in each. The top two most frequently appeared categories of challenges are difficulty managing/conducting online classes and using online platforms/software. On the other hand, difficulty solving technical issues is the category with the least number of challenges. The cause of each challenge is also reported in Table 2. 3.2.1 Challenges with Managing/Conducting Online Classes The first category of reported challenges of university instructors in online teaching is managing/conducting online classes. From Table 2, Gao and Zhang (2020) argued that instructors struggle to run online classes smoothly without disruptions due to insufficient network conditions. Other reported challenges point out that instructors and students not being in the same physical classroom can create challenges regarding managing online classes. One study mentioned that instructors feel challenged to manage their classes online since students and instructors are not in the same place (Gao & Zhang, 2020). Another study also showed instructors feeling less control over their classes because they cannot answer students’ questions in real time while being in different spaces (Huang 2020). Moreover, external distractions acted as barriers to successful online class management. Joshi et al. (2020) mentioned that instructors encounter external distractions such as noise created by neighbors, pets, vehicles, visitors, and family members in their homes. As a result, instructors often experience difficulties with delivering lectures without unwelcomed interruptions. The study also highlighted that unclear and insufficient directions from institutions made instructors feel more confused about what process to follow for online classes. Institutions without institutional-supported technologies or licensed platforms tend not to provide clear directions regarding conducting online classes, such as saying which online platform/software to use for online teaching. Lastly, Joshi et al. (2020) reported that lack of technical infrastructure (e.g., hardware, software, and internet) interrupts instructors from managing online classes. A great number of instructors struggle to run online classes smoothly as they are not equipped with laptops, microphones, cameras and have poor internet connections. 3.2.2 Challenges with Using Online Learning Platforms/Software The second category is using online learning platforms/software. From Table 2, Huang (2020) reported that instructors had to become familiar with online education platforms quickly in response to the pandemic. Therefore, instructors struggled with adapting to their chosen education platforms and software. Sunasee (2020) also mentioned that the rapid transition to online teaching in response to COVID-19 had made instructors feel it more difficult to adapt to Zoom, a video conferencing software often used in online teaching, especially those having no prior experience with it. Joshi et al. (2020) revealed that some instructors do not feel confident about using online teaching platforms as they are not acquainted with such platforms. Moreover, insufficient budget for institutional-supported technologies led to instructors’ challenges with using online platforms for teaching (Joshi et al., 2020).

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Given lack of budget, institutions could not obtain licensed educational platforms/software, thereby directing instructors to use open sources. However, Joshi et al. (2020) reported that instructors believe open sources lack effectiveness compared to licensed sources due to the absence of useful features for online teaching. Moreover, institutions did not provide any training on open source platforms/software nor instruct instructors which one to use for delivering lectures, resulting in instructors struggling. 3.2.3 Challenges with Teaching Online Classes Effectively From Table 2, some studies (Almazova et al., 2020; Gao & Zhang, 2020; Huang, 2020; Joshi et al., 2020) reported instructors having challenges teaching online classes effectively. Gao and Zhang (2020) highlighted that instructors had to conduct online teaching with a lack of digital literacy due to a short training period. This meant that instructors quickly faced difficulty teaching their classes online as they felt uncertain about using platforms, channels, and other specific skills needed for online teaching. Similarly, Almazova et al. (2020) also revealed that lack of digital literacy made it difficult for instructors to teach online effectively since they were not ready to use various online applications, LMSs (Learning Management Systems), or web applications for their classes. Moreover, Huang (2020) reported that, because instructors cannot see their students while delivering online lectures, a lack of evident feedback on both teaching and learning is unavoidable. In the days of traditional face-to-face classes, instructors were able to teach the class more effectively based on noticeable feedback, including students nodding their heads, making puzzled faces, and raising their hands. Joshi et al. (2020) argued that some instructors believe online teaching is ineffective compared to conventional teaching methods. Because online teaching usually takes place in home environment settings, instructors often face issues such as lack of facilities, comfort zone, and resistance to change, which eventually lead to ineffective teaching. Lastly, Almazova et al. (2020) reported that instructors who teach courses that need students to work collaboratively struggle to teach their classes effectively since it is nearly impossible to organize pair work or small group discussions using certain platforms/software that are equivalent to face-toface communications. 3.2.4 Challenges with Interacting with Students The next set of challenges involves with interacting with students during online classes. From Table 2, Hadjeris (2020) mentioned that commonly used online platforms such as Moodle or SANAKO allow students to upload their course materials only. Thus, instructors feel it is difficult to have live discussions with their students online as certain platforms do not support real-time interactions between instructors and students. Similarly, Bahar et al. (2020) pointed out instructors’ ineffective real-time communication with students since schoolsupported LMS do not provide a function that allows instructors to have live interactions with their students. As a result, instructors have to use additional online software (for example, Zoom, Google Meet, Microsoft Teams, etc.) that support real-time interactions. Huang (2020) underscored that being unable to communicate face-to-face with students is one of the differences between online and in-person education and the greatest inconvenience experienced by instructors in online teaching. Huang (2020) also added that instructors have a

