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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.21 No.2

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 21, No. 2 (February 2022) Print version: 1694-2493 Online version: 1694-2116

IJLTER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER) Vol. 21, No. 2

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal which has been established for the dissemination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the fields of learning, teaching and educational research.

Aims and Objectives The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators, teachers, trainers, academicians, scientists and researchers from over the world to present the results of their research activities in the following fields: innovative methodologies in learning, teaching and assessment; multimedia in digital learning; e-learning; m-learning; e-education; knowledge management; infrastructure support for online learning; virtual learning environments; open education; ICT and education; digital classrooms; blended learning; social networks and education; etutoring: learning management systems; educational portals, classroom management issues, educational case studies, etc.

Indexing and Abstracting The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is indexed in Scopus since 2018. The Journal is also indexed in Google Scholar and CNKI. All articles published in IJLTER are assigned a unique DOI number.

Foreword We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research. The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions may include full-length articles, case studies and innovative solutions to problems faced by students, educators and directors of educational organisations. To learn more about this journal, please visit the website http://www.ijlter.org. We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board and the reviewers for accepting only high quality articles in this issue. We seize this opportunity to thank them for their great collaboration. The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the world. Each paper is reviewed by at least two blind reviewers. We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal with this issue.

Editors of the February 2022 Issue

VOLUME 21

NUMBER 2

February 2022

Table of Contents Teachers’ Perceptions about Leadership: Towards an Innovative Collaborative Teacher Leadership Development Framework for Schools .......................................................................................................................................................... 1 Edwin Darrell De Klerk, Natalie Jane Pauline Smith Adopting Virtual Classes during the COVID-19 Lockdown: Interrogating New Approaches to Teaching and the Exclusion of Learners in Rural Settings ............................................................................................................................. 18 Raphael Nhongo, Liqhwa Siziba Effects of a Neuroscience-Based Instructional Guide on College Student Learning ................................................... 34 Rosario Mireya Romero Parra, Luis Andres Barboza Arenas, Lorena C. Espina-Romero, Eduardo Jesús Garcés Rosendo, Carlos Hernán Rodríguez Ángeles Employee Perceptions of the Effectiveness of E-training to Meet Performance Evaluation Requirements ............. 49 Areej M. Altwijri, Tahani I. Aldosemani Analysis of the English Language Needs of the Saudi Tourism Workforce: A First Step into Designing ESP Teaching Materials................................................................................................................................................................ 72 Eidhah Abdullah AbdulRaheem Al-Malki, Choudhary Zahid Javid, Muhammad Umar Farooq, Ghazi Fahad Algethami, Adel Awadh Al-Harthi Entry Requirements as Predictors of the Academic Performance of Postgraduate Students in Universities in Zimbabwe .............................................................................................................................................................................. 89 Norman Rudhumbu, Patience Kelebogile Mudau Effects of Concept Mapping and Cooperative Mastery Learning Strategies on Students’ Achievement in Photosynthesis and Attitudes towards Instructional Strategies ................................................................................... 107 Emmanuel Bizimana, Dieudonné Mutangana, Adrian Mwesigye Determinants of Quality Education Delivery in Selected Public Universities in Ghana: Students’ Perceptions ... 133 Anthony Akwesi Owusu Rural STEM Preservice Teachers’ Acceptance of Virtual Learning.............................................................................. 155 David Mutambara, Admire Chibisa The Experiences of Emergency-Remote Teaching Via Zoom: The Case of Natural-Science Teachers Handling of Deaf/Hard-of-Hearing Learners in South Africa ........................................................................................................... 176 Olufemi Timothy Adigun State University Students’ Learning Locations and Remote Learning Challenges During the COVID-19 Pandemic ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 195 Cristie Ann L. Jaca Does Student Involvement in Practical Learning Strengthen Deeper Learning Competencies? ............................. 211 Agus Prianto, Umi Nur Qomariyah, Firman Firman

Filipino Teachers’ Attitudes towards Distance Learning during the Covid-19 Pandemic ....................................... 232 Angelito Palma Bautista Jr., Dianne Morta Balibrea, Doris Gelvoligaya Bleza Influence of E-Counseling Skills on Counseling Self-Efficacy Among E-Counselors in Malaysia .......................... 251 Zaida Nor Zainudin, Lee Wei Rong, Alia Sarah Asri, Yusni Mohamad Yusop, Nor Aniza Ahmad, Siti Aishah Hassan Perception on the Online Classes Challenges Experienced during the COVID-19 Pandemic by LSPU Computer Studies Students .................................................................................................................................................................. 268 Marco Jr. N. Del Rosario, Ronnel A. dela Cruz Educators’ Motivation and Intention within the UTAUT Model to Adopt the Flipped Classroom: A Scoping Review .................................................................................................................................................................................. 285 Rusliza Yahaya, Mohamad Rohieszan Ramdan, Noor Lela Ahmad, Rosmini Ismail, Khalizul Khalid, Mohd Abdullah Jusoh, Rosmah Mat Isa Pre- and In-service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs: A Case Study of an English Language Teacher Education Programme in Albania ....................................................................................................................................................... 303 Enriketa Sogutlu Factors Influencing Elementary Teachers’ Readiness in Delivering Sex Education amidst Covid-19 pandemic .. 320 Nhung T.P. Nguyen, An T.T. Chu, Ly H. Tran, Son X. Pham, Hien N. Nguyen, Vinh T. Nguyen Improving Critical Thinking Skills in Teaching through Problem-Based Learning for Students: A Scoping Review ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 342 Azila Abdul Razak, Mohamad Rohieszan Ramdan, Nurhanie Mahjom, Mohd Nazir Md. Zabit, Fidlizan Muhammad, Mohd Yahya Mohd Hussin, Nor Liza Abdullah User Acceptance of Google Classroom-Assisted Learning: The Case of Malaysian Form Six Economics Students ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 363 Noornadiah Md. Sari, Khoo Yin Yin, Zainizam Zakariya, Ramlee Ismail Exploring the Influence of Teacher-Student Interaction Strength, Interaction Time, Interaction Distance and Interaction Content on International Student Satisfaction with Online Courses ....................................................... 380 Xiaozhuan Wang, Aminuddin Bin Hassan, How Shwu Pyng, Han Ye Centralize or Decentralize? - The Question Currently Facing Schools in Qatar ......................................................... 397 Al-Kubaisi Huda Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions of Soft Skills Integration in Mathematics Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools in Mazabuka District, Zambia............................................................................................................................. 419 Chileshe Busaka, Septimi Reuben Kitta, Odette Umugiraneza

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 1-17, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.1 Received Nov 1, 2021; Revised Jan 28, 2022; Accepted Feb 14, 2022

Teachers’ Perceptions about Leadership: Towards an Innovative Collaborative Teacher Leadership Development Framework for Schools Edwin Darrell De Klerk* Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa Natalie Jane Pauline Smith Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa

Abstract. The development of the literature on teacher leadership in the academic realm has been exponential, but the quest for more leadership knowledge seems to be inexhaustible. The purpose of this paper is to analyze teachers’ perceptions with respect to their leadership abilities. Email interviews were conducted with nine teachers from two primary and two secondary schools to obtain their views regarding teacher leadership, whilst affording them opportunities to make suggestions for collaborative teacher leadership development. Having employed a phenomenological approach and thematic analysis as method, this paper proposes a collaborative teacher leadership development framework (CTLDF). Significant about the CTLDF is that teacher leaders should consider ausgang as a way of opening the door for collaboration, homo economicus as a collaborative act and parrhesia as autonomy towards collaborative teacher leadership. The findings reveal that teacher leaders should cultivate a readiness to create opportunities for collaborative leadership development. The study recommends that teacher leaders should first have to be cognizant about their own individual strengths, whilst slowly starting initiatives to collaborate in order to sustain improvements in teacher leadership practices. Keywords: ausgang; collaborative teacher leadership; homo economicus; parrhesia; teacher leaders

1. Introduction Whilst many teachers live with idealistic imperatives to “be one’s own person and to give expression to one’s individual philosophy” (Case et al., 2011, p. 686), the COVID-19 pandemic has required teacher leaders to seize opportunities to *

Corresponding author: Edwin Darrell de Klerk, darrell.deklerk@nwu.ac.za

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

perform their day-to-day work more skillfully. Importantly, the perception of leadership has become so significant that it is nearly impossible to study the past and the present without seeing leaders and leadership everywhere. Thus, although much research has been conducted regarding leadership development, COVID-19 has required a change in the way individuals speak or write about teacher leadership - from one subjugated interpretation of leadership toward a deeper understanding of concepts thereof. In this paper, the focus has shifted from meanings about leadership to that of teacher leadership development because we believe that schools should be “poised to help teachers to be the beacon of light” (Behrstock-Sherratt et al., 2020, p. 1). The shift of focus is significant because teachers should “be empowered to be actors of change” (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2020, pp. 3–4) during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. Notably, the current crisis has created opportunities to uplift teacher leaders, whilst celebrating and recognizing the extraordinary leadership teachers are exhibiting. Beyond the dispositions, skills and knowledge exemplified by teacher leaders, they should epitomize a movement-in-action to promote the teaching occupation into a respected profession. The indication of “movement-in action” can be associated with a view by Zhang et al. (2021) who postulate that to develop teachers’ leadership skills, thought and time should be invested to follow a collaborative approach. The aforementioned statement is significant because collaborative leadership advances through the practice of influencing teachers and engendering proficiency through collaboration (Zhang et al., 2021). In their dissertation on teacher leadership development, Gratacós et al. (2021) aimed to develop an understanding of teacher leadership as portrayed in official documents in Spain. The appraisal of those documents exposed an inadequate appreciation of the significance of teacher leadership. Their results suggested that there is a need to further develop teacher leaders as a consequence of changing circumstances experienced by the teaching profession. In another paper, Mitchell (2021) focused on developing teacher leadership during unprecedented times of change. The aim of Mitchell’s (2021) paper was to acquire more information regarding the development and growth of teacher leaders in Kansas during the 2020–2021 COVID-19 pandemic. The findings revealed that during times like COVID-19, increased opportunities exist for teacher leadership development. The paper recommended that leadership development should be versed in learning styles that foster collaboration in an attempt to grow teachers’ collective efficacy (Mitchell, 2021). Apart from research that focused on teacher leadership, we regard it as significant to provide a synopsis of a few teacher leadership development frameworks already in the public domain (Table 1).

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Table 1: Teacher Leadership Development Frameworks in the Public Domain Author(s)

Year of publication

Teacher leadership development framework

Angelle

2017

Four-factor model of teacher leadership

Cheung et al.

2018

Berg & Zoellick

2019

Defining teacher leadership: A framework Teacher leadership: toward a new conceptual framework

Core aspects of teacher leadership development framework The role of teachers outside the classroom, expertise and roles in instructional practices, independence/enablement, collaboration as well as participation and engagement Collaboration, encouragement, modelling and availability of resources Legitimacy, support, objective and method

The aforementioned frameworks aimed at addressing ambiguities in meaning regarding teacher leadership, whilst advocating for more knowledge in this field. Our paper adheres to the call for further research on teacher leadership development in unprecedented times like the COVID-19 pandemic. It is similar to the aforementioned studies in that the notion of collaboration in terms of teacher leadership development is strongly foregrounded. It is different in that we are drawing on the views of South African teachers in four schools in the Northern Cape province of South Africa to propose a collaborative teacher leadership development framework (CTLDF). By analyzing the views of teachers, we “share the stories and voices of everyday teachers who take a social justice stance and act on it” (Baker-Doyle, 2017, p. 8). In so doing, a CTLDF may assist teacher leaders to keep track of changes and developments regarding teacher leadership in schools.

2. Literature Review 2.1 Changing the mind-set about teacher leadership development amid COVID-19 Individuals construct their social reality in ways that reflect and reinforce their mind-sets (Gergen, 2015), and the mindfulness of such potential can be an influential power for developing their sense of fulfilment (McGonigal, 2015). Notably, mind-sets are core sets of beliefs that become the lenses through which individuals appreciate, understand, and reply to the world within which they live and work (Gergen, 2015). The more individuals see the world as an opportunity to develop, the more they seem to find opportunities for development to happen. This implies that the more schools allow for a mind-set change regarding teacher leadership, the more teachers would develop capacities for personal growth, which is an important contributor to leadership development. Furthermore, the notion of teacher leadership development suggests that teachers may become more aware of who they are and how they can be showing up at work in a more authentic way (Drago-Severson & Blum-DeStefano, 2018). Thus, as teacher

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leaders gain more confidence, they can start to shift the lens toward their colleagues and provide encouragement and support for them as they engage in collective growth in schools. COVID-19 has required teachers to change their taken-for-granted frames of reference (mind-sets). Significant about a change regarding frames of reference is that teacher leaders are required to become “more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective so that they may generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide action” (Mezirow, 2000, p. 8). To illustrate, COVID-19 has opened opportunities for “teachers to be trained how to lead with self -awareness and self-regulation”, “schools to allow teachers to lead changes” and “teachers to give meaning to changes through descriptions, feelings and expectations” (De Klerk & Smith, 2021, p. 62). Interpreting the view of De Klerk and Smith (2021, p. 62), teacher leadership development should be thought of as a process of empowering teachers to achieve what they believe is worth achieving and what they want to achieve in future. Consequently, teacher leadership development should be understood to be at the center of changing “values into actions, visions into realities, obstac les into innovations, separateness into solidarity, and risks into rewards” (Smith & Riley, 2012, p. 57). In this regard, teacher leadership development should be about teachers getting opportunities to live their potential and worth so that they can see leadership in themselves, whilst unleashing such potential in those around them. 2.2 Collaborative teacher leadership as transformative learning experience One of the main elements for successful collaborative action in teacher development is that there should be a demonstration of intellectual and emotional ripeness, aiming at a mind-set change to allow teachers to become more eager to deal with and to solve challenges in schools (Vicente et al., 2018). Arguably, collaborative intellectual efforts in terms of teacher leadership may be considered as a mutual knowledge practice in which all teachers are involved in combining thinking about leadership in an inventive way. This implies that collaborative teacher leadership has an unlimited possibility to yield collaborative affiliations where individuals share challenges and opportunities and, in so doing, ease the responsibility of teachers to attain enhanced leadership performance (Pasetto et al., 2021). Despite unlimited possibilities, collaborative teacher leadership development seems not to be without any challenges. Firstly, teacher leadership has yet to take an official position in schools’ administration because teacher leaders’ unclear standing may encourage skepticism on the part of colleagues, thus encumbering collaboration (Johnson, 2019). Secondly, teacher leaders may experience hostility from their colleagues and the aspiration for additional and profounder collaboration could be perceived negatively by their colleagues (Landa & Donaldson, 2020). Notwithstanding these limitations, COVID-19 has brought new opportunities to rethink collaborative teacher leadership. Our argument resonates

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with the thought that “teacher leadership recognizes teachers’ instructional expertise as an asset for educational improvement, capitalizes upon teachers’ relationships with their colleagues to support change, and may provide career advancement opportunities to improve job satisfaction and the professionalization of teaching” (Berg et al., 2019, p. 3). Based on Berg et al.’s (2019) assertion, more opportunities for collaborative teacher leadership development may be a worthwhile transformative learning experience in schools. To ensure that teacher leadership development becomes a transformative learning experience, “a high degree of trust will be needed, as the collective glue, to ensure that issues are addressed collectively as they arise” (Harris & Jones, 2020, p. 246). This statement implies that teacher leaders, when working collaboratively, should first transform problematic mind-sets (expectations and assumptions) about leadership by making it more emotional, thoughtful and open to change. Thus, in an endeavor to make collaboration worthwhile, teacher leaders should consider assessing their assumptions, exploring options for new roles, action and relationships as well as finding transformative ways to nurture new roles and relationships (Mezirow, 2011). In this instance, teacher leaders should guard against superficial collaboration by deliberately making an effort to understand their roles and how they project themselves to others. Arguably, transformative learning in terms of collaborative teacher leadership should be an organized effort to assist colleagues to enhance their dispositions, understanding and skills (Mezirow, 2012) as to what the role of teacher leaders should be. In so doing, collaborative teacher leadership may encourage individuals to become more autonomous, creative, self-reflective and inclusive. 2.3 Reasons for rethinking collaborative teacher leadership amid COVID-19 The potential and possibility of teacher leadership are regarded as a fundamental matter within the global dialogue about educational change and reform because the manner in which teachers contribute to transformation, and dynamically contribute towards leading transformation, has been demonstrated to be significant to the attainment of any development effort. In this regard, COVID-19 has required that in order to lead change, there should be a move from working in silos and new emphasis should be placed on working collaboratively in schools (Education Development Trust, 2020a). We, like Harris and Jones (2019, p. 125), argue that teacher leaders who work collaboratively are individuals who will do “amazing things; they will initiate, innovate, implement and share a wide range of projects which can develop collaborative professional learning, improve practice and support student learning.” When teacher leaders are thus afforded opportunities to move out of their comfort zones, they may be positioned to think differently, whilst reimagining what a more equitable, resilient and effective school environment might look like. Furthermore, it has become imperative to investigate how leadership is presently developing, whilst it has become more significant for teachers to be willing to participate in leadership development. It should also be considered that innovative collaboration methods can create ideal spaces where teachers can learn how to strengthen their ability to provide quality education for all (Education Development Trust, 2020b). Significantly, collaboration between teacher leaders

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can facilitate more universal methodologies to education developments and provide heightened connection and endless progress. As it has become more significant to build durable relationships and, when working collaboratively, teacher leaders should have a new awareness of their experiences inside the self (their mind-set), whilst paying attention to what is happening around them (Wilson, 2021). In so doing, they may be able to cultivate new habits of mind which is a fundamental disposition to develop during collaboration in schools. Such habits include “being aware of and reflecting on current, present, and past experiences in a non-judgmental manner, demonstrating flexibility and appropriate responsiveness when problem solving, resiliency during difficult times, and demonstrating empathy and compassion towards others” (Wilson, 2021, p. 7). As the role of school leaders has become a more demanding duty, this paper supports the need for understanding collaborative teacher leadership amid COVID-19, which may be significant for future leadership development in schools. We argue that teacher leaders who want to make an effort to work collaboratively should demonstrate a growth mind-set towards building positive relationships with colleagues, learners and the entire school community. Notably, rethinking teacher leadership is influential because of its ability to develop teachers’ self-esteem and value of their functioning through better commitment and collaboration (Kamaruzaman et al., 2020).

3. Research methodology We employed a phenomenological approach in this paper to hear and interpret the different perceptions of teachers in their unique school contexts. By sharing their perceptions of how their leadership qualities were developed, teachers could re-experience the positive emotions of thinking differently, of assisting, of rethinking established ways of doing and, in so doing, reflect on how they actually developed and applied leadership qualities (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). The sharing of perceptions aligns with phenomenology because it assists in identifying phenomena as perceived by participants in a particular setting (Lester, 1999). Thus, researchers are able to gather rich information and perceptions through qualitative methods such as interviews. By having afforded the participants an opportunity to share their perceptions, we were able to propose an innovative collaborative teacher leadership framework for future collaboration among teachers in schools. A phenomenological approach was effective in bringing to the fore the perceptions of teachers from their own perspectives (Lester, 1999). The use of phenomenology was appropriate because were afforded opportunities to provide detailed interpretations and descriptions of the participants’ lived experiences through bracketing (Qutoshi, 2018). The use of bracketing in phenomenology is significant for research to gain insights into lived experiences. According to Speziale and Carpenter (2007), bracketing is an effective way to ensure validity of the collection and analysis of data. The connection between teachers’ perceptions as well as the environments they found themselves in were highlighted. An application of phenomenology enabled us to obtain valuable information and to

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present findings with a more in-depth understanding about collaborative teacher leadership amid COVID-19. We, therefore, delved deep into the perceptions of the teachers to bring to the fore the rich, underlying tenets of collaborative teacher leadership. We hold the view that the knowledge gained may offer the reader an innovative understanding of the phenomenon under study and extra insight so that it can be applied to different school contexts.

4. Applying social constructivism as theoretical lens This paper was supported by a social-constructivist theory (SCT) because it involved the application of interpretive and naturalistic methods to interpret and intelligently think about phenomena in terms of understandings individuals assign to them (Pouliot, 2007). Human consciousness is seen as the result of a person’s social connections with significant persons (Kozulin, 1990). Individuals’ perceptions of reality are linked to their experiences which, in turn, are linked to individual communication in the social context. At the same time, the way in which individuals describe the social world has an impact on meaning creation because their interactions add to information about others and the creation of new knowledge. An application of social constructivism in this paper can thus be deemed relevant because teachers were afforded opportunities to share their perceptions about their involvement in collaborative efforts regarding teacher leadership amid COVID-19. Notably, nine participants from four different schools in the Pixley Ka Seme (PKS) district of the Northern Cape province in South Africa expressed their views on how they understood their own roles as teacher leaders, whilst starting to work towards collaborating with colleagues. We were cognizant that socially constructed realities should be regarded as ongoing because individuals act according to their own understanding of things (Thomas et al., 2014). Our focus was thus on the participants’ learning which took place because of their collaborations within a specific environment, that is, teacher leadership amid COVID-19. Social constructivism is thus a theory of learning that deals with the attainment of information regarding the lived experiences of individuals (Mogashoa, 2014). Of significance to this paper is the notion that social constructivism promotes problem solving and collaboration in order to construct meaningful knowledge.

5. Sampling and data collection tools This paper is the third research study that is part of a research project undertaken in Douglas schools in the Northern Cape province of South Africa. Douglas is a rural and agricultural town located close to the confluence of the Vaal and Orange Rivers. We visited four schools in Douglas to discuss our research projects with teachers and senior management team members. For this study, we purposively selected nine teachers, representing four schools (two primary and two secondary schools), to tell their stories about teacher leadership amid the COVID-19 pandemic. The selection of participants for this study was based on the view of Yin (2011) who claims that selected participants can bring richness and relevance of information in relation to a study’s research questions. Information-rich cases are those from which we can collect extensive data about the central matters of

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collaborative teacher leadership because such cases yield insights and in-depth understanding (Patton, 2015). We made use of email interviews to enable participants to share their perceptions about teacher leadership during the COVID-19 pandemic because email can be effectively used when conducting in-depth interviews (Meho, 2006) to generate rich qualitative data (Costello et al., 2017). Researchers are thus in a position to explore the thoughts, beliefs and feelings of the participants, whilst allowing individuals to identify those issues that have personal significance and meaning to them (Taylor, 1989, p. 52). Thus, using email interviews to capture the perceptions of the participants was more than just “look for and hear story” (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000, p. 78). Rather, the use of email interviews enabled the teachers’ involvement, and its asynchronicity made it easy for them to build storylines at a speed suitable to them, contrasting the controlled space and time they might have experienced in a telephonic or face-to-face interview (James, 2016). Email interviews offered the participants an approach of communication that give the selected participants the opportunity to consider their answers (Illingworth, 2006). Interestingly, our participants took the opportunity to think and talk about information regarding collaborative teacher leadership that might otherwise have continued to be silent and imperceptible. We, therefore, argue that email interviews were potentially enabling because they allowed participants to be in control of where, how and when they wanted to respond to the questions (Bowker & Tuffin, 2004). On the other hand, email interviews may equally be regarded as frustrating for researchers because of a lack of power over the sequential course of interviews. Fortunately, we agreed that our participants would respond to the email interview in their own time, allowing them to take authority of the process of sharing their perceptions regarding teacher leadership. Notably, the participants were eager to complete the email interviews and responded to us within a short period of time. Email interviews were useful, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, because asynchronous email interviewing allows continued engagement with research and provides participants with time to collect and articulate their thoughts, while concurrently ensuring the safety of both participants and researchers (Amri et al., 2021). On receipt of responses, participants were immediately de-identified, the responses were transferred to individual word documents (each with its own encryption codes) to ensure safety of the data. We then sorted the data before starting our process of analysis.

6. Data analysis We employed thematic analysis to analyze the perceptions of the participants. We were aware that while generating themes based on research data, thematic analysis was flexible, which could lead to inconsistency and contradiction (Holloway & Todres, 2003). To address the aforementioned disadvantage of thematic analysis, we kept records of the raw data which assisted us to systemize, relate, and cross-reference data (Halpren, 1983). This also helped to create a clear audit trail of the data we would be using. In this paper, thematic analysis helped to contextualize data, whilst it gave “the dimension of realism, authenticity,

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humanity, personality, emotions, views and values in a situation” (Chikoko, 2015, p. 91). Our analysis involved a summary of the data in terms of similar words, expressions, patterns or themes. We started by organizing and preparing the data. Data were organized into stories for each participant. In so doing, we were able to become acquainted with the data. According to Nieuwenhuis (2017), a worthy analysis depends on an understanding of the data. During this step, we transferred the content of the email interviews and summarized participants’ perceptions in their own words. The participants were indicated as T01 to T09, implying that there was nothing that could potentially make them identifiable. We read the data again and kept reflective notes which helped us to analytically consider insights and ideas as patterns became visible from the data (Pandey & Pandey, 2015). The coding procedure was the third stage in which the data was coded manually. Coding is defined as, “the process of reading carefully through your transcribed data, line by line, and dividing it into meaningful analytical units ... as marking the segments of data symbols, descriptive words or unique identifying names” (Nieuwenhuis, 2017, p. 116). We reviewed and re-read the narratives and took cognizance of all repetitive views, thoughts, and patterns. Guided by the aim of this paper, we recovered and produced all the codes that could be connected with teachers’ views regarding collaborative teacher leadership amid COVID-19. We coded repetitive words and fundamental words with the aim of grouping and linking trails for an easy interpretation of the data. We then categorized codes into a structure by building a main code list that helped us in making sense of the data (Nieuwenhuis, 2017). Codes were positioned into reliable groups and, for this paper, the nine teachers’ views which represented the codes the best, were grouped together for analysis. The codes were reduced to three main themes, namely: ausgang as a way of opening the door for collaboration; homo economicus as a collaborative act; and parrhesia as autonomy towards collaborative teacher leadership.

7. Findings and discussion To present the findings, we used codes T01 to T09 to recognize the participants. Significantly, the results align with contemporary research concerning the influence of COVID-19 on educational matters such as collaborative teacher leadership development. We, henceforth, propose the following culturally responsive leadership framework (CRLF) in support of our findings and subsequent discussion (Figure 1):

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Ausgang

Homo economicus

Parrhesia

escape from docility to steer collaboration

help the self with the aim to foster collaboration

create significance to own lives and that of others

Taking care of the self, whilst slowly starting initiatives to collaborate and share knowledge, whilst sustaining improvements in teacher leadership practices

Figure 1: Collaborative teacher leadership development framework (CTLDF)

7.1 Ausgang as a way of opening the door for collaboration COVID-19 has required teacher leaders to search for new meaning and purpose, an urge to become less docile, whilst reclaiming a connection with others in a significant manner. In such instance, teacher leaders may be looking for “an exit” or “a way out” (ausgang), taking a microscopic look at the roles they need to play to bring meaning to the school environment (De Klerk, 2014). We argue that ausgang (an exit or a way out) refers to teacher leaders’ ability to choose what actions are suitable to lead and then carry out those actions in an autonomous way. The three teachers (T01–T03) whose responses best represented views regarding ausgang, to escape from docility in their schools during COVID-19, responded as follows: “Teacher leaders should create a positive a learning environment for children to flourish in his own capacity, making it possible for a child to develop as an individual. Teacher leaders must be able to take charge, they have to step up and be extra vigilant. I am of opinion that whilst taking steps to improve the situation at school, we must find ways to work together with other teachers to set an example and to reach particular goals.” [T01] “I think that one should earn respect by starting to take charge of the challenges that we are facing. One can for instance start by being focused on the task at hand and then be available when others need you. I also think that it is important to start a supporting group to start working on a healthy learning environment which will be beneficial to all in future.” [T02] “Like in any business, the school is also a place where someone should take lead of things, to organize and to assist others. I think a way to start to be

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a leader is to be assertive in terms of what you want to do, to work with enthusiasm. Teacher leaders should then, when they take charge of themselves, strengthen the hands of other so that everybody can contribute to changes. So, from growing as an individual and then growing together is definitely something worthwhile to ensure a brighter future for the school environment, albeit challenges like the COVID-19 pandemic.” [T03] In terms of ausgang, indications such as “should create”, “take charge”, “step up” and “to start” signify that teachers have mastered knowledge about themselves and the meanings regarding teacher leadership. This implies that teacher leaders should take a stance to move away from the confines that a pandemic like COVID19 may bring. By making use of ausgang, teacher leaders would position themselves to take responsibility for who they are and what they can do. Arguably, if teacher leaders would examine their personal capacities, promote a mindfulness of their professional confines, but apply their minds, they would be able to move beyond the boundaries of any pandemic. By taking charge of the self, they may then be in a position to work in collaboration with others. This aligns with the literature review in this paper in that COVID-19 has encouraged teacher leaders to step up to become more inclusive, perceptive, vulnerable, sensitively capable of transformation, and thoughtful so that they may guide themselves whilst planning towards working collaboratively with others. At the same time this aligns with the theoretical framework in that the participants described the realities regarding their ausgang during COVID-19 and how they interacted with others towards stronger collaborative leadership in future. 7.2 Homo economicus as collaborative act Drawing on De Klerk (2014), homo economicus refers to free and autonomous beings who use opportunities to learn about the veiled self, to take care of the self and then to free the self from educational challenges that may arise. During such discovery, the homo economicus is regarded as an entrepreneur, an individual capable and responsible for taking care of the self. Thus, teacher leaders have to learn that to take a leap of faith may be significant in achieving sharper focus and effectiveness. The teachers (T04–T06) whose views could be closely aligned with the notion of homo economicus, are noted: “A teacher leader should take the lead in first and be an example and together with that is to make well-planned decisions. To help the self, teachers should participate in professional learning activities. Although my leadership role in our school is relatively small, I still regard it as important. I also collaborate and make plans for specific interventions and to give support and help.” [T04] “I regard it as important to have an idea what it is to help myself and how to grow before I can actually be of assistance to others. I think this is important because teacher leaders should have great leader qualities and an excellent work etiquette. We will then be able to serve others, see their needs and challenges and do something about it. This is what I call helping the self to help other.” [T05]

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“I want to start off to say that every teacher is a leader in their own class. Teachers should show their individual strength in the way they showcase their skills. To help yourself, teachers should be obliged to attend a leadership course, even if it is only to understand what leadership entails. During COVID-19 I argued that leaders should set the example to be in control of the self, whilst motivating others - this is a great way to ensure good collaboration with teachers in future. In so doing, I help myself and others to understand our shortcoming while working on improving ourselves.” [T06] The homo economicus takes care of the self and, derived from the participants’ responses, phrases like “lead in first”, “helping the self” and “control of the self” are clear examples of self-care. Arguably, when teacher leaders want to exercise self-care, they should question their own actions, interrogate their educational beliefs and objectives which would guide them as to what they should do and, consequently, what they should learn to lead from their experiences. In so doing, teacher leaders would deliberately assess their beliefs and explore ways to improve individual abilities, whilst finding transformative ways to nurture new roles and relationships. This may result in teachers becoming more approachable in terms of efforts to communicate, collaborative preparation as well as taking responsibility for contemporary leadership abilities to help the self, whilst creating opportunities towards collaborative growth. This aligns with the theoretical framework in this paper in that individuals should consider the thought that socially constructed realities should be regarded as ongoing, and individuals should, therefore, act on their interpretation and knowledge in terms of teacher leadership development. 7.3 Parrhesia as autonomy towards collaborative teacher leadership The purpose of parrhesia, besides directing oneself in an open and free manner, is to foster the construction of a contemporary and analytically thoughtful self (Foucault, 1983). When aligned with the COVID-19 pandemic, the aim of such construction would be to circumvent being held as a slave of the situation individuals find themselves in, but rather to attain mastery over the regulations posed upon them. The participants (T07–T09) expressed themselves in the following way: “In collaborating with other colleagues at the schools, may contribute to improvements becoming a reality. One should be goal-oriented, taking small steps at a time. One should, therefore, take a stance to be in control of your own practices and development – this will make it easier to work together with other colleagues.” [T07] “Teacher leaders should have courage, integrity, passion, positive attitude and a lot of commitment. They should draw on their individual strengths and abilities. In this way, helping one another, we can all grow professionally.” [T08] “Development of the self and others is very important. Remember, a motivated teacher is crucial to success in the classroom. I believe that teacher leaders who are in control of their practices, will also be able to

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share different teaching approaches, encourage each other to attend workshops based on teacher development and work as a team.” [T09] The participants’ responses reveal that they regard “an autonomous self” as important for teacher leadership development, whilst they also seemed to be prepared to work towards collaborating with colleagues. This is echoed in phrases such as “in control of your own practices”, “draw on their individual strengths” and “development of the self and others”. Arguably, to act on the notion of parrhesia, teacher leaders may become the authors of their individual leadership capacities and understandings where they create meaning in their personal lives and those of others without weakening the locus of the individual self. From the literature review in this paper it can be derived that autonomy is motivated by a necessity for individual and professional development, so that self-directed teacher leaders may seek out opportunities over the course of their careers to develop further, whilst being more ready to collaborate with others. This aligns with the theoretical framework in this paper in that teacher leaders were afforded the opportunity to describe their leadership abilities amid COVID-19 and how it has impacted on meaning creation because their interactions added to information about themselves and how they would like to see collaboration with others.

8. Conclusion The purpose of this paper was to analyze teacher perceptions with respect to their leadership abilities amid the COVID-19 pandemic, whilst also making suggestions for collaborative teacher leadership development. In lieu of an analysis of participants’ narratives, a CTLDF was proposed. The framework recommends that teacher leaders, in their endeavor to improve their leadership abilities, also make room for collaborative teacher leadership in future. Firstly, ausgang urges a move out of a state of docility to a deliberate effort to act upon the desire to collaborate with others to improve leadership in schools. Secondly, homo economicus suggests that teacher leaders should be innovative and responsive, whilst creating opportunities for collaborative growth. Thirdly, parrhesia notes that the teacher leaders should acknowledge that working towards collaboration may be a process and, therefore, they must prepare themselves to effectively collaborate with others. This paper supports earlier findings in the academic literature. For instance, Fairman and Mackenzie (2014) have discussed the significance of relationships, collaboration, collegiality and trust in supporting teacher leaders; development and school improvement. Their findings revealed that teacher leaders who perform duties as teacher leaders rarely saw their work as significant, whilst they acknowledged that working collaboratively had a greater impact on school improvement. Complementary to the aforementioned study, our study contributes to knowledge in that it proposes a CTLDF with innovative strategies which have not yet been associated with future teacher leadership development. Arguably, the CTLDF provides thoughts to accelerate progress in terms of collaborative teacher leadership development, whilst it foregrounds teacher leaders’ authority regarding collaborative efforts for professional growth.

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9. Limitations Although this paper is the third of a series as part of a research project at a university in South Africa, it only captured the narratives of nine teachers at four schools. In addition, it excluded the voices of senior management teams regarding their perceptions of teacher leadership.

10. Recommendations This paper recommends that senior management team members’ thoughts regarding teacher leadership development in schools should be put under the spotlight from a performative narrative point of view. We also recommend that action research be conducted to test the implementation of the proposed CTLDF in schools.

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Appendix 1 Email interview grid on teachers’ perceptions about teacher leadership Purpose of the study 1. 2. 3. 4.

6. 7.

8. 9. 10.

To apply transformative learning to invest in knowledge acquisition regarding teacher leadership in schools with specific reference to collaborative teacher leadership Why do you think, it is important that teachers are developed as teacher leaders in schools? In your opinion, wat are the contributions that teachers as leaders can make to education and the school environment in particular? How would you describe a teacher leader? Please elaborate on the specific characteristics you deem necessary that a teacher leader should possess. Why do you think it is important to motivate teachers to participate in professional learning activities? Would you regard it as fundamental? Please motivate. Can you tell me more about your leadership experience before and during the COVID-19 pandemic? Which duties were you entrusted with? Describe your reactions, fears, approaches etc. How will you demonstrate that you consistently listen to the people affected by your efforts? How would you as teacher leader collaborate with your colleagues to improve the learner academic achievement in your school? Please cite examples if possible. How would you assist a colleague who is having difficulty with his/her teaching? What would you consider to be some of the best methods to use to achieve the educational goals set by policy groups (e.g. department of education). Would you regard mentoring as a part of your responsibility as a professional teacher? Motivate why you say so.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 18-33, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.2 Received Nov 12, 2021; Revised Jan 25, 2022; Accepted Feb 7, 2022

Adopting Virtual Classes during the COVID-19 Lockdown: Interrogating New Approaches to Teaching and the Exclusion of Learners in Rural Settings Raphael Nhongo* North-West University, Mafikeng, South Africa Liqhwa Siziba North-West University, Mafikeng, South Africa

Abstract. A variety of instructional strategies were devised to ensure continuity in education during the COVID-19 lockdown. This paper interrogates the exclusion of learners in rural settings of Zimbabwe as a result of the methods of teaching that were adopted by the government during the COVID-19 lockdown. The paper seeks to answer the question; how are the strategies meant to ensure continuity in education during the lockdown excluding learners in rural settings? The strategies that were adopted by the government have been identified to be contributing to the exclusion of learners in rural settings. Data was collected through semistructured interviews from 20 teachers who teach in rural areas at two of Zimbabwe’s ten provinces. The interviews were done as a follow-up to the approaches of remote teaching adopted during the lockdown. The study argues that the adoption of uniform approaches to teaching and learning throughout the country during COVID-19 lockdown would not suffice as the functionality of each approach depends on the infrastructure and the economic conditions characteristic of each particular geographical location. The strategies adopted during the pandemic in a low-income country like Zimbabwe should not be permanent but should simply be an emergency response. Learners in rural settings are bound to be excluded in education during the pandemic if policymakers enact ‘one size fits all’ approaches meant for abrupt implementation. Strategies that suit the idea of emergency remote teaching during the pandemic are the most favourable. Keywords: COVID-19; virtual classroom; exclusion; lockdown; rural settings

Corresponding author: Raphael Nhongo, raphaelnhongo@gmail.com

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non-commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

1. Introduction For education to continue in schools during the COVID-19 lockdown, various measures were suggested with some taking effect and some remaining as proposals. The proposed actions were to facilitate instruction through online classrooms, to deliver lessons via radio and also to have the lessons conducted via social media, specifically WhatsApp. However, the implementation of these teaching and learning approaches in Zimbabwe’s schools were associated with several challenges. Such challenges included unfamiliarity with Information and Communication Technology (ICT), access to gadgets for sending and receiving lessons, network accessibility, availability of electricity and affordability of data to access the information. However, in noticing these shortcomings, the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MPSE) proposed the use of radio in lessons delivery for primary and secondary school learners in addition to online classrooms. The MPSE also identified learners in rural settings as the ones facing more challenges and there was a need therefore, to also avail hard copies of lessons broadcast on radio. In a live broadcast interview on South African television station, SABC 1 on 04 May 2020, James Elder, the representative for United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) in Southern Africa outlined a strategy by his organisation to negotiate with governments in his jurisdiction to support and implement the use of radio for conducting lessons during the COVID-19 induced school closures. The paper looks at how remote teaching excludes learners in rural settings of Zimbabwe, specifically those in the southern parts of the country in Matabeleland North and Matabeleland South provinces. UNICEF has observed that in Eastern and Southern Africa, internet accessibility is constrained as only one in five (22%) households have access to the internet. In comparison, 84% of the rural people, where the majority of learners reside, have no access to electricity (UNICEF, 2020). Most rural communities in Zimbabwe are underserved or unserved at all concerning radio signals (Barakabitze et al., 2019; Gwaka et al., 2018; Sunil, 2021). Because of the challenges related to limited or no internet connectivity and radio signal in rural areas, it is therefore prudent to investigate the exclusion of rural learners in education during the COVID-19 induced lockdown. The study analyses the approaches that were proposed and adopted in Zimbabwe with the main focus being to outline how remote teaching excludes learners in rural communities. This study shows that learners in rural areas continue to be excluded in remote teaching during the COVID-19 lockdown because the MPSE did not consider the state of ICT infrastructure and the economic conditions in rural settings as compared to urban areas. Predecessor studies have recommended online teaching as the most immediate solution for ensuring continuity in education during a crisis. However, this study suggests that before the adoption of any remote teaching and instructional strategy, a pre-assessment of available resources is required. The paper also advocates for the adoption of varied instructional strategies informed by the state of ICT infrastructure and the prevailing economic conditions. The discussion begins by looking at experiences of China and South Africa in ensuring continuity in education during school closures.

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2. New Instructional Approaches during the Covid-19 Induced School Closures The COVID-19 induced school closures have been more serious because they affected all schools in the world, unlike during other pandemics where education in specific countries was affected. The 1918 influenza pandemic which had devastating effects stretching from 1918 to 1919 took the lives of 50 to 100 million people worldwide (Gallo & Trompetto, 2020; King & Londrigan, 2021; Krishnan et al., 2020; Liang et al., 2021; Owusu-Fordjour, Koomson, Hanson, 2020; Psacharopoulos et al., 2020). It has been proven that the 1918 influenza was more deadly than the COVID-19 pandemic (King & Londrigan, 2021; Lee & Rhee, 2021; Liang et al., 2021; Scarpa et al., 2020; Yamin, 2020). Yamin (2020) points out that historically, the first corona virus surfaced in 1965 with symptoms of common cold and thereafter, five different strands of this virus emerged. Before COVID19, the most severe of these viruses was the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), which infected about eight thousand people and took the lives of around 800 (Yamin, 2020). At the end of 2002, China implemented a variety of measures including stopping face-to-face instruction in some parts of the country to curtail the spread of SARS (Cauchemez et al., 2014; Huang et al., 2020). Similarly, in 2009, the outbreak of H1N1 Flu did not spare the education sector in countries that include China, Italy, Serbia, New Zealand, Thailand, and United States (Cauchemez et al., 2014; Huang et al., 2020). The closure of schools as a result of H1N1 Flu was shorter than the time that it has taken with COVID-19 so far. Governments, worldwide implemented school closures as a way of controlling the spread of COVID-19 in early 2020 (Burzynska & Contreras, 2020; Viner et al., 2020). History shows that the only time that Zimbabwe closed schools was from 1977 to 1980 as a result of the liberation struggle (Kriger, 1988; Nhongo & Tshotsho, 2021). It is vital to begin by looking at the experiences of other countries to understand how they adopted new approaches to ensure continuity in education during the COVID-19 induced lockdown. China’s experience is particularly essential for this study, as some of its methods and approaches were used to analyse those adopted by Zimbabwe. South Africa’s lessons were also reviewed to make a pre-exposure of the challenges that result in the exclusion of rural learners. There is strong evidence shared worldwide which suggests that the first cases of COVID-19 were detected in the Chinese city of Wuhan, also identified as the epicentre of the pandemic before it spread to other parts of China and the rest of the world. China was the first nation worldwide to provide remote instruction to hundreds of millions of learners during the COVID-19 pandemic (Huang et al., 2020). The government of China initiated many emergency strategies for managing COVID-19. These included social distancing and the subsequent closing of schools (McAleer, 2020; Wang et al., 2020). The government of China launched the “Disrupted Classes, Undisrupted Learning” plan (Huang et al, 2020) also referred to as the “Suspending Classes Without Stopping Learning” strategy (Zhang et al., 2020). This plan was meant to ensure continuity in education during the lockdown period by providing easily accessible online education to above 270 million learners from home (Huang et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). While the two concepts, “Disrupted Classes, Undisrupted Learning” and “Suspending Classes

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Without Stopping Learning” carry the same meaning, the variation in terminology could most probably be explained in terms of the approaches that were involved in Chinese-English translation. In implementing teaching and learning through the “Suspending Classes Without Stopping Learning” strategy (Zhang et al., 2020) or “Disrupted Classes, Undisrupted Learning” (Huang et al., 2020), the government of China took five steps to implement the plan: 1. The government of China made efforts in implementing the provision of reliable network. The Education Ministry and several telecom operators worked together in developing the online teaching platforms. China approved 37 organisations and internet providers to provide online educational platforms. 2. Training of teachers. China’s department of education got seriously involved in training and preparing teachers for online instruction. Localised training of teachers was also organised by the schools in complementing the government’s initiative. 3. It was enabling schools and local authorities to provide online instruction with available resources. To ensure accessibility of knowledge and resources to all learners, particularly those in rural areas, China used satellite television receivers to reach out to those without internet coverage. 4. It was formulating plans for preparing learners for post-COVID return to school. The development of courses that taught learners about the pandemic was initiated. 5. It was working on guidelines for school reopening after the pandemic. The government put in place a plan to have schools opening in a staggered manner (Zhang et al., 2020). The plan adopted by China could be adopted by other countries, including Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is characterised by network problems as will be shown in the discussions. These challenges end up being a potential to exclude learners in areas with network problems. There is need therefore, for the government to engage various network providers such as Econet, Netone, Telecel and Powertel to avail affordable data packages and also partner with the government in improving ICT infrastructure. As of 23 May 2020, South Africa was the hardest hit African country with 21,343 cases of COVID-19, followed by Algeria with 8,308 cases, and Lesotho being the least affected with only 1 case. South Africa adopted a variety of measures to ensure continuity in education during the lockdown, and those measures were dominated by online teaching and learning just like China and other countries in the world. Dube (2020) reflected on the problems faced by learners in rural settings in South Africa during the COVID-19 lockdown. Dube (2020) was looking at problems faced by learners in the adoption of new approaches to teaching, while the current study is looking at how similar problems result in the exclusion of learners in rural settings. However, this study is similar to the one done by Dube (2020) in that they both reflect on problems faced in rural settings in the

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education sector during the COVID-19 lockdown. Dube (2020) argues that learners in rural settings face unprecedented problems in transitioning to a ‘new normal’ in education. Similarly, Mahlaba (2020) highlights the importance of selfdirected learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Ramrathan (2020) focused on the South African education during the COVID-19 pandemic and argued for a curriculum that is relevant and responsive to the issues and challenges of the country within a global world. While the South African government is promoting online education as the only option during COVID-19, this model excludes the bulk of learners in rural settings from accessing education, due to a lack of devices to access the internet and low-tech software (Dube, 2020). In addition to the challenges faced by learners, Dube (2020) also focused on the exclusion of rural leaners in South Africa. Molise and Dube (2020) note that emergency online teaching (EOT) was adopted in South Africa during COVID-19 school closures as a way of ensuring continuity in education. The idea behind the adoption of EOT was informed by the realisation that some teachers were incompetent in ICT, while others were inexperienced, all this in addition to poor internet connectivity (Molise & Dube, 2020; Mukuna & Aloka, 2020). The results of their study revealed that EOT is desirable and doable, especially in rural schools. The implementation of online teaching has not been without challenges in many countries around the world. Al-Naabi and Al-Abri (2021) did a cross-sectional survey where they wanted to hear the perceptions of teachers about the implementation of ERT during the COVID-19 lockdown at Omani higher education. The findings of their study indicated that teachers’ academic qualifications and prior experience influenced the success of e-learning practices. A similar study was carried out by Batac et al. (2021) who looked at teachers’ perceptions, experiences and insights in using blended learning during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines. In using blended learning, the teachers experienced challenges such as readiness, technology literacy, financial difficulties, health risks and access to technology (Batac et al., 2021). Alghamdi and Al-Ghamdi (2021) researched on elementary teachers’ thoughts about distance education and learning twenty-first century skills during COVID-19 pandemic. The results of the study showed that the research participants were for the idea of transformation of knowledge and resources used in teaching and learning in the modern era (Alghamdi & Al-Ghamdi, 2021). The current study investigates challenges that are faced in implementing ERT in rural schools.

3. Emergency Remote Teaching as an Ideal Strategy The arguments raised in this paper are guided by emergency remote teaching (ERT) as a conceptual idea. According to Hodges et al. (2020), ERT entails temporarily shifting from the usual instructional method to the adoption of educational support that is reliable, instant and manageable. ERT is temporary but requires the use of different strategies and priorities from those of traditional face-to-face teaching (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). The main feature of ERT is that it uses fully remote instructional strategies that is normally delivered face-to-face, that would return to the traditional format once the pandemic is over (Hodges et al. 2020). ERT does not necessarily require a recreation of a robust educational

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system, but it involves the promotion of temporary access to instruction through the use of readily available resources and infrastructure. ERT does not require expensive and complex intervention strategies but it simply utilises readily available, affordable and accessible resources. Although online teaching can be part of ERT, where ICT infrastructure is developed, it should be noted that it is not always the case that online teaching can be ERT especially in developing countries like Zimbabwe where there is poor ICT infrastructure. According to Aguliera and Nightengale-Lee (2020), ERT can be distinguished from online teaching in that ERT is an abrupt shift from classroom based instruction and accommodates strategies that do not require too much planning. ERT should not be labelled as online teaching considering existing and known diversity in educational approaches (Talidong, 2020). Designing a robust online learning curriculum and putting up adequate ICT infrastructure would take time before it can be operational to enable learners to access instructional material (Toquero, 2020). Zimbabwe is in a ‘crisis within a crisis’ because while it is facing the COVID-19 pandemic, it is at the same time experiencing serious economic hardships. Trying to set up online teaching as a strategy for providing instruction across the country during the COVID-19 school closures would remain a pipe dream in Zimbabwe. ERT affords educators freedom and flexibility to choose from a variety of instructional options in the midst of a crisis (Toquero, 2020). The study uses ERT as an approach to show that the strategies for ensuring continuity in teaching and learning in Zimbabwe require consideration of accessibility, availability and affordability of resources to be used. ERT requires pre-assessment of available resources so that there is minimal disruption to continuity in teaching and learning during school closures. We use ERT here to assess the three strategies which are online teaching, teaching through radio, and the use of WhatsApp; and to reveal how the adoption of these strategies excluded and included learners from rural settings in Zimbabwe.

4. Methodology In pursuit of unravelling how the new instructional approaches excluded learners from rural settings, a qualitative phenomenological research design was used. The paper looks at how the three instructional strategies for remote teaching that Zimbabwe adopted during the COVID-19 lockdown resulted in the exclusion of learners in rural settings. The phenomenological design requires that interviews be employed in order to understand human experiences (Creswell, 2017). Semistructured interviews with 20 teachers from 20 schools in Matabeleland South and Matabeleland North provinces in Zimbabwe were conducted. The semistructured interviews were conducted with teachers from both primary and secondary schools on how the new approaches to teaching and learning as a response to the COVID-19 lockdown excluded or had the potential to disadvantage rural learners. The strategies that were identified to be in use included online teaching, the radio and WhatsApp. All these approaches excluded rural learners in a variety of ways, the major challenge being that of spontaneously devising and implementing the new strategies.

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The 20 teachers were interviewed through WhatsApp and phone calls depending on the channel preferred by the research participant. These methods were used because the interviews were conducted during the COVID-19 lockdown when movements were restricted. The major criteria for selecting teachers was that they taught at a rural school that falls in either Matabeleland South or Matabeleland North. These research participants were selected through purposeful sampling and snowball sampling. Purposeful sampling sometimes referred to as judgemental sampling is where research participants are selected because they have specific characteristics that are ideal for the research (Vehovar et al., 2016). Snowball sampling is where research participants with similar characteristics create a network that makes it ideal for the researcher to identify them (Vehovar et al., 2016). Although a total of 20 teachers were interviewed, the data presented came from only 12 teachers since they are the ones that provided data which is suitable for this paper. As an ethical procedure, the real names of research participants were not used in data presentation and discussion, but rather, pseudonyms were used. Table 1 below shows the pseudonyms that were used to anonymise the research participants. Clearance was sought from MPSE before interviewing the teachers. The data gathered from the research participants was destroyed soon after the publication of this paper. Table 1: Pseudonyms for research participants CODE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

PSEUDONYM Slie Sibo Nana Mpue Daisy Nothando Mamba Talan Tawa Mpo Nicky Angy

5. Exclusion of Rural Learners through Remote Teaching The approaches that have been adopted in teaching and learning as a response to COVID-19 lockdown call for remote instruction. Hodges et al. (2020) note that researchers in educational technology have referred to the types of modes of education that fall under remote teaching as distance learning, distributed learning, blended learning, online learning and mobile learning. However, Hodges et al. (2020) proposed “emergency remote teaching” to refer to instructional methods of delivery during the pandemic. 5.1 Online Learning Online learning can take place in synchronous or asynchronous situations using a variety of ICT devices such as mobile phones, tablets, laptops and desktops with

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internet access. Synchronous learning is a more structured instructional method where the subjects take place in real-time in live virtual classroom settings (Casey et al., 2018). In asynchronous classes, students cannot get feedback instantly and instructional material is not provided in real-time classes, but on different learning management platforms (Casey et al., 2018). The MPSE of Zimbabwe recommended the adoption of the use of a platform called Ruzivo as a way of providing instruction to learners during the COVID-19 lockdown. Ruzivo is a subsidiary of Higherlife Foundation and works in partnership with the MPSE (Ruzivo, 2020). It is an online instructional platform targeting both primary and secondary school learners (Ruzivo, 2019). Ruzivo was not established as an emergency remote teaching platform to cater for education during the COVID-19 lockdown, but it was set up through Higherlife Foundation in 2019. Higherlife Foundation’s mandate is to uplift education from the grassroots up to tertiary level without excluding learners from rural settings (Ruzivo, 2019). Ruzivo is learner-centred, and knowledge is personalised, allowing each learner to work at their own pace without their teacher and get immediate feedback on completed exercises. Although this platform was designed to reach out to learners in rural areas, the same learners whom it was intended for are excluded because it requires internet for one to use it. Both the internet and the devices to access Ruzivo are not readily available in rural areas, rendering this platform a preserve of a very few learners in rural settings. For online learning to take place, learners require gadgets such as smartphones, tablets, laptops or desktops. They also need internet access, data and electricity. However, all these materials and services are not easily accessible to rural learners since the majority of them come from disadvantaged backgrounds. The teachers indicated that learners in rural areas could not afford to buy devices for accessing learning material online. Slie, indicated that “relevant gadgets in rural areas are the old model type of cell phones, few have smartphones, cost and maintenance of these gadgets is also high”. On the other hand, Sibo registered her observation that “Some learners do not have the gadgets for online teaching like phones and laptops. Parents do not have money to buy the gadgets”. Mpue, said “Computers are available at the school but learners do not have access to the school because of the lockdown, so they remain excluded in online learning”. Nana’s opinion was that “Some people in rural areas do not have smartphones and data is expensive plus with this COVID-19, movements are limited hence no helping hands from the neighbours”. These observations by teachers indicate that learners in rural settings are excluded from online learning because they do not have devices to access online classes. The unavailability of mobile network and electricity to power the devices also play a massive role in the exclusion of learners from online teaching in rural settings. To this end, Daisy noted that: In Beitbridge West, Zimbabwe’s network is a challenge. In most areas such as Dombo, Madali, Mtangamchena, Masera, Toporo there is no network at all. Shashe also has no network at all...Parents are relying on South African networks which at times cut off, hence online learning might be a challenge to the rural child.

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Nothando gave the following detailed account: Online teaching can be a great challenge to rural schools. Let’s consider schools like Gomoza Primary where there is no electricity. For instance, there is an NGO called Profoture, which donated ICT gadgets such as tablets, laptops and projectors. They wanted to ensure that the school embraces technology in all aspects, but we are failing to make use of those gadgets because we don't have electricity. Moreover, there is a network problem at Gomoza, so doing online teaching can also be a challenge as it requires one to have network access. Learners in Gomoza are also ICT illiterate since they have less exposure to ICT tools. Learners can't even do simple things such as switching on a smartphone because they are rarely exposed to smartphones, so online learning can be challenging. Mamba said: Online teaching is a real challenge to most rural areas. For example, in Gokwe South, schools like Kasuwe, Ngani, Manyoni, Chamatendera, Huchu, Masosoni and Chireya Simuchembu 1 and 2 in Gokwe North just to mention a few have no electricity. Sibo put it in the following words: There is no network coverage in this area. We use Botswana network Mascom and Orange, whose airtime and data are expensive to buy using Pula. Most learners are not computer or ICT literate. The network can only be accessed at specific locations and one has to go to that point to access what material online. Talan from Matabeleland South revealed that: Poor network and the unavailability of mobile network services are some of the challenge faced. Some places still do not have viable network system and if it’s to be done online, those on the digital divide won’t access the lessons. In Silozwe network is so poor such that one cannot even open google. So online education will be for those with, then those without network. Access to network will only be for those with gadgets and money, meaning online education is only going to embrace the elite mostly and ignore the plight of the poor and those on the digital divide. The problems of network availability and access to electricity coupled with lack of knowledge of the use of ICT tools exclude rural learners from online instruction. It was also pointed out that in areas where mobile network is available, learners can still be excluded from online learning because they cannot afford mobile data. The teachers indicated that parents and guardians whom learners depend on for financial support were caught unprepared by the closures of schools and therefore had no money to buy data to support online learning. Zimbabwe is facing an economic crisis, and the people in the rural areas who are dependent on subsistence farming are the hardest hit after the country received poor rainfall during the 2019-2020 farming season. Tawa revealed that:

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Most parents in Vulindlela in Ward 16 are dependent on peasant farming for their survival. So the absence of rain affected their produce heavily meaning that whatever they got will be channelled towards basic commodities. Online teaching will be a difficult thing to implement since no resources will be channelled towards its implementation. Echoing the same sentiments, Angy retorted that: Even though some are on a viable network and have phones, they still won’t manage to access online lessons because of unaffordability of data. Most Zimbabweans are poor, and parents won’t sacrifice the little they earn for their children to be online, they would rather chase the expensive basic commodities. Furthermore, the Silozwe community relies on selling craftwork to tourists, and lockdown means no tourist visits and no means of income to parents. What exacerbates the situation is the frequent and ad hoc upward review of data prices. For instance, on the 5th of May in 2020, in the midst of a hard lockdown, mobile network operators hiked the price of data bundles by up to 225% (“Econet raises data”, 2020). Online learning has been confused with ERT, and that is the reason why it is challenging to implement it during the COVID-19 crisis in Zimbabwe. Online learning excludes learners in rural settings because it is applied under conditions and in contexts it is not suited. Policymakers opt for the implementation of policies in a ‘one size fits all’ approach throughout the whole country, yet some contexts require tailor made approaches specific to their unique conditions. This preferred approach results in some of these strategies not getting operationalised especially in contexts where they are not well suited. The MPSE, as an arm of government has to consider the extent to which the ICT infrastructure is developed in the rural areas before settling for online teaching as a nationwide strategy. ERT would not consider online teaching as a possible strategy in rural settings because the available ICT infrastructure is underdeveloped. Aguliera and Nightengale-Lee (2020) argue that marginalised communities in rural areas need to be afforded ERT that utilises readily available resources. In rural areas where ICT infrastructure is poor, there is need to consider other instructional strategies that are not necessarily online teaching. 5.2 Learning through Radio Although most rural areas have no access to the internet, some of them do have access to a radio signal. In realising that learners in rural areas were going to be excluded if online teaching was to be taken as the only approach in delivering instruction during the lockdown, the government of Zimbabwe proposed the broadcasting of lessons through the radio. To cater for those without radio receivers, it was suggested that learners from rural schools be availed with hard copies of lessons broadcast on radio. The government through MPSE revealed that it had reached an agreement with Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation (ZBC) to have lessons delivered through radio (Gono, 2020). It was also revealed that printed material to complement radio lessons was going to be distributed to

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those areas without radio signal (Gono, 2020). However, it was not clear when exactly the airing of lessons on the radio would start. UNICEF also pledged to provide assistance to governments in Southern Africa to capacitate them for the implementation and dissemination of lessons through radio (UNICEF, 2020). UNICEF also assured Zimbabwe that those learners who have no access to radio signal would benefit from printed material (UNICEF, 2020). The efforts made by UNICEF are the same as those proposed by the government of Zimbabwe which shows that Zimbabwe is banking on the teaching and learning programmes that are rolled out by UNICEF. The teachers also concurred that radio was the best platform for delivering lessons because learners without receivers can substitute them with simple, and cheap cell phones as radio receivers. The teachers noted that although lesson delivery through radio had several advantages, it also had its own disadvantages. For instance, Mpo observed thus: The option by the government to offer lessons through the radio is much better but in our case as it is in other neighboring schools, this is again a non-starter. Yes, almost every home has a radio but just for playing recorded music as the channels are unreachable as well. The FM radio stations are only better accessible when one is on top of a mountain. Then the question is, how many times will a person climb a mountain to get access to radio signal? Nicky, the head of one of the schools said: I am the head of the school and my home is closer to the school but I have not received any teaching or lessons material. I only read about it in the newspapers where the minister was talking about areas like ours where there are no radio waves. We are still waiting for those booklets maybe they will come one day. The other challenge was that there was going to be limited time for interactive engagement between learners and instructors for further explanations and clarifications. Learners in rural areas could be excluded in that they may not have access to a network to make calls for clarification and airtime cost remains a severe challenge for them. Odera (2011) observes that radio is one of the most effective and affordable educational technologies available in developing countries in Africa. When considering, ERT, radio sounds as the best option for rural settings but the challenge is that some areas do not have radio signal while some learners do not have access to radio receivers. 5.3 WhatsApp as a Learning Platform Despite being familiar and accessible to many even in rural areas, WhatsApp is treated with scepticism as a formal learning platform that can compete with online teaching and traditional face-to-face method. Although teachers have always been discouraged from using social media as a teaching platform, WhatsApp has however, gained popularity as an instructional method during the lockdown. As our societies move towards advancements in information sharing, education is one area that faces challenges in making sense of this transition (Ostashewski &

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Reid, 2013). The teachers who were interviewed particularly those teaching examination classes reported that they never stopped teaching upon school closures as they continued engaging with learners through WhatsApp. The teachers mentioned that although WhatsApp was not a formal instructional method, it was however, more effective than all the other methods of remote teaching. There is a need to explore ways in which WhatsApp can be formalised as an acceptable platform for teaching and learning since it is easily accessible. While WhatsApp has proven to be more convenient than other platforms that require internet, it should, however, be borne in mind that some rural areas still have no mobile network coverage. It has to be noted again that in rural areas, not all learners can afford smartphones that are compatible with the WhatsApp application. The teachers said that although WhatsApp was a convenient method for instruction and lesson delivery, its major challenge was mobile network accessibility, affordability of data and access to smartphones. Mpo said: Although WhatsApp is a very effective way, network coverage is the greatest barrier. It may be faster in reaching the learners but there is no reliable network coverage. Another impediment is the cost of bundles. With our school and other surrounding areas, people depend on farming. This year there is drought and therefore people have no money. The challenge with WhatsApp is that learners can abuse it by engaging in mischievous activities during online lessons. Cetinkaya (2017) suggests that educators have to be cautious when engaging learners through WhatsApp as studies have shown that learners’ attention is diverted from learning to other issues that extend beyond academic scope. While WhatsApp can qualify as an effective ERT method, it has to be complemented by other instructional strategies so that all learners are accommodated. ERT calls for use of a variety of instructional strategies instead of sticking to only one. Today’s learners are inquisitive as they would want to communicate instantly, as such, WhatsApp has become one of the most popular mobile phone applications that allows for more spontaneous engagement between learners and their teachers (Mistar & Embi, 2016). Learners in rural areas can benefit from WhatsApp as an ERT strategy if issues of accessibility and affordability are taken into consideration.

6. Recommendations The government of Zimbabwe needs to pursue diversified approaches towards implementing ERT instead of adopting a homogenous approach for the delivery of lessons in an environment characterised by variations in infrastructural and economic conditions. Strategies designed for continuity in teaching during the COVID-19 lockdown should not be taken as a permanent measure but as emergency measures that need to be implemented with speed. What is essential is having the same content delivered to learners at the same level throughout the country but not necessarily through the same modes or same approaches. Zimbabwe needs to begin by rolling out a comprehensive strategy on remote teaching. Such a strategy should include a variety of options that suit different

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conditions. In doing this, the government should partner with other relevant organisations such as mobile network service providers that include Econet, Netone, Telecel and Powertel, among others. These mobile network service providers should partner government and work towards improving and expanding network coverage throughout the country. Private and public broadcasters should also work with government and NGOs to boost signal coverage and strength in remote areas including those that previously had no radio signal. Free online textbooks and other teaching materials must be compiled by publishing companies in collaboration with the MPSE. An extra subject focusing on COVID-19 could also be added to the curriculum. Such a subject should also be taught remotely. This subject can be named “Life and Health” and should be intended to prepare learners for the opening of schools after the lockdown. Above all, Zimbabwe should draw most of its lessons from China’s experiences of conducting learning during COVID-19 lockdown, where a variety of ERT strategies were employed to include learners across all corners of the country. Further research needs to be conducted on how ERT could be adopted in the teaching and learning of technical subjects such as linguistics, particularly phonetics and those that require practical instruction such as chemistry, physics, wood technology, technical graphics and agriculture among others. Research also needs to be carried out on the possibilities of making blended instruction to be a norm in the post-COVID-19 era.

7. Conclusions The ‘one size fits all’ approach by the government of Zimbabwe in teaching and learning has resulted in the exclusion of the majority of learners in rural settings. In most public schools in rural areas, teaching and learning has not been taking place at all because the government has been trying to adopt a uniform approach for the whole country regardless of different ICT infrastructure and economic conditions in different geographical settings. The tendency to try and deliver lessons through the same mode or approach throughout the country has resulted in government’s failure to implement teaching and learning during the COVID19 lockdown. The fear by the government to exclude learners in rural settings because of trying to adopt uniform strategies throughout the country resulted in teaching and learning not taking place at all. The major problem is that the government has been trying to implement permanent approaches to teaching, yet what is required is a simple ERT strategy. Failure to have active learning taking place in the country has resulted in the government pushing for the opening of schools at a time when the country has not yet achieved the WHO set standards for the resumption of face-to–face teaching and learning.

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Ruzivo, (2019). Smart Learning Bringing 21st Century to Zimbabwe. https://www.higherlifefoundation.com/ruzivo-smart-learning-bringing-21stcentury-learning-to-zimbabwe/ Scarpa, R., Caso, F., Costa, L., Passavanti, S., Vitale, M. G., Trojaniello C., Puente, A. D., & Ascierto, P. A. (2020). May the analysis of 1918 influenza pandemic give hints to imagine the possible magnitude of corona virus disease-2019 (COVID-19)? Journal of Translational Medicine, 18(489). https://doi.org/10.1186/512967-02002673-6 Sunil, B. (2021). Community radio as an agent of social change: A comparative study of Sangam and Namma Dhwani. Lulu Publication. Talidong, K. J. B. (2020). Implementation of emergency remote teaching (ERT) among Philippine teachers in Xi’an, China. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 196201. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3881825 Toquero, C. M. D. (2020). Emergency remote teaching amid COVID-19: The turning point. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 185-188. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3881784 United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund. (2020). Schools Remain Locked for more than 127 Million Children in Eastern and Southern Africa [Press release]. https://www.unicef.org/esa/press-releases/schools-remain-locked-more-127million-children-eastern-and-southern-africa Viner, R. M., Russell, S. J., Croker, H., Packer, J., Ward, J., Stansfield, C., Mytton, O., Bonell, C., & Booy, R. (2020). School closure and management practices during coronavirus outbreaks including COVID-19: A rapid systematic review. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 4(5), 397-404. https://doi.org/10.1016/S23524642(20)30095-X Vehovah, V., Toepoel, V., & Steinmetz, S. (2016). Non-probability sampling. In C. Wolf, D. Joye, T. W. Smith, & Y. Fu (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Survey Methodology (pp. 329-345). SAGE Publications Limited. Wang, C., Cheng, Z., Yue X. G., & McAleer, M. (2020). Risk management of COVID-19 by universities in China. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 13(36). https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13020036 Yamin, M. (2020). Counting the cost of COVID-19. International Journal of Information Technology, 12, 311-317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41870-020-00466-0 Zhang, W., Wang, Y., Yang, L., & Wang, C. (2020). Suspending classes without stopping learning: China’s education management policy in the COVID-19 outbreak. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 13(55), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13030055

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 34-48, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.3 Received Dec 31, 2021; Revised Feb 8, 2022; Accepted Feb 13, 2022

Effects of a Neuroscience-Based Instructional Guide on College Student Learning Rosario Mireya Romero Parra Universidad Continental, Lima, Perú Luis Andres Barboza Arenas Universidad Tecnológica del Perú, Perú Lorena C. Espina-Romero Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola (USIL), Lima, Perú Eduardo Jesús Garcés Rosendo Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Perú Carlos Hernán Rodríguez Ángeles Universidad Tecnológica del Perú, Perú

Abstract. The article aims to demonstrate the impact of neuroscience as an instructional strategy on student learning. This was an experimental research with a pre-experimental design that used a sample of 60 students on the Mathematics 1.0 course of the first cycle of the Continental University in the Academic period II - 2021. Significant contrasts were found between the results obtained before and after the application of the designed instructional guide, since the T value obtained is related with a significance level lower than 0.01, confirming the research hypothesis. When evaluating the effect of the application of the instructional guide with neuroscience as a strategy, it is shown to favorably affect the learning of students of the Mathematics 1.0 course of the first cycle of the Continental University, strengthening the entire learning process so that these can become meaningful. Therefore, it is recommended to continue implementing the instructional guide in all higher education courses without being limited to a single course as in the present study, as well as continue researching on the subject with larger samples. Keywords: learning; instructional strategy; Neuroscience; Neuro-Linguistic Programming

brain

gymnastic;

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution -NoNcomercial-Noderivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

1. Introduction Experience indicates that there is no teaching scheme, so each teacher transforms their methods, techniques, and adequate resources to initiate the instructional process in order to self-evaluate and self-observe their own educational experience (Romero, 2020). Therefore, the techniques and methods applied in the training of students must be based on the analysis of institutional reality and the search for reflection. This is focused on the numerous theories of learning with the purpose of linking knowledge with experience (Carvajal, 2020; Falconi et al., 2018). The above admits that visualization involves all students in an educational institution and produces the construction of university prototypes as transformative axes of educational practice. In this sense, the teachers must create strategies that benefit the effective approach of the students towards the essence of learning, thus contributing to the establishment of a spiritual and emotional environment to allow for efficient learning (Batac et al., 2021; Fuchs, 2021; Owusu & Cobbold, 2020). However, many times teachers discuss constructivism, and these become specialist exhibitors in the content, succumbing to the traditional and ineffective factors of knowledge. In addition, according to Jara et al. (2021) a training program should be designed with actions that facilitate the production of timely discernment for teachers with the possibility of renewing their daily practice by creating innovations and educational proposals to promote meaningful learning in their students, with the use of neuroscience as a basis. Given this approach, it remains to be established that the performance of the educator in the training of future professionals must expand on NLP and brain gymnastics in any academic event as basic strategies, since this process is founded on communication and provides the opportunity to understand the foundation of feelings and thoughts. In addition, this will create the possibility of taking advantage of particular and external skills in order to create positive transformations that contribute to the advancement of more effective and timely learning to current socio-educational contexts (Tacca et al., 2019). Likewise, Romero et al. (2021) express that NLP and brain gymnastics seek to understand that the individual experiences their realization through taking into account their autonomy. This benefits an individual as it allows them to understand the way each individual organizes their experience, both intrinsically and in relation to others in the environment where they develop. This is to favor in a particular way the achievement of triumph in the activities is developed. This is also to optimize the profile of oneself through self-acceptance, by producing transformations to increase particular skills for the achievement of learning (Jackman, 2018; Yusof et al., 2021). In addition, NLP determines the extent to which a person has the power to achieve better results through the progress of the triune brain (Cruz et al., 2021; Vanga & Fernandez, 2016). At the same time, it trains internal and external communication to understand the discrepancy between excellence and pettiness. Thus, this contributes to the provision of new behaviors and the change of ineffective

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behaviors. At the same time, brain gymnastic exercises incite information and the energy current in the brain by promoting the student's ability to learn. On the other hand, brain gymnastics, according to Gardner (2020), reinforce the achievement of communication between the body and the brain, which represents an exclusion of the stresses in the body by displacing the blocked energy to allow this energy to circulate easily. For this reason, training with corporal and mental actions is necessary in the educational field for the development of skills that lead to the neuroplasticity of the brain (Cordero & Rivera, 2020; Segarra et al., 2015). On the other hand, according to Orozco et al. (2015), the conflicts that arise in the training of students are due to the fact that, in schools, as in homes, the development of both cerebral hemispheres is not prioritized, which creates uncreative individuals who do not achieve their goals. Therefore, to promote talents, skills, and to reduce harmful habits – including repercussions such as decreasing stress, strengthening the immune system, mastering feelings, increasing creativity, and obtaining positive thoughts – it is significant to use both cerebral hemispheres to enjoy their full utility (Valerio et al., 2016). Likewise, neuroscience-based strategies are applied today in Western countries in the preparation of athletes. They are also applied in language teaching and are finally becoming popular in the educational context. In this same order of ideas, Díaz-Barriga, F. and Hernández (2015) affirm that learning is a dynamic procedure; that is, in the course of the assimilation and accommodation of information, they imply that failures, direct practice, and the exploration of alternative solutions to the problems presented determine the way in which information is externalized and are relevant in doing so. For this reason, the primary intention is to create critical, reflective and creative individuals, and thus we must appeal to the tasks entrusted to the teacher: the individual responsible for future societies. It is through education that there is the possibility of favoring innovations that cause meritorious transformations in people. In this way, Jartín and Chao-Fernández (2018) propose that the secrets of creative learning in higher education become formidable when the importance of the procedure, oriented from knowledge to communication, is perceived by some educators who intend to promote the creative potential of each student. Currently, there is a progressive solidity of evidence that shows how creativity is not limited to a few beneficiaries; even less is it externalized in the arts (Velázquez, 2020). Regarding the implications, all students have creative capacity. In each student there is a support for creativity which must be redeemed by the result of meaningful learning. However, Semprún et al. (2020) states that most educators make little use of the andragogic praxis as a method to promote the learning potential of learners. This is subject to the use of a questionnaire that provokes reproductive and descriptive responses; there is no dependent distinction between body expression and appreciation, let alone a stimulation of creativity. For this reason, the

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development of NLP and brain gymnastics is necessary in order to provide ingenious and effective procedures in higher education courses. In addition, this study highlights the importance of initiating the student in an environment in which space, time, and society merge, with distinct discernment of the sociocultural environment (Ordóñez-Pizarro et al. 2017). Indeed, Mazzoglio-y-Nabar et al. (2020) indicate that in most institutions the learning perspectives of learners are not developed, since novel instructional strategies that greatly promote the faculties of each student are not used. At the same time, it should be noted that national universities are no exception to these scenarios. Thus, it is necessary to approach the instruction of students in different and innovative ways. Specifically, in subjects such as Mathematics, this problem is concretized by instructional programs and the content of their strategies, which are implemented by the majority of teachers with their students. This promotes a mechanized rote learning by leaving aside the expansion of the faculties of learners in higher education (Romero et al., 2021). Finally, there is a need to transform the training of learners. Such firmness is specifically reflected in the will to modernize and contribute through a proposal that arises from a compatible purpose in professional experience. It is also seen through continuous preparation that requires a reflection on the strategies of the instructional program of the Mathematics 1.0 course of the first cycle of the Continental University. This is improved in the learning of the students of the referred subject through use of strategies that unlock negative energies, improve cognitive functions, and exercise the flexibility of the brain to mobilize the neurocytes and thus achieve effective learning (Menéndez & Gámez, 2019). That is why the present study is carried out with the purpose of verifying the effects of neuroscience as an instructional strategy for student learning on the Mathematics 1.0 course of the Continental University in the Academic period II – 2021. The research hypothesis is as follows: Neuroscience as an instructional strategy has a positive effect on the learning of referred students.

2. Literature review 2.1. Neuroscience as the basis of didactic strategies Neuroscience is a set of sciences, the fundamental pillar of which is the nervous system with a specific attraction in how brain action corresponds to behavior and learning. Therefore, it should not be considered only as a discipline (Ruiz, 2017). Therefore, neuroscience was transmuted into an area of interest for all aspects of cognition and behavior, managing to conceptualize itself as a favorable platform to understand doctrines including, but not limited to, anthropology, economics, education, psychology and sociology. Likewise, neuroscience, according to Vitor and Salva-Pérez (2021), supports platforms in the empirical knowledge acquired from biological inquiries of the nervous system, its functions, and its structures. Thus, neuroscience comprises numerous areas of research that approve the explanation of cognitive phenomena, beginning with information derived from

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various lines of biological research and focusing on the different levels of complexity that the nervous system has. These levels are represented at a micro level and are related to genetics, cells, and molecular biology. They are also represented at the macro level, linked to the development of the central nervous system, behavior, and systemic biology (Tacca et al., 2019). On the other hand, Velázquez (2020) expresses that the human brain is formed through a network of links that communicate through nerve cells and have an invariable chemical and electrical action. 2.2. Learning styles According to Gamboa et al. (2015), it is the accumulation of psychological typologies that are usually externalized simultaneously when an individual must face a learning circumstance; in other words, the different ways in which a person can learn. Likewise, learning modes or styles are cognitive, and physiological and affective attributes serve as comparatively constant indications of how a student distinguishes correlations and offers answers in their learning context (Segarra et al., 2015). In other words, it corresponds to the way in which students organize content, create and use conceptions, solve difficulties, decipher information, and choose the means of representation, whether auditory, kinesthetic, or visual. Therefore, each individual assimilates differently from the others. Whilst it is true that the modes of learning are comparatively constant, there is a possibility of variance; in other words, there is a probability of different results depending on the context and the extent to which a mode can be optimized. 2.3. Types of learning Human beings learn and perceive life differently and through various means, which involves alternate methods of representing or absorbing information through various sensory pathways. At the same time, just as there are different channels of communication, there are also various types of students (Zapata-Ros, 2015). At present, and in accordance with the available information, there is no universal learning environment or technique that is suitable for all. On the other hand, Segarra et al. (2015) established the correlation between the typologies of learning, the hemispheres of the brain, and the capacity of each hemisphere to transform the knowledge achieved and the adaptation made. Likewise, the typologies of learning must be understood in a comprehensive and correct way. This is why research has been carried out on the different types of learning, among which is that of Zapata-Ros (2015), which proposes six types of learning for development: associative, observational, rote, receptive, discovery, and significance (the latter one of the most relevant.) - Associative learning. Associative learning is a process through which one aspect of content is taught through a separate, corresponding aspect (Zapata-Ros, 2015). On the other hand, operant conditioning is the use of effects in order to transform ingenuity and the way of proceeding. At the same time, it differs from Pavlovian conditioning as operant conditioning employs rewards or sanctions to change behavior.

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- Observational. This learning occurs when the individual observes the behavior of a pattern. However, a behavior can be learned without the need to execute it. According to Nicolás and Ramos (2020), observational learning originates through the expectation of another individual's behavior and the effects that such behavior has on him. This is recognized by different names: social learning, and imitation learning, among others. This method is known as observational because it is based on observation and is recognized as social as it requires the intervention of at least two individuals: the observer and the model. - Rote. This type of learning is considered as the simplest and most elementary learning action that has been used over time, disguised under traditionalist teaching. It lies in the simple collection of information that has the possibility of providing effects that, in some cases, symbolize a lower group given that it is based on information and data that must be learned without a significant result. For Orozco et al. (2015), rote learning has been presented as the textual assimilation of data or facts, since there is no need to understand them. - Receptive learning. García et al. (2016) notes that in receptive learning, the individual only needs to understand the content in order to disseminate it, but it reveals absolutely nothing. In other words, the reason for the learning or content is shown to the student in its latest form. He is only invited to internalize or collect the material. Likewise, receptive learning, according to Orozco et al. (2015), represents the collection of completed information, where the student only has to internalize said information. That is, the student collects the contents that must be internalized, especially through the illustration of the educator, audiovisual information, and printed material, among others. - Learning by discovery. According to Nicolás and Ramos (2020), current learning was based on the dynamic intervention of students and the adaptation of science methods. It provides a passive option as it is a methodology that follows routine and memorization. For this reason, according to this perspective, dynamism in the classroom should be based on the analysis, focus, and resolution of separate procedures, in which the individual learning has the possibility to build scientific principles. - Meaningful learning. According to Carranza (2017), this learning occurs when the tasks have significant links and the individual makes the conscious decision to learn like this. Therefore, according to this type of learning, the student is the mentor of his knowledge linked to the conceptions of learning. On the other hand, few people learn efficiently, and many others believe that learning is acquired only by reading or listening. In relation to the implications, learning is a dogmatism based on well-defined procedures and principles; therefore, regardless of the individual skill level of a student, these principles can be used to teach oneself new information.

3. Methodology The present study is experimental, because it carries out an "investigation in which one or more independent variables (supposed causes) are deliberately manipulated to analyze the consequences of that manipulation on one or more

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dependent variables (supposed effects) within a control situation for the researcher" (Hernández-Sampieri & Mendoza, 2018, p. 151). In this case, the manipulated variable is the neuroscience-based instructional program that examines the effects on the learning of students of the Mathematics 1.0 course in the first cycle at the Continental University. The present research has a pre-experimental design. According to HernándezSampieri and Mendoza, (2018, p. 163) it "consists of administering a stimulus or treatment to a group and then applying a measure of one or more variables." In effect, pre-test and post-test administration is incorporated into the units of analysis that comprise the experiment. The pre-test is applied before developing the experimental process with the neuroscience-based instructional guidance. After treatment, the subsequent test is administered. This case study is comprised of 540 students of the course of Mathematics 1.0 in the first Psychology career cycle of the Continental University. The selection of the sample was non-probabilistic. "In non-probabilistic samples, the choice of units does not depend on probability, but on reasons related to the characteristics and context of the research" (Hernández-Sampieri & Mendoza, 2018, p. 200). Sample selection is not random, although the assignment of students to the group is. Generally, there are 60 students on the Mathematics 1.0 course of the Psychology career cycle, established in section 13882 of the Continental University Filial Lima in the Academic Period II – 2021. For this research, observation is used as a technique and as an instrument an estimation scale to evaluate learning, which is presented as Appendix 1. It consists of 27 items with three alternative responses (See Appendix 1). Additionally, it is defined as an evaluation instrument that used in order to record the level of realization at which an observable action or an attribute is outsourced. In this, the evaluation marks the level at which the evaluated information is related to a specific characteristic (the learning of the students). It is important to note that the reliability of the instrument is determined with an Alpha Cronbach coefficient of 0.78. The data processing is experimental, carried out in a multivariate manner and with discriminant analysis, using the SPSS Statistical Program. The p-value is calculated: if the test produces a p-value less than 0.01, statistical significance is declared, and the research hypothesis is accepted. Figure 1 summarizes the procedures of the experimental treatment developed with the instructional guide using neuroscience as a strategy for its respective validation, in which NLP and brain gymnastics strategies are developed to strengthen the didactic process that endorses the active progress of learning. Thus, it was necessary to diagnose the learning of the students before developing the treatment. This was then designed and applied to verify its influence on the students. Finally, the post-test is executed, contrasting the learning results of the students before and after implementation of the instructional guide.

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Diagnosis of student learning before treatment with the pretest

Design of the instructional guide designed with neuroscience as a strategy

Application of the instructional guide designed with neuroscience as a strategy in the classes of the referred course Instructional Strategies •Relaxation •Anchorage •Modeling •Reframing •Synchronization •Brain button •Cross crawl •Eight lazy

•Associative •observational •memoristic •Receptive •by discovery •Significant

Evaluation of learning in students after treatment with the post-test

The validity of the components of the instructional guide with neuroscience as a strategy to strengthen learning is established With an analysis of the data obtained and the verification of hypotheses

Figure 1. Study procedures.

4. Analysis of Results The study of the learning variable begins with the dimension of styles. The is swapped in the arrangement of the indicators of this dimension in the pre-test (before) and after the application of the designed instructional guide (post-test). Highly significant contrasts can be observed in Table 1, since the T values obtained are related with levels of significance lower than 0. 01. With regard to the visual, there is a huge discrepancy between the means of the ̅ = 0. 7 and that of the subsequent test 𝒙 ̅ = 2. 4; there is a difference previous test 𝒙 of 1. 7. Confirming that which Gamboa et al. (2015) proposed, the visual learning style or mode establishes that, in the instructional process, students with this style do not show a high capacity with written documents, but learn better with images, diagrams, and graphs, etc. Likewise, in the auditory there is a huge discrepancy between the means of the ̅ = 1.1 and that of the following test 𝒙 ̅ = 2.5, with a difference of 1.4. This pre- test 𝒙 corroborates the approach of Ordóñez-Pizarro (2017): of all the distinctive forms of learning, this is the one that best fits a daily environment of analysis in the classes. On the other hand, the greatest impact is presented after applying the instructional guide with neuroscience as a strategy, en the kinesthetic indicator, ̅ = 0. 6 and the post-test 𝒙 ̅ = 2. 7, displaying being its means of the had a pre-test 𝒙 the biggest difference of 2. 1. With this, the benefits of the developed procedure are manifested.

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Table 1: Test of related samples for the styles dimension of the learning variable Arithmetic means

Related differences Middle

Deviation

Sig. (bilateral)

By 1 VISUAL- A VISUAL - B

0. 7 2. 4

1. 7

. 62

54.48

. 00

By 2 AUDITORY - A AUDITORY - B

1. 1 2. 5

1. 4

. 49

70.22

. 00

By 3 KINESTÉSICO - A KINESTÉSICO - B

0. 6 2. 7

2. 1

. 72

47.48

. 00

*A represents the results of the pre-test and the B represents the del post-test

Table 2 specifies the indicators of the types of dimensions of the learning variable, before and after the execution of the designed guide. This demonstrates again highly significant contrasts: in each case the T values obtained are related with levels of significance less than 0.01. Likewise, there are huge discrepancies in the means reached before and after the procedure. The greatest contrast was achieved with the significant learning of 2.5. This was followed by learning by discovery, with 2.2 points, after which came rote learning with a minimum contrast of 0.5. This demonstrates the effect of the application of the instructional guide with neuroscience as a strategy in the improvement of learning. Table 2: Test of related samples for the dimension types of the learning variable Arithmetic means By 1 ASOCIATIVO-A ASOCIATIVO-B By 2 OBSERVATIONAL - THE OBSERVATIONAL - B By 3 RED - B ROTE - A By 4 RECEPTIVE - A RECEPTIVE - B By 5 BY DESCUBRIM - A BY DESCUBRIM - B By 6 SIGNIFICANT - A SIGNIFICANT - B

0. 8 2. 4

Related differences Middle Deviation 1. 6

. 93

70.13

Sig. (bilateral)

0. 7 2. 8

2. 1

. 84

47.48

. 00

1. 8 2. 3

0. 5

. 93

75.57

. 00

0. 7 2. 4

1. 7

. 83

54.47

. 00

0. 5 2. 7

2. 2

. 81

48.05

. 00

2. 5

. 79

47.46

. 00

0. 5 3. 0

*A represents the results of the previous test and B represents those of the subsequent test.

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. 00

5. Discussion The above results allow us to infer that with the execution of the instructional guide based on neuroscience, the learning of the students of the Mathematics 1.0 course of the first cycle of the Continental University improved. The greatest contrast was achieved in the significant learning, symbolizing a perfect benefit after the improvement of the applied procedure with the aforementioned orientation. In this case the student is the mentor of their knowledge, demonstrating an opposition to mechanistic learning. With these results, the research hypothesis is ratified: neuroscience as an instructional strategy has a positive effect on the learning of students of the Mathematics 1.0 course of the first cycle of the Continental University in the academic period II – 2021. These derivations confirm that to improve the learning of the students of the Mathematics 1.0 course of the first Psychology career of the Continental University, it is of utmost relevance to consider the application of neuroscience through the strategies of brain gymnastics and NLP, because with them, the students have the possibility of contributing to the provision of new behaviors and the transformation of inefficient behaviors. Students can also remedy learning and communication difficulties, giving way to maximum efficiency in all subjects. The results, in general, differ with that expressed by Segarra (2015). Kinesthetic is the slowest learning style and confirms that which was proposed by Nicolás and Ramos (2020), which describes it as the most positive learning style. Specifically, that which is proposed by Orozco et al. (2015) is reaffirmed; rote learning is manifested when the task of learning constitutes strictly partial links or when the individual does it partially. Conjecture a memorization of facts, data or conceptions with insufficient or no correlation between them. As expressed by Zapata-Ros (2015), learning by discovery is based on the dynamic contribution of students and the adaptation of knowledge methods. Passive memorization methodologies are requested as an option and their independent action is promoted. In addition, the conditions of meaningful learning, as raised by Carranza (2017) in his study, are strengthened. Meaningful learning occurs when tasks are properly related and when an individual makes the decision to learn in such a manner. Likewise, as indicated by Romero et al. (2021), this learning works to use existing sources but in new circumstances, in a different scenario, and to pertinently transfer that which has been learned.

6. Conclusion When examining and debating the results obtained from the study, the following conclusions are deduced: first, the diagnosis was made regarding the learning of the students of the Mathematics 1.0 course of the first cycle of the Continental University, which showed that the students were not learning in a significant way, but, rather, in a rote way. Therefore, an instructional guide was designed and applied with neuroscience as a strategy to strengthen the learning of students in the subject Mathematics 1.0 to enable the evolution of skills and the possibility of producing the results that have been proposed, either personally or professionally.

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In effect, students are trained for new transformations and use modeling techniques to quickly assimilate what others manage to learn with greater dedication and energy, and at the same time, make better use of their own resources. Consequently, the effect of the application of the instructional guide with neuroscience as a strategy was evaluated, demonstrating that it has favorable effects that strengthen the entire learning process of the students on the Mathematics 1.0 course of the first cycle of the Continental University. Therefore, the research hypothesis has been confirmed.

6. References Batac, K., Baquiran, J., & Agaton, C. (2021). Qualitative Content Analysis of Teachers’ Perceptions and Experiences in Using Blended Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 20(6), 225-243 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.6.12 Carranza, M. (2017). Enseñanza y aprendizaje significativos en modalidad mixta: percepciones de profesores y alumnos [Meaningful teaching and learning in mixed modality: perceptions of teachers and students]. Revista Iberoamericana para la Investigación y el Desarrollo Educativo, 8(15), 898-922. https://doi.org/10.23913/ride.v8i15.326 Carvajal, B. (2020). Creatividad, intuición y emoción en la praxis metodológica universitaria [Creativity, intuition and emotion in the university methodological praxis]. Cultura, Educación y Sociedad, 11(1), 9-24. https://doi.org/10.17981/cultedusoc.11.1.2020.01 Cordero, G., & Rivera, A. (2020). Gimnasia cerebral en habilidades motoras y aprendizaje matemático en niños de 5 años de una Institución Educativa Parroquial [Brain gymnastics in motor skills and mathematical learning in 5-year-old children of a Parochial Educational Institution]. Revista CIID, 1(1), 226-248. https://doi.org/10.46785/ciidj.v1i1.59 Cruz, J., Ávila, M., Bringas, J., & Tejada, G. (2021). Programación neurolingüística y resiliencia organizacional [Neurolinguistic programming and organizational resilience]. Revista Venezolana de Gerencia, 26(93), 384-396. https://doi.org/10.52080/rvg93.26 Díaz-Barriga, F.,& Hernández, G. (2015). Estrategias docentes para un aprendizaje significativo. Una interpretación constructivista [Teaching strategies for meaningful learning. A constructivist interpretation]. McGraw-Hill. Falconi, A., Alajo, A., Cueva, M., Mendoza, R., Ramírez, S., & Palma, E. (2018). Neurosciences. A vision of its application in education. Open Journal Systems in Journal, 4(1),61-74. https://bit.ly/3J3658Y Fuchs, K. (2021). Innovative Teaching: A Qualitative Review of Flipped Classrooms. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 20(3). 18-32. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.3.2 Gamboa, M., Briceño, J., & Camacho, J. (2015). Caracterización de los estilos de aprendizaje y canales de percepción de los estudiantes universitarios [Characterization of learning styles and perception channels of university students]. Opción, 31(3), 509527. https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/310/31045567026.pdf García, M., Sgro, M., Stharinger, R., & Gargiulo, P. (2016). Efecto de las técnicas de gimnasia cerebral en la atención y concentración sostenidas en el proceso inicial de alfabetización [Effect of brain gymnastics techniques on sustained attention and concentration in the initial literacy process]. Acta Psiquiátrica y Psicológica de América Latina, 62(3), 148-152. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2016-51776-001

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Gardner, M. (2020). Huevos, nudos y otros mitos: juegos y ejercicios de gimnasia cerebral [Eggs, Knots and Other Myths: Brain Gym Games and Exercises]. Editorial Gedisa. https://bit.ly/3mGAlxk Hernández-Sampieri, R., & Mendoza, C. (2018). Metodología de la investigación. Las rutas cuantitativas, cualitativas y mixtas [Investigation methodology. Quantitative, qualitative and mixed routes]. Editorial Mc. GrawHill. Jackman, W. (2018). Switching from Traditional to Blended Learning at University Level: Students ‟and Lecturers” Experiences. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 17(5), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.17.5.1 Jara, A., Macías, J., & Pesantez, N. (2021). Neurociencia, tecnología y redes activas de conocimiento como recurso de innovación en el proceso de enseñanzaaprendizaje [Neuroscience, technology and active knowledge networks as an innovation resource in the teaching-learning process]. Revista Inclusiones, 8(3), 346356. https://bit.ly/3HicMD9 Jartín, R., & Chao-Fernández, R. (2018). Creatividad en el aprendizaje instrumental: lenguaje metafórico, velocidad de procesamiento cognitivo y kinestesia [Creativity in instrumental learning: metaphorical language, cognitive processing speed and kinesthesia]. Creatividad y Sociedad: Revista de la Asociación para la Creatividad, (28), 7-30. https://bit.ly/3quhYgh Mazzoglio-y-Nabar, M., Algieri, R., Tornese, E., Ferrante, M., Broffman, C., & Algieri, A. (2020). Ludolearning en anatomía: impacto en las concepciones culturales y afrontamiento cadavérico desde la neurociencia cognitiva [Ludolearning in anatomy: impact on cultural conceptions and cadaveric coping from cognitive neuroscience]. Revista Internacional de Morfología, 38(4), 1065-1073. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0717-95022020000401065 Menéndez, I., & Gámez, M. (2019). La neuroeducación es una tendencia pedagógica en el aprendizaje para la vida [Neuroeducation is a pedagogical trend in learning for life]. Cienciamatria, 6(10), 547-559. https://doi.org/10.35381/cm.v5i9.231 Nicolás, A., & Ramos, P. (2020). Motivación y aprendizaje basado en proyectos: una investigación-acción en educación secundaria [Motivation and project-based learning: an action-research in secondary education]. Revista Multidisciplinaria de Investigación Educativa, 10(3), 295-320. http://dx.doi.org/10.17583/remie.2020.4493 Ordóñez-Pizarro, W., Vivas-Vivas, R., Vivas-Vivas, W., & Pazmiño-Mayorga, J. (2017). Estilos de aprendizaje en estudiantes universitarios [Learning styles in university students]. Polo del Conocimiento, 2(6), 1103-1117. http://dx.doi.org/10.23857/pc.v2i6.174 Orozco, F., Romero, R., & Jimenez, Y. (2015). Estadísticas de aprendizaje bajo la estrategia ensapretic en educación superior [Learning statistics under the ensapretic strategy in higher education]. Revista: Escenario Educativo, 2(1), 255-270. https://bit.ly/3pAo13E Owusu, A., & Cobbold, C. (2020). Factors that Influence Learning Strategy Use among Senior High School Economics Students in Ghana: A Quantitative Approach. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(5), 167-185. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.10 Romero, J., Romero, R., & Barboza, L. (2021). Programa instruccional basado en la neurociencia para mejorar el aprendizaje en los estudiantes universitarios. Revista San Gregorio, 1(46), 16-29. https://bit.ly/3HtD8T5 Romero, R.M. (2020). Acciones pedagógicas para promover los pilares fundamentales de la educación venezolana. ¿Realidad o utopía? [Pedagogical actions to promote the

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fundamental pillars of Venezuelan education. Reality or utopia?] Revista San Gregorio, 1(39), 87-101. https://bit.ly/3qBAhQI Ruiz, C. (2017). Neurociencia y educación [Neuroscience and Education]. Paradigma, 14(1y2), 90-108. https://bit.ly/3sIBCrU Segarra, M., Estrada, M., & Monferrer, D. (2015). Estilos de aprendizaje en estudiantes universitarios: lateralización vs. interconexión de los hemisferios cerebrales [Learning styles in university students: lateralization vs. interconnection of the cerebral hemispheres]. Revista Española de Pedagogía, 73(262), 583-600. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24711330 Semprún, B., Ferrer, K., Campos, G., Urdaneta, J., & Ortiz, X. (2020). Satisfacción del alumno en un curso de Bioquímica: una evaluación tras aplicar estrategias neurodidácticas [Student satisfaction in a Biochemistry course: an evaluation after applying neurodidactic strategies]. Revista San Gregorio, (38), 1-14. https://bit.ly/3HedXDm Tacca, D., Tacca, A., & Alva, M. (2019). Estrategias neurodidactas, satisfacción y rendimiento académico en estudiantes universitarios [Neurodidactic strategies, satisfaction and academic performance in university students]. Cuadernos de Investigación Educativa, 10(2), 15-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.18861/cied.2019.10.2.2905 Valerio, G., Jaramillo, J., Caraza, R., & Rodríguez, R. (2016). Principios de neurociencia aplicados en la educación universitaria [Applied Neuroscience Principles in University Education]. Universidad, 9(4), 75-82. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-50062016000400009 Vanga, M., & Fernández, A. (2016). Programación neurolingüística para fomentar la dirección afectiva, la creatividad y la comunicación en el aula [Neuro-linguistic programming to promote affective direction, creativity and communication in the classroom]. Revista AUC, (37), 43-50. https://editorial.ucsg.edu.ec/ojsauc/index.php/auc-ucsg/article/view/6 Velázquez, M. (2020). La creatividad en la formación del arquitecto, el proceso creativo y las neurociencias [Creativity in architect training, the creative process and neurosciences]. RIDE Revista Iberoamericana para la Investigación y el Desarrollo Educativo, 10(20). https://doi.org/10.23913/ride.v10i20.667 Vitor, C., & Salva-Pérez, S. (2021). Neurociencia del aprendizaje y la poiesis somática de la Arquitectura [Neuroscience of learning and the somatic poiesis of Architecture]. Revista de la Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo de la Universidad de Cuenca, 10(19), 55-65. https://doi.org/10.18537/est.v010.n019.a05 Yusof, R., Yin, K., Norwani, N., Ismail, Z., Ahmad, A., & Salleh, S. (2020). Teaching through Experiential Learning Cycle to Enhance Student Engagement in Principles of Accounting. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(10), 323-337. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.10.18 Zapata-Ros, M. (2015). Teorías y modelos sobre el aprendizaje en entornos conectados y ubicuos. Bases para un nuevo modelo teórico basado en una visión crítica del "conectivismo" [Theories and models on learning in connected and ubiquitous environments. Bases for a new theoretical model based on a critical vision of "connectivism"]. Educación y Cultura en la Sociedad de la Información, 16(1), 69-102. https://doi.org/10.14201/eks201516169102

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Appendix 1 Information Collection Tool Estimation scale No The student: . 1 Develops the visual sense effectively when performing academic work. 2 Reinforces visual memory in their academic activities. 3 It facilitates the proper use of the image with the word when capturing knowledge. 4 It raises the need to use music as a complement to develop activities in classes. 5 Reorder information through auditory representation systems. 6 It establishes logical-semantic connections between the elements of a developed experiment. 7 It guides the information given through kinesthetic representation systems. 8 Develop imagination in the elaboration of educational projects. 9 Dramatizes educational activities in classes. 10 Learn one element through association with another element. 11 Use consequences to maintain or decrease a behavior. 12 Modifies the forms of behavior through the association of stimuli. 13 Learn by observation or imitation in the activities developed. 14 It favors creative work in the social learning environment. 15 Acquires cognitive representations of the teacher's behavior. 16 Performs a memorization of data or facts with no interrelation between them. 17 Memorize concepts with little interpretation of them. 18 Learning consists of purely arbitrary associations. 19 You receive the content that you have to passively internalize. 20 Reproduces the information managed in class satisfactorily. 21 It incorporates the material that is presented to you in such a way that at a later time you can retrieve it. 22 Discover the material for yourself, before incorporating it into your cognitive structure.

