Vol 13 no 2 september 2015 by ijlter.org

IJLTER.ORG

p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.13 No.2

PUBLISHER London Consulting Ltd District of Flacq Republic of Mauritius www.ijlter.org

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 13

NUMBER 2

September 2015

Table of Contents Applying Extensive Reading to Improve Unmotivated Learners‘ Attitudes toward Reading in English ................. 1 Chiu-Kuei Chang Chien and Kuo-Jen Yu The Impact of Child Labour on Primary School Children’s Access to and Participation in Basic Education in Tanzania ................................................................................................................................................................................. 26 Gilman Jackson Nyamubi, PhD Frameworks for Integration of Digital Technologies at the Roadside: Innovative Models, Current Trends and Future Perspectives .............................................................................................................................................................. 37 Rogerio L. Roth Japan’s Global 30 Program: The Push and Pull Factors of International Student Mobility ........................................ 55 Jonathan Aleles The Impact of Self-Monitoring Paired with Positive Reinforcement on Increasing Task Completion with a Student Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Case Study ........................................................................................... 66 Jeremy R. Mills, Ed.D Effects of Hybrid Active Learning Strategy on Secondary School Students’ Understanding of Direct Current Electricity Concepts in Nigeria............................................................................................................................................ 77 Mangut Mankilik and Uche Connie Ofodile Problem-Based Learning: Mandatory Personal Qualities of Effective Facilitators ...................................................... 88 Nor Junainah Mohd Isa, Ahmad Jazimin Jusoh and Mohd Muzafar Shah Mohd Razali Scenario-Based Design Methods for Developing a Breast Cancer Health Care Information Website ...................... 97 Dr. Chih-Lin Tseng Effects of Reflective Learning on the Listening Behaviors of EFL College Students ................................................ 116 Yi-Chun Pan An Evaluation of Pharmacy Pre-Registration Trainees‟ Perception of Their Placement Tutors in the United Kingdom (UK) .................................................................................................................................................................... 130 Andrew Makori

The Role of Teaching Experience and Prior Education in Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and General Pedagogical Knowledge at the Onset of Teacher Education ............................................................................................................... 168 Cynthia Vaudroz, Jean-Louis Berger and Céline Girardet Technology Blended Learning Approaches and the Level of Student Engagement with Subject Content .......... 179 Zeina Nehme, Arthur Seakhoa-King and Shameem Ali Communication Skills Training Through an Inter Professional Education Initiative for Undergraduate MultiProfessions Students ........................................................................................................................................................... 195 Ismat Mohamed Mutwali, Naglaa Abd Al Raheem, Awad Alkarim M Elhassan, Sara S Ibrahim, Aida Abdulhamid, Enas Fadulalbary and Aisha Aglan Teachers‟ Intentions for Outdoor Learning: A Characterisation of Teachers‟ Objectives and Actions .................. 208 Christina Ottander, Birgitta Wilhelmsson and Gun Lidestav

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 1-25, September 2015

Applying Extensive Reading to Improve Unmotivated Learners‘ Attitudes toward Reading in English

Chiu-Kuei Chang Chien WuFeng University Taiwan Kuo-Jen Yu Nanhua University Taiwan Abstract. Extensive reading has been highly praised by numerous scholars and researchers for its value to L1/L2 language learning and acquisition, with the extent of its effects on language learners ranging from linguistic to affective facets. The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of extensive reading on the subjects concerning their attitudes toward English reading. An attitude questionnaire was distributed to the subjects one year after the extensive reading activity terminated. The results revealed that the extensive reading improved the subjects‘ cognitive aspect of attitude; however, affective and behavioral aspects of attitudes indicated negative results. Some possible explanations for such results were presented in the discussions. Keywords: extensive reading, cognitive attitude, affective attitude, behavioral attitude

1. Introduction Extensive reading (ER) has long been advocated and perceived as an effective and stimulating instructional approach to enhance learners‘ language proficiency. It has been highly valued by numerous scholars and researchers in the language learning field. For instance, Robb and Susser (1989) in a study of SRA reading boxes praise the extensive reading program for both its cognitive and affective effects on language learners. Green and Oxford (1995) examining the influence of learning strategies on language proficiency claim that reading for pleasure was strongly associated with language proficiency. Waring (2009) also claims that learners cannot ‗get their own sense of language‘ without getting themselves exposed to large quantity of reading. In her book ‗Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language‘, Nuttall (1982) concludes by citing what other researchers often say when referring to extensive reading, © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

―The best way to improve one‘s knowledge of a foreign language is to go and live among its speakers. The next best way is to read extensively in it.‖ (p.168) While extensive reading is deemed valuable in terms of its effect on language learning, some criticisms have also been observed in literature (Coady, 1997; Green, 2005), particularly on the effect of extensive reading on learners‘ gains in vocabulary knowledge (e.g., Powell, 2005; Huckin & Coady, 1999). The reason is that it uses simple texts and there is little or no consultation of dictionaries while reading. Besides, a general view is held that real-world texts should be adopted so that learners can adapt themselves to real-world reading (Day & Bamford, 2002). However, as Day and Bamford (2002) contend, ―This is to confuse the means with the end, and paradoxically to rob students of exactly the material they need to progress to the goal of real-world texts.‖(p.2) It is also argued that what counts is that learners are literally reading something meaningful, which can really entertain them and ‗trap‘ them in what they are doing. Extensive reading is also criticized for its costly investment since running an efficient and effective extensive reading program involves lots of administrative work (Day & Bamford, 1998). To deal with this problem, it is suggested that schools or universities make efforts to secure more funds from central government or cooperate with local governments to generate sufficient funds so that extensive reading programs can really run smoothly and be sustained permanently. Day and Bamford (1998) suggest running a small-scale ER program at the inception or when a program lacks sufficient funds. Another criticism comes from the emphasis of the extensive reading scheme on free voluntary reading to promote language acquisition. It is argued that learners in the extensive reading program are often left alone without receiving any guided activities and being informed of explicit purposes for their reading, contradicting the principle of ―interactionist theory‖ addressing the ―dynamic process‖ of sharing and discussing either in small groups or through oral presentations (Green, 2005). Besides, it is also argued that an extensive reading program also exempts language teachers from showing commitment to reading in virtue of the scheme of the program not requiring teachers to give lectures (Green, 2005). Based on these contentions, it is suggested that language teachers design interactive activities for extensive reading programs so that students have opportunities to share reading through discussions and exchange of opinions or perspectives on their reading. What is more, it is also advised that language teachers familiarize themselves with their students‘ reading so that they can share the reading with students and meanwhile present themselves as models of devoted readers as well. Lastly, extensive reading is also attacked for lack of instruction and © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

practice of the language features in texts, restraining the development of students‘ linguistic knowledge of the target language. As Green (2005) contends, ―The overriding concern always in reading schemes…leading to the development of a superficial fluency… . The principles of analysis and recycling so vital in consolidating and extending learners‘ knowledge of and ability to use target language systems do not operate in most reading schemes‖ (p.309). However, such contention demonstrates unawareness of the tenets of an extensive reading program—reading for pleasure rather than dissection of texts. It is argued that explaining and practicing linguistic features of the target language should be done in the regular reading class or grammar class rather than in the extensive reading program. Motivation and Purpose English reading has long been considered an important language learning activity for secondary education in Taiwan considering that a test-oriented educational system still prevails in this context (Tien, 2015). As a result, a great many students have become unmotivated language learners and readers since they are required to get immersed in a compelling bunch of English reading materials to cope with countless tests and exams, with many of these texts oftentimes unintelligible and inadequate owning to their improper difficulty levels (Lin, 2004). Consequently, most of our students ever learn to read only texts beyond their reading level, the kind of passages they see on language tests (Waring, 1997). Besides, to build up students‘ language abilities, reading activities in schools often end up focusing more on explanations of linguistic features, practice and memorization of vocabulary and grammatical rules and sentence translation than appreciation of pieces of reading. As a result, multitudes of students have completely lost interest in and even developed negative attitudes toward reading in English after undergoing such a rigid learning pattern and a barely pleasurable reading experience. Normally the negative attitudes are carried over to university, where students have to deal with a lot more English reading texts in their disciplines, with content even more intricate and obscure. Without developing positive attitudes toward and forming habits of reading in English, they might find it even harder to survive their university studies. A substantial number of studies have recognized the values of extensive reading on the development of L2; however, there has been far less research on the affective influence of extensive reading (Yamashita, 2013). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to fill this gap by exploring the effects of a home-based extensive reading on L2 learners‘ attitudes toward English reading. To help the students develop positive attitudes toward English reading and turn them into motivated readers, they were © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

requested to do extensive reading at home. A survey was administered to the students to investigate the extent of the effects of extensive reading on the subjects‘ attitudes toward English reading one year after the extensive reading activity terminated. The findings were presented following the survey and discussed along with provision of certain pedagogical suggestions. 2. Literature Review Extensive Reading: Terms and Definitions The term of ‗extensive reading‘ was originally coined by Palmer (1917) purporting to differentiate it from ‗intensive reading‘ (Bamford & Day, 1997). The difference between extensive reading and intensive reading mainly lies in the amount of reading, degree of depth and extent of comprehension of texts. Intensive reading usually involves learning of shorter texts with higher degree of depth in content and use of more difficult language, often requiring learners‘ complete and detailed understanding of the reading materials; contrarily, extensive reading refers to reading longer passages with content written with simpler language and the purpose of reading is to understand overall meaning of a text rather than study of linguistic components (Bamford & Day, 1997; Yamashita, 2004). Other terms equivalent to ‗extensive reading‘ are also used in literature. For instance, Beatrice Mikulecky calls extensive reading ―pleasure reading‖ (Bamford & Day, 1997), Bamford and Day (1997) term it ―sustained silent reading (SSR)‖ (Grabe, 1991) and Krashen (1993) denominates it ―free voluntary reading‖ (Bamford & Day, 1997). Definitions that serve to anchor and frame extensive reading also vary among scholars. Palmer defined extensive reading as reading ―rapidly‖ (1921/1964, p.111) and ―book after book‖ (1917/1968, p.137) with concentration on the ―meaning‖ rather than the ―language‖ (as cited in Day & Bamford, 1998, p.5). According to Richards and Schmidt (2002), extensive reading is reading for ―general understanding‖ with intentions ―to develop good reading habits, to build up knowledge of vocabulary and structure, and to encourage a liking for reading‖ (pp.193-194). Day and Bamford (1998) and Grabe and Stoller (2002) describe extensive reading as exposing learners to a great number of written texts of their language proficiency level, which is in the meanwhile pleasurable (Helgesen, 2005; Pigada, 2006). As whether reading is pleasurable or not can only be determined by the readers themselves, it would be best that the reading materials, as suggested by Day and Bamford (1998), are ―self-selected‖. Extensive reading can be conducted in the classroom generally accompanied to an English course (Davis, 1995) or as an after-school activity (Day & Bamford, 1998). As for the goal set for amount of © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

reading that can be qualified as extensive reading, Susser and Robb (1990) indicate a range from an hour per night to two books weekly, as agreed upon by educators. Anderson (1999) considers 200 words every minute a rational and practical goal for L2 readers. However, Powell (2005) suggests that flexibility be a necessity considering students‘ substantial workload imposed upon them at schools. Theoretical Framework of Extensive Reading The instructional value ascribed to extensive reading is founded on the supposition that learners will have a good command of L2 provided that they are exposed to meaningful and interesting texts over an extended period of time (Hafiz & Tudor, 1989). In addition, the theoretical motive underlying the use of extensive reading derives from the thought that learners need a considerable amount of comprehensible input of the target language so that acquisition of the whole target language can be made possible (Krashen, 1982; Renandya, Rajan & Jacobs, 1999). In fact, extensive reading is mainly founded on Krashen‘s two prominent reading theories, the Input Hypothesis or Comprehension Hypothesis and the Pleasure Hypothesis (Hong, 2007; Iwahori, 2008; Maxim, 1999). The Input Hypothesis claims that learners can acquire language best by understanding the input somewhat beyond their current language level, namely the ‗i+1‘ level, with ‗i‘ being learners‘ current level and ‗i+1‘ the subsequent level (Krashen, 1982, 1985). To move from ‗i‘ to ‗i+1‘, learners must obtain comprehensible input, and the ideal input must be interesting and/or relevant, not grammatically sequenced and in sufficient quantity (Krashen, 1982); moreover, learning also needs to be undertaken in a low-affective context (Hafiz & Tudor, 1989; Krashen, 1982; Krashen & Terrell, 1983). The Input Hypothesis is consistent with Krashen‘s Natural Order Hypothesis, claiming that learners progress following an inherent sequence when receiving parallel levels of language input (Krashen, 1982, 2002; Morano, 2004). In brief, the Input Hypothesis advocates that language knowledge is acquired subconsciously, a process similar to ‗incidental learning‘ (Krashen, 1989), and as long as learners have acquired the essential skills of a language, they can acquire the language by themselves through exposure to a large amount of comprehensible input. The Pleasure Hypothesis claims that pleasant language activities can not only provide comprehensible input but also lower learners‘ affective filters, a ‗mental block‘ in charge of language acquisition (Lee, 1998). The affective filters correlate with the anxiety level of learners (Krashen, 1982), relating to Krashen‘s Affective Filter Hypothesis, suggesting that language learners with low affective filters are more receptive to input and confident of learning a language (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). That is, the comprehensible input cannot be completely used if there is a mental © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