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difficult time interacting with their students, especially when they cannot even see the students' faces when sharing slides while delivering lectures. 3.2.5 Challenges with Making Students Participate and Learn in Online Classes The fifth challenge category is getting students to participate and learn in online classes. From Table 2, Hadjeris (2020) reported that students’ lack of internet connections and technological tools at their homes prevented students from participating and learning in online classes. Bahar et al. (2020) identified that instructors feel challenged in making students participate and learn as interactions with students are reduced in online classes. Additionally, an absence of proper understanding of students’ characteristics and attitudes led to low engagement and decreased the possibility of achieving learner outcomes. For instructors, it is crucial to study the characteristics and attitudes of students so as to design and deliver learning experiences that fit with students' needs. However, Bahar et al. (2020) argued that it is not easy for instructors to learn about their students online and design courses that can fulfill their needs and encourage their full participation in online classes. 3.2.6 Challenges with Online Course Preparation From Table 2, Almazova et al. (2020) Huang (2020), and Hazaea (2021) pointed out that instructors feel difficulty in preparing their online courses due to various circumstances. Digital illiteracy becomes a barrier once again for instructors who need to prepare virtual lessons using different technologies (Hazaea, 2021). In addition, online education requires instructors to adjust their previous teaching methods to fit in an online setting (Huang, 2020). This essential change would make it more difficult for instructors to prepare the online courses as it would take some time to accomplish. Lastly, not every course can be taught online. For example, instructors said that courses such as numerical, experimental, and communication subjects are difficult to be adjusted for online education since they require practices and queries that need to be handled face-to-face (Almazova et al., 2020). 3.2.7 Challenges with Solving Technical Issues Lastly, from Table 2, Bahar et al. (2020) reported that instructors struggle with solving technical issues like downloading errors, installation failures, slow internet connection, storage capacity, and compatibility issues with their devices or hardware. For instructors who are not tech-savvy, they need tech support, which is unavailable from their homes. Similarly, Joshi et al. (2020) highlighted that instructors feel difficulty solving technical issues in online classes due to a lack of tech support.

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Table 3: Categorized causes of the identified university instructors’ challenges in online teaching during the pandemic Categories

Causes

Articles

Lack of Skills for Online Teaching

Digital illiteracy

Hazaea (2021)

Technology incompetence

Bahar et al. (2020)

Lack of information technology literacy

Gao and Zhang (2020)

Lack of training in online teaching

Joshi et al. (2020)

Various unfamiliar online teaching platforms available Lack of online teaching knowledge

Infrastructure Issues

Need of Adjustment to Teaching Methods for Online Teaching

External Distractions

Lack of digital literacy

Almazova et al. (2020)

Students' lacking internet connection at home/insufficient network

Hadjeris (2020)

Insufficient network condition

Gao and Zhang (2020)

Lack of technical infrastructure

Joshi et al. (2020)

Online education requires instructors to change Huang (2020) from the old teaching paradigm to a new teaching method that matches the functions of digitization Course integration with technology

Joshi et al. (2020)

Inability to use active/collaborative teaching methods

Almazova et al. (2020)

External distraction

Joshi et al. (2020)

Family interference Facility Issues

Instructors and Learners Not Being in the Same Place

Unavailability of technological tools

Hadjeris (2020)

Lack of basic facilities

Joshi et al. (2020)

Students are not in the same space as teachers

Gao and Zhang (2020)

Teachers cannot see students when they are delivering online instruction

Huang (2020)

Lack of Support/Direction Lack of technical support for Online Teaching Lack of clarity and direction for online teaching

Joshi et al. (2020)

Rapid Transition to Online Teachers have to be familiar with online Teaching education platforms in a short time in response to the COVID-19 pandemic

Huang (2020)

Software Issues

Rapid transition to online remote teaching

Sunasee (2020)