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1 2 3

23 Forge your learning with a leading role. 24 Incorporate the contents into your mental structure comprehensively. 25 It is the very driver of its knowledge relating it to the concepts to be learned. 26 It makes an anchoring of the new contents with those already incorporated. 27 Manages to make transfers of the knowledge learned. Alternative answers:

1. 2. 3.

Never (N) Sometimes (AV) Always (S)

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 49-71, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.4 Received Nov 28, 2021; Revised Feb 7, 2022; Accepted Feb 13, 2022

Employee Perceptions of the Effectiveness of Etraining to Meet Performance Evaluation Requirements Areej M. Altwijri* Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Alkharj, Saudi Arabia Tahani I. Aldosemani Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Alkharj, Saudi Arabia

Abstract. Saudi universities have moved to e-training programmes, including ‘Ithrai’ and other platforms, due to their potential effectiveness and cost-efficiency. However, limited efforts have been made to evaluate the effectiveness of e-training programmes in the context of university workplaces in Saudi Arabia using Job Performance Evaluation Charter JPEC. The purpose of this study is to address this gap in the literature by examining the effect of e-training on meeting JPEC requirements for employees in the public university context in Saudi Arabia. This study highlights that e-training approaches are important to ensure that employees have acquired essential competencies and skills using JPEC as the foundation for their evaluation. In addition, it is important to take into account the different levels of knowledge among employees and encourage cooperation in order to overcome the various knowledge gaps among them as a result of their different abilities in dealing with technology. Participants highly agreed on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for evaluating job performance in the area of employee professional development with a mean of (4.19). This research, however, is subject to several limitations. First, the study occurred at one Saudi university and is geographically limited. It also relied on a small sample size and it may not be possible to generalise the reported perceptions to the whole institution or Saudi Arabia as a whole. Other researchers could replicate the study by including different institutions in different geographical regions. Second, all the data were self-reported and may suffer from social desirability bias. Thus, readers should interpret the findings with caution. Keywords: E-training; university workplace; performance evaluation; university employees

Corresponding author: Altwijri,Areej a.altwijri@psau.edu.sa

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

1. Introduction Training is one of the most important strategies for higher education institutions and universities in order to allow them to bridge the gap between job market requirements and work force capabilities, increase productivity, and improve the work environment. Professional staff training is planned primarily in order to upskill, reskill, and equip employees with the most necessary skills and knowledge to improve their performance and enhance their work attitudes throughout their professional path. As a result, the role of human resources management has moved from the traditional role of employee management processes like recruiting, promoting, and motivating staff to the strategic dimension of empowering individuals to achieve their full potential. Professional development training improves staff capabilities and qualifications. Employees in many professional fields are required to enrol in continuous training to maintain their professional qualifications and to enable them to respond to modern workplace demands. Human resources administrators tend to invest in training and focus on specific training needs (Tikhonov, 2020, p. 183). Human resources administrators adopt e-training for a range of reasons; these can include creating a unique training experience, taking advantage of the outcomes of globalisation and digital transformation, in addition to overcoming the problems and challenges associated with traditional training. During the past decade, there has been great interest in the development of employee training processes to support the constant changes in the business environment. The importance of this research stems from the fact that universities need to develop their administrative processes through the leverage of technological tools and resources. Universities aim to exploit knowledge openness in developing e-training programmes and solutions. In adopting an etraining culture, universities develop employees, enabling them to perform the required tasks to reach their full potential. In more recent times, technological advancements have influenced training approaches and modalities within public institutions. Internet technologies and e-learning applications have led to fundamental improvements in the way institutions manage employees’ training. E-training continues to grow in popularity and adoption as institutions enhance their competitiveness through the continuous development of a lifelong learning culture. Equally, institutions are increasingly improving their capabilities to respond to the immediate and strategic need for an agile and competent workforce. E-training is necessary for employees to ensure the acquisition of the necessary skills associated with job requirements and in order to reduce skills mismatch. This increases the need to adapt technology infrastructure to meet etraining requirements. E-training requires careful management and planning, based on performance needs assessment, and it also needs to be aligned with university development requirements. Whenever training moves towards electronic solutions, this increases the demands to leverage Information and Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructure to support access, interaction, and the effective use of training opportunities among trainees (Kattuah & Odeh, 2017).

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Saudi universities have moved to e-training programmes due to their potential effectiveness and cost-efficiency. However, only limited efforts have been made to evaluate their effectiveness in the context of university workplaces in Saudi Arabia. There is a gap in the literature that points to the need to examine the effect of e-training in meeting job performance evaluations (JPECs) (Guidelines for Job Performance Management Regulations, 2021) for employees in public universities in Saudi Arabia through e-training.

2. Literature Review E-training E-training is defined as the utilisation of electronic media for education and training activities in order to improve the skills and performance of training participants (Siswanto et al., 2018). It is training that is offered electronically in order to exchange knowledge by employing communication technologies via voice, image, or both (Al Mashagbh, Din et al., 2019; Durmaz et al., 2018). Etraining materials are combined with opportunities for open discussion and participation, utilising the trainee data to achieve the desired objectives and goals of training. In recent years, internet use has greatly affected the culture of training in many universities, especially in the field of human resources’ training. This has significantly contributed to the growing importance of e-training and its predominance over in-person training. A growing number of institutions are turning to electronic methods and practices in order to offer training in the workplace. Training is important for the professional development of human resources and can an institution to achieve its goals. Prior experiences have shown that the human factor is an essential and flexible component of high institutional productivity. Training contributes to its efficacy by enhancing employees’ skills to meet various needs for workplace development (Al-Hila et al., 2017). Universities are now capable of providing learning and training environments that enhance employees’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Yusuf & Hasnidar, 2020). This has been made possible, in part, by exploiting multimedia and digital resources which can be used and reused in different learning and training environments (Barragán-Sánchez et al., 2018). E-training and learning are effective means of achieving better training outcomes. They can have an effect beyond training for specific job situations and can become an essential component of employees’ professional growth (Satiman & Boonlue, 2020). Computer and internet-based training can include a myriad of electronic hardware and software solutions, facilitated by an instructor or through selfpaced modalities, whether synchronised, asynchronised, or mixed (Sirkemaa & Varpelaide, 2018). Synchronised e-training models tend to follow the traditional training method by virtually gathering trainees to meet at specific times to share and exchange information and directly interact with other trainees. In addition, training is planned to enable trainees to develop a shared knowledge and to collaboratively construct a shared understanding of workplace concepts and the relationships between the different workplace concepts. Additionally, self-paced training programmes can be provided and enhanced using multiple channels and modalities, such as virtual training classes, teleconferencing, online chat forums,

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and live broadcasting (Bonfield et al., 2020). These can offer instant feedback and be implemented for different training purposes (Kattuah & Odeh, 2017; Oproescu et al., 2019). A growing number of universities and higher education institutions are using advanced training methods to upskill and reskill their employees; this includes adopting blended training methods, which can be defined as the use of a combination of direct and face-to-face online modalities for training purposes. An integrated approach to training allows staff to use self-paced training methods in combination with direct collaborative learning. This blended training approach can provide the employee with the dual benefits of both approaches and ensure that training services can be accessed by all employees. Moreover, e-training provides the opportunity to access training data and exploit participation and interactivity data to improve training plans and provide personalised training programmes (Golitsyna et al., 2019). The Job Performance Evaluation Charter (JPEC) in Saudi Arabia The Job Performance Evaluation Charter (JPEC) in Saudi Arabia is an evaluation checklist that has been approved by the Ministry of Civil Service, as part of the new 21-article job performance evaluation regulations that came into effect in 2018 (JPEC Guide, 2018). The JPEC must be completed annually by employees at public institutions and governmental entities to determine that they have fulfilled their self-identified goals, according to the required job competencies. The list items have relative weight and a targeted output for each goal, to be prepared by the employer, signed by the employee, and finally authorised by the entity’s general human resources director at the beginning of each annual performance evaluation cycle. The goals represent the results the employees are expected to achieve during the performance evaluation term. Each employee must determine their own work goals and these must be specific, viable, logical, and particular to a certain timeframe. Competencies include the knowledge, skills, abilities, and behavioural characteristics that enable employees to perform their jobs effectively. E-training for Skills Development in the University Workplace The demand for e-training has grown dramatically in recent years, as a result of advancements in information and communication technology (ICT). E-training can bridge the gap between traditional training and workplace skill requirements (Al-Hila et al., 2017; Satiman & Boonlue, 2020; Zainab et al., 2017). Employee training plays a vital role in improving job performance, as well as increasing productivity. It leads to the overall development of higher education institutions, helps to maintain competitive standards, and meet demands for human resources. There is a substantial difference between university workplaces that train their employees and those that do not provide such opportunities. E-training has a positive impact on employee skills and performance that is ultimately reflected in institutional performance. Through e-training, universities can identify skill mismatches in relation to the required knowledge, skills and attitudes demanded by the workplace. However, universities need to implement ongoing policies for the training and retention of employees. Goals should not be planned solely to identify gaps in skills and

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performance (Quratul-Ain Talpur et al., 2017). The success of the workplace depends heavily on the productivity, skills, and capabilities of the workforce. Indeed, targeted training may be considered one of the best investments in the relationship between workplaces and employees. Indeed, a technology-mediated learning environment, combining online course content focused on professionalism with online collaboration-based programmes, enhances selfdirected learning skills, generating remarkable educational and professional benefits such as entrepreneurial skills, computer skills, and better performance (Nizhenkovska et al., 2020). Subramaniam and Nakkeeran (2019) discussed the impact of corporate e-training systems on enhancing the performance of employees in software development companies. A pilot study was performed on primary data collected from 202 software specialists across different software organisations in India. Multiple linear regression analysis was applied to the data. The results revealed that the successful implementation and use of e-learning systems in software enterprises for employee training enhances team performance regardless of the geographical distance between trainees. Gavril et al. (2017) evaluated the impact of e-learning on the performance of employees and the performance of business organisations through globalised training opportunities. The study indicated how globalisation has led to a change in training and learning methods. High-quality training systems are implemented based on specific standards; therefore, it is necessary to consider the differences in the knowledge sets of employees in different countries and to develop compatible training systems. The study indicated knowledge gaps among staff members, based on internationally collected data and empirical research conducted in Romania. Besides statistical data, the researcher interviewed employees in 18 multinational companies that operate some of their business activities in Romania. The results of the research showed that the implementation of an effective e-learning strategy reduced the financial cost by 40-60%, and it enabled the learning process and standardised inputs and outcomes to be fully measured. Monaco (2017) examined the role of technology-based education in improving employee performance. This study discussed how to enhance traditional training in organisations through the implementation of e-training. It provided several examples of successful e-training courses, including the design model. It also demonstrated the advantages provided by e-training for both employees and employers. Online-based learning resources make class sessions more interesting as well as enhancing student learning outcomes (Rahman et al., 2020). Kamal et al. (2016) explored the impact of e-training on employee performance, undertaking a practical study on the Ministry of Education in the Kingdom of Bahrain. This study aimed to identify the effect of e-training on the performance of employees in the Ministry of Education in the Kingdom of Bahrain. The study highlighted the importance of developing employees’ skills to obtain high-quality performance through effective training. The study indicated how organisations leverage advanced technologies over the internet to train employees more quickly and effectively. The research adopted descriptive and analytical approaches through statistical data to determine the effect of e-training on employee

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performance. The selected sample consisted of 194 employees working in the Ministry of Education. The research concluded that there is a positive and significant relationship between e-training and employee performance, with a correlation coefficient of 0.358, and a regression coefficient demonstrating that the efficiency of e-training affected job performance by 25.3%. The results also indicated that there are statistically significant differences in terms of demographic variables (such as an employee’s qualifications and job experience). The study recommended that all employees should be enrolled in the e-training programmes provided by the Ministry of Education. The study demonstrated how the long-term success of the organisation was determined, in large part, by widely disseminating an e-training culture among employees for better performance results. Sharma et al. (2016) explored the importance, role, and impact of e-training on employees in the workplace. The study examined the impact of ICT and the increasing use of web-based training to prepare skilled employees. The study indicated that most organisations should engage in e-training to avoid problems related to cost, performance, and benefits. The study also demonstrated how ICT has revolutionised the world through technological innovation to deliver training, helping to bridge the gap between organisational performance and employee performance. The researchers used both a qualitative and a quantitative approach to employee performance, examining the following objectives: training, user satisfaction, ongoing intent, and individual performance. Training was studied on multiple levels to measure digital literacy and expected performance. The results suggested that e-training had a substantial effect on improving employee competencies and skill development. Andriushchenko et al., (2020) findings revealed an increase in the input quantity and quality of the continuity of education through distance education learning as a means of ensuring a sustained and qualified workforce. Digital literacy has a positive impact on the professional environment as it enhances communication and problem-solving skills among employees; it describes digitisation models for changing professional development programmes and plans that are continuous, social, personalised and focused on the needs and interests of the individual (Andriushchenko et al., 2020). This study sheds light on the effect of e-training in meeting the requirements of performance evaluation and how it equips and empowers employees with the competencies required for JPEC. It focuses on employees’ perspectives. The following questions guided this study: 1. What are employees’ perceptions of the impact of e-training on improving performance evaluation (specifically in terms of enhancing employees’ sense of responsibility, cooperation skills, communication skills, accomplishments, self-development, and professional engagement) in university work environments? 2. What are employees’ perceptions of the most important factors in e-training that support job performance evaluation (specifically in enhancing employees’ sense of responsibility, cooperation skills, communication skills,

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accomplishments, self-development, and professional engagement) in university work environments? 3. What are employees’ perceptions of the main challenges in e-training that could hinder job performance evaluation (in terms of sense of responsibility, cooperation, communication, accomplishment, employee development, and job engagement) in university work environments? 4. Is there an effect of e-training based on academic qualification, number of years of employment service, number of electronic training courses obtained)? The Significance of the Study The importance of this research stems from the need for universities to develop their administrative processes through the leverage of technological tools and resources. Universities aim to exploit open educational resources in developing etraining programmes and solutions. In disseminating an e-training culture, universities develop employees, enabling them to perform the tasks necessary to reach their full potential. There is a growing need to measure the impact of etraining in meeting the requirements to evaluate the job performance of employees in universities. There is also a need to enrich national resources with recommendations from national human resources’ development leaders’ perspectives. The results of this study will support university stakeholders in the development of policies for implementing e-training and enhancing the skills, capabilities, and competencies of employees. Moreover, this study will support the identification of the strengths and weaknesses of e-training systems and improve training quality, as well as employee skill levels. Finally, it will contribute to the advancement of training modalities at the university level to meet job performance evaluation.

3. Methodology Study Context Governmental sectors in Saudi Arabia are witnessing administrative challenges in terms of evaluating employees’ performance given the requirement to apply new evaluation regulations to measure job performance. These challenges, affecting many governmental department managers and directors, range from the difficulty of interpreting regulation policies to the lack of understanding of the best strategies to implement these regulations. For the past two years, the Ministry of Civil Services and other government agencies have held numerous workshops to raise awareness of the new set of regulations among employees and administrators and to disseminate information about it. Stakeholders have not been confident about the proper application of these new regulations, especially since administrators are required to apply new systems for employee evaluation. The administrators’ lack of knowledge of the new regulations has exacerbated this challenge. As a result, a royal decree was issued to launch the King Salman Programme for Human Resource Development (KSPHRD). Its objectives are: to raise the quality of human resources performance, to develop all the policies and procedures necessary for the application of the new programme, and to enhance the work environment within governmental institutions in the Kingdom. The establishment of KSPHRD coincided with the new JPEC, a performance charter

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for employees, listing the required skills and performance commitments to be agreed upon by the employee. The Ministry of Civil Services began orientation workshops and training courses for KSPHRD. It worked in coordination with the Ministry of Social Affairs, directly after the issuance of the royal decree to launch the programme, authorising the Ministry of Civil Service to set up standards and mechanisms for the implementation of the programme. Training workshops focused on two new targeted departments for the programme: the Department of Management and Development, and the Department of Internal Communication. KSPHRD seeks to achieve a number of goals, including enhancing the quality of government employees’ performance and their productivity at work; improving work environments; developing clear policies and procedures for implementing human resources’ development plans; and preparing future leaders to build their capacities. As part of its commitment to participation in the KSPHRD programme, the Institute of Public Administration launched the e-training platform ‘Ithrai’ (‘Enrichment’ in Arabic). This platform offers ten new e-training programmes, in multiple fields, for annual training of government employees. The ‘Ithrai’ platform is one of the first e-training platforms dedicated to government employees and its primary goal is to enhance employees’ job performance and workforce productivity. The Ithrai training platform provides many training programmes in different specialties and disciplines through online conferences and webinars, in addition to Arabic-language enrichment content in various online formats. The platform has had more than four million visits. To date, the number of beneficiaries has exceeded four million trainees from different governmental sectors and more than 100 thousand attendees for online conferences. Saudi universities have moved to e-training programmes, including ‘Ithrai’ and other platforms, due to their potential effectiveness and cost-efficiency. However, only limited efforts have been made to evaluate the effectiveness of e-training programmes in the context of university workplaces in Saudi Arabia. The purpose of this study is to address this gap in the literature by examining the effect of etraining in meeting the JPEC among employees in public universities in Saudi Arabia. This quantitative study depicts employees’ perceptions of the effectiveness of e-training in supporting the achievement of the JPEC requirements at one public university, as well as the benefits and challenges encountered during their e-training experience. Participants were employees working in administrative roles in an emerging public university in the central region of Saudi Arabia. Emerging universities in Saudi Arabia include 13 higher education institutions that have been established during the past 10 years to serve communities in regions distant from major metropolitan areas, decreasing pressure on the eight main universities. The university has 19 colleges (including two community colleges) on seven campuses interspersed throughout the central region of Saudi Arabia. The university employs more than 1,600 academic staff and has more than 26,000 students enrolled.

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4. Participants The study sample consists of all 683 employees at a university in central Saudi Arabia. The stratified sampling of participants consisted of 230 employees. Several key demographic variables have been identified to describe the study sample, including academic qualification, years of work experience, and the number of e-training courses undertaken during employment at the university. Academic Qualifications Table 1 indicates that 67.0% of the participants (154) have a bachelor’s degree, 17.4% (40) are educated to secondary level, 9.6% (22) have a post-secondary diploma, 3.5% (8) have a master’s degree, and 2.6% (6) have another academic or professional degree. In addition, 50.4% of the participants (116) have 5-10 years of work experience, 47.0% (108) have more than 10, and 2.6% (6) of participants have work experience of less than 5 years. Table 3 shows the distribution of the study sample according to the number of e-training courses undertaken during employment at the university; 73.9% of participants (170) undertook more than three courses, and 7.8% (18) of the total participants undertook only one course. Table 1: Sample According to Academic Status and Professional Experience Academic Status Intermediate High School Certificate Bachelor’s Master’s Professional Experience Less than 5 years From 5-10 years Total

Frequency 6 40 22 154 8

Percentage 2.6 17.4 9.6 67.0 3.5

6 116 230

2.6 50.4 100%

Table 2: Number of E-training Courses Undertaken during Employment at the University Number of E-training courses One course Two courses Three courses More than three courses Total

Frequency

Percentage

18 12 30 170 230

7.8 5.2 13.0 73.9 100%

Instrument The descriptive analytical method of this study examines a real phenomenon through accurate descriptions, expressed qualitatively and quantitatively. It consists of collecting coded data and information about the phenomenon or problem, classifying, analysing, and subjecting it to research. The data collection instrument was developed based on the JPEC form. The guidelines for the job performance list include six competencies and 21 statements. To verify the validity and reliability of the questionnaire, two methods were used. First, seven

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faculty members with human resources, professional development, and etraining expertise were recruited to review the clarity of the questionnaire statements, their relatedness to the main statements, and their relevance. Reviewers were also consulted to suggest any required amendments and changes. Necessary amendments were made based on agreement between the majority of reviewers until the questionnaire reached its final form. Second, to ensure the validity of the internal consistency of the tool, a Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to identify the degree of correlation of each questionnaire item with the total score of the statements (see Table 4). The correlation coefficient values for each of the statements with the main statements are positive, and statistically significant at the chosen significance level of (0.01) or less. This indicates the credibility of the internal consistency between the questionnaire statements, and their suitability for the purposes of the study. Additionally, the stability of the study instrument was confirmed using Cronbach’s Alpha (α) stability coefficient. Tables 3-8 give the values for the Cronbach’s stability coefficients for each dimension. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is generally high (0.936). Table 4: Correlation of E-training Effectiveness Factors Statement Sense of Responsibility Cooperation Communication Accomplishment

Professional Development Engagement

Statement Number 1 2 4 5 8 9 11 12 13 16

Correlation

Number

Correlation

**0.794 **0.886 **0.719 **0.667 **0.826 **0.884 **0.753 **0.843 **0.718 **0.877

3 6 7 10 14 15 17

**0.781 **0.832 **0.813 **0.787 **0.783 **0.753 **0.912

**0.850

**0.753

**0.877

**0.778

Table 5: Cronbach Alpha to Measure Stability of Statements in Study Instrument Questionnaire E-training effectiveness in improving employee evaluation requirements (Sense of Responsibility, Cooperation, Communication, Accomplishment, Professional Development, Engagement)

General Stability

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Statement Sense of Responsibility Cooperation Communication Accomplishment Professional Development Engagement

Number 3

Stability 0.753

4 3 5 2

0.752 0.777 0.821 0.746

4 21

0.831 0.936

5. Data Collection Ethics approval and permission for this study were obtained from the Deanship of Research. Data were collected using a questionnaire distributed to all the employees in 14 different colleges via e-mail invitations in March 2021. One reminder was sent three weeks after the initial request. The study sample consisted of 230 participants and the questionnaire was distributed electronically via university email. Data collection was completed in May 2021. A five-point Likert scale was used to collect responses according to the following degrees of approval: very likely – likely – neutral – unlikely – very unlikely, and with means and standard deviations for each statement (4.21-5.00 very likely, 3.41-4.20 likely, 2.613.40 neutral, 1.81-2.60 very unlikely, 1.00 -1.80 unlikely)

6. Data Analysis Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) analysis was undertaken and the following statistical measures were calculated: 1) frequencies and percentages to identify the characteristics of the study sample and determine the responses to the main statement items; 2) means and standard deviation to determine the participant responses to the study statements; 3) Kolmogorov-Smirnov to test and verify the normality of variables distribution; 4) Levene’s test for homogeneity of variance; 5) Kruskal-Wallis test to verify the direction of differences within the sample; 6) Scheffe test to verify the direction of the differences within the study sample identified by the Kruskal-Wallis Test.

7. Results The first question was as follows: What is the impact of e-training on meeting the job performance evaluation requirements (regarding Sense of Responsibility, Cooperation, Communication, Accomplishment, Staff Development, and Job Engagement) among employees in university workplaces? The means of these dimensions were calculated (see Table 6). The results demonstrated that the participants agreed, to a high degree, on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for job performance evaluation. At an average of (4.18), this item ranked in the highest degree of agreement. For the dimension of Accomplishment, there was an average of (4.26) agreement; for Engagement, an average of (4.24), followed by the Communication dimension. See the table below for detailed results. Table 6: Means and Standard Deviations for Participants’ Perceptions of the Impact of E-training on Meeting the Requirements for the Job Performance Evaluation Statement Sense of Responsibility

Rank 5

SD 0.594

M 4.14

Cooperation

0.600

4.00

0.606 0.546 0.710 0.571 -

4.23 4.26 4.19 4.24 0.490

Communication Accomplishment Professional Development Engagement E-training effectiveness in evaluation requirements

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improving

3 1 4 2 employee

Sense of Responsibility The means and standard deviations were calculated for the Sense of Responsibility dimension (see Table 7). Participants highly agreed on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for the job performance evaluation, with regard to the dimension of the Sense of Responsibility, with an average of (4.14). The statement “I understand my role and its connection to the institution” received a mean of (4.23) and a high degree of agreement. The statement “I report whatever I am facing with transparency” ranked last, with a mean of (4.00). Table 7: Means and Standard Deviations for the Sense of Responsibility Dimension

2 1 3

Statement I understand my role and how it is linked to the general university goals. I take responsibility for my acts and decisions and do not blame others.

4.23

0.691

4.17

0.727

I report whatever I am facing with transparency.

0.759

4.14

0.594

Average

Cooperation Means and standard deviations for the Cooperation dimension were calculated. The participants agreed, to a high degree, on the impact of e-training on meeting the requirements for the job performance evaluation with regard to the Cooperation dimension, with a mean of (4.00). The statement “I seek to benefit from the opinions of others from outside my administration” was ranked first, with a mean of (4.10) and a high degree of approval. The statement “I engage others in supporting my work by initiating supportive relationships with them” ranked last, with a mean of (3.82) and a high degree of approval. Table 8: Means and Standard Deviations for the Cooperation Dimension Statement

I seek to benefit from the opinions of others from outside my administration

4.10

0.759

I respond to support and assistance requests from the university’s organisational units. I openly share information according to the job requirements.

4.08

0.726

0.825

I engage others in supporting my work by initiating supportive relationships with them

3.82

0.852

0.6

4 6

Average

Communication Means and standard deviations of the Communication dimension were calculated (see Table 9). Participants agreed, to a high degree, on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for the job performance evaluation with regard to the Communication dimension, with an average of (4.23). The statement “I

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carefully listen to others” ranked first, with a mean of (4.42) and a high degree of agreement. The statement “I use clear and effective written communication” ranked last, with a mean of (4.10). Table 9: Means and Standard Deviations for the Communication Dimension

10 9 8

Statement

I listen carefully to others. I use clear and effective oral communication. I use clear and effective written communication.

4.42 4.17

0.647 0.762

4.10

0.77

4.23

0.606

Average

Accomplishment Means and standard deviations for the Accomplishment dimension were calculated to examine the most important factor according to participants’ perceptions (see Table 10). Participants agreed, to a high degree, on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for the job performance evaluation, with regard to the dimension of Accomplishment, with an average of (4.26). The statement “I carry out my tasks on time with a high level of quality” ranked with a mean of (4.34) and a high degree of approval. The statement “I define the tasks and their priorities according to their relative importance” came last, with a mean of (4.22). Table 10: Means and Standard Deviations for the Accomplishment Dimension Number 14 11 15

13 12

Statement I carry out my tasks on time with high level of quality. I am a multi-tasker. I take the initiative and work without a request or directions from my manager.

M 4.34

SD 0.604

4.26 4.24

0.737 0.743

My manager relies on me. I define tasks and their priorities according to their importance.

4.23 4.22

0.805 0.671

4.26

0.546

Average

Employee Professional Development Means and standard deviations for the Employee Professional Development dimension were calculated (see Table 11). Participants highly agreed on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for evaluating job performance, with regard to the dimension of Employee Professional Development, with a mean of (4.19).

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Table 11: Means and Standard Deviations for the Employee Professional Development Dimension Statement

I always work on educating and improving myself.

4.32

0.73

I always participate in other improvement opportunities for my colleagues.

4.05

0.855

4.19

0.71

Average

Engagement Means and standard deviations for the Engagement dimension were calculated (see Table 12). Participants highly agreed on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements of the job performance evaluation, with regard to the dimension of Engagement, with a mean of (4.24). The statement “I am committed to working hours and I am always available whenever needed” ranked highest, with a mean of (4.34). The statement “I am motivated to reach the optimal achievement level and creativity as I perform my tasks” ranked lowest, with a mean of (4.17). Table 12: Means and Standard Deviations for the Engagement Dimension

20 21 18 19

Statement I am committed to working hours and I am always available whenever needed. I focus on my clients while doing my job. I raise my preparedness to deal with work challenges. I am motivated to reach the optimal achievement level and creativity while performing my tasks.

M 4.34

SD 0.685

4.26 4.18 4.17

0.607 0.743 0.758

Average

4.24

5.71

The second research question was as follows: What are the most important dimensions in the JPEC that e-training supports (including Sense of Responsibility, Cooperation, Communication, Accomplishment, Staff Professional Development, and Engagement) among employees at the institution? The frequencies of questionnaire items were calculated for the most important dimensions that could be supported by e-training (see Table 13). Employees’ Professional Development ranked highest, with a frequency number of (83), followed by Accomplishments (58), and Motivation had the lowest frequency at (4). Clearly the most important dimension that can be supported by e-training to meet the requirements for job performance evaluation is Staff Professional Development.

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Table 13: The Frequencies of Questionnaire Items for the Most Important Dimensions Factors Engagement Cooperation Accomplishment Employees’ Professional Development Sense of Responsibility Communication Motivation

F 21 44 58 83 45 34 4

Rank 6 4 2 1 3 5 7

The third question was: What are the challenges facing e-training in university workplaces? The main challenges in the context of e-training, hindering the job performance evaluation requirements for employees, are the lack of cooperation, with a frequency of (51), followed by lack of sense of engagement, with a frequency of (46). The least reported item (2) was the lack of staff professional development hindering employees from performing tasks (see Table 14). Table 14: Frequencies and Ranks of Reported Challenges Related to E-training Challenges

Frequency

Rank

Lack of engagement

Communication issues

Lack of sense of accomplishment

Lack of employees’ professional selfdevelopment opportunities

Lack of employee promotion opportunities

Lack of institutional development opportunities

Lack of cooperation

Lack of sense of responsibility

professional

The fourth research question was: Are there any statistically significant differences, at the level of significance (> 0.05), for the effectiveness of e-training in terms of meeting the JPEC, for demographic variables (qualification, job Title, years of experience, number of E-training courses)? To determine the validity of the differences between the qualification categories, the Scheffe test was used (see Table 15). There are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.05) and less between those with bachelor’s and master’s degrees, for Sense of Responsibility, with a high degree for participants with master’s degrees. There are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.05) and less between those with bachelor’s and master’s degrees for

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Accomplishment, with a higher degree for participants whose qualifications are bachelor’s or master’s degrees. There are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.05) and less between those with master’s degrees in Staff Professional Development items, with a higher degree for participants with master’s degrees. There are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.05) and less between those with bachelor’s degrees, regarding Organisational Affiliation, with higher degree for participants with bachelor’s degrees. There are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.01) and less between those with master’s degrees, regarding Engagement, with higher degree for participants with master’s degrees. There are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.05) and less for job performance evaluation requirements, with a higher degree for participants with master’s degrees. Table 15: Differences According to Qualification Categories

Intermediate High School (HS) Diploma Bachelor’s Master’s Intermediate High School Diploma Bachelor’s Master’s Intermediate High School Diploma Bachelor’s Master’s Intermediate High School Diploma Bachelor’s Master’s Intermediate High School Diploma Bachelor’s Master’s

6 40

4.33 4.12

22 154 8 6 40 22 154 8 6 40 22 154 8 6 40 22 154 8 6 40 22 154 8

4.27 4.08 4.75 4.53 4 4.18 4.3 4.7 4.5 3.9 3.91 4.26 4.75 4.5 3.94 4.18 4.29 4.75 4.46 4 4.17 4.19 4.63

Accomplishment

Professional Development

Engagement

Performance Requirements

Evaluation

Mas.

Sense of Responsibility

Bach.

Diploma

Qualification

Intermed.

Statement

* -

To determine the validity of the differences between the categories for the number of years of employment, the Scheffe test was used (see Table 17). There are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.01) and less between participants with years of employment ranging from 5-10 years and those with

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more than 10 years, regarding Sense of Responsibility, with a higher level for participants with the number of years of work experience at more than 10 years. There are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.01) and less between participants whose number of years of experience is less than 5 years in Staff Professional Development, with a higher level for participants whose years of work experience ranges from 5 years and up. There are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.05) and less between participants with work experience from 5-10 years and more than 10 years, regarding Engagement, Job Performance, and Evaluation Requirements, with a higher level for participants whose number of years of work experience is 10 or more years. Table 17: Differences Between the Categories for the Number of Years of Employment Statement

Sense of Responsibility Professional Development Engagement

Performance Evaluation Requirements

Work Experience in Years Less than 5 From 5-10

6 116

4.11 4.02

More than 5

108

4.27

Less than 5

From 5-10

116

4.16

More than10

108

4.29

Less than 5 From 5-10

6 116

4.25 4.14

More than10

108

4.34

Less than 5

3.97

From 5-10

116

4.11

More than10

108

4.26

Less than 5 -

From 5-10

More than 10

0.200 **0.000

**0.000

**0.002

**0.000

**0000

0.200 **0.000

**0.000

Statistical significance

**0.002

**0.000

**0.001

A one-way analysis of variance was used to clarify the significance of the differences in the responses according to the variable identifying number of etraining courses undertaken (see Table 18). There are no statistically significant differences at the level of (0.05) or less in the Communication category according to the variable for number of e-training courses undertaken. There are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.01) and less for the requirements for evaluating job performance (Sense of Responsibility, Cooperation, Accomplishment, Staff Development, and Job Correlation) according to the variable for number of e-training courses undertaken.

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Table 18: Differences According to the Variable for Number of E-training Courses Undertaken Dimension Sense Responsibility

Cooperation

Communication

Accomplishment

Professional Development

Engagement

Performance Evaluation Requirements

Variance of

Between groups Within groups Sum Between groups Within groups Sum Between groups Within groups Sum Between groups Within groups Sum Between groups Within groups Sum Between groups Within groups Sum Between groups Within groups Sum

Squire sum 5.909

Freedom

1.97

5.94

Statistical significance **0.001

74.934

226

0.332

80.843 8.514

229 3

2.838

8.683

**0.000

73.86

226

0.327

82.374 2.689

229 3

0.896

2.486

0.061

81.162

226

0.361

84.162 8.28

229 3

2.76

10.395

**0.000

60.003

226

0.265

68.282 15.495

229 3

5.165

11.677

**0.000

99.966

226

0.442

115.461 3.71

229 3

1.237

3.936

**0.009

71.001

226

0.314

74.711 6.313

229 3

2.104

9.759

**0.000

48.727

226

0.216

55.04

229

To determine the validity of the differences between the categories for the number of e-training courses undertaken, the Scheffe test was used (see Table 19). There are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.05) and less for Sense of Responsibility, in favour of participants who had undertaken more than three courses. In addition, there are statistically significant differences in the Cooperation category, at the level of (0.05) and less for the study sample of participants who had undertaken three courses or less and those who had undertaken more than three courses, with a higher degree for those who had undertaken more than three courses. In the Accomplishment category, there are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.01) and less, in favour of those who had undertaken more than three courses. In the Staff Development category,

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there are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.01) and less for those who had undertaken one course, three courses, and those who had undertaken more than three courses, in favour of those who had obtained more than three courses. In the Engagement category, there are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.01) and less for those who had undertaken two courses in comparison with those who had undertaken more than three courses, in favour of those with more than three courses. Table 19: Validity of the Differences Between the Categories of the Number of Etraining Courses Received

3.85

2 3

12 30

3.89 3.87

170

4.23

3.64

3.54

3.77

170

4.11

3.8

2 3

12 30

3.83 4.12

170

4.36

3.56

2 3+

12 30

3.83 3.87

170

4.34

4.03

2 3

12 30

3.83 4.15

170

4.3

3.83

2 3

12 30

3.8 4

170

4.27

Cooperation

Accomplishment

Professional Development

Engagement

Performance Evaluation Requirements

Three courses

Two courses

One course

Sense of Responsibility

Number of courses

Number

Statement

More than three

Statistical significance

**0.000

0.073 *0.028

**0.000

**0.001

*0.023

**0.001

**0.000

0.196 *0.022

**0.000

**0.001

0.200 *0.019

**0.000

**0.001

0.073 *0.041

**0.000

* *

0.145 **0.000

**0.000

In the category of Performance Evaluation Requirements, there are statistically significant differences at the level of (0.05) and less for those who had undertaken two to three courses, compared with those who had undertaken more than three courses, with a higher degree for those with more than three courses.

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8. Discussion Participants highly agreed on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for the job performance evaluation. This aligns with Subramaniam and Nakkeeran (2019) who indicated that the successful implementation and use of e-learning systems in higher education institutions, for the purposes of employee training, enhances the performance of teams, despite any geographical distance between team members. Furthermore, it supports the development of a sense of responsibility among employees and the significant impact of e-training on the development of human resources. Participants also agreed, to a high degree, on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for the job performance evaluation with regard to the cooperation dimension. This aligns with Gavril et al. (2017), who asserted the importance of taking into account employees’ different levels of knowledge. They affirmed the need to develop training systems that encourage cooperation among employees to overcome the different knowledge gaps among them as a result of their different abilities in terms of dealing with technology. With regard to cooperation among employees, e-training supports employees in terms of sharing and exchanging their expertise. Employee cooperation and collaboration between different departments facilitates the process of exchanging ideas and experiences by enabling the workforce to build supportive relationships with others. In addition, participants agreed, to a high degree, on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for the job performance evaluation in relation to the communication dimension. This aligns with Sharma et al. (2016), who affirmed that ICT revolutionised training systems through technological innovation and eliminated communication challenges among the horizontal or vertical hierarchy of the organisation. ICT helps to bridge the gap between organisational goals and employee performance. These results also confirmed that e-training has a tangible impact on improving the organisational communication atmosphere and developing employees’ communication skills. This also highlights that communication is essential to the success of institutions and their departments, at all levels of management, to support the fulfillment of the institutional vision, mission, and goals. Participants agreed, to a high degree, on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for the job performance evaluation, with regard to the dimension of accomplishment. This aligns with Kamal et al. (2016), who emphasised that e-training significantly improves employee performance. The efficiency of e-training positively affects job performance by 25.3%, ultimately increasing employees’ work accomplishments. More importantly, participants highly agreed on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for evaluating job performance, with regard to the dimension of employee professional development. The result of this study is consistent with Kamal et al. (2016) and Monaco (2017). E-training has noticeable positive outcomes on the performance and development of employees and a significant impact on the achievement of benefits for employees. Participants highly agreed on the impact of e-training in terms of meeting the requirements for the job performance evaluation, in relation to the dimension of engagement.

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This is consistent with the results of Gavril et al. (2017), Kamal et al. (2016), Subramaniam and Nakkeeran (2019), Monaco (2017) and Sharma et al. (2016). Etraining is an effective means of employee development to help overcome and bridge the gap between job goals and employee performance, as well as employees’ sense of engagement in their workplace and motivation at work. In addition, the results of this study show statistically significant differences in terms of the demographic variables for qualification level and number of years of experience in terms of perceiving the benefits and impact of e-training, in line with the study by Kamal et al. (2016); they recommended that all employees should be involved in e-training programmes provided through institutional training courses and self-paced training opportunities to enhance knowledge exchange based on different expertise, previous experience, age, and other variables. This research highlights the need to leverage technological tools and resources to upskill universities’ employees. Universities can exploit ICT tools and knowledge openness in developing e-training programmes and solutions to support employees to reach their full potential. There is a growing need to measure the impact of e-training to fulfil the requirements to evaluate the job performance of employees in universities from the perspectives of stakeholders. University stakeholders should invest in the development of training modalities and policies that can support the implementation of e-training and enhance employees’ skills, capabilities, and competence.

9. Conclusion Training approaches are important to ensure that employees in higher education institutions acquire the necessary competencies and skills. Providing e-training opportunities enhances the spirit of cooperation among employees. Employees can also collaborate in training with peers, sharing their expertise and knowledge, and thereby training one another. In addition, employees can collaborate in terms of content creation for job evaluation competencies and e-training kits, enhancing their sense of responsibility. It is important to diversify e-training modalities and approaches to include self-learning and lifelong learning opportunities. This study also recommends the creation of integrated training programmes that extend over long training periods and include the necessary skills required to evaluate job performance and the accomplishment of work tasks. One area for future research involves the potential challenges that could impede effective etraining and hinder the ability to meet job performance evaluation requirements. It is also important to investigate how to design customised e-training programmes to meet the requirements for specific job performance evaluation, tailored to institutional and individual needs and goals. This research, however, is subject to several limitations. First, the study occurred at one Saudi university and is geographically limited. It also relied on a small sample size and it may not be possible to generalise the reported perceptions to the whole institution or Saudi Arabia as a whole. Other researchers may replicate the study by including different institutions in different geographical regions. Second, all the data were self-reported and may suffer from social desirability bias. Thus, readers should interpret the findings with caution.

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10. References Al-Hila, A. A., Alhelou, E., Al Shobaki, M. J., & Abu Naser, S. S. (2017). The impact of applying the dimensions of IT Governance in improving e-training-: Case study of the Ministry of Telecommunications and Information Technology in Gaza Governorates. International Journal of Engineering and Information Systems (IJEAIS), 1(7), 194–219. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01628897 Al Mashagbh, A., Din, R., Nasir, M. M. K, Halim, L., & Al-Batainah, R. A. (2019). Reliability and Validity of Online Individualized Multimedia Instruction Instrument for Engineering Communication Skills. Creative Education, 10(12), 3041-3048. https://doi.org /10.4236/ce.2019.1012228 Andriushchenko, K. & Oleksandr, Rozhko & Tepliuk, Mariia & Iryna, Semenyshyna & Evgen, Kartashov & Anastasiia, Liezina. (2020). Digital Literacy Development Trends in the Professional Environment. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19, 55-79. http://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.4. Bari, M., Djouab, R., & Hoa, C. P. (2018). Elearning current situation and emerging challenges. PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences, 4(2), 97–109. https://dx.doi.org/10.20319/pijss.2018.42.97109 Barragán-Sánchez, R., Corujo-Vélez, M. C., Palacios-Rodríguez, A., & Román-Graván, P. (2020). Teaching Digital Competence And Eco-Responsible Use Of Technologies: Development And Validation Of A Scale. Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(18). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12187721 Bonfield, C. A., Salter, M., Longmuir, A., Benson, M., & Adachi, C. (2020). Transformation or Evolution?: Education 4.0, Teaching and Learning in the Digital Age. Higher Education Pedagogies, 5(1), 223–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/23752696.2020.1816847 Durmaz, Y., Serin, E., & Polat, H. (2018). Determination of problem-solving and communication skills of nursing/midwifery students. International Journal of Caring Sciences, 11(3), 1771-1777. http://www.internationaljournalofcaringsciences.org/docs/50_kaplanserin_ori ginal_11_3.pdf Gavril, R. M., Kiehne, J., Hell, C. R., & Kirschner, C. (2017). Impact assessment on the performance of e-learning in corporate training programs in the context of globalization. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Business Excellence, 11(1), 398–410. https://doi.org/10.1515/picbe-2017-0043 Golitsyna, I. N., Eminov, F. I., & Eminov, B. F. (2019). Education 4.0 in teaching/learning strategies. Proceedings - International Conference on Developments in ESystems Engineering, DeSE, October-20, 205–208. https://doi.org/10.25046/aj060254 Guidelines for Job Performance Management Regulations. (2021). Ministry of Human Resources Development. https://shortest.link/2INR Kamal, K. B., Aghbari, M., & Atteia, M. (2016). E-training & employees’ performance a practical study on the Ministry of Education in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Journal of Resources Development and Management, 18. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JRDM/article/view/29346/30135 Kattuah, S., & Odeh, K. (2017). E-training implementation in Saudi Arabia: An exploratory study in private sector in Jeddah. European Journal of Business and Management, 9(20), 30–36. Monaco, E. J. (2017). Using technology-assisted education to further employee development. The Educational Review, USA, 1(2), 26–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.26855/er.2017.02.002 Oproescu, M., Iana, G., Jianu, E., & Anghel, M. R. (2019). E-learning in computer-assisted training, advantages, disadvantages, and future trends. In 2019 11th International

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Conference on Electronics, Computers and Artificial Intelligence (ECAI) (pp. 1–6). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ECAI46879.2019.9042063 Pham, P.-T., Tran, B. D., Phan, T.-T.-T., Nguyen, T.-H., Nguyen, M.-T. & Tuyet, T. L. T., Nguyen, D. H., Yen, D. H., & Nguyen, T.-T. (2020). Managing Continuing Education via Distance Learning and Face-to-Face Courses for Human Resource Development in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(10), 150-171. http://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.10.9 Nizhenkovska, Iryna & Reva, Tatyana & Chkhalo, Oksana & Holovchenko, Oksana. (2020). Technology-Driven Self-Directed Learning of Graduate Pharmaceutists: Adding Value through Entrepreneurship. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19, 111-126. http://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.7 Quratul-Ain Talpur, A. J., Murtaza, G., Memon, Z. A., & Bukhari, H. (2017). The relationship between employees’ training and their performance in public universities in Pakistan. NICE Research Journal of Social Science, 9, 47–60. https://doi.org/10.51239/nrjss.v0i0.41 Rahman, A. B. A., Hussain, M. A. M., & Zulkifli, R. M. (2020). Teaching vocational with technology: A study of teaching aids applied in Malaysian vocational classroom. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(7), 176-188. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.7.10 Satiman, A., & Boonlue, S. (2020). The development of e-training system for government officers Bangkok metropolitan administration, Thailand. In Proceedings of the 2020 3rd International Conference on Computers in Management and Business (pp. 180–183). ICCMB. https://doi.org/ 10.1145/3383845.3383901 Sharma, S., Garg, S., & Mittal, S. K. (2016). Importance, role and impact of e-training on employees in workplace. In V. Atal & R. S. Dubey (Eds.), Proceedings of the 14th International Conference of the Society for Global Business & Economic Development (SGBED) (pp. 474–485). Montclair State University. Siswanto, Y., Sutarto, J., & Mulyono, S. E. (2018). E-training based on determination of education and training models of early childhood teachers education programs. Journal of Nonformal Education, 4(2), 107–118. https://doi.org/10.15294/jne.v4i2.15517 Subramaniam, R., & Nakkeeran, S. (2019). Impact of corporate e-learning systems in enhancing the team performance in virtual software teams. In A. Al-Masri & K. Curran (Eds.), Smart technologies and innovation for a sustainable future (pp. 195– 204). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01659-3_22 Tikhonov, A. (2020). Corporate training programs in Russian and foreign companies: Impact on staff and time challenges. International Journal of Higher Education, 9(3), 183–189. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v9n3p183 Yusuf, R. M., & Hasnidar, H. (2020). Work-family conflict and career development on performance of married women employees. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147-4478), 9(1), 151–162. https://doi.org/10.20525/ijrbs.v9i1.601 Zainab, B., Awais Bhatti, M., & Alshagawi, M. (2017). Factors affecting e-training adoption: An examination of perceived cost, computer self-efficacy and the technology acceptance model. Behaviour & Information Technology, 36(12), 1261– 1273. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2017.1380703

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 72-88, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.5 Received Dec 13, 2021; Revised Feb 11, 2022; Accepted Feb 13, 2022

Analysis of the English Language Needs of the Saudi Tourism Workforce: A First Step into Designing ESP Teaching Materials Eidhah Abdullah AbdulRaheem Al-Malki Foreign Languages Department, Taif University, Taif, KSA Choudhary Zahid Javid* Foreign Languages Department, Taif University, Taif, KSA Muhammad Umar Farooq English Language Center, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia Ghazi Fahad Algethami Foreign Languages Department, Taif University, Taif, KSA Adel Awadh Al-Harthi Foreign Languages Department, Taif University, Taif, KSA Abstract. Communication skills are extremely important for the tourism industry; they form an integral part of most tourism activities. Using English, as the international lingua franca, is an essential part of these skills, especially for international tourism. Saudi Vision 2030 places a high importance on international tourism as a driving force for economic growth. Since the inception of the Saudi Vision 2030, the tourism industry in Saudi Arabia, along with its workforce, has been growing substantially. Therefore, designing English language teaching materials for the tourism industry workforce in Saudi Arabia is a necessity. The current study firstly aimed to analyze the English language communicative needs of the Saudi tourism workforce, and then propose an English for Specific Purposes (ESP) model for teaching English based on their needs. A nation-wide survey was designed and distributed to sixty-two male and fifteen female workers serving in the Saudi tourism industry to determine their English language communicative needs. Listening and speaking were found to be highly important to their profession, in particular understanding instructions and requirements and providing details about touristic attractions. Reading and vocabulary were found more important than writing and

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

grammatical accuracy. The study concludes with a proposal of an ESP teaching model to meet the English language communicative needs of the tourism workforce in Saudi Arabia. Keywords: language teaching; ESP; needs analysis; Communication; Saudi; Tourism

1. Introduction

Tourism is a major source of income for many national economies (Fujita, 2020). It is “a social, cultural and economic phenomenon which entails the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal or business/professional purposes” (United Nation World Tourism Organization, n.d.: www.unwto.org). The United Nations World Tourism Organization predicts that by 2030 there will be more than 1.8 billion international tourists. This booming increase in the number of people travelling for touristic purposes has created an industry for travelling and tourism agencies. These agencies’ work provides a wide array of services to tourists. These services include providing a guide who accompanies travelers and tourists to attraction sites. Communication between the agencies and guides on one hand, and the travelers or tourists on the other is inevitable. For this reason, communication skills, including language proficiency, are vital for the work of tourism guides and agencies (Ap & Wong, 2001; Bobanovic & Grzinic, 2011; Dhiman, 2012). Much of the communication takes place between people who do not share the same first language (Prachanant, 2012). English is the global lingua franca, and it is widely used for communication between people who do not share the same language background (Crystal, 2003). In tourism, English is the most widely used language for communication with international tourists; a good command of English is certainly an added value for any worker in the tourism industry, regardless of their position (Blue & Harun, 2003; Gonzalez-Pastor, 2013). Therefore, any national tourism industry interested in attracting international tourists for any purpose should prioritize equipping its workforce with a good command of English specific to tourism (Al-Khatib, 2005; Dhiman, 2012; Kim et al., 2017). In fact, in addition to the overall proficiency in English, there is a growing need for equipping professionals working or planning to work in the tourism industry with the communicative English skills needed for their profession, such as providing or asking for information (Blue & Harun, 2003; Bobanovic & Grzinic, 2011; Yasmin et al., 2016). Teaching English for specific or occupational purposes is not new. In fact, it is by now a well-established language teaching approach which focuses on satisfying the specific needs of English learners (Anthony, 2018). A stakeholders’ needs analysis is a prerequisite for developing curriculum or materials for teaching English for specific or occupational purposes. A few studies have examined the English language communicative needs in the tourism profession in various contexts (Al-Khatib, 2005; Blue & Harun, 2003; Bobanovic & Grzinic, 2011; Crystal, 2003; Fujita, 2020; Rahim & Tazijan, 2011). To tailor the teaching materials to meet the needs of a specific population, it is necessary to consider the learners’ local context (Anthony, 2018).

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Saudi Arabia has launched an ambitious campaign (Vision 2030) to transform and diversify the economy. It is currently building mega touristic cities (for example, Neom and the Red Sea project) and investing in other large projects in the tourism industry (Kane & Al-Khudair, 2021). Two of the key components of this vision are increasing the investment in tourism and allowing and facilitating the entrance of international tourists and visitors. For the first time in recent years Saudi Arabia has issued tourist visas for international visitors. These can be issued online and in a matter of a few days. The ultimate goal is to be a regional and international hub for international tourists. For this reason, there has been a growing interest in offering training courses and qualifications in tourism-related fields. Now there are even colleges specializing in tourism and hospitality (for example, https://www.tvtc.gov.sa/index-en.html). This growth in both tourism services and tourism training is unprecedented in the history of Saudi Arabia. The current study seeks to provide an insight into the English language communicative needs of the Saudi tourism workforce considering the aforementioned importance of the English language to the tourism industry and the new place for tourism in Saudi Arabia. This is a first step in developing English language teaching materials tailored specifically to meet the needs of the Saudi tourism workforce. The researchers are not aware of any other study that has examined the English language communicative needs of the Saudi tourism workforce. The current study concludes by suggesting a model for teaching ESP for the Saudi tourism workforce based on the needs analysis results.

2. Research Questions

1. How important is the English language for the Saudi tourism workforce? 2. How important are various English language skills for the Saudi tourism workforce? 3. How important are various English language sub-skills for the Saudi tourism workforce?

3. Literature Review

3.1 Language Needs Analysis ESP is directed towards serving the language communicative needs of a specific discourse community (Brown, 2009; Swales, 1990). Collecting and analyzing information about the language needs of a specific community is the first step necessary for developing ESP courses or materials for that specific community (Anthony, 2018; Maswana & Tajino, 2020). A needs analysis leads to the development of “a defensible curriculum” which “satisfies the language learning and teaching requirements of the students and teachers within the context of particular institution(s) involved” (Brown, 2009, p. 269). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) introduced three types of language needs: i) Necessities: what the learners must know; ii) Lacks: the difference between what the learners know and what they need to know, and iii) Wants: what the learners want to know. The current study focuses on the third type (wants) because there are no previous studies examining the needs or language proficiency of the Saudi tourism workforce. Several studies have examined the language needs of professionals working in the tourism industry in other countries (Al-Khatib, 2005; Blue & Harun, 2003; Bobanovic & Grzinic, 2011; Davies, 2000; Prachanant, 2012; Rahim & Tazijan, 2011; Yasmin et al., 2016). However, needs

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analysis should focus on the needs of a specific community of learners and their learning context (Anthony, 2018; Maswana & Tajino, 2020). In fact, Blue and Harun (2003) mentioned that the language used in hospitality is culturally bound. 3.2 Needs Analysis Model It is reported that a comprehensive needs analysis would help ESP researchers and practitioners to identify the learners’ needs efficiently (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998; Flowerdew, 2013; Ghulamullah et al., 2011; Khan et al., 2011; Songhori, 2008). There are two major aspects in any needs analysis model: present situation analysis (PSA) and target situation analysis (TSA). Javid and Khan (2013) have reported that TSA covers wants, means, and the subjective needs of learners that may affect the way they learn. It basically aims to record the learners’ language needs to communicate with international visitors. It also documents their qualifications, experience in the field, and cultural information, among others. On the other hand, PSA attempts to investigate the learners’ current proficiency in various language skills and sub-skills which determines the assessment of their difficulties in English (Kim et al., 2017; Liu & Zhang, 2020). PSA includes pedagogic needs as well as the learners’ background knowledge and English proficiency (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Yundayani, 2018). Both approaches help to identify the learners’ present knowledge of English, their deficiencies or lack in using English, and their needs (Yundayani, 2018). In addition, some needs analysis models have included the learners’ interests and attitudes, and their learning styles as well (Cohen & Macaro, 2007; Bidabadi & Yamat, 2010). This will help researchers and material designers select suitable resources and strategies to help their learners improve their language communication skills effectively (Cohen & Macaro, 2007) and develop effective learning strategies (Horwitz, 2012). The second major factor in designing a needs analysis model is motivation, both intrinsic and extrinsic (Javid et al., 2012). The third factor is communicative needs, keeping in mind local culture and social values. This will help the learners to communicate better in the target situation. This is similar to target situation analysis, register analysis, discourse analysis, and genre analysis as defined in other needs analysis models (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998; West, 1994). 3.3 Previous Studies The high level of importance of ESP for tourism generated a considerable amount of research examining the English language used in various tourism sectors, which includes the study of its linguistic and communicative aspects and the communicative needs of its workforce (Fujita, 2020). For example, Blue and Harun (2003) conducted a case study which highlighted the distinctive aspects of the language used in the hospitality sector in the UK. They recommended the design of ESP training courses for personnel working in the hospitality sector. Those that examined the language needs of the tourism industry workforce which are relevant to the current study are discussed as follows. One of the earliest studies that examined the language needs of the tourism industry is that of Davies (2000). In the UK context, her results showed that speaking a foreign language was a clear advantage for those working in the tourism sectors. In addition, it was found that listening and speaking skills were of high importance to her participants. In another European context, Bobanovic and Grzinic (2011) ran a questionnaire to determine the English language communicative needs of tourism

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students and employees in Croatia. Approximately 70% of the employees surveyed mentioned that they needed reading and writing for business correspondence. Only 10% of them also believed that their speaking skills were poor. Accent, speaking fast, and idiomatic English were found to be among the obstacles the employees faced when they tried to comprehend the spoken language. In the Asian context, Prachanant (2012) surveyed the English language communicative needs of 40 employees working in international tourism companies in Thailand. The results showed that, for the surveyed employees, speaking and listening were more important than reading and writing. Providing information and assistance were found to be the most needed communicative functions. Accented and fast speech and inadequate vocabulary were among the communication difficulties they faced during their communications. Rahim and Tazijan (2011) asked a number of managers and interns working in hotels in Penang in Malaysia about their oral communication needs. Answering customers’ enquires and requests were found to be highly relevant and important for their profession. Yasmin et al. (2016) explored the English language needs of 50 students and employees in the hospitality sector in Pakistan. Although listening and speaking skills were the most frequently used skills by professionals in the sector, reading and writing were also found to be highly important for a few activities. Listening to requests, complaints and responding to calls and enquires are among the most important listening and speaking activities for their participants. In addition, reading and responding to written complaints and requests were among the most valued language skills by the surveyed employees. Fujita (2020) analyzed the English language needs of those who work in the tourism industry in Japan. Listening and speaking skills were rated as the most necessary skills. Listening to fast and accented English was among the difficulties faced by the participants when they were involved in communication with international tourists. In a similar context to the current study, Al-Khatib (2005) examined the language needs of 15 bilingual (Arabic-English) senior staff working in the tourism industry in Jordan. In addition to acknowledging the need for English in their jobs, most of them mentioned that they needed English for communication purposes, which is in demand in an industry where there is much interaction between staff and clients. At least 27% of them also mentioned that they used English for correspondence purposes. Regarding their specific English language needs, most of the participants mentioned that they needed specialized vocabulary, as well as speaking and writing skills. The need for speaking skills and specialized vocabulary is to be expected in the tourism industry; however, the need for writing skill may be the result of the specific needs of the participants because of their senior positions.

4. Method

The aim of the current research is to examine the English language needs of the Saudi tourism workforce, and to propose a model for teaching English for current or future employees in the tourism industry in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, a quantitative crosssectional survey design was deemed appropriate for the current study. A five-point Likert scale was designed to collect data from employees working in various tourism sectors across Saudi Arabia.

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4.1 Participants Saudi Arabia is an emerging tourist destination, and the number of professionals working in the tourism industry has been increasing substantially. A convenience random sampling method was used to collect data from 77 professionals working in various tourism sectors, such as hotel managers, tour guides, academics, and public officials in governmental tourism offices. In the first half of 2021 the participants were contacted through various means, such as the telephone and email. Owing to the current international Covid-19 pandemic, it was extremely difficult to meet the participants in person as most of the offices and hotels were closed. 4.2 Research Instrument The survey consisted of 49 items. The first ten items were designed to elicit background information, such as educational and professional backgrounds, and the rest examined their English language communicative needs as professionals working in the tourism industry. Items 11 and 12 asked the participants about the importance of English for their jobs and the order of importance of the major language skills for tourism. The items about the language needs were presented to the participants in a five-point Likert scale with five options: (5) extremely important, (4) important, (3) moderately important, (2) slightly important, and (1) least important. The items presented for rating asked focused on the degree of importance of various language skills presented under the major language skill types: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary and grammar. The draft version constructed by the researchers was modified and revised following the suggestions of two experienced English language instructors and one statistics expert to ensure the validity of the survey. A pilot study was subsequently carried out to test the reliability and suitability of the questionnaire for the aim of the study and the appropriateness of the language used. Ten participants were requested to fill out the questionnaire, to provide feedback on the content and wording, and to provide suggestions on items that should be added or excluded. Lastly, the final draft of the questionnaire was revised and then administered to the target tourism employees. To assure the reliability of the questionnaire, a Cronbach alpha coefficient was calculated, and the result revealed a high coefficient at .9538, which demonstrates the high level of consistency between the respondents’ answers. The above steps were taken to assure the validity and reliability of the instrument to assist in reaching sound conclusions and implications for the English language needs of the tourism workforce in Saudi Arabia. Descriptive analysis was run to generate frequencies and percentages to determine the importance of the English language and its various skills and sub-skills for the Saudi tourism workforce. 4.3 Ethical Considerations The researchers submitted the final version of the questionnaire to the Research Ethics Committee of Taif University which allotted permission number 42-043 to the instrument. Furthermore, the vice-president of Taif University issued request letters to the Department of Tourism, Taif; the Department of Tourism, Jeddah; the College of Tourism and Hospitality, Taif; and the College of Tourism and Hospitality, Madinah to facilitate data collection from the Saudi tourism workforce.

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5. Results 5.1 Demographic Information The nature of the current research necessitated knowledge of the participants’ demographic information, such as qualifications, experience, and other relevant information. This may provide a snapshot of the demographics of people working in the tourism industry in Saudi Arabia, and may be of use to policy makers and designers of language teaching materials. The majority of the participants were males (79%) with female participants making up 21%. In fact, the number of females working in the tourism industry has been growing substantially since the inception of Vision 2030 (World Tourism Organization, 2020). The age range of the participants was wide, ranging from 18 to 64 years old. A total of 43% were in the age group of 35-44 years old. A sizable number of young people (13%) were among the participants, which indicates that the tourism industry in Saudi Arabia is attracting young people as well. This may also indicate that the industry is in fact growing. The rest of the participants (21% and 15%) were from the age groups of 25-34 and 45-54 years, respectively. With regard to the participants’ years of experience in the tourism industry, 38% of them had between six to 15 years of experience while 40% of the participants had less than five years of experience. This is in line with the age and gender information, which clearly indicates the growing nature of the tourism industry and the effectiveness of the governmental measures to promote tourism in light of its Vision 2030. Saudi Arabia is a large country geographically; however, the density of population is confined to a few cities across the Kingdom. The majority of the participants (23%) were from the capital, Riyadh. The two holy Islamic cities were next in terms of the workplace of the participants, namely Almadinah (19%) and Makkah (13%). Finally, 10% of the participants were from Dammam and 9% were from Taif, which are two of the major touristic destinations in Saudi Arabia. The majority of the participants had a bachelor’s degree. They have learned English as a foreign language in schools and at university level. A total of 22 participants reported that they had a masters’ degree while 70% also mentioned that they had a professional qualification in tourism. More than half of the participants (58%) mentioned that they had an English language proficiency test certificate. This clearly shows how important proficiency in English is to the tourism industry. 5.2 Language Communicative Needs The data generated from the participants’ responses towards the importance of the English language in effectively communicating with international tourists, and the significance of the various language skills and sub-skills are presented in terms of percentages in the following tables.

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5.2.1 English Language No 1 2 3 4 5 6

Table 1: English language needs Rank Frequency Percent Cumulative percent Extremely important 51 66.2 66.2 Important 17 22.1 88.3 Somewhat 2 2.6 90.9 important Least important 4 5.2 96.1 Not important 3 3.9 100 Total 77 100.0 100.0

Table 1 presents responses related to the importance of the English language. The vast majority of the participants recognized the importance of English to their profession, namely 66.23% acknowledged its extreme importance, and 22.1% ranked it important. Extremely low preferences were assigned to the other three options. This is expected as recent years have seen an influx of international tourists in Saudi Arabia, which precipitated the need for the English language to be able to communicate with international tourists who do not speak Arabic. 5.2.2 Language skills No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Table 2: Language skills needs Language Skills Frequency Percent Cumulative percent Speaking and 50 64.9 64.9 Pronunciation Listening Skills 10 13.0 77.9 Tourism Vocabulary 7 9.1 87 Writing Skills 4 5.2 92.2 Reading Skills 3 3.9 96.1 Grammar 3 3.9 100 Total 77 100.0

Table 2 details the responses of the participants regarding the importance of the various language skills in discharging their professional responsibilities in the field of tourism. A total of 64.9% of the participants considered speaking and pronunciation as the most important skills needed for their jobs. Other skills were found to be important to lesser degrees, namely listening (13%), vocabulary (9.1%), writing (5.2%), reading (3.9%) and grammar (3.9%). This is expected as the communication between tourism workers and international tourists is largely verbal in nature. The following tables report on the results of the survey items that examined the importance of the various language communicative skills for the tourism industry in Saudi Arabia. They are presented according to the main language skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing and grammar and vocabulary. The results are presented through descriptive analysis; therefore a higher mean denotes the participants’ preference. The data indicate that the vast majority of the participants assigned ‘extremely important’ or ‘important’ to all sub-skills of English language skills with

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negligible preferences for ‘slightly important’ or ‘least important’ as they considered all these sub-skills important for their profession. 5.2.3 Listening No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Table 3: Listening needs Questionnaire item n range Document personal details 77 4.00 Understand requirements 77 1.00 Understand instructions 77 1.00 Understand complaints 77 1.00 Respond to phone calls 77 2.00 Understand English slang 77 3.00 Record feedback and suggestions 77 3.00 Understand major accents 77 4.00

Min 1.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 1.00

max 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00

mean SD 4.4026 .84697 4.9091 .28936 4.8571 .35222 4.8442 .36509 4.7662 .48385 4.2597 .81761 4.4805 .68076 4.1429 1.00935

Table 3 presents the responses of the participants related to the importance of the various sub-skills of listening in the Saudi tourism market. The participants rated the importance of listening sub-skills as follows: understanding requirements (4.909), understanding instructions (4.857), understanding complaints (4.844), and responding to phone calls (4.766). This is to be expected given the nature of the services the tourism industry provides to its customers. Tourists have specific requirements regarding rooms, food, and facilities, among others; therefore, it is imperative that their requirements and instructions are understood perfectly, and at the same time that complaints, if any, are comprehended and resolved. Also, they have to attend to phone calls to be able to give efficient guidance to tourists regarding their plans and facilities. Other important aspects were documenting personal details (4.402) and recording feedback and suggestions (4.48). The least important aspects of the listening skills were understanding English slang and major accents (4.259 and 4.142). The results generally indicate that the immediate response to customers’ requests and requirements are highly important to the tourism workforce in Saudi Arabia. Standard deviation (SD) values suggest that for most preferred items, inter-rater differences are marginal. 5.2.4 Speaking and Pronunciation Table 4: Speaking and pronunciation needs No Questionnaire item N range min max 1 Introduce yourself 77 3.00 2.00 5.00 2 Greet and bid farewell 77 2.00 3.00 5.00 3 Provide details about attraction 77 3.00 2.00 5.00 4 Answer questions about 77 1.00 4.00 5.00 attractions 5 Provide required information 77 3.00 2.00 5.00 6 Describe diagrams and graphs 77 4.00 1.00 5.00 7 Make apologies or explain the 77 3.00 2.00 5.00 reason 8 Guide and provide directions 77 3.00 2.00 5.00 9 Provide information regarding the 77 4.00 1.00 5.00

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mean 4.6753 4.7922 4.7662 4.8052

SD .67749 .46841 .51032 .39865

4.7143 .53452 4.0130 1.03229 4.5584 .69762 4.5714 4.4545

.63719 .85140

10 11 12 13 14

culture and social norms Explain the financial packages Ask about tourists’ needs Use appropriate language for accepting or refusing requests Request tourists to share their feedback/suggestions Produce comprehensible speech sounds (sounds, stress, rhythm, and intonation)

77 77 77

4.00 4.00 4.00

1.00 1.00 1.00

5.00 5.00 5.00

4.0260 1.09993 4.5974 .74798 4.3506 .88505

3.00

2.00

5.00

4.5714

.67723

4.00

1.00

5.00

4.3117

.96327

The data presented in Table 4 show that the participants have considered various subskills of speaking and pronunciation needs as extremely important in discharging their responsibilities in various fields of the Saudi tourism industry. The most important aspects of the speaking skills were answering questions about attractions (4.805), greeting and bidding farewell (4.792), providing details about attractions (4.766), introducing oneself (4.675), providing the required information about attractions (4.714), and asking about tourists’ needs (4.597). The results reflect the type of interaction that takes place between tourism workers and tourists, which includes reception, information about attractions and answering questions. Providing guidance and directions and requesting tourists to share their feedback or suggestions as well as apologizing were found to be less important (4.571 and 4.558, respectively). The importance of ratings of other aspects of speaking include using appropriate language for accepting or refusing tourists’ requests (4.35), producing comprehensible speech: sounds, stress, rhythm, and intonation (4.311), explaining financial packages (4.026) and describing diagrams and graphs at tourist attractions (4.013). The SD values for all the items denote the participants’ agreement regarding the significance of the various sub-skills of this category. 5.2.5 Reading Table 5: Reading needs No Questionnaire item n range Min 1 Understand social media 77 3.00 2.00 messages of tourists 2 Understand emails of tourists 77 2.00 3.00 3 Understand requests, plans and 77 2.00 3.00 queries of tourists 4 Understand brochures at tourist 77 2.00 3.00 attractions 5 Understand signs, rules and 77 3.00 2.00 notices at tourist attractions 6 Feedback from tourists 77 2.00 3.00

max 5.00

mean 4.4416

SD .76937

5.00 5.00

4.6623 4.6234

.55275 .58577

5.00

4.6234

.58577

5.00

4.6234

.64968

5.00

4.5455

.63960

Understanding tourists’ emails received the highest importance rating (4.6) by the participants. The participants assigned the same mean of 4.6 to other items, namely understanding requests, plans and queries of tourists, understanding brochures at tourists’ attraction, and understanding signs, rules and notices at tourist attractions. The least rated reading sub-skills were reading feedback from tourists (4.545) and

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understanding social media messages of tourists (4.441). It is clear that reading skills are important for the participants, but not to the same extent as speaking and listening. An interesting finding is that the participants are in agreement with each other as indicated by the low SD for all items. 5.2.6 Writing Table 6: Writing needs No Questionnaire item n range Min 1 Write messages and emails to 77 4.00 1.00 tourists 2 Respond to tourists’ queries 77 3.00 2.00 3 Take notes while talking to 77 3.00 2.00 tourists 4 Write instructions about tourist 77 3.00 2.00 attractions 5 Write description of tourist 77 3.00 2.00 attractions 6 Write reports on tourist attractions 77 4.00 1.00 7 Write proposals for improvement 77 4.00 1.00 in tourism marketing

max 5.00

mean 4.1429

SD .92785

5.00 5.00

4.3117 4.2208

.84697 .89771

5.00

4.3377

.80476

5.00

4.3247

.90962

5.00 5.00

4.1558 .97421 4.0649 1.00443

Writing did not receive the same high ratings as did the other skills; however, all items received a reasonably high mean value of more than 4. This may indicate that writing is not a priority for many of the workers in the tourism industry. The writing skills were rated as follows: writing instructions about tourists’ attractions (4.337), writing descriptions of tourist attractions (4.324), responding to tourists’ queries (4.31), taking notes while talking to tourists (4.22), writing reports on tourist attractions (4.155), writing messages and emails to tourists (4.142), and writing proposals for the improvement of tourism marketing (4.064). 5.2.7 Vocabulary and Grammar Table 7: Vocabulary and grammar No Questionnaire item n range Min 1 Use specific vocabulary related to 77 2.00 3.00 tourism 2 Use appropriate language 77 3.00 2.00 structure for communication

max 5.00

mean 4.5065

SD .66141

5.00

4.3506

.73924

Vocabulary was rated as more important than grammar. It was rated as extremely important with a mean rating of 4.506, while using appropriate grammar was also rated as important with a mean rating of 4.35.

6. Discussion

The current study sought to address an urgent issue in the teaching of English language in Saudi Arabia. It aimed to explore the English language communicative needs of the Saudi tourism workforce, and to propose a teaching model for ESP tourism in Saudi Arabia. To this end, a sample of 77 people working in various

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tourism sectors in Saudi Arabia were approached and requested to complete a survey examining the importance of several communicative language skills related to the main language skills: listening, speaking and pronunciation, reading, writing and vocabulary and grammar. In line with previous studies (for example, those of Al-Khatib, 2005; Harun & Blue, 2003), most of the participants mentioned that English language is highly important for their jobs. They ordered the importance of the main English language skills as follows: Speaking and pronunciation, listening, tourism vocabulary, writing, reading and grammar. This finding is in line with the language needs analysis conducted in other contexts (in the UK, Japan, Thailand and Pakistan in studies by Davies, 2000; Fujita, 2020; Prachanant, 2012; Yasmin et al., 2016). On the other hand, the participants in a study byAl-Khatib (2005) mentioned that they needed specialized vocabulary and writing owing to the nature of their supervisory jobs. In addition, Bobanovic and Grzinic (2011) mentioned that 70% of their participants needed reading and writing. This is probably owing to the fact that their participants were students and officials working in tourism agencies. These findings show that a customized ESP for a specific context is necessary. It supports the initial premises on which the language needs analysis was built (Afzali & Rezapoorian, 2014). The participants in the current study were from diverse professional backgrounds; therefore, it is possible that writing and reading skills for governmental officials and workers in supervisory roles are more important than speaking and listening skills. It was not possible to run an analysis by specific professions in the current study for two reasons. First, dividing the participants into groups based on the specific nature of their job within the tourism industry would yield a very small number of participants in each group, which would make generalization of the same population untenable. Second, the focus of the current study is on the population of the Saudi workforce involved in the tourism industry in general. The main finding of the current study was expected as the need for speaking and listening skills reflects the nature of the verbal interaction that takes place between workers and customers or tourists. With regard to the listening skills, understanding requirements, complaints, instructions and phone calls were considered to be of high importance for the participants. This result is similar to the result found by Rahim and Tazijan (2011) and Yasmin et al. (2016) whose participants were working in the hospitality business. Although accented and fast speech were among the obstacles faced by the participants in studies by Bobanovic and Grzinic (2011) and Fujita (2020), the participants in the current study did not place a high level of importance on understanding the major English accents. Greeting and bidding farewell and providing information and answering questions about attractions were rated as highly important speaking skills by the participants in the current study. This is in line with the national efforts towards the introduction of heritage sites and attractions to international tourists. This finding is supported by the finding regarding the writing and reading skills in which the participants also considered writing and reading descriptions of tourist attractions as highly important. Similar to the Al-Khatib (2005) study, the participants also mentioned that using vocabulary specific to tourism was important.

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7. Conclusion

The current study ran an analysis of the English language communicative needs of the Saudi tourism workforce serving in various sectors of the Saudi tourism industry. It specified the importance of English language and various language communicative skills for professionals working in this industry. The needs analysis is a first step towards developing customized English language learning materials in an attempt to meet the specific needs of this rapidly growing community. The results of this investigation reveal that English language proficiency is extremely important for the Saudi workforce to communicate successfully with both national and international tourists. The study also revealed that speaking skills are the most important skill in this regard as most of the time the Saudi tourism workforce need to communicate verbally with the tourists to address to their needs. Reasonably high preferences were assigned to other language skills as well. The results related to the significance of various language sub-skills are also in line with the participants’ high level of preference for speaking skills. The other most needed sub-skills were listening and reading skills. This is evidence that the participants of this survey understood and highlighted the significance of listening and reading sub-skills to maintain effective communication with tourists. The lowest mean values were recorded for vocabulary, grammar and writing sub-skills, signifying their respective significance. The results of this investigation strongly suggest that the Saudi tourism workforce studying at colleges of tourism and hospitality situated in various regions of the KSA should be taught tailor-made courses based on their identified PSA instead of using commercial English language teaching materials. Furthermore, it is also necessary that on-the-job training courses need to be provided for the Saudi tourism workforce serving in various tourism sectors to augment their communicative skills. Therefore, the following model is proposed as an initial step for developing English language teaching materials, programs or courses. 7.1 A Customized English for Tourism Marketing Model This study has suggested a model based on the results of this investigation and much previous research in the field following a pragmatic approach based on the fact that individual knowledge is grounded in individual experience. For a needs analysis, the Saudis working in tourism marketing were contacted through the ministry, institutions, offices, and personal contacts to provide their feedback on the survey as discussed above. This enabled the researchers with an opportunity to gather the necessary amount of information to obtain an understanding of the context of Saudi tourism marketing. The following customized model is suggested for the Saudi tourism workforce.

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•Academic Qualification •Professional Qualifcation

•Experience •Age •Learning Style

Present situation analysis

Motivation

Communicative needs

(Extrinsic) •Opportunities •New Projects •Culture •Trainings

(Intrinsic)

•Listening & Speaking (70%) •Reading, Writing, Grammar & Vocabulary (30%)

Figure 6: A customized model for Saudi workforce working in tourism marketing This customized model for the Saudi workforce in tourism marketing places the learners in the center and suggests four areas: i) PSA, ii) motivation (intrinsic), iii) communicative needs, and iv) motivation (extrinsic). Although previous studies focused on a wide range of specialized occupational contexts (Kim, 2013; Mohammadi & Mousavi, 2013) and some were conducted in academic contexts (Rostami & Zafarghandi, 2014; Shing & Sim, 2011), they failed to investigate the needs in local and cultural contexts. Therefore, the customized model includes motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) as well as learning styles. Based on an analysis of the data and findings of this study and insights from previous research, it can be concluded that the customized model ‘English for Tourism Marketing’ will help the government officials, material designers and institutions to prepare courses and materials for the Saudi workforce in the field of tourism industry to improve their language skills while communicating with the international visitors in English. Author Contributions: All authors contributed to the various parts of the current research, and the order of the authors reflects the weight of their contributions. Funding: This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Taif University, Group Project Grant, 1-441-94. Institutional Review Board Statement: The research was approved by the Research Ethical Committee at Taif University (Decision: 42-043). Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.

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Data Availability Statement: Data are available from the first author upon request. Acknowledgments: Grateful thanks are extended to the Taif University for funding the current research. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 89-106, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.6 Received Sep 30, 2021; Revised Jan 24, 2022; Accepted Feb 13, 2022

Entry Requirements as Predictors of the Academic Performance of Postgraduate Students in Universities in Zimbabwe Norman Rudhumbu* and Patience Kelebogile Mudau College of Education, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa Abstract. One of the major strategies that universities use to ensure quality in education is the use of entry requirements as a screening procedure to ensure that only those considered to be the ‘best’ students are admitted. Whether these so-called ‘best’ students eventually perform to expectations academically is an issue on which conclusive evidence does not exist. Also, recruiting students with high entry requirements is viewed in universities as a confidence-building exercise with regard to the quality of graduates churned out by educational institutions. This study, therefore, examined whether a significant relationship exists between entry requirements and the academic performance of postgraduate students admitted into universities in Zimbabwe based on different entry qualifications. The study used a descriptive research design that employed a quantitative approach located in the post-positivist paradigm. A sample of 110 Master of Education in Mathematics (M.Ed MT) students admitted into the programme based on the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) and the Bachelor of Science Education (BScEd) degrees was randomly selected from a population of 200 M.EdMT students from four universities in Zimbabwe. The t-test and ANOVA were used to analyse the data. The study revealed that degree classifications at the undergraduate level had no significant influence on the academic performance of postgraduate students. It was also concluded that there were no significant differences in the academic performance of students admitted into the M.EdMT programme based on the B.Ed. and BScEd degrees. Keywords: academic performance; degree classifications; entry requirements; postgraduate students; university students; universities

1. Introduction and background The recruitment of students by means of high university or programme entry requirements may be critical for ensuring that university education achieves its mandate (Haj et al., 2018). Entry requirements are used to filter and screen *

Corresponding author: Norman Rudhumbu; nrudhumbu@buse.ac.zw

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

students so that universities admit only those students they consider the best, and who have a better chance of progressing and succeeding in their studies (Haj et al., 2018). According to Haj et al. (2018, p. 3), entry requirements refer to “a process of matching, guidance and selection that enables students to access university education at the different levels”. From the above definitions, it can be concluded that entry requirements represent the single most important indicators of students’ future successful handling of the intellectual rigours of particular programmes in an educational institution. In the context of Zimbabwean universities, undergraduate students with either distinctions or 2.1-degree classes have a higher likelihood of being admitted into postgraduate studies than those with lower entry qualifications. Also, such students are deemed to have a better chance of successfully completing their studies when compared with those with weaker passes. This further shows that these entry requirements may be important in predicting a student’s current readiness and future ability to progress in academic programmes offered by an educational institution. The current study sought to establish whether entry requirements have a significant influence on the academic performance of postgraduate (master’s students). An entry requirement for prospective students to postgraduate programmes in Zimbabwe is a good undergraduate degree in a relevant area of specialisation. A good degree is one that has a high degree classification such as either a distinction, merit or credit classification in the area of specialisation. In this study, an education-related undergraduate degree is considered to be an entry requirement for education-related postgraduate studies (University of Zimbabwe, 2021; Bindura University of Science Education, 2021; Great Zimbabwe University, 2021). Only 22 universities in Zimbabwe are mandated to train teachers and lecturers in education (Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science and Technology Development, 2021). Of the 22 universities, 20 train students in the Master of Education (M.Ed.) degree specialising in mathematics, while the remaining two universities train teachers and lecturers in science education. For a student to be admitted to an M.Ed. degree, he or she should have either a good pass in either a Bachelor of Science Education degree (BScEd) or a Bachelor of Education degree (B.Ed.) in their areas of specialisation (Bindura University of Science Education, 2021; University of Zimbabwe, 2021; Great Zimbabwe University, 2021). Degree classification is used as a means to show whether a degree is a good degree or not. Undergraduate and postgraduate degree classifications at universities in Zimbabwe are as shown in Table 1 while postgraduate degree classifications are as shown in Table 2 (University of Zimbabwe, 2021; Great Zimbabwe University, 2021). Table 1: Undergraduate degree classifications Degree class Mark range 1 75 – 100% 2.1 65 – 74% 2.2 60 – 64% 3 50 – 59% F 49 and below Source: Bindura University of Science Education (2021)

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Description Distinction (D) Merit (M) Credit (C) Pass (P) Fail (F)

Table 2: Postgraduate degree classifications Degree class Mark range 1 80 – 100% 2.1 70 – 79% 2.2 60 – 69% 3 50 – 59% F 49 and below Source: Bindura University of Science Education (2021)

Description Distinction (D) Merit (M) Credit (C) Pass (P) Fail (F)

The important consideration regarding the differences between the degree classification scales in Tables 1 and 2 is the point at which a distinction is conferred to a student. For postgraduate students, a distinction is conferred when the overall mark is at least 80%, while for undergraduate students the conferment of distinction status is 75% and upwards. This was decided because postgraduate students are mature students who are expected to have had more time than the undergraduate students to acclimatise to the pressures of institutional social and academic environments, hence are expected to perform at higher levels than the undergraduate students (Bindura University of Science Education, 2021). Various studies have sought to establish whether there are any significant academic performance differences between students admitted to undergraduate programmes based on different entry requirements (Abdulkadir, Onibere & Odion, 2019; Murray, 2017). Not much research, however, has been conducted to establish whether entry requirements have an effect on the academic performance of students admitted into postgraduate programmes, based on different academic admission requirements. It is in this context that this study wished to establish whether there were significant differences between the academic performance of students admitted to the M.EdMT degree programme based on B.Ed. and BScEd degrees. These findings could have implications for both policy and practice with regard to the admission of students to university postgraduate programmes. Research questions 1. Is there any significant difference between entry requirements and the academic performance of postgraduate students? 2. To what extent do undergraduate degree classifications contribute to the academic performance of postgraduate students?

2. Literature review: Conceptual and theoretical frameworks In this section, the concept of academic performance is discussed, as well as the theory that was used as a theoretical lens for the study. 2.1. Conceptualising academic performance There have been a multiplicity of debates and discussions on the relationship between entry requirements and the academic performance of students in universities (Murray, 2017). It is necessary to link entry requirements to academic performance because academic performance relates to that which manifests itself through knowledge, skills, attitudes and understanding of ideas, which can be defined as students’ ability to demonstrate mastery of what has been taught and learnt (Wambugu & Emeke, 2016). Abdulkadir et al. (2019) also define academic

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performance as knowledge attained or skills developed in school subjects as reflected by test scores assigned by teachers. Based on the above definitions and as explained by Odukoya, Adekeye, Atayero, Omole et al. (2018), academic performance acts as a yardstick for the confirmation of the competencies of students after a learning experience. It can also be argued, from the above definitions, that academic performance is a demonstration of the abilities and skills of students after a learning session. In other words, and based on the above definitions, academic performance is what a student is able to do after going through some learning, as measured by scores in either a formative or summative assessment. 2.2. Relationship between student entry requirements and academic performance The connection between entry requirements and academic performance has been studied broadly and results suggest that academic performance can be affected by a number of factors, among which is students’ entry requirements (Abdulhadir & Ogwueleka, 2019; Haj et al., 2018; Wambugu & Emeke, 2016). A study by Syed (Sulphey, AlKahtani & Syed, 2018) found a positive correlation between entry qualifications and the academic performance of students admitted into universities based on different entry requirements and further found that sciencebased students performed better than non-science-based students. A number of other studies also found significant relationships between academic performance and admission requirements (Aciro, Onen, Malinga, Ezati & Openjuru, 2021; Adamu, Anza & Hananiya, 2019; Brook & Roberts, 2021; Olubusayo, 2021). A strong relationship between entry requirements and the academic performance of students was also confirmed in studies by Alamoudi et al. (2021), Kurlaender and Cohen (2019); Abdullah and Mizra (2018), and Ferrão and Almeida (2019), which established that students with, for example, an A grade as either their preuniversity or pre-programme entry qualification had a very high likelihood of not only attaining high grades in their studies but also of completing their studies. Other studies, however, found no significant academic performance differences between students admitted to university programmes based on different entry requirements. This was confirmed in studies by Abdulkadir et al. (2019) and Queensoap, Arogo, Dogitimiye, Williams and Maxwell (2017), who found no significant relationships between entry requirements and differences between the academic performances of students admitted to university programmes based on different entry requirements. The above results were confirmed in a study by Mutiso and Muthama (2019), who found that entry results did not have a strong effect on the academic performance of students. The above results, therefore, demonstrate that there is no conclusive evidence of the relationship between entry requirements and the academic performance of students. While some studies suggest that there is a strong relationship, others claim that there is no significant relationship between entry requirements and the academic performance of students. This shows that the relationship between entry requirements and academic performance is still an area needing further research as there might be other variables, besides entry requirements, that may be contributory to the nature of the academic performance of students. For example,

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differences in the academic performance of students with different entry qualifications could be a result of factors such as teaching environment and quality of teaching, class size, the age and the gender of students. Other factors that may also affect the link between entry qualifications and academic performance could be that the university where the student has done his or her undergraduate studies may not have had adequate resources, hence affecting the quality of the entry qualifications of the student. However, when admitted to a university with adequate resources, such a student may perform much better than those students with higher entry qualifications. The effect of undergraduate degree classifications in the academic performance of postgraduate students has been discussed extensively as potentially contributing to the academic performance of postgraduate students (Putpuek, Rojanaprasert, Atchariyachanvanich & Thamrongthanyawong, 2018). Various studies found a significant relationship between the academic performance of students and degree classifications at entry level. Studies by Tatar and Düstegör (2020), Shahiri, Husain and Rashid (2017), and Putpuek et al. (2018) established that degree classification had a significant effect on the performance of students in their programmes of study. As was the case with entry requirements, the lack of conclusive evidence on whether degree classifications contribute to differences in academic performance among students shows that there could be other factors related to degree classifications that contribute to the differences, if any, in the academic performance of students with different degree classifications. For example, one critical issue is that end of the semester (EOS) and end of course (EOP) examinations are internally set and administered by universities without going through the rigours of reliability and validity testing, as well as checking whether the items used in the assessments comply with the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. Without this rigour, this may mean that accurately measuring the performance of students according to the different degree classifications may not be as accurate as required, resulting in students who might have qualified for a distinction, failing to get one, or those who do not deserve to get distinctions, getting them. This could be a serious problem in measuring students’ pre-programme admissions, using degree classifications. Another issue could also be that universities in Zimbabwe show vast differences concerning teaching and learning resources - from the quality of staff and teaching to the adequacy of teaching and learning resources. Undergraduate students from poorly resourced institutions may have lower degree classifications when compared to those from highly resourced universities, where even brilliant students fail to get distinctions in their studies. Theoretical framework For this study, the Student Integration Model (SIM), developed by Tinto (1997), was employed as a theoretical lens guiding the study. The SIM is one of the most used models to explain the relationship between student academic performance and pre-university entry attributes of students. Based on the degree of fit between a student and the institutional environment, the model links either the pre2.3.

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university or pre-programme entry attributes of a student to the educational outcomes (Schreiber, Luescher-Mamashela & Moja, 2014). It is a model that is premised on the assumption that students enter colleges and universities, or enrol for programmes for further education with a range of background traits such as academic aptitude, pre-university achievement, socio-economic background, cultural backgrounds and others that have an effect on the extent to which they positively integrate with the academic and social environments of an institution and the extent to which they will perform academically (Arnekrans, 2014). The main purpose of the SIM is to explain how a student’s pre-university attributes help to shape his or her interactions with the institutional environment, as well as how such interactions impact the student’s academic performance (Arnekrans, 2014). In the context of this study, the SIM helps to explain how pre-postgraduate programme admission attributes of students (undergraduate degree classifications and type of degree programme) influence their academic performance at the postgraduate level. Based on the conceptual and theoretical frameworks, a research model (Figure 1) was developed and a number of hypotheses were formulated. Degree programme (DP)

Homogeneity of variance (HV)

Academic performance (AP) H3

Degree classification (DC) Figure 1: Research model

H1: There is a significant homogeneity of variance difference in the academic performance of students admitted into the M.EdMT programme based on the B.Ed. and the BScEd. degrees respectively. H2: There are significant differences in the academic performance of students enrolled in an M.EdMT programme based on the B.Ed. and BScEd. degrees respectively. H3: There are significant differences in the academic performance of M.EdMT students according to degree classification.

3. Research methodology In this section, the research design, research paradigm, research approach, sampling procedures, and methods of data collection and analysis are discussed. 3.1. Research design and sampling An ex-post-facto research design and a quantitative approach located in the postpositivist paradigm were used for the study, and a retrospective cohort analysis strategy was employed. The ex-post-facto research design, also called the afterthe effect-research design, is a quasi-experimental design in which groups with qualities that already exist are studied in order to understand the current state of a phenomenon under research (Sharma, 2019; Watson, 2012). By definition, a

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retrospective cohort analysis uses existing data that are kept as records for reasons other than research, to explain or understand a current or future situation (Wang & Kattan, 2020). In this study, an ex-post-facto design was used to establish whether there were any differences in the academic performance of students who were admitted to the M.EdMT programme based on B.Ed. and BScEd. degrees respectively. The population for the study consisted of 200 M.Ed. students at four universities in the 2020 second semester of their academic year of study; thus, a multiple case study was used. The four universities were purposively selected owing to their close proximity to the researcher as a strategy for mitigating the challenge of travelling long distances to collect data during the COVID-19 period. The four universities are located in two nearby towns in Zimbabwe. A sample of 110 students from the M.Ed. mathematics programme was used for the study. The sample size was determined using the sample size table developed by the Research Advisors (2006) at a 95% level of confidence and a 7.5% margin of error. The sample was selected using the stratified random sampling strategy in classes already constituted to ensure that a proportionate number of B.Ed. and BScEd students would participate in the study since academic records showed that there were more students admitted based on the B.Ed. degree than those with the BScEd degree at the four universities. Using the sampling strategy explained above, and based on the sample size, the researchers proportionately selected the two samples (cf. Creswell, 2015) from the 200 students to make up the final study sample of 110 students. As a result, the study sample comprised more B.Ed. students than BScEd students. From the total sample of 110, the B.Ed. students counted 60 and 50 were BScEd students. These students studied the following courses in the semester under consideration: Entrepreneurship Education (EN), Operations Research (OP), Numerical Methods for Partial Differential Equations (NM), Advanced Numerical Methods (AN), Functional Analysis (FN) and Educational Management and Leadership (EM). Data collection Data for the study were collected from academic records of the 2020 second semester at the four universities. The data were collected without any direct, rigorous manipulation and control as per the requirements of the retrospective cohort analysis strategy (Kpolovie, 2020). The researchers designed and used an entry-qualifications academic performance inventory to collect data on admissions and EOS (end of the semester) examination results from the academic records of the four universities. 3.2.

3.3. Data analysis Descriptive statistics that included percentages, mean and standard deviations were used for summarising data. Correlation analysis was used for establishing the strength and magnitude of relationships between variables. One-way ANOVA was used to establish whether there was a significant relationship between the academic performance of M.EdMT students and their degree classifications. An independent t-test was used to determine whether there were significant differences in the academic performance of students admitted into the M.EdMT programme ensuing from the B.Ed. and the BScEd degrees respectively.

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The f-tests using Hartley’s F-max test for homogeneity of group variances were used for establishing whether there was any significant difference between the homogeneity of the variance in the academic performance of students admitted to the M.EdMT programme following on the B.Ed. and BScEd degrees. 3.4. Ethical considerations Ethical considerations were adhered to. Respondents were assured of anonymity and participation was voluntary. Respondents also signed consent forms before participating in the study. The study was approved by the institutions involved. 3.5. Data validation The reliability and validity of the F-test and t-test results for the six M.EdMT courses were assessed using the test of data normality, as well as the Hartley’s Fmax test of homogeneity of their variances (Ihiegbulem, 1992).

4. Results In this section the data analysis procedures are reported on, namely the entry requirements used by students, data normality assessment, assessment of the relationship between degree classification and academic performance, assessment of the relationship between the type of degree and academic performance, as well as validation of the F-test and t-test results using Hartley’s F- max test for homogeneity of group variances. 4.1. Data normality test The assessment of data normality for the entry requirements and academic performance measurements in the study was conducted using the Shapiro-Wilk test, z-scores, the observation of normal Q-Q plots (Field et al., 2012; Janssens et al., 2008; Shapiro and Wilk, 1965), and Hartley’s F-max test of homogeneity (Glen, 2016; Phillips, 1982). The results of the assessment showed that data were normally distributed as demonstrated by the Shapiro-Wilk values which were not significant (p > .05) (Janssens et al., 2008; Shapiro and Wilk, 1965), z-score values which ranged between -1.645 and + 1.645 (Field et al., 2012), and all the data points being within the diagonal lines of their respective normal Q-Q plots (Field et al., 2012). To test whether the spread (variance) of the data was similar across groups and to determine whether or not the calculated F-values and t-values would be reliable, Hartley’s F-max test was used (Glen, 2016; Phillips, 1982). Table 3: Hartley’s F- max test for homogeneity of group variances Course of study EN OP NM AN

Entry qualification B.EdMT BScEdMT B.EdMT BScEdMT B.EdMT BScEdMT B.EdMT

60 50 60 50 60 50 60

6.41 6.88 10.16 11.46 8.55 8.31 11.38

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Variance (S2) 41.088 47.334 103.226 131.332 73.103 69.056 129.504

fcalcvalue 1.152

Decision Not Supported

1.272

Not Supported

1.059

Not Supported

1.402

Not Supported

BScEdMT 50 9.61 92.352 B.EdMT 60 10.27 105.473 1.213 Not Supported BScEdMT 50 11.31 127.916 EM B.EdMT 60 9.51 90.440 1.238 Not Supported B.EdMT 50 10.58 111.936 Notes: Expected f-value = 1.84; Numerator = 59; Denominator = 49; fcalc – Calculated f-value FN

The results of the F-max test depicted in Table 3 showed that for all M.Ed. courses, EN(fcalc-value (1.152) < expected f-value [1.84]), OP(fcalc-value (1.272) < expected f-value (1.84), NM (fcalc-value (1.059) < expected f-value [1.84]), AN (fcalc-value (1.402) < expected f-value [1.84]), FN (fcalc-value (1.213) < expected f-value [1.84]), and EM (calcf-value (1.238) < expected f-value [1.84]), demonstrating that the spread of the data was homogenous across all M.Ed. courses and that the calculated F-values and t-values would be reliable (cf. Glen, 2016; Phillips, 1982). 4.2. Record of entries into M.Ed. programme The results in Table 4 provide information on the records of students admitted to the M.EdMT programme at the four universities, based on the different entry requirements. Table 4: Students admitted to the M.Ed MT programme at the 4 universities based on the different entry qualifications (n = 110) Entry degree B.Ed.

Degree class 1 2.1 2.2 3 1 2.1 2.2 3

No. of students % 17 15 15 14 21 19 7 6 BScEd 10 9 25 23 10 9 5 5 Total 110 100 Notes: M.EdMT – M.Ed. Mathematics specialisation; Undergraduate degree classification: 1: 80-100%; 2.1: 70-79%; 2.2: 60-69%; 3: 50-59%; F: 0-49%; F- Fail

According to Table 4, of the 110 students who were admitted to the M.EdMT programme, 24% were admitted with first-class degrees or distinctions (15% in B.Ed. and 9% in BScEd), 37% had Merits (14% in B.Ed. and 23% in BScEd), 28% had Credits (19% in B.Ed. and 9% in BScEd) and 11% had a Pass (6% in B.Ed. and 5% in BScEd). This showed that overall, the M.Ed. students were fairly good academic performers at entry point. Table 5 depicts the analysis of the academic performance using group mean scores of M.EdMT students in EOS examinations according to entry degree class.

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Table 5: Academic performance using group mean scores in M.Ed MT EOS examinations according to degree class M.Ed. Course EN

Entry Degree degree class B.Ed. 1 2.1 2.2 3 BScEd

B.Ed. OP

BScEd

B.Ed. NM

BScEd NM B.Ed. AN BScEd AN

B.Ed.