block or affective filter obstructing the acquisition process (Krashen, 1985). Though the affective variables do not influence language acquisition straightforwardly, they inhibit language acquisition (Krashen, 1992, 2002; Lee, 1998). In an extensive reading program, learners can choose their favorite reading materials with intelligible content assured; besides, acquisition of linguistic knowledge can be guaranteed as learners‘ anxiety level is lowered being immersed in a less stressful learning condition. Extensive reading is also closely related to the Bookstrap Hypothesis and the Flow Theory. The Bookstrap Hypothesis is proposed by Day and Bamford (1998), who borrowed the idea from bootstrapping in engineering describing ―a process in which the results of an action are fed back to achieve greater results more quickly with less effort‖ (p.30). The Bookstrap Hypothesis lays special weight on learners‘ initial successful experiences in extensive reading, which has great impact on learners‘ attitude and motivation. With experiences of achievement in reading, learners find that reading is virtually exciting and valuable; in consequence, their positive learning attitude is increased and motivation is enhanced. These successful experiences will entice readers to move on subsequent reading leading to greater achievement in reading in L2 (Day & Bamford, 1998). The Flow Theory alludes to the condition when learners are deeply involved in the reading when the reading catches their attention and at this level learners start to use their background knowledge to process the text or decode the meaning of the text by chunks (phrases or ideas) instead of decoding word by word (Waring, 1997). It is argued that extensive readers engage in interesting reading activities, motivating them to plunge into more reading by entering into a virtuous circle, and ultimately they deviate from less effective reading along with development of language or content knowledge, finally attaining better reading skills and reading comprehension. Benefits of Extensive Reading A considerable amount of research conducted over the past decades has reported the impact of extensive reading on learners at different age levels and in different contexts (Leung, 2002) and also on the development of both L1 (e.g., Krashen, 1993; Nagy, Herman, & Anderson, 1985) and L2 (e.g., Elley, 1991; Hafiz & Tudor, 1990; Hayashi, 1999; Krashen, 1997; Mason & Krashen, 1997; Robb & Susser, 1989; Yang, 2001). Numerous studies have reported that learners have increased their language abilities in different aspects from extensive reading (Yamashita, 2004; Yamashita, 2013) with received benefits spreading from receptive skills to productive skills (Elley & Mangubhai, 1983). The reported gains include general language competence (Elley & Mangubhai, 1983; Iwahori, 2008), vocabulary knowledge (e.g., Lao & Krashen, 2000; MacQuillan & Krashen, 2008; Poulshock, 2010; Yamamoto, 2011), listening ability (e.g., Elley & Mangubhai, 1983), oral skills (e.g., Cho & Krahen, 1994), reading © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

skills (e.g., Day & Bamford, 1998; Manson & Krashen, 1997; Nakanishi, 2014) and writing ability (e.g., Janopoulos, 1986; Saleem, 2010; Tsang, 1996). In addition, studies have also reported beneficial effects of extensive reading on affective domains such as improvement of learners‘ motivation and/or attitudes (e.g., Cho & Krashen, 1994; Hayashi, 1999; Johanson, 2012; Mason & Krashen, 1997; Nishino, 2007; Yamashita, 2013) and building of learners‘ confidence (e.g., Kembo, 1993; Ro, 2013). This study mainly examined the effects of extensive reading on L2 learners‘ attitudes toward English reading. Extensive Reading and Attitudes Affective factors are recognized as important elements in a reading course (Quinn & Jadav, 1987) and more emphasis is beginning to be played on the importance of affective reading development (Matthewson, 1994). One important affective element having impact on language learning is learners‘ attitude (Gardner, 1972). Attitude is often defined as ―a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object‖ (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, p.6;Yamashita, 2013, p.249) and are usually considered many-faceted, specifically involving cognitive, affective and behavioral components (Bagozzi & Burnkrant, 1979; Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Hovland & Bosenberg, 1960; Ley, Schaer & Dismukes, 1994). Alexander and Filler (1976) define reading attitude as ―a system of feelings related to reading which causes the learner to approach or avoid a reading situation‖ (p.1) or ―a state of mind, accompanied by feelings and emotions, that makes reading more or less probable‖ (Smith, 1990, p.215, as cited in Yamashita, 2004, p.3). Therefore, with positive attitude toward L2 reading, it is more likely that L2 learners will form habits of reading, attach higher values upon reading, be more intrinsically motivated to read and become active readers. In short, reading attitude decides whether a learner will read or have a will to read or not. Extensive reading has been recognized by several scholars and researchers as a powerful device for improving learners‘ reading attitude (e.g., Cho & Krashen, 1994; Johnson, 2012; Robb & Susser, 1989; Poulshock, 2010). The following section presents related literature on extensive reading in terms of its potential for promoting positive reading attitude with these studies involving learners in different contexts and with different language proficiency levels, covering different study span and adopting different methods. Elley (1991) reported a three-year longitudinal study engaging elementary students in an extensive reading program called REAP where learners were provided with highly interesting illustrated story books. The results revealed that children reading extensively seemed to occasionally acquire the language and developed positive attitude toward © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

reading as well. Walker‘s (1997) study involved international undergraduates and graduate students in the UK, who were preparing for a test required for tertiary level study in English. A self-access extensive reading project was set up with graded readers made accessible to the subjects on their schooldays. The students read an average of 7.5-8 books over a 30-week study period. The results showed a correlation between extensive reading and the subjects‘ test scores. Moreover, the interview responses also revealed perceived change of the learners‘ attitudes toward English reading. Al-Homoud and Schmitt (2009) engaged beginning level college students in a Saudi college pre-sessional course that adopted extensive reading approach. The results showed that the participants doing a daily 20-25 minutes silent reading demonstrated parallel improvement in reading comprehension, reading speed and vocabulary knowledge as the counterparts in the control group, who read 100 short articles. Moreover, the participants in the experimental group also demonstrated more positive attitudes toward English reading, their reading and their class compared to the students in the extensive reading group. A great many extensive reading studies are conducted in Japan. Mason and Krashen‘s (1997) quasi-experimental study compared reluctant EFL university students to students in diverse school levels. The reluctant students‘ cloze test scored much lower than the comparison students receiving conventional classroom language instruction. After being administered to an extensive reading class for one semester, the reluctant students virtually got abreast of the comparison students on the cloze test; moreover, the reluctant students also improved their learning attitude. Lao and Krashen (2000) examined the influence of extensive reading (using popular literature) on university students‘ language proficiency and reading attitude. The results revealed that the popular literature group who had completed five assigned books and one self-selected book during the semester showed significant gains in vocabulary knowledge and reading rate compared to their counterparts whose learning focused on development of academic skills. Moreover, they also demonstrated positive attitude toward the pleasure reading activity. Yamashita (2013) conducted a study investigating the impact of extensive reading on reading attitude, which was assumed made up of varied components, serving as the affective aspect and the cognitive aspect of EFL reading attitudes respectively. The participants were 61 non-English major university students enrolled in compulsory EFL classes. They received a weekly 90 minutes‘ English instruction based on the ER approach. The students read both inside and outside of class and were required to submit book reports. The study lasted for 15 weeks. The result showed that ER generated effects on Comfort and Intellectual Value and Anxiety Value but not on Practical Value, denoting that ER stimulated intrinsic motivation of language learners forging a virtuous cycle of reading.

In Taiwan, Nash and Yuan (1992/93) compared university English majors receiving instruction using quantity reading with those receiving traditional reading instruction that focused on learning of subskills. After reading for one academic year, the subjects in quantity reading group demonstrated more positive attitudes toward reading compared to the control group. Sheu (2003) reported an ER study involving beginning-level Taiwanese junior high school students. The study lasted for two semesters. The results showed that the two treatment groups improved on reading comprehension scores to a significant extent. Moreover, the self-assessment also indicated that the subjects in the treatment groups developed positive attitude toward reading in English. Tien (2015) conducted a large-scale study for a university‘s Teaching Excellence Project in Taiwan. A two-year extensive reading program was established for non-English majors with an aim to improve their English proficiency. The students received two hours of extensive reading treatment per week. At the end of the first year, the author conducted a study to evaluate the program by adopting questionnaire and focus-group interviews. A total of 5,711 students and 36 instructors participated in this study. The author examined what factors influenced non-English majors‘ attitudes toward extensive reading and how students and teachers perceived the extensive reading program. The results showed that numerous factors exerted effects on learners‘ attitude toward extensive reading with learners‘ majors and amount of time spent on reading having direct effect. Moreover, both teachers and students displayed perceptible attitude change toward extensive reading recognizing its linguistic benefits after experiencing reading for a period of two semesters. Some researchers adopted exploratory qualitative research design to get deep insight into the effect of extensive reading. Alshamrani (2003) implemented a qualitative study involving two groups of ESL students participating in a reading course termed Reading Club. The subjects read authentic texts during the three-month course. After experiencing the extensive reading course, the subjects increased several linguistic skills and adopted positive attitudes toward reading authentic texts and became enthusiastic readers as well. Another study was conducted by Fredricks and Sobko (2008) in Tajikistan. The subjects participated in an ER program where they were provided with reading texts with topics relevant to their own cultures. The reading activities involved discussions and debates on the selected reading materials along with teacher-guided activities. The results showed that the learners demonstrated positive attitude toward reading in English after experiencing the extensive reading; moreover, they also formed habits of reading as well. Byun (2010) also adopted a qualitative research design involving 14 in-service secondary school EFL teachers in a professional development program in a Korean university. One purpose of the study was to explore how the EFL teachers perceived the administered extensive reading approach. A © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

copious supply of prints, roughly 1000 copies, was made accessible to the participants. The data were generated within two weeks through multiple sources including classroom observations, interviews, diaries and surveys. The results showed that the teachers had changed their perceptions about extensive reading and turned into enthusiastic extensive readers. They recognized several benefits of extensive reading including increase in vocabulary knowledge and improvement in reading attitude and sense of accomplishment. ER also demonstrates its effects on different languages besides English. Hitosugi and Day (2004) conducted a study at the University of Hawaii engaging beginning learners of Japanese in reading texts written for children. The subjects had an access to 226 books for the ER class and read extensively over the 10-week period and also spent 30 minutes weekly doing numerous activities related to the reading. The subjects read an average of 31.6 books within the study period. The results showed that the subjects developed more positive attitudes toward Japanese study compared to their regular class counterparts. Similarly, McQuillan (1996) also conducted a 10-week FVR (free voluntary reading) study with native speakers of English enrolled in a university course, Spanish for Native Speakers (SNS). The experimental group did FVR outside the classroom and discussed reading in class by forming literature circles. At the end of the course, the subjects increased vocabulary knowledge to a significant level and adopted more positive attitudes toward Spanish literacy. Arnold (2009) conducted an evaluation study at a university in the southeastern United States engaging eight advanced German language learners in a modified extensive reading program. The participants read online text without instructor preselection and read whatever materials they liked without restrictions on text length or type. The participants met twice a week for a period of 75 minutes. After reading, they filled out reading reports and did follow-up activities including discussions and reflections. The study lasted for one semester and the results showed that many students became motivated German learners and took a much more active attitude toward extensive reading. 3. Methodology Subjects The subjects were freshmen students from the department of Information Management at a university in southern Taiwan. The researcher taught the subjects Freshman English Reading in academic year 2006. In addition to the reading class, the subjects were also required to do extensive reading at home. At the beginning of the class, the researcher investigated orally the class concerning their perceptions about English learning along with their attitude toward reading in English. Most of the subjects, according to the researchersâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; understanding, were mostly unmotivated or ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

reluctant English readers and had formed negative conception about English learning after undergoing a rigid way of learning English reading in high schools and encountering numerous frustrations and failures in the process of their learning. In addition, most of them conceived being able to read in English as unimportant and unrelated to their future careers without knowing that most employment opportunities require job seekers to be equipped with certain level of English language skills. Other than that, most of them considered being able to read in English was not important in their specific field of study partly because they thought they were non-majors granting that they were clearly aware of the fact that many disciplines in their fields of study required a certain level of English skills, particularly reading skills since most of the textbooks they used were written in English. Instruments The attitudes questionnaire was designed based on Lewis and Teale‘s (1980) tri-attitudes model. Lewis and Teale developed their own reading attitudes model based on the generally agreed conception that attitudes consist of cognitive, affective and behavioral components. The three components correspond to the three attitudes including a) beliefs or opinions about reading, (b) evaluations or feelings about reading and (c) intentions to read and actual reading (Ley, Schaer & Dismukes, 1994). In order to generate more appropriate questions, the first version of the questionnaire was given to two of the first author‘s colleagues for examination, who had offered precious feedback for the items in the questionnaire. Moreover, the questionnaire had also been reviewed by other experts from English teaching-related field; therefore, it is equipped with content validity and face validity. After incorporating their opinions and making revisions, the second version of the questionnaire (see Appendix 1) was developed. The reading attitudes questionnaire was a five-point Liker scale questionnaire with each item requiring the subjects to answer by selecting a number ordered from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). As for the reliability of the questionnaire in this study (See Table 1), the lowest Cronbach‘s Alpha coefficient was affective (alpha = 0.788) with a value larger than 0.7. Therefore, this reading attitudes questionnaire in this study had internal consistency reliability. Table 1. Reliability of Reading Attitudes Questionnaire Reading Attitudes Number of Items Alpha a. Cognitive 5 b. Affective 4 c. Behaviour 5