Commonly used platforms such as "Moodle" and "SANAKO" cannot reflect the nature of the course (students can only upload course materials)

Hadjeris (2020)

Limited functions of school-supported LMS

Bahar et al. (2020)

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Figure 2: Arrow diagram of challenges of university instructors and their causes

3.3 Causal Relationships The causes of the identified challenges were also grouped into separate categories, yielding nine different categories which were arranged in descending order of the number of causes included as shown in Table 3: (1) lack of skills for online teaching; (2) infrastructure issues; (3) need of adjustment to teaching methods for online teaching; (4) external distractions; (5) facility issues; (6) instructors and learners not being in the same place; (7) lack of support/direction for online teaching; (8) rapid transition to online teaching; and (9) software issues. Then, to clearly deliver an image of the causal relationship between the university instructors’ challenges identified in Table 2 and their causes in Table 3, we draw an arrow diagram (see Figure 2). We put cause categories (dashed lines) on the left, in the order listed in Table 3, and challenge categories (solid lines) on the right, in the order listed in Table 2. Next, we connect each category of the causes to its corresponding challenge categories using arrows (see Figure 2). The arrow always starts from one cause and ends at the cause’s corresponding challenge(s). For example, beginning from the first cause, “Lack of Skills for Online Teaching”, the four arrows end at four challenges: using online learning platforms/software, teaching class effectively, course preparation, and solving technical issues. This part indicates that university instructors’ lack of skills for online teaching has caused those four different challenges.

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4. Discussion By investigating different literature through a systematic review, we attempted to understand various challenges of university instructors in online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this section, we reflect on our findings and discuss possible solutions for instructors' challenges. Then, we discuss the limitations of our study and future work. 4.1 Instructors’ Increased Workload in Online Classrooms We uncovered that one of the challenges that university instructors mainly struggle with is managing and conducting online classes. Several studies (Gao & Zhang, 2020; Huang, 2020; Joshi et al., 2020) included in our systematic review highlighted that university instructors have difficulties regarding managing or conducting online classes due to various reasons, such as unstable network conditions, external distractions, and not being in the same physical space with learners. In line with that, other studies involving instructors in higher education underscored that instructors need to take care of their students’ network conditions as they teach online (Kebritchi et al., 2017; Lao & Gonzales, 2005). Unlike in traditional classes, online classes require instructors to have greater continual involvement in the management of online courses (Baran et al., 2013; Nambiar, 2020) as numerous uncontrollable factors like unstable networks or external distractions constantly hinder their teaching. Countries with severe weather conditions, such as heavy rainfall, lead to unavoidable connectivity issues and unavailability of technical support during online classes (Rusly et al., 2021). As a result, given the high expectation of instructors’ increased involvement in online classes, they may feel overwhelmed about managing and conducting their classes. Therefore, it would be helpful if institutions could support university instructors to cope with this change and help lessen their burden promptly, considering the rapid increase in the number of online classes due to school closures during the pandemic. 4.2 Instructors’ Struggles of Adaptation to New Pedagogy Another challenge that university instructors struggle with is using online learning platforms and software in their online classes (Huang, 2020; Joshi et al., 2020; Sunasee, 2020). The newly emerged pedagogy amidst the pandemic has required the proficient use of online platforms or software for successful online teaching. However, Figure 2 reveals that instructors’ lack of skills for online teaching has caused challenges with the use of online learning platforms and software. For some countries, online teaching might not be a major form of education. For example, teachers in Chinese schools had no previous experience in online teaching because it was infrequently used (Zhang et al., 2020). One of the studies included in our review also reported that online teaching is absent in Algerian teaching culture, and, accordingly, educators do not have sufficient knowledge regarding its application (Hadjeris, 2020). Instructors, especially in countries where online teaching is either absent or barely used, might not have sufficient experience and skills with using online platforms and software for teaching. Additionally, rapid transitioning to online teaching was another major cause of instructors’ struggles with using online learning platforms and software. Online teaching usually requires instructors to invest a significant amount of