BScEd

B.Ed. EM

No. of students 17 15 21 7

Total score 1300 1035 1411 465

Min mark Max mark

76.47 68.98 67.18 66.41

1 2.1 2.2 3 1 2.1 2.2 3 1 2.1 2.2 3 1 2.1 2.2 3 1 2.1 2.2 3 1 2.1 2.2 3 1 2.1 2.2 3

10 25 10 5 17 21 15 7 10 25 10 5 17 15 21 7 10 25 10 5 17 15 21 7 10 25 10 5

766 1733 645 331 1235 1434 1354 428 709 1696 653 317 1161 977 1352 421 675 1623 625 299 1177 1026 1375 427 695 1659 672 318

76.61 69.33 64.51 66.29 72.66 68.30 64.47 61.09 70.89 67.83 65.28 63.44 68.28 65.13 64.36 60.12 67.53 64.92 62.47 59.81 69.25 68.41 65.48 60.99 69.46 66.35 67.19 63.52

1 2.1 2.2 3

17 15 21 7

1111 906 1395 443

65.33 60.42 66.44 63.30

63.87

1 2.1 2.2 3

10 25 10 5

637 1587 666 315

63.69 63.47 66.55 62.95

64.17

1 2.1 2.2 3 1 2.1 2.2 3

17 15 21 7 10 25 10 5

1278 1071 1392 448 757 1753 768 328

75.15 71.42 66.31 67.34 75.66 70.12 66.81 65.59

69.76

69.19

66.63

66.86

64.47

63.66

66.03

66.63

SD 6.13 6.51 7.04 10.53 7.19 7.54 9.27 9.50 9.11 10.42 9.57 6.51 10.26 10.05 9.27 9.61 9.16 9.62 7.54 10.81 8.69 10.14 8.73 9.55 10.88 9.15 11.17 10.51 11.32 9.69 10.17 10.33 10.56 9.71 10.28 10.58 7.53 7.41 9.44 9.03

9.57 10.13 70.06 63 90 10.35 9.69 EM BScEd 6.84 7.11 69.55 61 91 6.53 6.88 Notes: M1 – Group mean scores by degree class per course; M2 – Overall group mean score per course; EN – Entrepreneurship Education; OP – Operations Research; NM – Numerical Methods for Partial Differential Equations; AN – Advanced Numerical Methods; FN – Functional Analysis; EM – Educational Management and Leadership; M – Mean score; SD – Standard deviation

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The results given in Table 5 show the academic performance of students in the M.EdMT programme during the EOS examinations per entry degree, per course and per degree class. The results also show the lowest and highest scores achieved by students in each course. In terms of differences in group mean scores per course (M1) according to B.Ed. and BScEd degree classifications of students admitted to the M.EdMT degree programme, the results in Table 3 further show that the group mean score per course ranged between 14 and 1.77 for distinction students, 21 and 3.05 for merit students, 11 and 2.67 for credit students, and 12 and 2.53 for pass students. With regard to the differences in the overall group mean scores per course (M2) in the courses to which students were admitted from the B.Ed. and BScEd degrees, the overall group mean score differences per course were 57 for EN; 23 for OP; 81 for NM; 60 for AN; 30 for FN; and 51 for EM. These figures show that the overall group mean score differences ranged from 23 to 81, indicating in turn that there were small differences in the EOS (end of the semester) academic performance of students admitted to the M.EdMT programme from the B.Ed. and BScEd degree programmes. 4.3. Hypotheses testing Table 6 shows the inter-construct correlations among the independent variables, as well as whether there were significant relationships between the independent variables and the dependent variable. Table 6: Inter-construct correlation metrics for the entry requirements and academic performance in M.EdMT EOS examinations Const ructs

B.Ed EN

B.Ed OP

B.Ed NM

B.Ed AN

B.Ed FN

B.Ed EM

BScE dEN

BScE dOP

AP B.EdE N B.Ed OP B.Ed NM B.Ed AN B.EdF N B.EdE M BScE dEN BScE dOP BScE dNM BScE dAN BScE dFN BScE dEM

1.00 .454

1.000

.341

.338

1.000

.351

.373

.117

1.000

.209

.354

.085

.133

1.000

.217

.319

.041

.044

.081

1.000

.302

.228

.064

.053

.038

.037

1.000

.473

.995

.091

.097

.138

.052

.037

1.000

.342

.301

.902

.059

.051

.033

.059

.217

1.000

.346

.361

.075

.971

.044

.031

.061

.259

.073

1.000

.207

.361

.112

.065

.941

.044

.057

.210

.082

.043

.316

.138

.068

.077

.039

.913

.035

.133

.264

.110

.053

.063

.041

.027

.944

.147

.085 .063

BScE dN M

.051 .063

BScEd AN

BScE dEM

1.000 .109 .088

Notes: n = 110; significant: p < .05; EN – Entrepreneurship Education; OP - Operations Research; NM – Numerical Methods for Partial Differential Equations; AN – Advanced

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BScE dFN

1.000 .215

1.000

100

Numerical Methods; FN – Functional Analysis; EM – Educational Management and Leadership; M – Mean score; SD – Standard deviation

The results given in Table 6 show positive correlations at the 5% level of significance between the entry requirements and academic performance. BScEdEN (r = .473; p < .05) had the highest correlation with AP, followed by B.EdEN (r = .454; p < .05), B.EdNM (r = .351; p < .05) and BScEdNM (r = .346; p < .05). BScEdAN (r = .207; p < .05) had the least correlation with academic performance. With regard to inter-construct correlations, the results in Table 3 indicate that the highest correlations were between BScEdMT and B.EdEN (r = .995; p < .05), followed by the correlation between BScEdAN and B.EdAN (r = .971; p < .05), BScEdEM and B.EdEM (r = .944; p < .05), BScEdAN and B.EdAN (r = .941; p < .05), BScEdFN and B.EdFN (r = .913; p < .05), and BScEdBI and B.EdBI (r = .902; p < .05). These inter-correlations show that there is a very high likelihood of students with a B.Ed. entry qualification performing to the same level as those with a BScEd entry qualification in their areas of specialisation and vice versa. This further confirms the results provided in Table 3, indicating very little difference between the academic performance of students enrolled using their B.Ed. qualifications and those enrolled using their BScEd qualifications. Table 7 shows the results of the test of association between academic performance and degree classification. Table 7: One-way ANOVA on differences in academic performance based on degree classification Degree classification Distinction (D) n = 27 Merit (M) n = 40 Credit (C) n = 31 Pass (P) n = 12

Source Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total

Sum of squares 6.552 151.705 158.257 17.309 508.541 525.850 9.429 217.825 227.254 21.538 337.118

Df 1 25 26 1 38 39 1 29 30 1 10 11

Mean square 6.552 5.835

Sig.

.471

1.123

.081

17.309 13.383

.313

1.293

.317

9.429 7.511

.540

1.255

.190

21.538 33.712

.362

.639

.609

Notes: Significant: p < .05; R2 – Coefficient of determination; Df – Degree of freedom

The results depicted in Table 7 show that D (F.05; 1, 25 = 1.123; p > .05); M (F.05; 1, 38 = 1.293; p > .05); C (F.05; 1, 29 = 1.255; p > .05); and P (F.05; 1, 26 = .639; p > .05). H1 was not supported. The results, therefore, show that degree classification does not contribute to significant differences between the academic performance of postgraduate students admitted to the M.EdMT programme based on different degree classifications. The results also show that the Credit degree classification contributes the highest variation (54%) to academic performance by M.EdMT students followed by the Distinction degree classification (47%). The Merit degree classification contributes the least variation (31%) to the academic performance of M.EdMT students.

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Table 8 provides the results of the test of the association between academic performance and the type of degree used for admittance into the M.EdMT programme. Table 8:

Independent t-test on group academic performance based on degree type

Course of study EN

Entry N M SD tcalc-value Decision qualification B.EdMT 60 68.96 6.41 1.315 Not Supported BScEdMT 50 71.61 8.08 OP B.EdMT 60 70.59 10.16 .501 Not Supported BScEdMT 50 68.33 11.46 NM B.EdMT 60 66.37 8.05 1.114 Not Supported BScEdMT 50 64.53 8.31 AN B.EdMT 60 62.44 11.38 1.275 Not Supported BScEdMT 50 61.57 9.61 FN B.EdMT 60 65.19 10.27 1.741 Not Supported BScEdMT 50 65.23 11.31 EM B.EdMT 60 67.24 9.51 1.359 Not Supported BScEdMT 50 67.52 10.58 Notes: Expected t-value = 2.00; Significant: p < .05; Df = 106; N – Number of students enrolled; N – Number of students in the course; M – Mean score; SD – Standard deviation; tcalc – Calculated t-value

The results provided in Table 8 are the results of a test to determine whether there is a significant difference between the academic performance of students admitted to the M.EdMT. programme based on the results of their B.Ed. and BScEd degrees. The results show that M.EdEN (tcalc-value [1.315] < critical value [2.00]); M.EdOP (tcalc-value [.501] < tcritical value [2.00]); M.EdNM (tcalc-value [1.114] < tcritical value [2.00]), and M.EdAN (tcalc-value [1.275] < tcritical value [2.00]), M.EdFN (tcalc-value [1.741] < tcritical value [2.00]), M.EdEM (tcalc-value [1.359] < tcritical value [2.00]), hence H0 was accepted for all the hypotheses. These results, therefore, show that there was no significant difference between the academic performance of students admitted to all the M.Ed. programmes on the basis of their B.Ed. and BScEd as entry requirements.

5. Discussion The purpose of the study was to establish whether enrolling students with different entry requirements contributes to significant differences in academic performance among postgraduate students. The study also sought to establish whether degree classifications contribute significantly to academic performance among students. The study used the Student Integration Model (SIM) developed by Tinto (1997) as a theoretical lens which showed that pre-programme admission attributes of students have a significant influence on their academic performance. The results of the study showed that degree classification did not contribute significantly to academic performance differences among postgraduate students with different entry qualifications. This suggests that having high degree classifications does not necessarily lead to high academic performance as long as a student meets the basic requirements for admission to the post-graduate programme. Furthermore, the results also suggest that having a lower degree

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classification does not mean that a student will not achieve high grades in the postgraduate degree - of importance is complying with the minimum entry requirements. These results suggest that a student who is admitted to a postgraduate programme on the grounds of a distinction or merit degree classification in the undergraduate degree, will not perform significantly different in his or her postgraduate studies when compared to those students with either credits or just passes in their undergraduate degrees. The results of this study are therefore not consistent with the findings of previous studies, as well as with the idea of positive integration as articulated in the SIM by Tinto (1997). The SIM argues that pre-university or pre-programme attributes such as degree classification, have a significant influence on the academic performance of a student. Studies by Tatar and Düstegör (2020) Shahiri, Husain and Rashid (2017) and Putpuek et al. (2018) also established that degree classifications at entry level had a significant influence on the academic performance of students in their enrolled postgraduate programmes. Studies by Alamoudi et al. (2021), Kurlaender & Cohen (2019), Abdullah and Mizra (2018), and Ferrão and Almeida (2019) further established that students with an A grade as either their preuniversity or pre-programme entry qualification had a very high likelihood of not only attaining high grades in their studies, but also of completing their studies. All these findings demonstrated the significant influence of degree classification on the academic performance of students. The main idea ensuing from these results, therefore, is that the usual assumptions that students admitted into programmes and courses with high degree classifications perform better than those with low degree classifications are not always correct. It also emerged from the study that there were no significant differences in the academic performance of students admitted to the M.EdMT programme on the basis of their B.Ed. and BScEd degrees. These results suggest that despite the differences in names of the entry programmes, students seemed to have been provided with the same academic background that gave them a solid foundation to be able to later perform academically to the same or almost the same level in the M.EdMT programme. The fact that the students who enrolled in the M.EdMT programme using the two different programmes, but scored general mean scores of around 60% in all M.EdMT EOS examinations for the courses studied, showed that both entry programmes had provided the students with enough content depth to be able to perform at that level. This then suggests that it is not a question of what entry qualification students use to be admitted into the M.EdMT programmes but rather how relevant the entry qualifications are in terms of providing students with enough background information to be able to succeed in the postgraduate programmes. These results, therefore, are consistent with findings of earlier studies. Separate studies by Abdulkadir et al. (2019), Queensoap et al. (2017), and Huntley et al. (2017) found no significant relationships between entry requirements and academic performance of students admitted to university programmes based on different entry requirements. These studies showed that if there were any differences between the academic performances of the students admitted into postgraduate programmes based on different entry requirements, such academic performance differences could be as a result of classroom size, learning

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environment, and age and gender of students, rather than entry requirements. The main idea resulting from these findings, therefore, is that those differences in the types of names of degrees do not affect the academic performance of students as long as such degrees meet the minimum requirements for students to be able to be admitted to the degree programme.

6. Conclusions Based on the results discussed above, a number of conclusions were drawn. First, it was concluded that degree classifications of students in their undergraduate studies have no significant effect on their academic performance as postgraduate students. This means that having distinctions or just passes at undergraduate degree level cannot be used to determine whether students will perform better or not at postgraduate level. Second, it was concluded that being admitted into a postgraduate programme based on different entry requirements does not contribute to significant differences in the academic performance of postgraduate students. This conclusion implies that as long as the entry requirements are relevant to the postgraduate programme to be followed, a postgraduate student will perform almost to the same academic level as those who had different entry requirements.

7. Recommendations The results of the study showed that students with different academic entry qualifications can perform at the same academic level at postgraduate level. It is therefore recommended that, for students to learn effectively, lecturers at universities should match their teaching approaches to the learning styles of the students. Universities also need to ensure that all the students have adequate learning materials and that the learning environment is conducive to teaching and learning, with manageable class sizes for all students admitted to the postgraduate programmes to be able to learn effectively and achieve more academically.

8. Practical implications of the study The study has implications for both policy and practice with regard to the admission of postgraduate students with different entry requirements. In terms of policy, the implication of the study is that there is no need for strict entry requirements at postgraduate level, as students seem to perform at the same academic level, even with different entry requirements. With regard to practice, the findings of the study indicate that, if taught effectively, postgraduate students with different entry qualifications will perform to almost the same level academically.

9. Limitations of the study The study was conducted on a small sample of universities. Future studies could attempt to validate the results by using a larger sample.

10. Declarations Informed consent: Researcher obtained the consent of all participants before conducting the study.

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Ethics approval and consent to participate: The researchers got ethical approval from their respective university ethics board to conduct this study. Availability of data and materials: Data were collected from academic records of the 2020 second semester. An entry-qualification academic-performance inventory was used to extract data on admissions and EOS examination results from the academic records of the four universities associated with this study. Conflict of interest: The research has no conflict of interest to declare. Funding: There is no funding to declare in this study. Methods: The research methods used in this study were in line with relevant research guidelines and regulations for conducting ethical research. Acknowledgements The researchers wish to thank all students and their institutional management for participating in this study.

11. References Abdullah, N., & Mirza, M. (2018). Entry qualifications of students as predictors of academic performance in various degree programs in a distance education setting in Pakistan. Open Praxis, 10(3), 237-247. Abdulkadir, S., Onibere, E. A., & Odion, P. O. (2019). Assessment of Students’ Academic Performance Using Admission Entry Requirements under the Computer-Based Test and Paper-Pencil-Based Test in Kaduna State University, Kaduna – Nigeria. International Journal of Modern Education and Computer Science, 8, 48-60. Aciro, R., Onen, D., Malinga, G. M., Ezati, B. A., & Openjuru, G. L. (2021). Entry Grades and the Academic Performance of University Students: A Review of Literature. Education Quarterly Reviews, 4(1), 141-150. Adamu, M., Anza, A. I., & Hananiya, P. (2019). Relationship between Entry Qualification and Students’ Academic Achievement in Gombe State Tertiary Institutions. Nigeria. Specialty Journal of Knowledge Management, 4(4), 37-43. Alamoudi, A. A., Fallatah, H. I., Eldakhakhny, B. M., Kamel, F. O., AlShawwa, L. A., & Elsamanoudy, A. Z. (2021). Relationship between admission criteria and academic performance in basic science courses in health science colleges in KAU. BMC Medical Education (2021), 21(94), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-021-02502-4 Arnekrans, A. K. (2014). Tinto’s Student Integration Model & Diathesis Stress Model: Adverse Childhood Events, Resilience & Retention in a First-Year University Population. [Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Counsellor Education & Supervision]. University of Toledo. Bindura University of Science Education. (2021). Admission requirements. https://www.buse.ac.zw/admissions/how-to-apply/ Brook, S., & Roberts, M. (2021). What are the determinants of student performance on an undergraduate accounting degree? Journal of Further and Higher Education, 45(9), 1224-1239. http://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2021.1882666 Creswell, J. W. (2015). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (5th ed). Boston, MA: Pearson. Ferrão, M., & Almeida, L. (2019). Differential effect of university entrance score on firstyear students’ academic performance in Portugal. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 44(4), 610-622. Glen, S. (2016). Fmax / Hartley’s Test: Definition, Step by Step Example, Table. Statistics How To.com: Elementary Statistics for the rest of us! https://www.statisticshowto.com/fmax-hartleys-test/

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Great Zimbabwe University. (2021). Entry requirements. https://www.eafinder.com/listof-postgraduate-courses-offered-at-gzu-2020-2021/ Haj, C. M., Geanta, I. M., & Orr, D. (2018). A Typology of Admission Systems Across Europe and Their Impact on the Equity of Access, Progression and Completion in Higher Education. In: Curaj A., Deca L. & Pricopie R. (Eds). European Higher Education Area: The Impact of Past and Future Policies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77407-7_12 Ihiegbulem, T. O. (1992). Academic Performance of Nigeria Certfcate in Educaton (Technical) Students, with Diferent Entry Requirements: A Case Study of Federal College of Educaton (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State. Journal of Technical Teacher Educaton, 1(1), 79-86. Kpolovie, P. J. (2020). Advanced Research Methods. Owerri: Springfield Publishers. Kurlaender, M., & Cohen, K. (2019). Predicting College Success: How Do Different High School Assessments Measure Up? Policy Analysis for California Education, PACE. Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science and Technology Development. (2021). Universities recommit to STEM mandates. http://www.mhtestd.gov.zw/?page_id=3588 Murray, M. (2017). Exploring the relationship between entry requirements and throughput rates for honours students. South African Journal of Science, 113(9/10), 1-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/ sajs.2017/20160281 Mutiso, S. K., & Muthama, T. M. (2019). Determinants of Academic Performance for Undergraduate Students in Kenya: An Educational Production Approach. IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 24(3). Odukoya, J. A., Adekeye, O. A., Atayero, A. A., Omole, D. O., Badejo, J. A., Temitope, J. M., & Popoola, S. I. (2018). The Predictive Validity of University Admission Examinations: Case Study of Nigerian Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination. Covenant International Journal of Psychology (CIJP), 3(1), 1–10. Olubusayo, A. A. (2021). Entry qualifications and academic performance of teacher trainees in Lagos State Colleges of Education: Implications for counselling. Babcock University Journal of Education (BUJED), 7(1), 15-28. Phillips, P. C. B. (1982). The true characteristic function of the F distribution. Biometrika, 69, 261-264. Putpuek, N., Rojanaprasert, N., Atchariyachanvanich, K., & Thamrongthanyawong, T. (2018). Comparative Study of Prediction Models for Final GPA Score: A Case Study of Rajabhat Rajanagarindra University. IEEE/ACIS 17th International Conference on Computer and Information Science, (pp. 92–97). Queensoap, M., Arogo, N. I., Dogitimiye, M., Williams, D. O., & Maxwell, D. J. (2017). The Use of Entry Grades to Predict Bayelsa State Students’ Academic Success at College of Health Technology, Ogbia. International Journal of Education and Evaluation, 3(9), 75-84. Shahiri, A. M., Husain, W., & Rashid, N. A. (2015). A review on predicting students’ performance using data mining techniques. Procedia Computer Science, 72, 414–422. Sharma, S. (2019). A Quantitative Ex-Post-Facto Study for one-to-one mobile technology. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333220493_Experimental_and_Ex_P ost_Facto_Designs Schreiber, B., Luescher-Mamashela, T., & Moja, T. (2014). Tinto in South Africa: Student integration, persistence and success, and the role of student affairs. Journal of Student Affairs in Africa, 2(2), 1-6. Sulphey, M. M, AlKahtani, N. S., & Syed, A. M. (2018). Relationship between admission grades and academic achievement. Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Issues, 5(3), 648-658. http://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2018.5.3(17)

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Tatar, A. E., & Düstegör, D. (2020). Prediction of Academic Performance at Undergraduate Graduation: Course Grades or Grade Point Average? Applied Sciences, 10, 1-15. The Research Advisors. (2006). Sample size table. http://research advisors.com/index.php Tinto, V. (1997). Classrooms as communities: Exploring the educational character of student persistence. Journal of Higher Education, 68(6), 599-623. University of Zimbabwe. (2019). Entry requirements. https://www.uz.ac.zw/index.php/admissions/post-application-overview Wambugu, L. N., & Emeke, E. A. (2016). Relationship between Entry Qualification and Academic Performance in Undergraduate Science Courses at the University of Nairobi, Kenya [Paper presentation]. Third International Conference of the African Virtual University (AVU) on Integrating Mobile Learning to Open up Access to Quality Education and Training Opportunities in Africa, Kenya. Wang, X., & Kattan, M. W. (2020). Cohort Studies Design, Analysis, and Reporting. CHEST, 158(1S), 72-78. Watson, C. A. (2021). An Ex Post Facto Study on the Relationship Between Self-Reported Peer-to-Peer Mentoring Experiences and Instructor Confidence, Institutional Loyalty, and Student Satisfaction among Part-Time Instructors [Dissertations]. Andrews University. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/dissertations/1529

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 107-132, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.7 Received Nov 1, 2021; Revised Jan 17, 2022; Accepted Feb 17, 2022

Effects of Concept Mapping and Cooperative Mastery Learning Strategies on Students’ Achievement in Photosynthesis and Attitudes towards Instructional Strategies Emmanuel Bizimana African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University Rwanda - College of Education (UR-CE), Rwanda Dieudonné Mutangana Department of Biology, University Rwanda - College of Science and Technology, Rwanda Adrian Mwesigye Department of Educational Foundations and Psychology, Mbarara University of Science & Technology (MUST), Uganda

Abstract. Students' low performance in biology perturbs many teachers and other stakeholders. This has sparked research into learning strategies that might be utilized to improve students’ performance in the subject. This study investigated the effects of Concept Mapping (CM) and Cooperative Mastery Learning (CML) on students' achievement in photosynthesis. A pre-test, post-test, non-equivalent control group, quasi-experimental design was used. A sample of 449 students was drawn from the population of 6,708 senior two secondary students (SS2) in Nyamagabe district, Rwanda. Photosynthesis Achievement Test (PAT) (KR-21 = .82), Attitude Towards Concept Mapping Questionnaire (ATCMQ), and Attitude Towards Cooperative Mastery Learning Questionnaire (ATCMLQ) were used for data collection. Data were analyzed mainly using mean and standard deviation, Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), and t-test. Findings revealed that the students who were exposed to the CM and CML attained significantly higher mean achievement scores in the PAT than those exposed to Conventional Teaching Methods (CTM) (F (2, 445) = 385.242, p<0.05). The CM group students achieved significantly better than the CML group. Moreover, there was no significant interaction effect between instructional strategies and gender in achievement (F (2, 442) =. 344, p > .05). The students showed a significant and positive attitudes towards the use of CM over the use of CM (t=5.8, p<.05). Thus, the CM and CML

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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are effective strategies for successful and meaningful photosynthesis learning. It was recommended among other things that the biology teachers should use the CM and CML to enhance students’ achievement in biology especially in difficult and abstract concepts like photosynthesis. Keywords: achievement; concept mapping; conventional teaching methods; cooperative mastery learning; photosynthesis

1. Introduction Biology is important for everyone's lives, and it is becoming increasingly prominent in school science classes. It has improved all elements of life on Earth and assisted us in better understanding Mankind and other organisms (Joda, 2019). Besides, a solid understanding of biology is required for careers in medical, pharmacy, nursing, agriculture, forestry, biotechnology, nanotechnology, and other fields (Joda, 2019), and therefore, the importance of biology in the growth of a country cannot be overstated. Students learn vital science topics in biology that provide the foundation of their comprehension of a variety of Earth processes. One of them is photosynthesis; a crucial process that occurs in plants. According to Aboho et al. (2013) and Johnson (2016), photosynthesis is a process in which the energy in sunlight is gathered and converted into organic compounds to sustain metabolic activities in all living organisms. Thus, understanding the photosynthesis concept is crucial to understanding many elements of biological systems. Despite the importance of photosynthesis, studies have found that photosynthesis is a tough concept for students to acquire and understand (Etobro & Fabinu, 2017; Hadiprayitno et al., 2019; Kyado et al., 2019). Besides, studies have also revealed that students have a lot of misconceptions regarding photosynthesis (Akçay, 2017; Métioui et al., 2016; Nasution, 2018). The ineffective instructional strategy used by biology teachers is unmistakably to blame for students' perceptions of difficult biology concepts and misconceptions which in turn lead to low achievement in biology. Angura and Abakpa (2018) submitted that poor students’ achievement and misconceptions in science subjects are traceable to instructional approaches adopted by teachers. The use of an effective instructional method that actively and socially involves students in learning plays a vital role in the mastery of biological concepts. This is based on constructivist theory by Vygotsky (1978) which emphasizes the importance of learner’s active participation in learning and on social learning theory by Bandura (1977), which proposes that new behaviours can be acquired by observing and imitating others. Thus, a novel teaching strategy that emphasizes active and social learning is required. Some of the constructivist-based teaching strategies include Concept Mapping (Ajaja, 2011, 2013; Awofala, 2016; Wang et al., 2017), and Cooperative Mastery Learning (Goreyshi et al., 2013; Keter, 2013; Khan & Masood, 2015).The CM is an instructional strategy that entails thinking in terms of graphical representation of

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the relationship among concepts (Novak & Cañas, 2009). The CML, on the other hand, is a hybridized strategy of cooperative and mastery learning in which students who fail to achieve mastery are required to relearn together in small groups with their peers who have attained the mastery (Khan& Masood, 2015). Therefore, both constructivist and social learning theories can be used to explain the efficacies of CM and CML. Different researchers have found that using the CM and CML improve science outcomes, both of which have been proven to be superior to CTM (Ajaja, 2011, 2013; Awofala, 2016; Dashne & Sinaa, 2019; Goreyshi et al., 2013; Keter, 2013; Khan & Masood, 2015; Woldeamanuel et al., 2020). Although, these strategies can enhance students' achievement in some topics and some countries, rarely has any been implemented on photosynthesis generally, in secondary schools in Rwanda, and the study area in particular. Besides, no comparative efficacies of these strategies have been revealed in any study including international students and Rwandan students. Gender disparities in science education have been documented for a long time, and they still exist today (Jia et al., 2020; Stevenson et al., 2021). According to a recent review, sex disparities in student achievement still exist, and they are primarily due to the teaching strategies used by teachers (Uchegbue & Amalu, 2020). Consequently, biology teachers must be aware of these differences in how students learn biology and respond appropriately. Moreover, the evidence from the revised literature has not shown any conclusion on the interactive effect of teaching strategies and gender on students' achievement (Adeyemi & Cishe, 2017; Bot & Eze, 2016; Çömek et al., 2016). Likewise, the issues on students' attitudes toward the CM and CML have received little empirical attention (Martins-Omole et al., 2016). In response to these challenges, this study investigated the effects of CM and CML on gender, the interaction effects of treatment and gender on students’ achievement in photosynthesis, and the attitudes of students towards the CM and CML. Based on the premises mentioned above, the following research questions were addressed in this research: 1. What are the effects of the treatments (CM, CML, and CTM) on students’ achievement in photosynthesis? 2. What are the relative effects of treatments and gender interaction on students' achievement in photosynthesis? 3. What are the attitudes of students towards the use of CM and CML in teaching and learning photosynthesis?

2. Methodology 2.1. Research Design In this study, a mixed-method approach was adopted. Data from both qualitative and quantitative sources were gathered and examined. Mixed methods research, according to Creswell (2014), refers to situations in which a researcher gathers, analyses, and integrates both qualitative and quantitative data in a single study. The quantitative data consisted of student achievement on both the pre-test and post-PAT, while the qualitative data consisted of openended questionnaire responses. A pre-test-post-test non-equivalent comparison group design (Creswell, 2014) was employed in this study. This design was

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appropriate for this study because the students were taught in their already formed intact classes. It was not ethical to randomly compose and group students or disrupt classes already in existence. Thus, the use of intact classes made it possible to experiment with some of the classes while the other classes acted as the comparison group. Table 1 displays the study research design layout. Table 1: Research Design Layout Groups

Pre-Test

Treatment

Post-Test

EG1

EG2

Where: EG1: Experimental Group 1 EG2: Experimental Group 2 CG: Comparison Group X1: Treatment for Experimental Group 1 using Concept Mapping X2: Treatment for Experimental Group 2 using Co-operative Mastery Learning XO: Treatment for comparison group using Conventional teaching method (teachers’ regular teaching methods) O1: Pre-test O2: Post-test 2.2. Research Participants The study was carried out in Nyamagabe district, Southern Province, Rwanda. Purposive sampling was used in selecting seven co-educational secondary schools out of 46. A purposeful sampling of the schools was based on whether they were boarding or mixed schools. The 449 SS2 students from seven schools were assigned to the experimental and comparison groups using a simple random sampling technique. All intact classes of SS2 students from each of the selected schools were used in the study. Thus, 151 students in their intact classes were assigned to EG1. Then, 144 students were assigned to EG2 and 154 students to CG. Table 2 shows the sample distribution for the study. Table 2: Study's Sample Distribution Group

Male

Female

Total

Concept Mapping (CM) (EG1)

151

Cooperative Mastery Learning (CML) (EG2)

144

Conventional Teaching Method (CTM) (CG)

154

2.3. Research Instruments and Validation The Photosynthesis Achievement Test (PAT), which acted as both a pre-and post-test, the Attitude towards Concept Mapping Questionnaire (ATCMQ), and

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Attitude Towards Cooperative Mastery Learning Questionnaire (ATCMLQ) were utilized to collect data (See Appendix 1 and 2). The pre-PAT was used to establish the students' knowledge baseline as well as the academic homogeneity of the two groups before intervention, while the post-PAT was used to determine achievement levels of students after the intervention. Each PAT (i.e., the pre-test and post-test) had 40-multiple-choice items. These items were selected from the question pool in the SS2 student textbook and were developed based on the objectives of the unit of photosynthesis as specified in Rwanda’s Biology Curriculum for Senior Secondary School two (SS2) students in Competence-Based Curriculum (Rwanda Education Board [REB], 2015). The PAT items were examined using the table of specifications which ensured the content validity of PAT (Fives & DiDonato-Barnes, 2013). The PAT was developed by researchers and validated by two secondary school biology teachers with teaching experience of over 10 years and two experts in biology education and test and measurement. Thereafter, it was pilot-tested where the KR-21 reliability was 0.82. Following the post-test, the experimental groups were given the ATCMQ and ATCMLQ to complete. Each questionnaire had 18 Likert scale items with the following options: ‘strongly disagree,' 'disagree,' 'neutral,' 'agree,' and’ strongly agree.' The responses were given scores of 1,2,3,4, and 5 respectively. The 18 Likert scale items were supplemented with open-ended questions to learn more about students' opinions after the intervention had been implemented. The questionnaire's entire purpose was to assess students' attitudes toward the use of the CM and CML. 2.4. Data Collection Procedures The data collection procedure for this study was divided into the following five stages for the sake of clarity: 2.4.1. Preliminary Stage During this stage, the researchers sought permission from the authorities of the schools whose students would be participating in the study. This allowed the researchers to administer treatments and tests to intact classes. Seven regular biology teachers in the selected schools who served as research assistants in the study were trained and orientated during the first week. The teachers performing the experimental treatment were separately trained on the use of CM, CML. Specifically, teachers for the CM group were taught about the CM, its benefits, how it is used to establish relationships between concepts, and the procedures to take while using the CM-based teaching strategy as indicated by Novak and Gowin (1984). They were also provided with some samples of computer-made concept maps on the topics they would be teaching (Figure 1). Teachers in the CML group were informed about the attributes of cooperative and mastery strategies as well as the descriptive information of the CML procedures . The focus was on grouping students to allow them to learn in cooperative learning groups, with the content divided into small topics to be

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covered one by one. A set of quizzes was also used to determine whether the objectives had been met or whether mastery had been achieved before moving on to the next topic. Those who did not achieve the expected mastery level would be remedied by their peers who had demonstrated mastery. The training lasted for four days. The research assistants were given lesson plans for the duration of the study, as well as for instructions on how to use them to teach students in the selected schools. Lesson plans for CM and CML strategies were used by teachers who were undergoing experimental treatment respectively. The teachers in the comparison groups used lesson plans prepared for CTM. The research assistants were also given instructions on how to conduct the pre, posttests as well as questionnaires. 2.4.2. Pre-Treatment Stage With the assistance of the research assistants, the PAT was administered as a pre-test during the second week. The PAT consisted of 40 multiple-choice questions, and students were given 1h30’ to complete it. Respondents were given verbal instructions on how to answer questions in addition to the written instructions on the question papers. Before treatment, students in the CM group received one week of training. The research assistants explained the CM strategy, defined and explained the vocabularies associated with the concept maps such as concepts, propositions, relationships, hierarchy, and cross-links, from general to specific. Specifically, the emphasis was put on how to create concept maps. Students were given opportunities for more guided practice exercises along with teachers’ feedback. Students individually created concept maps using the words given by the teacher to make them conversant with CM. The teachers examined student-made maps, identified and corrected errors, and the students' best maps were displayed on the class walls. For the CML, students were put into groups of mixed ability and then trained by the teachers on cooperative learning skills and mastery learning for also one week before the treatment period. 2.4.3. Treatment Stage The third to sixth weeks were for the treatment in the experimental and control groups. The photosynthesis unit topics were taught in all study groups. In the CM group, the teaching-learning process was composed of an introduction, presentation, and summarization. At the end of each teaching, teachers assessed every day's lesson through a concept map.

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Figure 1: Researchers’ 2021 Computer-Made Concept Map about Parts of Plants and their Functions

This process continued and students constructed concept maps on all covered topics. After the unit of photosynthesis was completed, students constructed a more general concept map by pooling together all the maps they had constructed during every topic lesson. A reference concept map was given to cross-check their concept maps. In the CML group, students were taught the same content as in CM groups using a combination of cooperative and mastery learning strategies. The initial learning and practice phase was implemented in mastery, and then in cooperative settings. Students worked individually on practice questions. After, students were individually tested for the topics learned with a diagnostic test and the groups received corrective feedback information. Those who attained the pre-set criterion level of mastery (80% correct responses) were asked to assist the low achievers (those who scored less than 80% correct response) to remedy their difficulties. After correctives, students were retested on a parallel form of the test. Following the same practice on each topic, the class teachers accomplished teaching the unit on photosynthesis. The students in the CTM group were exposed to the same unit as the experimental groups during the period under study. However, teachers neither utilized CM nor CML in their regular teaching practices which normally involved teacher's presentations, discussions, and practical work. Treatment lasted for 4 weeks. Besides and throughout the treatment period, the research assistants were supervised to ensure smooth learning and proper execution of teaching strategies/methods and procedures in all classes. 2.4.4. Revision Stage At this point, the research assistants were asked to go over the topics with the students again to get them ready for the post-test. All of the topics covered during the study were thoroughly revised. This was done in the seventh week.

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2.4.5. Post-Test Stage The eighth week was marked by the administration of the PAT as a post-test, a reshuffled version of pre-PAT concurrently in all schools used in the study. Particularly, the ATCMQ and ATCMLQ were also administered in the CM and CML groups respectively to assess their attitudes towards the CM and CML. 2.5. Data Analysis Data analysis involved both quantitative and qualitative aspects. Statistical analysis such as mean and standard deviation, Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), and t-test were used to summarize quantitative data. Where the main effect was significant, Scheffe's test was employed to ascertain the direction of the significant difference among the means of the groups (Creswell, 2014). Besides, the Eta squared was used to measure the effect size. In the evaluation of the eta squared, the effect size was interpreted as follows: 0.01< η2< 0.06: small; 0.06 ≤ η2<0.14: moderate; 0.14 ≥η2: big (Cohen, 1988).To analyze qualitative data, content analysis was used to classify semantic categories into sub-themes and themes. Following that, the developed themes were gathered and synthesized using the semantic category to which they refer (Creswell, 2014).

3. Results Pre-test scores were used to ensure that the experimental and control groups were homogeneous. The PAT pre-test scores for the study groups are presented in Table 3 below. Table 3: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the Pre-Test Scores Source of Variation

Sum of Squares

Between Groups

Mean Square

123.963

61.981

Within Groups

16549.264

446

37.106

Total

16673.227

448

Sig.

1.670

.189

Table 3 shows that the three groups' means are not statistically different (F (2,446)= 1.670, p > 0.05). As a result, it was discovered that the three groups started with equivalent means, indicating that the students in the three groups were of equal ability before interventions. To determine the effect of treatment, the pre-test and post-test scores were compared (Table 4). Table 4: Descriptive Statistics of Students’ Post-Test Scores Method of teaching

Pre-test

Post-test

Mean Gain

Mean

151

30.58

7.23

73.66

9.63

43.08

CML

144

29.84

6.34

63.16

7.03

33.32

CTM

154

29.31

4.38

48.38

6.77

19.07

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Table 4 reflects that the average mean of the students instructed with the CM increased by 43.08 points, and that of the CML was increased by 33.32 points while that of the CTM was then increased by 19.07 points from the pre- to postPAT. These findings showed that the students who were taught photosynthesis using CM achieved higher than those taught using CML, whereas students who were taught using CML achieved higher than those taught using the CTM group. The effects of treatments on students' achievement in photosynthesis from the pre-PAT to post-PAT were investigated via ANCOVA analysis. The latter showed that a statistically significant difference existed in post-test scores among the groups (F (2, 445) = 385.242, p=0.00<0.05). Thus, CM, CML, and CTM impacted students' achievement after controlling for the pre-test. Table 5: ANCOVA of the Achievement of Students Exposed to CM, CML, and the CTM Source

Type III Sum of Squares

Corrected Model

49209.682a

Intercept

67913.498

Pre-test

Sig.

Partial Eta Squared

16403.227

258.610

.000

.635

67913.498

1070.709

.000

.706

.161

.003

.960

.000

Treatment

48870.646

24435.323

385.242

.000

.634

Error

28225.694

445

63.429

Total

1782252.500

449

77435.375

448

Corrected Total

Mean Square

a. R Squared = .635 (Adjusted R Squared = .633) The index value of eta-squared (Ƞ2) = .634 corresponded to the big effect size (Cohen, 1988), which means that 63.4% of the variance in the post-achievement is explained by the treatments. However, the findings in Table 5 did not show the origin of the differences found in the ANCOVA test. Thus, Scheffe's test was used to analyze paired contrast (Table 6). Table 6: Pair-Wise Comparisons of Students’ Scores (I) Group of students CTM CM CML

(J) Group of students

Mean Difference (I-J)

Std. Error

Sig.b

-25.280*

.915

.000

CML

-14.778*

.924

.000

CTM

25.280*

.915

.000

CML

10.502*

.929

.000

CTM

14.778*

.924

.000

-10.502*

.929

.000

Based on estimated marginal means *. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. b. Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Bonferroni.

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Table 6 shows that the mean difference between the CM and CML groups (10.502) was lower than the mean difference between the CM and CTM groups (25.280). This showed how the three strategies to improving students' photosynthetic achievement differ, with CM having the highest effect, followed by CML, and finally CTM. As a result, there is a substantial difference in the effects of CM, CML, and CTM on students' achievement. Table 7: Mean and Standard Deviation of Students’ Achievement Sores by Teaching Strategy and Gender Teaching strategy

CM CML CTM

Gender

Pre-test

Post-test

Mean Gain

Mean

Male

30.67

7.07

74.57

6.65

43.9

Female

30.49

7.43

72.77

6.80

42.28

Male

30.72

5.37

63.52

6.27

32.8

Female

28.94

7.13

62.78

7.76

33.84

Male

29.47

4.74

47.96

8.73

18.49

Female

29.13

4.01

48.81

10.56

19.68

When the data in Table 7 is broken down by gender, males appeared to do better in the CM group, while females appeared to achieve better in the CML and CTM groups. From pre-PAT to post-PAT, the males in the CM group increased their mean by 43.9 points, while the females increased it by 42.28 points. Males increased their mean by 32.8 points, while females increased it by 33.84 points in the CML group. Males improved their mean by 18.29 points in the CTM group, while females improved their mean by 19.68 points. The main effects of treatments, gender, and their interactions on achievement in photosynthesis were examined via two-way ANCOVA (Table 8). Table 8: Summary of ANCOVA of Interaction Effect of Treatment and Gender on Students’ Achievements in Photosynthesis Source

Type III Sum of Squares

Corrected Model

49379.917a

Intercept

67668.316

Sig.

Partial Eta Squared

8229.986

129.659

.000

.638

67668.316

1066.081

.000

.707

.609

.010

.922

.000

48907.912

24453.956

385.260

.000

.635

Gender

36.150

.570

.451

.001

Treatment * Gender

135.618

67.809

1.068

.344

.005

Error

28055.459

442

63.474

Total

1782252.500

449

Pre-test Treatment

Corrected Total

77435.375

Mean Square

448

a. R Squared = .638 (Adjusted R Squared = .633)

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Based on the ANCOVA results (Table 8), the hypothesis was rejected for the independent variable of the treatments (F (2, 442) = 385.260, p < .05), but was accepted for the gender (F (1, 442) = .451, p > .05) and gender*treatment interaction (F (2, 442) =. 344, p > .05). The results also indicated that gender had no significant effect on the students’ achievement. Likewise, the effect of the gender*treatment interaction did not influence achievement either. It means that the effect of the treatments on the achievement did not vary according to the students’ gender. To examine whether there was a significant difference in the attitudes of students towards the use of the CM and CML, both ATCMQ and ATCMLQ scores were subjected to an independent sample t-test (Table 9). Before performing a t-test, the data were checked to see if they were normally distributed by computing the skewness and kurtosis, and coefficients. The analysis revealed that these coefficients were .525 and -.082 and .203 and .157, respectively. Therefore, the questionnaire scores looked to be normally distributed (Hinton et al., 2014). Table 9: Independent Sample T-Test Analysis on Attitudes towards the Use of CM and CML Strategies in the Teaching and Learning Photosynthesis Strategy

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error

t-value

Sig.

151

60.79

5.69

.463

5.888

293

.000

CML

144

56.61

6.49

.541

The results in Table 9 indicated that students preferred the use of the CM to the use of CML strategies in the teaching of biology. The observed mean score of 60.79 for CM against 56.61 for CML demonstrates this. The test's observed level of significance is 0.000 (p< 0.05). 3.1. Analyses of the Open-Ended Questions Descriptive and content analyses were used to examine the students' responses to the open-ended questions. Hence, the students’ opinions were divided into words, sentences, and paragraph analysis units, which were then evaluated. The theme and concepts had been chosen. The researchers tallied the number of times the associated terms were mentioned and analyzed the data. The findings were backed up by the students' viewpoints. The question asked to the CM group was as follows: "How do you think the CM contributed to your understanding of photosynthesis? Please briefly explain your answer". All students reported that using CM aroused their interest and made the lessons very interesting. Quotes from students’ expressions are given below: •The CM strategy made a positive contribution to me, we constructed concept maps ourselves.

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•The concept maps attracted my interest in photosynthesis subject and increased my understanding. •Learning has become easier for me because we do a lot of activities. •I remember most of the photosynthesis-related concepts we learned in our class. When they were asked to rate their understanding of photosynthesis, 31 (20.0%) students in the CML group reported a very good understanding of the concept, meanwhile 89 (58.9%) reported a good understanding of the concept, and 9 (6.0%) reported unsatisfactory understanding. The question asked to the CML group was as follows: "How do you think the CML contributed to your understanding of photosynthesis? Please briefly explain your answer”. All students reported that the application of the CML affected them positively. Quotes from students’ expressions are given: •The discussions and activities were very interesting, the lessons were enjoyable and I felt free and relaxed. •I remember most of the things we discussed •Because I have the opportunity to debate and compare my thoughts with others, I have learned new things from my classmates. •When I made a mistake, my group members assisted me by giving me other explanations for the situation. When they were asked to rate their understanding of photosynthesis, 43 (29.9%) students in the CML group reported a very good understanding of the concept, whereas 78 (54.2%) reported a good understanding of the concept, while only 4 (2.8%) students reported unsatisfactory understanding of photosynthesis.

4. Discussion The findings of this study revealed that the students in the CM and CML groups achieved significantly higher than those in the CTM group. This finding is consistent with prior research findings, which showed that CM and CML are better than CTM at enhancing students' achievement in science concepts (Awofala, 2016; Keter, 2013; Khan & Masood, 2015). The outstanding achievement of students exposed to CM and CML over those taught using CTM may be attributed to their efficiency in their activity orientations. Both CM and CML allowed students the opportunities to participate and to involve actively in the teaching and learning process. This is in line with the views of Mokiwa and Agbenyeku (2019) who submitted that activity-oriented instructional strategies aid understanding of the concept taught which in turn supports the findings of this study. Contrarily to this, CTM most of the time enforces students to learn through rote memorization techniques which do not help students understand the meaning and the relationship among the concepts, and therefore they are subject to easily forget them from their mind which leads to poor achievement (Schmid & Telaro, 2018). The findings of this study also indicated that students who were taught using CM achieved significantly higher than their counterparts who used CTM. This finding is in line with Ajaja (2011), Dashne and Sinaa (2019), Woldeamanuel et al. (2020) who at various times and studies found that students improved

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significantly in their achievement in biology when taught using CM compared to those taught using CTM. However, this finding contradicts with that of Martins-Omole et al. (2016) who discovered that while the CM improved student performance, it was not significantly better than CTM. Moreover, the findings showed that students who were taught using CML achieved significantly higher than their counterparts who were taught with CTM. This finding confirms the findings of Keter (2013) that the CML group achieved much more than the CTM group. The superiority of CML over CTM may be attributed to the fact that CML combined both potentials of cooperative and mastery learning methods. Cooperative learning provides students the opportunity to share ideas, collaborate, and refine concept understanding (Slavin, 2011). This is also supported by Vygotsky (1978) who contended that concepts can be developed as students communicate with each other through discussion in which students can operate at a higher cognitive level. Besides, the provision of corrective feedback in mastery learning promotes students' concept development and understanding as suggested by Bloom (1976). Likewise, students' learning in the CML group becomes non-competitive since it requires the assessment of students to be criterion-referenced (Khan& Masood, 2015). Furthermore, it was revealed that the students in CM group achieved significantly higher than those in CML. This finding is similar to that of Bot and Eze (2016) who found that students who were taught using CM performed better than those taught using cooperative learning strategy. The noticeable superiority of CM over CML in this study could be attributed to the presentation of the concepts in concept maps. The evidence from the literature has shown that the information is better remembered when it is communicated verbally and visually (Romero et al., 2017). Moreover, Novak and Cañas (2009) explained that the use of concept maps helps learners to organize new information to what they already know, thus, promotes long-term retention and recall of the information learned. Therefore, the observed difference between the CM and CML groups is the result of the CM being more effective in helping students visualize graphically the relationship between concepts. The findings also indicated that there was an insignificant interaction effect of treatment and gender on students’ achievement. This finding is consistent with that of Adeyemi and Cishe (2017), Çömek et al. (2016) in biology, science education, and basic science, respectively. However, this finding disagrees with the finding of Bot and Eze (2016) who found a significant interaction effect of treatment and gender on student achievement in Mathematics-Trigonometry. The result of the t-test revealed that the students had a favourable attitude towards both methods, but they were more inclined to employ the CM than CML. This finding is in line with that of Luchembe et al. (2014), Martins-Omole et al. (2016) who revealed that students have positive attitudes towards the use of the CM in physics and biology respectively. The result also concurs with that of Keter (2013) which highlighted that the student's motivation to learn chemistry concepts was increased after being exposed to the CML.

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5. Conclusion The study sought to find out the effects of CM and CML instructional strategies on students' achievement in photosynthesis and their attitudes towards these instructional strategies. Based on the findings, the use of the CM and CML helped students to score better in photosynthesis than the CTM. Besides, the use of the CM and CML in teaching and learning photosynthesis was genderbalanced since the two strategies gave equal opportunities to both sexes. Moreover, students had a favourable attitude towards both instructional strategies, but they were more inclined to employ the CM than CML for teaching photosynthesis. Therefore, the study revealed that the CM and CML are more effective in enhancing the achievement of students in photosynthesis and thus offers a remedy to the misconceptions that have affected students understanding of photosynthesis and other difficult biology concepts and to bridge the gap between gender disparities in students' achievement in biology. Therefore, secondary school teachers, particularly biology teachers, must be aware of the benefits of CM and CML and thus change the practice of teacher-centered teaching to learner-centered teaching methods, if improved outcomes are to be attained.

6. Limitations and Recommendations Students in the CM group outperformed students in the CML and CTM groups by a wide margin. However, one out of 30 districts was studied and no students from day secondary schools were included in the study. Thus, further empirical research on the application of CM and CML on various topics in biology at various levels and in both boarding and day schools should be conducted to create a solid foundation for their implementation in secondary schools in Nyamagabe and other districts of Rwanda. Besides, a similar study on how biology teachers perceive the use of CM and CML in terms of implementation and feasibility in their classroom settings should be conducted. Nevertheless, biology teachers should be trained through seminars and workshops so that they can effectively integrate CM and CML as teaching strategies in biology classes and to enhance students’ achievement in biology especially in difficult and abstract concepts like photosynthesis.

7. References Aboho, D. A; Agbidye, A, &Asooso, L. N. (2013). Developing curriculum on climate change at secondary school level in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies, 20(2), 47–64.https://bit.ly/3nsPEu5 Adeyemi, S. B., & Cishe, E. N. (2017). Effects of cooperative and individualistic learning strategies on students’ map reading and interpretation. Ghana Journal of Development Studies, 13(2), 154–175. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjds.v13i2.9 Ajaja, O. P. (2011). Concept mapping as a study skill: Effects on students achievement in biology. International Journal Education Science, 3(1), 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/09751122.2011.11890008 Ajaja, O. P. (2013). Which strategy best suits biology teaching? Lecturing, concept mapping, cooperative learning, or learning cycle? Electronic Journal of Science Education, 17(1), 20–21. https://bit.ly/3npCGwa Akçay, S. (2017). Prospective elementary science teachers’ understanding of photosynthesis and cellular respiration in the context of multiple biological levels as nested systems. Journal of Biological Education, 51(1), 52–65.

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https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2016.1170067 Angura, M. T., & Abakpa, V. O. (2018). Impact of cooperative instructional strategies andconventional teaching methods on students' achievement and interest in upper basic education science and technology in Nigeria. International Journal of Innovative Research and Development, 7(2), 38–45. https://doi.org/10.24940/ijird/2018/v7/i2/jan18085 Awofala, A. O. (2016). Effect of concept mapping strategy on students ’ achievement in junior secondary school. International Journal of Mathematics Trends and Technology-, 2(3), 11–16. https://bit.ly/3rpzfrI Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bloom, B.S. (1976). Human characteristics and school learning. McGraw-Hill. Bot, T., & Eze, J. (2016). Comparative effects of concept mapping and cooperative learning strategies on senior secondary school students’ achievement in mathematics-trigonometry in Kano State, Nigeria. European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 4(1), 56–66. https://doi.org/10.30935/scimath/9453 Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Çömek, A., Akınoğlu, O., Elmacı, E., & Gündoğdu, T. (2016). The effect of concept mapping on students’ academic achievement and attitude in science education. Journal of Human Sciences, 13(1), 348–363. https://doi.org/10.14687/ijhs.v13i1.3558 Creswell, J. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approach (4th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. Dashne, A. S., & Sinaa, A. A. (2019). The effect of using concept mapping strategy on the achievement of eighth-grade school students in biology subject in Erbil city. Zanco Journal of Humanity Sciences, 23(2960), 127–147. https://doi.org/10.21271/zjhs.23.5.7 Etobro, A. B., & Fabinu, O. E. (2017). Students’ perceptions of difficult concepts in biology in senior secondary schools in Lagos State. Global Journal of Educational Research, 16(2), 139-147. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjedr.v16i2.8 Fives, H., & DiDonato-Barnes, N. (2013). Classroom test construction: The power of a table of specifications. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 18(3), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.7275/cztt-7109 Goreyshi, M. K., kargar, F. R., Noohi, S., & Ajilchi, B. (2013). Effect of combined masterycooperative learning on emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and academic achievement in grade skipping. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 470474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.586 Hadiprayitno, G., Muhlis, & Kusmiyati. (2019). Problems in learning biology for senior high schools in Lombok Island. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1241(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1241/1/012054 Hinton, P. R., McMurray, I., & Brownlow, C. (2014). SPSS explained. Routledge. Jia, C., Yang, T., Qian, Y., & Wu, X. (2020). The gender differences in science achievement, interest, habit, and creativity: A national representative evidence from China. Science Education International, 31(2), 195-202. https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v31.i2.9 Joda, F. M. (2019). Effects of instructional scaffolding strategy on senior secondary biology students’ academic achievement and retention in Taraba State, Nigeria. Science Journal of Education, 2(2), 269–275. https://doi.org/10.31014/aior.1993.02.02.59 Johnson, M. P. (2016). Photosynthesis. Essays in Biochemistry, 60(3), 255–273. https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20160016 Keter, J. K. (2013). Effects of cooperative mastery learning approach on secondary school students’ motivation and achievement in chemistry in Bomet County, Kenya [Master's

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thesis]. Egerton University. Khan, F. M. A., & Masood, M. (2015). The effectiveness of an interactive multimedia courseware with coMoperative mastery approach in enhancing higher-order thinking skills in learning cellular respiration. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 176, 977–984. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.567 Kyado, J. J., O. Abah, C., & Samba, R. M. A. (2019). Effect of collaborative concept mapping instructional strategy on secondary students’ achievement in difficult biology concepts. American Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 4(3), 434–447. https://doi.org/10.20448/801.43.434.447 Luchembe, D., Chinyama, K., & Jumbe, J. (2014). The effect of using concept mapping on students' attitudes and achievement when learning the physics topic of circular and rotational motion. European Journal Of Physics Education, 5(4), 10–29. https://doi.org/10.20308/ejpe.21138 Martins-Omole, M. I., Yusuf, H. O., & Guga, A. (2016). Effects of concept mapping and experimental techniques in teaching biology in secondary schools in Federal Capital Territory Abuja, Nigeria. European Journal of Education Studies, 2(6), 119130. https://bit.ly/3m4Wvd0 Métioui, A., Matoussi, F., & Trudel, L. (2016). The teaching of photosynthesis in secondary school: A history of the science approach. Journal of Biological Education, 50(3), 275–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2015.1085427 Mokiwa, H. O., & Agbenyeku, E. U. (2019). Impact of activity-based teaching strategy on gifted students: A case of selected junior secondary schools in Nigeria. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists, 7(3), 421–434. https://doi.org/10.17478/jegys.529919 Nasution, M. K. (2018). Student assessment and misconceptions of photosynthesis: A notion of shifting perspective. Journal As-Salam, 2(2), 106-112. https://doi.org/10.37249/as-salam.v2i2.39 Novak, J. D., & Cañas, A. J. (2009). The development and evolution of the concept mapping tool leading to a new model for mathematics education. In K. Afamasaga-Fuata'i (Ed.), Concept mapping in mathematics (pp. 3-16). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-89194-1_1 Novak, J.D., & Gowin, B., (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139173469 Romero, C., Cazorla, M., & Buzón, O. (2017). Meaningful learning using concept maps as a learning strategy. Journal of Technology and Science Education, 7(3), 313–332. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3926/jotse.276 Rwanda Education Board. (2015). Competency-based curriculum-summary of curriculum framework pre-primary to upper secondary. Ministry of Education. https://bit.ly/30W3dd9 Schmid, R. F., & Telaro, G. (2018). Concept mapping as an instructional strategy for high school biology. The Journal of Educational Research, 84(2), 78–85. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1990.10885996 Slavin, R. E. (2011). Instruction based on cooperative learning.Handbook of research on learning and instruction. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203839089-26 Stevenson, K. T., Szczytko, R. E., Carrier, S. J., & Peterson, M. N. (2021). How outdoor science education can help girls stay engaged with science. International Journal of Science Education, 43(7), 1090–1111. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2021.1900948 Uchegbue, H. O., & Amalu, M. N. (2020). An assessment of sex, school type, and retention ability in basic technology achievement among senior secondary school students. Global Journal of Educational Research, 19(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjedr.v19i1.2 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.

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Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wang, Y., Chiou, C., Lee, L., & Tien, L. (2017). Analyzing the effects of various concept mapping techniques on learning achievement under different learning styles. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education, 8223(7), 3687– 3708. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.00753a Woldeamanuel, Y. W., Abate, N. T., & Berhane, D. E. (2020). Effectiveness of concept mapping-based teaching methods on grade eight students' conceptual understanding of photosynthesis at Ewket Fana Primary School, BahirDar, Ethiopia. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 16(12), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/9276

Appendix 1: Photosynthesis Achievement Test (PAT) 1. Photosynthesis takes place in…. a) Autotrophic organisms b) Primary consumers c) Decomposers d) Heterotrophic organisms 2. Which of the below statements is correct about the structural adaptation of leaf for photosynthesis: a) The leaf cuticle and epidermis of the leaf are thick and transparent to allow easy penetration of sunlight into the leaf. b) The leaf cuticle and epidermis are transparent and are made of many layers of cells to allow sunlight to be absorbed easily. c) The leaf cuticle and epidermis are thin and transparent to allow easy penetration of light. d) The leaf cuticle and epidermis are transparent and dense to allow easy penetration of the light into the leaf. 3. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants produce: a) Carbohydrates and oxygen b) Sugar and carbon dioxide c) Starch and carbon dioxide d) Chlorophyll and radiant energy 4. One of the following is not a necessary condition for Photosynthesis to take place, which one? a) Availability of Water. b) Presence of Sunlight c) An adequate supply of Oxygen d) Presence of Chlorophyll 5. Which pair of substances are the raw materials photosynthesis? a) Oxygen and organic matter b) Oxygen and water c) Carbon dioxide and organic matter

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Carbon dioxide and water

6. The most important benefit to green plants when they photosynthesize is: a) Removal of carbon dioxide b) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy c) Production of energy d) Production of oxygen 7. What type of energy do plants receive from the sun? a) Chemical energy b) Light energy c) Geothermal energy d) Electrical energy 8. Which gas is taken by green plants in large amounts when there is no light energy at all? a) Carbon dioxide gas b) Oxygen gas c) Nitrogen gas d) Neo gas 9. In which part of the plant does photosynthesis take place most? a) In the whole plant b) In the roots c) In the leaves d) In the stem 10. Which pair of substances are the reactants in photosynthesis and which substances are products of photosynthesis? a) Reactants are oxygen and water, and products are glucose in oxygen b) Reactants are oxygen and water, and products are oxygen and water c) Reactants are carbon dioxide and organic matter, and products are glucose in oxygen d) Reactants are carbon dioxide and water, and products are glucose and oxygen 11. Which part of the plant contains chlorophyll and in which part of the plant does photosynthesis take place? a) Chlorophyll is in the leaves, and photosynthesis takes place in the whole plant b) Chlorophyll is in the roots, and photosynthesis takes place in the leaves c) Chlorophyll is in the leaves, and photosynthesis takes place in the leaves d) Chlorophyll is in green parts of the plant, and photosynthesis takes place in the green parts of the plant

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12. What type of energy do plants receive from the sun and into what type of energy do plants transform sunlight energy? a) Plants receive chemical energy from the sun and transform it into chemical energy b) Plants receive light energy from the sun and transform it into movement c) Plants receive light energy from the sun and transform it into chemical energy d) Plants receive light energy from the sun and transform it into light energy 13. Which of the following is the correct photosynthesis equation? a) 6C02+C6H1202+light energy H20+ C6H1206+2H20 b)

6C02 (g) +6H20 +light energy

C6H1206 + 602

6C02+ C6H120+light energy

C6H1206+602+6H20

6C02+12H20+light energy

H20+C6H1206+2H20

14. For photosynthesis to occur, a plant requires... a) Water, oxygen, light, and chlorophyll b) Chlorophyll, light, carbon dioxide, and oxygen c) Carbon dioxide, light, chlorophyll, and water d) light, darkness, oxygen, and carbon dioxide 15. Which of the following atmospheric gases will disappear first if all chlorophyll-containing in plants were to be removed? a) Nitrogen b) Carbon dioxide c) Oxygen d) Water vapor 16. The net reaction for photosynthesis produces: a) Water and carbon dioxide b) Water and Oxygen c) Carbohydrate and carbon dioxide d) Carbohydrate and Oxygen 17. A well-watered potted green plant is kept in a brightly lighted area for 48 hours. What will most likely occur if the light intensity is then reduced slightly during the next 48 hours? a) Photosynthesis will stop completely. b) The rate at which nitrogen is used by the plant will increase. c) The rate at which Oxygen is released from the plant will decrease. d) Glucose production inside each plant cell will increase.

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18. A plant with pink leaves and stem is capable of photosynthesizing because of it: a) has special cells that can photosynthesize. b) has chlorophyll which has been masked. c) uses the pink pigment to photosynthesize. d) possesses carotene which is efficient in photosynthesizing. 19. The deficiency of nitrate ions results to: a) Poor synthesis of chlorophyll b) Yellowing of the leaf c) Stunted growth d) All the above

20. Variegated leaf is used in an experiment to show that: a) Water is essential for photosynthesis b) Sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis c) Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis d) Carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis 21. The type of cells which absorb most carbon dioxide during the day are: a) Palisade mesophyll cells b) Guard cells c) Epidermal cells d) Mitochondria cells 22. The entrance where gas exchange occurs into and out of the leave is called: a) Guard cell b) Palisade cell c) Stomata d) Mesophyll cell 23. One of the mineral ions required for the synthesis of Chlorophyll is: a) Magnesium ions b) Sodium ions c) Potassium ions d) Calcium ions 24. The cells which are responsible for the control of the entrance of air into and out of leave is: a) Guard cells b) Epidermal cells c) Mesophyll cells d) Palisade cells 25. What causes plants to be usually green in color? a) Photosynthesis b) Chlorophyll

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c) d)

Starch Glucose

26. The two major raw materials of photosynthesis are: a) Water and carbon dioxide b) Carbon dioxide and sugar c) Oxygen and carbon dioxide d) Water and oxygen 27. Which of the following cells of the leaf lack chloroplasts? a) Guard cells b) Epidermal cells c) Palisade mesophyll cells d) Spongy mesophyll cells 28. An inorganic molecule required by green plants for the process of photosynthesis is a) Oxygen molecule b) Starch c) Carbon dioxide d) Glucose 29. Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere through: a) Respiration b) Photosynthesis c) Decomposition d) Breathing 30. The principal transport vessel for the transport of water in plants is a) Phloem b) Lenticels c) Xylem d) Midrib 31. The role of vascular bundles in photosynthesis is to: a) Trap sunlight energy b) Allow sunlight to penetrate the leaf c) Transport manufactured food and water d) Absorb carbon dioxide 32. Which could be used to monitor the rate of photosynthesis in a plant? a) Carbon dioxide b) Water production c) Oxygen production d) Hydrogen production

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33. Which words are missing from the equation for photosynthesis? Carbon dioxide (CO2) + ________ + sunlight ---> sugar + __________ a) Sugar, nitrogen b) Energy, water c) Water, oxygen d) Oxygen, carbon dioxide 34. Which of the following does not affect the rate of photosynthesis a) Carbon dioxide concentration b) Light intensity c) Oxygen concentration d) Temperature 35. As a result of photosynthesis, a) our atmosphere is now rich in oxygen gas. b) animals can get energy directly from the sun. c) plants convert chlorophyll into water d) Abundant quantities of carbon dioxide are produced 36. The principal transport vessel responsible for the transporting of the end product of photosynthesis is a) Phloem b) Xylem c) Midrib d) Lenticels 37. The diagram represents a cross-section of a leaf.

Which cell type absorbs most carbon dioxide during the day? a) A b) B c) C d) D 38. For photosynthesis green plants require: a) Chlorophyll only b) Light

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c) d)

Carbon dioxide and water All of the above

39. The name of the pigment which is responsible for the absorption of light in plants is: a) Stroma b) Chlorophyll c) Xylem d) Phloem 40. The following diagram shows the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis

In the above diagram, the rate of Photosynthesis started to decrease from point B to C. Which of the below statements best describe the main cause of the above decrease: a) The increase of temperature above the optimum point cause the breakdown of some biological catalysts which in turn led to a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis. b) The increase in temperature above the optimum point has caused a shortage of water through evaporation, which in turn leads to a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis. c) The temperature above the optimum point has caused the breakdown of chemical bonds in chlorophyll which in turn led to a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis. d) All above

Appendix 2: Attitude Towards Concept Mapping Questionnaire (ATCMQ) INSTRUCTION: To respond to this questionnaire, please put a checkmark (√) in the appropriate box to indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with the statements: 1 (strongly disagree); 2 (disagree); 3 (neutral); 4 (agree); and 5 (strongly agree) No

Statement Interest

Concept mapping makes Biology class

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interesting Concept mapping is fascinating.

Concept mapping makes me feel comfortable.

Concept mapping makes me feel relaxed in the classroom environment 5 Concept mapping stimulates me to learn Biology. Thinking 6

Concept mapping helps me to understand the knowledge presented in photosynthesis concepts 7 I rely less on memorizing facts when I construct a concept map of the information 8 Concept mapping confuses me more than it clarifies knowledge for me 9 Concept mapping helps me to understand how I learn 10 After mapping, I have a better understanding of how all concepts in photosynthesis are related 11 Constructing a concept map helps me remember the subject matter Feeling 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

The time involved in constructing a concept map is too long for what it is worth I feel frustrated when the concepts don’t all fit together I feel confused when I start making a concept map I feel good when the map all comes together I feel successful when I make a good concept map I feel frustrated when the same concepts can be viewed in different ways Building concept maps bored me

1. How do you think the Concept Mapping contributed to your understanding of photosynthesis? Please briefly explain your answer .............................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................................. ......................................................

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2. How do you rate your understanding of photosynthesis? a) Very good b) Good c) Satisfactory d) Unsatisfactory

Appendix 3: Attitudes Towards Cooperative Mastery Learning Questionnaire (ATCMLQ) INSTRUCTION: To respond to this questionnaire, please put a checkmark (√) in the appropriate box to indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with the statements: 1 (strongly disagree); 2 (disagree); 3 (neutral); 4 (agree); and 5 (strongly agree) No

Items Interest 1 Cooperative mastery learning makes Biology class interesting 2 Cooperative mastery learning is fascinating. 3 Cooperative mastery learning makes me feel comfortable. 4 Cooperative mastery learning makes me feel relaxed in the classroom environment 5 Cooperative mastery learning stimulates me to learn Biology. Thinking 6 I understand information better when I work with others in a cooperative mastery learning group 7 I try harder knowing that other group members are depending on me 8 Listening to other ideas and points of view helps me understand. 9 Cooperative mastery learning group members learn more when different points of view are challenged 10 The more I explain ideas to others, the more I lean 11 Some ideas are explained better by my peers than by my teacher 12 I learn best when I work independently Feeling 13 I am a valuable member of my group 14 Other group members have interesting

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15 16 17 18

information to offer. I prefer to compete rather than cooperate Other group members want me to be successful It is upsetting when others don't agree with me Working cooperatively puts too much pressure on me and the other group members

1. How do you think Cooperative Mastery Learning contributed to your understanding of photosynthesis? Please briefly explain your answer ............................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................... ................................................... 2. How do you rate your understanding of photosynthesis? a) Very good b) Good c) Satisfactory d) Unsatisfactory

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 133-154, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.8 Received Aug 5, 2021; Revised Dec 19, 2021; Accepted Feb 13, 2022

Determinants of Quality Education Delivery in Selected Public Universities in Ghana: Students’ Perceptions Anthony Akwesi Owusu* University of Cape Coast, Ghana

Abstract. The increased demand for higher education in recent years has thrown into question the issue of quality service. The purpose of this study was to investigate the factors that students perceive as the determinants of quality education service in selected public universities in Ghana. Using a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, data were collected from 606 final year education students for the 2020/2021 academic year while six students were interviewed. From both quantitative and qualitative data, the study found that students perceived their universities to have a high SSR. Also, the quantitative data showed that there is a statistically significant difference in the perceived student-staff ratio scores in the three selected public universities. Finally, the study revealed that students' entry background characteristics such as gender, the programme of study, and age, and institutional factors (such as the personality of the teaching staff, academic factors, administrative systems, and SSR influenced quality education delivery rating (low, or high perceptions) of students. In view of the findings, the study advocated that since the educational enterprise is in competition, public universities should adopt innovative approaches to attract the mass of students wanting to enroll with them in the face of the global educational competition. Keywords: public universities; quality service; student-staff ratio

1. Introduction Education is a basic need for human development (Cheng, 2017) and a key driver for the development of sustainable societies (Stephens et al., 2008). There is increasing evidence that education is positively related to economic growth (Krueger & Lindahl, 2001). Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are the ones increasingly acknowledged as key drivers for the development of sustainable societies (Stephens, Hernandez, Roman, Graham & Scholz, 2008). HEIs are now a 'buyers market' where students buy higher education via the curriculum, faculties, library, resources offered among others. Public universities render *

Corresponding author: Anthony Akwesi Owusu, anthony.owusu@ucc.edu.gh

©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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account by way of delivery of quality education and providing 'value for money' to justify the colossal public investments of governments in their activities. Universities especially are now considered as service centres with the capacity to target markets based on the standards of quality delivery. Quality education is a broad concept which deals with many variables. Some of the variables include having healthy and well-nourished learners who are ready to learn, and therefore requires the support of their families. Quality also relates to learning in environments that are healthy, safe, protective and gender-sensitive, and provide adequate resources and facilities. Quality measures relevant curricular content accompanied by apt materials for acquiring skills for life and knowledge in areas that promote the development of the country. Quality further denotes processes through which teachers use student-centred teaching approaches in well-managed classrooms with acceptable assessment procedures. The description of quality education in the manner as has been done conceptualizes education as a complex structure entrenched in a political, cultural and economic context. This paper examined research related to these dimensions of quality. Clearly, quality education is a multifarious concept. Education for All Global Monitoring Report (2014), for example, contended that while all over the world there is a growing agreement about the need to provide access to education of good quality, there is much less agreement about what the term quality actually means in practice. The term "quality education" varies dramatically from country to country depending on cultural and economic priorities. Despite the near-universal agreement as to what cognitive skills comprise, they are not entirely culturally neutral (Education for All Global Monitoring Report, 2014). According to Mwanga (2015), quality education is defined as improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes can be achieved by all. The marketing literature is replete with the benefits that inure to organisations that are noted for delivering high-quality goods and services to their clients or customers (Potter‐Brotman, 1994). Organisations with relatively higher levels of quality usually reap larger market shares and have reduced costs and increased profit margins (Nwankwo, 2013). In the same way, educational institutions with a demonstrable record of quality tend to attract the best of students to their fold thereby optimizing profit margins. In the education service sector, providing high-quality education services is a sine-qua-non for retaining student and parent customers, and sustaining the organisation's growth (Zameer et al., 2015). Consistently providing a high-quality education service, however, requires institutional managers and practitioners in the sector to manage abundant problems (Zeithaml et al., 1993) that arise from five distinct characteristics of services, not prevalent in physical goods. Education is a highly people-centred enterprise that has students as the simultaneous products who consume the services delivered by institutions. The determinant is a factor that decisively affects the nature or outcome of something. Good quality education is the one that provides all learners with the

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capabilities they require to become economically productive, develop sustainable livelihoods, contribute to peaceful and democratic societies, and enhance individual well-being (Mwanga, 2015). Recent studies identified the dimensions of quality higher education as quality of students, faculty credentials, academic features, and administrative supports (Akareem & Hossain, 2012; Sanjay & Govender, 2018). Schargel (1996) stated that modern universities are experiencing a 'buyers' market' and that students are buying higher education from universities via the curriculum, faculties, library, resources offered, and more importantly SSR analyses among others (Wallisch & Cachia, 2019). Some studies have shown that the delivery of quality education is determined by multiple measures (Li et al., 2020; Akareem & Hossain, 2016). Other studies also focused on students' perception of the learning environment across their entire degree and the way these perceptions related to learning outcomes. Akareem and Hossain (2012) found that students' characteristics, such as current status and socio-economic background influenced the perceptions of quality service in the delivery of education (Clemes et al., 2001; Sanjay & Govender, 2018).Some studies, identifying multiple measures, focused on student quality, faculty credentials, academic features, SSR, and administrative supports as benchmarks for determining quality in higher education delivery (Akareem& Hossain, 2012). They noted that the socio-economic background variables of students influence their perception of higher education quality. Conceptually, the student entry variables and the institutional factors constitute the perceived determinants of quality. Figure1 illustrates a hypothesized conceptual framework of the study.

Figure 1: A theorized conceptual framework of the study

1.1. The Research Problem Evidence has shown that there is a surge in the demand for higher education in most societies giving meaning to the proliferation of private higher education institutions. According to Labi (2007), higher-education systems around the

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world have experienced and continue to experience inconceivable growth in recent years. The phenomenon has been described as an unprecedented global academic revolution. Unfortunately, the growth is not commensurate with the infrastructural development of many of these institutions. As a result, many public universities are facing acute infrastructural deficits thereby, watering down quality. Many of these institutions have unimaginable high student-staff ratios with poor and over-stretched infrastructure (Andrews (2019). Despite the surging numbers of enrollment worldwide, fundamental questions to ensure the quality and accessibility of higher education remain very paramount. The increase in demand for higher education arises from a variety of sources: rising aspirations, changing employment patterns, changing careers, rising incomes, and wealth beyond a high school education a growing necessity for a number of students (Sá, 2019). The general perception of society has shown that a more educated population is regarded as a vital investment for societies and economies. Many of the students patronize government-sponsored universities. However, in the face of scarce economic resources, government support for these public institutions has drastically declined. In Ghana, the situation is so dire that the government is advocating for cost-sharing in tertiary education. The situation has resulted in stiff competition arising from private participation in the provision of tertiary education. The competition that public universities face relate to their appeal to the public on the degree to which they provide quality education.

2. Literature Review The perceptions people have about the quality that a particular public university delivers seems to drive students to enroll in those universities. Therefore, university profiles or images are contingent partly on the perception of quality that students derive by attending those institutions (Rahman, 2013). In this sense, it is clear that quality relates to institutional profiling and HEIs need to understand the importance of creating an attractive image to attract a body of loyal customers (Akareem & Hossain, 2016). If students hold the perception that an institution provides poor services to their clients, they deliberately blacklist those institutions by not patronizing them or even advising friends and relatives to do so. Eventually, bad perceptions reduce the profile of the institutions thereby, affecting their public image and reducing public confidence in them. Such institutions are unable to attract the required number of students to enhance their financial status in the time of declining government financial support. Such universities fail to attract the required numbers of students who enroll there to pursue their programmes. On the other hand, if students hold good perceptions about an institution, those perceptions tend to attract the many people who desire to demand higher education. If government support to public universities is dwindling at a time when these public institutions are also competing with private universities in the supply of university education, quality becomes a critical issue that 'buyers' (students) consider to decide where to enroll and access tertiary education. A study of this kind, therefore, becomes crucial since it provides an opportunity to

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ascertain students' perceptions of quality service delivery (Sanjay & Govender, 2018). Based on the perceptions, the universities could put in place quality assurance mechanisms to address some of their challenges that often fuel the negative perceptions among students, and which usually tend to be inimical to the image of public universities. In Ghana, studies on this subject remain largely unexplored hence, the motivation to carry out this study. This study, therefore, seeks to fill the knowledge gap by investigating students' perceived determinants of quality education delivery in public universities in Ghana. To do this, their perceptions of quality (Clemes, Ozanne & Tram, 2001; Gallifa & Batallé, 2010) delivery in relation to students' entry background characteristics (gender, programme of study, and age), the personality of the teaching staff, academic factors in the universities, administrative systems, and SSR will be investigated and explained in the context of three public universities in Ghana. 2.1. Objective(s) of the Study The study sought to investigate the determinants of quality education in three public universities (UCC, UEW, and UG) in Ghana as perceived by students. Specifically, the study seeks to achieve the following objectives: • Describe students' perceptions of the SSR in their institutions; • Examine whether there is a statistically significant difference in the perceived student-staff ratio scores in the three participating universities; and • Investigate whether students' entry background characteristics (gender, programme of study, and age), institutional factors such as the personality of the teaching staff, academic factors, administrative systems, and SSR affect their low, moderate, or high perceptions of quality education delivery. 2.2. Significance of the Study The findings of this study are significant to many stakeholders in higher education management. For instance, to policymakers, university managers, faculty members, students, parents, and stakeholders may get to know the determinants of quality service to help them formulate appropriate policies to address the challenges related to quality service delivery to students. This is because higher education institutions already appear to face greater fears from students, parents, employers and taxpayers who demand accountability from them for teaching service quality. Therefore, the outcome of this study may help public institutions be able to respond to the growing demand for meaningful and relevant education. Also, the study provides insight into to university academic boards to come out with quality teaching and learning policies to improve teaching services in our public universities. The study shares useful information to authorities of public universities on steps they need to take to enhance learning conditions of students in universities. The Ghana Tertiary Education Policy of the Ministry of Education document (GTEP, 2019, p. 51) urged that: "the Regulator shall from time to time develop and implement norms … for various programmes and institutions in

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consultation with the Ministry of Education". A study of this kind provides feedback to the government as to the extent to which institutions of higher learning, particularly public ones are implementing the doctrines as enshrined in the national document. Further, the study may furnish the government with relevant information for policy formulation and implementation to improve quality education delivery in public universities in Ghana. In addition, the findings provide an up-to-date solution to student concerns in relation to quality education delivery. Finally, the results provide useful data to the National Accreditation Board (NAB) and other government agencies responsible for regulating activities in public universities.

3. Methodology The study seeks to investigate the determinants of quality education in three public universities (UCC, UEW, and UG) in Ghana as perceived by students. 3.1. Study Design I used a convergent parallel mixed-methods design for the purpose of triangulation. In this design, the quantitative and qualitative strands of the research are performed independently, and their results are brought together in the overall interpretation (Bryman, 2006). For parallels design, one has two or more parallel quantitative and qualitative elements; either with some minimal time-lapse or concurrently; the strand results are integrated into meta-inferences after distinct analysis is conducted. It relates to QUAN and QUAL research questions that are answered or aspects of the same mixed research question which are addressed (Guetterman, 2020). The main reason for the use of triangulation is based on the principle that no single method ever is sufficient to solve a particular problem (Denzin, 1999; Guetterman, 2020). Furthermore, using only one method is susceptible to error associated with that particular method. Therefore, the use of multiple methods to study the same phenomenon should lead to greater validity and reliability than a single method. When different methods are used, the inherent bias in that particular method is neutralized with the introduction of the other methods. Besides, since every method has its own merits and demerits, the multiplicity of methods strengthens any weakness identified with one and thus, becomes helpful. 3.2. Population The population of the study consisted of 3,720 final year Level 400 education students in the University of Cape Coast (UCC), University of Education, Winneba (UEW), and University of Ghana (UG) for the 2020/2021 academic year. Only Level 400 students were considered because they were deemed to have spent many years in school and were therefore abreast of the many issues on quality assurance determinants in their respective institutions. They were approximately 1,908 (51.3%) male and 1,812 (48.7%) females, according to the figures for the 2019/2020 academic year for the selected traditional universities pursuing various bachelors of education (Bed.) degree programmes in different subject areas.

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3.3. Sample and Data Collection The sample size for this study was 606 which was made up 16.3% of the 3,720 final year Level 400 students in the population. 16.3% of students was representative enough of the number of students in the population. However, Martino et al. (2017) recommended oversampling especially for online surveys. They argued that since many educational and social research studies, like this one, use survey data collection and other voluntary participation methods response rates are usually typically below 100%. Therefore, If you are mailing out surveys or questionnaires, . . .count on increasing your sample size by 40%50% to account for lost mail and uncooperative subjects (Martino et al., 2017). In line with this thinking, I added 54 to the minimum sample size, thus bringing the number to 660. I used a stratified random sampling technique which is a technique that requires the population to be put into smaller groups, called strata. The choice of this technique ensured that specific groups of students were represented in the final sample. The final sample size for this study was 660 final year education students, consisting of 17.7% of the students in the population. To get the sample, I constructed a sampling frame that comprised the 3,720 education students (N) in the three universities. Since I was interested in both male and female university students, gender (male/female) was the stratification variable. With the assistance of the Student Records section, I obtained the list of all males and females students studying education in the universities. Secondly, I assigned a consecutive number to each of the students in each stratum, and therefore I ended up with two lists: one for all males and one for female students in a disproportionate manner. I then used a simple random technique to select the final samples for the study. I used purposive sampling to pick six students for the interviews. To avoid any possible biases, these students were not among those whom the questionnaires were administered to. This approach ensured that their views corroborate those responses on the questionnaire by their mates. 3.4. Research Instruments Two research instruments (questionnaire and an interview schedule) were used to collect data in this study. The questionnaire was divided into three sections: A, B, and C with closed-ended questions. The first section contained items related to respondents' profile with four items (the university, the programme of study, gender, and age). The second section contained eight questions on the learning context of students (student-staff ratio, teacher personality, and academic factors in the university) measured on a three-point scale. A total of 23 items consisted of the third section, which focused on students' perceptions of quality education delivery (Clemes et al., 2001). These perceptive items were measured on a 9-point scale and were afterwards translated into three responses based on higher, moderate, and lower student expectation (Akareema & Hossain, 2016). The interview schedule comprised of 12 items that elicited responses on perceptions regarding quality delivery in their respective universities. The items on the guide were probed to gain more insight and also to see if the responses of the questionnaire corroborated by the interviews data.

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To ensure data credibility, I took measures to boost the credibility, transferability, dependability, flexibility, and confirmability of the study. 3.5. Quality Assurance and Ethical Issues Quality assurance and adherence to ethical considerations are critical to ensuring effective research and cogent outcomes. In line with the rules and regulations of research involving human subjects, I took the following ethical issues very seriously during the course of the study (Sayer, 2011). The research activity must be conducted in a way that assures no ethical breaches. In line with this, the participants were given the freedom to decide whether they wanted to be involved and also ensured that none of them was exposed to any harm. I considered a range of issues including permission to conduct the study, confidentiality and privacy, voluntary participation, and informed consent. I obtained a written ethical clearance from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) to conduct this research. With the ethical clearance and a formal written permission letter, I went to the various campuses to deliver them and request their support at the Registrar's office. I then waited for a formal response and once that was received, I began the actual process. I assured respondents of confidentiality and anonymity by hiding their real identities with pseudonyms. I also ensured a cordial but professional relationship between me and the respondents (Akareema & Hossain, 2016). Respondents were asked to refuse any question they deemed inappropriate or sensitive to answer. 3.6. Data Collection Procedures Prior to the collection of data, respondents' consents were sought. I explained the rationale of the study to them and sought their cooperation. The questionnaires were distributed to the students by the researcher with the help of an assistant. The assistant was schooled on the rationale for the study and the need to ensure that the necessary research protocols are strictly complied with. I, together with the research assistant took students through each item thoroughly and explained issues to them to guard against ambiguity in subjects' responses. This method was also to help reduce the invalid responses and the fatigue often associated with survey data collection. Both data, whose collection lasted for three weeks, were collected concurrently. Due to the surging numbers of Covid19 cases and the accompanying restrictions on face-to-face activities, some of the questionnaires were administered online though the interviews were conducted face-to-face (Understanding Research Interviews [URI], 2015). Before the collection of actual data, I conducted a pilot-testing to establish the internal consistency of the items on the instrument. I did this on 30 students in an analogous university with similar characteristics as that of the research setting. A Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of 0.789 was obtained and deemed good and indicative that the items on the instrument were internally cohesive. 3.7. Analysis of Data Descriptive analyses, one-way factorial ANOVA, and binary logistic regression were used. The binary logistic regression was used to examine the association between the criterion (higher and lower perception of quality) and the predictor variables (entry background characteristics: gender, the programme of study, and age) (environmental factors: the personality of teaching staff, academic

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factors, administrative systems, and SSR). For the qualitative data, thematic analysis was used which is a method for methodically identifying, organising, and offering insight into patterns of meaning (themes) across a dataset (Clarke & Braun, 2014). I used the six-phase approach to thematic analysis which they outlined. These phases included familiarizing with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing potential themes, defining and naming themes, and finally producing the report

4. Results The return rate for the questionnaire was 91.5% since 606 out of the 660 respondents completed and returned the survey instruments. They comprised overall, 299 females and 307 males. The study examined students' perceptions of the determinants of quality education delivery in three public universities in Ghana. Table 1 provides the profile of the respondents who were surveyed in the study. Table 1. Distribution of demographic information of participants Demographic Variables Programme Bed. Soc. Sci. Bed. Business Bed. Arts Other Total Gender Female Male Total Age 12 – 22 years 23 – 33 years 34 above Total

UCC

EUW

Total

41 (12.6.) 197 (60.6) 38 (11.7) 49 (15.1) 325 (53.6)

142 (72.4) 8 (4.1) 33 (16.8) 13 (6.6) 196 (32.3)

0 (0.0) 3 (3.5) 1 (1.2) 81 (95.3) 85 (14.026)

183 (30.2) 208 (34.0) 72 (11.9) 143(23.6) 606 (100)

200 (61.5) 125 (38.5) 325 (53.6)

91 (46.4) 105 (53.6) 196 (32.3)

8 (9.4) 77 (22.7) 85 (14.026)

299 (49.3) 307 (50.7) 606 (100)

125 (38.5) 200 (61.5) 0 (0.0) 325 (53.6)

105 (53.6) 91 (46.4) 2 (2.4) 196 (32.3)

43 (50.6) 40 (47.1) 0 (0.0) 85 (14.026)

273 (45.06) 331 (54.6) 2 (0.34) 606 (100)

Table 1 shows that there is a gender gap in the various fields of study in the participating universities and a relatively young age distribution of respondents represented though many of the respondents above 34 years came from UEW. For the interviews, I picked six students (three males and three females), two from each institution. I gave the interviewees pseudonyms (UCCM/UCCF; UEWM/UEWF; UGM/UGF) in consonance with research anonymity doctrine. I used the deviant case purposive sampling to pick the students in order to obtain different perspectives of students on the issue the students were of the average age of 24 years and final year students pursuing programmes in the humanities, arts, business and the social sciences. The profile divulges the capacity of the respondents to provide necessary responses in answer to all the germane questions of the study.

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Research Question What are students’ perceptions of the SSR in their institutions? To answer this question, I used simple descriptive statistics as shown in Table 2. The results showed that a majority of the students 560 (81.3%) described the student-staff ratio as high (81:1 and above). However, 46(6.7%) of them also responded that the student-staff ratio in their university was low, consisting of between 28 students and 80 is to one staff. A cross-tabulation of the universities and the student-staff ratio descriptions revealed that in UCC 41 of the students described the student-staff ratio as low, whereas 284 described it as high (81 and above). In UEW, 142 described it as low while 54 felt it to be high. In UG, 28 were of the opinion that the student-staff ratio was low meanwhile 57 responded that the student-staff ratio was high. Clearly, the majority 395 (65.2%) described the ratio as high while 211(34.8%) felt otherwise. Table 2. Cross tabulation of University and Description of Student-staff ratio Univ. Student-staff ratio Low (28-80:1) High (81:1 and above) Total

UCC M

UEW M

UG M

Total SD

41 284

7.55 7.90

1.82 1.45

142 54

7.77 8.75

1.81 .71

28 57

6.50 8.89

.57 .50

7.27 8.51

1.40 .88

325

7.94

1.71

196

8.10

1.67

8.08

1.26

8.04

1.55

The qualitative data from the interview also corroborated the findings of the quantitative data. The interviewees were asked to express their opinions about the student-staff ratio in the various institutions. The majority held the view that the student-staff ratio in their institutions was high. For instance, one noted that "The student number, compared to the staff is high; I think it is very high in my department" [UCCM]; "…so very high, I think" [UCCF]; …" high because sometimes the same lecturer will be handling four or even more courses; personally, I feel it is too much for such lecturers" [UEWF]. Others also intimated that "…the student-staff ratio in my university is high that's why some of the lecturer theatres operate with public-address systems [UEWM]. Clearly, the theme that emerged was the high student-staff ratio. The two data sets pointed to the same theme implying a commonality in the quantitative and qualitative finding. Hypothesis 1 H1: Students’ perceptions of the student-staff ratio vary significantly depending on the programme they offer across the three universities. To test this hypothesis, a two-way factorial ANOVA test was conducted to examine whether significant differences exist in the respondents’ perceptions of the student-staff ratio scores in the three participating universities as illustrated in Table 3.

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Table 3. Two way analysis of variance for student-staff ratio as a function of programme of study and university Variable source Perceived student-staff ratio University Programme of study University*Programme Error

Df 2 3 6 593

Mean Square 14.460 23.095 12.053 2.344

Ƞ2

Sig.

6.169** 9.853** 5.142**

.002 .000 .000

.020 .047 .049

*p< .005, ** p< .001 Table 4. Mean, standard deviations, and n for student-staff ratio as a function of programme and university Univ. Programme of study BEd, Soc. Sci. BEd. Business BEd. Arts Other Total

n 41 197 38 49 325

UEW M

UG M

1.82 1.45 .20 2.68 1.71

142 8 33 13 196

7.77 8.75 9.20 8.62 8.10

1.81 .71 .46 .74 1.67

24 57 1 3 85

6.50 8.89 7.00 5.83 8.08

.57 .50 .76 1.26

7.27 8.51 8.42 7.35 8.04

UCC M 7.55 7.90 9.05 7.60 7.94

Total SD 1.40 .88 .33 1.39 1.55

Table 4 shows the number of subjects, the mean and standard deviation of the perceived student-staff ratio for each cell. Simple effect analyses revealed that students pursuing all three programmes (including the 'other' programme) in the University of Education, Winneba (UEW) had perceptions of high studentstaff ratio than students from UCC and UG did. Also, students pursuing all the programmes in UCC had perceptions of high student-staff ratio than students of UG did. The table presents the findings of the factorial ANOVA. We can see that the model is statistically significant (F (6, 593) = 5.142, p = .001), indeed the Partial Eta Squared suggests that programme of study, sex and age accounted for 4.9% of the variance in students' perception of the student-staff ratio in this model. That said, the Partial Eta Squared for university is 2.8% and the programme of study is 4.7%. The interview revealed that the perception of the student-staff ratio depends on the university and the programme of study. It became obvious that the studentstaff ratio differs from programme to programme and not a straitjacket that in all programmes, the ratio is high. For instance, the response of one student was that "The student-staff ratio is high in my programme and the student population is increasing by each year" [UGF]. Attesting to this fact is the issue of the number of enrolments in their respective programmes of study. When they were asked to give their opinion about the number of people enrolled in their programmes, some said, "I think it's ok [UEWM]; others said, "The number is sizeable enough [UEWF], and for some, "…increasing number of students; no place to put your bag [mpo] ... and I feel something must be done about it [UGM]. The results from the two datasets showed that the qualitative data corroborated the findings of the quantitative data.

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Hypothesis 2 H1: The combination of entry background characteristics (gender, programme of study, and age), and institutional factors (university, personality of the teaching staff, academic factors, administrative systems, and SSR significantly predict students’ low or high perception of quality education. To test hypothesis 2, a logistic regression was used to examine the effects of the combination of student entry background characteristics (gender, programme of study, age), institutional factors (university, the personality of the teaching staff, (academic factors), administrative systems, and SSR on students' perceptions (low or high) of quality education. The logistic regression model was statistically significant, χ2 (10) = 127.078, p<.005. The model explained 28.3% (Nagelkerke R2) of the variance in student perceptions of quality education. The statistical significance of the test is found in the "Sig." column of Table 2. From Table 1, 460 students had a low perception rating of quality while 146 had a high perception of quality education (Rahman, 2013). Thus, if one simply guessed that no student had low perceptions of quality education, one would classify 75.9% of the students correctly by chance. Gender, age, flexible in giving marks (personality of the teaching staff), student evaluation system (academic factor), admission procedures (academic factor), curricular design and planning with up-to-date information (academic factor), and job prospects (academic factor) are each separately significantly related to students' low or high perceptions of quality education delivery. The overall model is significant when all seven (7) independent variables are entered. The Cox and Snell R square value of 18.9% and the Negekerte R square of 28.3% which are similar to R2 give a rough estimate of the variance that can be predicted from the combination of the predictor variables. It is clear that 98.3% of students who had a low perception rating of quality education delivery were predicted correctly with this model, but 28.8% of those who had a high perception rating of quality delivery of education were predicted correctly. The university of the student, their programme of study, gender, age teacher personality (flexible in giving marks), and academic factor (admission procedure) but not boring, egoistic, and compassionate teaching staff, research output (academic factor, student evaluation system (academic factor), and curricular design and planning with up-to-date information (academic factor) are significant predictors when all seven independent variables are considered together. This suggests some correlation among predictors since teacher personality type (boring, egoistic, and compassionate) and research output level of teaching staff (academic factor) were significant predictors when used alone. But, student evaluation system (academic factor), and curricular design and planning with up-to-date information failed to predict low or high perception rating of quality education delivery when used alone or with other variables.

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Table 5. Binary logistic regression results on the effects of predictors on low or high perception of quality education service. Variables

Wald

Sig

University

-.468

.202

5.336

.021

Odds ratio .627

95% CI

Programme of study

-.736

.172

18.410

.000

.479

.342 - .670

Gender

-1.777

.531

11.221

.001

.169

.060 - .478

Age

1.047

.477

4.809

.028

2.848

1.118 – 7.259

Teacher personality (boring, egoistic, and compassionate)

-.859

.467

3.380

.066

.424

.170 - 1.058

Research output of teaching staff (academic factor)

.638

.452

1.992

.158

1.893

.780 - 4.591

Flexible in giving marks (teacher personality)

-5.034

1.083

21.607

.000

.007

.001 - .054

Evaluation systems for quizzes, exams, assignments etc. (academic factor)

20.031

16161.693

.000

.999

5005359 28.914

.000 -

Admission procedure (academic factor)

2.684

.395

46.204

.000

14.643

6.753 - 31.748

Curricular design and planning with up-to-date information (academic factor)

6.028

19818.787

.000

1.000

414.704

.000

Constant

-42.89

22942.122

.000

.999

.000

.421 - .932

Table 5 reflects the results in which one sees university (p = 021), programme of study (p = .001), gender (p = .001), age (p = .028), flexible in giving marks (p = .001), evaluation systems for quizzes, assignments etc, (p = .001), and admission procedure (p = .001) have added significance to the model/prediction, but personality of teaching staff (p = .066), research output of teaching staff (p =.158 ), evaluation systems for quizzes, exams, assignments etc. (.999), and curricular design and planning with up-to-date information (p = 1.00) did not add significance to the model. When all predictor variables are considered together, they significantly predict whether or not a student had high or low perceptions of quality education, χ2 = 127.078, df = 10, N = 606, p =< .005. The odd ratios or the Exp(B) value, if it is greater than one, denotes a positive association implying higher number for the predictor means group one in the outcome, whereas an odds ratio less than one denotes a negative association meaning a higher number for the predictor means group zero in the outcome. The odds ratio and the confidence interval for university was .627 (.95% CI = 421 - .932), programme of study was .479 (.95% CI = 4.342 - .670), gender was (.95% CI = .060 - .478), age was 3.848 (.95% CI = 1.118 – 7.259), flexible in giving marks was .007 (.95% CI = .001 - .054), and admission procedure yielded 14.643 (.95% CI = 6.753 - 31.748) From Table 2, the odds ratio, which suggests that the odds of estimating correctly that a student has high perceptions of quality education reduced by 62.7% from one university to the other while their high perceptions of quality

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education reduced by 47.9% depending on a student's programme of the study area. Again, the odds of estimating correctly that a student has high perceptions of quality education reduced by 16.9% depending on the gender of the student while high perceptions of quality education increased by 84.8% depending on the age of the student. Additionally, the data showed that the odds of estimating correctly that a student has high perceptions of quality education reduces by 0.7% depending on what students think about their teachers' flexibility in giving marks, meanwhile their high perceptions of quality education increased by 91.4% depending on what they think about the evaluation systems in their respective universities. Finally, the data uncovered that the odds of estimating correctly that a student has high perceptions of quality education improved by 70.4% if one knows the admission procedures that exist in a university. The interview questions on this subject basically required the interviewees to state whether, in their estimation, the entry background characteristics (gender, programme of study, and age), and institutional factors in their university, the personality of the teaching staff, academic factors, administrative systems in their universities, and the SSR in their universities influence their low or high perceptions of quality education. The respondents' views which came up as themes on the matter were not dissenting. Many of them pointed out that the entry background of entrants is a basis for perceiving a university to deliver quality. These sentiments were expressed in the following statements, "It may not be true but there is a notion that universities noted not for quality tend to admit older students. I don't think I agree because this may not have any scientific basis" [UGM]; "Some programmes are not seen to be important because of public perceptions and so high numbers into those programmes evokes a certain sense of no quality [UEWF]. Others also stated that the personality of the teaching staff and their capacity to teach is an index for perceiving a university to be providing quality. They explained that the quality of staff guarantees quality tuition and thus feeds into the perception of high quality. However, many said that gender cannot influence or be a yardstick for perceiving an institution to deliver quality. They are unanimous that effective administrative structures in universities and the state of the student-staff ratio are benchmarks for measuring quality. For instance, one said, "Quality can be assured when the administrative structures and systems in the university are allowed to work" [UCCM]. Another interviewee said, "We cannot talk about quality if the student-staff ratio is high; that indicates a deficit in resources" [EUWF]. The results here also clearly validate the quantitative findings wherein background characteristics of students and institutional factors influence high or low student perceptions of quality education.

5. Discussions High student-staff ratio is almost a common feature among many universities including public universities (Ngoc & Hawkins, 2018). The phenomenon is characterized by a system where student enrolments outstrip the necessary available resources in the delivery of education service. The situation in many

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Ghanaian universities has been exacerbated by the increasing demand for public education (Sá, 2019). In a bid to improve the quality of its human capital, governments resort to encouraging their citizens to patronize tertiary education without a conscious corresponding governmental effort to ensure improvement in infrastructure. Many public universities today are saddled with large student enrolments without commensurate improvements, thereby reducing quality delivery (Sá, 2019). The phenomenon of high student-staff ratio creates perceptions of low quality which is injurious to the profile of public universities both internally and externally (Andrews, 2019). Also, the student background characteristics such as gender, age, the programme of study, the type of institution or university, the personality of the teaching staff, academic factors, administrative systems, and SSR affect student perceptions of quality education (Gallifa &Batallé, 2010). Clearly, the findings of this study concurred with other studies in earlier ones. For instance, this study has shown that quality delivery is determined by many indices. This outcome agreed with an earlier study by Akareem and Hossain (2016) which also showed that delivery of quality education (as is perceived) is determined by several measures. Again, the findings of this study also matched with the ones by Akareem and Hossain (2012) and Total Quality Management in Education (2020) who found that perceptions of quality in higher education institutions are influenced by faculty credentials, academic features, and administrative support structures among others. Besides, Akareem and Hossain (2012) , however, found that current status and socio-economic background as student characteristic factors influenced perceptions of quality education (Kulik et al., 2019). In addition, this study concluded that faculty credentials, academic features, and student-staff ratio (Wallisch& Cachia, 2019) as factors that influenced students’ perceptions of quality education service concurred with the study of Akareem and Hossain (2012).

6. Conclusion Based on the analysis and discussions, it is safe to conclude that there are differences in the perceived student-staff ratio among students from one public university to the other. As seen in the case of the three participating public universities, students' entry background characteristics such as gender, the programme of study, and age, and institutional factors influence perceptions of quality service among students. It therefore behooves public universities to adopt more pre-emptive and entrepreneurial approaches to market their quality services to their global constituencies. In view of the findings, the following recommendations and considerations are addressed to all stakeholders in high education delivery in Ghana: i. It is recommended among other things that the government should put in an effort to resource public universities with both human and material resources to make them deliver quality service to students. This could also help them deliver on their mandate go a long way to reduce the perceptions students have of the student-staff ratio.

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ii.

iii.

iv.

The study showed that the personality of teaching staff and administrative services are critical in the formation of student perception of quality. Therefore, the management of public universities should play roles that leave indelible pleasant memories about their institutions. These memories engender positive student perception of quality educational experiences. They should use human resource strategies that align with market-orientated management strategies by giving due recognition to staff as a critical resource. Since the study established that students' perceptions of service quality differed significantly from institution to institution, from programmes of study to programme of study, and from age to age, public university managers should leverage the discriminating factors by first identifying them and creating appropriate strategies to achieve specific targets. Since it was clear that the educational institutions are in competition, public universities should do all within their power to use state-of-the-art strategies to make them competitive and attractive to students.

7. Limitations This study relied on samples from only three public universities and views from these institutions may not represent the general perceptions of the student population in Ghana. Also, the differences in the sample size in the three universities could account for the differences in the statistical significance of the results. This can adversely affect the inferences and conclusions drawn on the results.

8. Acknowledgement I am greatly indebted to all participants of this study. I would like also to thank the Institutional Review Board of the University of Cape Coast (IRB, UCC) for the proposed protocols and input which refined the outlook of the study. Also, I want to thank the Directorate of Research Innovation and Consultancy (DRIC, UCC), Ghana for accepting to fund this study. In fact, the directorate gave full funding in the individual-led research category for the 2021-2022 academic year. I state, however, that any flaws in this study remain solely mine.