Cronbach’s .886 .788 .889

subscription of English reading materials, experience of living in English-speaking countries and English scores of the scholastic aptitude test for college admission and indication of English reading material for extensive reading was also deliberately constructed to acquire students‘ demographic information. Procedure The extensive reading was conducted by the first author, which was administered at the beginning of the first semester of academic year 2006 and finished at the end of the second semester, lasting for one academic year. In addition to having weekly two hours of in-class reading in the university, the subjects were also required to do extensive reading after school. They were told to freely choose whatever genres of reading if only they felt interested in them, be they magazines, newspapers, entertaining or informed texts, fiction or non-fiction short stories, etc. Books such as American children‘s literature and Young Adult Literature (YAL) were also recommended to the subjects. The young adult literature has recently become popularly used in the university‘s English curriculum in Taiwan for its multiple values including using natural and authentic language written from young adults‘ viewpoints, discussing interesting themes related to young adults‘ real life experiences, and fostering learners‘ cross-cultural understanding (Bushman & Bushman, 1997; White, 2000; Wilder & Teasley, 2000). Booklists of Oxford Bookworm Library and Heinemann Guided Readers covering different levels were also distributed to the subjects as references for their selection of reading materials. To help the subjects choose reading materials, the researcher led the subjects to the university‘s library, where a whole bunch of reading materials were made accessible to them, who spent a couple of hours scanning the texts and pick up their favorite ones. As emphasized by Hill (1997), an ER specialist, it is important to offer multitudinous types of reading materials to fulfill the needs of students considering their varied language proficiency levels. The procedure for borrowing books was explained by the librarian. Apart from borrowing books from the university library, the subjects were also encouraged to look for L2 reading materials from bookstores and make a collection of their own favorite reading materials to conduct pleasure reading in their free time. The purpose of doing extensive reading was explained to the students. In addition, the subjects were also advised that dictionary consultation for unfamiliar words be decreased or avoided to refrain from distraction and interruption of the flow of reading. They were also encouraged to choose reading materials based on their own proficiency and comfortable levels and conduct their reading in their free time and at their own pace. There was no designated number of books for students in light of the inherent © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

attribute of the extensive reading intended for pleasure. Nevertheless, the recommended reading volumes were 4-5 books each semester and estimated pages were roughly 400 to 500 pages. They were encouraged to spend at least one hour to do extensive reading per night. There were no tests administered to students for their extensive reading, nor were they required to undertake any reading task or do any assignment in virtue of the varieties and different levels of the reading materials selected by the students. In addition, the extensive reading does not intend to impose on learners any additional post-reading tasks, as suggested by Day and Bamford (1998). The subjects were also told to record their progress in reading and document what they had read. Nevertheless, the researcher did not actually monitor their progress by requesting them to present their progress reports. Each student was requested to present orally in front of the class on books read and what they had learned from their extensive reading. The oral presentation ran for a period of two weeks, arranged at the last two weeks of each semester with each presentation lasting five minutes only owing to time constraint. In addition to the home extensive reading, students also did textbook reading in their weekly two-hour of English reading classes, for which students used prescribed textbooks (For Your Information 1 & 2 written by Blanchard and Root). For the in-class reading, the subjects were requested to memorize lots of lexical elements including root morphemes, prefixes, suffixes and synonyms, antonyms, words collocation/phrases and idioms and do exercises in the textbooks. They were also required to do sentence practices and translation in class and for their homework. Supplementary reading materials related to the reading/topics in the textbooks were also distributed to students for extra reading. The subjects were administered several quizzes and mid-term and final exams respectively per semester to test their knowledge of lexical and syntactic structures as well as reading skills and reading comprehension. A questionnaire designed to understand the impact of the extensive reading on the subjects in terms of their attitudes toward English reading was administered to the subjects on 22 May, 2008, one year after the extensive reading terminated. The questionnaire was written in Chinese. The subjects were informed that the survey was used to understand the effect of the extensive reading they were required to do at home for their English reading class in academic year 2006. They were asked to respond to each item in the questionnaire honestly. All the subjects took less than 5 minutes to fill out the questionnaire. A total of 40 questionnaires were distributed to the students. After excluding four invalid questionnaires, there were 36 left, achieving a return rate of 90% (36/40).

4. Results and Discussions Data Analysis Twenty-three (63.9%) male students and 13 (36.1%) female students participated in this study. Most of the subjects were at the age range of 18-20 (94.4%) (mean age= 19.31) (see Table 2). All the subjects had received formal English instruction for at least six years with mostly having 7 years of English education and some, more than 7 years (see Table 3). None of these subjects except one had ever lived in English-speaking countries, which is considered one of the interfering factors affecting learners‘ attitude toward learning English (Yamashita, 2004). As regards the English grades of the university‘s basic scholastic aptitude test, of which the full mark is 15, a great majority of the subjects were at grade range 2-8 with a cumulative percentage of 86.6 (see Table 4) excluding the missing value. The mean of the grades was 5.67 and the standard deviation was 2.733. The results of the grades indicate that most of the subjects were low achievers in terms of their English language proficiency. As for the types of reading materials they chose for their extensive reading at home, the results showed that the most popular materials were songs and magazines, with novels coming third and story books, fourth (see Table 5). Table 2: Frequency of Age Frequency Cumulative Valid

18 19 20 22 24 Total

7 17 10 1 1 36

Percent 19.4 47.2 27.8 2.8 2.8 100.0

Valid Percent 19.4 66.7 94.4 97.2 100.0

Table 3. Frequency of Years of Learning English Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative Percent Percent Valid 6 5 13.9 15.2 15.2 7 15 41.7 45.5 60.6 8 3 8.3. 9.1 69.7 9 3 8.3 9.1 78.8 10 3 8.3 9.1 87.9 11 3 8.3 9.1 97.0 19 1 2.8 3.0 100.0 Total 33 91.7 100.0 Missing System 3 8.3 Total 36 100.0

Table 4. Frequency of English Grade Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent Valid 0 1 2.8 3.3 2 2 5.6 6.7 4 6 16.7 20.0 5 10 27.8 33.3 6 3 8.3 10.0 7 1 2.8 3.3 8 4 11.1 13.3 10 1 2.8 3.3 12 1 2.8 3.3 13 1 2.8 3.3 Total 30 83.3 100.0 Missing System 6 16.7 Total 36 100.0

Valid Percent 3.3 10.0 30.0 63.3 73.3 76.7 90.0 93.3 96.7 100.0

Table 5. Frequency of Home Extensive Reading Materials Genre N Sum Story books 36 8 Novels 36 12 American Children Literature 36 1 Young Adult Literature 36 0 Oxford Bookworm Library 36 1 Heinemann Guided Readers 36 2 Songs 36 17 Magazines 36 13 Newspapers 36 3 Internet 36 3 Valid N (listwise) 36 Concerning the results of the attitudes test, this study tested the three dimensions of attitudes (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) to see whether the means of the three dimensions reached 3. The findings showed that extensive reading had improved the subjectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; cognitive aspect of attitude (p=.000, t=6.148, df=35 ); however, the results also showed negative effects for affective (p=0.000, t=-5.135, df=35) and behavioral (p= 0.000, t= -5.041, df=35) aspects of attitudes. As could be referred to from Table 6, the mean of cognitive aspect of attitude was 3.9000 and the standard deviation was .87831, the mean of affective aspect of attitude was 2.3403 and the standard deviation was .77033, and the mean of behavioral aspect of attitude was 2.2167 and the standard deviation was .93243. The results indicated that after undertaking extensive reading for one academic year, the subjects had changed their thought about reading in English, considering it as important, which was in contrast to an opposing attitude held toward English reading when ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

they were just matriculated into the university. The subjects used to think of reading in English as irrelevant and unimportant to their current study and future careers. However, after undergoing the extensive reading program, the subjects had changed their perceptions toward reading in English. They believed reading extensively would improve their reading ability and benefit them in their current study and future employment opportunities. Namely, after reading, the subjects had adopted a more affirmative attitude, at least in their perception, toward reading in English. Table 6. One-Sample Statistics of Reading Attitudes N Mean Std. Std. Error Deviation Mean Cognitive 36 3.9000 .87831 .14639 Affective 36 2.3403 .77033 .12839 Behavioral 36 2.2167 .93243 .15541 「*」：p<0.001

t-value 6.148* -5.139* -5.041*

Nevertheless, the findings demonstrated negative effects of the extensive reading on the subjects‘ affective and behavioral aspects of attitudes toward English reading. One possible reason to explain this phenomenon was that for the home extensive reading, the teacher did not supervise the subjects‘ reading progress by requesting them to present their progress reports; therefore, the subjects probably did not actually carry out extensive reading at home, not reading diligently as advised or expected. The teacher simply encouraged the students to read as much as they could but did not monitor their reading progress, for which the intent is to move the reading forward (Ellis & McRae, 1991). As Waring (1997) notes, for the out-of-class reading, teachers are advised to keep track of learners‘ progress by demanding learners to document their reading to ensure that they have conformed to the goal of page number set for each semester though the targeted page number is reserved for learners to determine on their own judging by their own proficiency level, time, motivation and accessibility of reading materials. Lack of monitoring on the part of the teacher, the subjects might consider the reading task as unimportant, not taking a more serious attitude for the home-based extensive reading. It is understood that the subjects had already taken an aversion to English reading in light of the fact that they were low-achieving and passive English readers, who might need a certain level of supervision on the part of the teacher so that they would be more engaged in their extensive reading at home. The teacher should have monitored the subjects‘ reading progress, at least at the first semester and then let they monitor their own progress until they became familiar with the techniques of self-monitoring, as advised by Ellis and McTae (1991). Another conceivable reason to shed light on the negative effects of the administered extensive reading on the subjects‘ affective and behavioral © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

aspects of attitudes toward reading in English was possibly the workload imposed on the subjects for their in-class reading. For the in-class reading, the selected reading materials were more complex texts containing more sophisticated lexical words and syntactical structures. As aforementioned, the subjects were assigned lots of tasks for the in-class reading including vocabulary learning, sentence practices and translation, supplementary reading; moreover, several quizzes coupled with mid-term and final exams were also administered to them each semester. Apparently, the subjects were already occupied with enormous workload for the in-class reading; they might feel that the extensive reading, in effect, placed an additional burden on them instead of bringing them pleasure. Even though they were aware that extensive reading would help them improve their English reading ability and benefit them in their current study and in their future careers, they did not feel like sparing some time doing the reading emotionally. Though cognitively the subjects knew that the in-class reading and extensive reading were different in essence with the latter easier and more pleasurable, the in-class reading workload might generate stress for them, which prevented them from any attempt to do extra reading, and the heavy workload might also lead to hatred to reading in English for the subjects. If this is the case, it is suggested that when conducting both conventional classroom reading and extensive reading, teachers should take learners‘ level into consideration. For the low-achievers or unmotivated learners, it is important that teachers avoid overburdening the students with in-class reading work considering their lower language proficiency. Teachers should know how to weight both types of reading carefully. In addition, since the purpose of extensive reading is to motivate students to read and develop reading habits, it is important that teachers engage students in reading emotionally, so that they will hopefully become autonomous English readers who can manage and take initiative for their own learning. Lastly, since this survey was conducted one year after the administration of the extensive reading finished, it might be possible that the subjects had increased positive attitudes toward English reading in terms of their affective and behavioral aspects of attitudes after experiencing the extensive reading but the effects did not persist after the extensive reading terminated. As suggested by Day and Bamford (in Donnes, 1997; as cited in Powell, 2005), more research is needed to understand to what extent the students kept on doing L2 reading when the extensive reading class was over. Moreover, Powell (2005) also indicates that ―questionnaire-based research tends to produce general impression rather than hard evidence‖ (p.33). Therefore, other research instruments such as interviews (Yamashita, 2004), reflective logs or diaries should also be utilized to generate more concrete evidences and get in-depth insight into the real causes leading to the negative effects of extensive reading on the subjects‘ affective and behavioral aspects of attitudes toward reading in © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

English. 5. Conclusions The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of extensive reading on students‘ attitudes toward reading in English. The findings indicated that the extensive reading had yielded a moderate improvement in the subjects‘ cognitive aspect of attitude in terms of reading in English; however, the results did not demonstrate positive effects on the subjects‘ affective and behavioral aspects of attitudes. Two conceivable reasons were suggested for such results. One reason is that the teacher did not execute monitoring for the subjects‘ progress of the home-based extensive reading; therefore, the subjects might deem the reading as unimportant. It might be possible that the subjects were virtually not doing much reading or performing extensive reading at home. Therefore, teachers are advised to keep track of students‘ reading progress by requiring them to keep records of their own reading, executing a certain degree of monitoring to push them forward so as to effectuate learning. As suggested by Waring (1997), teachers can require students to write book reports or keep reading diaries to record and report their reading. Bell (1998) also suggests holding regular conferences between teachers and students, which can help teachers execute efficient monitoring of students‘ reading progress and meanwhile offer teachers the opportunities to direct students in choosing titles, encourage them to read extensively and to demonstrate their liking for the selected reading materials. In short, to implement a successful extensive reading program, effective monitoring is indispensable so that teachers can make themselves aware of what students are reading, how much they have read and track students‘ development of reading habits and interests (Bell, 1998). As only when students find satisfaction with their learning will they feel motivated to learn and be more likely to form habits of reading in English. The negative effects were also possibly ascribed to the fact that the subjects were burdened with heavy workload for the in-class reading, which might lead to their reluctance to do the extra reading at home granting that the home reading was much more easier and interesting than the in-class reading. As Powell (2005) indicates, ―Given the subjects already heavy workload for their in-class reading, it is not always easy to convince them of the benefits of undertaking extra, voluntarily reading, no matter how enjoyable we suppose it to be.‖ (p.33) Therefore, it is important to note that when implementing home extensive reading, teachers should take the loads of in-class reading into consideration, assessing students‘ ability and giving consideration to how much work they can afford, especially for low-achieving and unmotivated students. Granting that encouraging results were not found from this extensive reading study in terms of its effects on the increase of the subjects‘ © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

affective and behavioral aspects of attitudes toward reading in English, the subjects had changed their perception of reading in English, taking a more positive attitude toward it. At least the extensive reading program had made the subjects become more aware of the importance of being able to read in English. As far as is known, a large number of ESL/EFL students are required to read for academic purposes; it is necessary for them to acquire certain skills and strategies to cope with longer texts and books (Bell, 1998), and the value of extensive reading lies in its development of learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; confidence and capability to deal with those longer texts (Kembo, 1993). However, engaging in academic English reading requires developing a certain level of interest and forming reading habits on the part of students; otherwise, they might find it hard to survive their university studies. In short, if learners can be offered opportunities to read extensively and develop interest in reading, they are more likely to feel desirous to learn the required reading skills and vocabulary necessary for finding enjoyment from their reading (Leung, 2002), and only when learners can find fun in reading in the target language will it be possible that they become active readers. Therefore, reading teachers should help students engage in extensive reading and motivate and encourage them to read to develop a lasting interest in reading so that they will hopefully become independent L2 readers. 6. Limitations The study did not administer pretest for the subjects; therefore the difference between pretest and posttest in terms of their English reading attitudes could not be compared, which was considered an important limitation in this research. Moreover, since this was a small-scale study with a small number of sample examined, which was by no means representative enough. To acquire more accurate data, further studies need to be replicated in larger data sets in future investigations. 7. References Alexander, J.E., & Filler, R.C. (1976). Attitudes and reading. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Al-Homoud, F., & Schmitt, N. (2009). Extensive reading in a challenging environment: A comparison of extensive and intensive reading approaches in Saudi Arabia. Language Teaching Research 13(4), 383â&#x20AC;&#x201C;402. Alshamrani, H. M. (2003). The attitudes and beliefs of ESL students about extensive reading of authentic texts. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indian, PA. Anderson, N. (1999). Exploring second language reading: Issues and strategies. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. Arnold, N. (2009). Online extensive reading for advanced foreign language learners: An evaluation study. Foreign Language Annals, 42(2), 340-366. Bagozzi, R.P., & Burnkrant, R.E. (1979). Attitude organization and the attitude-behavior ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