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time for setting up the online learning environment, uploading files, and creating new instructional materials (Baran et al., 2013; Samarawickrema & Stacey, 2007). However, this could be a serious problem, especially in a time of pandemic. During the pandemic, instructors have been quickly shifted to online teaching from traditional teaching regardless of the levels of education (e.g., primary, secondary, tertiary, etc.) they belong due to rapidly deployed school closures. Even though the instructors had limited practical experience using online platforms for educational purposes, they had to proceed with online teaching and adapt to using those necessary platforms without sufficient time to practice them (Izhar et al., 2021). Huang (2020) also reported that university instructors had to be familiar with online education platforms in a short time in response to COVID19. Therefore, it would be crucial for institutions to provide university instructors workshops or programs preparing and training them for using online learning platforms and software. 4.3 Instructors’ Unfamiliarity with Technology We found that, out of all challenges, those involving solving technical issues are the least frequently appeared. Margaryan et al. (2011) argued that students of a technical discipline (e.g., engineering) used more technology tools when compared to students of a non-technical discipline (e.g., social work) since intensive and extensive access to technology was necessary for students taking engineering courses. Furthermore, along with the students of a technical discipline, the faculty of engineering also appeared to be more confident in their technology skills when compared with the faculty of social work (Margaryan et al., 2011). Therefore, it might be possible that challenges with solving technical issues were the least common challenges in our paper because the discipline of instructors from five out of eight studies in the review is natural and applied sciences, which is normally considered one of the technical disciplines. Additionally, we found multiple factors such as instructors’ technology incompetence and unavailability of technical support lead to instructors struggling with solving technical issues in online classes. Another possible explanation for this struggle might be that instructors belonging to older generations and familiar with in-person teaching are likely to feel less comfortable using online technology for teaching. Akçayır (2016) reported that the current generation of digital natives, “the native speakers of the digital language” of computers and the internet (Prensky, 2001), are expected to encounter fewer problems while using technology because they grew up in an environment surrounded by technology. On the other hand, the older generations, the digital immigrants, will be more likely to be unfamiliar with using technology and, therefore, face more technical issues in online teaching. Giacomini and Yamashiro (2008) also pointed out that, compared to university students, the digital natives, the instructors belonging to older generations, considered as digital immigrants, use technology less often. According to the survey conducted by Giacomini and Yamashiro, one and fivetenths times as many students bring their laptops to class as instructors, and four times as many students use instant messaging for educational purposes as instructors. Hence, university instructors who have difficulties solving technical

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issues during online classes might be teaching non-technical disciplines that usually demand less use of technology or belong to older generations who could be not familiar with utilizing technology for online classes. It might be helpful if institutions could focus on helping university instructors who are more likely to struggle with technical issues. 4.4 Design Opportunities Based on the findings of our study, we delineate opportunities for creating support and designing tools for overcoming the challenges of university instructors and improving their experience in online teaching. 4.4.1 Helping Instructors Gaining Online Teaching Knowledge We suggest institutions create tutorials that teach instructors how to use online learning platforms and software for their online courses. We found that having insufficient knowledge regarding online teaching could be a serious obstacle to teaching classes effectively, making students participate and learn in classes, and preparing online courses. Also, we discussed that instructors have had a lack of time to learn and practice online teaching due to the rapid transition to online in response to COVID-19. Therefore, providing instructors tutorials that would teach and guide them to conduct successful online classes would be useful. Moreover, having tutorials explaining the difference between various online platforms so instructors can choose the right one for their courses and sharing practical tips for managing online classes would be significantly helpful for instructors with a lack of online teaching knowledge. Furthermore, holding workshops about various online platforms and their features would help instructors get hands-on experience on different technologies, which would guide them in designing effective online courses. 4.4.2 Creating a Feature that Provides Learner Feedback It is recommended that online learning platforms and software used in online classes include features that help instructors gain learners’ feedback. We discovered that instructors have challenges with managing/conducting online classes and interacting with students due to the absence of learners’ feedback. It is not difficult to receive learners’ feedback (e.g., facial expressions, hand raising, etc.) in traditional classrooms since they are all in the same physical space. Unfortunately, it became harder to gain feedback from students regarding teaching because instructors and students were separated and unable to see each other. For instructors, learners’ feedback is crucial because it allows them to quickly take the necessary actions for making their classes effective. Thus, we suggest developers create a feature that collects learners’ feedback, such as facial expressions or motions (e.g., students nodding their heads, shaking their heads from side to side), interprets that feedback, and notifies instructors regarding learners’ situations. This feature may allow instructors to check how their students are doing in class, respond accordingly without in-person interactions, and finally ensure managing and conducting online lectures successfully. 4.4.3 Assisting Instructors with Technical Issues To help instructors with technical issues during online classes, we suggest developers consider adding a feature to online learning platforms or software that