9. References Akareem, H. S., & Hossain, S. S. (2016). Determinants of education quality: What makes students’ perception different? Open Review of Educational Research,3(1), 52-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/23265507.2016.1155167 Akareem, H. S., & Hossain, S. S. (2012). Perception of education quality in private universities of Bangladesh: A study from students’ perspective. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 22(1), 11–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/08841241.2016.705792 Andrews, A. (2019). Revisiting the staff to student ratio outcomes of the HOCS Survey 2018. The Journal of the Australian and New Zealand Student Services Association, 27(2), 224–230. https://doi.org/10.30688/janzssa.2019.12 Bryman, A. (2006). Integrating quantitative and qualitative research: How is it done? Qualitative Research, 6, 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794106058877 Cheng, M. (2017). Reclaiming quality in higher education: A human factor approach. Quality in Higher Education, 23(2), 153–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/13538322.2017.1358954

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Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2014). Thematic analysis. Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology, 1947–1952. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_311 Clemes, M. D., Ozanne, L. K., & Tram, L. (2001). An examination of students' perceptions of service quality in higher education. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 10(3), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1300/J050v10n03_01 Denzin, N. K. (1999). Biographical research methods. Issues in Educational Research, 92102. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-008043349-3/50009-8 Education for All Global Monitoring Report. (2014). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research, 1811–1814. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_3082 Gallifa, J., & Batallé, P. (2010). Student perceptions of service quality in a multi‐campus higher education system in Spain. Quality Assurance in Education, 18(2), 156–170. https://doi.org/10.1108/09684881011035367 Guetterman, T. C. (2020). Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research sampling strategies. education. https://doi.org/10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0241 Krueger, A. B., & Lindahl, M. (2001). Education for growth: Why and for whom? Journal of Economic Literature, 39(4), 1101–1136. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.39.4.1101 Kulik, K. S., J., Brewer, H., & Baker, J. S. (2019). The effect of demographic factors on the implementation of quality physical education. Journal of Physical Education and Sports Management, 6(2), 1 – 13. https://doi.org/10.15640/jpesm.v6n2a1 Labi, A. (2007). Experts assess consequences of global surge in demand for higher education. https://www.chronicle.com/article/experts-assess-consequences-of-globalsurge-in-demand-for-higher-education-47357/ Li, D., Wong, G., & Boumil, M. (2020). Quality measures in undergraduate medical education. Quality Measures, 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-371456_10 Martino, L., Elvira, V., & Louzada, F. (2017). Effective sample size for importance sampling based on discrepancy measures. Signal Processing, 131, 386–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sigpro.2016.08.025 Mwanga, E. (2015). Determinants of quality education provided at secondary school level: Case of Songea municipal council [Dissertation, Mzumbe University]. http://scholar.mzumbe.ac.tz/bitstream/handle/11192/1121/MSc_A&F_Mwan ga%20Elly_2015.pdf?sequence=1. Ngoc, N. T. M., & Hawkins, J. N. (2018). Challenges of massification in higher education: The case of Vietnam. Higher Education in Asia: Quality, Excellence and Governance, 103–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0248-0_8 Nwankwo, S. I. (2013). Customer relationship management and customer retention: Empirical assessment from Nigeria’s insurance industry. Business and Economics Journal, 04(02). https://doi.org/10.4172/2151-6219.1000081 Potter‐Brotman, J. (1994). The new role of service in customer retention. Managing service Quality. An International Journal, 4(4), 53–56. https://doi.org/10.1108/09604529410065298 Rahman, M. M. (2013). Quality higher education and students’ perception: A study on private universities of Bangladesh. Global Disclosure of Economics and Business, 2(1), 9–19. https://doi.org/10.18034/gdeb.v2i1.190 Sá, C. (2019). Economic determinants of higher education demand. Encyclopedia of International Higher Education Systems and Institutions, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9553-1_98-1 Sanjay, S., & Govender, K. (2018). South Africa university students’ perceptions of key education service quality determinants. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 16(3), 377–388. https://doi.org/10.21511/ppm.16(3).2018.30

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Sayer, P. (2011). Interviews in qualitative research by King, Nigel, & Christine Horrocks. The Modern Language Journal, 95(4), 670–671. https://doi.org/10.1111/i.15404781.2011.0154.x Schargel, F. P. (1996). Why we need total quality management in education. Total Quality Management, 7(2), 213–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/09544129650034963 Stephens, J. C., Hernandez, M. E., Román, M., Graham, A. C., & Scholz, R. W. (2008). Higher education as a change agent for sustainability in different cultures and contexts. International Journal of Sustainability in High Education, 9(3), 317–338. https://doi.org/10.1108/14676370810885916 Understanding Research Interviews. (2015). Conducting research interviews for business and management students, 9–24. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529716726.n2 Wallisch, P., & Cachia, J. (2019). Determinants of perceived teaching quality: The role of divergent interpretations of expectations. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/dsvgq Zameer, H., Tara, A., Kausar, U., & Mohsin, A. (2015). Impact of service quality, corporate image and customer satisfaction towards customers’ perceived value in the banking sector in Pakistan. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 33(4), 442–456. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijbm-01-2014-0015 Zeithaml, V. A., Berry, L. L., & Parasuraman, A. (1993). The nature and determinants of customer expectations of service. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 21(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070393211001

Appendix 1 STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE The purpose of this study is to investigate determinants of perceived quality education delivery in some selected public universities in Ghana. I assure you of confidentiality and anonymity. Therefore, kindly provide honest responses to these questions as possible as you can by ticking the spaces provided. It will take you about 8 minutes to complete the questionnaire. SECTION A: Respondents’ Profile 1. University: UCC [ ] UEW [ ] UG [ ] 2. Programme of study: Bed. Soc Sci [ ] Bed. Business [ ] Bed. Arts [ ] Other, specify [ ] 3. Gender: Male: [ ] Female [ ] 4. Age: ______________________________________________________________ SECTION B: Learning Context of Students Tick the right box reflecting your opinion on the issues on the learning context of students 1. What is your opinion about the current number of students enrolled in your programme? Below 20 [ ] students 21 – 50 [ ] students 51 and above [ ] 2. What, in your view is the student-staff ratio in the programme you pursue in this university? 27:1 [ ] 28-80:1 [ ] 81 above is to 1 [ ] 3. How would you describe the ratio relative to the programme you are pursuing? Low [ ] Moderate [ ] High [ ]

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4. How would you describe personality of the teaching staff in your programme? Boring [ ] Egotistical [ ] Creative [ ] Affectionate [ ] [Boring: one who is not interesting; Egotistical: acting as if one is more important than others; Creative: original thinker and one with artistic skills; Affectionate: one who is very loving] 5. How would you describe the academic content of the programme you are studying currently in your university? Not satisfactory [ ] Satisfactory [ ] Very Satisfactory [ ] 6. How would you describe the needed job-market career skills being imparted unto you now? Not satisfactory [ ] Satisfactory [ ] very Satisfactory [ ] 7. How would you describe the useful life skills that are being imparted unto you now necessary for post-higher-education life your university? Not satisfactory [ ] Satisfactory [ ] very Satisfactory [ ] 8. How do you perceive the service quality provided by the administrative units: the registrar’s office, library, faculty office, HoD’s/Dean’s office, hall master, sports, and university hospital? Not satisfactory [ ] Satisfactory [ ] very Satisfactory [ ] SECTION C: Perceived Quality Education Delivery Tick in the right box reflecting your opinion about factors affecting the quality delivery of education Highly Disagree Highly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Creative and affectionate personality (teacher personality) of the teaching staff reflects quality education delivery Boring and egotistic personality (teacher personality) reflects quality education delivery reflects quality education delivery Research output (teacher personality) is an important indicator of quality education delivery Faculty relationship with students (teacher personality) reflects quality education delivery Flexible marks-giving (teacher personality) reflects quality education delivery Presentation skill of faculty members (teacher personality) reflects quality education delivery. Subject-matter knowledge (teacher personality) of faculty is an important indicator of quality education delivery Participative teaching methods (teacher personality) by faculty reflects quality education delivery

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Academic content of the programme I am studying (academic factor) reflects quality education delivery Curricular design with broad practical coverage (academic factor) reflects quality education delivery Students evaluation system (academic factor) with (exam, quizzes, and assignments/projects) is a vital indicator of quality education delivery Faculty evaluation system by students (academic factor) reflects quality education delivery Flexible lecture, quiz, and examination schedules (academic factor) reflects quality education delivery Admission procedure (academic factor) reflects quality education delivery Guidance and counselling services to students by faculty and other psychologists from the university (academic factor) reflects quality education delivery Curricular design and planning with up-todate information (academic factor) reflects quality education delivery Needed job-market career skills being received (academic factor) reflects quality education delivery Job prospects (academic factor) is an indicator of quality education delivery Useful life skills that are being imparted unto students (academic factors) now reflects quality education delivery. Service provided by the administrative units (administrative systems) reflects quality education delivery Smaller student-faculty ratio (student-staff ratio) reflects quality education delivery High student staff ratio (student-staff ratio) reflects decreased quality education delivery Infrastructural resources (student-staff ratio) is a vital indicator of quality education delivery. Thank you for the cooperation

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Interview Schedule MORNING

EVENING

INTERVIEW

8:30 a.m.

5:00 p.m.

• •

8:50 a.m.

5:20 p.m.

9:00 a.m. – 9:30 am

5:30 p.m. – 6:00 am

• • •

Q&A

[on respondent’s profile: university, programme of study, gender, age]

[Learning Context of students: their opinion about the current number of students enrolled in your programme, their view on the student-staff ratio in their university, (whether low, moderate or high and why they think so), their description of personality of the teaching staff (whether they think they are boring, egoistical, creative, or

Learning Context of students: their opinion about the current number of students enrolled in your programme, their view on the student-staff ratio in their university, (whether low, moderate or high and why they think so), their description of personality of the teaching staff (whether they think they are boring, egoistical, creative, or

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Candidates Report on zoom platform Meeting with interviewer online

Receives briefing on interview Uses 20 minutes to prepare responses. Interviewer introduces self and strikes acquaintances with respondents • Commences with interview questions • Questions & Answer Time Sample questions: • What are your opinions about the current number of students enrolled in your programme? • What are your views on the studentstaff ratio in your university? (whether low, moderate or high and why they think so), • How will you describe the personality of the teaching staff in your university? • Do you see them as (whether they think they are boring, egoistical, creative, or affectionate? • How would you describe the academic content of the programme you are studying currently in your university? (Not satisfactory, Satisfactory, Very Satisfactory) why do you say so? • How would you describe the needed job-market career skills being imparted unto you now? Not satisfactory/Satisfactory) and why? • How would you describe the useful life skills that are being imparted unto you that are necessary for post-highereducation life your university? (satisfactory or not satisfactory and why? • How do you perceive the service quality provided by the administrative units: the registrar’s office, library, faculty office, HoD’s/Dean’s office,

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affectionate). Interviewer will break the terms for them to help hem respond properly. For example a boring person is one who is not interesting; egotistical is one who acts as if one is more important than others; creative person is one who is an original thinker and one with artistic skills; and an Affectionate person is one who is very loving

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•

hall master, sports, and university hospital? and why? Would you say the affectionate personality of the teaching staff reflects quality education delivery? Does boring and egotistic personality of the teaching staff, for you, determine quality education delivery? Is research output of the teaching staff an indicator of quality education delivery? Why? Etc. To you, what other factors determine quality education and why?

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 155-175, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.9 Received Nov 30, 2021; Revised Jan 23, 2022; Accepted Feb 18, 2022

Rural STEM Preservice Teachers’ Acceptance of Virtual Learning David Mutambara Department of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education Faculty of Education, University of Zululand, South Africa Admire Chibisa* Department of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education Faculty of Education, University of Zululand, South Africa

Abstract. Teaching and learning of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) to preservice teachers in rural universities has always been a challenge, resulting in poor student performance. The outbreak of COVID-19 has made it exacerbated this owing to lockdown restrictions in most institutions including universities. Consequently, universities switched to virtual learning (VL), even though most of them (especially rural universities) were not ready for it. This worsened the plight of struggling rural STEM students who had to make do with this new VL. Hence, this study focussed on rural STEM preservice teachers’ acceptance of virtual learning. Prior studies have shown that adoption of a new information system depends on its acceptance by users; however, very little is known about the acceptance of VL by rural STEM preservice teachers. Based on the technology acceptance model, the study proposed and used the STEM preservice teacher acceptance virtual learning model to investigate factors that predict rural STEM preservice teachers' actual use of VL. Partial least squares structural equation modelling was used to analyse data from 250 valid questionnaires. The model explained 74.6% of the variance in rural STEM pre-service teachers' actual use of VL. Latent variables, facilitating conditions, attitude towards use, and perceived ease of use had a direct impact on the actual use of VL. Attitude to use also played a mediating role between actual use and predictors, perceived enjoyment, perceived social influence, computer self-efficacy, and perceived usefulness. It was concluded that rural STEM pre-service teachers embrace VL given the desperate pandemic situation. Keywords: preservice teachers; STEM; virtual learning; technology acceptance model; COVID-19

Corresponding author: Admire Chibisa; ChibisaA@unizulu.ac.za

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has changed our way of life, social interactions, travel, and work. It is caused by the recently discovered SARS-CoV2 coronavirus. Since the 1918 influenza pandemic, this virus has been regarded as the world's most serious public health threat (Greenstone & Nigam, 2020). In a bid to slow down the spread of the virus, most governments worldwide closed all nonessential services, including universities. In a bid to breathe life into academia, universities switched to virtual learning (VL), even though most of them (especially rural universities) were not prepared for this. Virtual learning is a type of learning that is supported by the use of computers and the Internet, both beyond and within the educational institutions' faculties (Govindarajan & Srivastava, 2020). The use of VL has exacerbated the plight of rural STEM students who previously struggled while being helped by teachers and are now forced to rely solely on VL. According to Mutambara and Bayaga (2021), STEM education in developing countries faces numerous challenges, resulting in low student performance, particularly in rural regions. Some of the challenges with VL in rural universities include a lack of technical support and resources such as computers, laptops, and mobile devices, erratic network connections, and lecturers who are not trained to use VL (Joo et al., 2018; Maphalala & Adigun, 2021). In the midst of all these challenges, rural STEM preservice teachers were forced to turn to VL owing to the spread of COVID-19. Moreover, student acceptance is critical to the success of any educational programme (Eksail & Afari, 2019; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020). Unfortunately, very little is known regarding the adoption of VL among STEM preservice teachers, particularly in rural areas. Previous research (Benadé & Liebenberg, 2017; Govender, 2010; Maphalala & Adigun, 2021) focused on the use of learning management systems in developing countries. Govender (2010) used a qualitative approach to study the attitudes of students towards learning management systems while Maphalala and Adigun (2021) investigated instructors' experiences with the use of e-learning to promote teaching and learning. In an Excel course, Benadé and Liebenberg (2017) studied students' intents to utilise an ebook and a specialised learning management system (SLMS). Despite the fact that some technological studies have been conducted in universities in developed countries, their usefulness in explaining VL acceptance in rural areas remains limited. Furthermore, these studies were not carried out during a pandemic during which VL was the only mode of learning available. Developing countries should not blindly follow developed countries’ technology acceptance models, but must instead forge their own path (Belgheis & Kamalludeen, 2018; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020; Wu & Chen, 2017). Any information system's adoption is dependent on its users’ acceptance (Davis et al. (1989). Based on the findings of Mutambara and Bayaga (2020) and those of Davis et al. (1989), it can be argued that students' attitudes must be considered for VL to be successfully implemented in the rural universities of developing countries. As a result, determining what factors influence rural STEM preservice teachers' acceptance of VL is critical. Furthermore, VL is now an integral part of

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modern teaching and learning in tertiary institutions; hence it is important to identify the factors that affect it and embrace them. The technology acceptance model (TAM) was used in this study to investigate what variables rural STEM preservice teachers consider important when accepting VL. The study specifically seeks to answer the following research questions: 1. What factors influence the use of virtual learning by rural STEM pre-service teachers? 2. To what extent do these factors explain the actual use of virtual learning by rural STEM preservice teachers? The results of this study may shed some light on the acceptance of VL in developing countries’ rural universities. The findings may also assist rural universities in successfully implementing and continuing VL after the COVID-19 pandemic.

2. Literature Review Virtual learning is swiftly becoming an important part of teaching and learning, especially in universities (Van Raaij & Schepers, 2008). Universities benefit from VL for a variety of reasons, including the ability to extend contact time across geographical borders and improve face-to-face instruction (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020; Sánchez-Prieto et al., 2017). It also facilitates more efficient communication between learners and educators, as well as amongst learners themselves (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020; Van Raaij & Schepers, 2008). It became the most widely used mode of teaching and learning for most universities during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown (Mulenga & Marbán, 2020). The acceptance of technology by students is a critical factor in its successful implementation in universities (Van Raaij & Schepers, 2008). However, only a few previous studies have looked into the factors that influence university students' willingness to accept VL (Van Raaij & Schepers, 2008). The majority of studies (Bradshaw & Mundia, 2006; Chen, 2010; Fang et al., 2019a; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020; Raman & Don, 2013; Scherer et al., 2019; Teo et al., 2012) focused on the acceptance of different technologies in education. Fang et al. (2019a) explored the influence of culture on technological acceptability in schooling while Mutambara and Bayaga (2020) concentrated on the acceptance of mobile learning. In addition, Scherer et al. (2019) explored the adoption of digital technology in education using the TAM while Chen (2010) used structural equation modeling to investigate preservice teachers' use of technology to support student-centered learning. Finally, Teo et al. (2012) assessed preservice teachers’ acceptance of technology in Turkey. The most acceptable factors of technology acceptance in education are the perceived ease of use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU) (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021; Teo et al., 2012). Prior research (Maphalala & Adigun, 2021; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020) has also confirmed that PU and PEOU are the most powerful predictors of technology acceptance in education. PU and PEOU are also influenced by other external factors such as social influence (SI), computer self-efficacy, and facilitating conditions (PR) (Al Kurdi et al., 2020; Chen, 2020; Lim, 2018a, 2018b). According to Chen (2010), the strongest predictor of

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preservice teachers' acceptance of technology in the classroom is their selfefficacy. The perceived attitude of preservice teachers towards technology integration was reported to mediate the relationship between actual use and predictors and between SI and PR (Scherer et al., 2019). This study seeks to extend the body of knowledge by evaluating the effects of preservice teachers’ perceived enjoyment (PEN) on their acceptance of VL. Furthermore, all these factors were assessed when learners had a choice between face-to-face instruction and technology-assisted instruction. However, owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, VL has become the most widely used method of instruction. As a result, this research is significant because it clarifies the nature of the factors that must be overcome when considering VL activities for pedagogy, as well as determining whether these factors are still valid predictors of technology acceptance during the COVID-19 pandemic. During a pandemic, educational innovations are critical in order that the academic endeavour does not suffer. 2.1 Theoretical Framework The most commonly used models to explain technology acceptance are the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) (Venkatesh et al., 2003b) and the TAM (Davis et al., 1989). Davis et al. (1989) developed the TAM to predict information systems acceptance. The TAM hypotheses that PEOU influences PU and that they both influence perceived attitude (ATT) towards the use of VL (Davis et al., 1989) were key findings of the model. The perceived

attitude towards and perceived usefulness predicts behavioural intention to use the information system (Davis et al., 1989). Behavoural intention (BI) is the best single known predictor of users’ actual usage (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020; Venkatesh et al., 2003a). The TAM is thought to be reliable in predicting user acceptance of a new system (Al Kurdi et al., 2020; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021; Venkatesh et al., 2003). Other academics, however, have criticised the TAM in an educational context for assuming that the use of technology in educational contexts is mandatory (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021; Venkatesh et al., 2003). The TAM is more general and can be used in a wide range of situations (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021). According to Mutambara and Bayaga (2021), educational contexts are becoming more individual, personalised, and focused on system services. Venkateshet al. (2003) criticised the TAM for having a low explanatory power. What these criticisms teach us is that the TAM alone is insufficient to explain the acceptance of VL by rural STEM preservice teachers. Venkatesh et al. (2003) developed the UTAUT as an improvement to the TAM to explain user acceptance of technology. The UTAUT hypothesises that behavioral intention is influenced by performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence. Behavioural intention and facilitating conditions predict behaviour. Gender, age, experience, and the voluntariness of use act as moderators in the relationships between the determinants (performance expectancy, effort expectancy, and social influence) and behavioural intention.

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The UTAUT was successful in increasing the explanatory power of users' acceptance of a new system (Venkatesh et al., 2003). Other academics, however, criticised it (Lim, 2018b; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021). Lim (2018b) contended that the UTAUT was too difficult to meet all of its assumptions. Mutambara and Bayaga (2021) faulted the UTAUT for failing to anticipate actions beyond the user's control. Because of the university closures caused by COVID-19, preservice teachers were forced to use VL. UTAUT could not be used in this study because it does not explain why people adopt technology when forced to do so. 2.2 Conceptual Framework According to Lim (2018b), the TAM offers a conceptual lens that gives the key pillars of user interactions (PU and PEOU), which should be expanded to create a fully-fledged model that can describe and predict technology acceptance in many situations. Furthermore, Venkatesh et al. (2003) reported that by including an external variable in the TAM, the explanatory power of the TAM can be improved. Prior research has shown that including an external variable improves the TAM's explanatory power (Al Kurdi et al., 2020; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020). Following the recommendations by Lim (2018b) and Venkatesh et al. (2003), this study broadened the TAM by including some UTAUT variables such as facilitating conditions (PRs) and social influences (SIs). The TAM was also expanded to include PEN and self-efficacy as external variables in this study. Other investigations have demonstrated that these variables are predictors of educational technology acceptance (Al Kurdi et al., 2020; Maphalala & Adigun, 2021; Mutambara &Bayaga, 2021). This study hypothesises that adding context-related external variables to the TAM will improve its explanatory power. The proposed model posits that computer self-efficacy predicts both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. Perceived enjoyment and social influence are determinants of perceived usefulness. Facilitating conditions predict actual usage, perceived attitude toward and perceived ease of use. Perceived ease of use predicts perceived usefulness, and both predict perceived attitude toward and actual usage. Perceived attitude toward use plays a mediating role between actual usage and predictors as well as perceived enjoyment and social influence. Figure 1 shows the conceptual model.

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Figure 1: Conceptual model ATU–perceived attitude towards, C_USE-actual usage, PU-perceived usefulness, PEOU– perceived ease of use, SI-social influence, PR–facilitating conditions, PEN–perceived enjoyment, CSE–self efficacy.

2.2.1 Computer Self-efficacy In this study computer self-efficacy (CSE) can be defined as rural STEM preservice teachers' self-assurance in their command of information technology and their ability to handle a variety of computer-related tasks (Teo et al., 2015). CSE is critical because it influences the attitudes of rural STEM preservice teachers toward VL. Teo et al. (2012) investigated the impact of CSE on preservice teachers' PEOU, PU, and ATU towards the use of educational technology. The findings revealed that preservice teachers' CSE predicts their PEOU, PU, and ATU toward the use of technology in education. This study postulates that rural preservice teachers with low CSE are more likely to be anxious about learning STEM using computers. This is more likely to have an impact on their perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and attitude towards use. As a result, the hypotheses for this construct are as follows: H1: Rural preservice teachers’ self-efficacy predicts their perceived attitude towards the use of VL; H2: Rural preservice teachers’ self-efficacy predicts their perceived ease of use of VL; H3: Rural preservice teachers’ self-efficacy predicts their perceived usefulness of VL. 2.2.2 Perceived Enjoyment The degree to which a student or instructor finds the interaction of educational technology intrinsically engaging or intriguing was characterised as perceived enjoyment (PEN) (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021). PEN is a form of intrinsic motivation, and it has a major influence on the attitudes of rural preservice teachers on the use of VL and its utility for STEM learning. PEN has no effect on STEM teachers' and learners' PU (Fang et al., 2019b). This study assumes that rural STEM preservice teachers who enjoy using technology are more likely to

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consider VL useful and to have a positive attitude toward the use of VL for STEM learning. Consequently, the hypotheses for this construct are as follows: H4: Rural preservice teachers’ perceived enjoyment predicts their perceived attitude towards the use of VL; H5: Rural preservice teachers’ perceived enjoyment predicts their perceived ease of use of VL. 2.2.3 Social Influence Social influence (SI) is defined in this study as rural STEM preservice teachers’ perceptions that people important to them expect them to use VL for learning (Sánchez-Prieto et al., 2019). Mutambara and Bayaga (2020) found that parents' SI influences their PU and attitude toward their children's use of mobile learning for STEM. This study postulates that rural preservice teachers are not immune to what their parents and lecturers say about the use of VL for STEM learning. Rural preservice teachers' PUs and attitudes toward the use of VL for STEM learning are more likely to be influenced by what their parents and lecturers say about VL. As a result, the hypotheses for this construct are as follows: H6: Rural preservice teachers’ social influence predicts their perceived attitude towards the use of VL; H7: Rural preservice teachers’ social influence predicts their perceived ease of use of VL. 2.2.4 Facilitating Conditions Facilitating conditions (PR) was defined as “the degree to which an individual believes that organizational and technical infrastructure exists to support the use of the system” (Venkatesh et al., 2003, p. 453). There are some inconsistencies in the body of knowledge on the effect of PR on PU and PEOU (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020; Sivo et al., 2018). According to Mutambara and Bayaga (2020), PR influences ATU but not PU or PEOU. Chen (2020) and Sivo et al. (2018), on the other hand, found that PR influences ATU, PU, and PEOU. This investigation was carried out in rural locations where resources are very limited (Bhattarai & Maharjan, 2020). During the COVID-19 pandemic many people lost their jobs; thus, the availability of resources is most likely to influence the acceptance of VL for STEM learning. Therefore, the hypotheses for this construct are as follows: H8: Rural preservice teachers’ facilitating conditions predict their perceived attitude towards the use of VL; H9: Rural preservice teachers’ facilitating conditions predict their perceived ease of use of VL; H10: Rural preservice teachers’ facilitating conditions predict their actual use of VL. 2.2.5 Perceived Ease of Use Mutambara and Bayaga (2021) describe perceived ease of use (PEOU) as the extent to which users believe that adopting educational technology will be effortless. According to Davis et al. (1989), users' PEOU influences their PU and ATU of technology. Several studies (Al Kurdi et al., 2020; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020; Sivoet al., 2018) in the educational context have confirmed the effect of effort required to learn to use educational technology on PU and ATU. This

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study assumes that the amount of effort required to learn to use VL for STEM learning will influence rural preservice teachers' PU, actual usage, and perceived attitude toward the use of VL. As a result, the hypotheses for this construct are as follows: H11: Rural preservice teachers’ perceived ease of use predicts their perceived attitude towards the use of VL; H12: Rural preservice teachers’ perceived ease of use predicts their PU of VL; H13: Rural preservice teachers’ perceived ease of use predicts their actual use of VL. 2.2.6 Perceived Usefulness

Perceived usefulness (PU) was described as the belief that using educational technology boosts learners' performance in STEM-related subjects (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021). In the educational context, Al Kurdi et al. (2020) confirmed the findings of Sivoet al. (2018), who reported that PU influences both ATU towards use and behavioural intention. This study hypothesises that PU influences rural STEM preservice teachers' actual use of VL. Therefore, the hypotheses for this construct are as follows: H14: Rural preservice teachers’ perceived usefulness predicts their perceived attitude towards the use of VL; H15: Rural preservice teachers’ perceived usefulness predicts their actual use of VL. 2.2.7 Perceived attitude towards Perceived attitude towards (ATU) can be described as rural STEM preservice teachers’ overall affective reaction to the use of VL. According to Davis et al. (1989), users' attitudes play an important role in their acceptance of new technology. Several studies in the educational context have found that ATU influences behavioural intention and the actual usage of educational technologies (Al Kurdi et al., 2020; Mutambara & Bayaga, 2020; Sivoet al., 2018). As a result, the hypothesis for this construct is: H16: Rural preservice teachers’ perceived attitude towards the use of VL predicts their actual use of VL.

3. Methodology In this study, a cross-sectional survey design was utilised. A survey design examines a subset of the population to produce a quantitative account of the population's views (Creswell, 2014). In this study, a survey was employed to obtain a quantitative picture of how rural STEM preservice teachers feel about VL. A survey was chosen because it allows for the collection of a significant amount of data from rural STEM preservice teachers in a short period of time and at a low cost. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to obtain opinionrelated data from rural STEM preservice teachers using a questionnaire. The data were firstly examined using descriptive statistics on all the constructs and demographics. Secondly, the postulated model was evaluated using the partial least squares–structural equation model (PLS-SEM).

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3.1 Participants All the 263 fourth-year STEM preservice teachers at the university under study were invited to participate in this study. A total of 250 valid questionnaires were collected, giving a questionnaire return rate of 95%. Of the 250 respondents, 157 (63%) were females and 93 (33%) were males. Among the respondents, 182 (73%) were below 25 years old, 52 (20%) were between 26 and 30 years of age, nine (4%) were between 31 and 35 years old, and seven (3%) were between 35 and 40 years old. The latent variable with the most indicators in the model is actual usage with five indicators. Using the suggestion by Hair et al. (2017) that a sample size should be 10 times greater than the number of indicators on the construct with the most indicators, the required minimum sample size for this study would be 50 (five indicators of actual usage construct X 10 times). This study's actual sample size was 263, far surpassing the suggested minimum requirement of 50. 3.2 Research instrument The questionnaire was divided into two sections. The first section requested rural STEM preservice teachers to provide their biographical data. In the second section, respondents were asked to choose one of seven answers ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’ on a seven-point Likert-type scale. The questionnaire used in this study was adapted from existing literature (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021; Sivo et al., 2018; Van Raaij & Schepers, 2008), the validity and reliability indices of which were 0.975 and 0.753 respectively. Furthermore, multiple questionnaire items were adapted and modified in order to have the variety of items needed for each construct suitable for this study. Owing to the large number of items needed in the research instrument, it was also necessary to adapt and modify questions from multiple questionnaires. The research instrument, for example, contained a total of 51 items. As a result, it was assumed that using and modifying only one questionnaire would be insufficient. The questionnaire items were therefore adapted from previous studies (Mutambara & Bayaga, 2021; Sivo et al., 2018; Van Raaij & Schepers, 2008) and modified to suit the needs of the current study.

4. Data Analysis Technique Data screening was done using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). This was also used for the descriptive statistics. The data set was then transferred to the SmartPSL software for analysis using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). The main function of PLS-SEM, according to Hair et al. (2017), is to predict the target variable, in this case, the actual usage of VL by rural STEM preservice teachers. The PLS-SEM methodology was also used to determine the factors that rural preservice teachers consider important when deciding whether to accept VL. This study followed a two-stage model analysis approach (Hair et al., 2017). To confirm the quality of the measurement model, the reliability and validity of several model variables were initially assessed. The measurement model defines the link between the constructs and their corresponding indicators. The links within the structural model were evaluated in the second stage by examining the

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significance of the path coefficients, the explained variance of the endogenous variables, and the predictive powers of different variables (Hair Jr. et al., 2016). 4.1 The Measurement Model The measurement model was evaluated to ensure that the constructs added to the model were valid. This was accomplished by evaluating the measurement model's convergent validity, internal consistency, indicator reliability, and discriminant validity (Shmueli et al., 2019). 4.1.1 Indicator Reliability Indicator reliability indicates how much of the item's variance can be explained by the underlying latent construct (Hair et al., 2017). According to Chin (1998), a construct should explain a significant portion of the variance in each item, usually at least 50%. Hair et al. (2017) proposed a threshold value for the outer loadings of 0.7. Table 1 shows that all of the items had outer loadings greater than the threshold value of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2017), indicating that the constructs adequately explained all of their items. 4.1.2 Internal Consistency Reliability The composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach's alpha (CA) tests were used to determine internal consistency reliability. Composite reliability is preferred over Cronbach's alpha because it provides more accurate results (Hair Jr et al., 2016). Table 1 shows that all of the constructs used had fair internal consistency reliability because their CR and CA values were all above the cut-off value of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2017). 4.1.3 Convergent Validity Convergent validity is the degree to which one measure positively correlates with other measures of the same construct (Hair et al., 2014, p.102). For convergent validity evaluation, outer loadings and average extracted variance (AVE) were used. As shown in Table 1, all outer loadings were higher than the cut-off value of 0.70. All AVE values were higher than 0.50 (Hair et al., 2017). The results show an acceptable convergence validity. Table 1: Measurement model

Loadings

AVE

Internal consistency reliability CA CR

>0.7

>0.5

>0.7

HTMT confidence interval does not include 1

0.805

0.919

0.943

Yes

0.801

0.936

0.929

Yes

Convergent validity Construct

ATU

CUSE

Indicator

ATU1 ATU2 ATU3 AUT4 CUSE1 CUSE2 CUSE3 CUSE4 CUSE5

0.866 0.886 0.918 0.918 0.930 0.756 0.933 0.906 0.937

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SI CSE PEN

PEOU

SI1 SI2 CSE1 CSE2 PEN1 PEN2 PU1 PU2 PU3 PU4 PEOU1 PEOU2 PEOU3 PEOU4 PR1 PR2

0.925 0.905 0.940 0.922 0.907 0.887 0.845 0.850 0.830 0.801 0.753 0.791 0.895 0.889 0.912 0.917

0.836

0.805

0.911

Yes

0.867

0.847

0.952

Yes

0.805

0.758

0.892

Yes

0.692

0.852

0.900

Yes

0.696

0.855

0.901

Yes

0.836

0.804

0.911

Yes

ATU–perceived attitude towards, C_USE-actual usage, PU-perceived usefulness, PEOU–perceived ease of use, SI-social influence, PR–facilitating conditions, PEN–perceived enjoyment, CSE–self efficacy. 4.1.4 Validity in Discrimination Discriminant validity refers to the degree to which a construct is actually distinct from other constructs based on empirical standards (Hair Jr et al., 2014, p. 104). The heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) values were utilised to determine discriminant validity (Garson, 2016). The HTMT readings were all less than 0.90. The results verified the discriminant validity. Overall, the measurement model's indicator reliability, internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant validity tests were successful. As a result, the measurement model demonstrates the sturdiness required to test the structural model. 4.2 The Structural Model After confirming the measurement model's suitability, the structural model was evaluated. Collinearity was assessed using the variance inflation factor (VIF). Collinearity in PLS-SEM inflates standard errors, makes significance tests of independent constructs inaccurate, and makes it difficult to determine the relative importance of one independent construct compared to another, according to Hair et al. (2017). Table 2 shows that the VIF values range from 1.16 to 2.77. All the VIF values were less than 4 (Garson, 2016), demonstrating that collinearity in the structural model was not an issue among the predictors. As a result, path coefficients can be assessed. Bootstrapping (with 5000 subsamples) was used to assess the statistical significance of each path coefficient using t-tests (Chin, 1998), and the results are shown in Table 2. Out of 16 hypotheses that were tested, only five path coefficients are not statistically significant, as shown in Table 2. PEOU to C_USE (β = -0.023, p > 0.05), PEOU to PU (β = -0.003, p > 0.05), PR to PEOU (β = 0.208, p > 0.05), PU to ATU (β= 0.007, p > 0.05), SI to PU (β = --0.092, p > 0.05) were the non-significant pathways.

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The f-squared statistic was used to assess each exogenous construct's contribution to the explained variance of its endogenous construct. Table 2 displays the results. Cohen (1988) defined acceptable effect size values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 as small, medium, and substantial respectively. According to Cohen's guidelines, the effect size of ATU to C_USE (0.76) was considered the most effective (Cohen, 1988). PEN to PU (0.193) had a medium effect size and the rest had small effect sizes. Table 2: Bootstrapping results Path

Std Beta

Std error

T-values

P-Values

Decision

VIF

f-squired

ATU -> C_USE 0.666 0.048 13.737 0.000 Accepted 2.288 0.761 CSE -> ATU 0.243 0.074 3.280 0.001 Accepted 2.771 0.057 CSE -> PEOU 0.361 0.098 3.686 0.000 Accepted 2.376 0.083 CSE -> PU 0.327 0.067 4.909 0.000 Accepted 1.679 0.053 PEN -> ATU 0.152 0.066 2.311 0.021 Accepted 2.125 0.029 PEN -> PU 0.369 0.077 4.776 0.000 Accepted 1.770 0.193 PEOU -> ATU 0.234 0.072 3.228 0.001 Accepted 1.548 0.000 PEOU -> C_USE -0.023 0.043 0.536 0.592 1.331 0.059 Rejected PEOU -> PU -0.003 0.069 0.044 0.965 1.535 0.000 Rejected PR -> ATU 0.257 0.079 3.234 0.001 Accepted 2.513 0.067 PR -> C_USE 0.187 0.045 4.120 0.000 Accepted 1.964 0.069 PR -> PEOU 0.208 0.109 1.909 0.057 2.376 0.018 Rejected PU -> ATU 0.007 0.066 0.111 0.912 1.781 0.077 Rejected PU -> C_USE 0.141 0.052 2.734 0.006 Accepted 1.646 0.001 SI -> ATU 0.100 0.043 2.332 0.020 Accepted 1.200 0.022 SI -> PU -0.092 0.053 1.755 0.080 1.155 0.031 Rejected ATU–perceived attitude towards, C_USE-actual usage, PU-perceived usefulness, PEOU– perceived ease of use, SI-social influence, PR–facilitating conditions, PEN–perceived enjoyment, CSE–self efficacy.

The bootstrapping method was also used to test the indirect effect of exogenous variables on the actual use of virtual learning by rural STEM preservice teachers. The results in Table 3 show that all four of the indirect paths tested were statistically significant at the 0.05 level of significance. According to the findings, all of the model constructs had a positive direct and/or indirect influence on rural STEM preservice teachers' actual use of virtual learning. Table 3: Indirect path coefficient Path CSE -> ATU -> C_USE PEN -> ATU -> C_USE CSE -> PEOU -> ATU -> C_USE PEOU -> ATU -> C_USE

Std Beta 0.162 0.101 0.056 0.156

Std error 0.052 0.044 0.026 0.053

T-Value 3.126 2.323 2.183 2.948

P-Value 0.002 0.021 0.029 0.003

Decision Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted

The R-squared value shows the total contribution of all the independent variables on the explained variance of the dependent variable (Hair et al., 2017). Figure 2 shows that the R-squared value of the model was 0.746. This result

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implies that all the identified model variables explain 74.6% of the variance in rural STEM preservice teachers’ acceptance of virtual learning. According to Hair et al. (2017), the variance explained by the variables identified in this study is considered substantial. A cross-validated redundancy predictor was used to assess the model's predictive relevance. The results revealed that all Q-squared values were greater than zero, implying that the model could be used to explain and predict virtual learning acceptance by rural STEM preservice teachers. The standardised path coefficients are also shown in Figure 2. The structural model is made up of eight constructs (ATU, PEN, CSE, C_USE, PR, ATU, PEOU, and PU). PU, ATU, PR, and PEOU all predict C_USE. ATU is predicted by PR, SI, CSE, PEN, PU and PEOU. PEC and PR predict PEOU, which in turn predicts PU. PU is also predicted by PEN, SI and CSE.

Figure 2: Structural model ATU–perceived attitude towards, C_USE-actual usage, PU-perceived usefulness, PEOU– perceived ease of use, SI-social influence, PR–facilitating conditions, PEN–perceived enjoyment, CSE–self efficacy.

5. Discussion Research question 1: The first goal of this research was to investigate the factors that influence rural STEM preservice teachers' use of virtual learning. According to the findings in Table 2, facilitating conditions, perceived usefulness, and perceived attitude toward VL had a positive effect on actual usage among rural STEM preservice teachers. Although perceived ease of use was found to have an insignificant direct effect on rural STEM preservice teachers' actual use of virtual

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learning, the results in Table 2 show that it has an indirect effect via the mediating effect of perceived attitude toward the use. The computer selfefficacy, perceived enjoyment, and social influence of rural STEM preservice teachers had an indirect effect on their use of virtual learning. These findings suggest that perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, perceived attitude toward VL, social influence, computer self-efficacy, perceived enjoyment, and facilitating conditions are all good predictors of rural STEM preservice teachers' actual use of virtual learning. Consistent with the findings of Chen (2010), PEOU had no direct significant effect on actual use. One possible explanation for the findings is that the rural STEM preservice teachers who took part in this study had more than a year of experience using virtual learning. As a result, the effort required to learn and master virtual learning is no longer an important factor for them to consider when accepting or rejecting virtual learning. This finding is also consistent with the findings of Mutambara and Bayaga (2021) and Venkatesh et al. (2003), who separately found that the effect of PEOU on actual use diminishes with user experience with the system. However, through the mediating effect of perceived attitude toward use, PEOU had a positive indirect effect on actual use. This finding implies that a user-friendly virtual learning environment is still required for rural STEM preservice teachers to accept and use virtual learning. Rural STEM preservice teachers’ PR influences their actual use and attitude towards use but not their perceived ease of use. The availability of resources influences rural STEM preservice teachers' attitude towards virtual learning, which reinforces teachers’ use of virtual learning. This finding was consistent with that of Mutambara and Bayaga (2021) whose observation was that in rural areas, most people cannot afford to use technology in education. This finding suggests that the availability of resources influences the actual use of virtual learning. The findings revealed that attitude towards use among preservice teachers has an effect on actual use. The findings were in accordance with those of Pittalis (2020) and Sivo et al. (2018), who both stressed the importance of improving university students' attitude towards learning technologies. According to the findings, rural STEM preservice teachers must have a positive attitude towards virtual learning in order to benefit from it. Rural STEM preservice teachers' attitudes toward virtual learning can be improved by providing resources, training them on how to use virtual learning, and making virtual learning platforms enjoyable. Perceived enjoyment and computer self-efficacy had an indirect effect on actual use via the mediation of perceived attitude. One possible explanation is that the vast majority (93%) of respondents in this study are members of the 'digital generation’ who are confident in their ability to handle a variety of computerrelated tasks and enjoy using technology in their daily lives. The findings are consistent with those of Mutambara and Bayaga (2021), namely that the usefulness and pleasure that educational technologies bring to learning influence their acceptance among the digital generation.

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In contrast to the study by Sánchez-Prieto et al. (2019) and that of Van Raaij and Schepers (2008), this study found that the perceived social influence of rural STEM preservice teachers influences their perceived usefulness and attitude towards the use of virtual learning. The findings indicate that rural STEM preservice teachers are susceptible to what they have heard about the use of virtual learning during the COVID-19 pandemic from their lecturers, university administrators, and their countrymen at large. Information system users internalise their colleagues' opinions about the system (Venkatesh et al., 2003). Since the study's rural STEM preservice teachers have been hearing about the benefits of using virtual learning in the face of COVID-19, they have internalised it and it has become part of their belief system, resulting in a positive impact on their attitude towards virtual learning. The perceived usefulness of rural STEM preservice teachers prognosticates their practical use. This result is consistent with that of Sánchez-Prieto et al. (2019), who found that the utility of virtual learning has an effect on its actual use by students. Rural STEM preservice teachers in this study found that, even though universities were closed owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, they could still learn virtually. Furthermore, rural STEM preservice teachers have realised that virtual learning enables them to access their learning materials from anywhere at any time. Moreover, rural preservice teachers can learn at their own pace with virtual learning. These benefits of virtual learning influence its use by rural STEM preservice teachers. Research question 2: The R-squared statistic was used to assess the extent to which the model factors explain the actual use of virtual learning by rural STEM preservice teachers. The model's R-squared value was 0.746, as shown in Figure 2. According to Chin (1998), this R-squared value is statistically significant. This means that the total contribution of the model variables (perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, perceived, social influence, perceived attitude towards VL, computer self-efficacy, and perceived enjoyment by rural STEM preservice teachers) to the variance of the actual use of virtual learning is 74.5%. The model's explanatory power exceeds that of Van Raaij and Schepers (2008), who reported that their model explained 31% of virtual learning acceptance. The explanatory power of this model is also greater than the 40% of the original TAM developed by Davis et al. (1989). This finding supports the proposal made by several authors (Chibisa et al., 2021; Venkatesh et al., 2003a; Zarafshani et al., 2020), who proposed that adding context-related external variables to the TAM improves its explanatory power.

6. Implications 6.1 Practical Implications These findings have a number of practical implications, especially for university information communication technology managers who use virtual learning as a central knowledge hub. Since universities have invested considerably in virtual learning, it is critical that students take advantage of these systems and learn to their full potential. The first requirements are, of course, that the system has features that improve study efficiency and that its interface is simple to use. It is the system designer's responsibility to ensure that these fundamental

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requirements are met. Secondly, virtual learning should be given relevant and up-to-date material by teaching personnel on how to use it. This increases the actual use of the system by students. Internal motivation for the system's continued use during and after the COVID-19 pandemic should be included. Furthermore, course administrators should emphasise the importance of students using the system extensively. Course management, on the other hand, has the potential to make a difference by providing adequate training to students, especially new students, thereby increasing their perceived ease of use and their computer self-efficacy. 6.2 Theoretical Implications The findings backed up Lim's (2018) suggestion that the TAM be expanded to include context-related antecedents of perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness to clarify technology acceptance in a different context. According to the findings of this study, perceived enjoyment and social influence predict rural STEM preservice teachers' perceived usefulness and attitude towards use and have a positive effect on actual use via the mediation of attitude towards use. The study also found that facilitating conditions predict perceived ease of use, attitude towards use, and actual use. Finally, computer self-efficacy influences the TAM’s main pillars, namely perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and attitude towards use.

7. Limitation The study's limitation is that it only looked at one rural university and its STEM preservice teachers. As a result, generalising the study's findings to all universities in developing countries and their STEM preservice teachers should be done with caution.

8. Recommendations for Further Studies Future research should focus on faculties other than education. It is also intended to conduct the same study at urban universities and compare the results. The research model explained 74.6% of the variance; future studies may consider other factors that account for the remaining 25.4% of the variance in explaining the use of virtual learning by preservice teachers.

9. Conclusion The constructs perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, facilitating conditions, perceived attitude toward VL, self-efficacy, perceived enjoyment, and perceived social influence are the factors that were found to influence rural STEM preservice teachers' acceptance of virtual learning. The research model accounted for 74.6% of the variance in rural preservice teachers' use of virtual learning. Just as in the case of the original TAM, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use influenced perceived attitudes of rural STEM preservice teachers. Perceived usefulness and perceived attitude of rural STEM preservice teachers have a direct impact on their actual use. This study concluded that computer self-efficacy, perceived enjoyment, facilitating conditions, and perceived social influence have an impact on rural STEM pre-service teachers’ use of virtual learning. According to the findings,

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facilitating conditions predict actual use, perceived attitude, and perceived ease of use. It was found that computer self-efficacy influences perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and perceived attitude toward use. Perceived enjoyment and social influence also have a considerable influence on perceived usefulness and perceived attitude towards use. It can be concluded that the factors identified in the model are good predictors of rural STEM pre-service teachers’ acceptance of virtual learning.

10. References Al Kurdi, B., Alshurideh, M., Salloum, S., Obeidat, Z., & Al-Dweeri, R. (2020). An empirical investigation into examination of factors influencing university students’ behavior towards elearning acceptance using SEM approach. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v14i02.11115 Belgheis, S., & Kamalludeen, R. (2018). The intention to use GeoGebra in the teaching of Mathematics among Malaysian teachers. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology, 6(1), 109-115. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1165486 Benadé, T., & Liebenberg, J. (2017). Investigating the acceptance of digital technologies in an Excel course. https://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/23416/Trudie%20Benad%c3% a9,%20Janet%20Liebenberg.pdf?sequence=1 Bhattarai, S., & Maharjan, S. (2020). Determining the factors affecting on digital learning adoption among the students in Kathmandu Valley: An application of technology acceptance model (TAM). International Journal of Engineering and Management Research, 10. https://doi.org/10.31033/ijemr.10.3.20 Bradshaw, L., & Mundia, L. (2006). Attitudes to and concerns about inclusive education: Bruneian inservice and preservice teachers. International Journal of Special Education, 21(1), 35-41. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/LoriBradshaw/publication/289831066_Attitudes_to_and_concerns_about_inclusive _education_Bruneian_inservice_and_preservice_teachers/links/5bf73a4c458515 a69e34add4/Attitudes-to-and-concerns-about-inclusive-education-Bruneianinservice-and-preservice-teachers.pdf Chen, C.-L. (2020). Predicting the Determinants of dynamic geometry software acceptance: A two-staged structural equation modeling-neural network approach. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 10(6). https://doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2020.10.6.1403 Chen, R.-J. (2010). Investigating models for preservice teachers’ use of technology to support student-centered learning. Computers & Education, 55(1), 32-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.11.015 Chibisa, A., Tshabalala, M. G., & Maphalala, M. C. (2021). Pre-service teachers’ computer self-efficacy and the use of computers. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 20(11).https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.11.18 Chin, W. W. (1998). The partial least squares approach to structural equation modeling. Modern Methods for Business Research, 295(2), 295-336. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. Sage. Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., & Warshaw, P. R. (1989). User acceptance of computer technology: A comparison of two theoretical models. Management Science, 35(8), 982-1003. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.35.8.982 Eksail, F. A. A., & Afari, E. (2019). Factors affecting trainee teachers’ intention to use technology: A structural equation modeling approach. Education and Information Technologies, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-10086-2

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Fang, C., Kayad, F., & Misieng, J. (2019a). Malaysian undergraduates’ behavioural intention to use LMS for online English learning: An extended self-directed learning technology acceptance model. Journal of ELT Research, 4(1), 8-25. https://doi.org/10.22236/JER_Vol4Issue1pp8-25 Fang, C., Kayad, F., & Misieng, J. (2019b). Malaysian undergraduates’ behavioural intention to use LMS for online English learning: An extended self-directed learning technology acceptance model (SDLTAM). Journal of ELT Research, 4(1), 8-25. https://doi.org/10.22236/JER_Vol4Issue1pp8-25 Garson, G. D. (2016). Partial least squares: Regression and structural equation models (2nd ed.). Statistical Associates Publishers. Govender, D. W. (2010). Attitudes of students towards the use of a learning management system (LMS) in a face-to-face learning mode of instruction. Africa Education Review, 7(2), 244-262. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2010.515394 Govindarajan, V., & Srivastava, A. (2020). What the shift to virtual learning could mean for the future of higher education. Harvard Business Review, 31. Greenstone, M., & Nigam, V. (2020). Does social distancing matter? University of Chicago, Becker Friedman Institute for Economics Working Paper(2020-26). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3561244 Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., & Thiele, K. O. (2017). Mirror, mirror on the wall: A comparative evaluation of composite-based structural equation modeling methods. 45(5), 616-632. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747017-0517-x Hair Jr., J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2014). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage Publications. Hair Jr., J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage Publications. Joo, Y. J., Park, S., & Lim, E. (2018). Factors influencing preservice teachers’ intention to use technology: TPACK, teacher self-efficacy, and technology acceptance model. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(3), 48-59. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26458506?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Lim, W. M. (2018a). Dialectic antidotes to critics of the technology acceptance model: Conceptual, methodological, and replication treatments for behavioural modelling in technology-mediated environments. Australasian Journal of Information Systems, 22. https://doi.org/10.3127/ajis.v22i0.1651 Lim, W. M. (2018b). Revisiting concepts and theories in information systems and technology. Australasian Journal of Information Systems, 22. https://doi.org/10.3127/ajis.v22i0.1733 Maphalala, M. C., & Adigun, O. T. (2021). Academics' experience of implementing elearning in a South African higher education institution. International Journal of Higher Education, 10(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v10n1p1 Mulenga, E. M., & Marbán, J. M. (2020). Is COVID-19 the gateway for digital learning in mathematics education? Contemporary Educational Technology, 12(2), ep269. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/7949 Mutambara, D., & Bayaga, A. (2020). Predicting rural STEM teachers' acceptance of mobile learning in the fourth industrial revolution. Journal of Construction Project Management and Innovation, 10(2), 14-29. https://doi.org/10.36615/jcpmi.v10i2.404 Mutambara, D., & Bayaga, A. (2021). Determinants of mobile learning acceptance for STEM education in rural areas. Computers & Education, 160, 104010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104010

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Pittalis, M. (2020). Extending the technology acceptance model to evaluate teachers’ intention to use dynamic geometry software in geometry teaching. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2020.1766139 Raman, A., & Don, Y. (2013). Preservice teachers' acceptance of learning management software: An application of the UTAUT2 model. International Education Studies, 6(7), 157-164. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v6n7p157 Sánchez-Prieto, J. C., Hernández-García, Á., García-Peñalvo, F. J., Chaparro-Peláez, J., & Olmos-Migueláñez, S. (2019). Break the walls! Second-order barriers and the acceptance of m-learning by first-year pre-service teachers. Computers in Human Behavior, 95, 158-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.01.019 Sánchez-Prieto, J. C., Olmos-Migueláñez, S., & García-Peñalvo, F. J. (2017). M-learning and pre-service teachers: An assessment of the behavioral intention using an expanded TAM model. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 644-654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.09.061 Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Tondeur, J. (2019). The technology acceptance model (TAM): A meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach to explaining teachers’ adoption of digital technology in education. Computers & Education, 128, 13-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.009 Shmueli, G., Sarstedt, M., Hair, J. F., Cheah, J.-H., Ting, H., Vaithilingam, S., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). Predictive model assessment in PLS-SEM: Guidelines for using PLSpredict. European Journal of Marketing. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-022019-0189 Sivo, S. A., Ku, C.-H., & Acharya, P. (2018). Understanding how university student perceptions of resources affect technology acceptance in online learning courses. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 34(4). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.2806 Teo, T., Fan, X., & Du, J. (2015). Technology acceptance among pre-service teachers: Does gender matter? Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 31(3). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.1672 Teo, T., Ursavaş, Ö. F., & Bahçekapili, E. (2012). An assessment of pre-service teachers' technology acceptance in Turkey: A structural equation modeling approach. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 21(1), 191-202. https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/48415/ Van Raaij, E. M., & Schepers, J. J. (2008). The acceptance and use of a virtual learning environment in China. Computers & Education, 50(3), 838-852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2006.09.001 Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G., B, & Davis, F. D. (2003a). User acceptance of information technology: Towards a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27, 425 -478. https://doi.org/10.2307/30036540 Wu, B., & Chen, X. (2017). Continuance intention to use MOOCs: Integrating the technology acceptance model (TAM) and task technology fit (TTF) model. Computers in Human Behavior, 67, 221-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.10.028 Zarafshani, K., Solaymani, A., D’Itri, M., Helms, M. M., & Sanjabi, S. (2020). Evaluating technology acceptance in agricultural education in Iran: A study of vocational agriculture teachers. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 2(1), 100041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100041

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Appendix 1 STEM preservice teachers’ acceptance of virtual learning The purpose of this questionnaire is to collect data that will be used to determine the acceptance of virtual learning among Sciences, Mathematics, Engineering and Technology (STEM) pre-service teachers in rural universities. Any information provided will be treated with utmost confidentiality and will not be used for any purpose other than this. Your participation in this survey will be highly appreciated. All data obtained from participants and their personal details will be treated with utmost confidentiality. You are free to withdraw from this survey any time you feel like doing so, without any consequences. You need approximately 5-10 minutes to complete this survey. DEMOGRAPHIC DATA (Please tick the appropriate box) Gender

Age

Male 1

Female 2

18 Years & below 1

19-20 Years 2

21-22 Years 3

23-24 Years 4

25 Years & above 5

CONSTRUCTS AND INDICATORS (Please indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with the following by placing X in the appropriate box, where 1 = entirely disagree, 2 = mostly disagree, 3 = somewhat disagree, 4 = neither agree nor disagree, 5 =somewhat agree, 6 = mostly agree, and 7 = entirely agree) No 1 3 4

Facilitating conditions (PR) I have access to the Internet that I can use it for virtual learning. I would be able to use virtual learning for learning if I wanted to. I have a virtual device to use for virtual learning.

5 6

I have a data bundles that I can use for virtual learning. I can get help from others when I have difficulties using virtual learning.

No 1 2 3 4

Perceived social influence (PSI) My friends think that I should use virtual learning

No 1 2 4 5 6

Perceived usefulness (PU) Using virtual learning enhanced the quality of my learning Using virtual learning increased my productivity Using virtual learning would enhance my effectiveness in learning Using virtual learning would make it easier for me to learn I would find virtual learning useful in learning

My parents think that I should use virtual learning My lecturers think that I should use virtual learning My classmates think that I should use virtual learning

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No 1 3 4 5

Perceived ease of use (PEOU) It would be easy to learn how to use virtual learning I would find virtual learning easy to use in learning all my modules I would find virtual learning to be flexible to interact with. It would be easy to access my learning materials using virtual learning

No 1 2 3 4

Perceived Attitude (PA) I believe it is beneficial to use virtual learning My experience with virtual learning to learn will be good I feel positive about using virtual learning for learning I have a positive attitude toward using virtual learning

No 1 2 3

Perceived enjoyment (PE) Learning using virtual learning would be enjoyable I would find it fun to learn using virtual learning I would find using virtual learning interesting

No 1 2 3

Behavioural intention (BI) In future I intend to increase my time working virtually I intend to use virtual learning whenever I am studying in future I intend to use virtual learning for my future studies

No 1 2 3 4

Actual use (AU) I go onto the Internet several times per week for my studies On average I spend more than 2 hours each time I am working virtually I access all my notes virtually All my lessons were offered virtually

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 176-194, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.10 Received Jan 1, 2022; Revised Feb 4, 2022; Accepted Feb 25, 2022

The Experiences of Emergency-Remote Teaching Via Zoom: The Case of Natural-Science Teachers Handling of Deaf/Hard-of-Hearing Learners in South Africa Olufemi Timothy Adigun University of Zululand, KwaDlangeZwa, South Africa

Abstract. Information regarding the e-teaching of science subjects to learners who are deaf or hard-of-hearing (LDHH) is somewhat scarce in the existing literature. The COVID-19 pandemic has, however, compelled all to adopt Information-Communication Technologies (ICTs) for teaching during this period. Lamentably, previous studies have advanced some of the challenges associated with teaching science to LDHH during online-science classes. While the pandemic has compelled remote teaching, there is a paucity of research evidence on the experiences of natural-science teachers handling of LDHH learners in emergencyremote teaching via Zoom. Therefore, anchored on the Use-andGratification Theory, this study has explored the emergency-remote teaching of natural sciences to deaf learners via Zoom during the pandemic. This study employed a qualitative research design, with seven natural science teachers as participants. The data were gathered via a semi-structured Zoom interview; and they were analysed by using thematic-content analysis. The findings revealed that while the participants appreciated the uninterrupted-learning model presented by ICTs, they had relatively awful experiences when teaching naturalscience subjects to LDHH via Zoom, due to inadequate organisational and individual preparedness, as well as to limited two-way teacherlearners’ communication and interactions. Based on the findings, the appropriate recommendations were made for both policy and practice. Keywords: coronavirus disease; learners who are deaf/hard-of-hearing; natural sciences; teachers; Zoom

1. Introduction The emergence of the coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19) has become a global public-health crisis. COVID-19 has had a negative and brutal impact, not only on global health, but also on economic activities, education, and the psychosocial wellbeing of people around the world, regardless of disabilities, gender, ethnicity, or national boundaries. Due to COVID-19 and its associated threat to ©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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the lives of people (Maphalala & Adigun, 2021), nations across the world have initiated several levels of lockdown, in order to contain the community transmission of the virus. A series of lockdown measures caused the interruption of face-to-face teaching and learning models, which predominantly characterise the educational systems in sub-Saharan African nations, with South Africa being no exception. To prevent community transmission of COVID-19, educational institutions in South Africa resolved to continue teaching and learning activities via online modes by using various e-learning platforms and video-conferencing technologies (VCTs) (Tanga, Ndhlovu & Tanga, 2020). However, many South African educational institutions and staff members – especially the teachers of learners, who are deaf or hard-of-hearing (LDHH) in various secondary, special or inclusive schools – were not adequately prepared for teaching via various elearning platforms. LDHH refers to individuals who, without amplification devices, such as hearing aids, are insensitive to sound stimuli through the organ of hearing (Adigun, 2020; Pizzo, 2016; Madhesh, 2021). COVID-19 has compelled all teachers, including teachers of LDHH, to adopt Internet-enabled information communication technologies (ICTs) for the emergency-remote teaching of school subjects, including the natural sciences. Interestingly, since the emergence of COVID-19, a plethora of research evidence has become available on the teaching and learning approaches adopted during the various phases of lockdown in South Africa and in many other sub-Saharan African nations (Tanga et al., 2020). These studies have largely explored the various dimensions of e-learning and its implications on learning outcomes. However, a paucity of research evidence exists on the issues surrounding eteaching during this challenging time of COVID-19, especially regarding the eteaching of natural sciences to LDHH. To bridge the existing research gap, this current study explored the issues associated with the emergency-remote teaching of the natural sciences to LDHH by using Zoom during the lockdown.

2. The Literature review Engagement in sciences may foster interest in the sciences (James et al., 2019; Jita & Munje, 2020). Regardless of hearing acuity, interest and engagement in sciences can provide learners with opportunities that foster their curiosity about the natural environment, thereby enabling them to understand scientific processes and actively participate in processes that sustain the natural environment. To promote scientific knowledge, post-apartheid South Africa developed the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) (South African Department of Basic Education, 2011), which extensively caters for scientific concepts, such as the natural sciences. As maintained by Sooryamoorthy (2020), the natural sciences as a subject encompass issues that touch on several aspects of, for example, astronomy, ecology, geography, mathematics, and water resources. Lamentably, studies in the last decade have criticized the pedagogical approaches to teaching the natural sciences (Adigun & Nzima, 2020; James et al., 2019). Prior to the emergence of COVID-19, critics encouraged the infusion, application, and use of

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ICTs in the teaching of scientific concepts to learners, particularly those with learning challenges. Adigun (2017) suggested that e-learning, or a blended-educational approach for LDHH, could further stimulate their interest in the natural sciences. LDHH refers to individuals who, without amplification devices, such as hearing aids, are insensitive to sound stimuli through the organ of hearing (Adigun, 2020; Pizzo, 2016;). Without amplification, LDHH may significantly lack the capabilities required to respond to auditory-verbal stimuli, which may negatively influence their engagement and performance in science education. Regardless of the degree of loss in the sense of hearing and/or the onset of deafness (pre- or post-lingual – before or after acquisition of speech and languages), LDHH are bound by similar cultural and visual language identities. They communicate largely through sign language, and in conjunction with other visual modes of communication. Unfortunately, LDHH have greater potential to miss out on accidental learning. Furthermore, due to their hearing conditions and the associated psychological and social challenges (Adigun, 2020; Pizzo, 2016), LDHH experience uneven academic treatment, with a reduced expectation of their strength for science engagement and unequivocal science achievement (Adigun, 2020). Some studies have expressed the dissatisfaction of stakeholders (for example, parents, teachers, and education officers) regarding the under-representation of LDHH in the sciences, as well as the abysmal performance of LDHH in science subjects (Adigun & Nzima, 2021; Ogundiran & Olaosun, 2013). Regardless of past reports on science engagement by LDHH, the current global situation, due to COVID-19, might have further stimulated the interest of many LDHH to undertake science instruction. This perceived interest may be due to the scientific nature and the characteristics of COVID-19, as it has affected human interactions, co-existence, and teaching and learning activities; and it has necessitated the use of emergency-remote teaching. Interestingly, in recent times, educational researchers have expended much research effort in exploring the various opportunities provided by the Internet for the continuation of teaching and learning activities during the pandemic. Various forms of Internet-enabled video-conferencing technologies (VCTs), such as Blackboard, Duo, FaceTime, Google MS Teams, Webex, Zoom, have dominated the field of education in recent times (Mpungose, 2020). Since the emergence of COVID-19, Zoom has gained much recognition, as an example of a VCT, and its usage among educators has become more popular. According to Mpungose (2020) and Osuagwu et al. (2017), Zoom is an Internetenabled audio-visual technology that allows for virtual pedagogical content dissemination and easy, collaborative and seamlessly uninterrupted teaching and learning interactions between teachers and learners at disparate locations.

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Remarkably, teachers’ preferences for the use of Zoom in emergency-remote teaching during the lockdown was due to its potential for both synchronous and asynchronous modes of instructional delivery (Alsadoon & Turkestani, 2020; Mukhopadhyay & Mukhopadhyay, 2020). As posited by Alsadoon and Turkestani (2020), Zoom provides a synchronous teaching environment, which provides deaf learners with a sense of social presence, and an asynchronous teaching facility, whereby learners can revisit recorded teaching, messages and files shared. In their study, Alshawabkeh et al. (2021) noted that teaching via Zoom has the capacity to enhance collaborative teaching and learning activities, as well as to provide improved real-time feedback from participants. In addition, teaching via Zoom has increased students’ satisfaction during various teaching and learning sessions. As further indicated by Lynn et al. (2020) in their study, students were able to see live commands for scientific processes and the usage of equipment and tools. Other studies, for instance those of Maphalala and Adigun (2021), Alshawabkeh et al. (2021), and Schmitt and Eilderts (2018), alluded to the fact that the application of ICTs, especially those with provisions for real-time audio-visual communication, have the capacity to provide spontaneous feedback to learners. The application of Internet-enabled real-time VCTs in the education of deaf learners has the capacity to accommodate varied learning styles, irrespective of distance, geographical location, and time zones (Adigun & Nzima, 2020; Alshawabkeh et al. 2021). Unfortunately, despite the emphasis on the need for adoption and the use of ICTs and VCTs in the education of deaf learners (Adigun, 2020; Alshawabkeh et al., 2021), recent evidence has revealed the difficulties and limitations associated with the application of ICT/VCTs in the education of deaf learners. For instance, some studies showed that digital teaching, especially for deaf learners, could aggravate both learning fatigue and the lack of required teacher-learner and learner-learner relationships (Alsadoon & Turkestani, 2020; Lynn et al., 2020). Lamentably, during web-teaching, Schmitt and Eilderts (2018) recorded that there was a greater tendency for the loss of teacher-learners’ connectedness, and learners had a greater potential for getting bored, due to the long hours of their eyes’ fixation on a computer screen. In other words, deaf learners have enormous cognitive and sensory responsibilities to cope with during e-teaching and elearning activities. While online teachers may share different educational materials in different forms (for example, PowerPoint, moving or still images, and Word documents), instructional deliveries that incorporate sign-language interpreters during teaching activities via Zoom, may lead to additional cognitive and sensory overload for deaf learners. Previous studies by Al Atiyat (2018) and Kanellopoulou et al. (2019) revealed that a high cognitive overload is inevitable when teachers use different media and material concurrently during synchronous communication and in the teaching of young learners. Assertively, Al Atiyat (2018) states that deaf learners may experience high cognitive loads, when multimedia are not carefully and strategically infused by

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teachers. Al Atiyat (2018) further alluded to the fact that complexities in learning may be predisposed by the characterised experiences of delayed language acquisition, and inefficient reading, as well as comprehension skills. Using a wide array of materials for teaching via VCTs has the potential to significantly enhance the learning experiences of LDHH (Adigun, 2020; Lynn et al., 2020); but as is currently being witnessed during this COVID-19 pandemic, many online instructors of LDHH lack the required e-learning pedagogical skills needed for teaching during emergency-remote teaching (Alsadoon & Turkestani, 2020; Lynn et al., 2020). According to Kanellopoulou et al. (2019), teachers, especially those who are novices to teaching via VCTs, experience challenges with the use of the appropriate learning materials required. The fact remains that while these teachers can use instructional materials effectively during face-to-face teaching, the majority lack the capacity and the technical know-how needed for the application and usage during digital teaching (Adigun & Nzima, 2020). Regardless of the technology-use efficacy of teachers, Tanga et al. (2020) aver that teaching via Internet-enabled synchronous models or VCTs requires more preparation time from teachers than is expected for the traditional (face-to-face) model of teaching. As expressed by Lazzari and Baroni (2020), the foregoing assertion may be due to teachers’ quests for quality audio-visual instructional material that would suit the learning needs of all learners, who are not within their physical range. According to Pappas et al. (2018), teachers of deaf learners are faced with enormous challenges regarding the need to provide real-time captioning for learners during VCTs-enabled teaching. Consequently, there is a need for teachers employing e-teaching to search patiently for, or to create instructional materials that LDHH might find interesting, motivating and stimulating, and which should arouse curiosity among online learners. In their study, Tandy and Meacham (2009) posited that teachers did not necessarily have a deficit in their capacity to deploy instructional materials for learners’ usage during digital teaching. Learners’ learning characteristics vis-à-vis their specific learning or sensory disabilities influenced teachers’ judgement on using instructional materials for virtual teaching. Remarkably, since the submission by Tandy and Meacham (2009), the educational sector has witnessed significant changes with the influx of ICTs in education. However, how such changes have impacted the emergency-remote teaching, witnessed during the COVID-19 era, is yet unknown, especially regarding the teaching of natural sciences to LDHH. There is no doubt that tremendous advances and changes have been witnessed in the educational sector in the last decade, and the changes observed are due to the application and use of ICTs at various levels of education (Lersilp & Lersilp, 2019; Maphalala & Adigun, 2021; Jita & Akintunde, 2021; Maiorana-Basas & Pagliaro, 2014). Lamentably, despite the changes observed, issues of access and affordable Internet services have been a recurring challenge for e-teaching and learning (Maphalala & Adigun, 2021). While Maphalala and Adigun (2021) acknowledged that the place of the Internet could not be over-emphasised, they posited that a reasonable percentage of the

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population of South Africa had access to the Internet. Jita and Munje (2020) added that although many South Africans had access to the Internet, citizens were faced with the high cost of Internet access, limited Internet speeds and limited penetration of broad-band Internet, which could be very frustrating and challenging for teachers, particularly during remote teaching.

3. Statement of the problem Consensus exists on the importance of high-quality teaching of the natural sciences to learners, regardless of their hearing acuity. This consensus is based on the need to nurture and develop scientific reasoning and critical thinking skills in learners, including LDHH. Evidence of low scientific achievement and underperformance among South African high school learners abounds in the literature (Jita & Munje, 2020). Lower levels of science engagement, achievement, and performance among LDHH are currently problems for all those concerned. Unfortunately, the events presented by COVID-19 may have worsened the state of engagement in and the acquisition of natural science knowledge and skills among South African LDHH. On the other hand, the application of technology in teaching and learning during lockdown may have positively influenced the teaching of natural sciences to LDHH. Studies prior to the emergence of COVID-19 berated teachers’ capacity to adopt and use ICTs and Internet-enabled technologies, such as Zoom, for the teaching of the natural sciences (Adigun, 2020; Andrews, 2017). Remarkably, however, a recent study emphasised the significance of ICTs in science teaching, and especially in practical laboratory work (Jita & Munje, 2020). There is a paucity of research evidence on the exploration of teachers’ perspectives on evolving issues in the teaching of the natural sciences via Zoom to LDHH, especially during the COVID-19 lockdown in South Africa. The Use and Gratification Theory (Blumler & Katz, 1974) is the theoretical framework that oriented the study. The theory is an audience-based theoretical framework that presents an exposition between communication perspectives that explore the interactions between an individual and the media. In other words, Reimers et al. (2020) assert that an individual is believed to have the capacity to select media (Zoom) and content (natural science as a school subject) carefully, in order to fulfill personal or collective needs or wants. Earlier studies by Mehrad and Tajer (2016) engaged the Use-and-Gratification Theory to understand the interaction among persons in relation to the various perspectives of measured content. Consequently, this study is anchored on the Use and Gratification Theory (Blumler & Katz, 1974); and it explores teachers’ perspectives on the evolving issues surrounding the teaching of natural sciences via Zoom to LDHH – especially during the COVID-19 lockdown in South Africa – by trying to provide answers to the following critical questions: 1. Do the natural-science teachers in South Africa have the capacity to teach LDHH via Zoom?

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2. What are the challenges and successes of using Zoom for teaching the natural sciences to LDHH during the lockdown occasioned by COVID-19 in South Africa?

4. The Methodology The nature of an exploratory study requires a systematic research approach of enquiry, in which the researcher has close interaction with the phenomenon under study (Creswell, 2013). Based on the characteristics of an exploratory study (Creswell, 2013), this study adopted the Interpretivist Paradigm, as well as a qualitative-descriptive research design, in order to explore some of the issues associated with emergency-remote teaching of natural sciences to deaf learners via Zoom during the lockdown occasioned by COVID-19 in South Africa. A total of seven natural science teachers (4 males, 3 females) from four schools (Schools A, B, C and D) in the province of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa were purposively selected for the study. The participants were purposively selected for this study, based on their availability and ongoing interaction with LDHH and the teaching of natural sciences via the Zoom to LDHH. Due to the lockdown, the participants were reached by using a snowball approach. The participants for this study were purposively selected, based on the following criteria: They had to be teachers of LDHH; they must have taught natural sciences to LDHH by using Zoom during the lockdown; and they must have been natural-science subject teachers in inclusive/special schools for more than five years. To provide answers to the research questions, the data were collected by using one-on-one semi-structured interviews (Cohen et al., 2013). The interview schedule guide underwent content and face validity by two experts in science education – a research fellow and a life-science teacher in a school for the deaf. The interviews were conducted via Zoom, in order to avoid compromising the safety of the researcher and the participants in terms of COVID-19. The interviews were conducted in English; and each session of the semi-structured Zoom interviews lasted for about 35 minutes. The recorded one-on-one semi-structured interviews were scheduled with the selected participants, with the intent to elicit information from them about their capacities regarding the teaching of natural sciences to LDHH via Zoom, as well as their challenges and successes. The interview schedule covered the following key areas: 1. The extent to which natural-science teachers were supported by school administrators when teaching natural sciences via Zoom. 2. The nature of the support received by the participants to teach natural sciences to LDHH successfully by using Zoom during the lockdown. 3. Internet accessibility and technological infrastructure. 4. Staff development and training. 5. The challenges faced when teaching natural sciences to LDHH via Zoom. 6. The perceived successes of teaching natural sciences to LDHH by using Zoom.

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4. Ethical considerations In accordance with the ethics of conducting research, the participants of this study were duly informed about the objectives of the study, and they subsequently gave their verbal and written consent to voluntarily participate in the study. The anonymity and the confidentiality of the participants’ profiles and their responses were guaranteed. The study thus adhered strictly to all the ethics of social and humanity research, as indicated by the researcher’s Institutional Review Board.

5. The data analysis The recorded one-on-one semi-structured Zoom interviews were transcribed and coded. During the coding and the iterative processes of the transcribed interviews, the researcher ensured the anonymity of the participants. In other words, the participants were given pseudonym labels from NST1 to NST7. In accordance with Cohen et al. (2011), this study employed a thematic-content analysis to identify any recurring themes from the transcribed-Zoom interviews. The researcher identified some repetitive themes, which were used to address and provide responses to the research questions.

6. The results The themes generated from the transcribed responses of the participants were organised into three core themes: namely, organisational and individual preparedness (Theme 1) that responded to research question 1; while difficulties with two-way teacher and learner interactions (Theme 2) and an uninterrupted learning model emerged as the theme (Theme 3) that responded to the research Question 2. Theme 1: Organisational and individual preparedness Sub-theme 1.1: Pedagogy and technology Teaching natural sciences for adequate understanding and practicability requires apt attention from the learners. In other words, science teachers in secondary schools believe that all the sense organs should be active for the efficient learning of scientific concepts (Adigun, 2020). In this study, the participants were of the view that teaching natural sciences, especially to LDHH via VCTs, was somewhat alien to the statutory face-to-face practices of teaching prior to the emergence of COVID-19. Lamentably, the emergence of COVID-19, which necessitated remote teaching, came as a shock to many science teachers of LDHH; and teachers’ individual capacities to navigate the digital space, for the purpose of teaching natural science, became a laborious task. The findings revealed that prior to COVID-19, natural-science teachers, with the assistance of sign language interpreters, previously employed hands-on teaching strategies, in which LDHH were actively involved in the learning of scientific concepts in schools. The participants believed that many natural science teachers did not have the requisite capacity and the skill required to deliver scientific instruction to LDHH via Zoom effectively. Below are some of the comments from the study’s participants. NST6 (female, from School D) commented that: “Teaching science to learners with hearing loss is somehow challenging, when compared to that of their peers without deafness. Teaching them (LDHH) by using the Zoom was more of a challenging task for me. I had always struggled with these technologies (referring to phones and computers), even before the lockdown. The lockdown and the need to

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discharge my duties forced me into making use of my laptop for the purpose of teaching.” The participants acknowledged that teaching LDHH required extra effort and skills. Hence, they believed that engaging such learners using Zoom could present more difficulties for the teachers. The participants believed that they were constrained by e-teaching in comparison to the traditional face-to-face model of teaching. In support of this assertion, NST2 (male, from School A) said: “Teaching natural sciences using the Zoom to deaf learners was not an easy task. We were not prepared for the task, but we were forced to accept the challenge posed by COVID-19. While teaching in the face-to-face classroom, teaching by mouthing (verbalisation of contents; sentence formation, etc.) could easily be seen by deaf learners, but having such an ability, while teaching via Zoom, was not guaranteed.” Sub-theme 1.2: Training and re-training The issue of training for e-teaching was raised by the participants. Almost all of the participants stated that they had participated in little or no training for digital teaching prior to COVID-19. However, as the need to salvage the academic calendar arose, so too did the need to adopt remote teaching, while the lockdown persisted, so various trainings were hurriedly initiated to build the capacities of eteachers for the task ahead. NST3 (female, from School B) stated the following in this regard: “Although, no substantive training was given on digital teaching for us (referring to teachers) prior to COVID-19, we were forced to go digital due to COVID-19. Although a crash training was done on the use of Zoom as a medium of instruction, as an individual, I was not really satisfied with the training.” As mentioned by NST3 (from School B), those who participated in the various training courses were not fully satisfied with the training received. The timing and mode of the training contributed towards their dissatisfaction with the process. In support of this assertion, NST7 (male, from School D) said: “In order to build teachers’ capacities to deploy technology for teaching, there was a short training course. Unfortunately, I would say the training was not comprehensive. The training itself was conducted virtually; and there was limited time to actually demonstrate what was taught.” In addition, NST7 (male, from School D) noted that: “During the process of teaching my learners with Zoom, I came across many challenges, which necessitated me asking for assistance.” NST5 (male, from School C) noted that: “The periods of lockdown and teaching are too demanding. Creating teaching content and digitalising the same is a challenging task. While I tried to ensure that deaf learners were adequately carried along, I had several issues with attaching my slides (PowerPoint). I am sure that if we had physical training in which I could ask questions, I think I may have done better with my e-teaching via the Zoom.”

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NST6 (female, from School D) had this to say: “I look forward to refreshing the memories of my learners when everything gets back to normal. This is because I am not sure that deaf learners had a full grasp of what I had taught them via Zoom.” Theme 2: Difficulties with two-way teacher-learners’ interactions Sub-theme 2.1: Communication/interaction challenges Uninterrupted two-way auditory-verbal communication remains a challenge, which individuals with hearing loss have faced over time. While some persons with hearing loss have the capacity to lip-read and decipher speech, based on the shape of the mouth in conjunction with various facial expressions, others depend solely on the use of assistive listening devices. Lamentably, participants in this study expressed their concerns about the difficulty in achieving effective two-way communication and interactions with back-end LDHH, while teaching natural sciences via Zoom. Additionally, NST1 (female, from School A) remarked that: “Teaching deaf learners using Zoom was challenging. Many times the learners had challenges with lip-reading, perhaps due to interruptions with Internet connections, either from me, or from them.” NST6 (female, from School D) said: “Teaching natural science through Zoom was significantly different from how it was when we had the face-to-face teaching. There are many instructions, which I found difficult to pass across to the learners. I had little capacity to demonstrate, dramatize and/or to use pantomime, which usually aids effective teaching and learning in a physical classroom of deaf learners.” The participants believed that communication challenges forced them to speak and send typed messages at the same time, in order to corroborate what was being said, while the sign language interpreters did their job. However, this still posed a challenge because there was always a delay between when the sign language interpreter received the message and interpreted it for the participating LDHH. NST5 (male, from School C), said: “I am sure that most deaf learners find it difficult to access all the needed information from me without a sign-language interpreter. While I speak for those who can lip-read or for those wearing assistive listening devices (hearing aids). I still type some of what I have said. This is because I want the learners to better understand the content being taught.” . NST5 (male, from School C) also added: “There was always a delay in the relaying of messages from the signlanguage interpreter, who was at another location, but who had also connected to the class via Zoom. The sign-language interpreter had to wait for me to finish speaking, while he/she then interpreted. As for me (NST5), this caused friction in the process of teaching via Zoom.” Sub-theme 2.2: Issues with Internet connectivity E-teaching via Zoom cannot be achieved without the Internet. In other words, the Internet remains a channel through which users at different locations enjoy the advantages or services presented by VCTs, such as Zoom. Unfortunately, the

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participants in this study, as well as their learners (LDHH), indicated that they experienced some challenges with Internet connectivity at different times. Although the participants averred that the school administration provided them with the required amount of Internet data (megabytes), the network strength sometimes fluctuated during teaching, leading to delays in feedback. NST4 (female, from School B) remarked: “Teachers who participated in the online teaching were given Internet data, which enabled them to teach by using the Zoom technology. However, while I applaud the initiative of electronic teaching (eteaching), there were times when I experienced disruptions in the Internet services.” In support of NST4, NST7 (male from School D) had the following to say: “The disruption of Internet services during my time of teaching via Zoom could be very frustrating. One would have to wait for the Internet to reconnect. Sadly, such disruptions and reconnection sometimes caused delays in feedback for learners at different ends. It makes students ask me to repeat what I have said during the period when the Internet connection was lost.” NST2 (male, from School A), had the following to say about the situation: “While I enjoyed teaching my learners via Zoom, one would get frustrated when the Internet connection was lost. This is largely because it slowed down communication; and the learners at the other end, would have to reconnect with you (the teacher) at different times. Don’t also forget the time frame with the sign-language interpreter. Furthermore, it might be the sign-language interpreter that lost the Internet connectivity. It is sad that a minute lost in Internet connectivity slows down the teaching process.” Sub-theme 2.3: Difficulties using appropriate instructional materials Teaching science to learners requires that teachers display efficient use of real objects, as instructional materials. The application and use of real objects during the teaching of subjects, such as a natural science, provides LDHH with hands-on opportunities to interact with local, if not natural environments. Unfortunately, natural science teachers’ effective use of real objects, as instructional materials, while engaging LDHH in real-time practical learning, was seemingly impossible while teaching via Zoom. Unlike practice in the pre-COVID-19 era, the participants noted that they had challenges in explaining scientific concepts to LDHH during their Zoom classes. In support of this assertion, below are some of the views of the participants. NST1 (female, from School A) had this to say: “My capacity to present instructional materials to LDHH during the Zoom classes, as indicated in my lesson notes, is almost impossible. Sometimes, I could only send the learners some pictures of the instructional objects; but I know that the learners themselves have a limited capacity to further check for more information on the brief

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introduction of the teaching aids, unless they receive support from their parents or their siblings.” The application and use of instructional materials for the teaching of natural science to LDHH via Zoom seemed to be a challenging task for the teachers. In addition to the assertion made by NST1, NST4 (female, from School B) stated: “Before the lockdown, I usually started my teaching with my learners interacting with the instructional material. With it, after they have made the necessary observations on the instructional materials, the learners (LDHH) would make various comments on it, and then, I would introduce and start the lesson. Unfortunately, due to various factors, this strategy could not work for Zoom teaching.” Supporting the submission of NST4, NST7 (male, from School D) stated that: “I only send the learner some pictures and videos of instructional materials. Sometimes I do send them the images before our online classes; but the learners hardly view or read whatever I sent to them prior to our online classes.” Theme 3: An uninterrupted learning model Sub-theme 3.1: Uninterrupted and continuous learning engagements While COVID-19 has led to the closure of schools and other public gatherings, many activities and functions, such as academic engagements, were halted, in order to stem the tide of COVID-19 infections and community transmission of the virus. Amazingly, schools have leveraged on the advantages presented by technologies, especially the VCTs, such as Zoom. Despite some challenges occasioned by COVID-19, the participants in this study expressed their satisfaction with the use of Zoom for the continuation of teaching and learning activities. For instance, NST5 (male, from School C) commented: “I am quite happy with the electronic teaching. This is because it promotes continuous learning among our deaf learners.” NST2 (male, from School A) remarked: “These learners (LDHH) were already struggling with their academics, especially in science subjects. If learning engagement were discontinued due to the lockdown, we (teachers) would have so many difficulties with them (LDHH), when physical classes resume. So, I like the fact that deaf learners were not left out in the digital teaching.” NST4 (female, from School B) also commented: “I love the fact that my school engaged all the learners, especially the deaf, in online teaching. I can imagine the regression in knowledge gained, when the school would have resumed physical teaching.” Sub-theme 3.2: Spurred interest in scientific and critical reasoning Digital learning may provide synchronous and asynchronous communication and promote independent learning. This study found that the participants believed that digital teaching during the lockdown would promote independent learning among deaf learners. In addition, issues around COVID-19, such as its mode of transmission, infection and symptoms, could further motivate and foster

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the interest of deaf learners in science subjects, especially the natural sciences. In support of this assertion, NST6 (female, from School D) communicated: “Information about COVID-19 came as a surprise to our deaf learners. They were curious to understand the virus and its characteristics. Largely, I know that deaf learners had more interest in the natural sciences, especially with the emergence of COVID-19.” NST7 (male, from School D) commented: “I would say that COVID-19 is a blessing in disguise. My learners would always want me to explain to them issues about the virus and how virulent it could be. NST7 further said: In fact, I get text or video calls from my learners almost every time, when they want clarification on the scientific nature of COVID-19.” NST3 (male, from School B) said that: “Deaf learners showed so much interest in scientific concepts, particularly at this time of COVID-19. I can confirm that COVID-19 induced a great amount of curiosity and questioning in deaf learners. Issues of the wearing of facemasks, and social and physical distancing, led deaf learners to whom I teach natural science, to wanting to know more and clear their doubts about various information on COVID-19.”

7. Discussion Anchored on the Use-and-Gratification Theory (Blumler & Katz, 1974) as the theoretical framework, this exploratory study was instituted to investigate the emergency-remote teaching of natural sciences to deaf learners by using Zoom during the pandemic. Three major themes were derived from the semi-structured, one-on-one Zoom-enabled interview with the seven participants, who were the teachers of natural sciences at four secondary schools in the province of KwaZuluNatal in South Africa. While COVID-19 led to the closure of physical schooling activities, several schools within South Africa and beyond adopted Internetenabled platforms for the continuation of teaching and learning activities (Tanga et al., 2021). Little research has been done in South Africa on the e-teaching capacity of teachers of deaf learners, hence, this study used a qualitative research design to assess teachers’ capacity for teaching natural sciences to LDHH. This study revealed that teachers’ capacity for teaching natural sciences to LDHH via Zoom during the COVID-19 pandemic was limited. In other words, the participants were not able to exhibit their teaching dexterity to their utmost potential. Despite the fact that Zoom is widely used for video communication, especially in this period of COVID-19, and its potential to provide synchronous and asynchronous communication and instructional deliveries is proven (Alsadoon & Turkestani, 2020; Lynn et al., 2020; Mpungose’ 2020; Mukhopadhyay & Mukhopadhyay, 2020; Osuagwu et al., 2017). This study noted that the pedagogical skills and the e-teaching training received by the participants to actively teach natural sciences to LDHH via the Zoom platform were considered inadequate. Therefore, this current finding supported past studies (Adigun & Nzima, 2020; James et al., 2019), which criticised the

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approaches to the teaching of natural sciences to deaf learners in the twenty-first century. Adigun and Nzima (2020), Maphalala and Adigun (2021) and Lynn et al. (2020) noted that science teachers require continuous training, in order to sustain their capacity for online teaching and blended teaching. This study also found that the participants had challenges with uninterrupted two-way auditory-verbal communication. This finding was because an individual with deafness, or who is hard of hearing, requires a close-up view of the speaker’s face and perhaps even their entire body. This close-up view of the speaker gives the deaf the opportunity to access non-verbal communication; and it contributes to the understanding of verbal instructions. Extant literature on deaf studies asserts that deaf learners require a full view of the speaker’s face and body (Adigun, 2020a; Adigun & Nzima, 2020; Alsadoon & Turkestani 2020; Lynn et al. 2020; Ogundiran & Olaosun, 2013; Pizzo, 2016). This full view contributes to the level of understanding a deaf learner may have on the subject being taught (Adigun & Nzima, 2020; Pizzo, 2016). Lamentably, some participants in this study were of the view that teaching via Zoom did not give them the ability to express themselves adequately, as they had been able to do when teaching face-to-face prior to the lockdown. Regrettably, this challenge suggests that teaching natural sciences via Zoom may prevent real-time feedback from LDHH; and it may further negatively impact on these learners’ satisfaction, as indicated by Alshawabkeh et al. (2021) and Schmitt and Eilderts (2018). In today’s world, the Internet has really impacted on daily interactions, especially since its infusion into teaching and learning activities. As indicated by Maphalala and Adigun (2021), Internet connectivity in South Africa has increased; and therefore, educational systems across all levels have largely adopted technology and infused the same into teaching and learning activities, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, uninterrupted Internet access and fast Internet connection speeds remain a challenge experienced by many Internet users in the country (Maphalala & Adigun, 2021). The findings of this study showed that all the participants had access to the Internet for teaching natural sciences to LDHH via Zoom; but they had experienced some challenges with Internet connectivity and connection speeds. This current finding corroborates the earlier findings of Maphalala and Adigun (2021) and Schmitt and Eilderts (2018), who acknowledged the challenges associated with the use of Internet-enabled platforms for teaching and learning activities. Maphalala and Adigun (2021) reported that teachers were constantly constrained by erratic Internet access and connectivity while implementing eteaching. For efficient e-learning to take place, learners with hearing loss, who participate in VCT’s enhanced teaching, require uninterrupted and fast Internet services. Improved Internet access would give such learners uninterrupted access to the speakers’ faces and to the activities of the sign-language interpreters. The effective usage of instructional material for teaching natural sciences to LDHH via Zoom was one of the major challenges faced by the study’s

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participants. The participants of this study expressed their concerns about their inability to deploy effectively the real-object instruction needed for e-teaching, which was not a problem prior to COVID-19. Studies prior to the emergence of COVID-19 recommended the use of ICT-enabled platforms or blended learning for LDHH (Adigun, 2017). However, such studies did not express the teachers’ potential to position instructional material effectively for e-teaching/e-learning. The findings of this current study thus agreed with the research findings of Adigun (2020), Alshawabkeh et al. (2021), and Lynn et al. (2020), who brought the potential challenges faced by teachers during digital teaching for deaf learners to the fore. Schmitt and Eilderts (2018) suggested that during e-teaching, learners could easily lose touch with their online instructors and thus have less resilience for e-learning. Lynn et al. (2020) added that deaf learners exhibited e-learning fatigue, while Al Atiyat (2018) and Kanellopoulou et al. (2019) were concerned about learners’ cognitive overload, when e-teachers were unable to make efficient use of instructional materials during synchronous teaching to young learners. This study affirmed that the use of Zoom technology for teaching natural sciences to LDHH during the lockdowns not only informed uninterrupted and continuous teaching and learning engagements, but that asynchronous learning via Zoom also contributed to the established model for containing the spread of COVID-19. The findings of this study showed that teaching via Zoom fostered scientific inquisitiveness and critical reasoning among LDHH. The participants of this study also attested to the fact that teaching via Zoom promoted independent learning. This current finding was in line with the studies of Maphalala and Adigun (2021) and Tanga et al. (2020), who attested to the advantage of the cancellation of face-to-face teaching and embracing digital teaching, in order to curb the spread of this deadly coronavirus disease. Alsadoon and Turkestani (2020) averred that the changes to the teaching model brought about by COVID-19 are somewhat of a blessing to the advocates of technology in education vis-à-vis the adoption of the fourth industrial revolution. Remarkably, this present study found that emergency-remote teaching of the natural sciences via Zoom to LDHH aroused their interest in the sciences. This finding thus validated the assertions of Adigun (2017), Mpungose’ (2020), and Osuagwu et al. (2017).

8. Conclusion The effects of lockdown in South Africa occasioned by COVID-19 have not only been negative, as the digitalisation of teaching and learning activities during the lockdown will remain one of the benefits to the educational system. Although a plethora of research evidence abounds on e-learning, few studies exist on the issues associated with e-teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. Amongst the studies available on e-teaching, few or none have examined the implications of digital platforms on the teaching of the natural sciences to learners, who are deaf or hard-of-hearing. Using a qualitative research design, this study explored the emergency-remote teaching of natural sciences to deaf learners via Zoom in South Africa during the lockdown occasioned by COVID-19.

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Based on the findings derived from the semi-structured Zoom interviews, this study concludes that natural-science teachers, who teach LDHH via Zoom, have limited capacity to engage deaf learners in the digital classroom. In other words, the pedagogical structures and training required for such teaching experiences are grossly inadequate. Uninterrupted two-way auditory-verbal communication, Internet connectivity and connection speeds, as well as the difficulties faced by the participants, when using the instructional material required for efficient pedagogical delivery, are some of the major challenges faced while teaching natural sciences to LDHH via Zoom. This study posits that teaching via Zoom, particularly during the pandemic, not only contributes to community safety against the deadly virus; but it also serves as a source of motivation for science learning and engagement for LDHH.

9. Implications of the study The implications of this study highlight the need for improved teacher preparation. In other words, teacher-training institutions should update their curriculum to actively include the principles and practice of digital teaching. Such an endeavour would inform would-be teachers of the intricacies and challenges of online teaching and learning. In addition, in-service teachers need to receive regular training and re-training on the application of technology in teaching. Those teachers, who serve learners with disabilities, need to be given special attention when being trained on e-teaching approaches. Such training should include the modalities that would promote the adequate visibility of teachers’ facial expressions and the lip-reading potential of back-end deaf learners. The crux of e-teaching and e-learning is dependent on fast, continuous Internet facilities; thus, policies that would foster accessibility to the bandwidth required are needed for educational purposes; and they should be specially instituted.

10. Limitations and suggestions for further studies This study used a qualitative-research design to explore the issues of the emergency-remote teaching of natural sciences to deaf learners via Zoom during the lockdown occasioned by COVID-19 in South Africa. The study collected the data by using a semi-structured Zoom interview with seven natural-science teachers of LDHH. A quantitative-research design approach would have presented an opportunity to collect the data from larger samples. Thus, the findings of this current study should be generalised with caution. In addition, while this study examined e-teaching via Zoom, the study focused solely on teachers; and no information was collected from the learners themselves (LDHH). The researcher is aware that the information gathered from the learners and/or their parents or guardians might provide a more comprehensive result to directly inform policies and practice, in a manner that is beneficial to both natural-science teachers and deaf learners. This study did not explore an inter-provincial comparison of e-teaching via Zoom in South Africa, nor did it consider the state of teachers’ psychological wellbeing when e-teaching during the lockdown. Based

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on the foregoing, it is suggested that future studies could adopt a quantitativeresearch design, in order to accommodate more research participants to ensure the generalisation of the findings, and thereby endeavour to bridge the gaps not closed by this current study.

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gagement_in_a_Virtual_Classroom/links/5eb13489299bf18b9595bb57/UsingZoom-to-Enhance-Student-Engagement-in-a-Virtual-Classroom.pdf Ogundiran, O., & Olaosun, O. A. (2013). Comparison of academic achievement between students with congenital and acquired deafness in a Nigerian College. Journal of Education and Practice, 4(23), 42–47. Available at https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.965.298andrep=re p1andtype=pdf. Osuagwu, O., Ndigwe, C., Ihedigbo, C., Suleiman, U., & Babatunde, O. (2017). Video conferencing: Most effective technology to run assemblies and meetings for large audience dispersed in distant locations: Is it feasible to deploy in Nigeria? West African Journal of Industrial and Academic Research, 17(1), 73–81. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/wajiar/article/view/156643 Pappas, M. A., Demertzi, E., Papagerasimou, Y., Koukianakis, L., Kouremenos, D., Loukidis, I., & Drigas, A. S. (2018). E-Learning for deaf adults from a user-centered perspective. Education Sciences, 8(4), 206. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci8040206 Pizzo, L. (2016). d/Deaf and Hard of hearing multilingual learners: The development of communication and language. Am. Ann. Deaf, 161, 17–32. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26235248 Reimers, F., Schleicher, A., Saavedra, J., & Tuominen, S. (2020). Supporting the continuation of teaching and learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic. OECD, 1(1), 1-38. https://globaled.gse.harvard.edu/files/geii/files/supporting_the_continuation _of_teaching.pdf Schmitt, E., & Eilderts, L. (2018). Connected classrooms: Videoconferencing in TESOL teacher preparation. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 30(2), 290-299. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1184995.pdf Sooryamoorthy, R. (2020). Science, Development and Africa. In Science, Policy and Development in Africa: Challenges and Prospects (pp. 1-40). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108895804.002 Tandy, C., & Meacham, M. (2009). Removing the barriers for students with disabilities: Accessible online and web‐enhanced courses. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 29(3), 313-328. https://doi.org/10.1080/08841230903022118 Tanga, P., Ndhlovu, G. N., & Tanga, M. (2020). Emergency-remote teaching and learning during Covid-19: A recipe for disaster for social work education in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. African Journal of Social Work, 10(3), 17-24. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajsw/article/view/202672

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 195-210, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.11 Received Sep 24, 2021; Revised Jan 11, 2022; Accepted Feb 22, 2022

State University Students’ Learning Locations and Remote Learning Challenges During the COVID-19 Pandemic Cristie Ann L. Jaca* Cebu Technological University – Main Campus, Cebu City, Philippines

Abstract. Online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic were confronted with varied challenges. Examples are the technological and economic issues that university students had to deal with, especially in developing countries such as the Philippines. Data were collected from two groups (N = 60) of Bachelor in Secondary Education (BSEd) English major classes during the second semester of the 2020 academic year. This paper presents the participants’ demographic profile, their learning locations, and their remote learning challenges in attending online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study employed mixed-methods research. For the quantitative part, student participants completed a survey questionnaire using Google Forms, where they identified key challenges while attending their online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic. A quantitative design was used to describe the demographic profile of the participants in terms of age, gender, type of senior high school (SHS) they graduated from, devices used for online learning, internet service provider, and the location of online learning. A qualitative research design was used to determine the challenges encountered by participants in online learning. Thematic analysis using Braun and Clarke’s (2006) model was employed to analyze the qualitative data gathered on remote learning challenges. Findings revealed three major themes of student online learning experiences. The first was a poor and unstable internet connection, together with finding a reliable signal to be able to connect to the internet. The second and third were limited economic capabilities leading to restricted data or no load balance, and a non-conducive learning environment, respectively. The state university students in the Philippines grapple with these challenges that interfere with their studies instead of embracing more opportunities to engage in meaningful remote learning experiences. Keywords: challenges; COVID-19; online classes; remote learning; state university students

©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction Sing and Thurman (2019) defined online learning as “learning experiences in synchronous or asynchronous environments using different devices (e.g., mobile phones, laptops, etc.) with internet access”. Almost all facets and venues of education were significantly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, which paved the way for a seemingly passing over from face-to-face teaching and learning to online learning. The unexpected outbreak of COVID-19 has affected every sphere of life, especially education (Ci̇Ğerci̇, 2020). The use of technology for online teaching and learning paved the way for flexible delivery of instruction. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by all United Nations (UN) member states in 2015 identified 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) that need to be achieved primarily for developing countries. Fourth on the list is quality education, which has recently been challenged by the COVID-19 pandemic. During the COVID-19 pandemic, concerns relating to communication, student assessment, use of technological tools, online experience, pandemic-associated anxiety or stress, time management, and technophobia were all noted as obstacles to online medical education (Rajab et al., 2020). Computer technology has a major influence on the “flat world”, as depicted in Friedman’s book The world is flat. The implication here is that the teaching-learning process needs to cope with the ever-changing technology that will provide students with a technology-rich environment. The essay on teaching language arts in a flat world provides ideas on promoting innovation skills (Burke, 2010). In developing countries such as the Philippines, particularly in some public schools and state universities in the country, students have limited access to the internet due to straitened circumstances. Despite the students’ desire to use technology to meet their course requirements and improve their digital literacy skills, they have limited or no access to online data (Gebremichael & Jackson, 2006). This highlights the need for information professionals from developed countries to actively participate in the fight against information poverty in developing countries (Gebremichael & Jackson, 2006). E-learning bears relevance with a number of arguments. Some of the topics discussed in relation to online pedagogy include accessibility, cost, flexibility, learning pedagogy, lifelong learning, and policy (Dhawan, 2020). Becker et al. (2020) investigated remote learning methods and challenges schools and communities face in providing essential support, particularly for people with mental health disorders and learning disabilities. Morgan (2020) argued that some schools do not have enough resources to provide pupils with learning opportunities and that not all children have access to the internet at home. Ferri et al. (2020) also recognized several technological, pedagogical, and societal issues. The use of educational technology to enhance the teaching and learning process to achieve relevant education is experiencing challenges. University students in developing countries in Asia are confronted with issues related to technology usage in the delivery of instruction. In the Philippines, students enrolled in state universities have to cope with the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. As these students attend online classes during the pandemic, they experience

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challenges in connectivity coupled with financial and family-related issues that affect their learning experiences in online classes and their academic standing. Online delivery of instruction has reached the height of its prominence due to the COVID-19 pandemic as schools have had to transform face-to-face classes to online teaching or blended learning for health and safety reasons. This has brought about particular challenges, such as the technological and economic issues university students have to deal with, especially in developing countries such as the Philippines. Not much has been recorded about the impact of COVID-19 lockdown restrictions on tertiary education and learning in developing countries. As such, there is a need to document learning experiences as a basis for proposing action plans to improve instructional delivery in this flexible learning era.