relationship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 913-929. Bamford, J., & Day, R.R. (1997). Extensive reading: What is it? Why bother? The Language Teacher Online. Retrieved on April 30, 2008, from http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/files/97/may/extensive.html. Bell, T. (1998). Extensive reading: Why? and How? The Internet TESOL Journal, 4(12). Retrieved on May 12, 2008, from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Bell-Reading.html. Bushman, J.H., & Bushman, K.P. (1997). Using young adult literature in the English classroom (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Byun, J-H. (2010). Korean EFL teachers’ perspectives about their participation in an extensive reading program. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Texas, Austin. Retrieved July 1, 2015, from http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/ETD-UT-2010-08-1634/B YUN-DISSERTATION.pdf?sequence=1. Cho, K.S., & Krashen, S. (1994). Acquisition of vocabulary from the Sweet Valley Kids series: Adult ESL acquisition. Journal of Reading, 37, 662-667. Coady, J. (1997). L2 vocabulary acquisition through extensive reading. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp.225-237). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davis C. (1995). Extensive reading: an expensive extravagance? ELT Journal, 49 (4), 329-336. Day, R.R., & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Day, R.R., & Bamford, J. (2002). Top ten principles for teaching extensive reading. Reading in a foreign language, 14(2), 1-7. Retrieved on March 13, 2008, from http://www.flrc.hawaii. edu/rfl/October2002/day/day.html. Donnes, T. (1997). Extensive reading revisited: An interview with Richard Day and Julian Bamford. The Language Teacher, 23(7),4-7. Eagly, A.H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Elley, W.B. (1991). Acquiring literacy in a second language: The effect of book-based programs. Language Learning, 41, 375-411. Elley, W.B., & Mangubhai, F. (1983). ‗The effect of reading on second language learning‘. Reading Research Quarterly, 19(1), 53-67. Ellis, G., & McRae, J. (1991). The extensive reading handbook for secondary teachers. London: Penguin. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Fredricks, L., & Sobko, V. (2008). Culturally relevant extensive reading in Tajikistan. Central Eurasian Studies Review, 7(1), 34-39. Gardner, R. C. (1972). Attitude and motivation in second language learning. In A.G. Reynolds (Ed.), Bilingualism, multiculturalism and second language learning (pp. 43-63). Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group. Grabe, W. (1991). Current developments in second language reading research. TESOL Quarterly, 25(3), 375-406. Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (2002). Teaching and researching reading. London, UK: Longman. Green, C. (2005). Integrating extensive reading in the task-based curriculum. ELT Journal, 59(4), 306-311. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Green, J.M., & Oxford, R. (1995). A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency and gender. TESOL Quarterly, 29(2), 261-297. Hafiz, F.M., & Tudor, I. (1989). Extensive reading and the development of language skills. ELT Journal, 43(1), 4-13. Hafiz, F.M. & Tudor, I. (1990). Graded readers as an input medium in L2 learning. System, 18, 31-42. Hayashi, K. (1999). Reading strategies and extensive reading in EFL classes. RELC Journal, 30, 114-132. Helgesen, M. (2005). Extensive reading reports - Different intelligences, different levels of processing. Asian EFL Journal, 7(3). 25-33. Retrieved on October 21, 2009, from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/September_05_mh.php Hill, D.R. (1997). Setting up an ER programme: practical tips. The Language Teacher, 21(5), 17-20. Hitosugi, C. I., & Day, R. R. (2004). Extensive reading in Japanese. Reading in a Foreign Language, 16(1). Retrieved on August 17, 2012, from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/April2004/hitosugi/hitosugi.html. Hong, S. H. (2007). An introspective and retrospective diary study of extensive reading: A case study in French language learning. Unpublished master’s thesis. Ming Chuan University, Taipei, Taiwan. Hovland, C., & Rosenberg, M.J. (Eds.). (1960). Attitude organization and change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Huckin, T., & Coady, J. (1999). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 181-193. Iwahori, Y. (2008). Developing reading fluency: A study of extensive reading in EFL. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20(1), 70-91. Johnson, Y. (2012). Attitudes towards EFL learning and extensive reading in Japanese engineering students. Journal of Language and Culture of Hokkaido, 10, 65-81. Jonopoulos, M. (1986). The relationship of pleasure reading and second language writing proficiency. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 763-768. Kembo, J. (1993). ‗Reading: Encouraging and maintaining individual extensive reading.‘ English Teaching Forum, 31(2), 36-38. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon. Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London, UK: Longman. Krashen, S. (1989). We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for the input hypothesis. The Modern Language Journal, 73(4), 440-464. Krashen, S. (1992). Fundamentals of language education. Torrance, CA: Larcdo Publishing Co., Inc. Krashen, S. (1993). The power of reading: insights from the research. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Krashen, S. (1997). The comprehension hypothesis: recent evidence. English Teachers’ Journal, 51, 17-29. Krashen, S. (2002). Explorations in language acquisition and use: the Taipei lectures. Taipei: Crane Publishing Co., Ltd. Krashen, S.D., & Terrell, T.D. (1983). The natural approach. Oxford: Pergamon/ Alemany. Lao, C.Y., & Krashen, S.D. (2000). The impact of popular literature study on literacy development in EFL: more evidence for the power of reading. System, 28, 261-270. Lee, S. Y. (1998). Effects of introducing free reading and language acquisition theory on © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

students‘ attitudes toward the English class. Studies in English Language and Literature, 4, 21-28. Ley, T.C., Schaer, B.B., & Dismukes, B.W. (1994). Longitudinal study of the reading attitudes and behaviors of middle school students. Reading Psychology, 15(1), 11-38. Leung, C.Y. (2002). Extensive reading and language learning: A diary study of a beginning learner of Japanese. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14(1). Retrieved on May 1, 2008, from http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/April2002/leung/leung.html. Lewis, R., & Teale, W.H. (1980). Another look at secondary school students‘ attitudes toward reading. Journal of Reading Behavior, 12, 187-201. Lin, F.C. (2004). The impact of extensive reading on vocational high school students‘ reading, writing and learning motivation. Unpublished master’s thesis. National Taiwan Normal University, Department of English, Taipei, Taiwan. McQuillan, J. & Krashen, S. D. (2008). Commentary: Can free reading take you all the way? A response to Cobb (2007).Language Learning & Technology, 12(1), 104-108. Retrieved on September 28, 2015, from http://llt.msu.edu/vol12num1/mcquillan/default.html. Mason, B., & Krashen, S. (1997). Extensive reading in English as a foreign language. System, 25(1), 91-102. Mattewson, G.C. (1994). Model of attitude influence upon reading and learning to read. In R.B. Ruddell, M.R. Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th ed., pp.1131-1161). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Maxim, H. (1999). The effects of extensive authentic reading on first-semester German students' reading comprehension, cultural horizon, and language proficiency. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The University at Austin, Austin, USA. McQuillan, J. (1996). How should heritage languages be taught?: The effects of a free voluntary reading program. Foreign Language Annals, 29, 56-72. Morano, R. (2004). Simplified reader as comprehensible input in the EFL classroom. Academic Journal of Kang-Ning, 6, 225-250. Nakanishi, T. (2014). A meta-analysis of extensive reading research. TESOL Quarterly, 49(1), 6-37. Nagy, W.E., Herman, P.A., & Anderson, R. C. (1985). Learning words from context. Reading Research Quarterly, 20(2), 233-253. Nash, T., & Yuan, Y. (1992/93). Extensive reading for learning and enjoyment. TESOL Journal, 2(2), 27-31. Nation, P. (1997). The language learning benefits of extensive reading. The Language Teacher, 21, 13-16. Nishino, T. (2007). Beginning to read extensively: A case study with Mako and Fumi. Reading in a Foreign Language, 19 (2). Retrieved on September 29, 2015, from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2007/nishino/nishino.html. Nuttall, C. (1982). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. London: Heinemann Educational. Pigada, M. (2006). Vocabulary acquisition from extensive reading: A case study. Reading in a Foreign Language, 18(1). Retrieved on May 18, 2008, from http:..nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/april2006/pigada/pigada.html. Poulshock, J. (2010). Extensive graded reading in the liberal arts and sciences. Reading in a Foreign Language, 22, 304–322. Powell, S. (2005). Extensive reading and its role in Japanese high schools. The Reading © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Matrix, 5(2), 28-42. Quinn, B., & Jadav, A.D. (1987). Causal relationship between attitude and achievement for elementary grade mathematics and reading. Journal of Educational Research, 80, 366-372. Renandya, W.A., Rajan, B.R.S., & Jacobs, G.M. (1999). Extensive reading with adult learners of English as a second language. RELC Journal, 30, 39-60. Richards, J.C., & Rodgers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J.C., & Schmidt, R. (Eds.). (2002). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics (3rd ed.). London: Longman. Robb, T.N., & Susser, B. (1989). Extensive reading vs. skills building in an EFL context. Reading in a Foreign Language, 5(2), 239-251. Ro, E. (2013). A case study of extensive reading with an unmotivated L2 reader. Reading in a Foreign Language, 25(2), 212-233. Retrieved on September 27, 2015, from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2013/articles/ro.pdf Saleem, B. A. A. (2010). Impact of extensive reading on literacy perceptions and on EFL writing quality of English major students at the Islamic University of Gaza. MA Thesis. The Islamic University,2010. Retrieved on September 29, 2015, from http://library.iugaza.edu.ps/Thesis/90263.pdf Sheu, S. P-H. (2003). Extensive reading with EFL learners at beginning level. TESL Reporter, 36(2), 8-26. Smith, M.C. (1990). A longitudinal investigation of reading attitude development from childhood to adulthood. Journal of Educational Research, 83(4), 215-219. Susser, B., & Robb, T.N. (1990). EFL Extensive reading instruction: Research and procedure. JALT Journal, 12(2), 161-185. Tien, C. Y. (2015). A large-scale study on extensive reading program for non-English majors: Factors and attitudes. International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 4(4), 46-54. Retrieved on June 23, 2015, from http://journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/IJALEL/article/view/1433 Tsang, W.K. (1996). Comparing the effects of reading and writing on writing performance. Applied Linguistics, 17, 210-233. Walker, C. (1997). A self access extensive reading project using graded readers (with particular reference to students of English for academic purposes). Reading in a Foreign Language, 11(1), 121-149. Waring, R. (1997). Graded and extensive reading—questions and answers. The Language Teacher Online. Retrieved on April 19, 2008, from http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/files/97/may/waring.html. Waring, R. (2009). The inescapable case for extensive reading. In A. Cirocki (Ed.), Extensive reading in English language teaching (pp. 93-111). Munich, Germany: Lincom. White, J.E. (2000). Young adult literature as a key to literacy. The ALAN Review, 27(3). Retrieved on May 1, 2008, from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ALAN/spring00/white2.html. Wilder, A., & Teasley, A.B. (2000). High school connections—YA:FAQ (We‘re glad you asked!)The ALAN Review, 28(1). Retrieved on May 1, 2008, from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ALAN/v28n1/faq.html. Yamashita, J. (2004). Reading attitudes in L1 and L2, and their influence on L2 extensive © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 16(1), 1-16. Retrieved on March 13,2008, from http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/RFL/April2004/yamaashita/yamashita.html. Yamamoto, Y. (2011). Bridging the gap between receptive and productive vocabulary size throughextensive reading. The Reading Matrix, 11(3). Retrieved on September 29, 2015, from http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/september_2011/yamamoto.pdf . Yamashita, J. (2013). Effects of extensive reading on reading attitudes in a foreign language. Reading in a Foreign Language, 25(2), 234-247. Retrieved on June 20, 2015 from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2013/articles/yamashita.pdf. Yang, A. (2001). Reading and the non-academic learner: A mystery solved. System, 29, 451-466.

Appendix 1 Dear Students The following is an academic questionnaire used for research purposes. The questions are designed to help you reflect on your attitudes toward reading in English. There is no right or wrong answer to each statement in the questionnaire and your responses will not influence your university English grades. The information will remain anonymous and confidential, so please feel at ease to fill out the questionnaire. Section 1: Reading Attitudes Please read carefully the following statements in each category. For each statement, select a response that best represents your attitudes toward L2 reading. The numerical numbers stand for degree of agreement with 1 indicating strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 neither agree nor disagree, 4 agree and 5 strongly agree. I. Cognitive(認知) After the extensive reading… 1. I think being able to read in English is very important. 1 2 3 4 5 2. I think reading extensively in English will benefit me in 1 2 3 4 5 my future job. 3. I think reading extensively in English will benefit me in 1 2 3 4 5 my future study. 4. I think my reading ability has improved after 1 2 3 4 5 experiencing the extensive reading. 5. I think being able to read in English is not very 1 2 3 4 5 important. II. Affective(情感) After the extensive reading… 6. I enjoy reading English materials in my free time after 1 2 3 4 5 experiencing extensive reading. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

7. I feel that the extensive reading can help my current study. 8. I feel tired when I am presented with English reading materials. 9. I prefer Chinese reading materials to materials written in English. III. Behavioral(行為) After the extensive reading… 10. I read English materials in my free time. 11. When I go to the library, I also read English materials for fun. 12. I also read English articles on the Internet. 13. When I go to bookstores, I also look for English reading materials for pleasure reading. 14 I try to avoid reading English materials.