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can give troubleshooting instructions to instructors in real time through online chat. A few studies (Bahar et al., 2020; Joshi et al., 2020) have highlighted instructors' need for technical support while preparing or conducting online classes. Normally, schools would have a separate tech support team helping instructors who face technical issues, but that help is not available as classes moved online due to COVID-19. Thus, by adding a chat feature to online platforms or software through which instructors can seek help right away when they encounter technical issues, we expect instructors to respond to those issues promptly and prepare/conduct online classes seamlessly. Furthermore, institutions having a separate tech support team that would assist instructors with tech issues during online classes through live chat or emails would be appreciated by the instructors. 4.5 Limitations and Future Work This study has five limitations. First, we used five different electronic databases for this review. However, there could be other relevant literature available in other sources such as Google Scholar. Second, we excluded studies that were not written in or not available in the English language. Including relevant studies not written in English might have slightly changed our results. Third, we focused on challenges in online teaching from university instructors' perspectives only. Instructors who teach learners other than university students may have experienced different barriers in online teaching. Next, instructors in our sample lack diversity in terms of their countries and academic disciplines. Most of the instructors were from institutions located in Asia, and natural and applied sciences was the academic discipline of the majority of instructors. Examining the challenges of instructors from various countries and disciplines would have helped us gain a deeper insight and more generalizable findings regarding university instructors' challenges in online classes. Lastly, we purposefully included studies published between January 1st, 2020, and April 30th, 2021, to include studies reporting about university instructors' challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic specifically. However, since online education still continues in various countries and the pandemic is not over yet, there might be more studies concerning university instructors' challenges in online classes during the pandemic by the time we submit this review. Future work remains to more thoroughly study the challenges encountered by instructors while teaching online. It would be significant to explore instructors from various countries and expertise as different contexts may create multiple challenges in online classrooms. Furthermore, it is essential to explore how the findings of our study may translate across different types of instructors, such as elementary school and high school teachers. In particular, to identify their challenges regarding online teaching in more detail, we would need to conduct surveys or interviews with instructors. Lastly, design opportunities proposed in this study can be applied to existing tools for online education or creating new tools and evaluating the effectiveness of the tool with a deployment study.

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5. Conclusions In this study, our aim was to identify the challenges university instructors faced in online teaching during COVID-19, understand what caused the challenges we identified, and propose design opportunities that may help to address those challenges. The key contribution of this study is that the findings of this study provide a better understanding of how instructors are struggling and suggestions to support instructors for a better online teaching environment. We examined 881 studies published in online teaching during the pandemic from January 2020 to April 2021 through a systematic literature review. We then examined and categorized the reported challenges of university instructors in online teaching and their causes. Through this review, we identified seven different categories of challenges that university instructors are facing, along with nine categories of causes. More importantly, we learned that managing/conducting online classes and using online learning platforms/software are the top two categories of challenges of instructors among those seven different challenges. Additionally, based on those identified challenges, we proposed design opportunities that could guide in creating tools that can support instructors in online classes, contributing in deeper understanding of university instructors’ struggle in online classes and suggesting potential solutions to assist the instructors. Thus, our study shows that university instructors may overcome the challenges in online classrooms if proper support is provided and appropriate tools designed for online teaching that can assist instructors effectively. Future work remains to utilize proposed design opportunities to create tools for supporting instructors in online education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Also, to confirm the feasibility and validity of the tools in online class settings, researchers may conduct a deployment study with multiple stakeholders involving instructors, students, and school administrators. Acknowledgements We appreciate HCAIL members for their constructive feedback on our initial manuscript. This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT) (No. 2020R1G1A1009133).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionDr. Fatima Zohra Belkhir-Benmostefa ers on all aspects of education to publish high Dr. Giorgio Poletti quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiDr. Chi Man Tsui cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr. Fitri Suraya Mohamad Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr. Hernando Lintag Berna through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr. Charanjit Kaur Swaran Singh originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr. Abu Bakar readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr. Eglantina Hysa to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr. Mo'en Salman Alnasraween trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr. Hermayawati Hermayawati and case studies that describe significant adDr. Selma Kara vances in the fields of education, training, eDr. Michael B. Cahapay learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr. Bunmi Isaiah Omodan pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr. Vassiliki Pliogou sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr. Meera Subramanian should not have been published previously or Dr. Muhammad Kristiawan be under consideration for publication while Dr. Wahyu Widada being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr. Som Pal Baliyan Dr. Reem Khalid Abu-Shawish Dr. Froilan Delute Mobo Dr. Mohamed Ali Elkot Dr. Anabelie Villa Valdez Mr. Teody Lester Verdeflor Panela