2. Objectives of the Study The study examined state university students’ challenges in attending online classes in their respective localities amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, the following objectives were set: 1. To describe the profile of the participants in terms of: a. age; b. gender; c. type of senior high school (SHS) they graduated from; d. gadgets used for online learning; e. internet service provider; and f. location when attending online classes. 2. To determine the challenges that students encountered in attending online classes. 3. To propose initiatives to help students in their online classes.

3. Literature Review As academic stakeholders and educational researchers seek to build new pedagogies to address the promise of digital technology within existing curriculum and assessment systems, progressive changes in literacy pedagogy are being made (Walsh, 2010). During the globalization period, there has been a race to master, develop, and implement new technology. One of the most effective methods to use technology in education is to use education-based programs such as Google Classroom, which offers a new teaching environment (Sudarsana et al., 2019). Technology increases collaboration (Costley, 2014), primarily when students collaborate to develop outputs or acquire ideas from one another by reading each other’s work (Keser et al., 2011). Nonetheless, Chang (2016) indicated that a one-to-one technological program has been used to improve critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and communication (the four C’s of twentyfirst century skills). However, there are cases when the lack of understanding, analysis, and reflection on the use of these learning tools may affect their implementation and the expected outcomes (Abeysekera & Dawson, 2014). Concerns around pace and user experience have also been aired (Heggart & Yoo, 2018). Moreover, Kaufman (2014) emphasized the increasingly urgent application of technology for teaching and learning purposes and discussed prospects for improving technological acquisition.

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Students and teachers might be affected differently by different types of media and technologies used in the classroom. According to Christensen (2002), needsbased technology-integration education has a direct and beneficial impact on teacher attitudes such as computer phobia, perceived importance of computers, and pleasure of computers. McKnight et al. (2016) documented digital instructional strategies teachers use to enhance and transform student learning and align that use with learning research. Ertmer et al. (2015) proposed that teachers must have the mindset that “teaching is not effective without the appropriate use of information and communication technologies (ICT) resources to facilitate learning”. There is sufficient research showing the advantages of using internet-based technology in improving education and developing skills (Christensen, 2002; Dogruer et al., 2011; Geladze, 2015; Kamba, 2007; McKnight et al., 2016). This is because information technologies have penetrated almost all spheres of educational fields for both teachers and students as they use the internet for their academic responsibilities, personal utilization, and research tasks (Dogruer et al., 2011; Geladze, 2015; Kamba, 2007). Technology also increases student collaboration (Costley, 2014), primarily when they work together to create projects or learn from each other by reading the work of their peers. Different stakeholders have reacted differently to the adoption of Google Classroom. Studies have begun to show that Google Classroom can work in a unidirectional manner, serving both teachers and students’ perceptions, understandings, and successful engagement in various classroom abilities (Saeed Al-Maroof & Al-Emran, 2018). At Al Buraimi University College (BUC) in Oman, Saeed Al-Maroof and Al-Emran (2018) looked at the elements that influence students’ acceptance of Google Classroom. They found that both the perceived ease of use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU) of Google Classroom have a positive impact on the behavioral intention to use them. Iftakhar (2016) investigated and reported on the overall view of Google Classroom, its features, and some adoption factors, such as organizational, social, personal, and technological dimensions. Analysis of the results indicated that through Google Classroom, one can effectively understand and evaluate teachers and learners’ perceptions in ensuring quality teaching and learning. On the other hand, Azhar and Iqbal’s (2018) study revealed that teachers felt that Google Classroom should be used as a facilitation tool only that can be used for document management and essential classroom management, without having a significant impact on teaching methodologies. The educational damage wrought by COVID-19 on schools affected learners and teachers equally. What makes the situation even bleaker are the lack of support from the authorities and the ineptness of the educational system to deal with and confront the pandemic in an attempt to keep education afloat. South Africa’s uneven educational system can be used as example, with some schools being

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supported, while others are not. Due to a lack of or insufficient infrastructure, too many schools are unable to move their courses online. In addition, a scarcity of laptops or high internet prices keep students from accessing classes for longer periods of time, even if schools can move them online. Although people live in the same country, they do not have the same resources. Therefore, the current necessity for a shift to online learning serves as a reminder (Reiersgord, 2020). The Philippines, a third-world country, was caught unprepared by the outbreak of COVID-19. The education sector struggled to provide quality education to every student. The challenges are simply overwhelming for both the teacher and the student. First-generation students especially encountered incredible difficulty in virtual classes when higher education switched to online learning due to inadequate technology and space to complete coursework. During the pandemic, about 15% of first-generation students had to look after children, compared to 7% of other students. In addition, 18% of first-generation students had to care for adults, compared to 12% of other students (Zalaznick, 2020). According to the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) of the UN, the first barrier to online learning is the digital divide. Only 47% of people in underdeveloped nations accessed the internet before the COVID-19 pandemic, compared to 86% in developed countries. As the chair of Culture and Education for Peace at the Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (Ecuador) pointed out, the pandemic has affected at least 60% of the student population, as many students do not have the means or tools to access online instruction. Because COVID-19 has such a large impact, prompt responses are required. Indeed, students in financial hardship are more likely to have limited or no internet access, according to the UNESCO chair of Population, Migrations, and Development of the Sapienza University of Rome (UNESCO, 2020). This is either because they cannot afford a laptop or an internet connection or because they live in areas with poor connectivity.

4. Methodology This study used mixed-methods research that employed both a quantitative and qualitative research design. The study was based on state university students’ personal experiences of their remote learning classes. Participants completed a survey questionnaire using Google Forms, where they identified the five key challenges that they encountered while attending their online courses during the COVID-19 pandemic. The data were collected from the two groups of Bachelor in Secondary Education (BSEd) English major classes during the second semester of the 2020 academic year. The results were analyzed using descriptive statistics employing frequency counting and ranking. The participants identified challenges through the multiple-choice questions of the Google Forms questionnaire; the personal online interview supported their answers to validate the responses from the questionnaire. This was done to solicit their personal experiences to provide actual data to explain the phenomenon under study. Participants were able to express their concerns based on their online class experiences.

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4.1 Research Participants The study employed universal sampling or total enumeration involving all sophomore BSEd English major students enrolled during the second semester of the 2020 academic year at Cebu Technological University. The population consisted of 60 students who belonged to the two sections of sophomores, with 30 students in each section. 4.2 Research Instrument A researcher-made survey questionnaire using Google Forms was utilized as the study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic (Appendix 1). The first part of the questionnaire contained items seeking data on the participants’ demographic profile regarding age, gender, type of SHS they graduated from, devices used for online learning, internet service provider, and location during online learning. Part II of the instrument was a checklist of participants’ perceived online learning challenges. The research instrument was content-validated by experts in the teaching of English. 4.3 Research Procedure Permission was sought from the Vice President Academic Affairs to conduct the study. Student participants had to provide informed consent to confirm their voluntary participation in the study. Upon approval, permission from the Ethics Review Board of Cebu Technological University was sought. The researchermade questionnaire was then sent to the appropriate online platforms through Google Forms. Once data had been retrieved, it was analyzed and interpreted utilizing proper quantitative and qualitative statistical tools. 4.4 Data Analysis To determine the demographic profile of the participants in terms of age, gender, type of SHS they graduated from, devices used for online learning, internet service provider, and the location of online learning, descriptive statistics was employed using modes, frequencies, and percentages presented in frequency distributions. On the other hand, for analyzing the qualitative data on the results of the challenges that the participants encountered in attending online classes, Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis was employed. Participants’ challenges were validated through an online interview, where they narrated their personal experiences while attending online classes in their respective home residences. A few steps were undertaken to perform the thematic analysis. First, the transcripts were read and reread for familiarization with the data on the challenges met by the participants in attending online classes. Second, initial codes were generated from the significant challenges as highlighted by the participants. Third, themes were searched and reviewed. 4.5 Ethical Considerations Before data collection, approval was sought from the student participants through a consent form that solicited their voluntary participation in this study. Participants were assigned a code to maintain anonymity and confidentiality. Likewise, the data collected through Google Forms were bound to privacy to ensure that it is solely used for academic purposes.

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5. Results and Discussion Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, university students have had a variety of experiences, especially in developing nations such as the Philippines, where faceto-face instruction has been replaced with remote learning. During the COVID-19 pandemic, students who took online classes experienced a variety of difficulties in delivering information. This section presents the study results represented by three tables reflecting the distribution of participants by age, gender, and type of SHS they graduated from (Table 1), distribution of participants by location (Table 2), and devices used for online learning, including their internet service provider (Table 3). Likewise, qualitative descriptions on remote learning challenges and qualitative feedback on the challenges encountered in attending online classes based on the interview data are also itemized together with the proposed initiatives based on the challenges. 5.1 Participants’ Age, Gender, and Type of Senior High School They Graduated from Table 1 presents the distribution of the participants in terms of their age, gender, and type of SHS they graduated from. Table 1: Distribution of participants by age, gender, and type of senior high school they graduated from Age (years)

Frequency

13.33

21.67

Total

100

Frequency

Female

Male

Total

100

Frequency

Public

73.33

Private

26.67

Total

100

Gender

Type of SHS graduate

The participants were all within the age bracket of 19 to 21 years. The majority of the participants (65%) were 21 years old. Of the remainder, 21.67% were 20 years old and 13.33% were 19 years old. In terms of gender, there were more female (85%) than male (15%) participants. These 60 participants were graduates of private and public SHSs in Cebu and Cebu City, Philippines. A predominant number of participants were public high school graduates (73.33%). The remaining 26.67% graduated from a private high school within Cebu City and neighboring municipalities in Cebu, Philippines. 5.2 Participants’ Location When Attending Online Classes State university students in the Philippines mostly come from low- to middle-income families as education is free and has been democratized to the

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public. During the pandemic, participants went home to their respective home provinces as face-to-face classes had been suspended. Table 2 shows participants’ place of origin or hometown, which is also where they attended their online courses. Table 2: Distribution of participants by location Place of origin Carcar City Cebu City Lapulapu City Mandaue City Naga City Talisay City Municipalities of Cebu Neighboring islands Total

Frequency 2 11 13 8 2 2 17 5 60

% 3.33 18.33 21.67 13.33 3.33 3.33 28.33 8.33 100

Place of Origin City Municipality Neighboring islands Total

Frequency 38 17 5 60

% 63.33 28.33 8.33 100

Table 2 shows the distribution of participants by location, referring to their place of origin. The majority of the participants were from different Cebu municipalities and within the city. The majority of participants (63.33%) were from the city, 28.33% from the municipality, and 8.33% from neighboring islands. The participants experienced limited or poor internet connection in their place of residence, leading to difficulty in regularly attending their online classes. This implies that most participants came from different localities with a limited or poor internet connection, leading to difficulty attending their online courses. Their access to their online learning is therefore based on how strong their internet connectivity is. The intermittent connectivity issue and poor internet access are a problem. Likewise, this also reflects the diverse areas from which participants came. Some resided in the city, while others were in their home provinces, located in different barangays in Cebu City and Cebu provinces. Most of these locations encountered connectivity problems due to distance, location, and signal. Thus, this finding confirms the challenges of connectivity. The ITU of the UN stated that the digital divide is the first hurdle that colleges must overcome in order to address the impact of COVID-19 on underprivileged students (UNESCO, 2020). 5.3 Devices Used During Online Classes One of the challenges students experience during online classes is the type of device they use. In most public schools where laptops are a rare commodity, several students use cell phones as their primary medium in attending online classes. That is why their time is limited in working online to meet their class requirements. Table 3 reflects the devices used by the participants for their online courses. The table also reflects the internet service provider participants used.

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Table 3: Devices and internet service provider used for online learning Device used Cell phone Laptop Both cell phone and laptop Total

Frequency 56 1 3 60

% 93.33 1.67 5 100

Internet service provider Cignal Globe Smart PLDT TM TNT PisoWifi Smart; PLDT Total

Frequency 3 21 20 12 1 1 1 1 60

% 5 35 33.33 20 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67 100

Table 3 reflects what devices participants used for attending online classes. The device used most was the cellular phone (93.33%). This implies that the majority of the participants would have had difficulty complying with their course requirements as they would have had to type using their cell phones with limited space and usage possibilities. This means that their access may also have been limited to the resources available at home. Since most participants used cellular phones for their online classes, it was difficult for them to comply with some course requirements that require a lot of typing and other technical features for a particular project. Zalaznick (2020) confirmed that first-generation students encountered greater difficulty in attending virtual classrooms when higher education moved to online learning due to a lack of adequate technology and space to perform course work. At home, some students do not have access to laptop or desktop computers or high-speed internet. In addition, for reasons of technophobia, elderly internet users benefit the least from online education (Nimrod, 2018). As one participant expressed: “One of my problems is that my phone is already full of storage – the reason I couldn’t easily access or download some of the required apps that will be used during our meeting, such as Microsoft Office and Zoom, since my phone is not updated.” (P24) The use of the mobile device during online classes limits students’ opportunity to participate in class and derails the submissions of their schoolwork. Moreover, the internet service provider that participants used in securing connections also seemed to have troubles regarding connectivity and accessibility. The university reached out to all students and extended help in providing them with Globe connectivity kits. That is why most of the participants (35%) used Globe as their internet service provider. This was followed by Smart (33.33%) and

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PLDT (20%), as certain areas are only covered by those service providers. The remaining participants made use of internet service providers that they could afford or that were available in their location. 5.4 Remote Learning Challenges An ongoing reality for a developing country such as the Philippines in the context of continuous online learning is that it has obstacles to overcome. Students experienced varied challenges in their attendance of and participation in online classes. Participants narrated their perspectives as they expressed their personal experiences in their online learning journey amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Their impressions of their online course specified the challenges they encountered in online learning that led to their absence and tardiness and delayed submissions of assignments and classwork. 5.5 Qualitative Feedback on the Challenges Encountered in Attending Online Classes Based on the Interview Data Thematic analysis by Braun and Clark (2006) was employed to identify themes related to the challenges participants encountered during their online classes. Data familiarization, code creation, topic identification, theme evaluation, theme naming, and report production were all considered as part of the six-phase strategy for a reliable thematic analysis. In a data set, this process includes determining the most important themes and analyzing, arranging, explaining, and reporting them (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The feedback of participants on the challenges they encountered while attending online classes included connectivity and accessibility issues, academic constraints, mental stress-related issues, and economic limitations that hamper the learning continuum. In this study, participants expressed their personal experiences in attending online classes amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. Three significant themes were generated: 1) challenging internet connection and signal, 2) low to no budget allocation for data, and 3) inconducive learning environment. These themes are discussed in this section. Excerpts from the participants from the random interviews to validate their responses to the researcher-made questionnaire are used as support. 5.5.1 Theme 1: Challenging internet connection and signal The majority of the participants expressed that they experienced an unstable to no internet connection. This finding is exemplified in the following vignettes: “First, the most common thing a student would always experience is an unstable internet connection. There were times that I had to wait a couple of minutes before I could rejoin the meeting because there is no internet connection.” (P1) “Internet connectivity is one of my biggest adversaries apart from the weather. Moreover, the demand for technology usage is employed in implementing these classes. The signal is all that matters.” (P2) “My experiences during online classes are my internet connection, blackout, and my mobile phone. First is the internet connection. I crack

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up on this kind of issue because I’m having a hard time attending the synchronous class.” (P3) “I’ve been having a hard time being in an online class, especially when the internet connection is starting to be unstable. Also, I usually don’t understand everything that the teacher discussed.” (P7) “One of the most frustrating encounters during online class is the poor connection.” (P10) “Sometimes there is no internet connection, while most of the time the connectivity is deficient; that’s why it is difficult to attend to my online classes.” (P15) 5.5.2 Theme 2: Low to no low budget allocation for data Many participants shared common sentiments on their financial limitations regarding buying internet load/data to attend online classes. The following utterances show these concerns: “Financial problem is the most struggling thing that I’ve experienced during this online class. The amount that I consume is more than the costs of my allowance that I have during the face-to-face classes.” (P8) “Sometimes I cannot attend my online classes because I do not have money to buy the internet load/data.” (P11) “One of the problems that I’ve encountered during online classes is lack of internet load and having an unstable internet connection, wherein sometimes I am having a hard time joining our synchronous meeting. I am also having trouble getting some updates on some of my subjects. In addition, one of my problems is that my phone is already full of storage – the reason I couldn’t easily access or download some of the required apps that will be used during our meetings, such as Microsoft Office and Zoom, since my phone is not updated and is not suited with this so-called online classes.” (P9) “I have difficulty continuing my online class, because sometimes my internet load is not enough for all my online classes.” (P28) Financial limitations deprive students of consistently joining online classes, since most students would run out of load, thus stopping them from attending online sessions. Some students are also dependent on their meager budget in buying a load or renting an internet station to participate in online classes. The availability of the load or internet data that will allow the students to join online courses has been a consistent concern for many who cannot afford to buy the load. 5.5.3 Theme 3: Inconducive learning environment The learning environment refers to the conditions, devices, and task/time management during online learning. The following participant narratives describe the kind of learning environment they experienced:

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“The noise outside our house, from the dogs to the jeepney and car horns, sometimes disturbs me that I cannot focus in my online class, and it is difficult for me to listen during my online class.” (P18) “One of my problems in online classes is my place. I have limited space in our house because our house is small, and my siblings also have their online classes.” (P21) “My location of the connection. I need to find a place to have a better signal for me to hear the teacher. My room or in our house has a signal, but not good enough for the online class; the teacher will sound like a robot.” (P16) “I live in a remote area, and my learning environment is not good. I can’t even log in to the educational apps used in the online class. Internet connection in my home was depressingly bad and turned me out of my mind. I’m in and off every time synchronous classes started.” (P25) “As a student, my online learning experience is stressful, and it’s been different than what I’m used to and even busier compared to attending regular classes in person. I have been more busy than usual.” (P4) “Honestly speaking, I don’t really like online school, because it makes me procrastinate to do my work last-minute. On the other hand, I finished all my assignments on time at school without feeling lazy. Also, I don’t like that there are piles of homework due on the same day.” (P5) “My online learning experience as a college student is stressful. I have been swamped [more] than usual. An online class requires a lot of time and intensive work, and it is hard for me to focus on my school task, because I am a working student and I don’t have enough time to do all school tasks. (P6) The learning environment at home is not conducive to students’ online learning due to limited space. The noise in the environment affects the students’ learning during their online classes. Most students are disturbed by the different sounds from the environment. Noise from barking dogs, automobiles, and humans from the environment affects their hearing and learning in class. These scenarios sometimes disturb their attendance during synchronous class sessions and onlineclass participation. Gillet-Swan (2017) claimed in her research that the one-size-fits-all approach to external students who are feeling isolated or experiencing isolation has basic problems. In comparison to their internal counterparts, these students usually have difficulty fully participating in all of the modules of their schoolwork. People enrolled in these same courses via face-to-face or blended enrolment modalities may not confront these problems, presenting a new type of learner to consider when developing and implementing online learning activities.

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5.6 Proposed Initiative Based on the Challenges Encountered by Participants in Attending Online Classes In one of UNESCO’s articles on the impact of COVID-19 on disadvantaged students, the chair of Culture and Education for Peace at Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (Ecuador) stated that “at least 60%” of the student population has been affected by the pandemic (UNESCO, 2020). Many do not have the means or tools to access online teaching. Because of the enormous impact of COVID-19 on students, timely responses are necessary. Based on the participants’ expressed challenges in attending their online classes, a course pack is proposed to address the challenge of poor internet connection and limited signal. The course pack serves as the student’s lesson guide. It is a collection of learning materials that supplements and provides a blueprint for accomplishing the student’s reading, writing, and performance tasks. Moreover, it provides the student with an option to meet their requirements online or offline to accommodate those who have a hard time attending classes and submitting their classwork online due to their poor internet connection. Regarding allocating internet data for state university students, the course pack provided will be able to partly resolve their limited online participation. It will enable them to do their school tasks even without a connection, as long as they submit their outputs on the specified due dates.

6. Conclusion University students in developing countries grappled with the challenges of connectivity issues such as poor internet connection and signal when attending online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study confirmed this reality, as it found that state university students from Cebu, Philippines who participate in online courses at home are experiencing difficulty joining and attending online classes and maximizing their learning. Internet connectivity and finding a reliable signal to connect to the internet become a challenge for these students living in remote areas in the provinces, especially in the mountainous barangay areas. Moreover, students’ limited economic capabilities and limited resources are also a concern they need to hurdle. They run short of money in procuring their internet pre-paid data as most of them are dependent on their family’s meager income. Some of them are also working students who pay for their own studies and school expenses. Furthermore, other challenges experienced are the learning environment and learning devices used to attend online classes. Students’ learning environment impedes their ability and interest to maximize their online learning experience.

7. Recommendations Internet connectivity issues must be addressed with specific action plans, such as scheduling classes, activities, and assessments so students can prepare and manage their time and resources. Students need to apportion their load budget to attend scheduled activities. Teachers must also limit the number of activities and monitor students’ learning outputs without sounding demanding. Likewise, research can be conducted in other schools, either private or state, or universities or colleges, to compare the research results and produce new data and

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information. Furthermore, due to some study limitations, further research is also recommended to look into the other factors that can affect students’ online class experience.

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Geladze, D. (2015). Using the internet and computer technologies in the learning/teaching process. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(2), 67-69. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1083835.pdf Gillet-Swan, J. (2017). The challenges of online learning: Supporting and engaging the isolated learner. Journal of Learning Design, 10(1), 20-30. https://doi.org/10.5204/jld.v9i3.293 Heggart, K. R., & Yoo, J. (2018). Getting the most from Google Classroom: A pedagogical framework for tertiary educators. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 43(3), 140-153. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v43n3.9 Iftakhar, S. (2016). Google Classroom: What works and how. Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 3(1), 12-18. https://www. jesoc.com/2016/03/KC3_35 Kamba, M. A. (2007). The internet as a tool for interactive learning, teaching, and research: The Nigerian experience. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 2(3), 1-4. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/44904/ Kaufman, K. (2014). Information communication technology: Challenges & some prospects from pre-service education to the classroom. Mid-Atlantic Education Review, 2(1), 1-11. https://bit.ly/3H9CvwU Keser, F., Akar, H., & Yildirim, A. (2011). The role of extracurricular activities in active citizenship education. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 43(6), 809-837. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2011.591433 McKnight, K., O’Malley, K., Ruzic, R., Horsley, M., Franey, J. J., & Bassett, K. (2016). Teaching in a digital age: How educators use technology to improve student learning. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 48(3), 194-211. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2016.1175856 Morgan, H. (2020). Best practices for implementing remote learning during a pandemic. The clearing house: A journal of educational strategies, issues and ideas, 93(3), 135-141. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2020.1751480 Nimrod, G. (2018). Technophobia among older internet users. Educational Gerontology, 44(2-3), 148-162. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601277.2018.1428145 Rajab, M. H., Gazal, A. M., & Alkattan, K. (2020). Challenges to online medical education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Cureus, 12(7), e8996. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.8966 Reiersgord, D. (2020). Online education during the pandemic: The challenges and opportunities. https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-04-03-online-education-duringthe-pandemic-the-challenges-and-opportunities/ Singh, V., & Thurman, A. (2019). How many ways can we define online learning? A systematic literature review of definitions of online learning (1988–2018). American Journal of Distance Education, 33(4), 289-306. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2019 Sudarsana, I. K., Putra, I. B. M. A., Astawa, I. N. T., & Yogantara, I. W. L. (2019). The use of Google Classroom in the learning process. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1175(1), 012165. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/17426596/1175/1/012165/pdf#:~:text=Google%20classroom%20is%20a%20Learning ,learning%20for%20digital%20learners%20today UNESCO. (2020). Startling digital divides in distance learning emerge. https://en.unesco.org/news/startling-digital-divides-distance-learning-emerge Walsh, M. (2010). Multimodal literacy: What does it mean for classroom practice? Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 33(3), 211-239. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267398684_Multimodal_literacy_W hat_does_it_mean_for_classroom_practice Zalaznick, M. (2020). 3 COVID challenges hit first-generation students harder. https://universitybusiness.com/covid-challenges-hit-first-generation-collegestudents-harder/

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Appendix 1: Researcher-Made Questionnaire (in Google Forms) A researcher-made survey questionnaire using Google Forms was utilized as the study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic. The first part of the questionnaire contained items seeking data on the participants’ demographic profile regarding age, gender, type of SHS they graduated from, devices used for online learning, internet service provider, and location during online learning. Part II of the instrument was a checklist of their perceived online learning challenges. The research instrument was content-validated by experts in the teaching of English.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 211-231, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.12 Received Dec 29, 2021; Revised Feb 12, 2022; Accepted Feb 23, 2022

Does Student Involvement in Practical Learning Strengthen Deeper Learning Competencies? Agus Prianto Economic Education Department, STKIP PGRI Jombang, East Java, Indonesia Umi Nur Qomariyah Mathematic Education Department, STKIP PGRI Jombang, East Java, Indonesia Firman Civic Education Department, STKIP PGRI Jombang, East Java, Indonesia

Abstract. The rapidly changing world of work requires graduates to have the skills to adapt to new work environments. According to employers, the main weaknesses of vocational school graduates are their poor communication skills, inadequate problem-solving ability, and inability to learn how to learn. These shortcomings indicate the low level of students' deeper learning competencies (DLC). Learning activities at schools should strengthen students' DLC. This study describes students’ involvement in practical learning, its impact, and the extent to which students’ involvement in practical learning strengthens DLC. This research was conducted over four semesters at a referral vocational school in Jombang Regency, East Java, Indonesia. Descriptive analysis was used to uncover the data on students’ involvement in practical learning and its various impacts, and students’ DLC. It was found that the implementation of practical learning fosters students' involvement in schooling. The participation of students in practical learning affected the development of various learning behaviors and attitudes, which can strengthen DLC further. Project-based learning and school-based enterprise are two practical learning models that have a strong impact on the development of students' DLC. The effects of internship and learning through practice were in the strong category. Thus, learning activities in schools should be carried out by combining theoretical studies and practical learning. It is recommended that vocational schools strengthen their learning activities with project-based learning or school-based enterprise approaches. Keywords: student involvement; practical learning; deeper learning competencies

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Corresponding author: Agus Prianto, agustkip@gmail.com

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction To face the rapidly changing world of work, vocational schools are under pressure to develop learning models that prepare students to be quality graduates. Vocational school graduates must master various competencies that are relevant to the skill-related qualifications demanded by the world of work. The suitability of the competencies, knowledge, and skills of graduates in relation to the qualifications demanded by the world of work will determine the readiness of graduates to enter the job market. The rapidly changing world of work requires graduates to have the skills needed to adapt to a new work environment. To deal with rapid changes, AIR (American Institutes for Research) explains that it is important for educational institutions, including vocational schools, to prepare students to master knowledge (content), to strengthen skills for collaborating with others, and to apply knowledge in new situations (AIR, 2015). AIR suggests that students will have wider access to job opportunities, and be able to contribute optimally in the real-life environment if they have the skills needed to work in a team, and to conduct analysis by thinking critically in response to the challenges posed by the new era. To respond to these challenges, educational institutions must ensure learning that strengthens students' competencies, so that they develop deep learning competencies (DLC) (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2011; Martinez, McGrath, & Foster, 2016). Some developed countries in Europe created a framework to develop student competencies for engaging in deeper learning (STORIES Consortium, 2017). The Hewlett Foundation, which has studied the important role of education in building community civilization for more than 50 years, also emphasizes the importance of strengthening student competencies that relate to DLC (Hewlett Foundation, 2013). To prepare graduates to compete in the future, certain educational institutions in the USA develop student learning with the aim of strengthening student competencies, so that students can be learners who master knowledge, apply knowledge to life, think critically and solve problems, work in teams, communicate effectively, direct themselves to continue learning, respond to the challenges posed by change, and think creatively and innovatively. These various competencies are acquired through deeper learning (Vander Ark & Schneider, 2013; MacFarlane et al., 2017). The study conducted by MacFarlane et al. (2017) emphasizes the importance of deep learning for preparing prospective graduates to access various global economic opportunities in the 21st century. MacFarlane et al. (2017) explain that developing challenging learning practices that enable students to be more actively involved in learning activities, is important. They also advise teachers to carry out learning activities flexibly, so that students have the opportunity to engage in deeper learning. Previous studies have not specifically discussed the learning model that could be applied to develop student competencies that will enable students to be actively involved in deeper learning.

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Practical learning is one of the most important learning activities in vocational schools in Indonesia (Hadam et al., 2017). Through practical learning – activities in the real world – students are expected to develop the ability to apply the theory they learned in school. In addition, through practical learning, students are expected to gain experience on how they must do the job. Thus, practical learning should provide students with a deep understanding, not only because they know the theories, but because they can also put theory into practice in the real world (Billet, 2013). This study examined the impacts of implementing four practical learning activities to develop DLC: 1) Practice in the workshop (learning through practice), 2) Internships, 3) Project-based learning (PBL), and 4) Practice of business activities at school (school-based enterprise (SBE)). 1.1. Research Question This study aimed to answer the following research questions: a) What is the nature of students’ involvement in various practical learning activities that are carried out at schools? b) What is the impact of involving students in various practical learning activities at schools? c) Can the involvement of students in various learning activities, and the various impacts of this involvement, foster DLC? 1.2. Purposes This study aimed to describe the involvement of students in four practical learning activities carried out at vocational schools, the impact of student involvement in the four practical learning activities, and the emergence of DLC in students after they were involved in the four practical learning activities.

2. Student Involvement in Learning The intensity of student involvement in learning is related to student learning success (Prianto, 2016). Students who are actively involved in learning usually perform better academically and have more positive attitudes, and vice versa (Leonard, 2008; Smith et al., 2010). Studies have found that student involvement in learning can be known from various activities, among which student participation in learning, student participation in school activities, and student involvement in completing assignments (Ali & Hasan, 2018); attention to, interest in, and seriousness of participation in learning (Yazzie-Mintz, 2010); motivation to learn, the desire of students to be involved in learning activities at school, school attendance and completing assignments given by the teacher (Salleh et al., 2013); and participation of students in school activities (Audas & Willms, 2001). Student involvement in learning comprises three aspects: 1) Behavioral engagement (such as student participation in activities), 2) Emotional engagement related to students' feelings during involvement in learning (such as feeling happy and enjoying activities), and 3) Cognitive engagement aspects related to student motivation, encouragement, and the ability to be an independent learner (Fredricks et al., 2004). These activities are confirmed by Briggs (2015), who states

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that involvement in learning reflects the level of students' interest in participating in learning activities, students' sincerity about interacting positively and cooperating with fellow students, and the strength of their motivation to carry out learning activities. According to previous studies, several indicators of student involvement in learning can, thus, be identified: (1) Participation in learning, (2) Seriousness about carrying out learning tasks, (3) Attention and interest in learning activities, (4) Emotional involvement and feelings when carrying out learning activities, and (5) Being encouraged to learn and explore learning tasks independently.

3. Practical Learning at Vocational Schools Certain practical learning activities are commonly carried out at vocational schools in Indonesia, and these activities will be discussed next. 3.1. Learning through Practice Learning through practice is a learning activity that requires students to apply theory through practical learning activities that are carried out in workshops. A workshop is a place where practical activities are carried out. Through the activities in workshops, students gain a deeper understanding of the theories learned in class. In other words, practical learning in the workshop will provide opportunities for students to apply theory (Roesman, 1988). Through engaging in these workshop activities, theoretical knowledge and practical activities become one joint learning activity (Wren & Wren, 2009; Clapton & Cree, 2004). Practical learning deepens students' understanding of theory, and enables them to develop the theory further. A deep understanding is likely to develop students’ interest in exploring theory further. 3.2. Internship Law No. 13, 2003 of the Republic of Indonesia, concerning employment, explains that apprenticeship is part of a job training system that is applied, in an integrated manner, between work education institutions and real workplaces under the guidance and supervision of instructors (experienced personnel in the process of producing goods and services). Internship activities at vocational schools in Indonesia are called industrial work practices. Internship activities are educational training and learning activities carried out in the business and industrial world, in fields relevant to the competencies and fields of knowledge of the students. Through internship activities, students work to acquire new knowledge and skills that are not obtained through learning activities at school; doing so also provides opportunities for students to explore various types of careers, and develop their future careers. Internships are practical learning activities that provide students with real-world experiences. Internships have long been recognized as activities that can develop students' work readiness (Eraut, 2004). Quality internship activities are characterized by intensive student involvement in work activities related to their fields of knowledge and competence – not only

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involvement in administrative activities. Internship activities must provide a clear description of the types of activities that must be carried out, so that students will gain work experience. Internship activities can also become the medium for students to learn about organizations, organizational culture, and the various work activities in an organization. Internship activities at vocational schools in Indonesia are carried out for 3–6 months. Deissinger and Hellwig (2005) explain that, through internships, students can develop work values and attitudes, develop careers, and develop professional attitudes that will be needed when they enter the workforce. 3.3. Project-Based Learning PBL is intended to teach students, when they create projects or activities to solve existing problems, to relate what they have learned to the problems in their environment. PBL is also intended to train students by developing their potential to become innovative, creative individuals, and to enable them to work in a work team. Students learn and practice by observing various opportunities and problems in their environments, and then develop products or services that can be offered to the community. Through PBL, students are trained to work in a team, and to make in-depth observations about various problems that exist in the environment. The students and the team then develop a project or activity to solve the problems that were identified. Generally, PBL comprises a number of steps, such as planning, creating, and processing. Teachers, who implement the PBL approach, could follow the following steps: (1) Start with the essential question, (2) Design a plan for the project, (3) Create a schedule, (4) Monitor the students and the progress of the project, (5) Assess the outcome, and (6) Evaluate the experiences (Hung et al., 2004). Sumarni (2015) explains the various advantages of implementing PBL, including (1) Increasing students' motivation to learn, (2) Improving students' academic achievement, (3) Improving collaboration skills, (4) Improving communication skills, (5) Improving students' skills to manage learning resources, (6) Creating a pleasant learning atmosphere, (7) Strengthening various positive attitudes of students, (8) Improving student creativity, (9) Strengthening problem-solving skills, and (10) Strengthening resource management skills. 3.4. School-Based Enterprises An SBE involves practical learning during which students produce goods and services to sell to others (Stern et al., 1994). In some vocational schools, SBE practical learning is done by assigning students to produce goods and services during entrepreneurship lesson hours, then selling the products in schools. The goal is to teach students to be productive individuals. In addition, through this activity, students become accustomed to selling manufactured goods and services, and they gain real-world experience in identifying market opportunities, determining the right marketing strategy, and strengthening the habit of transacting in business activities. Gugerty et al. (2008) and Walker and Shinn (2002) define SBE as business activities carried out by students, which can provide economic and social benefits, and strengthen educational aspects for the students themselves, the school, and the

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community. This activity is designed to familiarize students with being responsible individuals who are accustomed to undertaking activities based on reward and punishment values, to foster self-confidence in realizing personal targets, and to strengthen personal independence. Gamache and Knab (2018) describe various skills that can be developed through SBE activities, including (1) Skills used in managing a business, (2) Analytical thinking skills, (3) Communication and social skills, and (4) Personal skills, in addition to strengthening academic achievement. Based on the explanation of the four practical learning activities described above, it can be concluded that the involvement of students in practical learning has a positive impact, including improvement of (1) Creative, analytical, innovative and problem-solving academic skills, (2) Practical skills, (3) Independence (learning how to learn), (4) Values and work attitudes, (5) Understanding of careers, (6) Collaboration skills, and (7) Communication skills.

4. The Importance of Strengthening Deeper Learning Competencies Vocational schools aim to develop skills, provide hands-on experience in a particular field of work, provide a way to solve problems in the workplace and prepare graduates for careers in specific occupational fields. The Commission on Adult Vocational Teaching and Learning (2013) explains that the educational activities implemented at vocational schools should be compatible with what is taught in school, and what is required by the world of work. To enable students to face the challenges of the world of work in the future, learning activities at vocational schools should be aimed at developing students’ DLC (AIR, 2015). DLC will enable students to build an in-depth understanding of the knowledge they are studying, while, at the same time, applying the knowledge in real life. Deeper learning will also enable students to develop the ability to work in teams, access career opportunities, and develop critical thinking skills to solve problems encountered in the real world. Deep learning is a learning skill that enables students to understand knowledge in depth, to utilize what they have learned, and to apply it as needed, both during the study at school, and during application in the real world. The Hewlett Foundation (2013) defines deeper learning as a set of competencies that students must master in order to build a deep understanding of the knowledge they acquire, and to apply it in the workplace. Thus, deeper learning enables students to develop cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal skills. Through deeper learning, students are not just memorizing facts, concepts, techniques, and procedures; instead, they will know the underlying principles, and understand when and how they can be applied in new situations. A report, entitled Deeper Learning Improving Students’ Outcomes for College, Career, and Civic Life (AIR, 2015), reveals the benefits that will be obtained when students develop DLC, including (1) Cognitive aspects: having a deep understanding of what is learned and being able to apply it in the real world, being able to develop

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critical thinking and problem-solving skills, and an increase in creative behavior; (2) Interpersonal aspects: better communication skills and collaboration skills; and (3) Intrapersonal aspects: ability to self-teach, deep involvement in learning activities, strong learning motivation, belief in one's own abilities, being able to direct oneself to be a productive person, and persistence. The Hewlett Foundation (2013), Trilling (2010), and Pellegrino and Hilton (2012) reveal that deep learning will strengthen six interrelated competencies. DLC is a prerequisite for success, not only at school, but also at university. It is believed that students who have the following six competencies will achieve high achievements, both during their studies and later, after developing their careers in the workplace: (1) Mastering core knowledge in depth, (2) Critical thinking skills and solving complex problems, (3) Collaboration skills, (4) Effective communication skills, (5) Self-learning skills, and (6) A rational academic mindset. Several studies on the importance of student involvement in various practical learning activities at vocational schools in Indonesia show that the impact of practical learning and DLC is that more intense student involvement in practical learning can strengthen students' DLC.

5. Research Method This research was done at three vocational schools in Jombang Regency, East Java, with the status of reference schools, namely SMK 1 Jombang, SMK 2 Jombang, and SMK PGRI 1 Jombang. The results of the research conducted at the three schools can be used as a reference point by similar schools to optimize the implementation of practical learning. The research sample was determined using purposive sampling (Scheaffer et al., 1995); 20 students were sampled at each school. This research was conducted for four semesters, with the same respondents, that is, 20 students at each school. Thus, the total number of respondents in this study was 60 students. In semester 1, students participated in learning through practice; In semester 2, students participated in SBE. In semester 3, students participated in PBL, and in semester 4, students participated in internships. After completing each of the four practice-based learning activities, the supervising teacher, at the end of each semester, assessed the intensity of students' involvement in practical learning. The impact of practical learning and the students' DLC were measured using a questionnaire that had been developed by the researchers (see Appendix). This study used quantitative descriptive analysis techniques (Narbuko & Achmadi, 2015; Sukmadinata, 2017; Sugiyono, 2018; Arikunto, 2019) to describe three variables, namely: 1) The level of student involvement in each of four practical learning activities, 2) The impact of practical learning, and 3) DLC. Student involvement in practical learning was measured using five indicators, namely (1) Participation in learning, (2) Seriousness in carrying out learning tasks, (3) Attention to and interest in learning activities, (4) Emotions and feelings when

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carrying out learning activities, and (5) Students being encouraged to study and explore learning tasks independently. The impact of practical learning is identified from the emergence of various indicators, namely (1) Academic skills (creative thinking skills, analytical, innovative, and problem-solving skills), (2) Practical skills, (3) Self-learning skills (learning how to learn), (4) Strengthened work values and attitudes, (5) Career understanding, (6) Work readiness, and (7) Strengthened collaboration and communication skills. Meanwhile, DLC was measured using six indicators, that is, (1) Mastering core knowledge in depth, (2) Critical thinking skills and solving complex problems, (3) Collaborating skills, (4) Effective communication skills, (5) Self-learning skills, and (6) Developing a rational academic mindset. Data collection was carried out using a 7-scale semantic differential scale questionnaire (lowest score 1, highest score 7) (Sugiyono, 2018). Questionnaires about student involvement in practical learning, the impact of practical learning, and questionnaires on DLC were developed by researchers using the indicators proposed in this study. The categories of student involvement in practical learning, practical learning outcomes, and DLC are as shown in Table 1. Table 1: Categories of learning engagement, practical learning outcome, and DLC Score

Description

Score

Description

1.00 – 1.85 1.86 – 2.71 2.72 – 3.56 3.57 – 4.42

Very low Low Slightly low Moderate

4.43 – 5.28 5.29 – 6.14 6.15 – 7.00

Slightly high High Very high

Questionnaires for data collection were developed by researchers based on indicators of learning engagement, the impact of engagement on practical learning, and deeper learning competencies. Before being used as a means to assess students, the research questionnaire was first tested for validity and reliability. Furthermore, a questionnaire statement is set for each indicator with the best level of validity and reliability. The results of the validity and reliability test of the questionnaire are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Validity and reliability Variable

Indicator

Statement

Student engagement in practical learning

Participation in learning The seriousness of students in carrying out the task Students' attention to and

Students actively participate in practical learning Students are serious about carrying out practical learning tasks

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Students show high interest in practical learning

Validity

Reliability

0.78

0.82

0.77

0.79

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Variable

Indicator interest in practical learning Students' emotions and feelings as expressed when carrying out practical learning Students’ independence in learning Academic skills

Practical skills

Learning how to learn

Practical learning outcome

Work attitudes Career orientation Work readiness Collaboration Communication

Deeper learning competencies

Mastery of core academic, content Think critically, solve complex problems

Work collaboratively

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Statement

Students show a happy and enthusiastic attitude when carrying out practical learning

Students show independence to learn more what has been learned in practical learning Students are able to think creatively, innovatively, and analytically to solve complex problems Students are able to apply theory to carry out certain tasks Students are able to direct themselves to explore the subject matter that has been studied at school Students show positive work behavior and attitudes Students understand the careers they will pursue after graduation Students demonstrate work readiness Students are able to work in teams Students are able to communicate well, both orally and in writing, on various activities that have been carried out in practical learning Students are able to apply facts, processes, and theories to real-world situations Students are able to apply tools and techniques for certain activities to collect the necessary data and information Students are able to collaborate with others to complete assignments and solve problems successfully

Validity

Reliability

0.81

0.83

0.79

0.81

0.78 0.79 0.79 0.82 0.80

0.77

0.83

0.84

0.82

0.83

220

Variable

Indicator

Statement

Communicate effectively

Students are able to communicate complex concepts to others in both written and oral presentations Students are regularly able to reflect on their learning experiences and apply their understanding to subsequent situations Students readily become involved in developing meaning and constructing understanding through interaction with peers

Learn how to learn

Academic mindset

Validity

Reliability

0.83

0.82

0.84

6. Results 6.1. Students’ Involvement in Practical Learning Activities This study investigated the involvement of students in four practical learning activities as measured by five indicators, namely participation in learning, the seriousness of students in carrying out the task, students' attention to and interest in practical learning, emotions and feelings students express when carrying out practical learning, and students' independence in learning. This study found that PBL can foster student engagement at a very high level. Meanwhile, SBE, practice, and internship can foster student learning involvement at a high level. Overall, all four practical learning activities can foster student involvement in practical learning at a high level (see Table 3 and Figure 1). Table 3: Student involvement in practical learning Involvement indicator

Practice

Participation

5.5

Assignment

Attention

5.1

Interest

5.15

Emotional

4.9

Autonomy

4.7

Average

5.06

High Slightly high Slightly high Slightly high Slightly high Slightly high Slightly high

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Internship

PBL

5.4

High

6.7

5.6

High

6.3

5.5

High

6.5

5.55

High

6.7

5.4

High

6.6

5.7

High

6.8

5.53

High

6.6

Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high

SBE

Mean

5.9

High

5.88

High

5.8

High

5.68

High

5.6

High

5.68

High

5.8

High

5.8

High

5.9

High

5.7

High

6.2

Very high

5.85

High

5.87

High

5.76

High

221

Student Engagement in Practical Learning 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Participation Asignment

Attention

Practice

Interest

Internship

Emotional

PBL

Otonomy

SBE

Average

Mean

Figure 1: Student engagement based on practical learning model

6.2. The Impact of Practical Learning This research revealed that three practical learning activities have powerful learning impacts: PBL, SBE, and internship (from the highest to the lowest). Meanwhile, learning through practice produces a learning impact in the slightly high category. Indicators of practical learning impact were academic skills, practical skills, autonomy, work attitudes, career orientation, collaborative skills, and communication skills. PBL is a practical learning activity, and had the highest learning impact. Except for the career orientation indicator, the other six indicators have an impact score close to the maximum score (see Table 4 and Figure 2). This research reveals that another impact of practical learning is the improvement of various skills needed in the world of work of the future. These skills are academic skills and practical skills, which include creative thinking skills, innovation, and complex problem-solving, which will be needed by graduates when they enter a world of work that is constantly changing. Likewise, independence, work attitude, career orientation, collaboration and communication skills are skills that will strengthen students' readiness to enter the world of work. Table 4: The outcomes of practical learning Outcome

Practice

Academic skills

5.5

Practical skills

5.2

Autonomy

5.1

Work attitudes

4.7

High Slightly high Slightly high Slightly high

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Internship 6.2 6.4 6.3 6.2

Very high Very high Very high Very high

PBL 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.7

Very high Very high Very high Very high

SBE 6.2 6.4 6.3 6.3

Very high Very high Very high Very high

Mean 6.13

High

6.18

Very high

6.13

High

6.08

High

222

Career Collaboration skills Communication skills Average

4.5

Slightly high

6.2

4.3

Moderate

6.4

4.2

Moderate

6.5

4.7 8

Slightly high

6.3 4

Very high Very high Very high Very high

6.4 6.9 6.8 6.7

Very high Very high Very high Very high

6.5 6.6 6.8 6.44

Very high Very high Very high Very high

5.85

High

6.05

High

6.08

High

6.07

High

The Impact of Practical Learning Average Communication skills Collaborative skills Career Work attitudes Autonomous Practical skills

Academic skills 0 Mean

1 SBE

2 PBL

Internship

Practice

Figure 2: The impact of learning based on practical learning model

6.3. Students’ Deeper Learning Competencies (DLC) This research reveals that the intensity of student involvement in practical learning can sharpen students' understanding of the basic knowledge that they have acquired, and help them to apply it in the real world. The involvement of students in practical learning also challenges students to apply the knowledge they have acquired, and to explore, discover knowledge and develop new skills that are needed in the real world. This research proves that the involvement of students in four learning activities, namely, learning through practice, internship, project-based learning, and schoolbased enterprises, can strengthen deep learning skills. Students’ involvement is marked by the emergence of student learning behaviors such as the following: (1) Students can apply various theories to the real world. This shows that student involvement in practical learning can strengthen their understanding of the subject matter (mastering core academic content). (2) Students can use various tools, understand work procedures, and collect data and information needed for job analysis. Students are educated to apply the tools and techniques obtained from the core subjects to formulate and solve problems. (3) Students can collaborate with others to complete work activities and solve various problems that occur in the workplace. Students can work together with peers to identify problems and create solutions to solve various academic, social, vocational, and

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personal challenges. (4) Students can communicate about various activities to others, both in writing and verbally. (5) Students are accustomed to doing reflection on various learning activities that have been carried out, and enrich the learning experience that will be used to carry out various further activities. Thus, students are accustomed to monitoring their learning progress and directing themselves to develop further. (6) Students are accustomed to building an understanding of what they have experienced together with their peers. Students develop positive attitudes about themselves as independent learners, and increase their academic persistence, and this encourages them to engage in productive academic behavior. Thus, this study reveals that the involvement of students in practical learning can strengthen six DLC, that is, (1) Mastering core academic content, (2) Engaging in critical thinking and solving complex problems, (3) Working collaboratively, (4) Communicating effectively, (5) Learning how to learn, and (6) Developing academic mindsets. PBL and SBE are two practical activities that have a very strong impact on DLC. Meanwhile, internship and learning through practice both have a strong impact and tend to have a strong influence on development of DLC (see Table 5 and Figure 3). Table 5: Deeper learning competencies Competencies Master core academic content Solve problems critically Communicate effectively Learn how to learn

Practice

Internship

PBL

SBE

Mean

5.7

High

6.1

High

6.7

Very high

6.5

Very high

6.25

Very high

5.3

High

5.7

High

6.8

Very high

6.6

Very high

6.1

High

6.2

Very high

6.85

6.09

High

5.5

High

6.9

5.98

High

5.3

High

6.9

6.15

Very high

5.9

High

6.6

5.88

High

5.95

High

6.79

6.07

High

4.8 4.9

Collaborate

4.7

Academic mindset

4.6

Average

Slightly high Slightly high Slightly high Slightly high Slightly high

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Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high

6.5 6.6 6.7 6.4 6.55

Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high

224

Deeper Learning Competencies Average Academic mindsets

Collaboratively Learn how to learn Communicate efectively Critically-problem solving Master core academic 0 Mean

SBE

1 PBL

Internship

Practice

Figure 3: Deeper learning competencies based on practical learning model

7. Discussion PBL is a learning activity that has a strong impact on strengthening student involvement in learning. Its indicator is student involvement in developing independent learning, participation and interest, and emotional involvement. This study reveals that practical learning can foster student learning activities. The most effective practical learning activities for strengthening students’ learning were as follows: PBL, SBE, internship, and learning through practice. The results of this research are in line with previous research. Most other studies show that the intensity of student involvement in learning is the main factor that determines students' success during their study period (Walsh & Sattes, 2017; Wang & Fredricks, 2014; Axelson & Flick, 2010). Likewise, the research of Prince (2004) and Freeman et al. (2014) reveals that student activity in learning is decisive for the success of their studies. It means that teachers must create conditions and learning activities that engage students actively in learning (Carr et al., 2015; Gray & DiLoreto,2016). Active learning is a learning activity that involves students in doing something and thinking about what they are doing. The four practical learning activities studied in this research are basically the implementation of active learning. When engaged in practical learning, students do not just listen and remember what the teacher explains. Instead, they are also involved in observing, identifying, recording, analyzing in process, categorizing, testing, evaluating, and developing what has been done. In other words, the involvement of students in practical learning can foster deep involvement in practical learning activities that will encourage students to develop higher order thinking skills. The need to implement practical learning in schools can be seen from its impact, as explained in the book, Practice Makes Perfect: The Importance of Practical Learning

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(Kehoe, 2007). The results of this study are in line with previous research that found various positive impacts if students are intensively involved in practical learning. One example is the research conducted by Claxton et al. (2010), which identifies at least four thinking habits that students are expected to develop after participating in practice-based learning, namely, (1) The habit of conducting investigations, (2) The habit of experimenting, ( 3) The habit of imagining, and (4) The habit of rational thinking (in deciding something). Yazzie-Mintz (2010) and Ferrandez-Berrueco et al. (2016) also reveal various mental attitudes that can be strengthened through practice-based learning, including (1) Intense curiosity (generating a proactive attitude), (2) Strong determination (creating an unyielding attitude, growing the habit of working thoroughly), (3) The ability to use reason (being encouraged to use rational considerations in dealing with problems, optimizing various available resources), (4) The ability to build social relationships, collaboration, and communication (students contribute optimally in solving complex problems), (5) Self-reflection skills (students evaluate themselves and develop thinking to make improvements), (6) Exhibiting wisdom (students are familiarized to behave in harmony with the demands of the social environment). Thus, student involvement in practical learning can strengthen students' intelligence for dealing with the real world (real-world intelligence). Practical learning will encourage students to optimize their thinking and physical abilities to engage in learning. Practical learning can encourage students to behave productively by, for instance, (1) Searching (students are accustomed to finding something, not just seeing), (2) Listening (students are accustomed to listening to other people's opinions, capturing important messages from the information they receive, and respecting anyone), (3) Sniffing (not only smelling – students hone their skills in photographing a problem, so they can identify the problem they face), (4) Enjoying (not only tasting – students involve their minds, all members of the group), (5) Feeling (not only touch – students feel and appreciate the problems face, so they can find unique, creative, and innovative solutions). DLC is a set of knowledge and skills that must be mastered by students as a requirement for entering real life after graduation. To be able to actively participate in community life and face intense competition, students must master DLC. Students must master a set of learning competencies and develop a sharp and deep understanding of the content of knowledge, and must be able to apply it in everyday life (AIR, 2015). To understand the subject matter deeply, students must be actively involved in learning activities. Deep involvement in learning can provide opportunities to understand better, develop knowledge, and apply the knowledge they have understood, which is a requirement for creating new knowledge. Doing so will strengthen students' independence in the learning process. Students will be accustomed to assessing and determining various pieces of knowledge that are considered principal, functional, and interrelated. Well mastered deep learning skills can strengthen students’ readiness to enter real life.

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The results of this study prove that the activeness of students in practical learning has a positive impact on the growth of DLC. The effectiveness of practical learning is strongly influenced by the extent to which students are actively involved in learning. As stated by Bonwell and Eison (1991), active learning, as the main characteristic of practical learning, must involve students in doing something and thinking about what they are doing. Likewise, a study conducted by Prince (2004) states that a practical learning approach that promotes active learning is more focused on developing student skills than transmitting information and requires students to do something, like reading, discussing, or writing, which requires higher order thinking. Practical learning emphasizes students' exploration of their attitudes and values. Meanwhile, studies conducted by Carr et al. (2015) and Freeman et al. (2014) reveal that active learning strengthens students' ability to construct knowledge, and makes them accustomed to working in teams on projects, to make presentations, ask questions, work with people outside their community, and contribute to discussions. In short, practical learning that emphasizes student learning activities can strengthen DLC.

8. Conclusion This study concludes that the implementation of four practical activities – learning through practice, internship, PBL, and SBE – fosters student learning involvement, which can be identified through five aspects, namely, participation in learning, the seriousness of students in carrying out the task, students' attention to and interest in practical learning, the emotions and feelings students express when carrying out practical learning, and students' independence in learning. The implementation of four practical learning activities fosters various skills and positive attitudes, namely, academic skills, practical skills, learning how to learn, work attitudes, career orientation, work readiness, collaboration, and communication. The involvement of students in four practical learning activities and the various impacts of these activities have been proven to foster DLC, which are a set of competencies needed by students to live life in the real world after they graduate from school. These competencies are mastering core academic content, critical thinking and complex problem-solving, working collaboratively, communicating effectively, being an autonomous learner or learning how to learn, and having an academic mindset. To strengthen students' DLC, learning activities must combine theory and practice into a series of learning activities of which the elements cannot be separated.

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Republic of Indonesia. (2003). Undang Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 13 Tahun 2013 Tentang Ketenagakerjaan [Law No. 13 of 2003 concerning manpower]. https://kemenperin.go.id/kompetensi/UU_13_2003.pdf Roesman, R. (1988). Ketrampilan Psikomotorik [Psychomotor skills]. Depdikbud. Salleh, A. M., Desa, M. M., & Tuit, R. M. (2013). The relationship between the learning ecology system and students’ engagement: A case study in Selangor. Asian Social Science, 9, 110–117. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v9n12p110 Scheaffer, R. L., Mendenhall, W., & Ott, L. (1995). Elementary survey sampling. PWS-KENT Publ. Co. Smith, D. C., Ito, A., Gruenewald, J., & Yeh, H. L. (2010). Promoting school engagement: attitudes toward school among American and Japanese youth. Journal of School Violence, 9, 392–406. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2010.509308 Stern, D., Stone, J., Hopkins, C., McMillion, M., & Crain, R. (1994). School-based enterprise: Productive learning in American high schools. Jossey-Bass Publishers. STORIES Consortium (2017). Stories of Tomorrow – Learners visions on the future of space exploration. Collaborative Project in European Union’s 2020 Research and Innovation Programme. https://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/documents/downloadPublic?docu mentIds=080166e5b2047149&appId=PPGMS Sugiyono. (2018). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R&D [Quantitative, qualitative, and R & D research methods]. Alfabeta. Sukmadinata, N. S. (2017). Metode Penelitian Pendidikan [Educational research methods]. PT Remaja Rosdakarya. Sumarni, W. (2015, March). The strengths and weaknesses of the implementation of project based learning: A review. International Journal of Science and Research, 4(3), 478–484. https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v4i3/SUB152023.pdf Trilling, B. (2010). Defining competence in deeper learning (draft report to the Hewlett Foundation). Hewlett Foundation. Vander Ark, T. & Schneider, C. (2013, December). Deeper learning for every student every day. GetingSmart.com. https://www.gettingsmart.com/wpcontent/uploads/2013/12/DLForEveryStudent_FINAL.pdf Walker, H. M., & Shinn, M. R. (2002). Structuring school-based interventions to achieve integrated primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention goals for safe and effective schools. In M. Shinn, H. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches. National Association of School Psychologists. Walsh, J. A., & Sattes, B. D. (2017). Quality questioning: Research-based practice to engage every learner, 2nd ed. Corwin. Wang, M. T., & Fredricks, J. A. (2014). The reciprocal links between school engagement, youth problem behaviors, and school dropout during adolescence. Child Development, 85(2), 722–737. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12138 Wren, J., & Wren, B. (2009). Enhancing learning by integrating theory and practice. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21(2), 258–265. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ899313.pdf Yazzie-Mintz, E. (2010). Charting the path from engagement to achievement: A report on the 2009 High School Survey of Student Engagement. Center for Evaluation & Education Policy.

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Appendix QUESTIONNAIRE ON STUDENT INVOLVEMENT IN PRACTICAL LEARNING, THE IMPACT OF PRACTICAL LEARNING, AND DEEPER LEARNING COMPETENCIES Dear teachers, Please use this questionnaire to assess students regarding student involvement’ in practical learning, the impact of student involvement in practical learning, and deeper learning competencies. Please conduct an assessment after the students have finished carrying out 4 practical learning activities, namely: (1) learning through practice, (2) Internship, (3) Project-based learning, and (4) School-based enterprise. This questionnaire uses a scale of 1 - 7 (1 = very low; 2 = low; 3 = slightly low; 4 = moderate; 5 = slightly high; 6 = high; 7 = very high). Thank you for your cooperation. I. Practical learning that students participate in (Please choose one of them): a. Learning through practice b. Internship c. Project-based learning d. School-based enterprise II. Student identity a. Initial respondent : b. Grade : c. School name : d. Academic year : e. Semester : III. Questionnaire statement Student involvement in practical learning Item 1 2 3 4 5

Questionnaire statement Students actively participate in practical learning Students carry out practical learning tasks seriously Students show high interest in practical learning Students show a happy and enthusiastic attitude when carrying out practical learning Students show independence to learn more what has been learned in practical learning

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Impact of practical learning Item 1

2 3

4 5 6 7 8

Questionnaire statement

Your Rating 3 4 5

Students are able to think creatively, innovatively, and analytically to solve complex problems Students are able to apply theory to carry out certain tasks Students are able to direct themselves to explore the subject matter that has been studied at school Students show positive work behavior and attitudes Students understand about the career they will pursue after graduation Students demonstrate work readiness Students are able to work in teams Students are able to communicate well, both orally and written, on various activities that have been carried out in practical learning

Deeper learning competencies Item 1 2

Questionnaire statement Students are able to apply facts, processes, and theories to real-world situations Students are able to apply tools and techniques for certain activities to collect the necessary data and information Students are able to collaborate with others to complete assignments and solve problems successfully Students are able to communicate complex concepts to others in both written and oral presentations Students are regularly able to reflect on their learning experiences and apply their understanding to subsequent situations Students readily involve in developing meaning and constructing understanding through interaction with peers

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 232-250, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.13 Received Dec 28, 2021; Revised Feb 13, 2022; Accepted Feb 20, 2022

Filipino Teachers’ Attitudes towards Distance Learning during the Covid-19 Pandemic Angelito Palma Bautista Jr. Quezon City University, Quezon City, Philippines Dianne Morta Balibrea Blue Chips Research and Consultancy, Navotas City, Philippines Doris Gelvoligaya Bleza Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines

Abstract. Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, distance education has subsequently turned into the dominant mode of teaching, especially in the Philippines, where the majority of schools are still physically closed. Over a year since distance education was fully implemented in the country, it is essential to understand the general attitudes towards distance learning of Filipino teachers who have been teaching at various educational levels, including elementary, secondary, and tertiary levels, particularly in terms of student interaction, student performance, tool use, and availability, the support they have received from their schools, their willingness to handle distance and learning classes, as well as their experience in online teaching. The quantitative study was conducted with 151 respondents, using an online survey. Regarding their general attitude towards distance learning, the majority believe that distance education is not a viable alternative to face-to-face learning. In terms of student performance, a big majority believe that students learn less in distance-education classes; and academic dishonesty is more prevalent in such a setting. Teachers also had a more negative attitude towards the availability of an infrastructure for distance learning and the difficulty of managing the technology needed. Still, they have a more positive attitude regarding the support they receive from their schools. Overall, the study revealed that respondents have mixed attitudes towards distance learning, although there is a statistically significant difference between their gender and their attitudes towards distance learning. Moreover, the benefits of distance learning can be maximized, if appropriate training and support are provided to both teachers and students. Keywords: Covid-19 pandemic; challenges; distance education; online learning; Philippines

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction In recent decades, the most crucial development in education has been the introduction of technologies to enhance the delivery of distance learning. The rapid growth in distance learning became more prominent when the COVID-19 crisis started in 2020, which has now become the most significant challenge for many educational institutions (Daniel, 2020). The pandemic has forced online teaching and learning to become the primary instruction medium at various levels of education (Butnaru, 2021; Mok, 2021). Governments were forced to shut down schools, which were required to switch to distance education and online learning, even without any adequate preparation. Since the start of the pandemic, many schools worldwide have been using different distance-learning strategies, such as online classes, a modular approach, and television-broadcast lessons, in order to meet the learning needs of the students (Asian Development Bank, 2021). Distance learning is defined as an educational experience in which instructors and students are separated in time and space; and consequently, it employs various technological applications, in order to connect students with their teachers (Tzivinikou et al., 2020; Moore et al., 2011). It is also referred to as online learning, where students and teachers use interactive telecommunication systems, or various technological applications to connect with and to access resources (Kim, 2020; Moore et al., 2011). It can be asynchronous, where students have access to course content through the Internet and participate in learning by using various tools at any given time (typically through email or online forums); or it may be synchronous, where teachers and students meet online by utilizing a live video feed (such as Zoom, Google Meet, or Discord) at a predetermined time (Fidalgo et al., 2020; Kim, 2020). Another type of distance education is blended learning, which scholars generally describe as a combination of face-to-face classes and online learning instruction (Hrastinski, 2019). Then there are the massive online open courses, or MOOCs, which offer distributed open online courses that are commonly available without cost to a huge number of participants; and these courses can be traced to the Open Access Initiative in 2002 (Fidalgo et al., 2020; Cormier et al., 2010). Before the Covid-19 crisis, distance learning was increasingly offered in many educational institutions (Tzivinikou et al., 2020; Allen & Seaman, 2017). Several pieces of literature on distance education have focused on students who have enrolled in online courses. Some researchers compared the students’ performance between online and faceto-face classes (Paul & Jefferson, 2019; Xu & Jaggars, 2016); while others studied students’ perceptions of distance education (Fidalgo et al., 2020; Dobbs et al., 2017). Some studies revealed a positive attitude among teachers towards elearning or distance learning, especially among those who had experienced teaching online (Lee et al., 2015; Kisanga, 2016); while there are concerns about the conversion of face-to-face courses to online courses, anonymity, and the privacy of the students, as well as their need for further training.

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Since distance learning has increased largely in recent months, due to the Covid19 related lockdowns and quarantine restrictions, several studies have been conducted, in order to study the perception of students regarding e-learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, with varying results. Abbasi et al. (2020) found that among medical students in a school in Pakistan, the majority did not prefer e-teaching rather than face-to-face teaching during the lockdown situation. In India and Poland, students had a positive perception of e-learning (Khan et al., 2021), which was largely accepted, since it effectively increases knowledge (Bączek et al., 2021). Dental students in an Indonesian university also agreed that blended learning which combined classroom and distance learning, could be implemented during the pandemic (Amir et al., 2020). Other studies focused on the perception of teachers on distance learning during the Covid-19 crisis. For example, in China, a survey of 15,438 Chinese teachers showed that the majority of these teachers support online-teaching programs, as an epidemic prevention and control initiative (Yang, 2020). During the pandemic in the Philippines, some local research investigated teachers’ attitudes towards online education and remote learning. According to Lapada et al. (2020), the length of teaching experience and geographic location are substantially connected to distance-education preparation. Furthermore, according to Bautista et al. (2021), most surveyed teachers received enough support from their institutions in terms of capability building, technological and data-protection issues, information dissemination platforms, and online-learning management. However, typical topics in distance education include problems in encouraging students, employing information and communication technology, managing the time allotted for each session, and assessing the learners’ comprehension of the lessons. Despite these issues, the respondents were confident of their ability to administer remote classes in the event of a pandemic. Distance education remains the primary modality of education amidst the uncertainties brought about by the Covid-19 pandemic in the Philippines, despite the limited face-to-face classes conducted in some areas in the country. Thus, the researcher aimed to measure teachers’ attitudes towards distance learning, specifically in terms of student interaction, students’ performance, the use and the availability of tools, and their willingness to handle distance-learning classes, and to determine whether there is a significant difference between the respondents’ attitude towards distance learning during the pandemic, and their demographic characteristics, specifically in terms of age bracket, employment status, monthly income, gender, and teaching experience.

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2. The Methodology 2.1 Research Design and Respondents This study is quantitative and descriptive; and it has two primary objectives: 1) to describe teachers’ attitudes towards distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic; and 2) to determine whether there is any significant difference between the respondents’ attitudes towards distance learning during the pandemic and their demographic characteristics. To achieve these objectives, a modified questionnaire was used to collect the data through an online survey, which was deemed to be the most suitable in consideration of the ongoing community quarantine restrictions imposed in the Philippines. Since schools are still closed at all levels (except for some tertiary-level institutions that were given the go-ahead signal to conduct face-to-face classes for medicalrelated courses), the researchers and the target respondents could not come faceto-face and conduct the survey. Using the projected population of 1,243,445 instructors in the Philippines (Commission on Higher Education, 2020a, 2020b), the sample size of respondents was 151, with an 8% margin of error and a confidence level of 95%. Only those individuals teaching, regardless of level, during the COVID-19 epidemic, which occurred during the school year (SY) 2020-2021, were included in the survey. However, applying a probability-sampling technique, such as systematic random sampling was not feasible; since no comprehensive list of Filipino teachers was used in identifying the specific respondents to be invited. Consequently, the researchers used non-probability sampling, in which the researcher selected the samples, based on the criteria previously discussed. 2.2 The Survey Instrument The researchers based their survey questionnaire of “Attitudes of Filipino teachers towards distance education during COVID-19” on several previous studies on distance learning and online education by Lapada et al. (2020), School Education Gateway (2020), and Lee et al. (2015). The survey instrument is composed of two parts: 1) the demographic characteristics, specifically sex, age, educational attainment, and employment status; and 2) the respondents’ attitudes towards distance education, composed of 20 statements. The second part, which consists of Likert-type items, was divided into seven indicators or categories, namely: a) general attitude towards DLE; b) interaction with students; c) teaching online; d) students’ performance; e) teachers’ preparedness; f) the use and availability of tools and technology; and g) school support. The respondents were asked whether they agreed or disagreed with the specific items corresponding to the seven indicators. This was accomplished by using a four-point Likert scale (strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree). An informed consent form was also included in the questionnaire. Those respondents who agreed to participate in the survey were directed to the main body of the survey after clicking the ‘submit’ button.

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Two academic experts validated the adapted survey instrument. The researchers also conducted a pilot survey, in order to ensure the clarity and the reliability of the questionnaire. To test the internal consistency of the instrument items, Cronbach’s alpha was calculated. The alpha coefficient for the 20 items was 0.927, which suggests that the items have relatively high internal consistency. 2.3 The Data-Collection Procedure The survey was conducted between January 26 and February 25, 2021. The data collection was performed online by using Google Forms; and an invitation to participate in the survey was posted and shared on social media. The researchers used different strategies, in order to reach as many respondents as possible. Facebook was primarily used to disseminate the survey online; since it is the Philippines’ most popular social-media site. The informed consent form was included in the first section of the survey. The respondents were also notified at the start of the survey that they could refuse to answer any question, and they could withdraw from the study at any point; and that all the information would be kept confidential. The Philippine Data Privacy Act was strictly followed, when creating the online survey form. 2.4 The Data Analysis The collected data were retrieved in Microsoft Excel format from Google Forms and processed with the IBM SPSS version 25. To determine the differences between groups for age, employment status, monthly income, length of teaching experience, length of experience in online teaching, and responses to the 20 items, the Kruskal-Wallis test was used. The Mann-Whitney test was employed to find any gender differences in attitudes towards distance education. And p<0.05 was chosen as the statistical significance level.

3. The Results This study aimed to describe teachers’ attitudes towards distance learning during the Covid-19 pandemic, and to determine whether there was any significant difference between the respondents’ attitudes towards distance learning and their demographic characteristics. The following sections present the results of the survey. 3.1 Teachers’ Demographic Profile With 151 responses, female respondents comprised a large majority (72%) of the respondents; while 27% were male teachers. About two-thirds of them (73%) were regular/permanent teachers, while 18% were part-time teachers. Furthermore, half of the respondents earned Php20,001-Php25,000 per month (see Table 1). Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the respondents Gender

Age Bracket

Female Male Prefer not to say 21-25 26-30

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F 108 41 2 12 15

% 72 27 1 8 10

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Employment Status

Monthly Income

31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56 above No answer Regular/Permanent Contractual but Full-Time Part-time Employee No answer P10,000 below P10,001 – 15,000 P15,001 – 20,000 P20,001 – 25,000 P25,001 – 30,000 P30,001 – 35,000 P35,001 above Prefer not to say

18 22 20 21 18 17 8 110 12 27 2 12 12 10 51 26 5 21 14

12 15 13 14 12 11 5 73 8 18 1 8 8 7 34 17 3 14 9

In terms of online teaching, the vast majority (61%) stated that this was their first time; while 20% indicated that they had multiple experiences. Three out of ten respondents (33%) had a neutral attitude when asked whether they were confident in teaching remotely during the Covid-19 pandemic; while 32% were somewhat confident. Around 17% were insecure in some way, while fifteen per cent were quite confident. Only 2% of those polled stated they were not at all confident. Overall, teachers who responded to the survey felt confident in their ability to manage remote classes (Table 2). Table 2. Online teaching experience of the respondents Experience in Online Teaching

Confidence in teaching remotely during the pandemic

Have extensive experience Have some experience First experience Did not switch to online learning Very confident Somehow confident Neutral Somehow not confident Not at all Confident No answer

f 19 30 92 10 23 48 49 25 3 3

% 13 20 61 7 15 32 33 17 2 2

3.2 Attitude towards Distance Learning The respondents were asked to rate their agreement in terms of the different aspects of distance education, based on their experiences. The survey results revealed that the majority of the respondents believed that distance education is not a practical alternative for learning. Of the 151 respondents, 52 agreed with the statement, while 15 strongly agreed (Table 3).

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In terms of interaction with their students, the majority of the respondents believed that there is less interaction in distance-learning environments (x = 3.17; SD = 0.671), higher impersonal communication among students and teachers (x = 2.82; SD = 0.694), and lower emotional feeling when compared with face-to-face classes (x = 3.14; SD = 0.758). Meanwhile, the same number of respondents agreed and disagreed with the statement that there is no way to know whether their students had done the course by reading in a distance-education class (x = 2.66; SD = 0.809). When it comes to online teaching, the majority of the respondents disagreed that teaching online has no impact on their face-to-face courses and instruction (x = 2.37; SD = 0.754); while a significant majority believed that good teaching principles are transferable from face-to-face to distance-education classes ( x = 2.97; SD = 0.677). Furthermore, the respondents believed that students learn less in a distance education class (x = 2.88; SD = 0.791); while a large majority agreed that there is more academic dishonesty in online classes (x = 3.22; SD = 0.720). On the other hand, the respondents are split in regard to whether students have lower grades in distance education classes (x = 2.49; SD = 0.729). Regarding teachers’ preparedness for distance learning, a large majority believed that the transition to distance learning was too rapid (x = 3.11; SD = 0.708). More respondents believe that they were not adequately prepared for distanceeducation practices (x = 2.72; SD = 0.811); while the time needed for developing a distance education course is comparable to that needed in face-to-face classes (x = 2.72; SD = 0.844). Slightly more respondents affirmed that they lacked experience in preparing distance-learning modules (x = 2.60; SD = 0.785); while the respondents were split when asked whether they were adequately prepared for distance-education practices (x = 2.50; SD = 0.799). In terms of the use and availability of tools for distance education, almost all of the respondents agreed that their students had experienced internet-connection problems (x = 3.48; SD = 0.641). Moreover, a large majority agreed that it was difficult to manage the technology of distance-education classes (x = 2.83; SD = 0.823), and that the infrastructure required for distance learning did not exist (x = 2.83; SD = 0.737). However, when it comes to believing that lectures cannot be replaced by technological tools, slightly more respondents agreed with this statement (x = 2.60; SD = 0.785). Lastly, when it comes to school support, at least nine out of ten respondents believed that the school showed positive attitudes and behaviors towards educators during the crisis (x = 3.26; SD = 0.716).

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2.75 0.774

3.17 0.671

2.66 0.809

2.82 0.694

3.14 0.758

2.37 0.754

2.97 0.677

2.88 0.791

2.49 0.729

3.22 0.720

3.11 0.708

2.72 0.811

2.50 0.799

2.60 0.785

2.72 0.844

Std. Deviation

Mean

Strongly Disagree (%)

Distance education is not a viable alternative for learning compared to face-to-face environments. There is less student-teacher interaction in distanceeducation environments There is no way for me to know if my students did the reading in a distanceeducation class Interaction with There is highly impersonal Students communication among students and teachers in distance education Student discussions in distance education lack feeling compared to face-toface classes Teaching online has no impact on my face-to-face courses Teaching and instruction Online Good teaching principles are transferable from face-to-face to distance-education classes Students learn less in a distance-education class Grades are lower for students Students’ in a distance-education class. Performance There is more academic dishonesty (cheating, plagiarism) in online classes The transition/shift to distance learning was too rapid I was not prepared adequately for distance-education practices I lacked experience in Teachers’ preparing distance-learning Preparedness content (i.e., presentations) I had a lack of experience in preparing distance-learning modules The time commitment for developing a distance education class is comparable

Disagree (%)

General Attitude towards DLE

Agree (%)

Statements

Strongly Agree (%)

Table 3. Respondents’ attitudes towards distance learning

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Use and Availability of Tools

School Support

to that in face-to-face classes (the amount of time needed for course preparation is the same in both modes) My lectures cannot be replaced by technological tools The technology of distanceeducation classes is difficult to manage The infrastructure required for distance learning didn’t exist/was not ready My students had internetconnection problems My school/university administrators showed positive attitudes and behaviors towards educators during this crisis

2.60 0.784

2.83 0.823

2.83 0.737

3.48 0.641

3.26 0.716

3.3 Significant differences between demographic characteristics and the attitudes of respondents towards distance learning The Kruskal-Wallis test revealed no statistically significant differences in respondents’ attitudes towards distance education, based on their demographic profile (Table 4). Table 4. The results of the Kruskal-Wallis test between the respondents’ age bracket, employment status, and monthly income, and their attitude towards distance learning

Attitude towards distance learning

χ2(2) Df p-value

Age Bracket 7.277 8 0.507

Employment Status 7.649 3 0.054

Monthly Income 13.231 7 0.067

3.4 Significant differences between respondents’ teaching experience and their attitudes towards distance learning Furthermore, the Kruskal-Wallis test also revealed no statistically significant difference between respondents’ attitudes to distance education and their length of teaching experience, as well as their length of experience in online teaching (Table 5). Table 5. The results of the Kruskal-Wallis test between the respondents’ teaching experience and their attitudes towards distance learning

Attitude towards distance learning

χ2(2) Df p-value

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Length of experience as a teacher 5.064 6 0.536

Length of experience in online teaching 4.371 7 0.736

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3.5 Significant differences between the respondents’ gender and their attitudes towards distance education Meanwhile, a Mann-Whitney U test showed a statistically significant difference between the respondents’ attitudes towards distance education and their gender, U = 1,736.500, p = 0.042 (Table 6). Male respondents have a more positive attitude towards distance education than do female respondents (Table 7). Table 6. Results of the Mann-Whitney U test between the respondents’ gender and their attitudes towards distance education Gender -2.032 1,736.500 0.042

Z U p-value

Attitudes towards distance learning

Table 7. Mean ranks per gender, according to attitude towards distance learning Attitude towards distance learning

Male Female

N 41 108

Mean Rank 86.65 70.58

4. Discussion This study focused on the attitudes of Filipino teachers towards distance education during the COVID-19 pandemic, specifically in terms of their interaction with their students, the performance of the students, their preparedness in handling distance-learning classes, the use and availability of tools and technology, their overall experience in teaching online, and their school’s support. The researchers also determined whether there is a significant difference between the respondents’ attitudes towards distance learning and their demographic characteristics. Schools in the country have been closed now for more than a year, forcing students and teachers to adapt to the changes brought on by the pandemic through virtual learning. This is predicted to continue without any definite end to the pandemic, especially since the government is only considering limited faceto-face teaching in the next few months. Consequently, instructors’ voices must be heard, and their experiences shared, in order to address the expanding expectations and the challenges of distance learning. The majority of the respondents had been teaching for more than ten years, with 60% of them stating that handling online classes during the pandemic was their first experience with online teaching. Although most of them were rather confident in teaching remotely during the pandemic (32%), 33% answered “neutral,” while 17% shared that they were somehow not sufficiently confident. When it comes to their general attitude towards distance learning, the majority believed that distance education is not a viable alternative to face-to-face learning. Earlier research noted that teachers have a more negative impression of distance learning or online education (Willet et al., 2019; Moralista & Oducado, 2020). But it is important to note that the shift to online learning due to the pandemic was an immediate reaction to the situation. Considering that the massive shift was so

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sudden, this could explain why teachers perceive distance education rather negatively (Todd, 2020). Furthermore, online learning can be poor, particularly in classes that require face-to-face interaction (Franchi, 2020). One factor contributing to this negative attitude towards distance learning as an alternative to face-to-face learning, is how teachers perceive the lack of interaction with students in a distance-learning setting. In this study, a significant majority of the respondents agreed that there is a lack of feeling and less student-teacher interaction in a distance-education environment. The lack of face-to-face interaction can also present difficulty in motivating students. A previous study by Moralista and Oducado (2020) found that in a selected faculty from a state college in the Philippines, most believed that there is less student-teacher interaction in online education. Other studies showed that students prefer face-to-face classes rather than online classes because of the lack of interaction and motivation in an online setting (Alawamleh et al., 2020; Gherhes et al., 2021, Sadeghi, 2019). The current study also found that the majority of the teachers believed that there is highly impersonal communication among students and teachers in distanceeducation settings. The pandemic has had a significant effect on communicating; since communicating online is largely different from face-to-face communication. Online classes resulted in a decrease in communication levels between students and instructors, as well as to an increased feeling of isolation among students (Alawamleh et al., 2020), contrary to a traditional classroom setting, in which the students have the opportunity to meet and connect with other students on a more intimate level. In terms of students’ performance, a significant majority of the teachers believed that students learn less in distance-education classes, and that academic dishonesty is more prevalent in such a setting. Teachers have been ambivalent about the benefits of online teaching because of the problems associated with student learning, specifically the suitability of activities and how well students understand the content of their classes (Todd, 2020). Another valid concern is the greater possibility of academic cheating online, with which almost all of the teachers surveyed agreed. A study by Dendir and Maxwell (2020) highlighted this issue, when they found that cheating in online courses has become more prevalent in the absence of face-to-face teaching. In general, the responses of the teachers who participated in this study confirmed the gaps found by several studies in the implementation of online learning or distance education, specifically in terms of access to and the use of technology, both for teachers and their students, teacher skills, and experience, the availability of resources, and the adaptation of online platforms (Coman et al., 2020; Moralista & Oducado, 2020; Afroz et al., 2021). Although half of the respondents had experience in preparing distance education, such as PowerPoint Presentations, a greater number were not adequately prepared for distance learning; and they lacked experience in preparing distance-learning modules, which were required during the pandemic.

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In terms of access to, or the availability of tools, many teachers agreed that their students had an internet-connection problem, and the infrastructure required for distance learning did not yet exist. These have been common problems locally and internationally that have been identified in other studies (Ferri et al., 2020). Considering that this was the first time for the majority of these teachers to handle distance classes, the ambivalence in regard to their attitude towards the components of distance education stated above was predictable. However, it is notable that school administrators showed positive attitudes and behaviors towards respondents during the crisis. Smith and Riley (2012) emphasized that effective leadership in crisis situations entails supporting and empowering staff to pursue teaching and learning excellence. It has also been stressed that school principals and organizational conditions have played essential roles in promoting learning during the pandemic (Weiner et al., 2021). Among all the demographic data of the teachers, the study only found a significant difference between the respondents’ attitudes towards distance education and their gender. Male respondents gave more positive responses when compared to female respondents, which supports the findings of Kara (2021), Moralista and Oducado (2021), Luoto and Varella (2021), and Chang et al. (2015).

5. Limitations Future researchers should also be aware of the study’s limitations. Firstly, the respondents were chosen through purposive sampling from the researchers’ Facebook network. Consequently, only a small number of people responded. In terms of geography and the type of school, there may be a bias towards other members of the teaching profession. The study also did not classify the respondents’ answers, according to the level of education in which they were teaching. Therefore, the results cannot be generalized, in order to represent a specific level of education in the country.

6. Conclusion Since attitude is the positive or negative feelings of a person about performing a target behavior, it is an essential factor that may contribute to the effective delivery of teachers in distance learning, such as their behavior in using modern technological tools or adapting to the pressing needs of the system during the Covid-19 pandemic. However, the results of the study found that Filipino teachers have had varying attitudes towards distance learning during the pandemic. Exploring the teachers’ attitudes towards distance learning could assist in developing strategies and policies that would aid other teachers during this pandemic; since distance education will most probably remain in the next immediate school years. Based on the results of the study, the majority of Filipino teachers who participated in this study believed that distance learning is not a good substitute for face-to-face learning.

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In terms of student performance, the vast majority believed that distanceeducation students learn less, and that academic dishonesty is more frequent in such a setting. Teachers were also more pessimistic about the availability of distance-learning infrastructure and the complexity of administering the necessary technology. Nonetheless, the teachers received support from their school administrators. Overall, the respondents’ opinions about distance learning are mixed, while there is a statistically significant difference between gender and attitudes towards distance learning, according to the survey.

7. Recommendations The rapid transition of classes from face-to-face to online or distance learning was unprecedented. However, the government and policymakers should consider appropriate measures to provide teachers with adequate support and resources, in order to manage distance education properly. They should consider the Filipino teachers’ opinions towards the viability of distance education, as an alternative to face-to-face classes and the availability of technologies to teachers and students. Reliable network infrastructure and material resources should be developed together with adequate and systematic training. Teachers and students should have connectivity, in order to allow them to experience lessons remotely, and their technological skills should be developed at the same time to maximize the benefits of distance education. Considering the current situation, in which only minimal face-to-face classes are allowed, and that hybrid classes are being implemented in some institutions, the Philippine Department of Education (DepEd) and school administrators should continuously provide in-service training and seminars for teachers in order to integrate distance education technologies with teaching. Future researchers could explore additional topics, such as the prevalence of academic dishonesty in distance-education classes, the perception or experience of school administrators during the Covid-19 pandemic, and the approaches employed by the teachers in adapting to the needs of distance education.

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Todd, R. W. (2020). Teachers’ perceptions of the shift from the classroom to online teaching. International Journal of TESOL Studies. https://doi.org/10.46451/ijts.2020.09.02 Tzivinikou, S., Charitaki, G. & Kagkara, D. Distance Education Attitudes (DEAS) during Covid-19 crisis: Factor structure, reliability and construct validity of the brief DEA scale in Greek-speaking SEND teachers. Tech Know Learn 26, 461–479 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-020-09483-1 Weiner, J., Francois, C., Stone-Johnson, C., & Childs, J. (2021). Keep Safe, keep learning: Principals’ role in creating psychological safety and organizational learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Education, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2020.618483 Xu, D., and Jaggars, S. S. (2016). Performance gaps between online and face-to-face courses: differences across types of students and academic subject areas. J. Higher Educ, 85, 633–659. https://doi/10.1353/jhe.2014.0028 Yang, X. (2020). Teachers’ perceptions of large-scale online teaching as an epidemic prevention and control strategy in China. ECNU Review of Education, 3(4), 739–744. https://doi.org/10.1177/2096531120922244 Willett, J., Brown, C., & Danzy-Bussell, L. A. (2019). An exploratory study: Faculty perceptions of online learning in undergraduate sport management programs. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education, 25, 100206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2019.100206

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Appendix 1. Survey Instrument Dearest Teachers, Good day! The current situation is unprecedented. The novel Coronavirus has affected millions of people around the world. In the Philippines, community quarantines have been imposed since March last year, in order to control the spread of the virus. The pandemic has affected the entire education system, forcing schools to transition from in-person to online and remote classes. Against this background, Blue Chips Research and Consultancy Co. is surveying teachers regarding their opinion on distance learning, based on their experiences during this pandemic. In line with this, we would like to invite you to participate in this online survey. Answering this survey is voluntary. Even if you do not participate, there will be no disadvantages. Thank you very much, in advance, for your support in this endeavour! I.

Demographic Profile Are you currently employed as a teacher/instructor (full-time or part-time) in any educational institution in the Philippines? (This survey is for Filipino teachers/instructors teaching in any educational institution in the Philippines and is handling classes this Academic Year 2020-2021.) ____ Yes ____ No

(End of Survey)

Instruction: Put a mark on the space corresponding to your answer. 1.

Gender ____ ____ ____ ____

Male Female Transgender Prefer not to say

Age Bracket ____ 18 – 20 ____ 21 – 25 ____ 26 – 30 ____ 31 – 35 ____ 36 – 40 ____ 41 – 45 Educational Attainment ____ Elementary Level ____ Elementary Graduate ____ High School Level ____ High School Graduate ____ College Level ____ College Graduate

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____ 46 – 50 ____ 51 – 55 ____ 56 – 60 ____ 61 – 65 ____ 66 above ____ Prefer not to say

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____ Post-Graduate Level ____ Post-Graduate ____ Vocational ____ Did not attend school ____ Prefer not to say

Religion ____ Roman Catholic ____ Evangelical ____ Protestant ____ Seventh-day Adventist ____ Methodist ____ Hindi ko nais sabihin ____ Muslim ____ None ____ Iglesia ni Cristo ____ Others, please specify: ____ Jehovah’s Witnesses _________________________

What is your employment status as a teacher? ____ Regular/Permanent/Full-Time ____ Casual/Contractual but Full-Time ____ Part-time ____ Special Lecturer ____ Prefer not to say

Monthly income ____ Php5,000 below ____ Php5,001 - Php10,000 ____ Php10,001 - Php15,000 ____ Php15,001 - Php20,000 ____ Prefer not to say

____ Php20,001 - Php25,000 ____ Php25,001 - Php30,000 ____ Php30,000 - Php35,000 ____ Php35,001 above

Level of Education you are currently teaching? ____ Elementary ____ Junior High School ____ Senior High School ____ College ____ Graduate Program ____ Vocational ____ Others, please specify: ______________________

How long have you been working as a teacher? ____ This is my first year ____ 1-2 years ____ 3-5 years ____ 6-10 years ____ 11-15 years ____ 16-20 years ____ 21 years and above ____ Prefer not to say

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II. Attitude towards Distance-Learning Education during this Pandemic Considering your experience in distance learning in the past weeks amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, kindly rate the following: Statements

Strongly Agree

Agree

Disagree

Distance education is not a viable alternative for learning compared to face-to-face environments. There is less student-teacher interaction in distance education environments There is no way for me to know if my students did the reading in a distance education class There is highly impersonal communication among students and teachers in distance education Student discussions in distance education lack feeling compared to face-to-face classes Teaching online has no impact on my face-to-face courses and instruction Good teaching principles are transferable from face-to-face to distance education classes Students learn less in a distance education class Grades are lower for students in a distance education class. There is more academic dishonesty (cheating, plagiarism) in online classes The transition/shift to distance learning was too rapid I was not prepared enough for distanceeducation practices I had a lack of experience in preparing distance learning content (i.e., presentations) I had a lack of experience in preparing distance learning modules The time commitment for developing a distance education class is comparable to those in face-toface classes (the amount of time needed for course preparation is the same on both modes) My lectures cannot be replaced by technological tools The technology of distance education classes is difficult to manage The infrastructure required for distance learning didn’t exist/was not ready My students had internet-connection problems My school/university administrators showed positive attitudes and behaviors towards educators during this crisis THANK YOU FOR PARTICIPATING IN THIS SURVEY!

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 251-267, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.14 Received Dec 28, 2021; Revised Feb 13, 2022; Accepted Feb 20, 2022

Influence of E-Counseling Skills on Counseling Self-Efficacy Among E-Counselors in Malaysia Zaida Nor Zainudin

, Lee Wei Rong

, Alia Sarah Asri

, Yusni Mohamad

Yusop , Nor Aniza Ahmad and Siti Aishah Hassan Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract. Despite the rise in e-counseling services in Malaysia, there is an apparent lack of studies conducted from e-counselors’ perspectives on ecounseling features and provisions. The aim of the study is to determine the relationship between e-counseling skills and counseling self-efficacy. This quantitative study applied the descriptive correlational method in order to identify the relationship between e-counseling skills and counseling self-efficacy among e-counselors. The instrumentation involved the use of the Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory (COSE) and a self-constructed questionnaire, the E-Counseling Skills Scale which has undergone validity tests. 233 e-counselors from various institutions in Malaysia were selected using the simple random sampling technique to participate in completing an online survey form. Findings showed that respondents reported a high level of e-counseling skills (M = 4.07, SD = 0.60) and a moderate level of counseling self-efficacy (M = 4.00, SD = 0.67). E-counseling skills was positively correlated with counseling self-efficacy (r = .421, p < .05). The multiple regression analysis reported that the subconstruct “goal identification and attainment” of e-counseling skills best predicted counseling self-efficacy (β = .27, t(225) = 2.33, p .05). The findings implied that a higher ability to apply e-counseling skills is linked to higher counseling self-efficacy among e-counselors in Malaysia. This study suggests further improvement and standardization in the counselor education and training policy, specifically in terms of ecounseling interventions for both professional counselors and counseling trainees. Keywords: self-efficacy; e-counseling; e-counselors; counseling skills

1. Introduction The advancement of information technology has significantly impacted a wide range of aspects of human life (Haberstroh et al., 2007). One of the ramifications is on the field of counseling. Access to proper techniques is crucial in providing more creative, entertaining, and innovative guidance and counseling services; these outcomes can be achieved with new technology (Ribbers & Waringa, 2015). ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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As a result, technology-based therapy, also known as e-counseling, has taken root as a viable alternative to traditional counseling methods (Lau et al., 2013; Wong et al., 2018). E-counseling is also widely known as online or Internet counseling (Pollock, 2006), e-therapy, web counseling, cyber counseling, and e-mail therapy (Carlbring et al., 2018; Foon et al., 2020; Mallen & Vogel, 2005). The use of technology in the field of counseling is not a new concept. Weizenbaum (1966) was credited with the development of the first e-counseling system, ELIZA, in the 1960s. ELIZA is a computer program that takes a counselor’s place in a counseling session in which the client only needs to respond to a computer (Weizenbaum, 1966). After some time, Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations (PLATO) and Ask Uncle Ezra were introduced as replacements for ELIZA; these two programs, still have their respective webpage forms, as does ELIZA (Zainudin & Yusop, 2018). Throughout the 1990s, additional e-counseling modalities were developed. E-mail is the most frequently used method of e-counseling then and now (Mejah et al., 2019). Presently, additional technologically-advanced modalities such as telephone counseling, private chatting, text messaging, and video conferencing have become available to many (Zainudin et al., 2021). In Malaysia, the use of e-counseling services was first introduced in the 1990s to meet the needs of students in the academic setting and overcome the worrying social issues becoming more prevalent among teenagers (Zainudin et al., 2019). According to Zainudin (2006), in the year 2006, 54 Malaysian websites provided e-counseling services. These websites were operated by government agencies, private companies, nongovernmental organizations, and private individuals. It appears that large numbers of local organizations are offering e-counseling services. However, compared to countries such as the United States and Japan, ecounseling services are considered a new phenomenon in Malaysia. Nevertheless, it is a rapidly expanding phenomenon, and we must consider it one of the technological outcomes. The amount of studies done on e-counseling in Malaysia is still limited. According to Zamani et al. (2010) and Mejah et al. (2020), even though Malaysian counselors are positive about e-counseling services, they still prefer face-to-face counseling or traditional counseling over e-counseling. The difficulties associated with implementing counseling skills in e-counseling are one of the reasons that counselors avoid e-counseling. Foon et al. (2020) asserted that the primary reason counselors refuse to use e-counseling is the lack of nonverbal skills and confidence in carrying out the e-counseling task. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate the counseling skills used in e-counseling and to ascertain the relationship between counseling skills and self-efficacy in counseling. At the end of this study, the findings can be used as a review to prepare counselors for ecounseling training.

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2. Literature Review 2.1 E-Counseling Skills In this study, the term “e-counseling skills” refers to the counseling skills that ecounselors employ during an e-counseling session. There are a few legitimate concerns regarding e-counselors’ skill level in their e-counseling practices. This is due to the fact that counseling skills are the ultimate weapon a counselor can use in a counseling session. Counseling skills assist the counselors in guiding the counseling process and their client in developing and making changes (Erlina Yaumas et al., 2018; Richards & Viganó, 2013). Nonverbal communication skills are examples of counseling skills. One of the main concerns is whether the counseling skills demonstrated in a faceto-face counseling session can be transferred to an e-counseling environment (Mattison, 2012). Theoretically, the transfer of most skills is possible between counseling modalities. The abilities to question, paraphrase, build rapport, and empathize are some of the counseling skills that are ready to be used in an online environment (Dowling & Rickwood, 2014). However, the reality is that some of the skills required for face-to-face counseling are not transferable to e-counseling (Holmes & Kozlowski, 2016). For instance, the reflection of feelings and nonverbal communication will be difficult to incorporate into some forms of e-counseling, such as e-mail counseling or text counseling. E-counselors can only make assumptions about the clients’ feelings based on the text messages. As for nonverbal behaviors, they are as important as verbal messages when it comes to communication (Highlen & Hill, 1984; Ivey & Ivey, 2007). The lack of nonverbal behavior in e-counseling may lead counselors to experience feelings of uneasiness because they are unable to interpret their clients’ body language or observe how a message is being received (Ballesteros & Hilliard, 2016; Trepal et al., 2007). During a session, this unease can cause the therapeutic relationship to deteriorate (Ballesteros & Hilliard, 2016; Manhal-Baugus, 2001). The absence of nonverbal information in some e-counseling situations makes it necessary to employ a unique set of skills when interacting in this environment (Trepal et al., 2007). Therefore, e-counselors require proper training to increase their confidence in conducting accurate assessments without using body language during ecounseling sessions (Foon et al., 2020). According to some e-counseling feedback received, clients expressed appreciation for the counselor’s use of various skills to facilitate the e-counseling process (Lewis et al., 2003). As a result, the researchers are interested in investigating and determining the counseling skills that e-counselors apply. 2.2 Counseling Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is defined as individuals’ level of confidence regarding their capabilities to carry out the desired action or the given tasks (Bandura, 1993). According to Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory, confidence is critical in a counselor’s ability to apply counseling skills. Hence, self-efficacy in counseling refers to an individual’s confidence about their ability to provide effective counseling (Larson & Daniels, 1998). Counseling self-efficacy applies to counselors conducting counseling-related activities such as counseling sessions

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and development programs, regardless of their qualification, years of expertise, or counseling skills and techniques. Studies have demonstrated that believing in one’s abilities is essential in maintaining acceptable counseling performance (Bandura, 1982; Haktanir, 2020). According to the self-efficacy theory, subject knowledge, appropriate application of required skills, and belief in one’s own ability to perform skills successfully are the keys to a person using the skills successfully (Barnes, 2004; Hill et al., 2016). In order to gain self-efficacy, one must have first-hand experience of actual performance and achievement, be in a stimulating atmosphere, and have positive beliefs about one’s own capabilities (Bandura, 1997). Confidence and sufficient preparation skills that novice counselors lack will be developed as they get more experience through actual counseling sessions or practicum (Goreczny et al., 2015, Lent et al., 2006). Counselors with a higher counseling education, more successful experience in practicing counseling, and more accumulated hours of supervision have been found to have stronger self-efficacy than counselors with lower education levels and knowledge (Larson et al., 1992; Ooi et al., 2017). As a result, the researchers are interested in finding out whether the counseling skills of Malaysian e-counseling practitioners’ will affect their self-efficacy. 2.3 The Relationship Between Counseling Skills and Counseling Self-Efficacy As previously indicated, practical counseling skills are essential in a counseling session. In order to conduct a counseling session, the counselor needs to employ counseling skills to assist their clients in resolving the latter’s concerns. For a counselor to perform well in a counseling session, confidence is required (Larson & Daniels, 1998). To apply their counseling skills with confidence in the counseling session, counselors must have self-efficacy. The relationship between counseling skills and counseling self-efficacy is explored in the following review of past studies. Several studies on counseling self-efficacy have been conducted and addressed, with a few variables such as multicultural competence, counselor performance, and training programs being discussed in more detail (Harun et al., 2014; Holcomb-McCoy et al., 2009; Kiralp, 2015). Self-efficacy is derived from four sources according to the social cognitive theory: mastery experience; social persuasion; vicarious learning; and physiological and anxiety states (Ooi et al., 2017). The majority of the studies’ findings on counseling skills and counseling self-efficacy were associated with mastery experience and vicarious learning. One of the earliest studies by Johnson et al. (1989) aimed to investigate the relationship between counseling self-efficacy and counseling student performance in the context of increased counseling skills training. Fifty master’s degree counseling students participated in the study which reported that training increases the counseling self-efficacy of the students. Moreover, despite the weak relationship linking counseling skills to self-efficacy, the study found that participants who have high levels of self-efficacy in counseling perform better in a counseling skill test (Johnson et al., 1989). The results corroborated Hill et al.’s

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(2016) findings stating that students’ helping skills as lay counselors improved at the end of the semester as their self-efficacy increased. Urbani et al. (2002) identified a relationship between counseling skills and counseling self-efficacy. The objective was to ascertain the effect of the Skilled Counselor Training Model (SCTM) on the development of counseling skills and self-efficacy among 61 participating counselor trainees. The results showed that the SCTM significantly improves the counseling skills of the participants. The SCTM was also reported to increase counselor self-efficacy and counseling practice effectiveness (Urbani et al., 2002). Goreczny et al. (2015) discovered that practicing counselors have a higher self-efficacy in counseling at the end of their practice. This is because their knowledge and skills have increased in comparison to those at the start of the learning process. Likewise, Larson and Daniels (1998) concluded that the mastery of counseling skills and appropriate modeling of counseling skills may help in increasing counseling self-efficacy, resultantly reducing anxiety in counselors. This result is similar to Melchert et al.’s (1996) on students’ level of training and clinical experience associated with higher self-efficacy of their counseling skills. In Malaysia, Ooi et al. (2017) discovered a strong correlation between mastery experience and counselor self-efficacy. In relation to self-efficacy, Greason and Cashwell (2009) were interested in testing first, the relationship between mindfulness and self-efficacy in counseling and second, the mediating roles of attention and empathy. The findings indicated that providing opportunities for students to practice, learn, and master multiple counseling skills is an effective way to boost their self-efficacy. Larson et al. (1999) conducted several types of studies on counseling self-efficacy. The microskills of a counselor trainee will improve as a result of participating in role-playing sessions, which will also indirectly improve their counseling selfefficacy (Larson et al., 1992; Larson et al., 1999). Role-playing is similar to real-life situations in that it provides successful experiences that assist counselor trainees in developing confidence. Easton et al. (2008) found more specific results on counseling skills and counseling self-efficacy. The study aimed to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and counseling self-efficacy. A total of 140 counselors and counselor trainees were participants in the study. The result indicated that professional counselors perceive higher levels of emotional intelligence than counseling students to solve problems. Besides, self-efficacy is essential because it increases the confidence of the counselor, which contributes to the development of problem-solving and decision-making abilities during the counseling session (Easton et al., 2008). Following the review of previous studies, the majority of them linking counseling skills and counseling self-efficacy among e-counselors were not conducted directly. There have also been very few studies in a Malaysian context discussing this topic despite the prevalence and expansion of e-counseling services nowadays. Therefore, our study is aimed to:

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1. 2.