2 3

4 5

2 3

4 5

2 3

4 5

1 1

2 3 2 3

4 5 4 5

1 1

2 3 2 3

4 5 4 5

2 3

4 5

Section 2: Background Information 1 2 3. 4. 5. 6.

Are you male (M) or female (F)? □Male □Female What is your age? _________ How long have you been learning English? ____________years Have you ever lived in an English-speaking country? □Yes □No If yes, for how many years? __________ What is your English score of the university‘s basic scholastic aptitude test? ________ Please indicate the kind of reading materials you chose for your extensive reading at home? □story books □ novels □ American children literature □young adult literature □Oxford Bookworm Library □Heinemann Guided Readers □ songs □magazines □ newspapers □ Internet texts

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 26-36, September 2015

The Impact of Child Labour on Primary School Children’s Access to and Participation in Basic Education in Tanzania Gilman Jackson Nyamubi, PhD University of Iringa Iringa, Tanzania Abstract. Education for all individuals plays a major role in their development and of society at large; thus, it is both a basic social need to strive for and a factor for rapid and sustainable economic development. An increasing level of education for the population at large plays an important role in helping society break out of poverty, yet, how far do working children benefit from the right to basic education? This paper discusses the impact of child labour on children’s access to basic education in Tanzania. It examines how education delivery impacts the roles and conditions of school-going children. The study’s population consisted of primary school children in two districts in the Iringa Region (one urban and one rural), who were randomly selected, following an examination of their school attendance registers who showed a 50 percent of absenteeism. This mixedmethods study used interviews and focus group discussions to collect information. The main reasons that force children to work to meet their basic needs such as food and health care were found to be poverty and orphanhood. Bread-earning activities compel children to regularly miss attendance at school, and they eventually drop out, so their right to educational opportunities and future development is denied. Keywords: Child labour, basic education, access to education, participation in education, Tanzania.

Introduction In Tanzania, basic education includes pre-primary and primary education. Children are enrolled for pre-primary at the age of 4-6; for primary school education, the required enrolment age is 7 years (URT, 1995). The importance of education is cited as a crucial factor in the development of individuals as it allows them to learn skills they need to negotiate an increasingly technical world (Hubbard, 2009).

Generally, access to education and equity are areas of great concern in all aspects of basic education. Malekela and Ndeki (2001) define access to education as opportunities available to the target child population to participate in education, and equity refers to fairness in the distribution and allocation of educational resources to various segments in society. Important in this definition is that, access to education is not just physical attendance in class, but the proper acquisition of what is being taught. Working primary school children indeed miss out real educational opportunity. There have been a number of studies on child labour (DFID, 2000, ILO/IPEC, 2001, Madihi, 2004, Machibya, 2009, Akarro and Mtweve, 2011) from different perspectives, ranging from discussing the abrogation of children’s basic rights to children’s engagement in the worst forms of labour in areas such as mines, plantations, and sexual exploitation. However, Garret and Dachi (2003) note that, in the process of eliminating the worst child labour conditions, a group of working children who are still at school has apparently been overlooked. This study scrutinises this latter group.

Statement of the Problem Basically, the ILO convention 182 on the elimination of the worst forms of child labour provides fundamental principles concerning the rights of the child in a way that concurs with the general objective of offering basic education to all children in Tanzania because increasing levels of education play an important role in helping society breaking out of poverty. This goal is a result of the UN formulation of basic rights (UN, 1949) and the Jomtien Declaration (UN, 1990) of achieving education for all. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 26 asserts that all persons shall have the right to education. This provision is stated in very general terms. There is a need to consider what the right to education means in terms of learners’ access to and participation in basic education in Tanzania. Education is both a basic social need and a factor in sustainable economic development. How do working schoolchildren benefit from this right of basic education? The major research question that guided the study was what the impact of child labour on children’s access to basic education is. Specifically, the study sought to answer the following questions:  What conditions compel schoolchildren to engage in working while learning?  What is the impact of child labour on children’s access to and participation in education?

Defining Work, Labour and Working Children In Tanzania, defining legally who is a child or young person forms a central problem in the development of an effective system for the protection and promotion of the rights of a child or young person (Makaramba, 1998). However, several International agreements define a child as an individual up to the age of 18 and below (UN, 1990; UNICEF, 2009 and ILO, 2009). In Tanzania, the Child Development Policy (URT, 1996b) also sets the age of a child 18 and below, as this age limitation is in keeping with International laws. Again, a number of International Human Rights Conventions address specifically the human rights of vulnerable groups, children included. This has led to the establishment of standards for child protection globally, resulting in the universalisation of childhood and youth, despite the varying needs and problems of children those considered in various communities and cultures. The Law of the Child Act (2002) defines a child as a person the age of 18 years and below. This definition is in accord with the definition provided by the African Charter of the Rights and Welfare of the child (Mapaure, 2009). Garret and Dachi (2003) argue that it is always difficult to define the concept of working children and what constitutes work, but they note that the measurement of child work is linked to economic and social significance. The ILO Convention (ILO, 2009) defines child labour as all childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work undertaken in the labour market or household that interferes with childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s education. Child labour is defined, not by the activity per se, but by the effects, such activities have on a child. In most cases, the definition of what constitutes child labour is culturally bound, meaning that the social and economic development of a particular society determines the definition of child labour, so that one can trace changes in the degree of acceptance of working children. The International Labour Organisation (ILO, 2001) makes a distinction between what is called acceptable child labour and what is unacceptable. Children in Tanzania typically engage in domestic and agricultural labour, since many children are involved with their families or shop keeping. Nevertheless, such children still manage to go to school on a fairly regular basis (Dachi, 2000).

Human Rights and Child Rights The recognition of basic human rights and, more particularly the rights of a child, are 20th century concepts (Garret and Dachi, 2003). The first International instrument to recognise the rights of the child was the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child in 1924, which was embraced in 1959 by the UN General Assembly of the Rights of the Child through Resolution 1386 (xiv) (Makaramba,

1998). This intended to ensure that each individual child enjoys the benefits of a good life for the good of society. Education forms a pivotal role in defining the rights of the child. This right is recognised under Article 28 of the Convention of the Rights of the Child of 1989 (UN, 1990), which obliges States to provide free and compulsory basic education to all children. Moreover, States are obliged by the same Convention to direct education towards the development of the personality and talents of the child for an active adult life. Indeed, this convention is the most universally embraced human rights instrument in history as it establishes for the first time in an international convention that children are citizens with certain definable rights. In addition, the Millennium Development Goals, particularly goal number two, focus on achievement of universal primary education among States in the world. The 1989 UN Convention stresses that the best interests of the child must form the basis of judgement when considering a child’s rights to the full development of his or her academic potential. Among children’s rights agreed by member States are the right to both primary and secondary education and the right to be protected from work that threatens the child’s health, education or development. It emphasises that children should not be permitted to leave primary school until when they have completed schooling. It further prohibits children’s employment or any kind of work that is likely to interfere with their education (ILO, 2001). In Tanzania, the legal basis of the right to education by children is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights mentioned above especially article 26. At the local level, the child’s right to education is provided in the United Republic of Tanzania Constitution of 1977, article 11 (2), which provides for the compulsory enrolment and attendance of pupils in primary schools. The Education Act No 25 of 1978 cap 353 R. E (2002) provides for the right to education, envisaging the provision of education as compulsory and affirming the right of every individual to get education up to his or her ability. Thus, every child who is aged 7 to 15 years is obliged to be enrolled for basic education. The Education and Training Policy (URT, 1995) insists on the adherence to both International conventions and the national policy that strive for basic education provision to school-age children. The goal of basic education being made available for all was enshrined in the 1990 Jomtien Declaration adopted by the World Conference on Education for All and was reasserted in the 2000 Dakar World Education Forum (Mmbaga, 2002). Quality and relevant education prepares young people to participate meaningfully in their own development, both in their immediate communities and in the world at large. In this way, education is a fundamental human right and it plays a dual role in any society’s development. Indeed, without education, life cannot be lived with dignity (Mmbaga, 2002). The values of education include increased education that

improves learners’ social benefits gained from schooling, improved agricultural productivity, improved health, and reductions in both fertility and child mortality rates (UNICEF, 2009). Dachi (2000) argues that for a household, education is one of the main factors for overcoming prevailing poverty. Ironically, however, increased poverty in the household means that parents cannot afford school expenses. Parents are required to cover the costs of uniforms, books, stationery and other supplies but increased poverty makes parents and guardians unable to meet these costs (Machibya, 2009) especially if their incomes decline. As a result, most poor parents and guardians prefer to withdraw their children from school in order to involve them in diverse forms of economic activities (Garret and Dachi, 2003). Although law prohibits child labour in Tanzania, it manifests itself in terms of children found doing work, hard and light, in various places, such as garages, hotels, people’s residences, roadsides or selling small items in the streets. In whatever category, children are always exposed to physical, psychological and intellectual hazards as regards their development (Machibya, 2009). In most cases, their educational progress and general learning at school are interrupted. Despite the efforts to provide universal free education in Tanzania, children living in hash conditions are hampered by economic factors and either collusion of parents on lack of parental control and supervision culminates in first truancy and finally in their dropping out (URT, 1996). Thus, efforts to educate all children at least at the basic educational level are impeded, especially among vulnerable groups in society. This study is an attempt to add knowledge to an understanding of how child labour is manifested among working children who are still enrolled in primary schools.

Methodology Area of Study: The study was conducted in the Iringa Region; an area selected because of is one where the problem of child labour is rampant (Madihi, 2004). Moreover, the region is highly plagued by both poverty in households and HIV/AIDS, which has resulted in children’s missing either parental guidance or parents altogether (Akarro and Mtweve, 2011). The study was carried out in two districts within the region: Iringa Municipality and Iringa Rural. This study employed a mixed method research approach under the case study research design. The target population: The target population consisted of primary school children who were working while normally still attending school, “nominal” defined as absenteeism of more than 50 percent of learning days in the term. Sample and sampling techniques: As it was not possible to collect data from all individuals in the target population, the respondent sample was drawn from the © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

population as follows: students were selected from eight schools, four from each district. In each school, class attendance registers were used to select students who had missed many classes in the first term of the 2014 academic year (February to June). These students were traced in their homes, where interviews were conducted. A total of 88 primary school children, 42 girls (48 percent) and 46 boys (52 percent), were identified. Data collection: The author collected the data through a questionnaire, interviews and focus group discussions with respondents. The instruments used had previously been developed and piloted in two primary schools, one in each of the sampled districts. As regards validity and reliability of the instruments, the questionnaire, focus group and interview question guides were written in Kiswahili, the language of instruction in Tanzania primary schools. The collected data were later translated into English with assistance of a person fluent in both English and Kiswahili. This ensured consistency in the content and meaning. Furthermore, a pilot study was conducted prior administering the questionnaire and interview questions. This was done to find out whether any of the items were ambiguous to ascertain applicability, relevance and usefulness of research tools. The pilot study also served as a means to find out the internal consistency or validity as well as the reliability of the questionnaire. This was found to be of good quality, with a reliability coefficient of 0.81. Data analysis and statistical procedures: Data were entered and analysed using SPSS for windows (Version 21) following IBM guidelines. Cross tabulation was performed to obtain frequencies, means and percentages of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; responses on their access and participation in primary education. Qualitative data was thematically analysed. Ethical issues such as privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality were given due attention during data collection and in reporting the findings of the study.

Findings and Discussion This section presents and discusses the findings in accordance with the research questions.

Demographic information of schoolchildren respondents Of respondents, 42 respondents (47.8 percent) indicated that they were attending school regularly, missing some days of the week or working after school hours; 39.7 percent (n= 35) rarely attended school while the remaining 12.5 percent (n = 11) confirmed that they had dropped out of school. However, in the last category of children who had abandoned school, 64 percent (n =7) asserted that they would like to go back to school if their basic school and family needs could be met, while the ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

other portion (n = 4) or 36 percent showed reluctance to do so, implying that they did not like school any more. Most respondents, (n= 36), or 41 percent explained that they were from child– headed households and were working to earn an income for their families. Other 24 respondents (27 percent) disclosed that they were living with older persons who were caring for them but these adults were not economically productive in their households. Some 20 respondents (23 percent) indicated that they were from households headed by a disabled person; the remaining 9 percent (n = 8) were from poor families; both parents were alive, but they could not afford to pay for basic needs. On the nature of work these schoolchildren were engaged in, most of them emphasised that they were working in the informal sector, effectively self-employed in petty trade. Their activities included selling fruit, food, and milk, housework, farming, casual labour, and fetching water. Inadequate pay and harsh working conditions forced them to change jobs on a regular basis.

Conditions Compelling School Children to Engage in Working while Learning Household economic status was found to be a major factor that compelled children to engage in bread-earning activities. Thus, children from families whose parents had died or were very poor were forced to become the breadwinners in their families regardless of their age. They did not work, their food and health care would not be met. This level of poverty forced children to leave school or miss a lot of class, which resulted in an increased primary school dropout rate. There were also schooling expenses that could not be met if they did not work. More boys (56 percent) than girls (44 percent) were contributing to schooling costs. Ironically, to meet school costs, they sacrificed most of their school time and thus missed the opportunity of further education. This is in line with Machibya’s (2009) observation that poverty in households meant that parents failed to meet pupils’ basic school needs, such as uniforms, shoes and stationery items. Regarding their parents or guardians’ responsibilities to help them attend school regularly, most respondents reported that parents were too poor and, if uneducated, did not regard education as important. The parents preferred their children to be engaged in economic activities to assist in the family’s survival. One respondent remarked: I am in the street selling groundnuts, sweets, banana, mangoes, and oranges because my parents cannot afford to take care of household needs and my school requirements. It was also found that children from poor families also did essential household chores while at the same time engaging in income or resource-generating activities. © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Although school fees have been abolished in the Tanzanian public primary school system, most children, particularly those from poor families, are not able to meet the other financial requirements at school such as uniforms, books or stationery. These findings complement what Mapaure (2009) found in Namibia: that children work because their survival and that of their families depend on the work children do. Child labour thus persists even when it has been declared illegal. The vicious cycle: poorly educated adults being too poor to educate their children thus develops. The World Bank (1998) links poverty and child labour with the level of development in the community, in that children work less as per capita income increases. A complicating factor is the poor education of adults in the household who cannot get adequate income to take care of the young, particularly school going children. This impels children to provide for some of their needs themselves, particularly to both support the household and get money to meet the expenses of attending school. In this way, schoolchildren are forced to enter the labour market at a relatively early age. It was found that the labour of primary school children, particularly girls who were needed at home was unpaid. If they worked for others, they might be paid, but indeed, they were also likely to miss school. Commenting on this, one respondent remarked: I work as a domestic assistant after school hours and at weekends and sometimes I miss school most of the week, because of financial constraints at home. The money I earn helps supplement my familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s income and meets my school needs. As noted above, engaging children below the age of 18 in employment that hinders their schooling is illegal in Tanzania. In an attempt to help children enrol in and attend school, the National Education Act of 1978, as amended in 2002, states categorically that the school-going child cannot legally be employed. However, this good intention meets hurdles in implementation as the children themselves are seeking the said jobs (Machibya, 2009). Respondents admitted that they were compelled to engage in work by the socio-economic constraints of their families rather than their reluctance to continue with education. Asked whether they were ready to return to school and concentrate on their studies, the majority of schoolchildren expressed an interest in doing so if they could be helped with meeting both the costs of education basic needs at home. Thus, if children from poor families were given school requirement like uniforms, books, exercise books, as well as material support such as lunch at school, they could stay at school.

The Impact of Child Labour on Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Access to and Participation in Education

Working schoolchildren were compelled to miss school on a regular basis, and eventually to abandon school completely before finishing standard seven. Thus, children’s participation in education was hampered. This denied their right and access to education for their full potential development. One respondent remarked that I occasionally go to school but I miss class because of various causal jobs I do in the farm to earn money for a living to support my young sisters and brothers at home. The UN has noted that youth development in the learning process provides children with experiences that prepare them for a responsible life, which helps transform learners and unlock their potential (UN, 1990). In general, education sets its achievers free as it makes it possible to develop their talents, skills and callings so that the full potential of an individual is realised. The lack of children’s access to and participation in education hampers the efforts to liberate them from socio-economic problems, as it deprives them of educational opportunities, leading to inter-generational poverty. In addition, girls (particularly those working as domestic servants in households other than their own), are put at a risk of sexual abuse and exploitation (Madihi, 2004). This leads to the deprivation of their basic health needs. Long work hours hamper their health as well. Working school-going children have the same needs as others, including the need for food, a sense of belonging, skills in problem solving, life planning and access to appropriate services. Thus, the lack of the assurance of getting these needs means that the community suffers in terms of continuing cycles: extreme poverty, HIV/AIDS infections, robbery, abusive sexual relationships, and unintended pregnancies (Madihi, 2004). Working children suffer greatly in their struggle for their individual lives in society, due to their lack of knowledge and skills in the world, where survival is greatly determined by one’s education (Miteshi and Badiwala, 2009). The marginalisation of working children as regards their access to education condemns them to a future of poor living standards, which has a direct impact on the economy of society.

Conclusions Poverty within households was found to be the principal factor that forced schoolchildren to work in order to earn money to help meet their families’ basic needs and to pay for school essentials such as uniforms and books. These incomegeneration activities compelled them to miss most of the learning time and eventually to drop out of school, so they entered the labour arena at quite an early age, in defiance of the Education Act of 1978, as amended in 2002. Schoolchildren who miss access to and participation in studies because of work are denied their right to maximise their future potential, to experience a transformed © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

responsible adult life, and to be liberated from all sorts of social and economic constraints, creating problems for individual children, and the community in general.

Recommendations In the light of the research findings, the following recommendations are made. In general, communities should be encouraged to provide for those less fortune in their midst.  Since very poor children must priotise being fed above education, their school attendance would improve if they could be fed a nutritious meal at school each day school is in session. School administrators might seek donations from the community or NGO’s to find a school-lunch programme.  Similarly, though the government funds compulsory primary education, other school costs keep very poor children from attending school. The government or community should subsidise the provision of uniforms and school supplies for the poorest students so they can stay in school.  Where donations for food, school uniform and supplies are not forthcoming or not available at the school itself, school administrators should keep abreast of what NGO’s, religious organisations, or other philanthropies in the area might be willing to meet poor children’s needs and connect poor families to these outside-the-school services.  Practical child labour laws addressing the real needs of children to access basic education need to be passed and enforced.

References Akarro, R. R. J and Mtweve, A. N. (2011). Poverty and its association with child labour in Njombe district in Tanzania: The case of Igima Ward. Current Research Journal of Social Sciences, 3 (3), 199-206. Dachi, H. A. (2000). Household private costs and the resourcing of public primary schooling in Tanzania Mainland. (unpublished) Ed.D Thesis, University of Bristol. DFID. (2000). Eliminating world poverty: Making globalisation work for the poor. London: Department of International Development. Garret, R. M. and Dachi, H. A. (2003). Working children: Parallels and paradoxes for education and development. Papers in Education and Development. 23, 46-68. Hubbard, D. (2009). Realising the right to education for all: School policy on learner pregnancy in Namibia. In O. C. Ruppel (ed.). Child rights in Namibia. Windhoek: Konrad Adeneur Stiftug. 223-241. ILO/IPEC. (2001). Focusing on the worst forms of child labour. Dar-es-Salaam: ILO/IPEC. ILO. (2009). Child labour. Geneva: ILO. Machibya, E. M. (2009). Realising the rights to education in Tanzania in the context of the convention on the rights of the child. The Justice Review. 8 (2), 220-248.

Madihi, M. C. D. (2004). Situational analysis of working children: The case of the mining sector in Tunduru. Dar-es-Salaam: Ministry of Labour and Youth Development. Makaramba, R. V. (1998). Children rights in Tanzania. Dar-es-Salaam: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. Malekela, G. A. and Ndeki, A. S. (2001). Access and equity in basic education in Tanzania. Papers in Education and Development, 21, 124-137. Mapaure, C. (2009). Child labour: A universal problem from a Namibian perspective. In O. C. Ruppel (ed.). Child rights in Namibia. Windhoek: Konrad Adeneur Stiftug. 201-222. Miteshi, V. And Badiwala, M. D. (2009). Child labour in India: Causes, governmental policies and the role of education. New Delhi: College Park Press. Mmbaga, D. R. (2002). The inclusive education in Tanzania: A dream or reality? Stockholm: Institute of International Education, Stockholm University. Mosha, H. J. (1995). Primary education policies in Tanzania. Papers in Education and Development, 16, 1-16. Rena, R. (2009). Child labour in developing countries: A challenge. Industrial Journal of Management and Social Sciences. 3 (1), 1-8. UN. (1949). Universal declaration of human rights. London: HMSO. UN. (1990). Convention on the rights of the child. Islamabad: UNICEF. UNICEF. (1994). The state of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s children. Oxford: OUP. UNICEF. (2009). Facts on children. Geneva: UNICEF. URT. (United Republic of Tanzania) (1977). The constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania. Dar-es-Salaam: Government Printer. URT. (1978). The National Education Act No. 25. (RE. 2002). URT. (1995). Education and training policy. Dar-es-Salaam: Government Printers. URT. (1996a). The report of the commission on the law relating to children in Tanzania. Dar-esSalaam: Government Printers. URT. (1996b). Child development policy. Dar-es-Salaam: Government Printers. URT. (2002). The Law of the Child Act. Dar-es-Salaam: Government Printers. WCEFA. (1990). Inter-agency commission on the World Conference on Education for All meeting. New York: UNESCO. World Bank. (1991). Improving the quality of primary education in developing countries. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank. (1998). World development indicators. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank, (2005). Development in Practice: Priorities and Strategies for Education. World Bank, Washington D.C.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 37-54, September 2015.

Frameworks for Integration of Digital Technologies at the Roadside: Innovative Models, Current Trends and Future Perspectives Rogerio L. Roth Ca' Foscari University of Venice Venice, Italy

Abstract. The integration of technologies in the educational processes is not always an easy task, requiring from professors to study its reality and, if necessary, to adopt some model of integration. Some professors seem to know how and why to use technology, but the effective integration still eludes many of them. The key is that to work certain content we need to know it well, the technologies and the didactic way and how to use them. We don't need to follow a certain model of technology integration to use the technologies, since not all professors adapt to them and all models give the impression of a prescription that tries to define what must have more or less importance in the scenario. Whereas random practice came before the proposed models, they try to standardize what should not be standardized, that is, produce a cake recipe to be replicated. Keywords: frameworks, technology integration, new didactics, eresources, strategies

First steps Technology integration is not a new subject in educational domains, much less at the universities where several theses, dissertations, and papers are published – often without direct impacts on the daily routine of the institutions. The missing link seems to be in the absence of a transformational practice, institutionalized, accepted and adopted by all stakeholders to restore the role of educational space and social transformation. This paper is part of the results from the project “Building an Immersive Distance Learning Experience beyond Massive Open Online Courses with Web Conferencing, Socratic Method, Problem-Based Learning and Social Networks” funded by the CAPES foundation. The education area is surrounded by related expressions such as “education economics” and “economics education” that represent distinct concepts, and often cause some confusion. © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Education economics, also known as economics of education is the study of economic issues relating to education – focuses on the economics of educational institutions – including the demand, funding and provision of education (Economics education, 2006). On the other hand, economics education, also referred to as economic education is a field within economics that focuses on two main topics: the current state of the economics curriculum, materials and pedagogical techniques used to teach economics at all levels; and research into alternative approaches or instructional techniques, level of economic literacy and the factors that influence the level of economic literacy (Education economics, 2008). Educational technology meets these two expressions at the same time, to the extent that it interferes with the economic aspects and at the same time in pedagogical techniques.

Educational technology vs. technology education An analogous situation (involving similar expressions) can be seen with the “educational technology” and “technology education”. Educational technology is the effective utilization of technological resources in the teaching-learning process. It refers to a wide array of tools, media, computers and networking hardware, as well as taking into account underlying theoretical perspectives for their effective application. This kind of technology is not limited to high technology. However, current digital educational technology, sometimes referred to as e-learning, has become an important part of today's society, comprising an extensive array of approaches, key elements and delivery methods (Educational technology, 2005). On the contrary, technology education is the study of technology, where students “learn about the processes and knowledge related to technology”. This field of study covers the human capacity to change and shape the physical world to meet its own requirements through the techniques, with the handling of materials and tools (Technology education, 2005). These concepts also get very close when the educational technologies (tools and resources – with or without ICT) are effectively used to meet the needs and expectations (of someone or some institution), through handling, adaptation and suitability of materials with these didactic and technological techniques. But the integration of these digital technologies – popularized as being of information and communication – in the educational processes is not always an easy task, requiring from professors to study its reality and, if necessary, to adopt some model of integration. In the United States, the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) has established standards in technology for administrators, teachers and students of primary and secondary levels (K-12 classrooms): “Effective integration of technology is achieved when students are able to select technology tools to help them obtain information in a timely manner, analyze and synthesize the information, and present it professionally. The technology should © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

become an integral part of how the classroom functions, as accessible as all other classroom tools” (NCES, 2002). But all the innovation, originality, change focused on the current or future needs and even patterns and models that attempt to be established – to support the paradigm shift – seem to vanish from sight as soon as we arrived at the college level. Have you (or anyone) ever read something about amazing and contemporary universities? Something about institutions that may be considered pedagogically and technologically sound? Some examples of institutions that are not just pretentiously modern? The evolutionary or revolutionary educational practices continue excluded from universities (Roth, 2015b). Edward Osborne Wilson (Neyfakh, 2011) paraphrased a quotation that he attributed to Arthur Schopenhauer, which may have been the first person to suggest “stages of truth”, in 1818: “All new ideas go through three phases. They’re first ridiculed or ignored. Then they meet outrage. Then they are said to have been obvious all along”. Probably, the effective integration of digital technologies by universities is somewhere between the first two phases…

Technology integration models Jeyaraj, Rottman and Lacity (2006); Santos (2007); Espíndola, Struchiner and Giannella (2010); Struchiner (2011); Foster, McGrier and Sheets (2011); and Rielley (2015) cite different models and theories of adoption and diffusion of innovations such as theoretical framework of integration of ICTs in educational contexts (Hall & Hord, 2006; Moersch, 1995). These works are intended to describe the main stages of adoption of ICTs and analyze the individual factors (Tabata & Johnsrud, 2008; West, Waddoups & Graham, 2007) and institutional (Shuldman, 2004) that influence the process of change (Watson, 2006), from monitoring different experiences of educational innovation. - Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) The TRA refers to a model of behavioural intention prediction, covering attitude and behaviour predictions (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), that is, it is centred on the person’s intention to behave in a certain way. It was developed at the end of the 1960s by Martin Fishbein - later expanded and revised by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) - derived from previous research as the theory of attitude, which led to the study of attitude and behaviour (Theory of reasoned action, 2005). According to Bobsin (2007), the model presents limitations: risk of possible confusion between the meaning of attitudes and norms and having an intention does not mean acting in accordance with, because there are situations – such as limited ability, time, unconscious habits, environmental or organizational variables – that may limit the freedom to act. - Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)