Identify the level of e-counseling skills and counseling self-efficacy among e-counselors in Malaysia. Identify whether there is a significant relationship between ecounseling skills and counseling self-efficacy among e-counselors in Malaysia. Identify the influence of e-counseling skills’ subconstructs on counseling self-efficacy among e-counselors in Malaysia.

3. Method 3.1 Study Design A quantitative correlational study was applied to determine the level of ecounseling skills and counseling self-efficacy; the relationship linking the two variables; and the influence of e-counseling skills on counseling self-efficacy. 3.2 Study Sample From a total of 750 e-counselors from various institutions in Malaysia identified and contacted for participation in this study, 233 responses were successfully collected. The male participants numbered 52, while female participants totaled 181. Each participant belonged to one of four age groups: 51 participants were between the ages of 23 and 29; 53 were between the ages of 30 and 35; 45 were between the ages of 36 and 40; and 84 were aged 41 and above. An online survey form containing the questionnaire was used to collect responses from the study participants. A simple random sampling procedure was used to select the participants of this study. 3.3 Study Instruments Demographic information Seven items were included in the survey’s demographic section. The items covered the counselors’ general information such as gender, age group, ethnic group, education level, counseling experiences, registration status, and licensure status. Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory (COSE) The COSE was adapted from Larson et al. (1992). The inventory consisted of a total of 37 items divided into five subsections. The five subsections were “microskills” (12 items), “process” (10 items), “difficult client behaviors” (seven items), “cultural competence” (four items), and “awareness of values” (four items). A 6-point Likert scale was used to score the 37 items. The items on the Likert scale were designed to determine the level of participants’ counseling self-efficacy. Questionnaires using the Likert scale were graded as follows, from a scale of 1 to 6: “Strongly disagree”, “Moderately disagree”, “Slightly disagree”, “Slightly agree”, “Moderately agree”, and “Strongly agree”. Nineteen items in the inventory were negative items. The scores were recoded when running the analysis. The mean score was used to determine the e-counselors’ level of counseling self-efficacy. The scoring marks were categorized into three levels: high, moderate, and low. A mean score between 4.21 and 6.00 is considered high;

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between 2.53 and 4.21 is considered moderate; and between 1.00 and 2.53 is considered low. The inventory utilized in this study was bilingual in nature. The original language was English, which was then translated into Malay. To determine the scale’s reliability, a pilot test was conducted. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the items was .93, indicating that the items were reliable. An earlier study by Larson et al. (1992) reported a COSE with good internal consistency with a Cronbach’s alpha of .93 and test-retest reliability of .87. Validity tests and back-translation were conducted to ascertain validity. The translation was reviewed and validated by a panel of experts. E-Counseling Skills Scale The e-counseling skills scale, a 34-item scale, was divided into seven subconstructs. Subconstruct 1 focused on “structuring skills and rapportbuilding”, which consisted of three items dealing with structuring and building relationships. Subconstruct 2 was devoted to “exploration skill”, containing five related items. Subconstruct 3 was concerned with “communication skill” consisting of 13 items, which included all of the fundamental communication skills strategies and tactics. Subconstruct 4 was devoted to “goal identification and attainment” with a total of four items. Subconstruct 5 was dedicated to “problemsolving skill” consisting of three items related to this skill. Subconstruct 6 was on “empathy skill” and consisted of three items. The final subconstruct, 7, was “multicultural skill” represented by three items related to multicultural competence. A 5-point Likert scale was used to score the 34 item scale. The items on the Likert scale were designed to determine the level of e-counselors’ e-counseling skills application. Questionnaires using the Likert scale were graded as follows from 1 to 5: “Strongly disagree”, “Disagree”, “Neither”, “Agree”, and “Strongly agree”. The mean score was used to determine e-counselors’ level of e-counseling skills application. The scoring marks were categorized into three levels: high, moderate, and low. A mean score ranging from 3.68 to 5.00 is considered high; from 2.34 to 3.68 is considered moderate; and from 1 to 2.34 is considered low. This e-counseling skills scale employed a dual-language approach. The languages used were Malay and English. A pilot test was conducted to determine the scale’s reliability. The Cronbach’s alpha value reported was .98, implying that the items were reliable. Validity was achieved through a review of existing studies and was confirmed through item evaluation from a panel of two experts in the Guidance and Counseling program. 3.4 Data Analysis The descriptive analysis, Pearson’s correlation, and multiple regression techniques were used in this study, aided by the SPSS version 26 software. The levels of e-counseling skill and counseling self-efficacy were determined using descriptive analysis. The Pearson’s correlation analysis was conducted to ascertain the relationship between e-counseling skills and self-efficacy in

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counseling. The multiple regression analysis was used to determine which subconstructs of e-counseling skills best predicted self-efficacy in counseling among the e-counselors.

4. Results and Discussion 4.1 Respondents’ Demographic Profile Table 1 shows the distribution of the respondents based on the demographic variables. Females dominated the sample by more than triple the male sample. It could also be observed that most respondents, comprising more than a quarter, fell into the range of 41 years old and above. Chinese and Indians covered similar portions among the respondents with 6.4% and 6.0% respondents respectively. Moreover, as expected, the higher the education level, the lower the percentage of respondents. As for the years of counseling experience, the majority of respondents (37.8%) were reported to have between 6 and 15 years of experience, closely followed by those with five years or fewer (36.5%). In terms of the counselors’ registration and licensure statuses, most were registered counselors and licensed counselors (75.5% and 69.1% respectively), implying their recognition by national counseling authorities. Table 1: Respondents’ demographic profile Demographic variables Gender Male Female Age 23–29 years old 30–35 years old 36–40 years old 41 years old and above Ethnicity Malay Chinese Indian Others Education Level Bachelor’s degree Master’s degree Doctor of philosophy Counseling Experience 5 years and below 6–15 years 16–30 years 31 years and above Registered Counselor Yes No Licensed Counselor Yes No

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52 181

22.3 77.7

51 53 45 84

21.9 22.7 19.3 36.1

171 15 14 33

73.4 6.4 6.0 14.2

124 96 13

53.2 41.2 5.6

85 88 58 2

36.5 37.8 24.9 0.9

176 57

75.5 24.5

161 72

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4.2 Level of E-Counseling Skills The descriptive analysis reported that item 4 (“Although not face-to-face, I am able to ask open-ended questions to explore client’s concerns”), item 3 (“Although not face-to-face, I am able to integrate informed consent into the initial session with client”), and item 2 (“Although not face-to-face, I am able to structure during the initial session with client“) had the highest mean scores of 4.37, 4.36, and 4.31 respectively. This indicates that e-counselors apply structuring and rapportbuilding skills the most in e-counseling sessions. The skills applied were similar to the skills in face-to-face counseling (Asri et al., 2020). On the other hand, the lowest mean reported was for item 9, “Although not face-to-face, I am able to show congruence between verbal and nonverbal behaviors in the session with the client“ with a mean score of 3.64. This finding demonstrates that e-counselors continue to have concerns and issues with nonverbal skills, which is always a point of contention in e-counseling (Salleh et al., 2015; Richards & Viganó, 2013; Zamani et al., 2010). Table 2 shows the overall level of counseling skills applied by the e-counselors which is high. The mean score (M = 4.07) fell between 3.68 and 5.00, hence the high e-counseling skill application. For the subconstructs, “structuring skill and rapport-building” reported the highest mean score of 4.31, showing a high level of e-counseling application. This was followed by the subconstruct “empathy skill” which had a mean score of 4.21; also considered high application. Following this were “goal identification and attainment” (M = 4.11), “multicultural skill” (M = 4.09), “problem-solving skill” (M = 4.04), “communication skill” (M = 4.01), and lastly, “exploration skill” (M = 3.94). Table 2: Level of e-counseling skills and subconstructs E-counseling skills and subconstructs Structuring skill and rapport-building Exploration skill Communication skill Goal identification and attainment Problem-solving skill Empathy skill Multicultural skill E-counseling skills application (overall)

M 4.31 3.94 4.01 4.11 4.04 4.21 4.09 4.07

SD 0.66 0.68 0.63 0.64 0.69 0.67 0.67 0.60

Level High High High High High High High High

The e-counselors have demonstrated that they employ all of their counseling skills during their e-counseling session. All of the subconstructs are also of high level in terms of application, particularly “structuring skills and rapport-building”. The least applied subconstruct was the “exploration skill”. These findings are consistent with Asri et al.’s (2020) which reported the rapport-building skill as the most applied counseling skill by different samples of e-counseling practitioners. The same study noted that it is especially important for e-counselors to build a good rapport with clients, most particularly during the initial phase of counseling sessions prior to discussing goals and intervention plans. This discovery on rapport-building is also parallel to a study done by Barnett (2005). Barnett (2005) concluded that e-counseling is more oriented toward an informative approach to

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problem-solving, with the exploration portion of the session being reduced. Besides, the high level of application of counseling skills indicates that an ecounselor possesses strong counseling competency. According to the findings of Sawyer et al. (2013), there is a statistically significant relationship between counseling skills and counselor competency. Additionally, while it is important to build a successful counseling relationship, it is necessary to master the fundamental communication skills (Setiyowati et al., 2019). Adigwe and Okoro (2016) also stated that counseling skills are a critical component of effective counseling practices. 4.3 Level of Counseling Self-Efficacy All of the counseling self-efficacy items were analyzed to determine their mean score and standard deviation. The highest mean score (M = 4.89) belonged to item 29, “I am confident that I will know when to use open or close-ended probes, and that these probes will reflect the concerns of the client and not be trivial”. According to Mallen et al. (2011), open and closed questions are the most frequently used interventions by online counselors. In contrast, the item with the lowest mean score (M = 2.91) was item 16, “I am afraid that I may not understand and properly determine probable meanings of the client’s nonverbal behaviors”. This lowest mean score result is similar to previous studies showing that ecounselors are not confident with nonverbal behavior (Ballesteros & Hilliard, 2016; Foon et al., 2020). Item 9 (M = 4.78) demonstrates the level of e-counselors’ confidence in handling e-counseling with the statement “I feel confident that I will appear competent and earn the respect of my client”. The mean score of item 9 was almost identical to the highest mean score, which signifies that e-counselors in Malaysia are confident in their ability to handle e-counseling. Table 3 shows the level of counseling self-efficacy. The overall self-efficacy level of the e-counselors is moderate (M = 4.00). “Microskills” (M = 4.71) was reported as the highest-scoring subconstruct in counseling self-efficacy. This subconstruct was followed by “cultural competence” (M = 4.05), “awareness of values” (M = 3.99), “difficult client behaviors” (M = 3.75), and finally, “process” (M = 3.22); all reporting moderate levels. Table 3: Level of counseling self-efficacy Counseling self-efficacy and subconstructs Microskills Process Difficult client behaviors Cultural competence Awareness of values Counseling self-efficacy (overall)

Level

4.71 3.22 3.75 4.05 3.99 4.00

0.77 1.19 0.712 0.72 1.02 0.67

High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate

The results show a similarity with the Malaysian school counselors’ counseling self-efficacy level, which according to Yusof et al. (2017), is moderate. Counseling self-efficacy is a significant predictor of work performance and helps counselors face difficult or stressful situations (Gonzalez & Johnston, 2009; Larson & Daniels, 1998; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007). As a result, it is critical to maintaining a

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consistent focus on improving counseling efficacy among e-counselors. A higher level of self-efficacy indicates that they are more confident in their ability to complete a specific task. If individuals are confident in their abilities, they will complete the task effectively (Larson & Daniels, 1998). 4.4 Relationship Between E-Counseling Skills and Counseling Self-Efficacy Table 4 presents the Pearson’s correlation analysis test between e-counseling skills (M = 4.07, SD = 0.60) and counseling self-efficacy (M = 4.00, SD = 0.67). The overall result indicates a significant positive correlation between e-counseling skills and counseling self-efficacy (r = .421, p = .000). According to Guildford’s rule of thumb, the overall relationship is considered a moderate relationship. As for the individual subconstructs of e-counseling skills, all of them report a low significant positive correlation with counseling self-efficacy except the subconstruct “goal identification and attainment”. However, the correlation coefficient of “structuring and rapport-building” had a probability value of .001 unlike the other subconstructs (p = .000) with the same relationship. The one with the highest correlation coefficient, “goal identification and attainment”, shows a moderate significant positive relationship with counseling self-efficacy (r = .418, p = .000). Table 4: Correlation between e-counseling skills and counseling self-efficacy Variable Structuring skill and rapport-building Exploration skill Communication skill Goal identification and attainment Problem-solving skill Empathy skill Multicultural skill E-counseling skill (overall)

Counseling self-efficacy .222** .340** .398** .418** .349** .368** .339** .421**

Result of Pearson’s correlation Low significant positive Low significant positive Low significant positive Moderate significant positive Low significant positive Low significant positive Low significant positive Moderate significant positive

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).

The findings are consistent with those of past studies discovering that a counseling skill acquired through counseling training is correlated with counseling self-efficacy in the long run. When counselors’ self-efficacy in counseling is high, they will be more efficient in their counseling skills performance (Greason & Cashwell, 2009; Johnson et al., 1989; Larson & Daniels, 1998; Larson et al., 1999; Urbani et al., 2002). This is due to the fact that they will have a high level of confidence in their ability to perform the skill during the counseling session. Counselors, whether trainees or professionals, must have confidence in their abilities. In one study, counseling self-efficacy was linked to counseling anxiety (Goreczny et al., 2015). Counselors who have a high sense of self-efficacy will have a more positive self-perception of their abilities. The increased self-awareness of even their weaknesses will assist them in reducing their anxiety during the counseling session (Goreczny et al., 2015). The development of counseling skills and the development of counseling self-efficacy are therefore closely related.

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4.5 Influence of E-Counseling Skills on Counseling Self-Efficacy Table 5 shows the result of the multiple regression test for the predictors of counseling self-efficacy. Results indicate that “goal identification and attainment” has significantly predicted counseling self-efficacy (β = .27, t(225) = 2.33, p < .05). On the contrary, other subconstructs did not significantly predict counseling selfefficacy. Together, all subconstructs explained a significant proportion of variance in counseling self-efficacy (R2 = .452, F(7, 225) = 8.251, p = .000). Table 5: Result of regression analysis on counseling self-efficacy Factors Constant Structuring skill and rapport-building Exploration skill Communication skill Goal identification and attainment Problem-solving skill Empathy skill Multicultural skill

b 1.96 -.09 .02 .08 .28 .04 .15 .03

SE .32 .08 .10 .15 .12 .09 .08 .09

β -.09 .02 .07 .27 .04 .15 .02

t 6.19 -1.10 .19 .50 2.33 .44 1.71 .28

p 2.78 .27 .85 .62 .02 .66 .09 .78

The findings are the first regarding predictors of counseling self-efficacy. Previous studies only demonstrated that problem-solving and decision-making skills will impact counseling self-efficacy (Easton et al., 2008). However, our study found that “problem-solving skill” is not a predictor of counseling self-efficacy. The only difference between our study and the existing studies is the counseling modality; traditional counseling was the modality in most of the existing studies, as opposed to e-counseling in our study. Future studies are required to determine the reason to support this finding on self-efficacy predictors.

5. Conclusion In conclusion, this study found that e-counselors in Malaysia demonstrate a high level of e-counseling skills in their e-counseling sessions. Their counseling selfefficacy is at a moderate level, indicating that they are confident in their ability to provide e-counseling services. Therefore, e-counseling should be applicable in Malaysia. E-counseling skills were also reported to be significantly and positively correlated with counseling self-efficacy. Skills competency and self-efficacy are important factors in boosting counselors’ self-efficacy. The greater the number of skills learned, the greater one’s sense of self-efficacy. The analysis also revealed that the subconstruct of e-counseling skills “goal identification and attainment” best-predicted counseling self-efficacy. Consequently, counselor training can identify which skills are important while simultaneously assisting trainees in increasing their self-efficacy.

6. Implication and Recommendation This study adds to the body of knowledge on counselors’ personal and professional development. A better understanding of the relationship between ecounseling skills and counseling self-efficacy in Malaysia is provided. Since a search of journal databases yields few studies on this topic among Malaysian ecounselors, interested researchers will find the results of this study valuable.

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Furthermore, the study’s findings may be used to create an overview of the ecounseling service in Malaysia. Understanding counseling skills and the level of confidence a counselor has in carrying out an e-counseling session will assist in alleviating some of the concerns about the limitations of e-counseling. In reality, the strategies and techniques used in face-to-face counseling and e-counseling are nearly identical. Moreover, the findings can be used as a training guideline in the field of counseling in Malaysia. It is possible that e-counseling skills can predict the level of counseling self-efficacy. This prediction can provide guidance to counseling educators on how to increase their students’ competence and confidence level through the counseling skills class. In addition, counseling educators’ experiences are significant and valuable. The counselors’ experiences, despite being secondhand, will aid in the development of counseling self-efficacy in the counselor trainees. This study discovered the levels of e-counseling skills and counseling self-efficacy that participants possessed; the relationship between both variables; and a predictor of self-efficacy. There was, however, no attempt to determine whether counseling self-efficacy was associated with e-counselor performance. Aside from that, a predictor of e-counseling skills should be identified in a future study. The comparison between skills in e-counseling and face-to-face counseling modalities can be made in future studies to see whether there is a difference in counseling self-efficacy. The counselors’ background, including their family’s socioeconomic status, the university where they earned their first degree, and their counseling experiences, should be considered in future studies.

7. Limitations There are several limitations to this study. As a starting point, the study does not include information about the counselors’ e-counseling experiences, which may or may not have a significant impact on their counseling self-efficacy in the context of e-counseling. Furthermore, our study makes no distinction between the different types of e-counseling (e-mail, online chatroom, video conference, and others). Different modalities will necessitate the development of different types of skills. As a result, the outcome of the e-counseling session may be adversely affected.

8. Acknowledgments This study has been granted funds from Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) by Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) (FRGS/1/2018/SS05/UPM/02/2).

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Weizenbaum, J. (1966). ELIZA—A computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine. Communications of the ACM, 9(1), 36– 45. https://doi.org/10.1145/357980.357991 Wong, K. P., Bonn, G., Tam, C. L., & Wong, C. P. (2018). Preferences for online and/or face-to-face counseling among university students in Malaysia. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00064 Zainudin, Z. N. (2006). Perhubungan Menolong Secara Maya: Satu Penelitian [Conference session]. Persidangan Lembaga Kaunselor, Hotel Legend, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Google. GFhttps://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ca d=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjg2pDUq7_yAhVymeYKHfQLBXsQFnoECAUQ AQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Feduc.upm.edu.my%2Fupload%2Fdokumen%2Fmen ul320201222213421100percent_content_version_EKaunseling_Revolusi_Teknologi_dalam_Kaunseling_.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1XHIK wB-NtVWJT4ElhhKHr Zainudin, Z. N., Hassan, S. A., Ahmad, N. A., Yusop, Y. M., Othman, W. N. W., & Alias, B. S. (2021). A comparison of a client's satisfaction between online and face-to-face counseling in a school setting. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 29, 135–153. https://doi.org/10.47836/pjssh.29.s1.08 Zainudin, Z. N., & Yusop, Y. M. (2018). Clients Satisfaction in Face-To-Face Counselling and Cyber Counseling Approaches: A Comparison. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8(3), 677–684. https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v8-i3/3992 Zainudin, Z. N., Yusop, Y. M., Hassan, S. A., Alias, B. S. (2019). The effectiveness of cybertherapy for the introvert and extrovert personality traits. Malaysian Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences, 15, 105-109. https://medic.upm.edu.my/upload/dokumen/2019042915594715_0339(Final)1 5.pdf Zamani, Z. A., Nasir, R., & Yusooff, F. (2010). Perceptions towards online counseling among counselors in Malaysia. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, 585–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.146

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 268-284, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.15 Received Nov 8, 2021; Revised Feb 13, 2022; Accepted Feb 20, 2022

Perception on the Online Classes Challenges Experienced during the COVID-19 Pandemic by LSPU Computer Studies Students Marco Jr. N. Del Rosario* and Ronnel A. dela Cruz Laguna State Polytechnic University, San Pablo City, Laguna, Philippines

Abstract. The COVID-19 pandemic forces educational institutions to divert from traditional face-to-face classes to online classes. Despite the implementation and acceptance of the general population on this setup, various challenges are being experienced by the students. Through a literature review, this study determined the challenges of online classes faced by the students which commonly fall in the following domains: technology, digital competency, compatibility, socioeconomic factor, human and pets’ intrusions or noise, demanding workload, assessment and supervision, time management and motivation, and social and emotional health. The study further investigated the constructs of the challenges based on the students’ responses. To gain breadth and depth of understanding on the challenges, both quantitative and qualitative research and data were mixed and used. The result in the quantitative method shows that the level of agreement of the students, if they are experiencing problems in terms of communication and interaction, teaching methodologies of the instructors, and learning resources, revealed to be neutral. However, analysing the qualitative results shows that there are recurring themes in the challenges such as poor or unstable internet connection, human intrusion and noise, feedback and communication issues, and issues in delivering teaching and learning. Further, this research has implications for advising faculty, curriculum designers and administrators on the needs and experiences of the students which can provide insights in planning and designing of teaching and learning delivery for the coming semesters. Keywords: online learning; distance learning; learning challenges; COVID-19 pandemic

1. Introduction The world faces a health crisis due to the transmissible coronavirus disease (COVID-19). This global occurrence caused the suspension of the country’s operations, with the education sector being one of those that are affected. Upon *

Corresponding author: Marco Jr. N. Del Rosario, macky.delrosario@lspu.edu.ph

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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the advice of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) in terms of the suspension of face-to-face classes, the implementation of the traditional enrolment process and teaching (face-to-face) is not permitted (De Vera III 2020). Educational institutions, however, did not remain impotent with the situation as they pushed for a solution in the form of online technologies which are now utilized in implementing enrolment processes and teaching activities. The use of technology can transform teaching into a new model of connecting to students. It will equip classrooms with digital learning tools, improve motivation, increase students’ engagement, and assist the instructors in developing instructional methodologies that will help students develop socalled 21st-century skills. In achieving those, the institution needs to check the resources available and the capacity of both students and instructors to switch from traditional face-to-face classes to online classes. The Laguna State Polytechnic University envisions to provide quality, efficient and effective delivery of instruction amidst the pandemic. A set of guidelines and policies were formulated to ensure that the goal of the university will still be achieved. In the formulation of the said guidelines and policies, the University conducted a study that will determine the capacity of the students to adapt to the “new normal”. Familiarity and capability of students, device availability and internet access, and technology experience all have a major impact on their readiness to participate in online teaching and learning, according to the study findings of Callo and Yazon (2020). Determining and understanding the readiness is important in the preparation of conducting online classes, however, determining and understanding the challenges being encountered during the implementation of online learning is another thing. Even though online learning has been fully accepted and seen effective, there are still inevitable challenges that need to be looked upon (Barrot et al., 2021). Chiu et al. (2021) suggest that, for the time being, it is important and critical for researchers to reflect on and enhance present online learning and teaching techniques using proper designs and evidence-based strategies. This study focuses on the student’s perception of the challenges they experienced in online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic. With the intent to continually improve the delivery of the service of the institution to its clientele, the researchers aim to identify the experiences and challenges encountered by the students in online learning. The result of the study will be of great help to further improve the strategies of the instructors in the delivery of their instruction and will further improve the University’s plans in the delivery of quality, efficient and effective teaching, and learning.

2. Literature Review Online learning refers to the use of technological resources available through a computer or a device wherein learning can be achieved by going through a goal of extracting substance or can be a by-product of an experience (Saul, 2004). Anshari et al. (2016) specified that online learning has become the standard

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practice by many education institutions which use information and communication technologies (ICT) in managing the processes of learning and delivering teaching. According to Gillett-Swan (2017), higher education institutions are providing a range of options for engagement to the current and potential learners. This could be done in a variety of ways, including traditional face-to-face delivery (internal), online learning (external), or mixed (blended) modality. Hermanto and Srimulyani (2021) agreed that these variety of ways or learning model along with the current technological development enables the well implementation of online learning. In higher education settings, a popular method for delivering teaching and learning is through online education (Koh & Hill, 2009). Some studies suggest that the online learning environment can help students develop critical thinking and reflection skills. Online education is not entirely a new concept as it is already existent and booming from the early 1980s and 1990s to the 2000s (Anshari et al., 2016; Ribeiro, 2020). Ribeiro added that online learning, at that point, was only considered as an alternative way of delivering education other than face-to-face or the traditional classroom setup. It was not considered as a plan for continuity for education. In the early 2000s, people dismissed the possibility that online learning might replace traditional face-to-face classes (Saul, 2004). As time goes by, this point of view changes. Online education as an option for delivering instructions became the continuity plan for the delivery of instruction to most educational institutions when the traditional face-to-face approach is no longer possible due to the limitations brought about by the pandemic (Ribeiro, 2020). Since the pandemic forced educational institutions to deliver their instructions online, the need to know the challenges of this modality is important. Kumar (2015) states that although students are attracted to online education because of its time and place flexibility, many of them are being prevented from finishing their courses because serious challenges are encountered along the way. In addition, Pappas (2014) stated that online education has roadblocks that hinder the students from absorbing instructions and teachings. Several challenges associated with implementing online learning were highlighted in this literature review. Table 1 outlines the most prevalent issues that students face when taking online classes based on findings from multiple studies. Based on the previous studies, the following nine domains were identified: Table 1: Aspects of Previous studies on challenges faced in Online Learning. Challenges Technology

Description

Literature

This refers to the dependency of online learning on technology in terms of accessibility and availability of devices and internet connection.

Adedoyin & Soykan (2020), Alam (2020), Gilbert (2015), Kumar (2015), Friedman (2020), Almaiah et al. (2020), Cheng (2020), Koh & Hill (2009), Barrot et al. (2021), Hermanto & Srimulyani (2021), Yusuf & Ahmad (2020)

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Challenges

Description

Literature

Socioeconomic Factor

This refers to the tendency of students to fall behind in learning and to meet more challenges due to low or no socioeconomic power to have a stable internet connection.

Adedoyin & Soykan (2020), Alam (2020), Gilbert (2015), Kumar (2015), Almaiah et al. (2020), Barrot et al. (2021)

Human and pets’ intrusions

This refers to the possibility of student distraction caused by noise, disruption, or interruption from pets and family members which affects the focus and attention during online classes.

Adedoyin & Soykan (2020), Friedman (2020), Barrot et al. (2021)

Digital competence

This refers to the knowledge and set of skills required to utilize technological devices to perform tasks and activities conducted during online classes.

Adedoyin & Soykan (2020), Alam (2020), Kumar (2015), Friedman (2020), Cheng (2020), Kearns (2012)

Assessment and supervision

This refers to the instructors’ responsibility to assess the performance tasks given to the students, assure that they achieve the learning objectives, and be able to provide feedback and intervention. This refers to the effort of an educational institution to provide the necessary ICT equipment, facilities, and platform to accommodate the online classes.

Adedoyin & Soykan (2020), Alam (2020), Gilbert (2015), Friedman (2020), Almaiah et al. (2020), Cheng (2020), Kearns (2012)

Heavy workload

Compatibility

Time Management and Motivation

Social and Emotional Health

This refers to the idea where online learning is perceived to be inapplicable to other disciplines in terms of effectivity and efficiency. This refers to the students’ tendency to poorly manage their time and experience lack of motivation to finish their tasks and activities on time and in good quality.

This refers to the belief that lacking peer interaction and experiencing unstable emotions can negatively influence the learning process of a student and the efficacy of teaching.

Adedoyin & Soykan (2020), Almaiah et al. (2020), Kearns (2012), Hermanto & Srimulyani (2021), Yusuf & Ahmad (2020) Adedoyin & Soykan (2020), Hermanto & Srimulyani (2021) Alam (2020), Gilbert (2015), Kumar (2015), Friedman (2020), Cheng (2020), Kearns (2012), Barrot et al. (2021), Hermanto & Srimulyani (2021), Chiu et al. (2021), Yusuf & Ahmad (2020) Gilbert (2015), Friedman (2020), Almaiah et al. (2020), Cheng (2020), Koh & Hill (2009), Barrot et al. (2021), Hermanto & Srimulyani (2021), Chiu et al. (2021)

Kumar (2015) stated that there are five common problems that are encountered by the students. Adaptability challenges, technological issues, computer literacy, time management, and self-motivation are all on the list. Friedman (2020), on the other hand, listed seven challenges that a student is now encountering. Technical difficulties, handling distractions, time management, staying motivated,

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comprehending course expectations, a lack of in-person engagement, adjusting to unfamiliar technologies, and concern about the future are all examples. Gilbert (2015) discovered that there are several disadvantages and potential concerns that students may encounter while participating in an online class. He revealed that participating in an online class may raise issues about academic rigor, medium of delivery, community and peer interaction, cultural restrictions, availability and accessibility of technological devices to students, maintaining motivation, and students’ comprehension. In a study conducted by Adedoyin and Soykan (2020), they found out that during the COVID-19 pandemic, there are various impediments to the digital transformation of instructional operations. Technology, socioeconomic factors, human and animal intrusions, digital competency, assessment and supervision, heavy workload, and compatibility are the factors to consider. In a similar study conducted in Bangladesh by Alam (2020), he identified that some faculty and students are encountering difficulties like adaptability struggle, poor accessibility of the internet for online connectivity, low literacy in using computers and mobile devices, time management, managing feedback, and engaging students. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Almaiah et al. (2020) did a study to investigate the main problems and factors affecting the use of the E-learning system. The exploration uncovered concerns such as change management, E-learning system technical issues, financial support, technological factors, E-learning system quality factors, cultural factors, self-efficacy factors, and trust components. In a study of Yusuf and Ahmad (2020), they listed the following challenges: students are less focused in online learning, availability and suitability of resources, internet connectivity, and issues in time and schedule in terms of length of class and attendance of students to classes. The aforementioned findings suggest that institutions should provide convenient platforms and improved facilities. In a two-phased study conducted by Kearns (2012), the second phase focuses on identifying what are the best practices and challenges the faculty encountered in creating and deploying assessment and its impact in their face-to-face assessment through focus group discussion. The result highlighted three main themes which are the impact of physical distance, adapting to the technology used for communication, and time and workload management. Moreover, two other challenges emerged which are challenges in assessment and feedback. Hermanto and Srimulyani (2021) found in their study that building communication between students and educators is challenging. There is also a need to improve current IT infrastructure to support online learning. Aside from constraint in internet and device availability, they also found that students and educators experience challenges related to lacking motivation, concentration, and discipline. The results added that it is still important to have a physical connection between educators and students. In relation to motivation, Chiu et. al (2021) conducted a study regarding the effect of motivation in online classes

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during the pandemic and mentioned that the pandemic's fear and anxiety can easily demotivate and alienate students from learning. In a study by Cheng (2020), he described the challenges of “School’s Out, But Class’s On” in several aspects, specifically, in terms of traditional forms of school education, teachers’ teaching methods, student’s learning styles, and school administration. Koh and Hill (2009) state that students and faculty participating in online learning may have a negative effect on the overall class experience due to lacking or reduced sense of connection. Additionally, they found out that difficulty in communication due to technical problems is also a challenge in online learning.

3. Methodology A concurrent nested mixed method design was implemented in this study. Only one data collection phase was done, which quantitative method nests the qualitative method. This was done to gain a broader and in-depth perspective. 3.1 Research Question This study tends to investigate the constructs of the challenges faced by the students during the online classes. The outcome of the study will serve as baseline information to be used by the college to develop or improve policies relevant and responsive to the following semesters. Hence, this study intends to answer the following research questions: 1. What are the students’ perceptions about the communication and interaction in the class, the teaching methodologies used by the instructors, and their learning resources and economic burden? 2. What are the difficulties the students encountered during the online classes? To address the study’s questions, a mixed methods research design has been conducted by employing a developed questionnaire. 3.2 Participants In terms of data gathering, a purposive sampling technique was implemented, specifically aimed at the stakeholders relevant to the study. The exact sampling size was not rigorous and was subjected to the limitations presented by the research locale. The participants of the study are the students from the College of Computer Studies in Laguna State Polytechnic University enrolled in the first semester of the academic year 2020-2021. 3.3 Instrument The study employed a questionnaire that solicited students’ perceptions about the challenges they have faced in the duration of the online classes. There are three sections to the questionnaire. The first section dealt with the students' demographic profiles. The students’ perceptions towards some of the challenges were the focus of the second section. It contains nine (9) statements concerning the challenges. The students used a five-point agreement Likert Scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree to rate the statements. The

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following entries are included in the second section of this online survey instrument: 1. Communication and Interaction – It is a three-item questionnaire that solicits the respondents’ agreement with regard to communicating with their instructors and classmates. 2. Teaching Methodologies – It is a three-item questionnaire that solicits the respondents’ satisfaction in the delivery of instructions, availability of technical support from the instructor, and interaction during classes. 3. Learning Resources and Economic Burden – It is a three-item questionnaire that solicits the respondents’ satisfaction in the instructional materials provided, capacity to provide gadgets/devices, and internet connectivity during online classes. The third section consisted of two open-ended questions, namely 1) How was your experience communicating with your classmates and instructors? And 2) What are the specific difficulties you encountered, if any, during online classes? The researcher-made survey questionnaire was created by first determining the survey's goals and time limits; second, planning on the process on how the questionnaire will be administered; and third, deciding on the format for the questions and begin composing them. The validation of the questions follow by enlisting the expertise of a subject matter expert, who evaluated the questions to see if they properly encapsulated the topic under consideration. Finally, Cronbach's alpha was utilized to determine the internal consistency of the researcher-made survey questionnaire. Each set of questions were subjected to Cronbach’s alpha and were calculated. The reliability index for Communication and Interaction, Teaching Methodologies, and Learning Resources and Economic Burden set of questions are α = 0.76, α = 0.81, and α = 0.71, respectively. The questionnaire was encoded by the authors in Google form, wherein the link of the online survey questionnaire was sent through email and relevant social media channels, to the students of Laguna State Polytechnic University-San Pablo City Campus enrolled in BS Information Technology and BS Computer Science. Data collection lasted for two (2) weeks from March 1 to 12, 2021. Respondents were informed of the purpose of the study through the questionnaire and were assured of the privacy and security of the data that they have provided. 3.4 Data Analysis The data was extracted from the Google form. Descriptive statistics including mean, standard deviation, and frequency count in percentage were used to compute and assess it. The qualitative data from the third section of the questionnaire which are open-ended questions were summarized and clustered to identify patterns or recurring themes through a narrative thematic analysis. On doing so, the data gathered from the responses of the participants to the open-ended questions were organized and any rudimentary patterns were noted

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in the response sheets. The participants were assigned fictitious names, and any participant identifiers were removed. The analysis of qualitative data undergone the following steps (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Swart, 2019): (1) Familiarization with the collected data by reading and rereading the responses; (2) Generate initial labels based on the nine online class challenges determined earlier shown in Table 1. The data coding and the actual data analysis was carried out manually. Labels were used to create themes to present the data in coherent and meaningful way (Sutton & Austin, 2015); (3) Search for themes or main ideas that may provide general concepts. Re-reading of the transcripts was necessary to identify recurring words or prominent ideas generated from the data; (4) Review the found general concepts to ensure that they clearly and accurately encompass the ideas on the responses; (5) The themes were defined and labelled appropriately to the data; and (6) then a report as a result was produced. Finally, the categories were made, and these categories of responses reflected the themes that represent the major findings of the study. For this study, the codes were condensed into two categories including: communication and challenges during the online classes of the students.

4. Results and Discussion In this section of the paper, quantitative and qualitative data results from the survey questionnaire are organized into two sections to address the study questions. 4.1 Demographics The college’s total population was 706 students. However, only 421 responses were collected. This sample size is 59.63% of the student population of the college. Among these respondents are from the 318 responses of students pursuing their bachelor’s degree in Information Technology. They cover 75.53% of the total responses. Meanwhile, there are 103 students pursuing a bachelor’s degree in Computer Science, which is 24.47% of the total responses. Regarding the respondents’ sex, most of the respondents are males. They account for 56.77% of the total respondents, while the female counterpart accounts for 43.23%. It can be inferred that there is a nearly balanced distribution from both sexes. 4.2 Students’ perceptions towards some of the challenges Question 1: Student Perceptions towards the Challenges faced regarding Communication and Interaction. The results obtained from filling out the survey instrument, as shown in Table 2, showed that half of the respondents had a neutral response to the statements. Moreover, there is an almost equal distribution of agreeing and disagreeing in terms of having trouble in communicating with their instructors or classmates. On the other hand, when students were asked if they are having difficulty in communicating with their peers in respect to group and collaborative projects, almost half of the respondents have a neutral response, but a large portion of the others have agreed that they are encountering some difficulties.

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Table 2: Communication and Interaction Frequencies in Percentage Question

Mean

Difficulty of communicating with your instructor

2.969

0.791

3.6

20.7

Difficulty of communicating with your classmates

2.971

0.902

5.5

Difficulty in communication in terms of group or collaboration projects

3.219

0.973

3.8

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

52.5

21.9

1.4

22.3

45.1

23.8

3.3

17.8

40.6

28.3

9.5

Table 3: Communication and Interaction Frequencies in Percentage Question

Mean

Poor delivery of instructions

2.722

0.778

5.5

30.9

Unavailability of technical support from the instructor

2.800

0.807

3.6

Poor interaction during classes

2.834

0.860

3.6

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

50.4

12.6

0.7

31.8

47.5

15.2

1.9

33.0

42.8

17.8

2.9

Question 2: Student Perceptions towards the Challenges faced regarding Teaching Methodologies. As shown in table 3, half of the responses are neutral when asked if there is a poor delivery of instruction, availability of technical support from the instructor and if there is poor interaction during classes which covers 50.4%, 47.5%, and 42.8% of the responses respectively. However, the majority of the remaining respondents disagreed with the statements. This can be interpreted that a small portion of the total number of respondents agrees that the teaching methodologies used by the instructors are somehow effective and are delivered in an acceptable manner. Also, support from the instructors is available. And there is an acceptable level of interaction between the instructor and students during classes.

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Table 4: Communication and Interaction Frequencies in Percentage Question

Mean

Lack of instructional materials provided

2.765

0.905

5.2

35.9

Lack of gadgets/devices used in online classes

3.086

0.975

4.3

Poor internet connectivity

3.572

0.987

1.9

Strongly Disagree Neutral Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

39.9

15.2

3.8

23.5

38.7

26.4

7.1

10.9

34.9

32.5

19.7

Question 3: Student Perceptions towards the Challenges faced regarding Learning Resources and Economic Burden. The majority of the students have responded that they are neutral (39.9%) when asked about their level of agreement on the lack of instructional materials provided by the instructors. However, a large portion disagreed that the instructors are lacking in those aspects with a response percentage of 35.9% and 5.2% on disagree and strongly disagree, respectively. When asked about their level of agreement in their experiences in lacking devices to be used in online classes, still, the majority of the responses are neutral. Moreover, the result showed that the students are still experiencing poor and unstable internet connections (M = 3.572). 4.3 Open-Ended Questions Table 5: Recurring theme on the Open-Ended Questions Recurring Themes Question 1: How was your Some instructors are approachable and considerate. experience communicating Instructors took weeks to respond. with your classmates and Good communication with classmates. instructors? There is a problem in communication when it comes to group work and collaboration. Question 2: What are the Poor/Unstable Internet Connection. specific difficulties you Noise / Human and pets’ intrusion. encountered, if any, during online classes? Communication and Time Management. Delivery of Learning.

As shown in Table 5, respondents were asked two (2) open-ended questions for them to freely answer their experiences and challenges encountered in the online

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classes. Qualitative data taken from the responses to the questions were analysed, and recurrent themes were identified. The open-ended questions received responses ranging from one-word answers to paragraph-length thoughts. Additionally, some of the responses do not genuinely answer the questions being asked which in result were deemed unreliable. Only 299 responses from question number 1 and 399 responses from question number 2 were considered usable, which are 71%, and 95% of the total number of responses, respectively. The recurring themes of the answers were matched to the challenges identified earlier. Question 1 In question number 1, the recurring themes observed from the answers of the students can be categorized based on the people involved, which are their classmates and their instructors. In terms of the communication between the students and their instructors, two main recurrent themes were observed: one of which is positive, and the other is negative. The students find the instructors approachable and considerate. As some of the students said: “If I have something to ask that I don't understand they are very responsive” and “It was fine communicating with my classmates and some of my instructors since we can message them from messenger or we can email them if ever there were things we cannot understand from the topics they discussed”. This shows that despite the situation, some of the students still consider their instructors are responsive and available to contact in other communication platforms. On the contrary, there are students who expressed their dismay and bad experience when it comes to communicating with their instructors. Some of the students said that: “Sometimes it takes weeks before some instructors reply on our questions using emails”, “the response from some instructors take a long time”, “instructors hardly communicate outside of Google Meet.”, “As for the instructors, some are somewhat unapproachable”. Comparing the statements earlier to these statements, it can be observed that some of the instructors do not communicate using alternative platform. This could be the reason why some of the messages of the students are not answered instantaneously or as soon as possible. As one student said: “Communicating with our instructors was not that good because you need to send private emails to them. Although it is possible, I think that it will be much easier if we can communicate with them through messenger/FB.”. Some students shared that they are hesitant in communicating with their instruction due to shyness or fear. Some of them are afraid to ask their instructors for clarification. As quoted in the following statements by some students in response to the question: “How was your experience communicating with your classmates and instructors?”.

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In terms of communication between a student and their classmates, two opposite themes were observed. Some of the students shared that there is good communication between their classmates. Students answered the question with: “My current classmates are cooperative and considerate, as if they were kind enough to perform our teamwork” and “I experienced that my classmates are very helpful in every time that we didn't understand the activities, I ask some of my classmates and I am thankful for that kind of classmates”. There are even students, probably first-year students, who were able to develop friendships with their classmates despite not being able to meet in person. As one of the students said: “I already made friends with my classmates even though it is an online class”. In addition, some students have learned to deal with communication difficulties. As seen in this response to the question from one student: “At first it was really hard. But as time passed by, we are exercising on how to communicate properly with each other”. On the other hand, there are students who think that there is an existing problem in communicating with their classmates. Problems encountered typically happen when they are given a group task that needs them to collaborate with each other. As students have put it in describing what she experienced: “It is difficult to communicate especially when we are doing groupings, mostly only one will do the work and it is unfair”, “Kind of difficult in terms of group collaboration”, and “I see, and experience being left out because they do not want to open up with other classmates”. This shows that students are encountering difficulties in communicating with their classmates in terms of group collaborative projects. Moreover, difficulty in communication with their classmates are rooted from the reason that there are students who have personal matters to attend to and prioritize. One of the students put it in the description as: “It is difficult to communicate with classmates because some of them have work”. Other related aspects observed were the problems that they encounter with background noises, unavailability of devices, and unstable internet access. A student state that: “It is hard sometimes communicating with my classmates because not all of us have reliable internet and some have no means of buying gadgets”. This shows that the unavailability or slow speed of the internet is a contributing factor in hindering the students in having good communication with their classmates.

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Question 2 The students were asked to answer specific difficulties that they encountered, and they mentioned several of them. Table 5 shows the four main themes that the students identified as hard based on their replies to the second open-ended question. In the technological aspect, one of the students answered that the challenge he encountered is “The unreliable internet connection which makes it difficult to students to understand the instructor or his/her classmates while having an online discussion”. Also, another student commented: “When the internet connection is poor, while the teacher is discussing the lesson. In the end, I didn't understand the lesson”. This shows that one of the main recurring themes is that the students are having trouble with their internet connection. This can be attributed to the countries’ average internet speed which is known to be slow compared to its neighboring countries like Singapore and Thailand (Natividad, 2021). This problem leads to several issues raised by the students such as the fact that it affects how they understand and hear the discussion because the sound is choppy, being delayed or late in submitting activities due to attaching file issues and answering online quizzes and examinations. Another theme related to technology is the availability of the required device. The students said that: “Device does not support the program needed to compile”, “I do not have a laptop so sometimes I cannot do the things I should do with my phone”, and “The gadgets or mediums that I have for the online class are still not that advanced, compared to what specs are preferable in the present times”. As computer studies students, they are taught to use software applications to support learning especially in classes that have laboratory activities like programming. However, some students are not well equipped with the devices that can support the software programs which need high device specifications as minimum requirements. Another recurring theme found is more of a concern about the instructors and delivery of learning. Some of the students stated that: “One of my instructors is lazy in terms of updating and teaching us”, “[The challenge I encountered is] the schedule of the class because sometimes some instructors does not announce the time of class resulting to me not being able to join the class”, “Lack of actual demonstration”, and “Sometimes lack in explaining the lessons properly. Not elaborated”. This shows that there are still some lapses by some of the instructors in delivering the instructions and handling the online classes. Aside from that, another recurring theme lies within the Human and Pets’ Intrusion domain. As the student has said

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“Our surrounding is sometimes too noisy” and ““I also find it hard to study here in our home because I feel like the environment is not suitable for it”. Students are having trouble focusing on the discussion since there are distractions. Another common theme recurring in the answer was in the communication domain. This is one of the assertions that some students struggled with, as indicated above in the section on students' perceptions. The following statements were mentioned by the students: “Communication when I have some questions in mind and some activities”, “Communication with instructors through social media messaging application”, and “When it comes to group work it is hard to collaborate with the other members”. It was also apparent that the students whose concerns are related to the communication domain also encountered troubles in time management. Some of these are also working students. The results of the study shows that there are several concerns regarding the encountered challenges during the online classes that need to be taken into account: First, the communication and interaction between instructors and students and vice versa. Second, the delivery of the instructions. Instructors should be engaged in ensuring that the students learned from the course and provides assessment tools to identify such; And third, instructors should, at least, help ease the technical dilemmas experienced by the students. Although there were sample size and study limitations, this research could be considered in improving the conduct of online classes.

5. Recommendations Based on the findings gained from the quantitative and qualitative results, the following recommendations are proposed for faculty, curriculum and instruction designers, and academic administrators: Communication, Social interaction, and presence. Since students participate in online classes from different locations, they are restricted to have the option to meet or speak with their peers (Martin et al., 2018). It is critical that, aside from lectures, online classes allow students to communicate, ask for support, and establish bonds and relationship with their peers. On the other hand, communication with instructors should also be given attention because it can affect the learning of a student. There should be a clear, available, and accessible schedule for the consultation hours that will be agreed upon by both the students and instructors apart from the actual class schedule. Also, the instructors should specify what platform they will be using for the consultation. Lapses in delivery of instructors. One factor seen to be affecting how the students immerse with the lessons delivered to them is their motivation. It is imperative

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for the instructor to make use of an effective strategy that could encourage deep engagement. The instructors should, at least, provide more engagement activities that will strengthen social interaction amongst the students and strategize on how to teach his lessons that will motivate the students to participate during class discussion. In Kearns’s (2012) study, in sake of efficiency, it is recommended to look for chances to provide feedback to the whole class as opposed to individual students. Also, there should be constant monitoring and observation on the part of faculty members by the program coordinators and/or the Dean of the College to make sure that the faculty members are conducting their classes based on the given class schedule. The instructors should also attend webinars and training relative to the field of their specialization to further improve their teaching and have mastery in the courses assigned to them. Technology and Noise. Friedman (2020) says that staying in touch with the instructor and informing them about the student's technical challenges is vital in order to overcome the student's technical issues. Students should be given sufficient instructions on how to use the online learning environment. Also, if permitted, the instructors may try to look for a more suitable means on how to conduct their classes to avoid or, at least, lessen the problem identified. There are platforms that contain features that can reduce the noise of the surroundings if not eliminated.

6. Conclusion The researchers aimed to identify the students’ experiences and challenges encountered when it comes to online learning. In this study, a concurrent nested mixed-methods approach was employed. It was carried out through the use of a Google Forms-based questionnaire. This study concludes that the computer studies students in Laguna State Polytechnic University-San Pablo City campus identified and experienced several challenges during their online classes. Recurring themes that emerged from the findings are communication, feedback, and social interaction issues, delivering teaching and learning issues, technical issues, and noise and human intrusion. The findings of the survey questionnaire indicated that about half of the respondents gave a neutral response, however, the majority of the non-neutral respondents acknowledged that communicating with their classmates, especially in group collaborative projects, is proving tough. Furthermore, the findings revealed that the instructors’ teaching methodologies are effective and delivered in a satisfactory manner. In terms of the technical issues in online classes, the result showed that the students continue to have inadequate and unreliable internet connections and experience distraction from noise and people around them in their homes. The study's findings are also seen to serve as baseline information for the college to redesign or revise policies that are relevant and responsive to the coming semesters. This study has implications for informing faculty, curriculum and instruction designers, and academic administrators about the students’ needs and what areas should be considered to improve teaching and learning delivery in the coming semesters and academic years

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7. Limitation and Future Research However, there were certain drawbacks to this study, such as the fact that the findings could not be generalized. It is suggested to conduct research specific to the challenges encountered such as communication, interaction, collaboration, and lapses in teaching delivery with more equitable methodologies, sampling, and analyses. On the other hand, instead of focusing on the challenges, the study may focus on examining the impact of online learning on students' performance, grades, or achievements. Furthermore, this study only looked at the challenges encountered by the students, and it is possible that the study's scope will be expanded in the future to include institutions as well as statements from educators who are active in online learning.

8. References Adedoyin, O. B., & Soykan, E. (2020). Covid-19 pandemic and online learning: the challenges and opportunities. Interactive Learning Environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1813180 Alam, A. (2020). Challenges and Possibilities of Online Education during Covid-19. Preprints 2020. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202006.0013.v1 Almaiah, M. A., Al-Khasawneh, A., & Althunibat, A. (2020). Exploring the critical challenges and factors influencing the E-learning system usage during COVID19 pandemic. Education and Information Technologies, 25, 5261-5280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10219-y Anshari, M., Alas, Y., Sabtu, N. P. H., & Hamid, M. S. A. (2016). Online Learning: trends, issues and challenges in the Big Data Era. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society, 12(1). https://www.learntechlib.org/p/171433/ Barrot, J. S., Llenares, I. I. & del Rosario, L. S. (2021). Students’ online learning challenges during the pandemic and how they cope with them: The case of the Philippines. Educ Inf Technol 26, 7321–7338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10589-x Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa Callo, E. C., & Yazon, A. D. (2020). Exploring the factors influencing the readiness of faculty and students on online teaching and learning as an alternative delivery mode for the new normal. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(8), 35093518. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.080826 Cheng, X. (2020). Challenges of'school’s out, but class’s on'to school education: Practical exploration of Chinese schools during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Sci Insigt Edu Front, 5(2), 501-516. https://doi.org/10.15354/sief.20.ar043 Chiu, T. K. F., Lin, T. J. & Lonka, K. (2021) Motivating Online Learning: The Challenges of COVID-19 and Beyond. Asia-Pacific Edu Res 30, 187–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-021-00566-w De Vera III, J. (2019). CHED COVID Advisory No. 2 – Guidelines for Prevention, Control, and Mitigation of the Spread of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). Commission on Higher Education. https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/CHED-COVID-2019-Advisory-No.2.pdf Friedman, J. (2020). Tackle Challenges of Online Classes due to COVID-19, US News. https://www.usnews.com/education/best-colleges/articles/how-to-overcomechallenges-of-online-classes-due-to-coronavirus

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Gilbert, B. (2015). Online learning revealing the benefits and challenges. Education Masters. Paper 303. https://fisherpub.sjfc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1304&context=educatio n_ETD_masters Gillett-Swan, J. (2017). The challenges of online learning: Supporting and engaging the isolated learner. Journal of Learning Design, 10(1), 20-30. https://doi.org/10.5204/jld.v9i3.293 Hermanto, Y. B., & Srimulyani, V. A. (2021). The challenges of online learning during the covid-19 pandemic. Jurnal Pendidikan Dan Pengajaran, 54(1), 46-57. http://dx.doi.org/10.23887/jpp.v54i1.29703 Kearns, L. R. (2012). Student assessment in online learning: Challenges and effective practices. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 8(3), 198. https://jolt.merlot.org/vol8no3/kearns_0912.pdf Koh, M. H., & Hill, J. R. (2009). Student perceptions of groupwork in an online course: Benefits and challenges. International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Education/Revue internationale du e-learning et la formation à distance, 23(2), 69-92. http://www.ijede.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/477 Kumar, S. (2015). 5 Common Problems Faced by Students In eLearning And how to Overcome Them. eLEarning Industry. https://elearningindustry.com/5common-problems-faced-by-students-in-elearning-overcome. Martin, F., Stamper, B., & Flowers, C. (2020). Examining student perception of their readiness for online learning: Importance and confidence. Online Learning, 24(2), 38-58. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v24i2.2053 Natividad, N. (2021). Why Internet Speeds in the Philippines Are So Slow. Vice World News. https://www.vice.com/en/article/n7vy3m/why-internet-speedsphilippines-slow-laws Pappas, C. (2014). Top 5 Most Common eLearning Challenges and How To Overcome Them. eLearning Industry. https://elearningindustry.com/5-common-elearningchallenges-overcome. Ribeiro, R. (2020). How University Faculty Embraced the Remote Learning Shift. EdTech Magazine. https://edtechmagazine.com/higher/article/2020/04/howuniversity-faculty-embraced-remote-learning-shift Saul, C. (2004). An overview of online learning. Second edition Chapter 1: an introduction to online learning Sutton, J., & Austin, Z. (2015). Qualitative research: Data collection, analysis, and management. The Canadian Journal of Hospital Pharmacy, 68(3), 226–231. PMC4485510. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4485510/ Swart, R. (2019). Thematic analysis of survey responses from undergraduate students. In SAGE Research Methods Datasets Part 2. SAGE Publications, Ltd. https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781526468666 Yusuf, B. N., & Ahmad, J. (2020). Are we prepared enough? A case study of challenges in online learning in a private higher learning institution during the Covid-19 outbreaks. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(5), 205-212. https://doi.org/10.14738/assrj.75.8211

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 285-302, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.16 Received Jan 6, 2022; Revised Feb 18, 2022; Accepted Feb 25, 2022

Educators’ Motivation and Intention within the UTAUT Model to Adopt the Flipped Classroom: A Scoping Review Rusliza Yahaya*

, Mohamad Rohieszan Ramdan

, Noor Lela Ahmad

Rosmini Ismail , Khalizul Khalid and Mohd Abdullah Jusoh Faculty of Management and Economics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia Rosmah Mat Isa Faculty of Economics and Management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract. There is a growing concern for educational institutions to transform and innovate their teaching and learning pedagogy to meet today's demands. This phenomenon is reflected in the rise of the flipped or inverted classroom. However, the motivation and intention of educators to transform from conventional teaching to flipped classrooms is poorly understood. Therefore, a scoping review of the literature was undertaken to identify important determinants in educators’ motivation and intention within the UTAUT model to use the flipped classroom. Databases searched included the Web of Science, Scopus, and ERIC databases. Arksey and O’Malley’s five-stage framework was utilized as the method for the scoping review process. The findings reveal four main themes and twelve sub-themes regarding educators’ motivation and intention to implement the flipped classroom, of which social factors are the most dominant determinants. By examining the crucial determinants that influence the motivation and intention of adopting flipped classrooms, this study might assist educators in successfully making the change. Keywords: scoping review; flipped classroom; UTAUT model; intention; motivation; educators

1. Introduction The pedagogy of learning and education is experiencing substantial transformation owing to Industrial Revolution 4.0. Technological advancement demands educational institutions embrace technology in the curriculum, in *

Corresponding author: Rusliza Yahaya, rusliza@fpe.upsi.edu.my

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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learning, and in lifelong learning (Surianti, 2020). Thus, many educators have attempted to shift from the conventional lecture approach to using technology to improve students' learning motivation (Basri et al., 2021). Adopting innovative educational strategies, such as the flipped classroom, is unavoidable (Abdekhoda et al., 2019) and has received much attention from educators worldwide (Kiang & Yunus, 2021; Zheng et al., 2020). More importantly, the flipped classroom can help students learn more effectively and prepare them for the challenges of 21stcentury career demands (Al-Shabibi & Al-Ayasra, 2019). The flipped classroom emphasizes active learning through technology as a bridge between teaching and learning (Tune et al., 2013). Numerous flipped models have been suggested and successfully implemented. For instance, Bergmann and Sams (2012) suggest the traditional flipped classroom, which focused on content delivery. On the other hand, Tune et al. (2013) propose a more advanced model that divides modified flipped classes into several phases. First, students receive lecture notes and watch recorded lectures before class. Then, quizzes administered at the start of class are given to students, followed by class discussions about issues or concerns about the course content. Finally, the lesson is reinforced by assigning homework or practising tasks based on class discussions. Eventually, the instructor’s function effectively shifts from material delivery to facilitation and assistance (Tune et al., 2013). As a result, students participate more actively than teachers in classroom activities. The teacher serves as a facilitator, guiding and providing feedback on students’ performance (Bergmann & Sams, 2012) rather than the traditional lecture-based approach. The flipped classroom has a favourable effect on students’ understanding, expertise, and participation (Fuchs, 2021), and it improves learning performance (Akçayır & Akçayır, 2018). The approach promotes active learning, student learning responsibility, and peer cooperation (Ghufron & Nurdianingsih, 2021); it supports efficient communication and engagement among students, and enhances their pragmatic ability (Hazaymeh & Altakhaineh 2019). Other reported benefits of the flipped classroom are improvements in students’ self-regulation methods, such as independent study before class (Blau & Shamir Inbal, 2017; Green & Schlairet 2017). As a result, students gain opportunities for discussion and interaction both inside and outside the classroom, ultimately improving their performance (Tune et al., 2013). 1.1 Measuring Motivation and Intention of Teachers in Using Flipped Classroom in Teaching within Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) Today, many schools and institutions accept the use of technology, mainly information and communication technologies (ICTs), both inside and outside the classroom, to enhance teaching and learning pedagogy. As this study intended to determine the motivation and intention of educators in adopting a flipped classroom, the UTAUT model was utilized to explore the individual acceptance of this new technology (Ventakesh et al., 2003). It is evident in the previous literature that technology acceptance models, specifically the UTAUT model, have been employed in studies related to e-learning and flipped classrooms (e.g., Abd Rahman et al., 2021; Bakheet & Gravell, 2020; Gunasinghe & Nanayakkara, 2021;

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Long et al., 2018; Radovan & Kristl, 2017). Hence, this model best underpins the motivation and intention to use the new pedagogy concerning technology usage. In this model, the four key determinants of technological choice and utilization are: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating condition. Performance expectancy is a person’s belief that using the system would boost work output. Effort expectancy is the ease of using the system. Social influence is how others think they should use a new strategy. The last determinant, facilitating condition, refers to the belief that an organizational and technological infrastructure exists to support system use (Ventakesh et al., 2003). Research on the flipped classroom model has recently gained widespread popularity (AlJarrah et al., 2018) owing to its benefits. Previous research has demonstrated that flipped classrooms have a positive effect on student satisfaction and acceptance (Zain et al., 2019), on critical thinking skills (BaniHamad & Alzubaidi, 2021), motivation (Sergis et al., 2018), engagement (Elmaadaway, 2017), learning achievement (Lento, 2016; Tune et al., 2013; Thai et al., 2017), and self-efficacy (Lento, 2016; Tune et al., 2013; Thai et al., 2017). Nevertheless, the research on flipped classrooms published in high impact journals such as the Web of Science (WoS), Scopus, and ERIC databases focuses more on students’ perceptions of a flipped classroom (such as Chan et al., 2020; Zainudin & Attaran, 2016) than on educators’ intention and motivation to adopt flipped classrooms, which is relatively scarce (Chellapan et al., 2018). Most of the studies are limited to the conceptual model of the flipped classroom (Abdekhoda et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2017), the application of flipped classrooms (Elmaadaway, 2017; Pattanaphanchai, 2019), students’ experiences (Green & Schlairet, 2017; Sergis et al., 2018), and attitudes and perceptions of flipped classroom learning (Chan et al., 2020; Zainudin & Attaran, 2016). Long et al. (2018) indicated that further research on the determinant variables influencing educators’ adoption of the flipped classroom is desirable. Since incorporating technology into teaching and learning is critical, it is crucial to explore prominent elements that impact educators’ decisions to adopt the flipped classroom approach. To that end, this study will produce a complete map of themes related to educators’ motivation and intention to adopt flipped classrooms within the UTATU model. Understanding the motivation and intention that drive the educators to choose flipped classrooms might assist professionals in better supporting these innovations and improving educators’ adoption of technology.

2. Materials and Method A scoping review frequently includes literature, conceptual, and policy mapping (Anderson, Allen, Peckham & Goodwin, 2008). It is widely used, especially in less rigorous evidence, and incorporates literature from various study designs (O’Flaherty & Phillips, 2015). A scoping review can also identify gaps in the evidence base, summarise and convey conclusions, and determine the necessity for a systematic review or not (Peterson, Pearce, Ferguson & Langford, 2016). In contrast, a systematic review answers specific questions with defined methodologies (O’Brien, Wilkins, Zack & Solomon, 2010; Ramdan, Abdullah, Mat Isa & Hanafiah, 2021). Based on Arksey and O’Malley’s (2005) five-stage framework, there are five stages in conducting scoping reviews, as follows:

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Stage 1: Identifying a research question. Our review focused on exploring critical determinants of the educators’ intention and motivation to adopt the flipped classroom in the context of the UTAUT model. We presented the following research questions to ensure that a broad spectrum of literature was gathered: Research question 1: What are the determining factors in educators’ motivation and intention to adopt the flipped classroom? Research question 2: What is the dominant factor that influences educators to adopt a flipped classroom? Stage 2: Identifying relevant studies. Key terms in search queries were employed to get “broad coverage” of existing literature. Content linked to educators’ intentions and motivations to embrace the flipped classroom in the context of the UTAUT model was collected using key themes and search terms (for details of scoping review search terms, see Table 1). Several search and retrieval attempts were conducted across three multidisciplinary academic databases to update key terms: Web of Science, Scopus, and ERIC (Education Resources Information Center). Stage 3: Screening to remove redundant articles. We established specific inclusion/exclusion criteria for the articles considered for analysis. In the initial screening process, only research articles were chosen. Therefore, conference proceedings, book series, books, and book chapters were excluded due to the fact that they do not meet inclusion criteria. Only English-language articles written between 2017 and 2021 were included in terms of language and year of publication. As this scoping review aimed to find the determinants of motivation and intention of educators in adopting a flipped classroom, articles that focused on students were excluded. Articles from computer science, decision sciences, engineering, psychology, energy, and medicine were also excluded to avoid irrelevant articles,. Stage 4: Data charting and collation. Data on author, year, study design, location, objective, variables or constructs, significant findings, and theme suggestions were charted. All the relevant data collected were keyed in Microsoft Excel software to facilitate the thematic and comparative analysis. Stage 5: Summarising and reporting findings. Finally, we compiled common themes and results from the articles to identify the determinants of the educators’ motivation and intention to adopt the flipped classroom within the UTAUT model, and the breadth of new issues investigated in this field. Table 1: Search strings for WoS, Scopus and ERIC Database search string WoS All Fields ( (“Flipped classroom” OR “flipped learning” OR “inverted classroom” OR “blended learning”) AND (“Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology” OR “technology adoption” OR “technology acceptance” OR “technology use”) ) Scopus TITLE-ABS-KEY ( (“Flipped classroom” OR “flipped learning” OR “inverted classroom” OR “blended learning”) AND (“Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology” OR “technology adoption” OR “technology acceptance” OR “technology use”) )

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ERIC

( (“Flipped classroom” OR “flipped learning” OR “inverted classroom” OR “blended learning”) AND (“Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology” OR “technology adoption” OR “technology acceptance” OR “technology use”) )

3. Findings The database search yielded 428 papers for this scoping review. Thirty-four redundant items were removed from the original hit. Based on the title and abstract, 271 publications were removed because they were not empirical research articles, but focused on systematic review, meta-analysis, etc. After a thorough analysis of the remaining 123 papers, 109 were deemed irrelevant to the scoping study’s goal. Finally, based on suggested reporting items for systemic reviews, only 14 publications were deemed to be relevant and to satisfy the study’s goal (PRISMA; Moher et al., 2015; see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Flow diagram of the study selection process using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) (adapted from Moher et al., 2015)

In sum, the selection of articles for the scoping review process was based on specific important criteria to make this scoping review rigorous. First, the choice of journal articles was limited to quantitative, qualitative, and mixed empirical research methods written in English and published between 2017 and 2021. Owing to a lack of systematization and openness, conventional evaluations excluded conference proceedings (Hodgkinson & Ford, 2014). Second, a study on a specific topic that had continued for at least five years demonstrated the subject’s maturity (Kraus et al., 2020). Thus, this study chose high-quality publications for scoping review within five years.

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3.1 Main Findings Table 2 shows the fourteen studies which were chosen, based on the selection criteria: seven quantitative studies (Abd Rahman, Md Yunus & Hashim, 2021; Dakduk, Santalla-Banderali & van der Woude, 2018; Durak, 2019; GómezCarrasco, Monteagudo-Fernández, Moreno-Vera & Sainz-Gómez, 2020; Gunasinghe & Nanayakkara, 2021; Long, Cummins & Waugh, 2019; Radovan & Kristl, 2017), six qualitative studies (Arpaci & Basol, 2020; Cevikbas & Kaiser, 2020; Dogusoy, 2020; Khan & Abdou, 2021; Killian, Woods, Graber & Templin, 2020; Sun & Gao, 2019), and one mixed-method study (Sánchez-Gómez, MartínGarcía & Mena, 2020). Most of the studies (n=4) were conducted in Turkey (Arpaci & Basol, 2020; Cevikbas & Kaiser, 2020; Dogusoy, 2020; Durak, 2019), followed by Spain (n=2) (Gómez-Carrasco et al., 2020; Sánchez-Gómez et al., 2020) and the United States (n=2) (Killian et al., 2020; Long et al., 2019). One study on the flipped classroom within the UTAUT model had been conducted in each of the following countries: India (Gunasinghe & Nanayakkara, 2021), Malaysia (Abd Rahman et al., 2021), Bangladesh (Khan & Abdou, 2021), China (Sun & Gao, 2019), Colombia (Dakduk et al., 2018) and Slovenia (Radovan & Kristl, 2017). The scoping identified four major themes regarding motivation and intention to adopt flipped learning classrooms. The major headings were: educator intention, online learning, educator satisfaction and teaching method. First, educator intention is a behavioral intention that will be impacted by “attitude” and “subjective norms” directly affecting an educator’s behavioral intention in using flipped classrooms (Abd Rahman et al., 2021; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Many technology acceptance studies use the intention to study as a variable that impacts the future adoption of a particular technology (Kim, 2021). Second, online learning is in high demand nowadays owing to technological advancement, the new generation who are IT savvy, and innovation in teaching and learning pedagogy. Online learning allows students to study at their own pace and to focus on what they want to know (Tang et al., 2020). It also provides various benefits, including flexibility in time while performing tasks, especially for educators (Keengwe & Kidd, 2010). Third, educator satisfaction is synonymous with job satisfaction to describe the positive emotional reaction to a position that emerges from assessing whether the role fulfils or satsifies the worker’s organizational ideals (Escobedo, Cjuno & Hernández, 2020). An organizational factor that is thought to affect educators’ satisfaction with instructional programmes is the degree of control educators have over the place of learning and the design and implementation of these processes, which is heavily influenced by how resources for these programmes are allocated to the area of knowledge (Nir & Bogler, 2008). Finally, the teaching method has characterized direct teaching as a strategy in which an educator talks, exhibits, models, and illustrates the learning abilities (Kassop, 2003). The crucial aspect of this strategy is the educators. The educators oversee the learning scenario and steer the path (Mohammadjani & Tonkaboni, 2015).

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Table 2: Analysis of Literature Reviewed Publication, Study Design and Location Gunasinghe and Nanayakkara (2021) Quantitative study India

Abd Rahman et al. (2021) Quantitative study Malaysia

Khan and Abdou (2021) Qualitative study Bangladesh

Arpaci and Basol (2020) Quantitative study Turkey

Aim

Variables/ Construct

Key findings

Theme

Assess the significance of technology anxiety within the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) paradigm by assessing Sri Lankan university lecturers’ VLE (Virtual Learning Environments) adoption intentions. Examine the unified technology adoption and usage theory concerning ESL instructors’ intentions to employ flipped learning. To explore the available opensource (free) technologies that could be used and to examine the suitability of flipped classroom. method during the COVID-19 pandemic. To grasp the ramifications of technology integration in education.

Independent: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions. Mediating: technology anxiety. Moderating: age, gender. Dependent: VLE adoption intention.

Performance expectations and facilitating conditions correlated positively with VLE adoption intention, but technological fear had a substantial adverse effect. Technology anxiety positively impacted performance and effort expectancy, but only performance expectancy showed a mediating effect. Finally, the lecturer’s age and gender moderated all hypothesized correlations.

Performance expectancy and facilitating conditions influenced educator intention.

Independent: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social factors, facilitating conditions. Dependent: ESL intention to use the flipped learning approach. Case study: An experienced teacher conducted an online class (modified flipped classroom) as an experiment at the beginning of lockdown.

Social influence predicted ESL instructors’ propensity to employ flipped learning. Performance expectations, effort expectations, and enabling environments, on the other hand, had a negative influence on ESLs’ willingness to employ the flipped learning technique. The study proposed a modified flipped classroom technique. The first part (online learning space): Gmail group, Google drive, and Facebook group. The second part (online classes): Zoom platform.

Social factors influence educator intention.

Independent: selfefficacy, perceived anxiety, selfregulation, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness. Mediating: selfefficacy. Dependent: perceived ease of use, continuous intention.

Self-regulation and selfefficacy significantly affect perceived ease of use. Perceived anxiety negatively influences perceived ease of use and self-efficacy. Conversely, self-efficacy mediates the relationship between perceived anxiety and perceived ease of use. The results also showed that perceived ease of use positively influences perceived usefulness. Perceived usefulness and ease of use positively

Perceived ease of use influences educator intention.

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Flipped classroom approach to online learning.

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Dogusoy (2020) Qualitative study Turkey

Cevikbas and Kaiser (2020) Qualitative study Turkey

GómezCarrasco et al. (2020) Quantitative study Spain

Sánchez-Gómez et al. (2020) Mixed-method design Spain

influence the desire to utilize flipped classrooms. The flipped classroom was a unique and demanding approach; prospective instructors expressed high satisfaction. Even though they struggled with creating digital stories, the flipped classroom design may have improved their learning experience. They also had great experiences with technology in this pre-school age. The tasks set by the instructor, the applied discourse, teacher feedback and scaffolding, and the teaching-learning environment were adjusted in FCs, showing the strengths of conventional teaching methodologies.

Investigate the flipped classroom experiences of prospective preschool teachers while collectively producing digital stories.

Regarding prospective teachers’ selfefficacy to utilize technology, frequency of usage, Internet access tools, and interest in new technologies.

Examine one mathematics teacher’s transformation of teaching through the use of flipped classroom (FC) methodologies. Identify numerous critical features of FC design and obstacles and possibilities presented by teaching mathematics in FCs. Analyze the impact of a flipped classroom and gamification training programme on trainee teachers’ learning views and results.

Question: (1) environment, (2) interaction, (3) feedback and scaffolding and, (4) assessment.

Independent: Trainee teachers’ perception of the training programme tactics and approaches; how future teachers think they learned in the training programme, and how well they think they can write teaching proposals.

A positive evaluation of the training program’s learning outcomes and methodologies. The learning outcomes were good but not as good as expected.

Training program on educator satisfaction.

The views, expectations, and attitudes of university faculty toward blended learning (BL).

Quantitative: The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Qualitative: advantages and disadvantages of BL.

The variable intention largely determined the lecturers’ acceptance of the use of BL. Furthermore, the implementation of BL is linked to various viewpoints (benefits and drawbacks) and the main demands of these lecturers. Practice-based cases, improved digital skills, peer learning, and increased interactions were all positive

Attitudes on educator intention.

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Technological tools enhance educator satisfaction.

Integration of traditional approach into the flipped classroom as a teaching method.

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Killian et al. (2020) Qualitative study United States

Sun and Gao (2019) Qualitative study China

Long et al. (2019) Quantitative study United States Durak (2019) Quantitative study Turkey

Examine the factors that influence high school Physical Education (PE) instructors’ use of an additional online educational system.

Transcript texts: perceived programmatic, instructional, and inclusivity improvements.

To understand the responsibilities of school leaders and teachers in an ICT-based instructional transformation and how these roles interact.

Document analysis: - school policy, regulations, and timetables; - reflecting teaching and learning Interview: an executive Viceprincipal who had initiated and overseen the instructional reform, related school administrators and 13 subject teachers. Observations: monitored everyday school work, including lessons and meetings. Independent: performance expectancy, technology selfefficacy, facilitation conditions. Dependent: adoption decision. Independent: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence. Moderating: Gender, branch, SNS use, technological literacy, satisfaction, academic selfefficacy, self-

Examining the elements that influence a higher education instructor’s decision to use a flipped classroom. Study the acceptance and use of Social Network Sites (SNSs) by preservice teachers, based on the UTAUT model.

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aspects. The disadvantages were time and effort, a lack of coordination among teachers, higher classroom ratios, and difficulties tracking assignment submissions. Four main categories were created: perceived programmatic, instructional, and inclusiveness gains; little personal and student usage effort; school and curriculum provider supported facilitated use; and administrators mandate long-term use. Lesson improvement requires school leadership. Aside from the executive Vice-principal, the school’s leadership was spread and stretched thin. As a result, the school developed pedagogical and organizational structures to help instructors become learners, facilitators of student-centred learning, collaborators, and researchers.

Social factors influence educator intention.

Social factor and technology tools influence educator intention.

Facilitation condition was significantly correlated with instructors’ adoption decisions, but performance expectancy and technology self-efficacy were not significant.

Facilitation condition on educator intention.

Social effect, performance expectation, and effort expectation influence the acceptance of SNSs for educational purposes. Selfefficacy, self-directed learning and motivation are a significant predictor.

Social effect, performance expectation, and effort expectation influence educator intention.

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Dakduk et al. (2018) Quantitative study Colombia

Radovan and Kristl (2017) Quantitative study Slovenia

Investigate the elements that influence the acceptability of Blended Learning (BL) in executive education using the Extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT2)

Examines higher education instructors’ adoption and use of learning management systems (LMS) and the relationship between their use of such systems and their teaching styles in the context of online learning.

directed learning, and motivation Dependent: behavioral intention, usage. Independent: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions, hedonic motivation, habits. Moderating: age, gender, experience. Dependent: behavioral intention.

Independent: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, facilitating conditions. Dependent: behavioral intention, planning and organization of learning, guidance and facilitating discussions, social presence, cognitive presence.

Performance expectancy, effort expectancy and hedonic motivation have a significant effect on behavioral intention. However, social influence and habits have no significant impact on behavioral intention. The results also show that age and gender can be a moderator to the relationship between hedonic motivation and behavioral intention, and experience can be a moderator to the relationship between habit and behavioral intention. Social influence significantly affects performance expectancy, effort expectancy and facilitating conditions. Social influence and facilitating conditions significantly affect behavioral intention. Behavioral intention has a significant effect on use behavior. Use behavior and performance expectancy significantly effect planning and organization of learning. Planning and organization of learning significantly impact guidance and facilitating discussions. Guidance and facilitating discussions have a significant effect on social presence and cognitive presence.

Performance expectancy, effort expectancy and hedonic motivation influence educator intention.

Social factors influence educator intention.

4. Discussion This scoping study provides an overview of educators’ motivations and intentions for adopting the flipped classroom within the scope of the UTAUT model and makes specific recommendations for future educational research development. Previous research (e.g., Carlsson, Carlsson, Hyvonen, Puhakainen & Walden, 2006; Cheng, Liu, Song & Qian, 2008) demonstrated that the social factor was a significant predictor of behavioral intention. In line with this, Abd Rahman et al. (2021) suggest that the social factor is the most important motivational factor in educators adopting flipped classroom practice as a new pedagogy in teaching and learning. A study conducted by Durak (2019) concluded that social effects were

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the most significant objectives that motivate educators to use technology in education. He found that peers and friends influence educators' intentions to adopt and use technology for educational purposes. Other social factors, such as parent-school involvement (Agyie & Razi, 2021), colleagues, administrators and the existing environment also influence the intention of educators to adopt a flipped classroom in their teaching and learning processes (Maldonado et al., 2009; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000; Weimer, 2002). The findings further suggest that the Ministry of Education provide flipped classroom training to create an ambience to encourage educators, particularly new educators (Seaboyer, 2013). Furthermore, the findings revealed that online learning, educator satisfaction, and teaching methods were essential themes that should be considered since these determinants influence flipped classroom adoption among educators. According to Tang et al. (2020), most colleges and universities use online learning to satisfy their students’ demands. Since many schools have switched to an online teaching style, flipped classrooms are becoming more appealing and being adopted by educators from schools to colleges (Hoshang et al., 2021; Tang et al., 2020). The extensive use of online resources and merging online education with flipped classrooms may create a new blended learning paradigm (Valiathan, 2002). Apart from the demand for online learning, educators’ satisfaction with their prior experience and knowledge in social networks and technologies determines their behavioral intention to use technology in the future (Durak, 2019). Similarly, Unal and Unal (2017) asserted that most teachers who were satisfied with flipped classrooms experience felt more motivated to adopt it again because it was more fun than teaching using the traditional method. However, the process of flipping the classrooms may be complex as this innovative teaching method increases teacher workload (Cevikbas & Kaiser, 2020). The challenges of flipping are also tied to out-of-class activities, such as the often reported lack of proper student preparation before class (Akçayır & Akçayır, 2018). There were concerns about increasing student workload, ambiguities around desired learning results, and an initial barrier to participation (Fuchs, 2021). Hence, educators found it challenging to employ the flipped classroom in certain subjects and preferred the traditional teaching method instead (Cevikbas & Kaiser, 2020). Even though some educators think conventional teaching methods are preferable for a specific topic, Bakheet and Gravell (2020) discovered that they still preferred and intended to use flipped classroom approaches to create a better teaching method. For example, through the flipped classroom approach, educators or teachers can play their roles in assisting students’ work and help them find their own solutions rather than mandating one. This approach is aligned with social constructivist theory, which posits that active participation from individuals in a dyad relationship helps create their knowledge (Schreiber & Valle, 2013). Based on the discussion of the findings, our study proposed a framework of the determinants of educators’ motivation and intentions to implement the flipped classroom (see Figure 2).

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Figure 2: Framework on themes regarding educators’ motivation and intentions to implement the flipped classroom within the UTAUT model

A few implications were derived from the results. First, in terms of theoretical implications, social factors were shown to be potent determinants of educators’ motivation and intention to adopt the flipped classroom within the UTAUT model. This study was based on motivation and intention within the UTAUT model, and empirical data was collected for methodological implications. Second, the study on flipped classrooms emphasized that the transformation in teaching and learning pedagogy should incorporate technology to make the education more flexible and allow for the participation of both educators and students in cocreating knowledge. These findings extend social constructivist theory by incorporating information technology to assist the co-creation of learning through social technology. Finally, in terms of practical implications, educators may modify or enhance certain aspects of the flipped classroom by finding strong predictors within the UTAUT model, notably in managing technology, that all educators had to embrace when the COVID-19 epidemic struck the world.

5. Limitation and Recommendations This analysis examined only a selection of papers from WoS, Scopus, and ERIC databases. Nonetheless, the trend hinted at a potential increase in publications. In addition, the topic of educators’ intentions and motivation to adopt the flipped classroom within the UTAUT model has lately drawn much attention and concern among scholars. Existing studies from various geographic locations indicate that the problem is extensive and immediate, and further research is needed to assist

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educators in implementing flipped classrooms. Utilizing databases like ProQuest and Springer would enable the collection of more comprehensive data and systematic evaluations of the literature. A systematic review finds, integrates, and assesses all relevant data in quantitative and qualitative techniques to produce an observationally determined answer to a committed research inquiry (Petrosino et al., 2001). As a result, future research initiatives may benefit from more database resources in conducting a more in-depth examination of educators’ motivations and intentions within the UTAUT model for adopting the flipped classroom. For practical purposes, all educational institutions, including universities, colleges, and schools, should adopt the flipped classroom approach as a new pedagogy in teaching and learning to produce more successful students in academic and co-curricular areas in the future. Policymakers should explore the motivation and intention of adopting flipped learning within the UTAUT model to motivate and influence educators’ intention to utilize new technology such as a flipped classroom. They should also create a conducive environment when incorporating technology into education.

6. Conclusion It is becoming clear that, although educational institutions perceive efficiencies in the flipped classroom when cost-cutting measures are increasing, educators view this as a chance to refresh the curriculum and build a more student-centred approach. The flipped classroom allows educators to promote critical and independent thinking in their students, creating lifelong learning and preparing future students with more critical and creative thinking. However, there is a concern that educators who are transforming their curriculum may not fully grasp the methodology necessary to convert a classroom to a flipped classroom owing to a lack of motivation or intention to adopt new technology. According to this scoping research, several factors motivate educators to adopt a flipped classroom within the UTAUT model. Our results showed that social factors, represented by the educators’ intention, played an essential role in influencing the educators’ decision to adopt flipped classrooms. The discussion also showed that online learning, educator satisfaction, and teaching methods were the critical factors in educators adopting flipped classrooms. Social factors predicted educators' behavioral intention and willingness within the UTAUT model to adopt the flipped classroom in terms of theoretical implications. In terms of practical implications, educators might discover significant predictors within the UTAUT model, particularly in managing technology, that all educators had to accept when the COVID-19 pandemic hit.

7. Acknowledgements This work was funded by a GPUBP: 2020-0077-107-01 research grant from Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 303-319, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.17 Received Dec 30, 2021; Revised Feb 18, 2022; Accepted Feb 21, 2022

Pre- and In-service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs: A Case Study of an English Language Teacher Education Programme in Albania Enriketa Sogutlu University College Beder, Tirana, Albania

Abstract. This study explores self-efficacy beliefs of pre- and in-service teachers enrolled at an English language teacher (ELT) education programme in a non-public university in Albania. Self-efficacy was assessed overall and in three dimensions: the use of instructional strategies, student engagement, and classroom management. It also investigates possible relationships between experience in teaching and teacher efficacy beliefs. The 51 participants in the study are all students at the ELT education programme, who are at the same time either pre- or inservice teachers. The data were collected through a teacher efficacy questionnaire delivered via Google forms, and descriptive, comparative, and correlational analyses were performed. The results revealed high rates of the respondents’ overall efficacy perceptions in teaching efficacy and each of its three dimensions. No significant correlation was found between the participants’ teaching experience and their self-efficacy or between their teaching experience and self-efficacy dimensions. Despite limitations, the study has implications for the ELT teacher education programme and suggests future directions for research in the sources of and aspects that influence teacher efficacy beliefs. Keywords: English language teachers; teacher efficacy; self-efficacy beliefs; teaching experience; EFL instruction

1. Introduction Belief of self-efficacy is a mechanism of personal agency that contributes most to an individual’s psychological functioning. People are more motivated or encouraged to act if they believe that their actions will produce the desired effect. Thus, one’s beliefs of self-efficacy serve as a guide of one’s life and constitutes a primary course of action (Linnenbrik-Garcia & Wormington, 2019). According to Bandura (1997), perceived self-efficacy “refers to beliefs in one’s capacity to organise and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (p. 3). Perceived self-efficacy is related to the judgements people have about their capability to achieve something. People who regard themselves as efficacious may ©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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be more successful than those who doubt their abilities, or, conversely, they may perform at a lower level than what they are capable of achieving. Successful performance requires a combination of both: the skills to accomplish something and the efficacy belief that one can achieve it. Thus, high perceived self-efficacy leads to higher performance accomplishments (Bandura, 1990; 2006) and people who have stronger self-efficacy intensify their efforts for higher performance attainment (Schunk & Dibenedetto, 2016). The theoretical basis for teacher efficacy dates back to the study conducted by RAND researchers, according to whom efficacy was conceived as the degree to which they were confident of affecting student performance (Rotter, 1966). Theories of teacher efficacy were also hugely influenced by Bandura’s work on the concept of self-efficacy, which he describes as an individual’s perceptions about their capacity to achieve a certain level of accomplishment (1977; 1994; 1999). These beliefs directly affect the choice of activities and behaviour and people with a strong perceived efficacy will usually make more efforts to achieve the expected result and are a source for higher teacher motivation (Fives & Michelle, 2016). Teachers’ specific instructional strategies and their application as well as students’ assessment of their own capabilities have a huge impact on student achievements. While some research findings may not always support such a connection (Haverback, 2009), other research suggests that higher levels of teacher efficacy lead to more effectiveness in classroom practice (Malmberg et al., 2014). Highly efficacious teachers tend to positively influence their students’ achievements and, as they consider difficult students’ learning problems as manageable, students tend to learn more from these teachers (Klassen et al., 2011). 1.1 Teacher Efficacy Teacher efficacy has also been defined as “teachers' belief or conviction that they can influence how well students learn, even those who may be difficult or unmotivated" (Guskey & Passaro, 1994, p. 627) or the “extent to which the teacher believes he or she has the capacity to affect student performance” (Berman et al., 1977, p. 137). It is related to their perceptions of the extent to which they can control and contribute to factors with an impact on the students’ learning. General educational research has revealed that teachers’ beliefs of self-efficacy have a direct impact on teacher and student achievements (Ross, 1994) and students’ attitudes towards school (Tschanen-Moran et al., 1998; Ahn & Bong, 2019). Self-efficacy beliefs are also reported to influence teachers’ decisions for instructional practices and their general teaching. For example, teachers with a low level of self-efficacy hold the belief that their own teaching does not influence students’ learning as strongly as external factors, while highly self-efficacious teachers believe that they can hugely contribute to their students’ learning and motivation (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Bandura, 1983). Some research has shown that teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs are a predictor of teachers’ success (Ghanizadeh & Moafian, 2011) and can also serve as a predictor of students’ academic success (Ashton & Webb, 1986). Other research has revealed that teachers who have little confidence in their capacity tend to have more classroom management problems, are not very optimistic about their students’ achievements, and resort to different

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types of punishment to tackle student misbehaviour (Woolfolk & Hoy, 1990; Woolfolk et al., 1990; Melby, 1995). In addition, teacher self-efficacy is considered a very influential paradigm in the actual organisation and execution of the necessary steps to successfully carry out a particular instructional activity in a certain situation (Patall, 2012; Temiz & Topcu, 2013). A recent study has explored the impact of teacher efficacy on twenty-first century pedagogical practice and has demonstrated that out of the three dimensions, it is only effectiveness in teaching strategies that influences twenty-first century pedagogical practice (Shafiee & Ghani, 2022). Thus, in cases of low teacher efficacy beliefs, application of intervention strategies can help to increase self-efficacy beliefs (Luszczynska & Schwarzer, 2020). However, in addition to this intervention based on the sources of self-efficacy, the identification of needs and opportunities to increase individual efficacy belief is also recommended (Warner & French, 2020). While a number of studies have investigated teacher efficacy in different subjects worldwide, including English language teaching in Albania, to the researcher’s knowledge, research in teacher efficacy has focused on the undergraduate level of elementary school, the preschool teacher education programme in public universities (Bilali, 2013), and on in-service primary school teachers (Lesha, 2017). However, the self-efficacy beliefs of pre- or in-service English language teachers have not been researched. Therefore, with its findings, this study is a modest contribution to the literature about English language teachers’ efficacy beliefs in the Albanian context and provides implications for education policy makers in Albania. It explores selfefficacy beliefs of pre- and in-service teachers enrolled in an ELT education programme as well as their efficacy beliefs in implementing instructional strategies, student engagement, and classroom management. It also examines the relationship between these dimensions and if any of them influences the others. Furthermore, it investigates the relationship between experience and efficacy beliefs; in other words, whether teaching experience has an impact on teacher efficacy beliefs. The research questions the study addresses are as follows: 1. What is the level of pre and in-service students’ perceived self-efficacy overall and in student engagement, use of instructional strategies, and classroom management? 2. Does any of the three self-efficacy dimensions influence self-efficacy beliefs overall or any of the other dimensions? 3. Is there a relationship between pre and in-service teachers’ teaching experience and their self-efficacy beliefs?

2. Methodology This study employs a quantitative methods approach as it allows the involvement of a larger number of respondents and running correlational analysis. A two-part questionnaire was delivered online to gather information about the respondents’ age, gender, and teaching experience, as well as their self-efficacy beliefs. To explore self-efficacy levels overall and in each of the three dimensions, the data

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were analysed descriptively. To explore possible relationships between the selfefficacy beliefs and teaching experience, correlational analysis of the data was performed. 2.1 Participants The population in this study are students from a professional master’s programme in English language teaching for upper secondary education in a nonpublic university in Albania and this research was conducted in the framework of reviewing the programme and informing university’s policy makers. According to the Albanian law on education, teachers at all levels of pre-university education, except preschool level, are required to hold a degree in a second cycle teacher preparation programme (Professional Master’s programme). Students enrolled in these programmes are graduates from bachelor study programmes who require a specialised degree in education in order to become teachers and/or in-service teachers, who are then expected to earn a master’s degree in order to either be able to receive further teacher qualifications or become certified teachers. Therefore, the participants in the study are both pre- and in-service teachers. The programme offers courses related to pedagogy, human development, and ELT methodology, and in the last (third) term of their studies, along with their thesis, preparation students are also engaged in teaching practicum for a 12-week period. The programme opened in the academic year 2014-2015 and of a total of 120 students enrolled up to the time the research was conducted, 55 had already graduated and only 65 were still studying. As shown in Table 1, out of 65 professional master’s students enrolled in the academic years 2018-2019 and 2019-2020, 51 students (78.4%) completed the questionnaire, which was sent via Google forms. 46 respondents (90.2%) were female and 5 (9.8%) were male. The respondents’ distribution by age was as follows: 22 were under 25 years of age, 21 were between 25 and 35 years old, and only 2 were between 46 and 55 years old. No participants were over the age of 55. Table 1: Distribution of participants by gender and age Age Under 25 25-34 35-45 46-55 Over 55 Total

Gender Female Male 21 1 18 3 5 1 2 0 46

Total 22 21 6 2 51

2.2 Data collection instrument The researcher developed a questionnaire with two sections. The first section collected demographic information about the respondents’ age, teaching experience, and gender. In addition, this section collected data about the respondents’ teaching experience and its duration, grouping them as follows: students still teaching, students who had taught for some time but had dropped out of the profession, and students with no experience in teaching.

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The second section is a 24-item questionnaire developed by Tschanen-Moran and Hoy (2001), which required the teachers to rate their self-efficacy levels on a 9point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 9 (a great deal). The notion of selfefficacy was measured by gathering data for respondents’ perceived self-efficacy through 8 items for each of these three dimensions: student engagement, use of instructional strategies, and classroom engagement. The questionnaire was delivered via Google forms and the collected data were processed in SPSS 26, running descriptive, comparative and correlational analyses. To measure the instrument’s reliability, Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of internal consistency and each of the three dimensions were calculated: use of instructional strategies (a=.876), student engagement (a=.826), and classroom engagement (a=.860) was found reliable (accepted level of reliability 0.7). Construct validity was measured through factor analysis and the KMO measure of sampling adequacy for each dimension was as follows: use of instructional strategies (.835), student engagement (.733), and classroom engagement (.792).

3. Results 3.1 Levels of self-efficacy beliefs The descriptive statistics for perceived self-efficacy level in general and in each of the three factors are displayed in Table 2. The results indicated that students enrolled in the English language teacher master’s programme have an overall high level of self-efficacy beliefs (M=7.73, Sd= .111 out of a maximum of nine). Meanwhile, the means of the three factors show that ELT students consider themselves almost equally efficacious in engaging students (M=7.76, Sd=.113) and in managing the classroom (M=7.76, Sd=.108), while their perceived efficacy in implementing instructional strategies was slightly, but not significantly, lower at M=7.66 and Sd=.111. These results suggest that the respondents feel efficacious when teaching English to their students. The mean of each self-efficacy dimension also suggests that the participants are highly confident that they can manage and engage their students as well as implement different and effective instructional strategies. Table 2: Descriptive statistics for Self-efficacy beliefs Self-efficacy beliefs Instructional strategies Student engagement Classroom management Overall self-efficacy beliefs

Mean 7.66 7.76 7.76 7.73

Sd .111 .108 .113 .107

Min. 5.50 4.50 4.25 4.75

Max 9.00 9.00 9.00 9.00

3.2 Correlations between the three dimensions of self- efficacy To investigate the correlation between each of the three subscales of self-efficacy and their relationship with the overall self-efficacy level, the researcher ran a bivariate correlational analysis (Table 3). The results revealed a positive and highly significant correlation between each of the subscales: a) student engagement and instructional strategies (r=.852, p=.000), b) student engagement and classroom management (r=.838, p=.000), and c) classroom management and instructional strategies (r=.852, p=.000). These results suggest that the level of selfefficacy beliefs in one of the dimensions affects self-efficacy in the other

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dimensions. In other words, the higher the teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs in engaging the students, the higher their self-efficacy beliefs in both implementing instructional strategies and managing the classroom. In addition, the Pearson analysis was also run to investigate the correlation between each of the three dimensions and the overall level of perceived selfefficacy. The results showed a positive and significant correlation between each of the dimensions and the overall self-efficacy, with almost insignificant differences: a) total and classroom management (r=.948, p=.000), b) total and instructional strategy (r=.948, p=.000), and c) total and student engagement (r=.938, p=.000). These results suggest that high self-efficacy beliefs in each of the three dimensions is a predictor of high perceived efficacy overall and in each of the other subscales. That is, if the respondents feel confident in engaging students in the classroom, they also have higher levels of confidence in their overall instruction efficacy. Feeling efficacious in the other two dimensions, that is in implementing instructional strategies and in managing the classroom, also leads to higher levels of teacher efficacy. This implies that not feeling efficacious in any of the three dimensions would lower the teachers’ level of self-confidence and their overall efficacy. Table 3: Correlation between self-efficacy scales

IS SE CM Total

Variables Pearson correlation Sig.(2-tailed) Pearson correlation Sig.(2-tailed) Pearson correlation Sig.(2-tailed) Pearson correlation Sig.(2-tailed)

1.000 1.00 .828** .000 .852** .000 .948** .000

1.000 1.00 .838** .000 .938** .000

1.000 1.000 .949** .000

1.000 1.000

Total

3.3 Experience in teaching and self-efficacy beliefs Table 4 shows the respondents’ distribution according to experience in teaching. At the time when the study was conducted, 9 (17.6 %) participants had no teaching experience at all, 18 (35.3%) had some teaching experience but were not teaching at the moment, and 24 (47.1%) were actually involved in the teaching profession. The actual teachers’ experience ranged as follows: out of 24 respondents, 7 (29.2%) were in their first year of teaching, 8 (33.3 %) had a 1 to 5 – year experience, 2 (8.3 %) had a 6 to 10 – year experience, 5 (20.8 %) had an 11 to 15 – year experience, and only two of them had been teaching for over 15 years. Out of 18 respondents who had dropped out of the teaching profession, 16 (88.9 %) had an experience of less than a year, and each of the other two had an experience of 1 to 5 years and 6 to 10 years respectively. Among teachers with an experience of over ten years there were no dropouts.

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Table 4: Distribution by experience Experience in teaching No experience Less than 1 year 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years Over 15 years Total

Current teachers Female Male

Dropouts Female

3 8 2 4 2 19

16 1 1 18

4 1 5

No experience Total Female 9

9 23 9 3 5 2 51

To explore possible differences among teacher efficacy beliefs in each of the three dimensions based on experience, Anova analysis was conducted. Table 5 indicates descriptive statistics of the variables for students currently teaching, the dropouts, and students with no experience at all. Participants with no experience reported a slightly lower level of efficacy in implementing instructional strategies (IS) (M=7.61) than the ones still teaching (M=7.67) or who had dropped out (M=7.69), which is not surprising. Nonetheless, their means for the subscales of student engagement (SE) (M=7.95) and classroom management (CM) (M=7.88) were higher than the current teachers (M=7.67, M=7.83) and dropouts (M=7.78, M= 7.62). According to these results, respondents with no experience had lower levels of efficacy in instructional strategy implementation than the respondents with some or more teaching experience. In other words, it appears that experience affects teachers’ levels of efficacy in their teaching ability: more experienced teachers believe they can be more efficacious in teaching and less experienced teachers report lower levels of self-confidence in their teaching capability. However, the results suggest that a lack of teaching experience does not lead to teachers’ lack of confidence in managing the classroom or engaging students. Table 5: Descriptives for experience in teaching 95% confidence Interval for Mean Variables IS Currently teaching Dropped out No experience

n 24 18 9

M 7.67 7.69 7.61

SD .628 1.038 1.008

Currently teaching Dropped out No experience

24 18 9

7.67 7.78 7.95

Currently teaching Dropped out No experience

24 18 9

Overall Currently teaching Dropped out No experience

24 18 9

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Lower band 7.40 7.17 6.83

Upper band 7.93 8.21 8.38

.562 1.07 .559

7.43 7.25 7.53

7.91 8.31 8.38

7.83 7.62 7.88

.582 1.05 .855

7.58 7.10 7.23

8.08 8.14 8.54

7.73 7.70 7.82

.540 1.02 .782

7.49 7.19 7.21

7.95 8.20 8.42

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Table 6 shows mean differences in current teachers, dropouts, and inexperienced teachers’ efficacy in implementing instructional strategies, engaging students, and managing EFL classes. To further analyse the data and explore possible significant differences, the one-way ANOVA analysis was performed, and no statistically significant difference was found in efficacy beliefs between the respondents currently teaching, the dropouts, and the ones without any teaching experience. Although these results suggest that experience has no effect on teachers’ selfefficacy beliefs, non-statistical findings do not always support the null hypothesis of no effect (Loftus, 1996). Other factors might have affected the results, and as such, further research could investigate factors other than experience that influence teacher efficacy beliefs. Table 6: ANOVA results mean differences according to experience IS

Variables Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups 0.86 Within groups Total

SS .042 35.54 35.58 .551 29.30 29.58 .602 32.53 33.13 2 29.21 29.30

df 2 48 50 2 48 50 2 48 50 .043 48 50

MS .021 .741

F .028

P .972

.276 .610

.451

.639

.301 .678

.444

.644

.071 .609

.932

To further investigate possible effects of years of teaching experience on ELT master’s students’ perceived self-efficacy in student engagement, the use of instructional strategies, and classroom management, the ANOVA mean differences analysis was performed. The descriptives for this analysis (Table 7) suggest that teachers with more years of teaching experience feel more efficacious in implementing instructional strategies, in managing the classroom, and in engaging students, than teachers with less experience. Table 7: Descriptives for years of experience for students currently teaching 95% confidence Interval for Mean Variables

7 7 2 6 2 7 7 2 6 2

7.46 7.44 8.00 7.81 8.43 7.46 7.39 7.87 8.10 7.67

.687 .611 .000 .605 .088 .365 .551 .176 .695 .176

. IS

Started this year 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years Over 15 years Started this year 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years Over 15 years

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Lower band 6.82 6.88 8.00 7.17 7.64 7.12 6.88 6.28 7.37 6.28

Upper band 8.10 8.01 8.00 8.44 9.23 7.80 7.90 9.46 8.83 9.46

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Started this year 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years Over 15 years

7 7 2 6 2 24

Total

7.53 7.66 7.87 8.12 7.83 7.73

.548 .571 .353 .547 .088 .540

7.02 7.13 4.69 7.55 7.76 7.49

8.04 8.18 11.05 8.70 8.07 7.95

As can be seen in Table 8, no mean differences were reported between current teachers’ years of teaching experience and their efficacy in instructional strategies (p=0.158), student engagement (p=0.138), or classroom management (p=0.118). In other words, teachers with less experience or no experience at all did not rate themselves as less efficacious than the more experienced ones. Table 8: ANOVA mean differences for years of experience for students currently teaching

Variables

Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total

4.50 7 6.00 2.13 5.11 7.24 2.406 5.396 7.802

16 10 26 4 19 23 4 19 23

.281 .000

1.88

.158

.533 .269

1.982

.138

.601 .284 .