The TPB is a theory that links behaviour and beliefs. This concept was introduced by Ajzen Icek to refine the predictive power of the TRA (limitations) by the inclusion of the perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1991; Theory of planned behaviour, 2005). - Reasoned-Action Approach (RAA) The RAA is an integration methodology for the prediction and change of human social behaviour. This theory states that attitudes regards the behaviour, perceived behavioural control and perceived norms determine people's goals, while their behaviours are predicted by these intentions (Reasoned action approach, 2013). This is the latest release of theoretical ideas of Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen, in the wake of the earlier TRA and the TPB (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). - Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) The DOI model seeks to characterize how innovation is diffused through certain channels of communication, among members of a given social system, and by what process these individuals undergo since becoming aware of the innovation in question until its adoption or rejection (Rogers, 2003; Diffusion of innovations, 2004; Diffusion of Innovations, 2005). The categories of adopters are the following: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, laggards and leapfroggers. This theory, developed by Mitchell Everett Rogers in 1962, is one of the most ancient social science theories. - Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) The TPACK is a framework to describe and understand the types of knowledge needed by a professor for effective pedagogical practice in a learning environments equipped with technology. The concept of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) was initially described by Shulman and TPACK methodology was developed from these central ideas, through the inclusion of technology. Punya Mishra and Matthew J. Koehler, professors at Michigan State University (United States), developed extensive work in building the theoretical framework TPACK (Koehler & Mishra, 2008; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). - Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, Redefinition (SAMR) Developed by Ruben Puentedura (Puentedura, 2014) the SAMR model is similar to TPACK model, but made up of different components. Both are used for technology integration in the classroom, but SAMR helps take direct activities from the classroom and enhance them by using technology. This model focuses on the process that a professor goes through in remixing existing pedagogy content otherwise impossible without technology. - Technology Integration Matrix (TIM) TIM demonstrates how professors can use technology to improve studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning. For that purpose, it incorporates five interdependent characteristics of significant learning environments: active, constructive, goal directed (that is, reflective), authentic and collaborative (Jonassen, Howland, Moore & Marra, 2003). Thus, associates five technology integration levels (entry, adoption, ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

adaptation, infusion, and transformation) with each of the five characteristics of significant learning environments. The five levels of integration technology and the five characteristics of significant learning environments create a matrix of 25 cells. It was developed by the Florida Center for Instructional Technology, University of South Florida (TIM, 2011). - Levels of Teaching Innovation (LoTi) LOTI, proposed by Chris Moersch, provides an observable framework to assess technology use in the classroom and connects to higher-order thinking, engaged learning, and authentic assessment while using technology (Moersch, 1995; Rielley, 2015) – performing classroom walkthroughs according to the H.E.A.T. (2015) observation model: Higher-order thinking, Engaged learning, Authenticity, and Technology use. - Concerns-based Adoption Model (CBAM) The CBAM is an analytical tool used to understand the cognitive concerns of professors and students by providing a framework to anticipate future needs associated with the adoption of change (Hall & Hord, 2006). - Learning Adoption Trajectory (LAT) The LAT is a refinement of CBAM developed by Sherry and Gibson (2002) based on their research work on change in education. - Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) Project developed in the 80s in five public schools in the United States through a partnership between universities, public schools and Apple Computer, Inc. (Ringstaff, Yocam & Marsh, 1997; Sandholtz, Ringstaff & Dwyer, 1997). - Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) The SCT started in the 1960s by Albert Bandura as the Social Learning Theory (SLT). The theory turned into SCT in 1986 and postulates that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of person, environment and behaviour (Bandura, 1986). It starts from the idea that people do not learn only through what they do by affective way but also by observing the action of others (SCT, 2006‎). - Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) The TAM is one of the most influential extensions of the TRA of Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Developed by Fred Davis and Richard Bagozzi (Davis, 1989; Davis, Bagozzi & Warshaw, 1989), this model suggests that when users are presented with a new technology, many factors influence their decisions about how and when they will use it. According to Davis (1989), people tend to use or not to use certain technologies in order to improve their performance at work - perceived usefulness. However, even if this person understands that a particular technology is useful, its use could be compromised if the user finds it difficult to use such technology, so that the effort does not compensate the use - perceived ease-of-use (Technology acceptance model, 2003). TAM has expanded into two major updates, TAM 2 (Venkatesh, 2000; © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Venkatesh & Davis, 2000) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), (Venkatesh et al. 2003). In addition, a TAM 3 was proposed in the context of e-commerce, with the inclusion of the effects of trust and perceived risk on system use (Venkatesh & Bala, 2008; Venkatesh, V., n.d.). - Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) The UTAUT, formulated by Venkatesh et al. (2003) is a technology acceptance model. It has as purpose to explain the user intentions to use an information system and the subsequent use behaviour. This theory is supported by four key constructs: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions. The first three are direct determinants of usage intention and behaviour, and the fourth a direct determinant of usage behaviour (Unified theory of acceptance and use of technology, 2008). - Perceived Characteristics of Innovating (PCI) Aichholzer (2004) states that the five perceived characteristics of innovating (PCI) of Moore and Benbasat (1991) are based on the theory of diffusion of innovation (DOI) of Rogers (1995) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; which is often used in information systems research to explain the adoption of technological innovations by users - and of literature on the diffusion of innovation. Larsen and McGuire (1998) refer to these attributes or characteristics such as universal attributes to innovation adoption studies. These five perceived attributes (relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability and trialability) formed the basis of the work by Moore and Benbasat (1991). They developed a general instrument to be used when you want to assess the various perceptions that an individual can have about the usage characteristics of an innovation and have introduced three new attributes: image, voluntary use and income statement. Furthermore, they adapted the original attributes of complexity and observability that were denominated, respectively, ease of use and visibility (Perez & Zwicker, 2010). - Diffusion and Infusion Model Initially proposed by Kwon and Zmud (1987) the diffusion model was further modified by Cooper and Zmud (1990) that proposed a six phase model of information technology (IT) implementation, necessary to achieve the objectives of diffusion and infusion. These six-stages include: initiation, adoption, adaptation, acceptance, use and infusion. To really innovate with the use of the technologies an organization must achieve the level of infusion, which is the degree of integration of an IT innovation to existing processes and normal practices of an organization, providing users with the innovative use of technology. - Tri-Core Model of Innovation Swanson (1994) proposed a model of three cores to identify the cores of expertise that contribute to the development of organizational information systems (IS) innovations. The tri-core model is composed by an administrative core, a technical core and an information systems core. This model suggests that a deficiency in one or more cores can cause failures in different types of IS innovations. ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

- Actor-Network Theory (ANT) The ANT is a stream of research in social theory that originated in the field of studies of science, technology and society in the 1980s from the studies of Michel Callon, Bruno Latour, John Law, Madelaine Akrich, and others (Freire, 2006). Technically it can be described as a material-semiotic method, meaning that it maps relations that are, at the same time, materials (among things) and semiotic (between concepts). Thus it assumes that many relations are both material and semiotic. This theory is also called sociology of translation, which is one of the important concepts used by the authors. This sociological study aimed to explain the birth of scientific facts. The ANT is also used to explain the new communication paradigms that began into existence with contemporary culture. - Institutional Perspective With different impacts, the adoption of IT is also influenced by coercive pressures from both trading partners as their parent companies. The coercive pressures are considered by Teo Wei and Bensbasat (2003) as a construct made up of three sub-constructs: perceived dominance of supplier adopters, perceived dominance of customer adopters and conformity with parent corporation’s practices. The last sub-construct was found to have a stronger impact on the intention to adopt than the pressures from suppliers and customers, “probably because their performance and tenure are subject to evaluation by the parent corporation’s executives” (Teo, Wei & Bensbasat, 2003, p. 40). The adoption of technologies is also influenced by competitors. Mimetic pressures are a construct formed by the extent of adoption by the competitors and their perceived success of adoption and were found to be significant only when innovation was perceived as being highly complex. - Integration Model of ICT into the School Curriculum (MITICA) The MITICA consists of five main axes that in a concept of Fundación Gabriel Piedrahita Uribe (FGPU) must meet any educational institution that wants to achieve significant changes in the integration of technologies into their educational processes: institutional direction: refers to the administrative, pedagogical and technical leadership required from administrators of educational institutions and the necessary changes in its structure and organizational culture; ICT infrastructure: meets the proper technological resources: hardware, software (operating system and other basic applications), connectivity and technical support; ICT coordination and teaching: deals with the roles they should play within the institution both the computer science coordinator and the professors of this subject; professors from other areas: refers to the skills that they should have to be able to integrate ICTs in teaching their subjects; digital resources: meets the availability and proper use of software and Web resources (MITICA, 2011). - Pedagogical Projects of the Classroom (PPA) The pedagogical projects of the classroom for the integration of ICTs – possibilities and scenarios for the use of ICTs in education – was proposed by the Universidad del Cauca, taking them as a strategy to build experiences that © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

leverage the mediation of ICTs both to stimulate the reflection on teaching practice and to enrich the educational and didactic proposals that surround them (Chaustre et al. 2010; Pino et al. 2011). - MICEA Model The interdisciplinary methodology based on learning teams (MICEA) was proposed by Velandia (1990), “an interdisciplinary construction methodology of knowledge as a team, and through practice, and can complement each other with new information and communication technologies” and the dynamic classroom, based on social cybernetics and triadic proportionalism, proposed by Gregory and Volpato (2002). Velandia C. (1990) proposes that MICEA addresses the need to streamline the student presentiality in a participatory manner, critical, committed and operative. It responds to the requirement of teamwork; the efficient use of technology in constant growth and innovation; to the progressive transit from face-to-face classroom towards to that develops in cyberspace, where the student may also find himself with the knowledge (Mora, 2005). Santos (2007) reports that it is also possible that in environments with strong institutional symbolism, new technologies will supplant the older ones even though the latter have not yet been exploited to its full potential. This possibility is sustained by the theory of fashions and fads (Abrahamson, 1991). Did I forget something? For sure. The goal was not to compile, sort, or even compare everything that exists, often only theorized by those who do not practice or live the day-to-day realities. Regardless of what is proposed and theorized, the key is that to work with a particular content of educational manner and through technologies, we need to know the content, the technologies and the pedagogical way to using them. The rest is just idle talk, nonsense, individual attempts of standardization that does not get consensus, much less are adopted as standard by some supralegal body or evolved jointly by the community – nonprofits. In all areas, including the proposition of models and theories, there is always a competition in search of credits, dividends, a place in the sun and, perhaps, recognition...

The other side of the coin Neither the educational technologies (related or not to ICTs), nor the technological integration models can be considered as a solution to all the problems of education. The integration of technology is not a panacea and for it to be successful in the learning process, professors need to demonstrate how and why it can be used in a meaningful way. It is not a unique approach to all cases in which professors do the same thing for their students or possess the same specific skills to be competent technology users (Wepner, Tao & Ziomek, 2006). Professors need to know how and why to use technology in meaningful ways in the learning process for technology integration to work. Some professors seem to know how and why to use technology in the processes, but the effective

technology integration to support and enhance teaching and learning in the classroom still eludes many of them (Plair, 2008). We don't need to follow a certain model of technology integration to use the recent or even archaic technologies, since not all professors adapt to them and all models give the impression of a prescription that tries to define what must have more or less importance in the scenario. And this does not work. Whereas random practice came before the models, they try to standardize what should not be standardized, that is, produce a cake recipe to be replicated. The reversal of the traditional paradigm of educational technology (making teaching first, technology second) the need for an increasingly diverse student population and geographically dispersed (Penn State College of Education, 2015), but this would be virtually impossible, these days – without frustrating the new generations – if the use of technologies (new and not so new) was to be left to chance in an apparent return to the past... In the post “Push My Thinking: TPACK or SAMR or?” from “EdTech Coaching” blog by Krista Moroder, she starts the discussion arguing “why I don’t use TPACK”. What appeared to be a post related to the use (or not) of the methodologies, “evolves” (or, should I say, “regresses”?) to the rhetoric discussion of education with or without technology (Moroder, 2013): D! says: “I tend to disagree. In my view, the only variable that changes anything in educational methodology, is advances in technology. For example, the printing press and the humble pencil changed pedagogy. The internet and accompanying hardware are simply next in line. Great teaching is always influenced by available tools. Tech therefore deserves an equal circle if not a bigger one.” However, some resilients agree with the author... maa says: “Great teaching should not be the case be influenced by available technological tools. It’s with a great teacher’s common sense of knowing how they become the right tools for teaching to enhance learning.” And Anne Leftwich @anneleftwich, suggests: “Focus on learning. Don’t use technology as a Trojan Horse to change pedagogy”. As William Shakespeare said “Life is a stage, and we are the actors” (Felter, 2012). According to Galvão (2007), “We staged moments, we rehearse our dreams, and we debut on stage, sometimes successfully, but sometimes with total shame...” In this sense, and adapting to the context, each actor (or author) seeks to interpret in his own way the effectiveness or the non-viability of a certain model, theory or even technology – successfully or with total shame... This “resistance” shows a salutary, a mistaken and a dated side. The salutary side is not bowing down, not even to established truths, without questioning, without discussing, not to be seduced. The mistaken side is to try, at this stage of the game, ignoring the role of new technologies with the argument that good or © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

great professors do not need them. “Good” or “great” professors, it is an adjectival expression, used in the wrong way, probably referring to those who still give lectures, although nothing is so didactically incorrect nowadays as the action of giving a presentation and have the pretence of holding the knowledge, not committing to a program previously approved, which included content to be developed, methods and forms of assessment (Roth, 2013). The sages on the stage ignore the technological possibilities and the current needs for fear of exposing their own weaknesses. They are overcome with fear of the new and unknown. For them it is much easier to stay in their comfort zone rather than learning new lessons. Moroder (2013) claims that didactics should have more importance. That may be true. But which didactics is she talking about? An updated didactics or the traditional that has stopped in time? A current didactics is not shy of exploring new ways to evolve the standard focused on the professor, to later ones, focusing respectively centred on the student and on the relationship between professor-student(s) and among students. Many professors considered “good” or even “great” do not have any didactics. They learned from their masters how to give lectures and remained at this evolutionary stage. They tend to reproduce the kind of teaching that they have received and never innovate in their didactic practices. They refuse to learn new lessons or even dream with the hypothesis that they are not knowledge holders. In fact, they deceive themselves into thinking that they only teach and others just learn. This modus operandi (method of operation) is not pedagogical, or even something that can be considered “good” or “great”. Everything that exists is the feeling or even a false tradition of refuse to change the way things should be done, an evident desire to stay in their comfort zone, the status quo represented by the current situation that has prevailed in the institutions and that keeps them tied to the past, entrenched, oblivious to the world that evolves around them... Barton and Nettheim (2015) have defined this situation in just one sentence: “I’m an analogue man in a digital world... I’m redundant.” Finally, the dated side, related to the age or even the lifetime of the resilients (or should I say resistants, or even redundants). The new professors were born in a technological world, in which the use of the internet is not a differential, but a common place. Considering that they are the future and who controls the world is always a dated issue – we all have a life limit – this difficulty will soon be outdated (Roth, 2015a). “When you look through the years and see what you could have been, oh what might have been if you'd had more time. So when the day comes to settle down, who's to blame if you're not around?” (Davies & Hodgson, 1979/1978, track 6).