2.118 .

.118

Descriptive and ANOVA analysis was also performed to compare the effect of years of teaching experience on ELT students who had dropped out of teaching. Descriptive analysis of the data (Table 9) revealed that respondents who had lessthan-a-year of experience reported higher levels of efficacy in managing the classroom, implementing instructional strategies, and engaging students than those with more years of experience. Table 9: Descriptives for experience of dropouts 95% confidence Interval for Mean Variables IS less than one year 1-5 years 6-10 years SE less than one year 1-5 years 6-10 years CM less than one year 1-5 years 6-10 years

n 16 1 1 16 1 1 16 1 1

M 7.81 7.62 5.87 7.82 8.00 7.00 7.73 7.00 6.50

SD .99

Lower band 7.28

Upper band 8.34

1.12

7.22

8.41

1.06

7.16

8.30

The one-way ANOVA (Table 10) revealed that there were no mean differences in the perceived efficacy in instructional strategy (p=0.200), student engagement

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(p=0.766), and classroom management (p=0.462) between the dropouts who had taught for less than one year, for 1-5 years, or for over 6 years. In other words, the years of experience in teaching do not affect levels of teacher efficacy, even among teachers who have quit the profession. Table 10: ANOVA results mean differences for dropouts' years of experience

Variables

Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total Between groups Within groups Total

3.54 14.78 18.31 .682 18.87 19.56 1.85 17.027 18.875

2 15 17 2 15 17 2 15 17

1.77 .985

1.79

.200

.341 1.258

.271

.766

.924 1.135

.814

.462

4. Discussion 4.1 Levels of self-efficacy beliefs This study explored self-efficacy beliefs of pre- and in-service English language teachers attending an English language teacher education programme and the impact of teaching experience on these beliefs. Results from descriptive data analysis revealed relatively high levels of self-efficacy beliefs overall and in all three dimensions. In other words, findings suggest that the students believe they are efficacious at implementing instructional strategies, engaging students, and managing their EFL classes. These results provide additional evidence to Bandura’s argument (1997) that teachers’ efficacy beliefs influence the learning atmosphere and the efforts they invest in teaching. Furthermore, teachers who consider themselves efficacious may have higher levels of motivation towards teaching and, therefore, may hold more positive attitudes towards the future of their teaching practice (Lee & Yuan, 2014). These findings are compatible with other studies’ which have also reported high levels of EFL teacher efficacy (Ghanizadeh & Moafian, 2011; Ghasemboland & Hashim, 2013; Ucar & Yazici Bozkaya, 2016). Therefore, these findings add to existing literature on the perceived efficacy of pre-service and in-service EFL teachers. A closer examination of the results showed that the respondents felt a little more confident in employing strategies for student engagement and classroom management than in utilising instructional techniques. Research into teacher efficacy report that classroom management efficacy is both effective (Faez & Valeo, 2012) whilst also an area of stress (Fantilli & McDougall, 2009). Although these results are consistent with other studies (Ghasemboland & Hashim, 2013), they are incompatible with studies which report a higher self-efficacy in the use of instructional strategies rather than in the engagement of students or management of classes (Eslami & Fatahi, 2008; Bilali, 2013; Chacón, 2005; Yilmaz, 2011). Further, some others report self-efficacy in classroom management as slightly higher than efficacy in instructional strategies and student engagement (Sevimel & Subasi, 2018).

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4.2 Correlation between the three dimensions of self-efficacy This study also investigated if efficacy in any of the three dimensions is a predicator of efficacy in the other subscales or in overall self-efficacy belief. The correlation analysis revealed a positive and statistically significant relationship between the three subscales with one another, as well as between each of them and the overall efficacy. In other words, it demonstrated that the level of perceived self-efficacy in each of the three dimensions affects efficacy in the others. In addition, the level of self-efficacy belief in each of the three subscales affects overall self-efficacy in teaching. That is, a strong sense of efficacy in implementing instructional strategies is likely to increase teachers’ efficacy in engaging students and managing classrooms. These results are congruent with findings from Ortactepe and Akyel’study (2015), in which the three self-efficacy dimensions positively correlate with one another and with overall efficacy. This finding indicates the significance of enhancing teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs in each of these three main aspects of EFL education, particularly in the use of instructional strategies. 4.3 Correlation between teaching experience and self-efficacy The third aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between experience in teaching and the level of self-efficacy. In terms of teaching experience, the respondents fell under three categories: students currently teaching, students who had some experience but had dropped out, and students without any experience at all. The first analysis revealed no correlation between teaching experience and perceived self-efficacy; that is, students with no experience at all did not consider themselves less efficacious in teaching than either the group who was still teaching or the group who had dropped out. Further analysis of self-efficacy beliefs in each of the three dimensions were also performed. Considering the obtained result of slightly lower perceived efficacy in instructional strategy use, the researcher investigated possible relationships between the years of experience and this subscale. In other words, the researcher explored if more years of experience meant more confidence and higher levels of self-efficacy in implementing instructional strategies. The ANOVA descriptive results revealed that self-efficacy in this subscale increased slightly in line with an increased number of years in teaching. However, the mean difference analysis indicated this difference was not statistically significant. That is, years of experience do not influence teachers’ perceived self-efficacy in implementing instructional strategies. Experienced teachers who taught at the moment of the study did not rate themselves as more efficacious in managing the classroom, engaging students, or implementing instructional strategies than either those with no experience or who had some experience but were not teaching for the moment. In order to examine if years of teaching experience affected self-efficacy, the data were analysed further for each of the two groups with teaching experience: students currently teaching and the dropouts according to their years of experience. The one-way ANOVA was performed to compare the impact of years of teaching experience on overall efficacy beliefs and on each of its three subscales for students who were teaching at the moment of the study. The descriptive mean scores in each of the subscales were slightly higher in groups with a teaching experience of over 10 years. However, contrary to the researcher’s expectations

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and other study reports (Eslami & Fatahi, 2008; Ghanizadeh & Moafian, 2011; Woolfolk & Hoy, 1990; Siebert, 2006) the detailed analysis revealed this difference was not statistically significant. That is to say, no significant difference was found in overall self-efficacy or its subscale means between the different subgroups according to years of teaching. This suggests that teachers with more years of experience did not rate themselves as more efficacious than teachers who were in their first year of teaching or who were less experienced. Neither did the inexperienced teachers consider themselves less efficacious in implementing strategies, managing the classroom or engaging students. One-way ANOVA was also performed to investigate how the years of teaching influence efficacy beliefs in instructional strategy implementation, student engagement, and classroom management for students who had dropped out of the teaching profession. The findings indicated no correlation between dropouts’ years of experience and their perceived self-efficacy. That is, students who had only taught for one year or less did not consider themselves less efficacious in teaching overall or in any of the three subscales – implementing instructional strategies, managing the classroom, or engaging students – than the ones with more years of teaching experience. One underlying cause for this finding may be searched for in two of the main sources of efficacy: mastery experiences, which refer to the successful performance of an activity (Ford et al., 2013; Cobanoglu & Capa-Aydin, 2015; Warner & French, 2020), and vicarious experiences, which refer to observing other people’s successful performance of an activity (Alsawaie & Alghazo, 2010; Mansfield & Woods-McConney, 2012; Sang et al., 2012). The teaching practicum that students enrolled in the programme may have provided good opportunities even for the inexperienced student teachers to experience teaching and convince themselves of their teaching abilities. Seeing other teachers succeed may have also increased the respondents’ confidence and even taught them effective strategies leading to higher self-confidence. In addition, mastery experiences are believed to influence another source of self-efficacy, affective and somatic states, which is the feeling of apprehension most people experience before performing something challenging or totally new (Warner & French, 2020). The other explanation for the high levels of self-efficacy regardless of teaching experience might be related to the potential role of culture in self-efficacy beliefs (Ahn & Bong, 2019). Recognising this potential, many researchers have explored self-efficacy beliefs across cultures, finding evidence of cultural differences in selfefficacy sources (Klassen, 2004; Ahn et al., 2016). 4.4 Implications Although this is a small-scale study and its findings may not be generalised, it has some implications for policy makers. Firstly, the reported relatively high levels of self-efficacy overall and the positive relationship between the three efficacy dimensions and the overall efficacy level provide additional evidence to the role of mastery and vicarious experiences as two main factors influencing self-efficacy. Therefore, policy makers and instructors of teacher education programmes should consider the inclusion of courses and modules dedicated to each of the

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three dimensions of self-efficacy along with practice opportunities for each function. Secondly, as the study identifies a tendency for self-efficacy in implementing instructional strategies to increase slightly with additional years of experience, it suggests that years of experience might affect the efficacy of implementing instructional strategies. While student engagement and classroom management are both significant dimensions of any class, they are both closely related to the teachers’ efficacy in implementing various instructional strategies. On the other hand, implementation of instructional strategies also affects teacher efficacy overall. Inability to successfully employ instructional strategies might lead to a teacher’s lack of success or low self-efficacy. As a result, ELT teacher education programmes should consider the practical dimension of their content in order to provide more opportunities for both awareness and practicum of instructional strategies for each of the four language skills. As the study was conducted with just two classes from only one teacher education programme, the findings are not generalisable to the whole Albanian setting. As a result, further research could explore on a larger scale the sources of teacher efficacy beliefs and individual factors that influence them negatively or positively in order to make suggestions to ELT teacher education programme policy makers, curriculum developers, and teachers. In addition, both quantitative and qualitative studies should be conducted to also explore how online education and use of technology affects the relationship between teaching experience and teacher efficacy.

5. Conclusion This study explored self-efficacy beliefs of pre- and in-service teachers enrolled in an English language teacher education programme at a non-public university in Albania. Its aim was to investigate how the three dimensions of teacher efficacy and experience in teaching can influence self-efficacy beliefs. An online questionnaire was employed to investigate the participants’ perceptions about their efficacy in three dimensions of teaching efficacy: implementation of instructional strategies, student engagement, and classroom management. The findings revealed that all respondents had relatively high perceived overall selfefficacy in each of the three dimensions. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that the level of the self-efficacy beliefs in each of the three dimensions influenced teacher efficacy beliefs overall and in the other dimensions. Finally, it showed that less experienced teachers did not feel less efficacious in teaching than the more experienced ones. Although the results may not be generalisable, the study has its implications for both language teacher education programmes and further research directions in the field. It suggests that teacher education programmes should provide student teachers practicum opportunities for the implementation of instructional strategies.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 320-341, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.18 Received Dec 16, 2021; Revised Feb 5, 2022; Accepted Feb 14, 2022

Factors Influencing Elementary Teachers’ Readiness in Delivering Sex Education amidst Covid-19 pandemic Nhung T.P. Nguyen

, An T.T. Chu

, Ly H. Tran

, Son X. Pham

, and

Hien N. Nguyen Vinh University, Nghe An, Vietnam Vinh T. Nguyen* FPT University, Hanoi, Vietnam

Abstract. The emergence of variants of Covid-19, the persistence of lockdowns in many countries, and the necessity to maintain sustainable education have resulted in a shift from the traditional classroom to virtual space. As such, there is a strong need to leverage technological advances while mitigating the challenges faced by primary teachers. Through the incorporation of eight elements, the authors sought to better understand factors that influence teacher readiness to deliver sex education in primary schools. Structural Equation Modeling was employed to assess the proposed conceptual model. The online survey was designed and distributed by Google Forms. Based on the results from 383 individuals, the findings revealed that facilitating conditions, educational policy, and parental involvement all had a relationship with teacher readiness. Digital content positively influenced performance expectancy and effort expectancy. Sexual knowledge had a statistically significant and positive influence on effort expectancy. Finally, openness had a statistically significant and positive influence on performance expectancy. The significant exceptions were that effort expectancy was not found to predict teacher readiness, and performance expectancy was not found to influence teacher readiness. The reasons for these non-significant correlations were briefly discussed and more studies on this topic are called to investigate these unexpected outcomes in more detail. The level of readiness, as well as theoretical and practical implications for scholars and practitioners, were discussed. Keywords: sex education; teacher readiness; educational policy; parental involvement

primary

schools;

Corresponding author: Vinh T. Nguyen, vinhnt56@fe.edu.vn

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction The outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic and the emergence of its variants have had a profound effect on every aspect of life on a global scale, from travel, retail, restaurants, aviation to higher and primary education (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021; Tadesse & Muluye, 2020). Organizations and businesses must be able to adapt quickly to the change in the “new normal” conditions. As a result, ideas have been formulated, solutions have been proposed to maintain daily activities, of which remote working via digital tools is one of the most widely used ones today (Gallegos et al., 2020; Shareefa et al., 2021). Although remote working has been discussed for a long time, it was only when Covid-19 had its debut that this type of working became more popular (Gallegos et al., 2020). In reality, although many benefits are expected to originate from working remotely, numerous challenges must be addressed, such as infrastructure, new policies suitable for remote working, integration, new content, assistive devices, usability, implementation, etc. (Gocotano et al., 2021; Wenceslao & Felisa, 2021). Organizations and enterprises are taking several urgent steps to support remote working, such as acquiring equipment, launching information technology training courses, digitizing documents, and the education sector is not immune to this trend (Gallegos et al., 2020; Shareefa et al., 2021). Many lectures have been digitized, and lessons have also been videotaped for online education. These activities appear straightforward at first glance, but they are fraught with difficulties, such as needing to record a lecture many times, digitally converting information with dynamic features or time, Internet connection issues, storage capacity, and so forth (Gocotano et al., 2021). In addition, insufficient battery life, teacher's lack of engagement with the students, class disruption, zoomed-out videos, unclear slides, videos, and difficulty to open large files are problems students face (Gocotano et al., 2021). The aforementioned issues are tough for university professors, but they are much more difficult for primary school teachers (Iivari et al., 2020; Zakharov et al., 2021), especially when it comes to courses that are cognitively and psychologically inclined, such as sex education (or SexEd) (Goldfarb & Lieberman, 2021). Sex education plays an important role in the development of children (Jin, 2021). To begin with, sex education is critical to the whole development of a child's personality. Second, it complies with the rules of teenage psychological and physiological growth. Strong understandings and influences of love activities and sex life in society, together with sexual vibes, gender changes in the body, and emotions, gradually build in children a new type of knowledge that was not learned in school or at home (Cacciatore et al., 2019). Third, providing children with sex education will help them grasp the reproductive issues and know how to restrict fertility, particularly broad views and conceptions regarding population difficulties (Warzecha et al., 2019). The required information about sex life will help them be more vigilant, stronger, and aware of how to avoid societal problems, therefore contributing to the creation of a sustainable society (Berglas et al., 2016). The need to transition primary school pupils to an online learning environment has prompted numerous concerns, particularly about digital security (Plaza-delPino et al., 2021; Russell et al., 2020). Children are routinely exposed to digital

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devices, which exposes them to screen pornography, most of it is misogynistic and inappropriate for their age (Plaza-del-Pino et al., 2021). In some regions, parents and teachers are not adequately trained with information technology skills to mitigate the hazards (Bartau-Rojas et al., 2018). As a result, it is critical to include parents, teachers, and relevant authorities in developing suitable policies, solutions, technology, and procedures to safeguard children against abuse (Russell et al., 2020; Schneider & Hirsch, 2020). Furthermore, the usage of appropriate terminology in the network environment is an issue that must be addressed. For example, when the sex content is conveyed indirectly or impliedly, especially for young pupils, the message can be more confusing and harder to understand (Shin et al., 2019). It might be difficult to use straightforward terms in sex education due to software content filtering (e.g., automatic mute when encountering sensitive keywords or pictures). This is a painful issue that is frequently highlighted in the media, but it also barely reaches the level of “awareness” (Choi, 2013; Voyiatzaki et al., 2021). In developing countries, sex education is a contentious issue in both public health and education policy (Leung et al., 2019). Thus, teachers should be leaders in the education and training of the country's future generations. Only when teachers carry out their duty effectively in today's demanding environment will students be prepared with the required information, abilities, and attitudes concerning psychophysiology, allowing them to develop to their full potential (Jørgensen et al., 2019; Lameiras-Fernández et al., 2021; Plaza-del-Pino et al., 2021). Numerous scientific papers have been published regarding online training in the context of the Covid-19 epidemic (Alea et al., 2020; Alghamdi & Al-Ghamdi, 2021; Bautista Jr et al., 2021; Funa & Talaue, 2021; Shareefa et al., 2021), but the most of them are about the university setting, with only a handful devoted to general education (Alghamdi & Al-Ghamdi, 2021). The paucity is more visible in primary education, particularly in sex education for children (Choi, 2013; Espinosa & Barraza, 2021; Schneider & Hirsch, 2020). Several authors have proposed a sex competence framework for schools, but they have not taken into account teachers' preparation for this competency framework in the context of the Covid-19 epidemic (Initiative, 2020; Wang & Hall, 2018). As a result, the goal of this research is to understand the factors influencing primary school teachers' readiness to provide children with SexEd. Researchers may utilize these findings to improve or integrate existing models, and principals and policymakers can use them to develop policies and solutions for creating a sustainable learning environment for children.

2. Literature Review and Theoretical Framework The topic of sexual education has elicited interest among academics of all levels (Kim et al., 2021; Plaza-del-Pino et al., 2021). Kim et al. (2021) investigated gender disparities in sexual behavior among 2460 high school students who reported having had sexual experiences. In the study, the researchers found that boys had earlier sexual debuts, used contraceptives less frequently, and received fewer sex education lessons in schools. Lameiras-Fernández et al. (2021) provided an overview of what is known regarding the diffusion and efficacy of sex education programs to influence better public policy decisions. The authors observed that

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while assessments of digital platforms and blended learning indicate better efficacy in terms of promoting sexual and reproductive health in teenagers, they also entail increasing risks of bias. In the authors’ view, determining the success of sexual education programs requires a more rigorous assessment, given the potential of new technology, which may lead to more cost-effective treatments than traditional programs. On the topic of SexEd in the classroom, Plaza-del-Pino et al. (2021) examined the perspectives of 15 primary school teachers. From the analysis, the authors identified two key themes, which are the lack of training to fears of the families. Hamilton-Giachritsis et al. (2021) explored how experts who assist with victims interpret internet child sexual assault. According to the findings, there is frequently a low knowledge of the hazards and severity of technology-assisted online child sexual abuse, which can lead to victims continuing at risk, a systemic failure to protect, and a decreased probability of obtaining effective therapies. Martin et al. (2020) showed that the implementation of the sex education program for preschool teachers led to improved knowledge and attitudes. The aforementioned studies demonstrate that while SexEd has been captured from different points of view, a gap exists in determining factors that influence teachers` readiness to disseminate SexEd in primary schools amidst the covid-19 pandemic. Thus, the current study contributes to the body of knowledge by investigating the effects of relationship amongst factors toward teachers’ readiness in primary schools. For elementary teachers to be successful with remote teaching, it is necessary to identify the dimensions of readiness they should possess for SexEd in the virtual space. The concept of readiness for online learning can be attributed to Warner et al. (1998). Online readiness was characterized by Borotis and Poulymenakou (2004) as being mentally and physically prepared for certain online learning experiences and activities. For this study, teacher readiness is defined as the degree to which an individual feels confident about oneself in disseminating SexEd in primary schools. Three questions were used to assess teacher readiness including 1) I feel that I am ready to teach SexEd for children, 2) I feel confident that I can mentor my students, 3) I think that I can organize my classes online efficiently. Many researchers have attempted to assess readiness factors that influence online learning performance by either confirming an existing model or expanding it with additional components (Dorsah, 2021; Zou et al., 2021). For example, Hung (2016) identified four teachers-as-learners’ factors, including communication selfefficacy, institutional support, self-directed learning, and learning-transfer selfefficacy. Zou et al. (2021) considered other factors such as technology access and computer self-efficacy. Sailer et al. (2021) suggested that the facilitating conditions provided by higher education institutions influence the context of teaching and learning significantly. Churiyah et al. (2020) highlighted that education policy plays an important role to conduct learning from home for kids as many parents strongly support this policy because of the spread of the coronavirus. Several authors studied in detail parental engagement factors in online learning environments (Fauzi & Khusuma, 2020; Stevens & Borup, 2015), and they suggested that teachers and parents should coordinate to improve student engagement. Due to the involvement of technological aspects in online

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teaching/learning, a majority of recent research integrated the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) model to evaluate online learning performance (Hu et al., 2020; Mittal et al., 2021). UTAUT has been proven to be an effective model in the context of mobile technology learning for students and academics at university levels (Omar et al., 2019). However, there is little data with elementary or secondary school teachers (Adov et al., 2017). In another line of research, Patra et al. (2021) emphasized that teachers should develop learnercentric digital content to accommodate students’ needs. Their recommendation was aligned with the challenges posed previously. On the topic of SexEd, Westwood and Mullan (2007) reported that teachers lack sufficient sexual health expert knowledge to contribute to current guidelines for SexEd in secondary schools. In addition, the literature in the field recounts various creative programs that fail to owe to elementary school teachers' reluctance to openly and firmly confront the sexuality topic (Pellejero Goni & Torres Iglesias, 2011). The following dimensions were drawn to assess teacher readiness for online SexEd based on the selective reviews above: digital contents, sexual knowledge, openness, facilitating conditions, effort expectancy, performance expectancy, educational policy, and parental engagement. Facilitating Condition: Facilitating Condition is defined as a person's perception of whether there is an organizational and technological environment to support the utilization of a system (Venkatesh et al., 2003). This study employed four questions to measure facilitating conditions, including the following: 1) I have the devices/tools/apps necessary to teach SexEd online, 2) I am familiar enough with the devices/tools/apps to utilize them, 3) The devices/tools/apps are working properly, and 4) The service provider can assist me if I am having trouble using the devices, tools, or apps. Thus, the hypothesis below was proposed: Hypothesis 1 (H1). Facilitating Conditions positively influence Teacher Readiness on teaching SexEd in primary schools. Effort Expectancy: UTAUT defines Effort Expectancy as the ease with which a system can be used, and this is a key prediction of the model (Venkatesh et al., 2003). This factor has been justified in a variety of settings, particularly in blended learning (Azizi et al., 2020). In the context of this study, effort expectancy refers to users' perceptions of how easy an online learning environment allows the primary teacher to deliver SexEd. The effort expectancy was assessed using the following four questions: 1) I would find the online learning environment (e.g., devices/tools/apps) easy to use, 2) It would not take me long to figure out how to use devices/tools/apps for teaching kids, 3) I will be able to interact with devices, tools, and apps clearly and understandably, and 4) Being skilled at using devices/tools/apps is an easy task for me. Thus, the hypothesis below was proposed: Hypothesis 2 (H2). Effort Expectancy positively affects Teacher Readiness on teaching SexEd in primary schools. Performance Expectancy: The term “Performance Expectancy” refers to a person's perception that he or she will be able to achieve their work performance goals by employing the system (Venkatesh et al., 2003). In the context of this study,

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performance expectancy refers to the primary teachers` belief that using devices/tools/apps is helpful for delivering SexEd. Three questions were used to estimate performance expectation: 1) I would find the devices/tools/apps useful for teaching SexEd, 2) I think using devices/tools/apps will help me deliver contents that I want my students to learn, 3) I think using devices/tools/apps will help me improve ways of teaching. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed: Hypothesis 3 (H3). Performance Expectancy positively affects Teacher Readiness on teaching SexEd in primary schools. Educational policy: Educational policies are governed by `quality' education paradigms, in which quality is defined as economic metrics such as effectiveness, efficiency, economy, and accountability, as well as academic achievement (Steiner, 2012). For this study, the educational policy relates to the primary teachers` belief that having a clear guideline for teaching SexEd will help them feel more confident. Three questions were used to measure educational policy guidelines. 1) I was provided with necessary guidelines/policies from schools and states that help me carry my class online easily, 2) The guidelines/policies are understandable and easy to follow, 3) It is not difficult for me to follow the guidelines/policies while delivering class lessons. The following hypothesis was proposed: Hypothesis 4 (H4). Educational policy positively affects Teacher Readiness on teaching SexEd in primary schools. Parental Involvement: It has been shown that parental involvement through good parenting at home has a significant impact on children's achievement and adjustment even after all other factors have been eliminated (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003). Parental involvement was emphasized in the context of digital sexual education (Aventin et al., 2020) where the authors suggested that efforts must be devoted to increasing the confidence of school personnel and teachers to communicate with parents on sensitive topics while simultaneously focusing on parental components. In this study, parental involvement factor was measured by using three questions: 1) I can contact students` parents whenever it is needed while teaching SexEd online, 2) Students` parents are accessible at any time while the class is running, 3) Students` parents are presented to help kids focus on learning. The hypothesis below was proposed: Hypothesis 5 (H5). Parental Involvement positively affects Teacher Readiness for teaching SexEd in primary schools. Digital contents: It is not easy to develop a good digital learning media since it requires not only pedagogy knowledge, but technology knowledge and coding skills as well (Fiangga et al., 2021). This is a challenging issue for a vast number of non-technical teachers (Ferri et al., 2020). In the context of this study, digital contents refer to materials that teachers use and deliver to kids via an online communication channel. Three questions were used to measure the extent to which digital contents are available to be used by primary teachers/students in SexEd: 1) I have digital materials for SexEd, 2) Digital materials are appropriate for kids, 3) Digital materials are easy to operate and delivered via online learning environment. It is argued that the greater the availability of digital content, the

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lesser the effort and the higher the performance required by teachers, thus the following hypotheses were proposed: Hypothesis 6 (H6). The availability of digital content has a positive effect on Performance Expectancy for primary teachers. Hypothesis 7 (H7). The availability of digital content has a positive effect on Effort Expectancy for primary teachers. SexEd Knowledge. The knowledge factor has been explored to measure teacher preparation for online teaching (Pellejero Goni & Torres Iglesias, 2011; Westwood & Mullan, 2007). Knowledge in the context of this study refers to a comprehension of SexEd. Three questions were used to estimate primary teachers` knowledge: 1) I feel confident when delivering SexEd, 2) I can look at SexEd from different points of view, 3) I can justify SexEd in different settings. If teachers have more knowledge, they should make fewer efforts. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed: Hypothesis 8 (H8). SexEd Knowledge has a positive effect on Effort Expectancy for primary teachers. SexEd Openness: As part of openness, teachers needed to be willing to answer questions without focusing on the topic (Booth‐Butterfield & Sidelinger, 1998); maintain an open-minded attitude; balance openness with privacy; and take into account the characteristics of their students (Kirkman et al., 2005). Some studies (Pellejero Goni & Torres Iglesias, 2011; Plaza-del-Pino et al., 2021) pointed out that teachers of primary schools are often reluctant to speak openly about sexuality. Three questions were employed to measure Openness, which are as follows: 1) I’m open-minded to sensitive topics, 2) I am willing to discuss sexual content with others, and 3) I talk with kids considering their emotions and behaviors. If teachers have been open to their students, they should have high performance. Thus, the following hypothesis was proposed: Hypothesis 9 (H9): SexEd Openness has a positive effect on Performance Expectancy for primary teachers. These assumptions guided the development of the study model illustrated in Figure 1. The ellipses represent constructs (also known as latent variables) evaluated by a series of items, and the arrows represent hypotheses numbered 1 to 9.

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Figure 1. The proposed theoretical model with hypotheses from H1 to H9

3. Methodology 3.1 Participants and Data Gathering Tools Nonprobability, purposive sampling was used to collect study data in order to overcome the problem of being unable to identify the members of the population individually (Stratton, 2021). The online survey was developed using Google Forms and distributed via online channels. A Google Form with an invitation message was shared via emails and social media channels (such as Facebook, Twitter). The interest group is made up of primary school SexEd teachers in the north, middle, and south of Vietnam. Those who participated in the survey were recruited on an opt-in basis, and they can opt out at any time. Through the authors’ community, the snowball sampling technique is expected to reach 700 users. The survey consists of 4 questions to gather participants’ demographic information, and 29 Likert-type questions to examine various points of view teaching SexEd in primary schools during the covid-19. There was no specific personal information revealed in this investigation, so no ethical approval was required. Kock and Hadaya (2018) suggested a tool (Soper, 2016) to estimate the appropriate sample size, and that tool was used to determine the sample size in this study. Using the tool, the following settings were adjusted: anticipated effect size (0.3), desired statistical power level (0.8), number of latent variables (9), number of observed variables (29), probability level (0.05). Thus, the sample size for this study was 184. 3.2. Measures A review of the survey questions using the research methodologies led to the selection of 29 questions for the study (see Table 1). A five-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree) was used to measure teachers’ readiness to teach SexEd in primary schools.

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Table 1. Construct and items Performance Expectancy (PE1) I would find the devices/tools/apps useful for teaching SexEd. (PE2) I think using devices/tools/apps will help me deliver contents that I want my students to know. (PE3) I think using devices/tools/apps will help me improve my ways of teaching. Effort Expectancy (EE1) I would find the online learning environment (e.g., devices/tools/apps) easy to use. (EE2) It would not take me long to figure out how to use devices/tools/apps for teaching kids. (EE3) I will be able to interact with devices, tools, and apps clearly and understandably. (EE4) Being skilled at using devices/tools/apps is easy for me. Parental Involvement (PI1) I can contact students` parents whenever it is needed while teaching SexEd online. (PI2) Students’ parents are accessible at any time while the class is running. (PI3) Students’ parents are presented to help kids focus on learning. Facilitating Conditions (FC1) I have the devices/tools/apps necessary to teach SexEd online. (FC2) I am familiar enough with the devices/tools/apps to utilize them. (FC3) The devices/tools/apps are working properly. (FC4) The service provider can assist me if I am having trouble using the devices, tools, or apps. Educational Policy (EP1) I was provided necessary guidelines/policies from schools and states that help me carry my class online easily. (EP2) The guidelines/policies are understandable and easy to follow. (EP3) It is not difficult for me to follow the guidelines/policies while delivering class lessons. Digital contents (DC1) I have digital materials for SexEd. (DC2) Digital materials are appropriate for kids. (DC3) Digital materials are easy to operate and delivered via an online learning environment. SexEd Knowledge (SK1) I feel confident when delivering SexEd. (SK2) I can look at SexEd from different points of view. (SK3) I can justify SexEd in different settings. We believe that teachers should make fewer efforts if they have more knowledge. SexEd Openness (OP1) I’m open-minded to sensitive topics. (OP2) I am willing to discuss sexual content with others (OP3) I talk with kids considering their emotions and behaviors. SexEd Teacher Readiness (TR1) I feel that I am ready to teach SexEd for children. (TR2) I feel confident that I can mentor my students. (TR3) I think that I can organize my classes online efficiently.

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3.3. Data Analysis The proposed study model was evaluated using Generalized Structured Component Analysis (GSCA), a method that was chosen over Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) because it could be applied to small samples without having to assume rigid distributions (Hwang & Takane, 2014). GSCA is a method for examining relationships between observed variables and latent variables by using components of observed variables as proxy variables. As an additional benefit to PLS-SEM, GSCA should have fewer assumptions regarding distributions (multivariate normality is not required for parameter estimation), unique component score estimates, and circumventing incorrect solutions in small samples. For hypothesis testing as well as supplementary investigations, GSCA Pro (Hwang et al., 2021) for generalized structural component analysis was employed (e.g., internal consistencies, correlations). This software allows users to view results and create models with ease using a graphical user interface.

4. Results Inappropriate replies were eliminated during data collection (46 invalid answers due to picking just one option, 25 responses due to missing values). The total number of observations that remained in the study was 383 (accounted for 84.36% of 454 responses). The present study met the sample size requirements since its actual sample size was 383, exceeding the minimum suggesting criteria of 184. Table 2 presents demographic information of respondents from the survey, with males accounting for 16.18%, while females accounting for 83.82%. 38.38% of the respondents are under the age of 25, 47.00% are between the ages of 26 and 35, 10.7% are between the ages of 36 and 45, and 3.92% are over 45. In terms of years of experience, 4.44% have been in education for less than two years, 19.06% have been in education for five years, more than half of the respondents (66.58%) have been in education for almost ten years, and 9.92% have more than ten years of experience. The vast majority of participants (90.34%) stated that they work in public schools, whereas just a small percentage work in private institutions (9.66%) Table 2. Demographic information about the participants Variable

Item Frequency Percentage Male 62 16..48 Gender Female 321 83.82 18-25 147 38.38 36-35 180 47.00 Age 36-45 41 10.70 Over 45 15 3.92 Less than 2 years 17 4.44 2 – 5 years 73 19.06 Year of Experience 6 – 10 years 255 66.58 More than 10 years 38 9.92 Public schools 346 90.34 Working Sector Private schools 37 9.66 Total 383 100.0

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Quantitative Analysis Table 3 displays the descriptive data for each construct item. Means exceed the average point of 2.5, while standard deviations vary from 0.698 to 1.191. Table 3. Construct, Means and Standard Deviations of the indicators Construct Performance Expectancy

Effort Expectancy

Educational Policy

Facilitating Conditions

Parental Involvement

Digital Contents

SexEd Knowledge

SexEd Openness

SexEd Teacher Readiness

Item PE1 PE2 PE3 EE1 EE2 EE3 EE4 EP1 EP2 EP3 FC1 FC2 FC3 FC4 PI1 PI2 PI3 DC1 DC2 DC3 SK1 SK2 SK3 OP1 OP2 OP3 TR1 TR2 TR3

Mean 4.230 4.005 3.684 4.052 3.982 4.117 4.099 3.843 3.807 3.948 3.867 3.979 3.159 3.958 4.316 4.423 3.950 3.760 3.836 3.812 3.770 3.937 3.911 4.065 4.120 4.010 4.316 4.110 3.875

SD 0.814 0.900 1.105 0.889 0.924 0.784 0.861 0.984 0.956 0.892 0.991 0.830 1.121 0.927 0.698 0.732 0.961 0.972 0.946 0.915 0.996 0.957 0.924 0.907 0.837 0.911 0.738 0.860 0.964

Three indicators were used to evaluate the internal consistency and convergent validity for each component (see Table 4). Cronbach’s alpha is denoted by Alpha. It is a measure of the internal consistency of an instrument or scale developed by Cronbach (1951); it ranges between 0 and 1. In terms of internal consistency, all of the items in a test measure the same concept, so it is related to how closely they relate to each other. Different studies recommend a range of acceptable values for alpha, from 0.70 to 0.95 (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). The measurements internal consistency values in this study are mostly within the range of recommended values, except facilitating conditions (Alpha = 0.68), but it is close to 0.7, indicating an acceptable value. Rather than relying solely on Cronbach’s alpha to evaluate

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each construct’s dependability, Dillon–rho Goldstein`s was presented to verify each construct's internal consistency and dependability criteria (Hwang & Takane, 2014). All results were more than 0.7, above the required reliability estimate (Hwang & Takane, 2014). Average Variance Extracted (AVE) was examined to determine whether it was convergent. AVE's values were greater than 0.5, suggesting convergent validity (Hwang & Takane, 2014). Table 4. Internal consistency and convergent validity. Construct Performance Expectancy Effort Expectancy Educational Policy Facilitating Conditions Parental Involvement Digital Contents SexEd Knowledge SexEd Openness SexEd Teacher Readiness

Alpha 0.783 0.806 0.888 0.680 0.705 0.866 0.833 0.868 0.714

Dillon-Goldstein’s Rho 0.873 0.873 0.931 0.807 0.836 0.918 0.900 0.919 0.840

AVE 0.835 0.795 0.904 0.720 0.794 0.888 0.866 0.889 0.799

Table 5 shows standard errors (SEs) and 95% bootstrap percentile confidence

intervals (CIs) calculated from item loading estimates simulations, as well as respective lower and upper bounds. 100 bootstrap samples were used to determine the confidence intervals (CIs). If a 95 percent confidence interval did not include zero, the parameter estimates were considered significant at the 0.05 level. All loading estimates were statistically significant, showing that all items were reliable predictors of constructs. Table 5. Estimates of loadings. Estimate Standard Errors SexEd Knowledge SK1 0.881 0.019 SK2 0.895 0.013 SK3 0.820 0.024 Digital Contents DC1 0.899 0.012 DC2 0.861 0.021 DC3 0.905 0.017 SexEd Openness OP1 0.910 0.015 OP2 0.864 0.022 OP3 0.894 0.015 Facilitating Conditions FC1 0.803 0.026 FC2 0.773 0.027 FC3 0.491 0.075 FC4 0.770 0.033

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95%CI_UB

0.837 0.870 0.763

0.906 0.917 0.865

0.875 0.822 0.869

0.922 0.897 0.931

0.872 0.815 0.863

0.933 0.906 0.925

0.747 0.719 0.334 0.701

0.849 0.826 0.611 0.838

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Effort Expectancy EE1 0.797 0.024 EE2 0.753 0.045 EE3 0.835 0.020 EE4 0.792 0.030 Performance Expectancy PE1 0.828 0.020 PE2 0.833 0.019 PE3 0.843 0.021 Parental Involvement PI1 0.803 0.029 PI2 0.847 0.024 PI3 0.728 0.028 Educational Policy EP1 0.914 0.011 EP2 0.929 0.009 EP3 0.869 0.017 Teacher Readiness TR1 0.836 0.023 TR2 0.838 0.022 TR3 0.716 0.040

0.740 0.645 0.795 0.731

0.842 0.826 0.873 0.850

0.787 0.790 0.795

0.860 0.874 0.879

0.742 0.795 0.664

0.852 0.896 0.772

0.890 0.907 0.833

0.934 0.943 0.898

0.784 0.777 0.639

0.879 0.879 0.787

Table 6 presented that GSCA gave FIT = 0.551 (SE = 0.0113, 95% CIs = 0.5425 –

0.5851), AFIT = 0.548 (SE = 0.0116, 95% CIs = 0.5293 – 0.5923), GFI = 0.973 (SE = 0.0062, 95% CIs = 0.962 – 0.9878), and SRMR = 0.071 (SE = 0.0145, 95% CIs = 0.069 – 0.0782). The variation of the data explained by a particular model specification was examined by both FIT and Adjusted FIT (AFIT). FIT and Adjusted FIT (AFIT) were used to estimate how much variation in the data can be explained by specific model specifications. If the number is higher, more variance is explained by linear regression. Thus, the model accounted for a total variance of 55.1% and 54.8%, respectively. FIT and AFIT were significantly different from zero (no inclusion of zero value in CIs range). Additionally, goodness-of-fit indexes (GFIs) and standardized root mean square residuals (SRMRs) are indicators of the closeness between sample covariance and covariance as additional measures of the fit of an overall model. Based on a recent study, the following cut-off criteria for GFI and SRMR have been suggested in GSCA (Cho et al., 2020); For sample sizes > 100, a GFI ≥ .93 or an SRMR ≥ .08 indicates a good fit. Results from Table 6 indicated that GFI and SRMR satisfied the recommended value. Table 6. Model FIT. Estimate SE 95%CI_LB 95%CI_UB FIT 0.551 0.0113 0.5425 0.5851 Adjusted FIT (AFIT) 0.548 0.0116 0.5293 0.5923 GFI 0.973 0.0062 0.962 0.9878 SRMR 0.071 0.0145 0.069 0.0782 The path coefficients are shown in Table 7 as well as their 95% confidence intervals FIT: Goodness-Of-Fit. GFI: Goodness-Of-Fit Index. SRMR: Standardized Root Mean Square

and standard errors in the2014). structural model. The results indicated that the Residuals (Hwang & Takane,

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influence of facilitating condition on SexEd teacher readiness was statistically significant and positive (H1 = 0.14*, SE = 0.06, 95% CIs = 0.9768 – 0.9977). Teacher Readiness was statistically significant and positively influenced by Educational Policy (H4 = 0.306*, SE = 0.091, 95% CIs = 0.123 – 0.468). Parental Involvement had a statistically significant and positive influence on Teacher Readiness (H5 = 0.371*, SE = 0.062, 95% CIs = 0.23 – 0.473). In addition, Digital Contents positively influenced Performance Expectancy (H6 = 0.26*, SE = 0.061, 95% CIs = 0.16 – 0.383). Digital Contents positively predicted Effort Expectancy (H7 = 0.151*, SE = 0.073, 95% CIs = 0.031 – 0.346). Furthermore, SexEd Knowledge had a positive influence on Effort Expectancy (H8 = 0.445*, SE = 0.077, 95% CIs = 0.251 – 0.568). Finally, Performance Expectancy was statistically significant and positively influenced by SexEd Openness on delivering SexEd in primary schools (H9 = 0.434*, SE = 0.063, 95% CIs = 0.292 - 0.525). The hypotheses H2 (Effort Expectancy (H2) → Teacher Readiness), H3 (Performance Expectancy (H3) → Teacher Readiness) were not supported as zero values were found in the CIs. Table 7. Estimates of path coefficients. Estimates Facilitating Conditions (H1) →Teacher Readiness Effort Expectancy (H2) →Teacher Readiness Performance Expectancy (H3) →Teacher Readiness Educational Policy (H4) →Teacher Readiness Parental Involvement (H5) →Teacher Readiness Digital Contents (H6) →Performance Expectancy Digital Contents (H7) →Effort Expectancy SexEd Knowledge (H8) →Effort Expectancy SexEd Openness (H9) →Performance Expectancy

0.14*

Std Error 0.06

95% CI_LB 0.025

95% CI_UB 0.251

0.08

0.066

-0.044

0.201

-0.129

0.06

-0.212

0.005

0.306*

0.091

0.123

0.468

0.371*

0.062

0.23

0.473

0.26*

0.061

0.16

0.383

0.151* 0.445*

0.073 0.077

0.031 0.251

0.346 0.568

0.434*

0.063

0.292

0.525

* Statistically significant at 0.05 level.

5. Discussion In Holsapple and Lee‐Post (2006)’s research, teachers who score 4 on a Likert-type scale are considered e-ready. The primary teachers’ responses had a mean of 4.1, meaning that cohorts were moderately ready or slightly over the teacher readiness threshold. The current finding was in line with (Cabreros, 2012) where the author reported that teachers acknowledged a modest readiness to teach kids about sex education subjects. Additionally, Effort Expectancy (mean = 4.063), Parental

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Involvement (mean = 4.230), and SexEd Openness (mean = 4.065) all have comparable scores and interpretations when using the same threshold. On the other hand, Performance Expectancy (mean = 3.978), Educational Policy (mean = 3.866), Facilitating Conditions (mean = 3.740), Digital Contents (mean = 3.803), SexEd knowledge (mean = 3.872) produced means slightly below the threshold level. In contrast to what one might expect that government, schools, and thirdparty organizations would provide strong support for teachers/students for teaching and learning at home to sustain education in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic, the mean of facilitating conditions was lower than the expected threshold. One plausible explanation for this shortage may be attributed to the fact that network conditions, infrastructure, and supporting technological devices were not kept up with the suddenly increased demand, especially in developing countries (Fauzi & Khusuma, 2020; Wu, 2021). It was not surprising that digital contents expectancy for SexEd was lower than the threshold value. Traditionally, digital teaching has served only as a complement in elementary and secondary schools. As a result, elementary school teachers have limited time to produce engaging digital material or even switch to an online environment (Fauzi & Khusuma, 2020; Lestari & Gunawan, 2020). This is also true for less popular subjects, such as SexEd. In terms of educational policy with guidelines, our finding was aligned with existing studies (Almazova et al., 2020; Andarwulan et al., 2021; Fauzi & Khusuma, 2020) where teachers faced difficulties in transitioning to the virtual space, thus the is a need to provide clear guidance for teachers, especially in the elementary sector. In terms of SexEd knowledge, the survey suggested that knowledge confidence in SexEd was slightly below the threshold, and our findings were consistent with (Javadnoori et al., 2016; Martin et al., 2020), where the results were reported that teachers lacked comprehensive understanding and awareness on child sex-related issues. 5.1 Theoretical implication One of the most noteworthy findings was the amount of variation that explained the hypothesized model (55.1%). The current study's findings validated the majority of the predicted correlations among the factors in the proposed model. The notable exception is that Effort Expectancy was not found to predict Teacher Readiness, and Performance Expectancy was not found to influence Teacher Readiness for delivering SexEd via virtual space. One probable reason for these non-significant findings is that, as described in the previous section, not all teachers received the same educational training/guidelines, especially for primary teachers. Thus, the level of expectancy for these factors varied. As such, in the subsequent studies, there is a need to investigate these two factors in more detail, considering a specific context. Nevertheless, findings of this study contribute to the body of knowledge in two folds: (1) it empirically verified the effects on relationships embedded in existing theories, thus it can be employed as a reference in a similar setting, and (2) for hypotheses which were not supported, more studies are called to investigate these non-significant behaviors.

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5.2 Practical implication The study’s context stems from the fact that primary teachers and children were forced to study from home. SexEd teachers are undoubtedly encountered many challenges for their readiness. As a result, there is a strong need to study or investigate factors that influence their behaviors. In terms of teacher readiness, the findings from the proposed model revealed that Facilitating Conditions, Educational Policy, and Parental Involvement all had a relationship with Teacher Readiness. Policymakers should focus on training primary teachers to use digital devices/apps more efficiently, the clearer guidance the better teacher readiness. Since the availability of devices/tools/apps is a reliable predictor in this context, governments and institutions should constantly improve infrastructure, provide teachers with modern devices, and build robust tools/apps. In terms of Parental Involvement, teachers and parents should cooperate in providing SexEd to children, especially when the class is running. This is vital not only in SexEd but also in other subjects or classes since children are easily distracted, unfocused, or exhausted. In terms of SexEd digital content, it is challenging for teachers to create engaging materials but use existing videos or slides. As a result, professionals are brought in to help with this procedure. To attract researchers/developers from different areas, the government and colleges might fund the content creation via institutional or national grants. SexEd openness is another important component supported by the research model; thus, teachers should participate in public speaking or social media to build their confidence and readiness to share and educate people about the relevance of SexEd in childhood. As for the SexEd knowledge, teachers should keep learning progressively to broaden their knowledge. In addition to self-learning, teacher competency standards for SexEd should be revised to accommodate the social changes (Nhung Nguyen Thi Phuong et al., 2021) and policymakers can utilize these findings to justify training programs. 5.3 Limitations Even though the conclusions are grounded on the contributions, they will necessarily be limited by a variety of restrictions. These constraints, when combined with unexpected discoveries, point to a viable future study framework. First of all, non-probability sampling was used for this study to ensure that all respondents are SexEd primary teachers. The study's sampling method, although widely accepted in the literature, limits the generalizability of findings beyond those in the study. Second, because this study examined teacher readiness during a short period, particularly considering Covid-19, the study's conclusions must be revisited after the outbreak. Furthermore, because the current study's theoretical framework was only based on variables obtained from selected factors, other mediators and moderators not included in the proposed model were not assessed.

6. Conclusion This study examined the factors influencing primary school teachers' readiness to provide children with SexEd in terms of digital contents, sexual knowledge, openness, facilitating conditions, effort expectancy, performance expectancy, educational policy, and parental engagement. The study`s findings, based on data

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from 383 individuals, verified many of the expected correlations between the factors in the proposed model, that is, Facilitating Conditions, Educational Policy, and Parental Involvement all had a relationship with Teacher Readiness. Digital Contents positively influenced Performance Expectancy and Effort Expectancy. SexEd Knowledge had a statistically significant and positive influence on Effort Expectancy. Finally, SexEd Openness had a statistically significant and positive influence on Performance Expectancy on delivering SexEd in primary schools. The significant exceptions were that Effort Expectancy was not found to predict Teacher Readiness, and Performance Expectancy was not found to influence Teacher Readiness for delivering SexEd in an online environment. The reasons for these non-significant correlations were briefly discussed and more studies on this topic are called to investigate these unexpected outcomes in more detail.

7. Funding This work was supported by a grant from the Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam B2020-TDV-06.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 342-362, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.19 Received Dec 28, 2021; Revised Feb 19, 2022; Accepted Feb 27, 2022

Improving Critical Thinking Skills in Teaching through Problem-Based Learning for Students: A Scoping Review Azila Abdul Razak*

, Mohamad Rohieszan Ramdan

and

Nurhanie Mahjom Faculty of Management and Economics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia Mohd Nazir Md. Zabit Faculty of Human Development, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia Fidlizan Muhammad and Mohd Yahya Mohd Hussin Faculty of Management and Economics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia Nor Liza Abdullah Faculty of Economics and Management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract. Critical thinking is an important skill for graduates in 21st century teaching and learning. One of the modern educational pedagogies which can be utilized by educators to inculcate students’ critical thinking skills and improve student learning effectively is the problem-based learning (PBL) approach. The Web of Science, Scopus, and ProQuest databases have been used to source published scientific literature on this topic and develop themes of critical thinking abilities in teaching through PBL for students. This study revealed four major themes and nine sub-themes with regards to critical thinking skills in teaching in relation to PBL. The major themes consisted of the learning environment, content, process, and human capital. The review revealed that most of the studies were conducted to understand critical thinking skills in problem-based learning. This study found that PBL was a major approach used in teaching students, as well as a wide range of other techniques that may develop diverse abilities, such as thinking critically and creatively, solving problems, collaborating, communicating *

Corresponding author: Azila Abdul Razak, azila@fpe.upsi.edu.my

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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effectively, and global literacy. This paper also highlights the challenges in developing critical thinking among students and identifies topics for further research. Keywords: educational pedagogies, critical thinking skills, problembased learning, scoping review, students

1. Introduction Critical thinking is an important aspect of modern education that should be developed and empowered especially in the current fourth industrial revolution (4IR) (Wilson & Narasuman, 2020; Boleng et al., 2017; Hidayati et al., 2020), where information is in abundance and changes are rapid and radical. Critical thinking skills are widely recognized as an essential element in the modern educational system and all educators need to implement effective teaching and learning approaches to help students develop and strengthen their thinking skills (Moust et al., 2019). To think critically, one requires a rational mind with good reasoning, as well as the ability to follow logical rules, and scientific reasoning as the best foundation for making decisions. From Facione’s perspective, one must employ core thinking skills to think critically, such as creating inferences, investigating assumptions, making deductions or reasoning, making interpretations, and making judgments (Hajhosseini et al., 2016). Critical thinking is also perceived as a cognitive skill associated with logical analysis and argument evaluations to determine logical acts (Alvarez-Huerta et al., 2022; Orakci, 2021; Papp et al., 2014; Stupnisky et al., 2008). The development of critical thinking skills has been regarded as one of the most substantial objectives of education for over a century (Jatmiko et al., 2018; Suarniati et al., 2019). According to Hsu (2021), in general, there are three parts in critical thinking: knowledge (topic knowledge, technique knowledge, selfknowledge, and environment knowledge); dispositions (logical integrity, logical humanity, logical modesty, logical bravery, logical persistence, etc.); and skills or abilities. Numerous scholars suggest that critical thinking consists of interpreting, analyzing, synthesizing, concluding, evaluating information, explaining, and selfregulation (Wale & Bishaw, 2020), which are achieved through observation, experience, reasoning, or communication (Piawa, 2010; Ulger, 2018). Critical thinking is also related to cognitive skills because it involves problem-solving activities; understanding interactions of factors that influence the outcomes; and calculating various possibilities and scenarios to make the right decision (Erikson & Erikson, 2019). Additionally, critical thinking is also related to other abilities, such as scientific communication, students’ self-confidence, and motivation (Hu et al., 2016). As stated by Saputro et al. (2020), PBL approaches should be used by educators to develop critical thinking abilities among students. Considering the definition of critical thinking, the objective of this scoping review is to analyze the published scientific literature related to critical thinking skills development among students using PBL. From this comprehensive review, a map of emerging patterns related

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to research in the topic of critical thinking skills development among students has been constructed. 1.1 PBL and Critical Thinking Skills According to Scott (2017) and Hmelo-Silver (2004), PBL was derived from the experiential learning theory; a theory that can help bridge the gap between education and employment. This theory explains how students can develop analytical skills through problem-solving. In other words, educators will rejuvenate students’ intelligence through the process of finding solutions to problems or scenarios which involve the interaction of multiple factors that need to be taken into account when making decisions. This idea is parallel to the concept of scaffolding based on the constructivism learning theory outlook (Dolmans, 2019; Hmelo-Silver, 2004). In relation to this, researchers believe that with the utilization of PBL-based modules, students can invigorate their thinking and problem-solving skills and improve their academic performance (Yew & Goh, 2016). An empirical study regarding the effectiveness of PBL Newtonian laws topic by Loyens et al. (2015) revealed that students who were involved in PBL achieved higher academic performance than those from traditional learning groups. Furthermore, PBL is a multi-level learning approach that includes relevance and complexity while improving critical and analytical thinking, as well as providing opportunities for self-assessment and continual growth (Caspary & Wickstrom, 2017). In essence, the PBL process takes place in groups, and independent learning provides new information (Scott, 2017; Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2008; O’Grady, 2012; Barrow et al., 2002). Problems are presented before applied learning takes place in problem-based learning. Students must formulate an understanding of the problem and perform investigations to come up with answers or solutions (Saputro et al., 2020). During the investigation, students need to relate the concepts learnt in the subject and apply their understanding of the concepts to solve the problem. According to Overton and Randles (2015), PBL is important because it allows students to think critically and solve unstructured real-world situations. Previous empirical studies have focused more on the impact of critical thinking skills in a variety of subjects, such as geography (Amin et al., 2020), biology (Boleng et al., 2017), medical (Foo et al., 2021), sport, and exercise psychology (Heaviside et al., 2018), dental (Oderinu et al., 2020), engineering ethics (Hsu, 2021) and others. They also claimed that the PBL paradigm has a greater impact on critical thinking skills in terms of intellectual stimulation than traditional approaches. Moreover, using PBL, students can connect and synthesize each idea within a real-world scenario. The world has experienced great challenges with the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) of unparalleled magnitude beginning the first half of 2020. Educators used creative methods such as online lectures, tutorials, and webinars to sustain the learning process whilst students stayed at home. COVID-19 transformed the education process, with the result that PBL methods were adapted for online distance learning to promote students’ critical thinking skills (Chan et al., 2022; Chia et al., 2021). As discovered by Hidayati et al. (2020), online tools, such as

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digital mind maps can enhance students' critical thinking, as well as improve knowledge dissemination. PBL methods in educational pedagogies can improve graduates' soft skills, such as self-awareness, commitment, adaptability, behavior, courage, humanity, trustworthiness, consciousness, management, problemsolving, risk-taking, self-discipline, organizational awareness, as well as critical thinking abilities (Suryanti & Supeni, 2019). In some studies, such as Lisniandila et al. (2019), it was found that PBL may not be very effective in developing critical thinking skills when students are accustomed to conventional methods, especially in science subjects. However, recent developments in science education at a tertiary level has seen a greater implementation of PBL as a student-centered active learning model, especially in medicine (Foo et al., 2021), nursing science (Boleng et al., 2017; Hidayati et al., 2020; Saputro et al., 2020), mathematics and engineering (Hsu, 2021). Nevertheless, research studies on PBL in the social sciences published in highimpact journals are relatively scarce in the Web of Science, Scopus, and ProQuest databases as compared to pure sciences. As such, Ulger (2018) suggested that future research should explore the adoption of PBL method in a variety of educational disciplines to understand how it enhances students’ critical thinking skills, as well as their creative thinking. This call has promoted more research into the application of PBL in social sciences curricula, such as economic studies (Corral-Lage et al., 2021), Islamic studies (Hashim & Samsudin, 2020), visual arts (Ulger, 2018), civic education (Suarniati et al., 2019), and counselling studies (Suryanti & Supeni, 2019). Based on the surge of interest to explore the application of PBL in educational pedagogies to advance students’ critical thinking, and the limited evaluative work in the social sciences literature, it is crucial to examine PBL in various educational disciplines with various student populations to determine the effectiveness of this pedagogical approach. Therefore, the objective of this study has been to produce an extensive mapping of themes related to problem-solving education and critical thinking skills in social sciences for the reference of future research.

2. Material and Method A scoping review is a knowledge synthesis that examines the scope and character of research efforts with respect to a certain issue through the mapping of main concepts, themes, and main references, and can be established as a kind of evidence for a certain area of knowledge (Armstrong et al., 2011; Rumrill et al., 2010; Ramdan et al., 2021). This type of literature evaluation is specifically beneficial for specialized topics that have not been fully explored previously (Ganann et al., 2010). Furthermore, a scoping review has more flexibility than a typical systematic review or meta-analysis since it may account for a wide range of relevant literature and studies employing various techniques, which is not possible in a traditional review (Peterson et al., 2016; Arksey & O'Malley, 2005). This scoping review applied the five-stage process which was outlined by Arksey and O'Malley (2005) and later expanded by Levac et al. (2010) to: (1) identify research questions; (2) identify relevant studies; (3) remove redundant articles; (4) chart the data; and (5) collate, summarize, and report the results.

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The first stage involves the identification of the research questions. Two research questions are proposed for this scoping review. Firstly, what is the current state of the scientific literature on developing students’ critical thinking skills using PBL? Secondly, what are the emerging themes in PBL for improving critical thinking abilities? The second stage revolves around the identification of relevant studies. After identifying our research questions, a list of search terms was generated to characterize elements of improving critical thinking skills in teaching and PBL application among students, which have been shown in Table 1. Several types of search and retrieval trials were conducted across three interdisciplinary academic databases to refine search phrases (Web of Science, Scopus, and ProQuest). The third stage involves screening to remove redundant articles. Table 2 shows several inclusion and exclusion criteria. Only research articles were selected since articles offer a more rigorous analysis of the subject and most studies are published in proceedings. Hence, the primary source of analytical evidence was research articles. However, articles on systematic review, meta-synthesis, meta-analysis, chapters in books, and newspapers were also excluded from the study. In terms of language, English articles published between 2016 and 2021 were included. To focus on PBL as a teaching pedagogy for social sciences, articles from medical engineering, computer science, energy, psychology, and decision sciences were not selected to avoid irrelevant articles or proceeding papers. The fourth stage involves the data extraction or charting the data. Specifically, the data collected were summarized using the Microsoft Excel application to assist in the thematic and comparative analysis. The author’s details, publication year, research method, constructs or variables, results, and themes have been included in Table 3. Finally, the fifth stage entails gathering, summarizing, and reporting the findings. At this stage, common themes and conclusions from the publications were determined. Other important details, such as the origin of the study, publication year, and any other significant documentation, were also discussed at this stage. Table 1: The search strings Database search string All fields "problem-based learning" OR "active learning" Web of AND Science "education" AND "critical thinking skill" OR "analytical thinking skill" TITLE-ABS-KEY "problem-based learning" OR "active learning" Scopus AND "education" AND "critical thinking skill" OR "analytical thinking skill"

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"problem-based learning"

ProQuest

OR "active learning" AND "education" AND "critical thinking skill" OR "analytical thinking skill" Table 2: The inclusion and exclusion criteria

Criterion

Eligibility

Literature

Journal (research articles)

Language Timeline

English 2016 – 2021

Subject area

Economics, Econometrics, Finance, Business, Accounting, Management and, Social Sciences

Exclusion Systematic review, metasynthesis, meta-analysis, chapters in books, and newspapers Other than English Earlier than 2016 Other than Economics, Econometrics, Finance, Business, Accounting, Management and, Social Sciences

3. Findings The database search extracted 884 articles based on the above-mentioned search techniques. Due to duplication, 77 of these articles were omitted from the initial list. A total of five hundred papers were then excluded based on the title and abstract due to methodology, publication type, language, timeline, and subject. After a thorough analysis of the remaining 307 papers, 287 were eliminated due to apparent irrelevancy to the scoping study's objective. Only 20 publications were selected after a thorough selection process based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review, which is known as PRISMA, adapted by Moher et al. (2015) (See Figure 1).

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Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram of the study selection process

Additionally, the selection of articles was limited to quantitative, qualitative, and mixed empirical studies from journal articles published during a six year period. Firstly, conference proceedings were excluded due to a lack of systematization and openness because of conventional evaluations (Hodgkinson & Ford, 2014). Secondly, research on a specific issue that has been conducted for at least six years shows the stability of the subject (Kraus et al., 2020). As a result, it was pertinent for this study to select high-quality articles within the recent six year period to perform a scoping review. 3.1 Main Findings Table 3 highlights the twenty articles which were selected based on the required criteria as mentioned. Basically, there were fifteen quantitative studies (Carvalho, 2016; Foo et al., 2021; Garnjost & Lawter, 2019; Geitz et al., 2016; Hashima & Samsudin, 2020; Hidayati et al., 2019, 2020; Lisniandila et al., 2019; Oderinu et al., 2020; Saiful et al., 2020; Saputra et al., 2019; Saputro et al., 2020; Suarniati et al., 2019; Ulger, 2018; Yağcı, 2018); three qualitative studies (Blackburn, 2017; Heaviside et al., 2018; Suryanti & Supeni, 2019); and two mixed method studies (Ioannou et al., 2016; Ismail et al., 2018). The majority of the studies (n=8) were conducted in Indonesia (Hidayati et al., 2019, 2020; Lisniandila et al., 2019; Saiful et al., 2020; Saputra et al., 2019; Saputro et al., 2020; Suarniati et al., 2019; Suryanti & Supeni, 2019), followed by the United Kingdom (n=3) (Geitz et al., 2016; Heaviside et al., 2018; Ioannou et al., 2016), Turkey (n=2) (Ulger, 2018; Yağcı, 2018) and Malaysia (n=2) (Hashima & Samsudin, 2020; Ismail et al., 2018). In addition, just one study on PBL (n=1) has been conducted in the United States (Garnjost & Lawter, 2019), Germany (Blackburn,

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2017), Portugal (Carvalho, 2016), Hong Kong (Foo et al., 2021), and Nigeria (Oderinu et al., 2020) respectively. Furthermore, nine subthemes were identified under four major headings from the scoping review. The major headings are human capital, learning environment, process, and content. Firstly, in terms of human capital, the problems were mostly focused on the student's attitude and conduct (Geitz et al., 2016; Yağcı, 2018) in the learning environment. Secondly, the learning environment addressed the key problems in PBL application such as the difficulty in communication linked to PBL dynamics (Heaviside et al., 2018) and the initiative to promote individual learning (Ismail et al., 2018; Hidayati et al., 2019), which justified its effective usage. Thirdly, processes discussed in recent studies included the definition of educational objectives and goals; awareness of constructivist pedagogy and its effects on the learning strategy; the stimulation of student regulation and selfefficiency through continuous feedback (Blackburn, 2017); and the coordination of projects carried out by student teams (Saputro et al., 2020). The final main heading encompassed issues related to the sharing of information and references to the learning environment, and the development of unconventional teaching materials to support PBL (Suarniati et al., 2019; Hashima & Samsudin, 2020), as well as the requirement for multiple interconnected courses (Oderinu et al., 2020), many of which go beyond course planning, in order to effectively solve problems.

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Table 3: Data charting form Publication and Research Method

Garnjost and Lawter (2019) Quantitative study

Ulger (2018) Quantitative study

Ismail et al. (2018) Mixed method study

Yağcı (2018) Quantitative study

Aim

Construct/ Variables

Results

To determine whether studentcentered pedagogies are better than instructorcentered pedagogies in relation to perceived learning outcomes and student satisfaction.

Independent: problem-solving, self-directed learning, knowledge acquisition, critical thinking, student satisfaction. Dependent: student-focused teaching style rather than instructor-focused teaching style.

When compared to the lecture method, PBL had no effect on critical thinking or self-directed learning. Additionally, there were no significant differences in perceived learning outcomes between other pedagogies and the lecture method. Student satisfaction was higher in PBL.

Perceived learning's impact on satisfaction

To assess the effect of PBL on the creative and critical thinking skills of learners.

Independent: creative thinking, critical thinking, disposition, inventory. Dependent: between subjects.

PBL can assist students with nonroutine problemsolving by improving creative thinking.

PBL on critical thinking skills

Independent: apps for learning scientific terms. Dependent: critical thinking skill.

A positive effect could be seen on the students’ critical thinking with the usage of the app. Qualitative analysis data covered four features in the app that enable students to enhance their critical thinking skills.

PBL on critical thinking skills

Independent: attitudes toward programming, academic achievement. Dependent: online PBL

Learners who adopted the ‘‘deep’’ study approach were more successful than those who adopted a ‘‘superficial’’ approach. The PBL application affects the learners’ attitudes positively toward programming, but the study approach did not significantly affect learners’ attitudes toward programming.

PBL on attitude

To assess the PBL environment’s integration into the process of designing and developing mobile applications for learning scientific terms and explore how the app helps students to think critically.

To assess the effect of learners’ study approaches on their attitudes towards programming and academic achievement in online PBL.

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351

Heaviside et al. (2018) Qualitative study

Hidayati et al. (2019) Qualitative study

Carvalho (2016) Quantitative study

Geitz et al. (2016) Quantitative study

PBL played a major role in developing employability skills such as teamwork, communication, and interpersonal skills, critical and creative thinking, and flexibility. Feedback from students was very positive. The students commented on its realism and on how they enjoyed the simulation of an online problem. Nonetheless, major challenges were met in the implementation which required several support across the organization.

To analyze the role of PBL in developing employability skills.

How is the adoption of PBL in university aligned to the eLearning environment?

To assess the effectiveness of PBL in inculcating transferable skills.

To explore the relationship between selfefficacy, learning behavior, and performance of students.

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Independent: positive assessment experience, subscribing assessment rules, defining teamwork rules, problems with teamwork, problems in managing time, interaction with the tutor, problems with the host company, understanding how organizations work, imagining future professional life. Dependent: satisfaction, skill development.

PBL implementation had a direct effect on satisfaction and skill development. The factors concerning the assessment experience and assessment rules contribute only towards student satisfaction. In addition, interaction with the tutor, problems with the company, and being able to imagine a professional future directly affect skills development.

Independent: self-efficacy, learning behavior, sustainable feedback. Dependent: performance outcomes.

Surface learning showed a negative effect on performance outcomes. However, self-efficacy had a positive influence. Deep learning was found to be a strong indicator of selfefficacy. The experimental group and the control

PBL in the developmen t of generic skills

PBL in a virtual learning context

PBL in the developmen t of generic skills

PBL on learning behavior

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Foo et al. (2021) Quantitative study

Saiful et al. (2020) Quantitative study

Oderinu et al. (2020) Quantitative study

Hidayati et al. (2020) Quantitative study

To compare the performance of learners using distance learning PBL tutorials and students using the conventional face-to-face approach.

Independent: distance learning, face-to-face approach. Dependent: learners’ performance

To assess the PBL model on learners’ critical thinking skills and environmental attitude.

Independent: PBL model. Dependent: learners’ critical thinking skills, learners’ environmental attitude.

To evaluate the perceptions of PBL compared to the conventional lecture method.

Independent: PBL, traditional teaching. Dependent: teaching method.

To determine the correlation between critical thinking and knowledge acquisition in the implementation of digital mind maps-PBL.

Independent: critical thinking. Dependent: knowledge acquisition.

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group showed significant gains in self-efficacy and surface learning. The distance learning group had significantly lower scores than the faceto-face approach group particularly in participating, communicating, preparing, critical thinking, and group skills. The PBL model showed significant influence on learners’ critical thinking skills. It also had a significant influence on learners’ environmental attitudes. PBL showed a higher impact on critical thinking skills and environmental attitudes than the conventional learning model. A significant difference could be seen between PBL and conventional teaching methods for all the perceived factors. The mean score for most of the perception items is higher in the PBL method as compared to conventional teaching. There was a correlation between critical thinking and knowledge acquisition. The conclusion was that digital mind mapsPBL strategies can be applied to promote learners’ critical thinking, which may cause improvement in

PBL on critical thinking skill

Instructional approach to critical thinking skills

PBL on critical thinking skills

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learners’ knowledge acquisition.

Hashima & Samsudin (2020) Quantitative study

Saputro et al. (2020) Quantitative study

Saputra et al. (2019) Quantitative study

Suarniati et al. (2019) Quantitative study

Hidayati et al. (2019) Quantitative study

To identify the perceptions of selected public universities lecturers on the implementation of PBL.

Independent: satisfaction with the implementation of PBL, improvement of learners’ soft skills through PBL, effective implementation of PBL by the lecturer, suitability of implementing PBL. Dependent: Islamic studies' courses.

To explore effects of PBL on trainee teachers’ selfefficacy and critical thinking.

Independent: self-efficacy scales, critical thinking. Dependent: experimental, control groups.

To assess the effectiveness of collaboration of jigsaw and PBL model in developing learners’ critical thinking skills.

Independent: collaboration of jigsaw and PBL model. Dependent: critical thinking skills.

To compare the impact of PBL and traditional learning methods on critical thinking skills.

Independent: critical thinking skills. Dependent: conventional learning strategy implementation.

To analyze the relationship between critical thinking and creativity skills through the integration of PBL and the digital mind maps learning model.

Independent: critical thinking. Dependent: creativity.

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The use of PBL in public institutions indicates a positive attitude toward learning. Lecturers view PBL positively because they can relate classroom learning to real-life situations.

PBL was more effective than traditional learning in increasing selfefficacy and critical thinking of trainee teachers. The usage of the collaboration of jigsaw and the PBL models showed significant results in developing learners’ critical thinking skills.

There was a significant difference between the effects of PBL and traditional learning approach on the critical thinking skills of vocational school students in civic education subjects. A significant relationship could be seen between critical thinking and creativity. To conclude, the integration of PBL and the digital mind maps model is an alternative approach to empower the learners’ critical thinking and creativity.

Perceived learning's impact on satisfaction

Selfefficiency through PBL

PBL on critical thinking skills

Instructional approach to critical thinking skills

Integrated/b lended PBL for critical thinking skills and creativity

354

Lisniandila et al. (2019) Quantitative study

Suryanti & Supeni (2019) Qualitative study

Ioannou et al. (2016) Mixed method study

To assess the effect of PBL teaching approach and direct instruction approach on learners’ critical thinking skills.

Ways to improve learners’ soft skills through PBL to develop superior human resources.

Using PBL in a multi-model, technology-rich classroom and presentation of evaluation data on students’ technology adoption experience while engaging in PBL.

Independent: PBL teaching method, direct instruction method. Dependent: students’ critical thinking skills.

A critical thinking skills gap was discovered between the learners using PBL and those using the direct instruction approach. The PBL group had a higher average critical thinking skills score (post-test) as compared to the direct instruction method group’s scores.

Instructional approach to critical thinking skills

PBL in education can improve learners’ soft skills to develop strong human resources.

PBL in the developmen t of generic skills

Independent: communication and interaction, reflection, perceived learning, satisfaction, frustration.

The learners were positive about the learning environment. Furthermore, quantitative content analysis of Facebook users demonstrated how the physical and digital tools in the environment, combined with Facebook's capability as a recordkeeping and communication tool, played an important role in the PBL process.

PBL in the developmen t of generic skills

4. Discussion The PBL approach has helped in the creation of soft skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, self-directed learning, the ability to adapt, communication skills, interpersonal skills, and teamwork skills. These skills have been grouped together as two categories of higher-level skills, namely intellectual and cooperative abilities (Meister, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has caused many changes in the modern world. All these require new attitudes and behaviors which can shape our lives, such as developing the ability to learn through problem-solving (Bird, 2020) in PBL and engaging with topics that build critical thinking skills. The aims of PBL, as discussed by Barrows and Tamblyn (1980), are relevant 21st century teaching and learning. This is because the aims are in line with the list of skills needed by today’s students. Zmuda (2009) identified the following essential 21st century skills: (a) critical thinking, (b) problem solving, (c) collaborative skills,

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(d) effective communication, and (e) global literacy. The skills mentioned are related to and in line with the PBL aims as stated by Barrows and Tamblyn (1980). The challenge is to upgrade skills and learning in the current situation, and to develop graduates who can fulfil the human resource requirements within a globalized world based on technology. The PBL approach is a very appropriate method to achieve this. Moreover, the scoping analysis shows that most of the current research on critical thinking skills in PBL teaching can be classified into four key categories. In a PBL setting, human capital extends beyond the roles of teacher and student (Geitz et al., 2016; Yağcı, 2018). This is because PBL requires the involvement of both parties, thus fostering a positive learning environment through the implementation of projects developed by students under the guidance of the teacher, who serves as tutor and facilitator. As mentioned by Hidayati et al. (2019, 2020) and Ioannou et al. (2016), it is nearly impossible to discuss the learning environment in the PBL method without mentioning collaboration. It is therefore crucial to highlight that PBL allows more rigorous and regulated processes through the collaborative work and multifunctional teams, which necessitates the use of more complex management processes and extra attention to working group creation. In recent years, a review of the studies revealed a particular interest in the processes involved in the PBL environment, particularly the student evaluation process for technical and soft skills (Blackburn, 2017). In this context, it is critical to support the development of students’ self-efficiency by establishing methods that motivate them to regulate and take responsibility for their learning (Saputro et al., 2020). More evidence on teaching and learning processes shows that the use of active learning methods and technology is highly useful in adding dynamism to the setting (Shi et al., 2019; Coorey, 2016). The objective of PBL is not to produce material in a normal sense; the teacher becomes the curator of the learning material by choosing acceptable subjects for the educational proposal, screening excellent information and references, and constructing a content base to achieve the learning objectives. Figure 2 shows an overview of the theme that has been adapted from the overall findings.

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Figure 2: Framework on improving critical thinking skills in students using PBL teaching methods

5. Implications of the Study This scoping review recommends that PBL is grounded in the key ideologies that are common to many theories of teaching and learning that can guide how PBL is executed in all educational programs. The ability to think through a problem should be the outcome of learning, and therefore problem-solving abilities must be learned (Sari et al., 2021). The approach encourages successful life-long learning and language acquisition, whereby learners start to see how the knowledge they learnt helps them to solve problems in life and become life-long learners. PBL develops self–directed learning skills for learners. Using this approach, learners work in a group to brainstorm the problem in an assignment; they define the problem and then clarify what they know and do not know about the material. Familiarizing PBL principles in the context of national culture and local educational institutions, as well as taking into consideration the characteristics of students and teachers, is vital for long-term implementation (Sabah & Du, 2018). The advantages of PBL have made this approach increasingly popular for many years (Md. Zabit et al., 2021). Despite the emergence of new norms following the COVID-19 pandemic, PBL plays a major role in relating theory and practice by involving students in the problem-solving process through simulation of the actual environment. The COVID-19 pandemic has pushed for more significant teaching and training to address needs in the workplace and society in all sectors. This professional development has always been unique regarding its academic approach in teaching and learning, as well as its training approach, where knowledge and skills are developed through ‘learning by doing’ (Miester, 2020).

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6. Limitation and Recommendation Even though this study only looked at a restricted number of articles from the Web of Science, Scopus, and ProQuest databases, the trend suggests that an increase in the number of publications is imminent. This is because the topic of strengthening critical thinking skills in teaching through PBL has recently gained a lot more attention and concern from researchers. A wider range of data can be explored by searching databases such as Sage, Springer, Science Direct, and Taylor Francis. As suggested by Petrosino et al. (2002), future researchers can employ systematic literature reviews that can be defined as finding, integrating, and evaluating all accessible data produced in qualitative and quantitative studies to offer an observationally determined answer to a research inquiry. As a result, future research studies related to improving critical thinking skills in teaching through PBL may include more database resources. According to the findings of this study, future research may focus on in-depth investigations of PBL in the context of management learning experiences, problem-solving abilities, and practice-based education.

7. Conclusion This research confirms that there are several options and techniques for enhancing critical thinking abilities in students through PBL. Based on the data examined, the PBL method in education enhances students' team involvement and learning capacity, provides opportunities to practice skills, educates professionals with a holistic vision, improves critical thinking, and increases capacity to deal with different market conditions. However, some issues were discovered in the formulation of problems, the high cost of a learning environment that is compatible with labor market realities, the development of non-traditional content, the definition of educational objectives, and their monitoring through assessment processes. This scoping review identifies four main themes and nine sub-themes related to the improvement of critical thinking skills in teaching through PBL. More comprehensive research is required to further investigate the impacts of PBL on student performance outcomes, especially in the social sciences, as well as performance in both academic and professional situations.

8. Acknowledgements This research was funded by a GPUBP: 2020-0102-107-01 research grant from Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 363-379, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.20 Received Dec 9, 2021; Revised Feb 1, 2022; Accepted Feb 28, 2022

User Acceptance of Google Classroom-Assisted Learning: The Case of Malaysian Form Six Economics Students Noornadiah Md. Sari

, Khoo Yin Yin*

Zainizam Zakariya and Ramlee Ismail Faculty of Management and Economics, Sultan Idris University of Education, Malaysia

Abstract. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic situation, educators in Malaysia have resorted to the use of the learning medium Google Classroom as an alternative to existing online teaching methods. Past studies have focused on direct and indirect factors towards the intention to use and the use of Google Classroom in public institutes of higher learning. This study therefore aimed to identify the level and tendency of acceptance items of Google Classroom-assisted learning among Form Six economics students based on demographic factors. A questionnaire was distributed to 206 students in the state of Melaka, Malaysia. Descriptive analysis was used to measure the level of user acceptance of Google Classroom, and the Rasch measurement model of differential item functioning (DIF) was used to identify the tendency of items based on demographic factors. From the findings of the study, the overall analysis of student acceptance of Google Classroom showed that it was at a moderately high level. DIF analysis proved that there were differences in the propensity to adopt Google Classroom based on gender, ethnicity, experience, and frequency of internet usage. The findings of this study will help policymakers to issue guidelines, and assist school management and teachers to plan for technological literacy training to educate students in schools. Keywords: acceptance; differential item functioning (DIF); economics education; Google Classroom; unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT)

1. Introduction Educators in Malaysia have embraced the Google Classroom teaching medium. The Google Classroom learning management system (LMS) was pioneered in the *

Corresponding author: Khoo Yin Yin; khoo@fpe.upsi.edu.my

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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second phase of the 1BestariNet Services Project in June 2019 (Ministry of Education [MoE] Malaysia, 2019). The MoE Malaysia issued a guideline permitting students to bring personal devices to school to facilitate the execution of a virtual learning environment (MoE Malaysia, 2018). This shows a substantial dedication to improving the existing education system to be on par with those of developed countries. The usage of Google Classroom has garnered more attention during the outbreak of COVID-19 since the beginning of 2020. COVID-19 pandemic circumstances that hit the country prompted the implementation of hybrid learning. Google launched Google Classroom in August 2014 for educational purposes (Iftakhar, 2016). Approximately 150 million users employed Google Classroom worldwide by 2021 (Lazare, 2021). Meanwhile, statistics have shown that users in the UK had already downloaded around 603,000 times from the Google Classroom app as of January 2021 (Clark, 2022). Statistical reports have recorded that Malaysia has the second highest number of users globally out of 57 countries registered, which is higher than the number of users from the United States, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Canada (Google Trends, 2021). Empirical data have verified that blended or hybrid learning methods with the help of Google Classroom constructively enhance thinking skills (Sulisworo et al., 2020), student satisfaction (Almusharraf & Khahro, 2020; De Campos Filho et al., 2019), student engagement (Abazi-Bexheti et al., 2018), self-efficacy (Noornadiah & Khoo, 2021), and student attitude towards a subject (Wan Nazari et al., 2019). Nevertheless, existing economics learning still depends on conventional learning techniques. Researchers have agreed that passive learning approaches do not stimulate economics learning (Hettler, 2015; Nepal & Rogerson, 2020; Ramlee et al., 2020). Past analyses have proven that learning aided with technology positively influences learning (Khoo et al., 2019). The Google Classroom application has been acknowledged as an active and autonomous learning tool (Hidayat et al., 2019). Therefore, it presents an opportunity to help economics teachers enhance the quality of teaching and boost student academic accomplishment. This method is appropriate to be executed for economics students in Form Six because, according to Adams et al. (2020), students under the age of 20 tend to interact more with peers through LMSs and group learning compared to other age groups. Learning with the help of the Google Classroom LMS implies a virtual classroom learning concept devised to streamline the learning process and support existing approaches. Some of the benefits of utilizing Google Classroom are that it saves costs (Maheran et al., 2021), offers ease of information access (Dash, 2019; Memon et al., 2019), aids management of learning materials (Priyaadharshini & Vinayaga Sundaram, 2018; Shaharanee et al., 2016), and encourages interaction (Hidayat et al., 2019). Nonetheless, the Google Classroom application is still novel and needs further empirical examination on its usage efficacy (Francom et al., 2020). Therefore, consumer acceptance of new technology needs to be considered to guarantee effectiveness (Ghazal et al., 2017; Saroia & Gao, 2018; Zulfikar et al., 2019). Since the introduction of the Google Classroom application, much research has been conducted on user acceptance of Google Classroom (Al-Maroof & Al-Emran, 2018; Kumar & Bervell, 2019; Nor Zanira & Hafizul, 2020). Preliminary analyses

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have concentrated more on direct and indirect components influencing user intent and usage of Google Classroom applications (Al-Maroof & Al-Emran, 2018; Hidayat et al., 2019; Kumar & Bervell, 2019). Researchers have even reflected on the acceptance of Google Classroom applications in the face of pandemics (Fauzi et al., 2021; Pratama, 2021). Nevertheless, we have discovered gaps in understanding user behavior, precisely personality traits and other individual-related factors. Moreover, past studies have focused more on students in public institutes of higher learning (Abazi-Bexheti et al., 2018). Furthermore, the use of Google Classroom is still less explored in education in Malaysia, hence the need to review the student acceptance of this application. Based on the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT), Venkatesh et al. (2003) established that individual acceptance of new technology is based on four key factors: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions, as described in Table 1. Table 1. Student acceptance factors towards Google Classroom Factor Performance expectancy

Description Performance expectancy refers to students’ level of confidence that the use of Google Classroom helps them improve performance.

Effort expectancy Social influence

Effort expectancy refers to the Google Classroom facilities. Social influence relates to the individual’s trust in the stakeholders, which drives the individual to use Google Classroom. Facilitating conditions are when a student believes that technical infrastructure exists to support the Google Classroom system or environment. Source: Nor Zanira and Hafizul (2020)

Facilitating conditions

This study attempted to address the following research objectives: 1. To identify the level of student acceptance of Google Classroom. 2. To identify the differential item functioning (DIF) of Google Classroom acceptance based on demographic factors.

2. Research Methodology 2.1 Respondents and Location of the Study The schools involved in this study are situated in Melaka, Malaysia. The schools were selected from heterogeneous samples with characteristics similar to the population. Each selected school had the exact characteristics of Form Six students who enrolled in the economics stream learning the same economics syllabus. The sample of this study was selected based on Krejcie and Morgan (1970) and involved 206 Form Six economics students in semester 1. 2.2 Research Instruments The Google Classroom acceptance questionnaire used in this study was based on Mohd Paris and Saedah’s (2016) instrument, and was modified according to the suitability of the study context. Part A consisted of demographic information, part B of performance expectancy (4 items), part C of effort expectancy (3 items), part D of social influence (3 items), and part E of facilitating conditions (3 items). A five-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, was

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used to make it easier for respondents to indicate their level of agreement. The instrument achieved reliability with a Cronbach alpha of 0.92. Since Cronbach’s alpha was higher than 0.70, it proved a high-reliability standard (Sekeran & Bougie, 2010). It confirmed that the items were acceptable and could be used as part of the actual study instrument. 2.3 Data Gathering Procedure This survey study was conducted using a quantitative approach to assess students’ acceptance of the use of Google Classroom. The respondents were briefed on the use of Google Classroom before the questionnaire instrument was distributed. A voluntary declaration letter of participation was distributed to each respondent to seek permission to use the data provided. All respondent information obtained is confidential and limited for research purposes only. Twenty minutes was allotted to complete the questionnaire. Once the respondents had completed the questionnaire, we gathered and coded the data collected. 2.4 Ethical Considerations The participating students were eligible to be registered as school candidates. Before the questionnaire was distributed, we followed several procedures to request permission from specific parties. These included: i) Graduate Studies Institution, Sultan Idris University of Education, ii) Education Policy Planning and Research Division, MoE Malaysia, iii) Malacca State Education Department, and iv) school principals. Permission from the relevant parties was required to enter the government premises, specifically that of the schools. 2.5 Data Analysis Descriptive analysis using mean scores was used to report the level of user acceptance of Google Classroom. We employed the Rasch measurement model and DIF analysis to evaluate the tendency of respondents with the same ability but from different backgrounds towards an item. Previous studies have tended to use classical measurement theory to interpret data cumulatively. Dodeen and Johanson (2001) performed DIF tests on respondents’ gender and background to measure whether the implementation of assessment was fair and equitable. DIF measurements that recorded values exceeding controlled values (DIF ≥ 0.5 logits, t > ± 2.0, or p < 0.5) revealed different item functions (Bond & Fox, 2015; Boone et al., 2013). Accordingly, this study completes these previous findings by identifying functional differences of items in the instruments used. Table 2 shows the mean score interpretation of the descriptive analysis. Table 2. Mean score interpretation of the descriptive analysis Mean score Level 1.01–2.00 Low 2.01–3.00 Moderately low 3.01–4.00 Moderately high 4.01–5.00 High Source: Nunnally and Bernstein (1994)

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3. Results 3.1 Respondents’ Demographics The demographic profile distribution of the study respondents is shown in Table 3, consisting of gender, ethnicity, location of residence, estimated family income, experience of using devices, and frequency of internet usage. Table 3. Demographic profile distribution of respondents Item

Characteristic

Percentage

Gender Female Male

68.9 31.1

Malay Chinese Indian

31.6 64 4.4

Urban Rural

69.4 30.6

Ethnicity

Location of residence

Family income Less than RM4849.00 RM4849.00 to RM10,959.00 More than RM10,959.00 Experience of using devices Less than 4 years 4 to 7 years More than 7 years Frequency of internet usage 1 to 6 hours 7 to 12 hours More than 12 hours

46.6 45.6 7.8 10.2 48.1 41.7 48.6 40.3 11.1

The sample contained more female (68.9%) than male respondents (31.1%). Regarding ethnicity, the sample comprised a majority of Chinese respondents (64%), followed by Malay (31.6%) and Indian (4.4%). Concerning their place of residence, 69.4% of respondents were from urban areas, with the rest (30.6%) living in rural areas. Meanwhile, there was an almost equal number of respondents from families earning less than RM4849.00 (B40) (46.6%) and from families earning between RM4849.00 and RM10,959.00 (M40) (45.6%). Respondents from families earning more than RM10,959.00 (T20) comprised the smallest group in this category (7.8%). Regarding device-usage experience, analysis showed that 48.1% of respondents had 4 to 7 years’ experience using devices, followed by those with more than 7 years (41.7%), and less than 4 years (10.2%). Lastly, respondents had to indicate with what frequency (hours) they used the internet daily. Almost half (48.6%) allocated 1 to 6 hours to internet usage per day, with 40.3% spending 7 to 12 hours on the internet per day, and the rest (11.1%) spending more than 12 hours on the internet per day.

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3.2 Respondents’ Level of Acceptance Towards Google Classroom-Assisted Learning Table 4 displays the analysis of respondents’ acceptance of Google Classroom-assisted learning. Overall, the level of acceptance by respondents was high (M = 3.40, SD = 0.72). Comparison of the means of the Google Classroom acceptance factors showed that the highest mean value is attributed to facilitating conditions (M = 3.61, SD = 0.87), whereas the social influence factor received the lowest mean value (M = 3.02, SD = 0.93). Table 4. Analysis summary of respondents’ level of acceptance of Google Classroom-assisted learning Factor Performance expectancy Effort expectancy Social influence Facilitating conditions Acceptance of Google Classroom (overall)

Mean 3.45 3.53 3.02 3.61 3.40

Acceptance level Moderately high Moderately high Moderately high Moderately high Moderately high

3.3 Differences in Respondents’ Acceptance of Google Classroom-Assisted Economics Learning as per Demographic Factors Next, the DIF was conducted to evaluate the tendency of respondents with similar characteristics and abilities towards an item. Analysis showed that 6 out of 13 items demonstrated the different functions of items based on demographic factors, as summarized in Table 5. (The whole list with items is presented in Appendix 1.) Table 5. DIF analysis summary of acceptance of Google Classroom usage based on demographics Item

Demographics with DIF

Google Classroom can help with my economics learning

Learning using Google Classroom can be done anywhere at any time Google Classroom helps me learn in groups

E4 E5 E10 E13

Google Classroom makes it easy for me to interact with friends Teachers often help me use Google Classroom My friend is willing to assist if I need help using Google Classroom

Note: = gender; experience

= ethnicity;

= frequency of internet usage;

= usage

Figure 1 illustratively summarizes the person DIF plot by gender. Group 1 represented the female and group 2 the male group. Three items in the study had gender-based tendencies, namely E4, E5, and E13. Items E4 and E5 received preference among male respondents. This signified the tendency among male students compared to female students to engage in group learning and interaction

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through learning mediums using Google Classroom. Contrarily, item E13 received preference among female respondents, confirming that female students tend to use Google Classroom with the help of their peers.

Note: 1 = female; 2 = male Figure 1. Person DIF plot based on gender

DIF analysis by ethnicity showed that one item (E10) received a score outside the required p-value (p < 0.05). The results demonstrated that Malay respondents had a higher tendency to learn how to use Google Classroom from the teacher. Figure 2 illustrates the overall person DIF plot based on the duration of deviceusage experience. Item

DIF Measure (diff.)

1.5 1

1 2

0.5

0 -0.5 -1

Note: 1 = less than 3 years; 2 = 4 to 7 years; 3 = more than 7 years Figure 2. Person DIF plot based on usage experience

Category 1 represented a period of less than three years’ experience (novice group); category 2 represented four to seven years; and category 3 represented more than seven years (skilled group). Based on the DIF analysis on the period of experience of using the platform, two items indicated the tendency because they received a score outside the required p-value (p < 0.05), namely items E1 and E10. Respondents in the less than three and more than seven years of experience

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categories indicated that using Google Classroom could help them carry out economics learning activities. In addition, findings revealed that respondents in the novice category needed more teacher support to help them in the learning environment using Google Classroom compared to the other categories of respondents. Figure 3 illustrates the person DIF plot according to the frequency of internet usage per day. Item

DIF Measure (diff.)

1.5 1

1 2

0.5

0 -0.5 -1

Note: 1 = less than 6 hours; 2 = 7 to 12 hours; 3 = more than 12 hours Figure 3. Person DIF plot based on the frequency of daily internet usage

Group 1 represented respondents frequenting the internet less than 6 hours a day; group 2 represented those with 7 to 12 hours per day; and group 3 represented those with over 12 hours per day. Based on respondent usage rate, two items showed a tendency, because they received scores outside the required p-value (p < 0.05), namely items E2 and E4. Group 2 expected that using Google Classroom would help them improve their performance as their usage was not limited to time and place. In addition, this group believed that using Google Classroom was useful in a group learning environment. Lastly, the DIF analysis by location and family income did not yield different item functions. Therefore, this analysis proved that user acceptance by residential location (urban and rural) and socioeconomic factors had an equivalent tendency by respondents towards the use of Google Classroom.

4. Discussion The objectives of this study were to identify the level of user acceptance by students of Google Classroom and to identify the DIF of Google Classroom acceptance based on demographic factors. The prevalent acceptance of the use of Google Classroom among the participating economics students was moderately high. The DIF analysis further verified differences in the propensity towards Google Classroom acceptance based on gender, ethnicity, experience, and frequency of internet usage.

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Local reports established that students’ acceptance of the use of Google Classroom was positive (Nor Zanira & Hafizul, 2020; Syed Ahmad et al., 2020). The factors of performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions influence an individual’s intention to employ new technology (Azizi et al., 2020). Furthermore, this study discovered that the facilitating conditions factor recorded the highest mean, followed by effort expectancy, performance expectancy, and social influence, respectively. It thus confirmed that respondents had adequate facilities to enable them and their teachers to use the Google Classroom application. UNICEF Malaysia (2020) estimated that 9 out of 10 children between 5 and 17 years old use the internet. Al-Maroof and Al-Emran (2018) and Kumar et al. (2020) maintained that the principal reason for acceptance of Google Classroom is due to the usage factor and ease of use. Consequently, the ease of use and expected benefits of using technology among the current generation have improved, because Generation Z students have been exposed to the technology since a young age. Nonetheless, the social influence factor recorded the lowest score. This finding shows that respondents received less support from certain parties, such as teachers and schools, to use Google Classroom in economics learning. Teachers do not apply technological elements in face-to-face teaching (Rasheed et al., 2019) and are satisfied with traditional economics teaching approaches (Elpisah & Bin-Tahir, 2019). According to Padilla-Meléndez et al. (2013), there are considerable distinctions in attitudes and intentions towards the use of technology according to gender. The current study substantiated this in that the male respondents engaged in group learning and interacted using Google Classroom learning mediums more than the female respondents. This conclusion aligns with previous reports that male students are more excited to engage in online learning activities than female students (Al-Emran et al., 2019; Gameel & Wilkins, 2019). Naresh et al. (2016) added that male students are more comfortable using technology for learning. Males can use more learning strategies and have better technical skills than females (Yu, 2021). Besides, this study confirmed that female students were more likely to receive peer support to use Google Classroom. Internet overdependence among male internet users in Malaysia is more common than among female internet users (Ching et al., 2017; Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission [MCMC], 2018). According to Wang et al. (2009), the gender factor moderates the impact of social influence and self-management of learning on the intention to use m-learning. However, past studies from Terzis and Economides (2011) and Decman (2015) reported no difference in students’ online learning acceptance based on gender. The current study also unveiled, regarding ethnicity, that Malay respondents had a greater tendency to learn to use Google Classroom from the teachers compared to respondents from other ethnicities. The influence of ethnicity is also prominent in the report by Adams et al. (2020), which showed that Malay students found it easier to concentrate on online tasks compared to Indian and Chinese students. Compared with other ethnic groups in Malaysia, the Chinese ethnic group has more computers, spends more time online, and uses the internet more frequently (Soh et al., 2012). This finding is consistent with those from investigations done in

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the southeastern U.S., as Ashong and Commander (2012) highlighted differences in perception by ethnicity. They found that although all African-American and white students had positive views on online learning, African-American students reported significantly fewer positive views on asynchronous characteristics. Therefore, there is a perceived tendency to accept Google Classroom-assisted learning based on ethnicity. Concerning years of experience, respondents with less than three and over seven years of usage experience, respectively, believed that Google Classroom could help them carry out economics learning activities. Nonetheless, they needed usage support from teachers, especially the novice group. These findings are in line with those by Cheng and Yuen (2019) that students need the help of friends and teachers regarding the use of technology early. This stage signifies when they perceived technology as applicable and genuinely acknowledged that the use of Google Classroom could help them in economics learning. If this confirmation stage meets the initial expectations, the students will be satisfied. Therefore, in the early stages of the implementation of Google Classroom, teachers should afford guidance, especially to students who are new to the use of Google Classroom, to drive their self-efficacy so that students can be independent. However, Van Alten et al. (2020) indicated that students’ initial knowledge did not significantly impact learning activities involving self-learning. In addition, it was found that most respondents spent 7 to 12 hours on the internet per day. DIF analysis showed that respondents in this group tended to expect the use of Google Classroom to help them improve performance because its use is not limited to time and place. The majority of consumers in Malaysia spend approximately one to four hours using information technology devices per day (MCMC, 2020a). Al-Emran et al. (2019) mentioned that students and academics who own smartphones are more likely to use the mobile learning approach than those who do not have devices. In addition, students who frequently use the internet believed that the use of Google Classroom was useful in a group learning environment. Google Classroom can be a medium of learning in a flipped classroom, where teachers can prepare materials before the teaching session. It allows students to prepare in advance before the topic is taught. Learning materials such as videos, pictures, and notes are uploaded to the Google Classroom application for easy access by students. This allows students the freedom to determine their time and place of learning. Regarding residential location and socioeconomic status, the DIF analysis verified no differences in the propensity of respondents towards Google Classroom acceptance. According to Chen and Liu (2013), government policy has significantly reduced the rural-urban knowledge divide. In 2020, the government propelled the Jalinan Digital Negara (JENDELA) (2020–2022) plan by concentrating on learning at home as one of the principal plans (MCMC, 2020b). Diverse government endeavors help diverse groups of students gain access, especially those from rural and low-income families. One such endeavor is the Malaysia Family Device Package, which allows all Malaysians to receive/upgrade selected 4G VoLTE mobile devices for free. In addition, the Malaysian Family

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Youth Package is an initiative to help teenagers and students (21 years and below) acquire internet access for online learning and to increase productivity. This initiative authorizes every student to gain equal access and exposure using the Google Classroom learning app. This study was limited to economics students at the Form Six level in one state. The findings acquired were based on the results of survey information using a questionnaire only. The variables measured also did not involve mediator and moderator factors that could influence student acceptance of the use of Google Classroom. In an attempt for future advances in this field, we recommended using a larger sample from various states involving economics students at the matriculation and diploma levels. In addition, to obtain more comprehensive data, we advise that subsequent research use a qualitative approach such as the interview method.

5. Conclusion In conclusion, this study examined the level of acceptance and the tendency to accept the use of Google Classroom among Form Six economics students. In essence, the level of acceptance of Google Classroom-assisted learning among economics students was good. Additional findings also verified the propensity of economics students to embrace Google Classroom based on demographic factors. The factors of residential location and family income did not reflect differences among groups in their tendency to accept the use of Google Classroom. This finding is in line with the view of Vygotsky (1978) that learning occurs when individuals actively interact socially.

6. Recommendations The findings of this research could help educators to consider using Google Classroom as a medium for facilitating economics learning. Teachers could choose a user-friendly digital medium based on students’ preferences. In addition, the findings could help school administrators better understand how effective the use of Google Classroom is according to students. The study has proven that teachers and students need to be prepared with mastery of futuristic pedagogical methods such as cybersecurity, gamification, and heutagogy. This study is important for students, teachers, school administrators, and information technology officers in the field of education. Teachers need to be reactive to learning style needs and pinpoint techniques germane to students’ current needs. The school management and technology officers of the Department of Education should inspire teachers to integrate technology in classroom teaching and conduct in-service technology-literacy training in collaboration with community colleges from time to time. In addition, the government also needs to furnish support for learning facilities, primarily to rural and low-income students, to address the needs related to mobile devices and sound internet access.

7. Acknowledgment We would like to thank the MoE Malaysia for sponsoring this study under the Federal Training Prize 2018. In addition, we are thankful to the Sultan Idris

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University of Education (UPSI) for the existing guidelines and references and to the Melaka State Education Department for allowing us to conduct the study.

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Appendix 1 Performance Expectancy E1 Google Classroom can help me learn economics. E2 Google Classroom-assisted learning can be done anywhere at any time. E3 Google Classroom helps me find information through the internet. E4 Google Classroom helps me learn in groups. Effort Expectancy E5 Google Classroom makes it easy for me to interact with friends. E6 The skills in using devices make me proficient in using Google Classroom. E7 The experience of using device tools makes it easy for me to use Google Classroom in learning. Social Influence E8 Friends influence me to use Google Classroom. E9 The school encourage the use of Google Classroom in learning. E10 Economics teacher often helps me use Google Classroom. Facilitating Conditions E11 I have the appropriate device to use the Google Classroom application. E12 I have the knowledge to use Google Classroom. E13 My friend is willing to help if I need help in using Google Classroom.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 380-396, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.21 Received Dec 17, 2021; Revised Feb 22, 2022; Accepted Feb 28, 2022

Exploring the Influence of Teacher-Student Interaction Strength, Interaction Time, Interaction Distance and Interaction Content on International Student Satisfaction with Online Courses Xiaozhuan Wang , Aminuddin Bin Hassan* , How Shwu Pyng Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia Han Ye Zhejiang University of Science & Technology, Hangzhou, China

Abstract. Since the outbreak of COVID-19 in January 2020, international online courses in universities in China have begun to develop on a large scale. This study explores the related influencing factors of teacherstudent interaction on international student satisfaction with online courses in Chinese universities. It reveals which aspects of teacherstudent interaction in online classes positively correlate with international students' satisfaction. This study is of a quantitative nature with four (independent variables (IVs) and one dependent variable (DV). The four IVs are the four dimensions of teacher-student interaction, namely interaction strength (IS), interaction time (IT), interaction content (IC), and interaction distance (ID). The DV is international student satisfaction (ISS) with online courses. This study was conducted in a university in Zhejiang Province, China. To answer the questionnaire, one hundred international students who were unable to enter China during COVID-19 were selected by stratified random sampling. The study used SPSS 21 to conduct descriptive and multiple linear regression analysis on the collected quantitative data. A total of 93 valid questionnaire data was collected. The analysis results showed that both IVs (IC & ID) have a positive correlation with the DV (ISS). Therefore, under the condition of limited equal resources, online teachers may give priority to the teacherstudent interaction factors that have the greatest impact on the satisfaction of international students, carefully design teacher-student interaction activities, and maximise the satisfaction of international students. Keywords: COVID-19; Teacher-Student Interaction; online courses; international student satisfaction

Corresponding author: Aminuddin Bin Hassan, aminuddin@upm.edu.my

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction COVID-19 has persisted for more than two years since its outbreak and, as the virus continues to mutate, the epidemic may last for quite some time. The epidemic crisis has disrupted education all over the world and to ensure the continuous and stable development of teaching activities, most higher education institutions have adopted the mixed method of combining online and offline courses. As an advanced representative of education, online education is leading an all-around change in the global education field. Along with the continuous update and development of Internet technology, more and more colleges and universities have gradually turned their attention to the design and development of online courses (Esmaeeli et al., 2016). With the rapid growth of Internet technology and communication technology in the past decade, new changes have taken place in world education and, in order to adapt to these, most colleges and universities have begun to explore and develop e-learning (Babolan et al., 2016) and online education has become a part of the mainstream of higher education (Allen & Seaman, 2006). At present, educational internationalisation is still a relatively new educational development trend in higher education (De Wit & Altbach, 2021); however, with the increasing trend of economic globalisation, the internationalisation of global higher education has been deepening in recent years. By 2017, the number of international students worldwide was about 5.3 million. However, the outbreak of COVID-19 has led to unique traffic control in countries worldwide in the past two years, meaning that most international students have been typically unable to enter other countries to participate in offline learning. By June 2020, 116 countries worldwide had suspended traditional offline teaching throughout the nation and had begun to conduct online education instead. The sudden epidemic has prevented overseas international students from entering China for offline learning and, as such, most Chinese universities have launched online courses for as an alternative. The most prominent feature of an online system is the separation of teachers' teaching and students' learning in time and space, which breaks the time and space constraints and can provide educational services for learners anytime, anywhere. Online learning is undoubtedly an effective means to ensure that all countries receive education during COVID-19. However, although online courses have great potential in the development of higher education, learners sometimes are unwilling to continue learning. Student retention rates often prove to have a negative meaning in research, such as students dropping out or numbers decreasing, and higher education institutions have long focused on how they can ensure that students remain and complete their studies once they enrol (Tight, 2020). The retention rate of online courses in higher education has always been of concern by researchers (Herbert, 2006; Heyman, 2010) and some have found that the dropout rate of online classes is well above that of the traditional teaching model of face-to-face teaching (Frankola, 2001; Patterson & McFadden, 2009). As customers of online courses, student satisfaction is considered a critical factor in evaluating the quality of online lessons. Learning satisfaction is a subjective

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evaluation, which reflects the satisfaction of learners' needs. In the field of commercial marketing, customer satisfaction theory holds that, when customers are satisfied with a commodity, they will increase their loyalty to that commodity (Fornell et al., 1996). In addition, in the field of educational psychology, the wellknown psychologist Thorndike advanced three eminent learning laws. The law of effect shows that the higher the learners' satisfaction with learning results, the higher the possibility of continuing learning (Ni & Lu, 2020). Therefore, the evaluation of student satisfaction may help researchers understand students' psychological state in the learning process, improve their learning efficiency and enhance the retention rate of courses. Some studies have shown that student satisfaction is the crucial factor and important index affecting the quality of online education (Poortavakoli et al., 2020). Interaction can predict students' satisfaction in online courses (Ngo & Ngadiman, 2021). However, online courses lack physical and social existence, thereby making it more difficult for teachers to interact with students. Therefore, using online interactive research to reconstruct the dialogue between teachers and students is necessary. Teacher-student interaction pays attention to students' learning motivation, learning interest, learning process (Sher, 2009), and the quality of teacher-student interaction (Aydin, 2021). Teacher-student interaction quality is related to student satisfaction (DeLoach & Greenlaw, 2007); however, despite many studies on the interaction theme in online courses (Mehall, 2020), there seems to be no research which has explored in depth the relevant factors of teacher-student interaction affecting international student satisfaction in Chinese universities. In addition, the internationalisation of online courses in higher education is still a relatively new research field. Based on the extensive development of online courses in the world during COVID-19, this study aims to reveal which aspects of teacher-student interaction in online courses have a positive correlation with international student satisfaction, to provide an effective reference for the improvement of international student satisfaction.

2. Literature review The term "online learning" includes both synchronous and asynchronous modes of teaching and learning. The COVID-19 pandemic has forced many universities around the world to rapidly transition traditional face-to-face courses to a hybrid online course model that integrates both synchronous and asynchronous (Hodges et al., 2020). Some research has confirmed that student satisfaction in the elearning process will be affected by the quality of e-Service (Pham et al., 2019). The critical factor in evaluating e-Service quality is student satisfaction (Dondi et al., 2006). Students are customers, and courses are products, thus students' learning process is a consumption process. Therefore, student satisfaction can be regarded as the entry point of creating efficient courses. Many existing studies have paid extensive attention to student satisfaction with online courses. Zeng and Wang (2021) summarised the research on college students' learning satisfaction with online course elements designed by online teachers during COVID-19. Student satisfaction is critical in assessing online courses (Alqurashi, 2019) and the evaluation of this is closely related to the quality

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of online courses and students' performance (Kuo et al., 2014). Some previous empirical studies have also confirmed that many variable factors affect student satisfaction. Interaction is one key factor to improve the effectiveness of online teaching (Zhao et al., 2005). In the example of online courses attended by millions of university students in the US, the key driving force of students is interaction (Gleason, 2021). Previous studies on interaction in online courses mainly focused on the influence of three different types of interaction on student satisfaction. Alqurashi (2019) showed that the overall model including all four predictive variables - selfefficacy, teacher-student interaction, student-student interaction, and studentcontent interaction - significantly impacts student satisfaction. Gavrilis et al. (2020) conducted a quantitative survey of 115 graduate students in the Open University of Greece on their satisfaction with online courses. The results showed that the level of interaction distance between teachers and students was low and the distance between students and students and between students and content transactions was high. In addition, overall, the 115 graduate students seemed to be satisfied with the interactive distance of online courses From the perspective of teachers' perception of the importance of online curriculum interaction, teacher-student interaction is the key factor affecting online courses (Su et al., 2005). Thurmond (2003) identified that teacher-student interaction is the biggest key predictor of student satisfaction and Northrup (2001) believed that it plays an important role in improving student satisfaction with online courses in distance education. Teacher-student interaction is a significant predictor of online student satisfaction (Marks et al., 2005). Compared with student-student interaction, students believe that teacher-student interaction is more important to their learning (Kyei-Blankson et al., 2019): teacher-student interaction positively impacts online student satisfaction (Kuo et al., 2014). Lin et al. (2017) conducted regression analysis on quantitative data through empirical research, and their conclusion was the same as that of Kuo et al. (2014). Yukselturk and Yildirim (2008) confirmed that teacher-student interaction is one of the most important predictors of online student satisfaction, while Martyn (2005) pointed out that it is necessary to purposefully create an environment that supports cooperation between teachers and students. This deliberately planned environment is conducive to students' success in an online environment. In online courses, teachers are facilitators of classes, not leaders. Further, interaction is a crucial factor in ensuring student satisfaction and retention (Bray et al., 2008). To save the cost of distance education, Anderson (2002) proposed a theory of interaction design: equivalent interaction theory. The core content of this theory is that the three types of interaction in distance learning (learner and content, learner and teacher, learner and learner) can be replaced by each other. In other words, if one of the three types of interaction in distance learning remains at a high level, it can promote the learning of online learners to a great extent. The contribution of this theory to this study is that we can design effective teacherstudent interaction to promote students' online learning and improve student satisfaction.

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Xu's (2016) research shows that the quality of interaction content will affect online learning performance. Interaction strength refers to the amount of information generated between teachers and students per unit time in the interaction process. It is generally believed that the greater the amount of data generated between teachers and students, the higher the intensity of synchronous interaction. Interaction time is closely related to interaction frequency and interaction quantity. Swan (2002) analysed the data of 73 online courses and found that the frequency of teacher-student interaction positively impacted student satisfaction in online courses. Eom et al. (2006) used a structural equation model to explore the factors affecting online student satisfaction, with the results showing that the number of interactions has a significant positive impact on online student satisfaction. Some studies have also pointed out that the smaller the interaction distance between teachers and students, the easier it is to produce effective learning (Xiao & Huang, 2014). Teacher-student interaction strength, interaction content prepared by teachers, and the length of interaction time are the incentive factors in the online learning environment, which can be said to be the antecedent variables. Interaction distance refers to the change of students' perceived psychological distance from teachers under the influence of the external environment. This view may affect students' satisfaction. Therefore, this study believes that in the process of teacher-student interaction in online courses, the interaction content (IC), interaction strength (IS), interaction time (IT), and interaction distance (ID) may be related to international student satisfaction (ISS). In the past ten years, e-learning has gradually developed into an indispensable part of higher education. However, despite extensive relevant research in this field, many educators are still concerned about how to use online learning effectively (Tratnik et al., 2019). Through the review of previous relevant studies, this study found that teacher-student interaction is the key factor affecting student satisfaction in online courses. However, there are still gaps in research on which aspects of teacher-student interaction are related to international student satisfaction with online courses. 2.1 Research Questions In this context, the research questions are: 1) Does the content of teacher-student interaction in online courses correlate with international student satisfaction? 2) Does the strength of teacher-student interaction in online courses correlate with international student satisfaction? 3) Does the time of teacher-student interaction in online courses correlate with international student satisfaction? 4) Does the distance of teacher-student interaction in online courses correlate with international student satisfaction?

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3. Methodology 3.1 Study Design This study uses quantitative research methods to establish four aspects of teacherstudent interaction as IVs and international student satisfaction with the online course as a DV. Quantitative data were collected through questionnaires collected by online teachers. SPSS software was used for data analysis to provide descriptive analysis on the variables of quantitative data and multiple regression analysis on the relationship between IVs and DV. 3.2 Participants Using stratified sampling, 100 international students who have been receiving online courses since March 2020 were selected as the research sample in a university in Zhejiang Province, China. Generally, in China's science and technology universities, the proportion of male students greatly outweighs the proportion of female students. In addition, the proportion of science and engineering majors in Chinese Universities of science and technology will also be higher than that of liberal arts majors. As shown in Table 1, the proportion of male and female students and the proportion of majors are reflected in the sample. Table 1: Demographic Information Demographic Information

Male

63%

Female

37%

Science & Engineering

66%

Literature & History

34%

Gender

Major

3.3 Questionnaire Design The questionnaire has a total of 15 measurement items and five latent variables, which are, respectively, three dimensions of the teacher-student online interaction process (IS, IT & IC), one dimension of teacher-student online interaction results (ID), and one dimension of ISS. Most of the measurement items in Table 2 come from mature questionnaires. The measurement items of IC refer to Xu's (2016) research results on teacher-student interaction and e-learning performance. The measurement item setting of IS refers to individual difference research on teacher-student interaction (Xu et al., 2016). The measurement item settings of ID are from the research investigating factors affecting the social presence and user satisfaction with mobile instant messaging (Ogara et al., 2014). The measurement items of ISS refer to Wu and Liu (2013). The scale is tested with a Likert five-level scale. From low to high levels, they are: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, and Strongly agree. They are assigned 1-5 respectively and scored in turn; the higher the score, the better the

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experience of online learners in the dimension. The measurement items of each dimension are shown in Table 2. Table 2: Questionnaire Information Latent variable Interaction Strength

Interaction Time

Measurement item 1. The teacher can answer my questions immediately. 2. After submitting homework online, the teacher can give feedback immediately. 3. The teacher often asks questions in an online class. 4. After class, the teacher often answers our concerns on the Internet. 5. Teachers often participate in class discussion activities.

Interaction Content

Interaction Distance

International Students’ Satisfaction

6. Teachers often provide feedback about classroom homework before the second class. 7. The questions set by teachers are closely related to classroom knowledge. 8. The teacher will summarise the knowledge points and set relevant exercises in each class. 9. The questions raised by the teacher are instructive. 10. In online courses, I can feel the presence of teachers when I communicate with them. 11. In the online course, when I communicate with the teacher, I feel the same as face-to-face communication. 12. I don't feel nervous when communicating with teachers in the online course. 13. Generally speaking, I prefer online learning. 14. Generally speaking, online courses can meet my learning needs. 15. I am willing to accept the online teaching mode in the future.

3.4 Test of Questionnaire and Sample Selection Before the formal use of the questionnaire, this study was distributed in a small range. The participants were international students majoring in online business Chinese in a university in Zhejiang Province, China. A total of 30 online questionnaires was distributed, two of which were deleted because they were incomplete. During the questionnaire trial, the participants did not express their opinions on the measurement items. After the pilot study, this study distributed the questionnaire to international students in the same university. The missing value was processed by deleting the record as long as there was missing. In this study, as many as 100 questionnaires were recovered. After excluding seven invalid questionnaires, 93 questionnaires remained, with an effective rate of 93%. 3.5 Reliability and Validity of the Questionnaire Reliability refers to the internal consistency of the survey results. Generally speaking, the higher the reliability value, the more reliable the measurement

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result. In this study, Cronbach's alpha was used to analyse the reliability of the questionnaire. The analysis results are shown in Table 3. Table 3: Reliability of questionnaire

Latent Variable

ISS

Cronbach's alpha

.745

.876

.768

.821

.853

As shown in Table 3, the Cronbach's alpha values of the interaction strength dimension, interaction time dimension, interaction content dimension, and interaction distance dimension are all above 0.7, at the "good" level. The Cronbach's alpha of the ISS is more significant than 0.8 (Hair, 2011), indicating that the reliability of the ISS is "ideal". In conclusion, this questionnaire has higher reliability. This study mainly uses construct validity to illustrate the validity of this questionnaire. The criterion-related validity of the questionnaire is shown in Table 4. The factor loading of all measurement items in the questionnaire is more significant than 0.6, AVE (mean-variance extraction value) is higher than 0.5, and CR is more than 0.7. The questionnaire of this study meets the three index requirements of criterion-related validity simultaneously, so it can be considered that the measurement model has good criterion-related validity. Table 4: Validity of the questionnaire Latent Variable Interaction Strength Interaction Time Interaction Content Interaction Distance International Students’ Satisfaction

Observed Variable IS1 IS2 IT1 IT2 IT3 IT4 IC1 IC2 IC3 ID1

Factor loading .80 .75 .78 .80 .87 .76 .65 .78 .75 .62

ID2

.87

ID3

.87

ISS1 ISS2 ISS3

.77 .84 .85

CR .754

AVE .601

.876

.646

.768

.531

.821

.633

.853

.677

3.6 Statistical Analysis To answer whether four IVs are related to DV, this study used SPSS data software to analyse the collected data. 3.7 Descriptive Statistics Analysis This study makes a descriptive statistical analysis of the four dimensions (IS, IT, IC, and ID) of teacher-student interaction and ISS to understand the data

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characteristics. A score of 3 indicates that the international student's attitude towards the item is "Neutral", a score of 4 indicates that the international student's attitude towards the item is "Satisfaction". A score of 5 indicates that the international student's attitude towards the item is "High satisfaction". 3.8 Regression Analysis This study takes interaction strength (IS), interaction time (IT), interaction content (IC), and interaction distance (ID) as the independent variables (IVs) and international student satisfaction (ISS) as the dependent variable (DV), selects stepwise method, carries out regression analysis on the collected data and reveals the causal relationship between IVs and DV in online courses.

4. Results 4.1 The Results of Descriptive Statistics Analysis The data description results are shown in Table 5. The mean values of IC, IS, IT, and ID, and ISS are more than 4 points and less than 4.5 points. International students' attitudes are between "Satisfaction" and "High satisfaction", higher than the average value of the 5-point system and close to the maximum 5-point test, indicating that international students are delighted with the teacher-student interaction of online courses. Table 5: Descriptive analysis of variables Latent Variable Interaction Strength Interaction Time Interaction Content Interaction Distance International Students’ Satisfaction

Item IS1 IS2 IT1 IT2 IT3 IT4 IC1 IC2 IC3 ID1

Item Mean 4.30 4.33 4.37 4.31 4.45 4.52 4.34 4.12 4.12 4.32

Variable Mean

ID2

4.30

4.28

ID3

4.28

ISS1 ISS2 ISS3

4.23 4.20 4.17

4.32 4.41

4.19

4.20

The mean value of interaction strength is 4.32, and the scores of each item are similar, indicating that teachers should provide timely feedback on learners' online problems and homework. The dimension of interaction time includes four items, and the mean value is the highest in the measurements. It shows that online teachers spend more time interacting with international students and maintaining close communication with them. The mean value of both IT3 and IT4 is higher, indicating that teachers spend more time participating in online discussion and homework feedback than classroom questions and answers.

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Among the four dimensions of teacher-student interaction, the mean value of interaction content is the lowest, and the scores of IC2 and IC3 items are the weakest among all items, indicating that the design of interaction content of online courses needs to be improved, especially the inspiration and novelty of problems. The mean value of the interaction distance dimension is 4.28, and the mean values of the three items are close, indicating that, in the process of online learning, the psychological distance between teachers and students is small, and learners can easily feel the existence of teachers. The dimension of the ISS is 4.20. The mean values of the three measurement indicators of ISS are all greater than 4 points, and the scores are relatively close, which indicates that online courses generally meet the learning needs of international students, and students are more willing to continue to choose online courses. 4.2 The Results of Regression Analysis As shown in Table 6, Adjusted R Square is .647. With the increase of independent variables, Adjusted R Square also increases, indicating that, with the adjustment of the regression model, the explanatory variables become larger and larger. In addition, the Durbin-Watson value is 2.148. Therefore, it can be considered that the residuals and IVs are independent of each other, and the research results obtained by regression analysis have high reliability. Table 6: Model summary Model Summaryc Change Statistics Std. R R Error of Square Sig. F Mode Squar Adjusted the Chang F Chang Durbinl R e R Square Estimate e Change df1 df2 e Watson 1 .690a .476 .470 .48031 .476 82.690 1 91 .000 2 .809b .655 .647 .39204 .179 46.594 1 90 .000 2.148 a. Predictors: (Constant), ID b. Predictors: (Constant), ID, IC c. Dependent Variable: ISS

It can be seen from Table 7 that the first independent variable entering the regression equation is the interaction distance, followed by the interaction content. The Sig. F values of the two models are. 000 (<.05), which shows that there is an apparent regression relationship between the two IVs (i.e., ID, IC) and DV (ISS). Table 7: ANOVA ANOVAa Model 1 Regression Residual Total

Sum of Squares 19.076 20.994 40.070

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Mean Square 1 19.076 91 .231 92

F 82.690

Sig. .000b

390

ANOVAa Sum of Squares 26.238 13.832 40.070

Model 2 Regression Residual Total a. Dependent Variable: ISS b. Predictors: (Constant), ID c. Predictors: (Constant), ID, IC

df 2 90 92

Mean Square 13.119 .154

F 85.357

Sig. .000c

As shown in Table 8, the tolerance values are more significant than 0. 1 (close to 1) and VIF<10. So, it can be considered that no collinearity problem exists among the variables. In addition, the Sig. of IVs =.000(<.05), which indicates that the two independent variables are statistically significant in the model and should be retained. It can be seen that the interaction distance and interaction content have a significant impact on international student satisfaction with the online course and has a certain influence, and the influence coefficients are 0.628 and 0.428. Table 8: Coefficients Unstandardised Coefficients Std. Model B Error 1 (Constant) 1.004 .355 ID .743 .082 2 (Constant) 2.489 .859 ID .628 .069 IC .420 .061 a. Dependent Variable: ISS

Coefficientsa Standardised Coefficients Beta .690 .584 .436

Collinearity Statistics t 2.829 9.093 2.897 9.141 6.826

Sig. Tolerance .048 .000 1.000 .000 .000 .941 .000 .941

VIF 1.000 1.063 1.063

5. Discussion The results of descriptive statistical analysis showed that international students were satisfied with teacher-student interaction strength, interaction content, interaction time, and interaction distance in online courses conducted during the COVID-19 period. It is a positive finding that online courses overall meet the learning needs of international students, and students are willing to continue to choose online courses. This shows that online courses have great potential in adapting to new changes in global education (Babolan et al., 2016). The results of multiple linear regression analysis show that teacher-student interaction content in online courses has a positive impact on the satisfaction of international students. This research result is consistent with Xu's (2016) research, indicating that the quality of interaction content will affect the performance and satisfaction of online learning. The interaction distance in online courses is positively correlated with the satisfaction of international students, which indicates that, when students feel the presence or attention of online teachers, it

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will effectively reduce the loneliness of students in the online environment, which will lead to a good experience and learning effects (Xiao & Huang, 2014). In this study, teacher-student interaction strength and interaction time did not have a direct positive effect on international student satisfaction, which was slightly similar to the results of Swan (2002) to some extent. The inconsistency may be due to the overall intensity and length of online courses during the COVID-19 period.

6. Conclusions The purpose of this study is to reveal which aspects of teacher-student interaction in online courses have a positive correlation with international student satisfaction. The first research question is whether teacher-student interaction content is correlated with international students’ satisfaction with online courses. The analysis of the research results shows that interaction content has a positive impact on international students’ satisfaction in online courses. The second research question is whether interaction strength is related to international students’ satisfaction with online courses. The result shows that there is no direct correlation between interaction strength and international students’ satisfaction with online courses. The third research question is whether interaction time is associated with international students’ satisfaction with online courses. The result shows that there is no direct correlation between interaction time and international students’ satisfaction with online courses. The fourth research question is whether interaction distance is related to international student satisfaction with online courses. The result shows that interaction distance has a positive impact on international students’ satisfaction in online courses. To sum up, the results of this study show that teacher-student interaction content and interaction distance are the key factors affecting international students’ satisfaction with online courses, which provides a new way to improve the satisfaction of international students. This study has certain limitations: it was conducted during a period of high-intensity online courses during the epidemic, and the results may be different from those of the non-epidemic period. 6.1 Contributions and Implications This study shows that carefully designing the interaction content of online courses and shortening the interaction distance can effectively improve the satisfaction of international students' online courses. This research is innovative both due to the research objectives– as it is conducted among international students, and the whole online course practice, which has never been done before. This study provides an empirical analysis reference for the development of international online courses in Chinese colleges and universities and reveals teacher-student interaction content and distance in online courses have a positive correlation with international students’ satisfaction. Future research should further explore the effects of interaction motivation, interaction tools, learners' language level, and gender as regulatory variables on learners' satisfaction.

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APPENDIX Dear Student: Hello! At present, I am doing research on how to effectively use Teacher-Student Interaction to improve the satisfaction of online learners. I need to know your learning needs and opinions of online courses during the epidemic, which is of great significance to you and this research. Therefore, please truthfully fill in each option in the questionnaire according to your actual learning situation and real ideas. This volume is anonymous. All information you fill in is limited to this study and will not be used for other purposes. Thank you very much for your support and cooperation! Part 1: Demographics 1-2: Please enter the following demographic information: 1. Your gender: A.male

B.female

2. Your major: A. Science and Engineering B. Linguistics D. A&D E.Other

C.Literature and history

Part 2: This part was measured by a Likert 5-point scale. Please read and respond to each question or statement carefully and select the answer that most reflects your expectations, opinions, or beliefs. 1.The teacher can answer my questions immediately. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 2. After submitting homework online, the teacher can give feedback immediately. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 3. The teacher often asks questions in an online class. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 4. After class, the teacher often answers our concerns on the Internet. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 5. Teachers often participate in class discussion activities. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree

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6. Teachers often provide feedback about classroom homework before the second class. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 7. The questions set by teachers are closely related to classroom knowledge. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 8. The teacher will summarize the knowledge points and set relevant exercises in each class. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 9. The questions raised by the teacher are instructive. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 10. In online courses, I can feel the presence of teachers when I communicate with them. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 11. In the online course, when I communicate with the teacher, I feel the same as face-to-face communication. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 12. I don't feel nervous when communicating with teachers in the online course. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 13. Generally speaking, I prefer online learning. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 14. Generally speaking, online courses can meet my learning needs. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree 15. I am willing to accept the online teaching mode in the future. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 397-418, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.22 Received Nov 11, 2021; Revised Feb 23, 2022; Accepted Feb 28, 2022

Centralize or Decentralize? - The Question Currently Facing Schools in Qatar Al-Kubaisi Huda* Qatar University, Doha, Qatar

Abstract. This study sought to explore the policy implementation issues related to the recent transition from an advanced EFNE decentralization to a strict re-centralization from the perspective of Qatar’s school principals. It focused on understanding the advantages and disadvantages of decentralization and re-centralization to identify the most appropriate model for schools that ensures the stability of the educational policy context. Gender and total service years were also considered in the study. The data was collected from 29 principals in government schools through questionnaires. Gender and total service years were also considered. Based on this, this study reveals there to be a level of satisfaction with the current re-centralization that together with the associated accountability increases the desire to emphasize the centralized structure that previously existed. Furthermore, in terms of answering the question on whether schools should be centralized or decentralized, Qatar's current situation differs significantly from the Western concept from which it was borrowed when it was initially created. Decentralization, in some cases, is not likely to be implemented because it is simply seen of as glamorous. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the internal forces, influences, and expectations of a specific context given its cultural norms and dispositions, and the desired educational outcomes when deciding its educational future. Without evidence-based endeavors supporting any policy change proposals, it is doubtful that a practical policy implementation would succeed. Keywords: Qatar; Education for a New Era; decentralization; recentralization; and government schools

1. Introduction The contemporary worldwide movement for school reforms has introduced several initiatives aiming to decentralize the education system and increase transparency, public accountability, and community participation (Bardhan & Mookharjee, 2006). Qatar has implemented a wide-scale reform involving *

Corresponding author: Al-Kubaisi Huda, hudaalkubaisi@yahoo.com

©Author This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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decentralizing the schools influenced by its position as a globalized economy and its international assessment results (Cherif et al., 2012; Romanowski & Amatullah, 2014; Alkubaisi, 2018; Romanowski & Du, 2020). Decentralizing schooling was a core component of the 2002 top-down reform known as Education for a New Era (EFNE). Qatar lags not far behind. EDFNE has been around for more than two decades. A quick look at the current school management reveals two approaches: theoretical and practical. One is the properly planned EFNE shift of the system (the below-explained phase) from purely centrally determined structures to advanced decentralization (2002-2016). The second is the reversal towards strictly centralization (2017 onward). A major consideration perceived behind the recent transition was the absence of a stakeholder consultation, making it problematic and complex (Abou-El-Kheir, 2017). Educational policymakers differ widely in particular contexts and tend to ignore such collaborations and influences. Other considerations that have contributed to this transition were related to economic and social issues, limited specific work procedures, and a lack of leader and teacher professional development (Nolan, 2012; Abou-El-Kheir, 2017; Romanowski & Du, 2020). It is worth noting that decentralizing education, in a completely centralized system in nature, might also provoke resistance (ibid). It seems that these considerations and others (Nolan, 2012; Abou-El-Kheir, 2017; Romanowski & Du, 2020) have called for re-centralizing independent schools throughout the country, including returning and renaming them ‘government schools’ operating under the Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MOEHE). That is to say that the degree of centralization in different countries is mostly undermined by cultural and anthropological issues (Knieling & Othengrafen, 2016). This study seeks to explore the current state of centralization in Qatar from a grassroots level upward. It investigates the principals’ perception of documenting the implementation issues related to this transition. This is focused on understanding the advantages and disadvantages of decentralization and recentralization to find out the most appropriate model for schools that ensures the stability of the educational policy context in relation to the achievement of the schools’ objectives, which are of critical importance. It also provides worthy insights into the challenges confronted when undergoing the borrowed policy implementation. Finally, studying such an issue in Arab countries is worthwhile because the decentralization and re-centralization of secondary schools and potentially primary schools is debatable. This study addresses the following questions given the importance of understanding how and to what extent the policy is being considered: 1: What are the advantages/disadvantages of re-centralization currently being implemented in Qatar's government secondary schools? 2: What are the advantages/disadvantages of the EFNE implementation in Qatar’s government secondary schools? 3: Does the participants’ gender and years of experience affect their perception of the advantages/disadvantages of the EFNE policy decentralization in Qatar’s government secondary schools?

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4: What is an appropriate management model to suggest for government schools? To the best of my knowledge, there is no empirical evidence about the current state of centralization in Qatar. The only current non-empirical but conceptual analysis-based research scrutinizing this state is by Romanowski and Du. (2020). This highlighted a sharp shift from the EFNE decentralization to the current recentralization due to some of the contextual dynamics.

2. Development of the School System in Qatar In the 1990s, Qatar's educational system was influenced by a traditional mindset whereby a small number of students were selected or able to pursue higher education. It was rather rigid, outdated, and resistant to reform (Brewer et al., 2007) and it was not perceived as key to economic and social progression. As Qatar transitions to a knowledge-based economy, education has mainly been intended to influence sustainable human, social, economic, and environmental development. The Rand Corporation objectively examined the system and recommended a US charter school model that decentralizes schools. With a new government-funded school structure, the Qatar system found an opportunity to improve its education system in 2002 (Brewer et al., 2007). It was claimed that this model allowed several schooling options to emerge and minimize the role of the center (Alkubaisi, 2018). Consequently, the top-down EFNE decentralization reform was driven and officially announced by the country’s political leadership that had once hesitated to discuss it openly (Abou-El-Kheir, 2017). Historically, educational decentralization reforms adhere to centrally pre-defined structures and performance standards that are politically rooted (Hanson, 1998; Daun, 2005) but only successful decentralization is considered attractive and applicable (Hanson, 1998). However, whether the change was down to a political desire or was for the sake of an improvement, the national policy creation and implementation should be locally determined for a more fine-tuned educational system. Moreover, the motivation behind any decision whether to decentralize, under some contextual circumstances, should be convincing (Hanson, 1998) and related to the amount of the feature to be centralized (Petersen, 1960 as cited in Shah, 2010, 288). Generally speaking, decentralization as a globalization product (and a trend of policy change) has been diversely embraced in policy rhetoric but with precautionary measures in practice (Silova & Eklof, 2013). Qatar's educational map has been instituted with reforms and the necessary infrastructure to usher in decentralization. Trusting that the step-by-step transformation towards decentralization was more likely to be successful (Hanson, 1998), the gradual conversion of Ministry of Education (MOE) public schools to decentralized independent schools was regulated by the Supreme Education Council (SEC) until 2010. Authority and financial responsibility coupled with four critical principles, i.e. autonomy, accountability, variety, and choice, were also transferred to the independent schools under the supervision of the SEC to embrace decentralization and decision-making. It was strongly recommended that the central authority should continue to play a focal role in securing the policy transformation of decentralization (Hanson, 1998). As

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decentralization may take several levels of authority transformation, e.g. deconcentration, delegation, devolution, and privatization (Rondinelli et al., 1984), the form of decentralization sought by the government seems to be either delegation or devolution (Romanowski & Du, 2020). The EFNE is an example of a practice which diverges from its theory since all of its essential features have been slowly watered down when it is implemented through the conveyance of public education to the MOEHE, once again placing control over public schools at the central level. This evidence shows that EFNE decentralization was denied and that the earlier centralization had again been restored to the system as before (Nolan, 2012). Educational governance is often considered to measure the overall school centralization or decentralization (Brock, 2016). Accordingly, in this study, the current state of the school management is referred to as re-centralization. In practice, many opportunities arise for policy change, formulation, accommodation, and resistance because national bureaucratic policymakers are generally distant from the sites where the policy is implemented (Jammeh, 2012). The case for decentralization is not black, white or one-sided in Qatar (Romanowski, & Du, 2020). The reality is that when decentralization initiatives fail, it is often due to a lack of consideration placed by the political leadership rather than technical or administrative issues (Hanson, 1998). It may be further deduced that centralization can alleviate education provision in a homogeneous context that is likely branded by shared contextual social and cultural factors, language, and religion. Accordingly, the education policy change towards decentralization is underlined by an assumption that centralization can bring about better outcomes. However, the uniqueness of a country plays an essential role in how educational systems are controlled (Rabee, 2019). Considerable local support is often fundamental for winning decentralization since it must be tied to accountability and transparency (Jeong et al., 2017).

3. Advantages and disadvantages of school centralization and decentralization The advantages of centralization are, for example, that it is adopted due to its potential to make one-size-fits-all decisions and procedures rather than focusing mainly on one situation to ensure a unified and integrated management manner that is likely to resolve conflicts (Al-Ajmi, 2010). It contributes to advancing economic development because the central system modernizes institutions, increases the administrative competencies, and enhances the quality of the services provided (Weidman & Jurand, 2012). Human capital accumulation, for instance, has been significantly accelerated by centralization (Cappelli & Vasta, 2020). Within this, the center is responsible for educational expenses and maintaining control and compliance in the system, leading to a policy-determined performance. This is also considered appropriate when unpredictable situations are likely to arise (Marume & Jubenkanda, 2016). Other authors have identified centralization’s inability to offer good policy recommendations for economic

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development (Geo-JaJa & Zajda, 2005; Tan, 2012) and the literature therefore offers decentralization as an alternative. The disadvantages of centralization include how the educational policies neglect to emphasize economic diversity despite their high centralization and standardization. Rather than focusing on the effective learning process that is capable of reaching all of the students' potential, the policies strive to achieve specific targets such as the curriculum targets. It pays little attention to the specific needs of a school (Middlewiood, 2010). Investing in decentralization will give the state more management capability in the future (Orlov et al., 2020). Schools can be pressured to comply with exclusionary disciplinary policies when principals or teachers refuse to comply (Hirschfield 2010). It is also more likely that centralized systems assign teachers to schools where they are needed regardless of their preferences. This leads to less control over their working conditions (Akiba et al., 2007; Luschei et al., 2013). This affects their ability to do their job in creative, cooperative, and innovative ways in education. This may impair the school staffs’ ability to do their jobs creatively, cooperatively, and innovatively (Saiti, 2013; Middlewiood, 2010). It is, however, difficult to optimally articulate the dynamics of the environment with a centralized concept due to the rigidity of this concept. The advantages of decentralization include political control issues that can be alleviated through decentralization (Tommasi & Weinschelbaum, 2007). The local communities would make a significant contribution to the decision-making and the level of accountability would be increased (Sharpe, 1996; Manor, 1999; Walberg et al., 2000; Zajda, 2006; Healey III & Crouch, 2012) to promote a greater collaborative culture. It yields quicker operational decisions that perhaps allow for delays to be avoided (Gardi et al., 2020). This will likely increase the work pace, free up planning time, and boost morale and trust which will result in better work results. Decentralization facilitates policy planning by reducing excessive workloads and decision-making processes, reducing the implementation costs, and boosting the self-confidence and human resources while improving subordinate capability (Shah, 2010). Moreover, it helps to increase the capacity to pursue political objectives such as democratizing the education industry. It has proven to be advantageous for expanding engagement and participation, and getting the people involved closer to the problems (Shah, 2010). Through the creation of a better social climate, it can contribute to more meaningful jobs (Anwar & Shukur, 2015). It is therefore creating a sense of community engagement that leads to better education as education is truly community-based. Furthermore, the active role of the leadership’s professional competencies and qualifications when performing the assigned tasks is important for successful decentralization (Al-Farah, 2010; Marume & Jubenkanda, 2016). The disadvantages of decentralization include where centralization may create a time lag when undertaking instant actions and inflexibility. This leads to more burdened work along with a lack of responsiveness of the center (Marume & Jubenkanda, 2016). The decentralization may be low performance on account of the subordinates' laziness or failure (Weidman & Jurand, 2012). Coordination deficiency and different multi-level and invalid communications result in a

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disruptive and painful organizational integration (Marume & Jubenkanda, 2016) that might surface. Leadership incapability (Al-Farah, 2015) and the resistance to sharing financial costs with the lower levels (Bray, 2003; Marume & Jubenkanda, 2016) often hampers decentralization. Sigerson et al. (2011, p. 7) stated that principals “must feel a level of autonomy but must not be left to make all decisions alone.” Hyba and Miemar (2016) affirmed that the overall degree of the cognitive, administrative, and financial delegation is fundamental. Because decentralization is based on the potential challenges of a central role and a ubiquitous state in education, the greatest challenge is the necessity for understanding the control and role of the center in planning and finance. This includes where exactly the decision-making originates from (Marume & Jubenkanda, 2016). In Al-Mutairi’s (2014) view, people in schools should be empowered and develop their leadership capabilities and skills to effectively achieve balance in management. To achieve such a balance, scholars recommend a combination of centralization and decentralization (Al-Hamad & Al-Adwan, 2019). This is all the more true since there is no truly decentralized educational system. Most decisions have degrees of decentralization and centralization - the challenge is finding the right balance of what is critical (Hanson, 1998). 3.1 Conceptualizing School Centralization and Decentralization Centralization and decentralization are widely discussed by scholars. Seemingly the opposite, they are “not paradoxical entities [… and are] two extreme[s] of the same continuum” (Shah, 2010, p.285). They are seen of as a process, not a situation (Bray, 2003) that has the potential for authoritative control (Hanson, 1998). They are important to maintaining the power and direction, and they should be wisely adopted towards education quality (Marume & Jubenkanda, 2016). However, both notions are two sides of the same coin. To illustrate, school centralization retains the top authority as the full authority over education and related decisionmaking, control, and policies. However, it transfers the responsibility for implementation to the implementers at the lower levels from a technical viewpoint. (Shah, 2010; UNESCO, 2012; El Baradei, 2015; Marume & Jubenkanda, 2016, Romanowiski & Du, 2020). The literature suggests that centralization would be better when there is a lack of confidence in the individuals’ competencies (Saiyed, 2009) or a lack of encouragement for entrepreneurship as well as participation among them when making decisions as a result of concentrating the policies in the center (Attia, 2009). Decentralization, on the other hand, is where countries prefer to borrow Western ideas and acknowledge them as the potential solution to their own system-related issues. Decentralization is an instance of a non-native-born proposal that is considered a strategic choice for solving education complications (Mundy et al., 2016). Despite being a complex and political matter (Sabir et al., 2021; Winkler, 2005), it has been applauded internationally for the clear capacity to stimulate development and an individuals’ greater involvement in decision-making from formulating plans to implementing them (Sabir et al., 2021; Zakari, 2012). It involves delegating responsibility and power in consideration of resource utilization and distribution by the center to the schools (Hanson, 1998; Bray, 2003; Shah, 2010; El Baradei, 2015; Marume & Jubenkanda, 2016). This may include

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transferring decisions, policies, and allocations to the schools which enables and encourages a rapid managerial response towards solving problems, and eventually decision-making (Al-Mutairi, 2014; Martinez-Vazquez et al., 2015: Feurdean, 2020), bringing specific tasks closer to the people and pointing out where the service is to be delivered (World Bank, 2003). Through this, it builds effective decisions and benefits (Al-Saud, 2009; Al-Farah, 2015) and attains resourcefulness, creativity, and personal enhancement (Healey III & Crouch, 2012; Bjork, 2004). Although it is more about the extent to which authority and autonomy has been delegated to the schools, it is not limited to such authorities. The advantages and disadvantages of each notion are now presented. This is to acknowledge that I, throughout this study, consider that the disadvantages of decentralization are likely given the advantages of centralization and the disadvantages of centralization are given the advantages of decentralization.

4. Methodology and Measures 4.1 Research Design and Sampling For the study’s purpose, a quantitative descriptive rather than a qualitative research method of investigation was chosen, whereby the phenomenon is explained by collecting and then statistically analyzing the data (Aliaga & Gunderson, 2002), building upon deductive reasoning. A quantitative approach focuses on psychological and social phenomena with a reality separate from the subjects being studied, i.e. the knower, the researcher, and the subject are viewed as relatively independent and separate (Yilmaz, 2013). This likely minimizes bias, guides towards other insights, and allows for the generalization and replication of the findings (Creswell, 2014). This study, however, was not concerned with the phenomenon in particular and instead with the perceptions of the phenomenon among the principals. In accordance with the above research questions, this study follows a design according to a structured approach used to collect and analyze data through the processes and stages described in Figure 1.

Study purpose & design identification

Population & sample

RQs defining

identification

Questinnaire coductiong

Data analysis

Results reporting

Figure 1: Research design

Since purposeful sampling provides detailed information and a thorough understanding of the people (Yilmaz, 2013), it was utilized in this study to select the principals. The only selection criterion that determined my choice of participants was that they had been principals since 2002 and were still holding the same position even after the EFNE abandonment with the hypothesis that they had lived through the EFNE decentralization (independent school principals) and have currently experienced re-centralization (government school principals). This is because I sought participants that are well-informed about the investigation, aiming to formulate predictions and generalizations (Yilmaz, 2013) to understand

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the situation of the school management. Quantitative methods require the researcher to create a pre-constructed standardized instrument or to generate categories of responses into which different perspectives and experiences fit. The number of Qatar’s secondary schools (and their principals) was 58 in the AY 2019-2020 (DEPR, 2018). Since it was challenging to estimate the exact number of the principals that met my criterion, the schools were contacted after gaining official access. In total, 42 out of 58 principals were selected as eligible which was then reduced to 29 upon return of the valid questionnaires. This study was limited to EFNE decentralization and the current re-centralization in the government schools affected by this transformation. Furthermore, this study was limited to the state of decentralization and centralization in the case of Qatar. Only public schools were considered since they were all affected by EFNE and backsliding to centralization. The conclusions were drawn based on the perceptions of the secondary school principals during the second semester of AY 2019-2020. 4.2 Measures A self-administrated, structured questionnaire was conducted online to gather responses to the above research questions between June and July 2019 (see Appendix. 1). This included the demographic variables (nationality, gender, qualification, service years) and two sections used to separately evaluate the EFNE decentralization practices and the current recentralization practices in

schools (51 items). This is in addition to the centralization advantages (12 items), the centralization disadvantages (15 items), the decentralization advantages (14 items), and the decentralization disadvantages (10 items). Five responses were rated on a Likert scale (5="very unsatisfied" to 1="very satisfied"). For the Self-efficacy Questionnaire, all items were found to be statistically significant and the Cronbach's alpha coefficient for this composite scale was (0.902). Table 1 provides a brief explanation of the dimensions and the internal reliability (>.90=whole questionnaire). It is relevant to note that this study cites school principals as the most active and efficient factors in the school management. Table 1: Validity and reliability Dimension

1 2 3 4 --

The advantages of centralization. The disadvantages of centralization. The advantages of decentralization. The disadvantages of decentralization. Overall total

Reliability 0.943 0.923 0.934 0.933 0.940

Validity 0.890 0.852 0.874 0.871 0.885

5. Data analysis To analyze the data, the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) and other statistics such as descriptive data, central tendency measures, means and

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variance, and standard deviations (DS) were all considered. The EFNE decentralization and current re-centralization was evaluated given that the study population estimates are represented in the calculations of the range, i.e. difference between the scale's largest and smallest values (4/5 = 0.80) which also identifies the group’s length. The scale’s key correction standards are 1<1.80=very low score, 1.80-<2.60=low score, 2.60-<3.40=average score, 3.40<4.20=high score, and 4.20-5=very high score. Next, the study results are presented as per the research questions.

6. Findings What follows are the results of the study presented as per the research questions: 1: What are the advantages/disadvantages of re-centralization currently being implemented in Qatar's government secondary schools? Re-centralization advantages As shown in Table 2, strong advantages for the practices of the current recentralization are evident, in particular, “unifying policies and procedures”, “increasing the ability of the principals to make timely decisions to facilitate school business,” and “ensuring the absence of reduplication of decision-making mechanisms” as these items had a high mean values of 3.85 and 3.77, respectively. A high mean value for the overall total of this dimension (3.96 with an SD of 1.09) was also noted. This might reflect greater positivity among the principals, following the satisfaction of their working preferences, because the schools are controlled by the center. This brings about many benefits for leadership empowerment in particular. Thus, the re-centralization is contemplated as the most appropriate and wise option to effectively manage the schools that has been ever taken. This state is a seemingly clever education transformation. Scholars have reported that school centralization ensures the quality and reliability of forcefully determined programs, curriculum, practices, and services, the quick implementation of centrally driven changes, and achieving the effective use of human resources (Bray, 2003; Marume & Jubenkanda, 2016). It also offers economic support for unnecessary work duplication (ibid). Table 2: Summary of the data analysis results of the current re-centralization advantages No.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Item Current centralization Ensures autonomy in decision-making and saves time and effort. Increases the ability of the principal to make timely decisions to facilitate the school business. Promotes harmony among the educational policies and strategies within the schools. Allows for coordination between all aspects of the education and learning process. Aids in solving problems at a fast pace due to the senior administrators' higher skills compared to the junior administrators. Allows the lower levels to be controlled and accountable by the higher levels.

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Significance

3.66

1.09

High

3.77

1.27

High

3.67

1.09

High

3.75

1.22

High

3.63

1.04

High

3.59

1.47

High

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7 8 9 10 11 12

Ensures a greater commitment to the regulations, policies, and procedure implementation. Ensures the absence of reduplication in the decision-making mechanisms. Determines the scope and responsibility of all employees. Unifies the policies and procedures. Unifies the job descriptions and tasks among the school personnel. Authorizes the school administration and power. Overall total

3.66

1.09

High

3.77

1.27

High

3.67

1.09

High

3.85 3.63

1.12 1.04

High High

3.69

1.47

High

3.96

1.09

High

Re-centralization disadvantages To understand the disadvantages of re-centralization in schools, Table 3 indicates that the mean and SD for the whole dimension were (2.55) and (1.51), respectively, which somewhat describes the insignificance of the perceived disadvantages of centralization. Accordingly, the participants affirmed the three managerial school-based features to be decentralized: “school responsibility for their practices, including decision-making”, “school’s ability to take a quick response, when needed, regarding urgent teaching and funding matters” and “human resource management and development for an appropriate school culture.” It likely reflects the school community's commitment and ownership and contributes to its performance and professional development. This aligns with the conclusion reached by Al-Mutairi (2014). The participants further recognize the inability of schools to undertake strategic policies and planning which likely has an impact on the selection of competent principals (2.88 and 2.82). However, the responses to other items (4, 8, and 12) can be considered to be fairly moderate. The sample comprehends that there is a strong tendency to take schools toward tighter centralization. The results also emphasize the strong satisfaction towards the current re-centralization as beneficial and better suited to this context. Table 3: Summary of the data analysis results of the current re-centralization disadvantages No Item Mean SD Significance Centralization Ensures that the principals are taking full 2.50 1.02 Low 1 responsibility and exerting a good effort. Relies on the principals in all matters that need to 2.17 1.03 Low 2 be made at the school level (e.g., decisions related to teaching, funds, etc.). Keeps the top levels of the management busy with 2.73 1.05 Low 3 minor matters, problems, and challenges that happen at the school level that could be solved by the principal. Realizes the inability of the school principals to 2.88 1.24 Moderate 4 undertake strategy-related policies, planning, processes, etc.

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5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12 13

14 15

Realizes the incapability of the top levels of management to understand/know the employees' needs in the schools. Makes it hard to distinguish between the productive/dynamic/effective and destructive/apathetic/inoperative employees in the schools. Involves adopting inaccurate perceptions that could negatively affect the school performance and employee evaluation. Leads to slowness when implementing actions, events, and the provision of services that need a quick decision. Kills innovation and creativity among the principals. Reflects the school financing and budgeting, and creates more complex and unjustified decisions. Prevents expertise, capability, and professional development. Limits the ability to select more competent principals for the schools. Reduces the schools’ freedom and autonomy over its own decisions, as well as the managerial practices or activities that need to be implemented that are suitable for what happens in the school. Reduces the sense of ownership among the school's employees. Diminishes the flexibility and speed when carrying out activities. Overall total

2.59

1.03

Low

3.49

1.09

Low

2.55

1.27

Low

.832

21.1

Moderate

2.17

1.00

Low

2.12

1.02

Low

2.59

1.06

Low

2.82

1.22

Moderate

2.47

1.23

Low

2.51

1.60

Low

2.35

1.32

Low

2.55

1.51

Low

2: What are the advantages/disadvantages of the EFNE implementation in Qatar’s government secondary schools? Decentralization advantages As stated above, this study acknowledges the decentralization disadvantages that are the centralization advantages and vice versa, therefore research question 2 is contrary to research question 1. Table 4 shows that the values of the mean and SD were (3.05) and (1.32) for the whole dimension, meaning that the benefits of EFNE decentralization are perceived as relatively moderate. However, the low mean values for items 2, 5, and 6, are mostly correlated to the leadership’s professional development, growth, knowledge, and skills. Furthermore, various potential noticeable gains for decentralization are evidenced such as the speedy decisionmaking process (Mean =3.97, SD=1.08), and communication effectiveness (Mean =3.69, SD=1.02). While these examples cannot be used to determine how the principals feel about decentralization in an accurate way, they increase the mean and SD of the average value of this dimension. While my study found that decentralization allows for speedy decision-making, which is aligned with other studies (such as Abu Nasser, 2008; Saiyed, 2009; Shah, 2010; Kalalida, 2013; AlFarah, 2015), its findings concern the communications between different levels which was found to conflict with Marume and Jubenkanda’s (2016). Such

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communications were perceived to be high in this study which alleviates the problem of communication overload in the system. Table 4: Summary of the data analysis results of the EFNE decentralization advantages No Item Decentralization Promotes flexibility 1 and encourages healthy competition. Allows the 2 leadership at the middle level to have more opportunities to grow professionally. Limits the negative 3 results of a decision/action to a small area/portion in the school. Allows the principals 4 to demonstrate a leadership style suited to the individuals' personality. Allows the principal 5 to select employees matching the principal's leadership vision and style. Motivates the school 6 employees to learn, develop and compete continuously. Allows for a speedy 7 decision-making process. Makes the 8 communications flexible between the school and higher authority, and breaks down the daily routine of the school. Attains satisfaction 9 among the employees who are often involved in the decision-making process.

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Mean

Significance

2.84

1.02

Moderate

2.17

0.983

Low

3.30

1.06

Moderate

3.30

1.19

Moderate

2.30

0.986

Low

2.38

1.40

Low

3.97

1.08

High

3.69

1.02

High

2.89

1.14

Moderate

409

11 12

Allows for improved role distribution and therefore for bearing, responsibility, learning, and expertise. Eases the burden of the upper (central) authorities. Speeds up the process of filling in vacancies in the schools. Allows for the discovery and training of new school leaders. Generates equality between all employees, departments, and authorities at all levels in any treatment provided. Overall total

2.86

1.00

Moderate

2.77

1.04

Moderate

2.81

1.20

Moderate

3.38

1.30

Moderate

2.68

1.20

Moderate

3.05

1.32

Moderate

Decentralization disadvantages In Table 5, the higher mean (3.64) indicates that the existence of many disadvantages of decentralization is characterized by a high level of inconsistency, inequality and dissimilarity regarding the decisions taken. This includes the lack of awareness of the top management over the school’s business and policies and the lack of awareness of the center over the school business and policies. On many occasions, there has been a duplication of the services provided as well as a lack of integration between all departments and between the central control and accountability. Perhaps the higher mean can be partially described by the fact that most participants were exercising a new (different) situation of decentralization – including the period after 2016 – aligned with the new mechanisms and regulations imposed by the MOEHE to avoid the breakthroughs experienced throughout the reform. The low mean values for items 1 and 8 suggest that due to the late responses received from the center, schools do not make the proper decisions promptly or in a way that allows them to quickly respond to urgent issues (mean =2.39 and SD 1.97) as endorsed in the EFNE. A collective agreement regarding the negative impacts of decentralization on the communication channels between the departments themselves is superficial. The general impression potentially drawn from the results above is that the participants’ responses seem to reflect satisfaction with the rationale underlying those impressions, suggesting that schools are satisfied with the return to centralization. Considering the tension between decentralization and centralization, we need to find regional solutions to

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collective-action problems (Lubell & Robbins, 2022). Shah (2010) observed that it is rare to have either pure decentralization where one individual makes all the decisions or pure centralization where the decisions are made solely by the center. Table 5: Summary of the data analysis results of the EFNE decentralization disadvantages No

Item

Means

Significance

Causes a delay in getting a response from the higher authority (the Ministry) on time. Leads to inconsistency in decisions taken.

2.39

1.97

Low

3.76

1.00

High

Limits and/or weakens the power and supervision in the top levels of management in schools. Weakens the implementation of school-based policies and plans. Leads to exaggerated efforts which follows on bad results. Allows for inequality in decision-making among the middle leadership due to differing views. Leads to different decisions (and therefore, different results) due to the different visions of the principals. Weakens the channels of communication between the department's levels in the top levels of the management in schools. Leads to the duplication of services due to the different decisions taken, therefore there is a lack of integration between all departments. Lacks central control and accountability. Overall total

3.50

1.68

High

3.54

1.06

High

3.57

1.05

High

3.71

1.22

High

3.79

1.97

High

2.37

1.05

Low

3.79

1.12

High

3.99 3.64

1.18

High High

Decentralization

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1.62

3: Does the participants’ gender and years of experience affect their perception of the advantages/disadvantages of the EFNE policy decentralization in Qatar’s government secondary schools? How? This question aims to identify the differences and influences of the particular characteristics of gender, qualification, and service years upon the variables. To answer this question, the means, SD, t-value, and one-way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) were measured. Gender variable: In Table 6, the significance level of both the EFNE decentralization advantages and disadvantages is less than (0.05). This highlights that no statistically significant differences exist and that the dominant perception of the EFNE decentralization is neither encouraging nor is it harmfully dependent on gender. This can be instead explained by the fact that borrowed EFNE and attached commodities like delegation, local authority, transfer…etc. are new to the school community. Because of the changes in the education landscape, these and other commodities have been introduced without enough knowledge or training provided. This poses key challenges to schools throughout Qatar. I argue

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that since such changes significantly affect the nature of work, males and females equally share the same experiences, thoughts, and perceptions about decentralization. I bear in mind that the government schools’ principals are Qataris who possess an educational background, as well as being public servants. As evidenced above, feelings of satisfaction concerning the current recentralization are evident. Forms of appropriate accountability also include the increasing demand to emphasize the centrally structured system that exists and was initially desired. For me as an author, my judgment when it comes to supporting or opposing decentralization is associated with my prevailing societal cultural values which likely shapes my interpretation of the advantages/disadvantages of the EFNE decentralization. Table 6: Summary of the data analysis results of the principals’ perceptions related to EFNE decentralization by gender Dimension Advantage Disadvantage

Variable category Male. Female.

Means

T value

Sig.

3.97 3.27

0.75 0.36

1.403

0.174

Male. Female

3.86 4.10

0.79 0.56

0.913

0.369

Studies have revealed that the leaders’ culture and values influence their perception of not only the well-qualified people needed for involvement in decision-making but also the degree and scope of this involvement (Martinsons & Davison, 2007; Ryabova, 2010). Cherif and Romanowski (2013) and Romanowski et al. (2013) found there to be a slight involvement by principals in the decisionmaking related to EFNE. The frequent policy changes and measures has also created challenging situation for the principals involved (Cherif & Romanowski, 2013). Table 7: Summary of the data analysis results for the principals’ perceptions relate to EFNE decentralization by service year Dimension Advantages

Disadvantages

Variable category Between group Within group Total Between group Within group Total

Sum of square .841 6.952 7.793 4.138 10.000 14.138

DF 2 26 28 2 26 28

Mean square .420 .267 2.069 .385

F value

Sig.

1.572

.227

5.379

.011

Service years: By comparing the means for the advantages and disadvantages of decentralization in Table 7, I found that despite there being no significant differences in the first, the significance level was higher than (0.5) in the latter. This includes three unequal groups. To determine which group performed better, the ‘Scheffe test’ was considered and the results illustrated in Table 8 indicate statistically significant differences between the groups of [‘<5 years’ and ‘5–10 years’], and [‘>10 years’ and ‘<5 years’] for the benefit of the second group in each

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(4.09 and 4.00). In fact, the EFNE journey lasted 14 years. The principals who have been in their position over the last years (2010-2015) were found to be less likely to perceive decentralization as being good. The noticeable center interventions through unjustified policy changes have influenced the degrees, processes, and procedures of school decentralization. A significant move away from school autonomy towards centrally controlled firming regulations has been felt by the sample. With this complexity, the schools understand that the transition toward centralization is surely coming up in the future. I assume that the speedy constrained moves in terms of the policy changes has sent signs to the schools indicating that there was something seriously incorrect or even wrong regarding decentralization. This has made the principals, especially those with a lengthier experience in EFNE, feel uncomfortable. Given this, the study offers important insights into how good management practices influenced by localization and expectations are dissimilarly perceived in different job phases. Table 8: The summary of the ‘Scheffe test’ Dimension Disadvantages

Range

<5 years. 5 – 10 years. >10 years. *=p<0.05, **=p<0.01

Mean 3.11 4.09 4.00

< 5 yrs 3.11

5 – 10 yrs 4.09 0.000**

> 5 yrs 4.00 0.010** 0.990

4: What is an appropriate management model to suggest for government schools? The analysis of the above findings demonstrates the case of the school management that is to be proposed. This study shows that there is significant evidence in agreement with Romanowski and Du (2020). The case of EFNE decentralization likely constitutes a little more than the transfer of work (but not power) from MOEHE to the schools. This reminds us of what Arnove (2005, p. 434) stated: “an English colleague quipped to me what decentralisation meant in Britain: “centralization of control, and decentralization of responsibility,” roughly corresponding to Hanson’s definition of “deconcentration”.” In this context, regardless of whether the transition towards de-concentration was opted for or accidentally resulted from the sudden sharp return to centralization, it is more relevant to the interests of the political/higher leadership - rather than a decentralization approach - with greater administrative gains that are concerned only with maximizing resource utilization (Turner, 2002). In this sense, this study aimed to determine a management model deemed appropriate and fit for the schools based on the theoretical discussion and assessment of the data analysis. I assume that this model is unique and evolved using the following themes: A management-oriented approach that represents a merger management model combining the advantages of current re-centralization and EFNE decentralization has been put into one single framework. My proposed model echoes the call of many scholars to ensure a blended management model (e.g. Al-Hamad & AlAdwan, 2019). It builds upon the vision of the education system and the human development pillar in QNV 2030. Features such as the identification, selection, recruitment, firing, and rewarding of potential schoolteachers and employees

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would be centralized within the MOEHE structure. Full responsibility for schoolbased decisions, financial issues, and more opportunities related to the professional development should be decentralized within the school. Within this approach, determining more operational and instructional freedom and greater choice over the teaching strategies and approaches and learning activities in schools towards the achievement of objectives is crucial. This creates considerable success and guarantees the enjoyment of learning. Although the development of important control issues, ranging from the curriculum and assessment to salaries and benefits is essential, these issues should be centrally determined. Decentralization policies should not affect curricular programs, standardization, assessments, salaries, and benefits. The power and authority and the financial resources and allocations decentralized to schools demands appropriate control through accountability procedures. Enforcing greater accountability and efficiency is a hallmark of globalization. This brings in a greater degree of control in terms of the effectiveness and accountability into the core of the model, likely providing the basis for a stable policy context. . A fundamental structural feature is the construction of a clear regulatory framework that formally segregates the powers and decisions delegated to schools from the MOEHE business. This not only avoids conflicts of interest between both structures but also provides opportunities for schools to act clearly and autonomously. This creates the potential for the MOEHE to ensure quality by understanding when and what to centralize, and also when and what not to decentralize, on both a technical and ethical basis. Considering that Qatar is administratively divided into ten municipalities and then into smaller zones, it is better to geographically distribute schools to the zone/municipality to which they belong. Phrased differently, multiple educational management bodies operating under the supervision of MOEHE should be formed. This allows for the retaining of most of the control and responsibility for planning, legislations, and laws, financing, and development. This will help to better meet the school’s expectations since "the actual form of decentralization varies significantly from country to country and even from school to school in the same town, depending on a variety of factors” (Arnove, 2005, p. 583). A preliminary well-designed ingenious implementation plan must be considered and tested for at least three years beforehand. It aims to identify (and likely solve) the challenges and opportunities that might emerge before being permanently anchored in the system. Schools must guarantee further opportunities and the voices and authorities have to make significant changes within the regulatory framework to meet any anticipated or potential challenges or obstacles when implementing this model.

7. Concluding remarks Like most educational reforms, a careful observation of the findings has shown that market forces, the obligations of the local context, and cultural factors have shaped the school management in Qatar. It was assumed that by achieving school

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decentralization, the competition would greatly reinforce its market-driven premise and promote the academic achievements of schools to obtain more students. Although research claims that measuring the willingness of lower entities before decentralizing is important (Hanson, 1998), marketization and neoliberal inspirations were found to be hindered by the local context and perhaps more centrally imposed regulations when it comes to policy change and implementation. The difficulties in the EFNE decentralization scenery have resulted, as voiced by Romanowski and Du (2020), in more de-concentration than delegation. Deconcentration involves the transfer of work and tasks but not necessarily a transfer of authority and power (Hanson, 1998; El Baradei, 2015). Put together to answer a question on whether schools should be centralized or decentralized, Qatar's current situation differs significantly from the Western concept from which it was borrowed when it was initially created. Decentralization, in some cases, is not likely to be implemented because it is simply seen of as glamorous. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the internal forces, influences, and expectations of a specific context given its cultural norms and dispositions and the desired educational outcomes when deciding its educational future. Without evidence-based endeavors supporting any of the policy change proposals, it is doubtful that a practical policy implementation would succeed. It is true that neoliberalism has influenced educational policies both positively and inappropriately but its knowledge interpretation is not as anticipated (Zajda, 2005). As Turner (2005, p. 91) states, there are not yet any “multi-centered theories” that would help us to understand centralization and decentralization. This includes whether borrowed autonomy was practiced and whether centralization and decentralization were fully understood. Without evidence-based endeavors supporting any policy change proposals, it is doubtful that a practical policy implementation would succeed.

8. Conflict of Interest No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors concerning the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

9. Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Appendix 1: The research questionnaire Dear principal, I am conducting a survey questionnaire to gather data for a research project titled “Centralize or decentralize? - The question currently facing schools in Qatar”. This research aims at understanding the advantage and the disadvantages of ENER decentralization and current re-centralization to find out the appropriate model for schools that ensures the stability of the educational policy context. It also seeks the exploration of the policy implementation issues related to the recent transition from an advanced decentralization to a strict re-centralization from the perspective of Qatar’s school principals. Therefore, I would like to draw upon your expertise through your participation in this survey. Your response is voluntary and it may take 15 minutes of your time to complete this questionnaire. You can withdraw at any time or skip any question you like. Again, your completion of the questionnaire is critical and important to my research and our understanding of the topic. The confidentially and your anonymity is guaranteed. A summary of findings will be provided to participant on request and If you have any question, you may contact any one of the below mentioned researchers. Thank you in advance for your participation. Dr Huda Alkubaisi Assistant professor of Education Finance Educational Science Dept., College of Education Qatar University huda@qu.edu.qa Office phone no: 44-03-5196  I acknowledge that I have read, understand, and agree to participate Participant signature ______________________ Researcher signature __________________

Respondent demographics The following questions relate to your background, and experience. 1) Respondent Characteristics o o o o o o o o

Age............................ Gender Male Female Nationality ……………………………………….. Highest academic qualification? ………..………………………………. Major ….................................... Experience years as a principal in government schools........................................ Experience years as a principal in independent schools........................................ Experience years as principal in independent schools........................................

Section II: In this section, the following statements are designed to obtain your perceptions and understanding of the advantage and the disadvantages of ENER decentralization and current re-centralization in four domains. To participate in the study, the researcher needs your cooperation by answering the questionnaire statements accurately, honestly and objectively. These statements can be answered by selecting and ticking the most appropriate choice that best describes your answers/thoughts. Please answer ALL the following statements. If an item/a statement is irrelevant, or if you are unsure or do not know the answer, feel free to leave the answer blank. S.

1 2

8 9 10 11 12

Item

Very unsatisfied

Unsatisfied

Current re-centralization advantages Ensures autonomy in decisionmaking and saves time and effort. Increases the ability of the principal to make timely decisions to facilitate the school business. Promotes harmony among the educational policies and strategies within the schools. Allows for coordination between all aspects of the education and learning process. Aids in solving problems at a fast pace due to the senior administrators' higher skills compared to the junior administrators. Allows the lower levels to be controlled and accountable by the higher levels. Ensures a greater commitment to the regulations, policies, and procedure implementation. Ensures the absence of reduplication in the decision-making mechanisms. Determines the scope and responsibility of all employees. Unifies the policies and procedures. Unifies the job descriptions and tasks among the school personnel. Authorizes the school administration and power.

Neutral

Satisfied

Very satisfied

21 22

23 24 25

26 27

current re-centralization disadvantages Ensures that the principals are taking full responsibility and exerting a good effort. Relies on the principals in all matters that need to be made at the school level (e.g., decisions related to teaching, funds, etc.). Keeps the top levels of the management busy with minor matters, problems, and challenges that happen at the school level that could be solved by the principal. Realizes the inability of the school principals to undertake strategyrelated policies, planning, processes, etc. Realizes the incapability of the top levels of management to understand/know the employees' needs in the schools. Makes it hard to distinguish between the productive/dynamic/effective and destructive/apathetic/inoperative employees in the schools. Involves adopting inaccurate perceptions that could negatively affect the school performance and employee evaluation. Leads to slowness when implementing actions, events, and the provision of services that need a quick decision. Kills innovation and creativity among the principals. Reflects the school financing and budgeting, and creates more complex and unjustified decisions. Prevents expertise, capability, and professional development. Limits the ability to select more competent principals for the schools. Reduces the schools’ freedom and autonomy over its own decisions, as well as the managerial practices or activities that need to be implemented that are suitable for what happens in the school. Reduces the sense of ownership among the school's employees. Diminishes the flexibility and speed when carrying out activities.

36 37

38 39 40

EFNE decentralization advantages Ensures that the principals are taking full responsibility and exerting a good effort. Relies on the principals in all matters that need to be made at the school level (e.g., decisions related to teaching, funds, etc.). Keeps the top levels of the management busy with minor matters, problems, and challenges that happen at the school level that could be solved by the principal. Realizes the inability of the school principals to undertake strategyrelated policies, planning, processes, etc. Realizes the incapability of the top levels of management to understand/know the employees' needs in the schools. Makes it hard to distinguish between the productive/dynamic/effective and destructive/apathetic/inoperative employees in the schools. Involves adopting inaccurate perceptions that could negatively affect the school performance and employee evaluation. Leads to slowness when implementing actions, events, and the provision of services that need a quick decision. Kills innovation and creativity among the principals. Reflects the school financing and budgeting, and creates more complex and unjustified decisions. Prevents expertise, capability, and professional development. Limits the ability to select more competent principals for the schools. Reduces the schools’ freedom and autonomy over its own decisions, as well as the managerial practices or activities that need to be implemented that are suitable for what happens in the school. Reduces the sense of ownership among the school's employees. EFNE decentralization disadvantages Causes a delay in getting a response from the higher authority (the Ministry) on time.

42 43

44 45 46

Leads to inconsistency in decisions taken. Limits and/or weakens the power and supervision in the top levels of management in schools. Weakens the implementation of school-based policies and plans. Leads to exaggerated efforts that follows on bad results. Allows for inequality in decisionmaking among the middle leadership due to differing views. Leads to different decisions (and therefore, different results) due to the different visions of the principals. Weakens the channels of communication between the department's levels in the top levels of the management in schools. Leads to the duplication of services due to the different decisions taken, therefore there is a lack of integration between all departments. Lacks central control and accountability.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 419-438, February 2022 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.2.23 Received Nov 11, 2021; Revised Feb 23, 2022; Accepted Feb 28, 2022

Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions of Soft Skills Integration in Mathematics Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools in Mazabuka District, Zambia Chileshe Busaka* African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda, Rwanda Septimi Reuben Kitta University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Odette Umugiraneza College of Education (UR-CE), University of Rwanda, Rwanda

Abstract. Mathematics teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration are key to ensuring students’ soft skills development. The present study investigated perceptions regarding the integration of soft skills in teaching and learning mathematics in Mazabuka District in Zambia. Ninety-one teachers, who were selected purposively, completed a questionnaire and a test on the integration of soft skills in teaching and learning mathematics. Frequencies, means, and standard deviations were calculated, and independent sample t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to analyze the data. The findings are that mathematics teachers had a positive perception of soft skills integration in mathematics and believed that incorporating soft skills in teaching and learning mathematics was important. Furthermore, the results reveal that mathematics teachers’ gender and age, the type of school where they taught, their experience and level of education did not influence their perceptions of soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning in Zambian secondary schools. Keywords: mathematics teachers; perceptions; soft skills integration; importance of soft skills; mathematics; secondary schools

Corresponding author: Chileshe Busaka, chilebusaka2006@yahoo.co.uk

©Authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

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1. Introduction 1.1. Background to the Problem Globally, there is a demand for the holistic development of students – for socalled soft and technical skills to be developed equally to enable students to adapt to a society that is gradually becoming more complex (Solórzano et al., 2018). Soft skills are described as the “intra- and interpersonal skills vital for personal development, social participation, and workplace success” (Quieng et al., 2015). Sharma (2009) and Agcam and Dogan (2021) describe soft skills as survival skills, which include teamwork, negotiation, communication, problemsolving, time management, interpersonal skills, and emotional intelligence. Soft skills are needed for various activities, and influence how people work or interact with others. DiMartino and Castaneda (2007) articulate that soft skills, such as communication, time-management, problem-solving, personal accountability, critical thinking, and collaboration, are among the requirements for employment seekers. Soft skills are considered to be key attributes that differentiate job aspirants with the same technical expertise, in all fields of work (Sutton, 2002) and “have proven to be determinant in teachers’ educational action” (Fernandes et al., 2021). Soft skills integration in teaching and learning is a component of the outcomebased curriculum adopted by the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), which is an institution mandated to develop the curriculum for preprimary, primary and secondary schools in Zambia (CDC, 2013a). Since the Zambian curriculum requires the incorporation of soft skills in teaching and learning, teachers’ perceptions of the integration of these skills in mathematics is vital. Various studies have found that the teacher’s perceptions of soft skills integration in teaching and learning of mathematics could influence student learning (Rini & Prabawanto, 2021). According to Calhoun (2019), several researchers submit that “teachers are the keys to improving student achievement in mathematics and identify teacher perception as an essential factor at the core of teaching and learning” (p. 1). If teachers hold positive perceptions of soft skills, it might contribute to developing students’ critical thinking, problemsolving skills, collaboration, and teamwork, and improve their performance in mathematics. Gibb (2014) argues that equipping students with soft skills is likely to not only empower them, but also to reinforce their growth, participation in learning and employment success. Based on the above, this study endeavored to establish mathematics teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration, as teacher perception is key to ensuring that students’ soft skills are developed. The other underlying principle of this study was to investigate mathematics teachers’ perceptions of the importance of integrating soft skills in mathematics lessons, and the factors that are associated with teachers’ perceptions. This study was, therefore, needed, as it investigated what teachers think about soft skills integration and its importance in teaching and learning mathematics. As far as the researchers were aware, no study on this topic has been conducted in Zambian schools.

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2. Literature Review 2.1 Teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration in secondary schools Mathematics teachers’ perceptions are key to ensuring that the soft skills that are reflected in the 2013 revised curriculum, such as collaboration, critical thinking, communication, self-management, entrepreneurship, and creativity and innovation (CDC, 2013b), are integrated in mathematics. Emmanuel and Frank (2020) conducted a study on teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration in secondary schools, to establish the perceptions of men and women of soft skills integration in teaching business studies. The study was conducted in Rivers State in Nigeria, and 262 business studies teachers participated. The mean, standard deviation and independent samples t-test were used to analyze the research questions. Their findings show no statistically significant differences between female and male teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration. A study by Calhoun (2019) conducted in the southern part of the United States of America with a sample of 315 mathematics teachers concludes that teachers’ perceptions of self efficacy might influence students’ achievement. Calhoun objectively intended to establish mathematics teachers' perceptions of their own self-efficacy and the effects of these perceptions on their professional performance in the roles they execute. The sample in Calhoun’s study was a mixture of two levels of learning: 39 teachers taught in secondary schools and 279 taught in primary schools. The same conclusion was reached by Minarni et al. (2018) in a study conducted in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, which involved descriptive statistics, independent samples t-test and one-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) for reviewing and synthesising different studies. The study focused on exploring mathematics teachers’ perceptions and how it impacts on their teaching practice. In turn, a study by Susilawati et al. (2020), also in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, surveyed 100 science teachers drawn from junior secondary schools, and reports that soft skills acquired during the learning process are indispensable characteristics that impact significantly on students’ achievement. Furthermore, teachers' perceptions of the importance of soft skills are a precursor to successful soft skills integration in teaching and learning processes. Failure to realize this phenomenon could be an impediment to soft skills development in students (Susilawati et al., 2020). Furthermore, Free (2017) examined the perceptions of 125 secondary school agricultural science teachers in Alabama of the importance of soft skills integration into curriculums, and found that teachers had positive perceptions, with a mean score of ≥4.75. It was found that the agricultural science teachers integrated soft skills into their teaching and learning. The participants indicated that soft skills were important, by responding on a 5-point Likert scale that ranged from not important to extremely important; the mean score was ≥ 4.22 (Free, 2017). Kobalia and Garakanidze (2010) acknowledge that students with soft skills contribute effectively to the development of their societies. This is because students can be creators and innovators of new ideas, in addition to being able to

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collaborate, communicate, think critically, and manage themselves, among other soft skills (CDC, 2013c; Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development [KICD], 2017; Rwanda Education Board [REB], 2015). Therefore, teachers’ perceptions of the importance of soft skills have a bearing on how they integrate these skills in the teaching and learning of mathematics. It has been found that demographic factors influence teachers’ perceptions. In support of this finding, Baker et al. (2015) state that teacher characteristics, such as gender, type of school, age, level of education, and experience, have the potential to influence teachers’ perceptions. Mailizar et al. (2021) examined teachers’ knowledge in relation to demographic factors and found that there were significant differences in teachers’ knowledge levels according to gender and education level; they found no significant differences between knowledge levels and teaching experience and school level. Thus, this study examined the relationship between mathematics teachers’ demographic factors and their perceptions of soft skills integration. This study was necessary, due to its potential to uncover useful information, and because the reviewed studies had not been conducted in Zambia. There is a growing need to establish what mathematics teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration in mathematics is, particularly in secondary schools in Mazabuka District in Zambia.

3. Theoretical Framework The social cognitive theory, particularly its concept of perceived self-efficacy, guided this study. Bandura (1997) defines perceived self-efficacy as beliefs or perceptions held by people regarding their perceptions of yielding chosen stages of performance that influence actions, which affect their lives. In other words, beliefs relating to self-efficacy influence how people think, feel, are motivated and, possibly, behave. Bandura’s work suggests that one’s belief in one’s ability to alter one’s behavior affects how one is motivated and, ultimately, whether one succeeds or fails. This theory is suitable for a study that intended to establish mathematics teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration, because, if mathematics teachers’ perceptions are positive, it could influence positively the way they integrate soft skills in teaching and learning. According to Bandura (1997), perceptions about one’s capacity to positively impact one’s situation influences how much effort one puts in, one’s resilience to persist in the face of challenges and in dealing with failure, and how much stress or depression one experiences in dealing with demanding situations. Bandura’s social cognitive theory emphasizes that human agency within a multi-directional model is purposive, constructive and planned (Cauce & Gordon, 2012). In other words, “It involves anticipating the effects of our actions, estimating our capabilities, regulating and initiating effort” (Cauce & Gordon, 2012, p. 3). The motivations for and outcomes of our actions impact our influences, thoughts and behaviors (Flores, 2015). The concept of teachers’ perceptions of disposition to adopt innovative teaching techniques has been associated with self-efficacy. In support of this notion, Darling-Hammond et al. (2002) state that “teachers’ sense of efficacy and confidence about their ability to achieve teaching goals is significantly related to feelings of preparedness” (p. 295). It is the researchers’

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conviction that, if mathematics teachers’ perceptions are positive, these perceptions could influence positively the way teachers integrate soft skills in mathematics teaching and learning, as expected (CDC, 2013a). 3.1 Research Questions The following research questions guided the study: i.

ii. iii.

What perceptions do mathematics teachers have about soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning in Zambian secondary schools? How important do mathematics teachers perceive the integration of soft skills in mathematics teaching and learning to be? Is there a relationship between mathematics teachers’ demographic factors, such as gender, type of school, age, level of education, and experience, and perceptions of soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning in Zambian secondary schools?

4. Methodology 4.1 Research Design A sequential multi-phase design for the collection and analysis of data (Saunders et al., 2016), guided the study. This type of research design involves a process that acknowledges that mixed methods research designs are interactive, and that one phase directs and informs the collection and analysis of data in the next phase (Ridenour & Newman, 2008; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009). 4.2 Participants and their Demographic Factors This study approached 91 mathematics teachers to participate, of whom 81 completed and returned the questionnaire, constituting a return rate of 85.3%. The mathematics teachers were purposively selected and drawn from secondary schools in the Mazabuka District in Zambia. The demographic factors of mathematics teachers are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Frequencies and percentages of demographic factors of mathematics teachers who completed a survey questionnaire (n=81) Factors Gender Age (in years) Type of school where participants were teaching Education level of participants Teaching experience (in years)

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Description

Frequency

Male

48 (59%)

Female

33 (41%)

25 ≤ X ≤ 34

35 (43%)

35 ≤ X ≤ 54

46 (57%)

Non-public schools

44 (54%)

Public schools

37 (46%)

Diploma

45 (56%)

Degree

36 (44%)

≤ 10 ˃ 10

44 (54%) 37 (46%)

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The gender of mathematics teachers, as explained in Table 1, was reported as 48 (59%) male and 33 (41%) female. The ages of mathematics teachers who participated in the study ranged from 25 years to 54 years. The majority of these participants were in the age range 35 to 54 years (n= 46; 57%). The study took place at two types of schools, namely non-public and public. The teaching experience of mathematics teachers who participated in the study ranged from 1 year to 30 years; 44 (54%) of the participants had maximum 10 years of experience teaching mathematics. 4.3 Research Instruments To identify mathematics teachers' perceptions about soft skills integration in the teaching of mathematics at secondary school, they were asked to complete a selfreporting questionnaire and a test. The items included in the questionnaire were adapted from the scales used by other researchers in four different studies, as illustrated in Table 2. Table 2: Items in the Scale Adapted from Four Studies Author

Study Title

Items Adapted

Validation/ Reliability

Yarkwah (2020)

“Mathematics teachers’ beliefs, their instructional practices and its effects on students’ academic performance” (p. 1).

Teachers’ beliefs

Cronbach’s alpha 0.77

(Minarni et al., 2018)

“Mathematics teachers’ beliefs” (p. 1).

Problemsolving and creativity

Synthesized various scales using a method of narrative reviews

Hoy and Spero (2005)

“Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching comparison of four measures” (p. 343).

Innovative teaching

Cronbach’s alpha 0.76

“Teachers’ practices in teaching Mathematics and Statistics” (p. 1)

Teaching and assessment

Used qualitative analysis to examine the types of teaching and assessments strategies

Umugiraneza et al. (2017)

Table 2 shows the items of the questionnaire, which were answered by means of a 5-point Likert scale. The items of the test, which enquired about mathematics teachers’ perceptions of the importance of soft skills, were developed according to the standards set for learning and innovation skills, developed by the Partnership for 21st Century Learning (P21) (Global Partnership for Education [GPE], 2020; Partnership for 21st Century, 2009). The learning and innovation skills in the Framework for 21st Century Learning are creativity and innovation, critical thinking, communication, problem-solving and collaboration. These skills were assessed in a conceptual understanding test, and the findings were used to establish the extent to which mathematics teachers perceived communication, problem-solving, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity and innovation to be important.

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4.4 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments The researcher and other experts in the field of mathematics education determined the face validity of the measuring scale. After the face validation, the instrument was piloted among mathematics teachers. According to Creswell (2014), an instrument is valid when it measures what it intends to measure. The reliability of the items that were used to establish mathematics teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration, was found to have an acceptable internal consistency – the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.851. 4.5 Data Analysis Different methods were used to analyze and interpret the data that were collected. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) (IBM Corp., 2015) was used to derive frequencies, means, standard deviations, sample t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA). First, a normality test was conducted on the data gathered from the questionnaire; the results are as shown in Table 3. Table 3: Normality Test Results Kolmogorov-Smirnova

Mathematics teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration a

Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic

Sig.

Statistic

Sig.

.091

.093

.972

.076

Lilliefors significance correction

Table 3 indicates the results of the normality test with Kolmogorov-Smirnov (pvalue of .093) and Shapiro-Wilk (p-value .076). The significance values are greater than .05. Thus, we can conclude with confidence that our data are normally distributed. Furthermore, our data cluster around the trend line, as can be seen on the Q-Q plot indicated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Normal Q-Q plot for Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions of Integration of Soft Skills

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Figure 1 offers further evidence that the distribution was normal and that, at least, the criterion for parametric statistical testing was satisfied.

5. Findings 5.1 Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions of Soft Skills Integration in Mathematics Teaching and Learning To respond to research question 1, which aimed to establish perceptions of mathematics teachers in relation to soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning in Zambian secondary schools, a 5-point Likert scale was used. Table 4 reports on the frequencies, percentages, means (M) and standard deviations (SD) of the mathematics teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning. In Table 4. SD, D, U, A and SA represent Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Uncertain, Agree and Strongly Agree, respectively. Table 4: Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions about Soft Skills Integration in Mathematics Teaching and Learning (n=81) SN

Statement

Facilitating class discussions allows soft skills integration It is a teachers’ role to support students’ growth in collaborative skills Providing students with problem-solving situations to investigate in small groups enhances collaborative skills Using cooperative learning approaches is key to developing soft skills Mathematics supports students’ growth in critical thinking/ problemsolving Mathematics content must be presented in the correct sequence Students learn actively through finding solutions independently of mathematical problems provided by teachers Mathematics involves problem solving, figuring out relationships, and patterns Teachers facilitate students’ communication in mathematics

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Frequency U A

8 (10%) 39 (48%) 34 (42%) 4.32

0.65

4 (5%) 45 (55%) 32 (40%) 4.35

0.57

2 (3%) 5 (6%) 38 (47%) 36 (44%) 4.33

0.71

3 (4%) 10(12%) 46 (57%) 22 (27)

4.07

0.74

6 (7%) 21 (26%) 54 (67%) 4.59

0.63

1 (1%) 4 (5%) 38 (47%) 38 (47%) 4.40

0.65

1 (1%) 9 (11%) 46 (57%) 25 (31%) 4.17

0.67

3 (4%) 39 (48%) 39 (48%) 4.44

0.57

2 (3%) 9 (11%) 49 (61%) 21 (26%) 4.10

0.68

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Learning is enhanced when students explain and demonstrate their solutions to others Using media supports teaching and learning of mathematics Teachers support students’ growth in communication skills Mathematics involves creativity and new ideas that can be tried independently Students should be given the opportunity to think independently about mathematics problems before the teacher shows how to solve them Mathematics teaching should assist students to develop an attitude of inquiry (asking questions, being curious about solutions) Teachers support students’ growth in creative and innovative skills Mathematical content is best presented in an expository style: demonstrating, explaining and describing concepts and skills Teachers can integrate soft skills in mathematics using problem-based learning Teachers should determine the soft skills needs of their students Incorporating inquirybased learning allows soft skills integration Teachers can assess students’ growth in collaborative skills Teachers can assess students’ growth in critical thinking/ problemsolving

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1 (1%) 4 (5%) 32 (40%) 44 (54%) 4.47

0.65

3(4 4 (5%) 14(17%) 42 (52%) 18 (22%) 3.84 %)

0.95

3 (4%) 5 (6%) 51 (63%) 22 (27%) 4.14

0.68

1 2 (3%) 8 (10%) 30 (37%) 40 (49%) 4.31 1%)

0.85

1(1 3 (4%) 2 (3%) 28 (35%) 47 (58%) 4.44 %)

0.82

2 (3%) 33 (41%) 46 (57%) 4.54

0.55

3 (4%) 43 (53%) 35 (43%) 4.40

0.56

3 (4%) 5 (6%) 39 (48%) 34 (42%) 4.28

0.75

1 (1%) 9 (11%) 37 (46%) 34 (42%) 4.28

0.71

2 (3%) 11(14%) 41 (51%) 27 (33%) 4.15

0.74

1 (1%) 17(21%) 42 (52%) 21 (26%) 4.02

0.72

12(15%) 52 (64%) 17 (21%) 4.06

0.60

4 (5%) 33 (41%) 44 (54%) 4.49

0.59

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Teachers can assess students’ growth in creative and innovative skills Teachers can assess students’ growth in communication skills

3 (4%) 51 (63%) 27 (33%) 4.30

0.53

6 (7%) 43 (53%) 32 (40%) 4.32

0.61

Analysis of mathematics teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration, as measured by the 24 statements listed in Table 4, exposed high mean scores, on average between M ≥3.84 and M ≤4.59. All the items had mean scores above 4, except item 11 (Using media supports teaching and learning of mathematics), which had a mean score of 3.82. This item’s mean score was lower than that of other items due to teachers and students at most Zambian schools lack adequate access to information and communication technology (ICT) tools. This conclusion is confirmed by a recent study by Mukuka et al. (2021), who report that there is a need to improve the infrastructure of the Zambian education system, so that it can support the use of media for learning and teaching mathematics. However, from the results obtained, it can be concluded that mathematics teachers at Zambian secondary schools have positive perceptions of soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning. 5.2 Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions on the Importance of Soft Skills Integration in Mathematics teaching and learning To respond to research question 2, the study explored and analysed mathematics teachers’ perceptions on the importance of soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning. Once again, a 5-point Likert scale with values that ranged from not important (1) to extremely important (5) was used in the conceptual understanding test that was administered to 91 mathematics teachers in Mazabuka District in Zambia. Table 5 reports the frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviations of mathematics teachers’ perceptions on the importance of soft skills integration in mathematics in secondary school. In Table 5, NI, MBI, I, MI and EI represent Not Important, Maybe Important, Important, More Important and Extremely Important, respectively.

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Table 5: Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions of the Importance of Soft Skills Integration in Mathematics Teaching and Learning (n=91) Importance of students possessing the following Description abilities in mathematics

Frequency MBI

1 (1%)

9 (10%)

25 (28%) 56 (62%) 4.49 0.72

(b) The students’ ability to find effective solutions to problems using different approaches to Problem-solving 1(1%) 4 (4%) arrive at the correct solutions to a mathematical problem

5 (6%)

31 (34%) 50 (55%) 4.37 0.86

(a) The students’ ability to work effectively in groups/in pairs/or as a whole class in order to achieve group goals in a mathematics lesson

Collaboration

(c) The students’ ability to present mathematical concepts in written or verbal Communication form to a group, class or in speaking to peers.

1 (1%)

11 (12%)

24 (26%) 55 (50%) 4.46 0.75

(d) The students’ ability to initiate mathematical ideas Creativity and and concepts that translate innovation into new knowledge and/or ideas

4 (4%)

2 (2%)

33 (36%) 52 (57%) 4.46 0.75

Table 5 reports on mathematics teachers’ perceptions of the importance of soft skills integration in mathematics. The items numbered (c) and (d) both had mean scores of ≥4.46. Item numbered (a) had the highest mean score (4.49), while item numbered (b) had the lowest mean score (4.37). The high mean scores suggest that mathematics teachers believe that soft skills integration in mathematics is important. These results confirm the findings of Free (2017), who found that agriculture teachers who participated in a study perceived soft skills to be very important – in this study the mean score was 4.22. 5.3 Relationship between Mathematics Teachers’ Demographic Factors and their Perceptions about Soft Skills Integration The study also investigated whether mathematics teachers’ demographic factors, specifically, gender, type of school, age, level of education and experience, influenced their perceptions of soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning in Zambian secondary schools. To establish this relation, the researcher conducted two parametric tests, namely independent sample t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA). 5.3.1 Independent sample t-test to compare male and female mathematics teachers’ scores on perceptions of soft skills integration An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the male and female mathematics teachers’ scores on perceptions about soft skills integration in

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mathematics teaching and learning in Zambian secondary schools. The t-test results are displayed in Table 6. Table 6: Independent Sample t-test Comparing Male and Female Mathematics Teachers’ Scores on Perceptions Towards Soft Skills Integration (n=81) Gender

t .734

Male

103.35

5.49

Female

102.06

10.28

Total

.465

Table 6 reveals that there were no significant differences between mean scores for male mathematics teachers (M = 103.35; SD = 5.49) and female mathematics teachers, (M = 102.06; SD = 10.28) regarding their perceptions of soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning in Zambian secondary schools, t (79) = .734, p = .465 (two-tailed) with reported Cohen’s d= 0.2. The formula, where was used to calculate the effect size for independent samples t-test (Thalheimer & Cook, 2002). This implies that gender did not affect the perceptions mathematics teachers had about soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning in Zambian secondary schools. 5.3.2 One–way ANOVA test on mathematics teachers’ scores for perceptions of soft skills integration Before conducting analysis of variance (ANOVA), the researcher ensured that assumptions, such as that the dependent variables were normally distributed for each group, that the observations were independent, and that the variances on the dependent variable were equal across groups, were satisfied (Morgan et al., 2011). A one–way between-group analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was conducted to explore mathematics teachers’ scores in relation to their perceptions of soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning in Zambian secondary schools. Group variables were type of school where teachers were teaching, age, experience and qualification. The computed data are displayed in Table 7. Table 7: Mathematics Teachers’ Scores on Perceptions Towards the Integration of Soft Skills for Four Group Variables (n=81) N

Non-public Schools

102.61

8.14

.072

.789

Public schools

103.08

7.42

Factors Type of school where mathematics teachers were teaching

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Total

102.83

7.77

35 46 81

103.17 102.57 102.83

6.35 8.77 7.77

1 79 80

.120

.730

Age (in years)

25 ≤ X ≤ 34 35 ≤ X ≤ 54 Total

102.91

6.85

.012

.914

Mathematics teachers’ education level

Diploma in Education Bachelor’s Degree in Education Total

102.72

8.90

102.83

7.77

44 37 81

103.00 102.62 102.83

6.99 8.71 7.77

1 79 80

.047

.829

Experience (in years)

1 ≤ X ≤ 10 11 ≤ X ≤ 30 Total

One-way ANOVA results in Table 7 indicate that there were no statistically significant differences regarding mathematics teachers’ scores on perceptions towards soft skills integration in Zambian secondary schools, and any of the four variables. The variables were the type of school where mathematics teachers were teaching (F (1, 79) = .072, p = .789), age of mathematics teachers (F (1, 79) = .120, p = .730), their education level (F (1, 79) = .047, p = .829) and their experience of teaching mathematics (F (1, 79) = .012, p = .914). The conclusion drawn from these results is that the type of school where mathematics teachers were teaching, teachers’ ages, professional qualifications and experience did not influence the perceptions that teachers had of soft skills integration in the teaching and learning of mathematics at Zambian secondary schools. The analysis of the results revealed that mathematics teachers had a positive perception of the integration of soft skills in teaching and learning of mathematics in Zambian secondary schools.

6. 6. Discussions and Implications 6.1 Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions of Soft Skills Integration in Mathematics The analysis of the results reveals that mathematics teachers had a positive perception of the integration of soft skills in teaching and learning of mathematics in Zambian secondary schools. Their responses to the 24 statements of the questionnaire show a high mean score – between M ≥ 3.84 and M ≤ 4.59. These results are similar to that of Free (2017), who found that secondary teachers had a very positive perception (M ≥ 4.75) for the importance of integrating soft skills into curricula. Similarly, a study by Subramaniam (2013) found that teachers were aware of the importance of soft skills integration in the teaching and learning process. Furthermore, mathematics teachers’ positive perceptions of soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning could influence the way they are motivated and encouraged to integrate the soft skills (Minarni et al., 2018; Subramaniam, 2013). This is in line with social cognitive theorists’ view that positive perceptions impact one’s capacity to positively

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influence how much much effort one puts in (Bandura, 1997; Darling-Hammond et al., 2002) and, consequently, the way one integrates soft skills. Furthermore, the beliefs that mathematics teachers hold cannot be separated from their knowledge and competency (Minarni et al., 2018). Hence, mathematics teachers’ beliefs regarding soft skills integration in teaching and learning have a bearing on their ability to integrate these skills in mathematics. 6.2 Mathematics Teachers’ Perceptions on the Importance of Soft Skills Integration in Mathematics Teaching and Learning The study, furthermore, established what mathematics teachers’ perceptions were regarding the importance of soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning. The results generated mean scores between M ≥ 4.37 and M ≥ 4.49. The high mean scores recorded suggest that mathematics teachers believed that integrating soft skills in mathematics was important. These results confirm the findings of Free (2017), who found that agricultural science teachers who took part in a study perceived soft skills to be very important (M ≥ 4.22). Flores (2015) agrees that mathematics teachers’ perceptions of the importance of integrating soft skills in mathematics teaching and learning are related to the thoughts and behaviors of the teachers. Minarni et al. (2018, p. 1) state that “mathematics teachers’ beliefs guide them to determine the teaching practices considered correct”. Thus, mathematics teachers’ perception of the importance of soft skills could enable them to choose the best approaches to achieving soft skills integration. 6.3 Mathematics Teachers’ Demographic Factors and their Perceptions on Soft Skills Integration in Mathematics Teaching and Learning The study, furthermore, determined the relationships between demographic factors, such as gender, type of school, age, level of education, and experience, and mathematics teachers’ perceptions on soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning. The independent t-test found no significant differences between male and female mathematics teachers’ perceptions on soft skills integration. The results are similar to that of Emmanuel and Frank (2020), who found no significant differences between male and female teachers’ perceptions regarding soft skills integration. The one-way ANOVA test applied in this study revealed that the type of school where mathematics teachers were teaching, their ages, professional qualifications and experience, did not influence the perceptions of teachers on soft skills integration in teaching and learning mathematics in Zambian secondary schools. The results reveal that none of the demographic factors considered by the study influenced the perceptions teachers hold on soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning in Zambian secondary schools.

7. Conclusion The study concludes that mathematics teachers in Zambian secondary schools had positive perceptions of soft skills integration in mathematics teaching and learning – teachers believed that integrating soft skills in mathematics teaching and learning was important. Furthermore, the results reveal that gender, the type of school where mathematics teachers were teaching, age, level of education and experience did not influence teachers' perceptions of soft skills

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integration in teaching and learning mathematics in Zambian secondary schools. Thus, this study raises awareness of mathematics teachers’ perceptions of soft skills integration and their beliefs regarding the importance of integrating soft skills in mathematics teaching and learning.

8. Recommendation The researchers recommend that further research is conducted to establish how well mathematics teachers at secondary schools in Zambia integrate soft skills in mathematics teaching and learning, since the instruments used by this study do not indicate how well soft skills are actually integrated.

Acknowledgement The authors thank the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda, for financial support.

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Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2016). Research methods for business students (7th ed.). Pearson. Sharma, M. (2009). How important are soft skills from the recruiter’s perspective? ICFAI Journal of Soft Skills, 3(2), 19–28. Solórzano, J., Rojas, Y., Vargas, C., Rueda, O., & Hernandez, P. H. (2018). Soft skills and advantages for learning mathematics at an early age. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 11(45), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2018/v11i45/137683 Subramaniam, I. (2013). Teachers’ perception on their readiness in integrating soft skills in the teaching and learning. IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSRJRME), 2(5), 19–29. https://doi.org/10.9790/7388-0251929 Susilawati, S., Aznam, N., Paidi, Hw., & Ngadimin. (2020). Teachers’ perspectives toward soft skills in science learning. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1460(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1460/1/012111 Sutton, N. (2002). Why can’t we all just get along? Computing Canada, 28(16), 20. Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of mixed methods research: integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioural sciences. Sage. Thalheimer, W., & Cook, S. (2002). How to calculate effect sizes from published research: a simplified methodology. Work Learning Research, August, 1–9. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d7f0/c3a171ffd6bad4297feeb708a2d79e06da8 b.pdf?_ga=2.149295606.1950164162.1568100777-2068894367.1568100777 Umugiraneza, O., Bansilal, S., & North, D. (2017). Exploring teachers’ practices in teaching mathematics and statistics in KwaZulu-Natal schools. South African Journal of Education, 37(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v37n2a1306 Yarkwah, C. (2020). Junior high school mathematics teachers’ beliefs and their instructional practices and its effects on students’ academic performance. European Journal of Training and Development Studies, 7(3), 1–25.

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10. Appendix 1 Part 3: Teachers’ perceptions and their instructional practices on the integration of soft skills in mathematics at secondary school INSTRUCTIONS: Put a Tick (√) in the appropriate box that suits your response to the given statement where SD (Strongly Disagree), D (Disagree), U (Uncertain), A (Agree), and SA (Strongly Agree). SN Statements SD D 1 Facilitating class discussions allows soft skills integration It is a teacher’s role to support students’ growth in 2 collaborative skills Providing students with problem solving situations to 3 investigate in small groups enhances collaborative skills Using cooperative learning approaches is key in 4 developing soft skills Mathematics supports students’ growth in critical 5 thinking/problem solving Mathematics content must be presented in the correct 6 sequence Students learn actively through finding solutions 7 independently of mathematical problems provided by teachers Mathematics involves problem solving, figuring out 8 relationships, and patterns Teachers facilitate students’ communication in 9 Mathematics Learning is enhanced when students explain and 10 demonstrate their solutions to others Using media supports teaching and learning of 11 Mathematics 12 Teachers support students’ growth in communication skills Mathematics involves creativity and new ideas that can be 13 tried independently Students should be given the opportunity to think 14 independently about Mathematics problems before the teacher shows how to solve them Mathematics teaching should assist students to develop an 15 attitude of inquiry (asking questions, being curious about solutions) Teachers support students’ growth in creative and 16 innovative skills Mathematical content is best presented in an expository 17 style: demonstrating, explaining, and describing concepts

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18 19 20 21 22 23 24

and skills, Teachers can integrate soft skills in Mathematics using Problem-Based Learning Teachers should determine the soft skills needs of their students Incorporating inquiry-based learning allows soft skills integration Teachers can assess students’ growth in collaborative skills Teachers can assess students’ growth in critical thinking/ problem solving Teachers can assess students’ growth in creative and innovative skills Teachers can assess students’ growth in communication skills

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11. Appendix 2 This section appeared in a conceptual understanding and was used to establish how mathematics teachers perceived the importance of communication, collaboration, critical thinking/problem solving, creativity and innovations. In your opinion, how important are the following in learning Mathematics. Please CIRCLE the number that corresponds with your opinion on the importance of: a. the students’ ability to work effectively in groups/in pairs/ or as a whole class in order to achieve group goals in a Mathematics lesson.[collaboration] Not important Extremely important

the students’ ability to find effective solutions to problems using different approaches to arrive at the correct solutions to a mathematical problem. [critical thinking/problem solving] Not important Extremely important

c. the students’ ability to present mathematical concepts in written or verbal form to a group, class, or in speaking to peers.[communication] Not important Extremely important

d. the students’ ability to initiate mathematical ideas and concepts that translate into new knowledge and/or ideas.[creativity and innovation] Not important Extremely important

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