Certainly it is possible to do education these days without the latest technologies. It would also be possible to write this article by hand or using outdated technologies like a typewriter or even computers of the first generations. The fact that we use the latest means and methods does not imply better quality, but responds to the expectations of stakeholders. And this reduces frustrations (Roth, 2014). But to truly utilize in an unarmed way the many possibilities offered by the “force” of the internet – as a support for the contemporary education (pedagogically and technologically sound) – perhaps we should follow the lessons from Jedi Master Yoda to the young Luke Skywalker: “No! Try not. Do... or do not. There is no try” (Kurtz & Kershner, 1980; Quotes for Yoda, n.d.). There is also the need to venture, get out of the common place and look for something unexpected, unusual, carrying the practices beyond the small horizons.

Integration of digital technology in business The methodologies perceived and described previously are normally related to the question of professor-school-technologies, that is, focused on the school setting. They imply that a certain theory or model are needed to assist the integration of technologies into teaching practices – which is not always true, although there is always a process, even if unconsciously or unplanned. But this approach is not limited to educational institutions. The companies also use the technology integration not only in their training courses (internal or external), but also in their processes of administration, production, sale and post-sale, which includes institutional or functional websites and presence in social networking sites (SNSs) that could be used as innovative tools for teaching (Harris, 2012; Duncan & Baryzck, 2013; O’Brien & Glowatz, 2013). In the European Union (EU) this aspect is perceived through the Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI), prepared by the European Commission (EC) – through five main dimensions: connectivity, human capital, use of internet, integration of digital technology and digital public services (DESI, 2015). Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands and Finland are the countries with the highest performance. They are not only ahead in the EU, but they are the leaders of the digital world. Outside EU, Norway and Iceland also show performances that would place them in this high performance group.

Final thoughts Dockstader (1999) stated that, “Technology integration is having the curriculum drive technology usage, not having technology drive the curriculum”. Generally speaking, the curriculum drives the use of technology and not vice versa (Edutopia, 2005; Edutopia, 2007; Technology integration, 2005).

At the Ca' Foscari University of Venice (UNIVE) the only reference found related to a technology integration model, refers to the TPACK in an introductory essay by Banzato and Baschiera (2012, p. 24) – through a quote from Holton (2012): “But faculty can be aided by some training or assistance in course design, technology, and teaching and learning to develop technological, pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). Teaching should be treated as a design science, more like engineering than just an art or craft that we all think we can intuitively do well”. That is, no text of own authorship of some professor or researcher was located on the context. The references found are limited to the behavioural models and are treated theoretically. This does not mean that this institution does not perform any “technology integration”, although nothing has been perceived in this sense. But for sure, this university does not practice and does not even theorize any of the best know models (TPACK, SAMR, TIM and LoTi). This process is urgent and can no longer be ignored. By the end of the 20th century such arguments were still admitted that the use or even integration of technologies “that came to stay”, should be something slow and gradual, taking into account the wishes of the status quo. However, even the “big” dinosaurs had their heyday and subsequent extermination, naturally (catastrophic) or even induced by pseudo-gods (Ancient Aliens, 2008) that here decided to conduct experiments “that came to stay”, created in his image and likeness...

References Abrahamson, E. (1991, July 1). Managerial Fads and Fashions: the Diffusion and Rejection of Innovations. Academy of Management Review, 16(3), pp. 586-612. ISSN: 0363-7425. Retrieved Jul 30, 2015, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/258919 Actor-network theory (2004‎, March 4). Retrieved Aug 13, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory Aichholzer, G. (2004). Scenarios of e-government in 2010 and implications for strategy design. Electronic Journal of E-Government, 2(1), pp. 1-10. Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from http://www.ejeg.com/issue/download.html?idIssue=4 Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50 (2), pp. 179–211. Retrieved Aug 3, 2015, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256619280_The_Theory_of_Planne d_Behavior Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Ancient Aliens (2008, July 23). Retrieved Aug 19, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Aliens Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 544 p. ISBN: 978-0138156145 Banzato, M., & Barbara, B. (2012). Open Learning. Il caso dei MOOC tra luci e ombre (Open Learning: the MOOC case under lights and shadows). Formazione & Insegnamento, 3, pp. 11-33. ISSN: 2279-7505. Retrieved Jul 17, 2015, from https://arca.unive.it/retrieve/handle/10278/38383/29269/FI_32012_Banzato.pdf Barton, J. (Writer), & Nettheim, D. (Director). (2015, July 5). Episode 4 [Television series episode]. In Fry, C. (Producer), Humans. London, England, UK: AMC Studios. Retrieved Jul 12, 2015, from © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/view_episode_scripts.php?tvshow=humans-2015&episode=s01e04 Bobsin, D. (2007). A percepção dos diferentes níveis hierárquicos quanto ao uso de um sistema de informação. 2007. 96 p. Dissertação (Mestrado em Administração) Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Santa Maria. Retrieved Aug 4, 2015, from http://livros01.livrosgratis.com.br/cp043698.pdf Chaustre, J. J. M., Dias, S. L. A, Piamba, P. B., & Pino, U. H. (2010). Los Proyectos Pedagógicos de Aula para la Integración de las TIC. Universidad del Cauca y Computadores para Educar. p. 52. ISBN: 978-9587320855. Retrieved Aug 14, 2015, from https://archive.org/details/ProyectosPedaggicosDeAulaParaLaIntegracinDeLa sTic Cooper, R., & Zmud, R. (1990). Information Technology Implementation Research: A Technological Diffusion Approach. Management Science, 36(2), pp. 123-139. Retrieved Aug 13, 2015, from http://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/mnsc.36.2.123 Davies, R., Hodgson, R. (1979). Take The Long Way Home [Recorded by Supertramp]. On Breakfast in America [Vinyl record]. Los Angeles, CA: A&M Records. (1978). Retrieved Jul 28, 2015, from http://www.lyricsmode.com/lyrics/s/supertramp/take_the_long_way_home. html Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13 (3), pp. 319-340. Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/249008 Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., & Warshaw, P. R. (1989). User acceptance of computer technology: A comparison of two theoretical models, Management Science, 35, pp. 982-1003. Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.35.8.982 De Gregory, W. & Volpato, E. (2002). Capital Tricerebral. McGraw-Hill Interamericana, p. 263. DESI (2015, February 24). The Digital Economy and Society Index. Digital Agenda for Europe. Europe 2020 Initiative. European Comission. Retrieved Aug 20, 2015, from http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/desi Diffusion of innovations (2004, November 1). Retrieved Aug 5, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations Diffusion of Innovations (2005, November 8). Retrieved Jul 27, 2015, from https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication_Theory/Diffusion_of_Innovat ions Dockstader, J. (1999). Teachers of the 21st Century Know the What, Why, and How of Technology Integration. Technological Horizons in Education, 26(6), pp. 73-74. ISSN: 0192-592X. Retrieved Jul 22, 2015, from http://thejournal.com/articles/1999/01/01/teachers-of-the-21st-century-knowthe-what-why-and-how-of-technology-integration.aspx Duncan, D. G., & Barczyk, C. C. (2013). Facebook in the University Classroom: Do Students Perceive that it Enhances Community of Practice and Sense of Community? International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4(3), pp. 1-14. ISSN: 2219-6021. Retrieved Aug 15, 2015, from http://ijbssnet.com/journal/index/1811 Economics education (2006, October 7). Retrieved Jul 13, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_education Education economics (2008, October 24). Retrieved Jul 13, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_economics

Educational technology (2005, May 26‎). Retrieved Jul 14, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_technology Edutopia (2005, February 14). Retrieved Aug 19, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edutopia Edutopia (2007, November 5). Why do we need technology integration? The myriad benefits of integrating technology into the classroom. Retrieved Jul 22, 2015, from http://www.edutopia.org/technology-integration-guide-importance Espíndola, M. B., Struchiner, M., & Giannella, T. R. (2010). Integração de Tecnologias de Informação e Comunicação no Ensino: Contribuições dos Modelos de Difusão e Adoção de Inovações para o campo da Tecnologia Educacional. Revista Latinoamericana de Tecnología Educativa (RELATEC), 9(1), pp. 89-106. ISSN 1695-288X. Retrieved Jul 28, 2015, from http://relatec.unex.es/article/view/612 Felter, E. (2012, October 7). Life is a stage – What improvisational theater is about? Two Wise Monkeys. Retrieved Aug 18, 2015, from http://twowisemonkeys.com/personal-development/life-is-a-stage-whatimprovisational-theatre-is-about/ Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Retrieved Aug 3, 2015, from http://people.umass.edu/aizen/f&a1975.html Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (2010). Predicting and changing behavior: The Reasoned Action Approach. New York, NY: Psychology Press. 518 p. ISBN 978-0-8058-5924-9. Retrieved Aug 5, 2015, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00224545.2011.563209 Foster, K., McGrier, B., & Sheets, M. (2011). Frameworks for Sustaining Technology Integration. Global Education 2025. Retrieved Aug 7, 2015, from https://education2025.wikispaces.com/Frameworks+for+Sustaining+Technology+Integration Freire, L. L. (2006). Seguindo Bruno Latour: notas para uma antropologia simétrica. Comum, Rio de Janeiro, 11(26), p. 46-65. Retrieved Aug 13, 2015, from http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/25180015/1392377062/name/Seguindo+Brun o+Latour.pdf Galvão, V. (2007). Sonhos & Poemas. Clube de Autores, p. 49. Retrieved Aug 18, 2015, from https://play.google.com/store/books/details/Vilma_Galv%C3%A3o_Sonhos_ Poemas?id=ag4tBQAAQBAJ Glowatz, M., & O'Brien, O. (2015, June 16). An Exploration of the Technological, Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK) Framework: Utilising a Social Networking Site in Irish Higher Education. Irish Journal of Academic Practice, 4(1). Retrieved Jul 16, 2015, from http://arrow.dit.ie/ijap/vol4/iss1/1/ H.E.A.T. (2015). H.E.A.T. Walkthrough Protocol. Retrieved Aug 9, 2015, from http://www.loticonnection.com/index.php/assessment/heat-walkthroughs Hall, C., & Hord, S. (2006). Implementing change: Patterns, principles and potholes (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson Education. Harris, C. W. (2012).The use of Facebook technologies in Hospitality curriculum on an experiential learning platform for a new generation of students. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 24(5), pp. 805-825. ISSN: 1355-5855. Retrieved Aug 15, 2015, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13555851211278385 Holton, D. (2012, May 4). What’s the “problem” with MOOC? EdTechDev. Developing Educational Technology. Retrieved Jul 17, 2015, from https://edtechdev.wordpress.com/2012/05/04/whats-the-problem-withmoocs/ Jeyaraj, A., Rottman, J. W., & Lacity, M. C. (2006, February 1). A review of the predictors, linkages, and biases in IT innovation adoption research. Journal of Information © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Technology, 21, pp. 1-23. Retrieved Aug 1, 2015, from http://www.palgravejournals.com/jit/journal/v21/n1/pdf/2000056a.pdf Jonassen, D. H., Howland, J., Moore, J., & Marra, R. M. (2003). Learning to solve problems with technology: A constructivist perspective. (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson Education. 256 p. ISBN: 0130484032 Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2008). Introducing TPCK. In J. A. Colbert, K. E. Boyd, K. A. Clark, S. Guan, J. B. Harris, M. A. Kelly & A. D. Thompson (Eds.), Handbook of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge for Educators. pp. 1-29. New York: Routledge. Kurtz, G. (Producer), & Kershner, I (Director). (1980). Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back [Motion Picture]. United States: Lucasfilm Ltd. Retrieved Jul 19, 2015, from http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/movie_script.php?movie=star-warsepisode-v-the-empire-strikes-back Kwon, T., & Zmud, R. (1987). Unifying the fragmented models of information systems implementation. In R. J. Boland, Jr. & R. A. Hirschheim (Eds.), Critical issues in Information systems research. New York: John Wiley. Retrieved Aug 13, 2015, from http://www.researchgate.net/publication/242620532_Unifying_the_fragmente d_models_of_information_systems_implementation Larsen, T. J., & McGuire, E. (1998). Information systems innovation and diffusion: Issues and directions. Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Latour B. (2003). A Dialog on Actor Network Theory with a (Somewhat) Socratic Professor. In The Social Study of Information and Communication Study, edited by C. Avgerou, C. Ciborra, and F. F. Land, Oxford University Press, pp. 62-76. Retrieved Aug 13, 2015, from http://www.brunolatour.fr/sites/default/files/90-ANT-DIALOG-LSE-GB.pdf Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), pp. 10171054. ISSN: 0161-4681. Retrieved Jul 27, 2015, from http://punya.educ.msu.edu/publications/journal_articles/mishra-koehlertcr2006.pdf MITICA (2011). Modelo para Integrar las TIC al Currículo Escolar. Fundación Gabriel Piedrahita Uribe. EDUTEKA. Retrieved Aug 10, 2015, from http://www.eduteka.org/modulos/8/234/132/1 Moersch, C. (1995). Levels of technology implementation (LoTi): A framework for measuring classroom technology use. Learning and Leading with Technology, 23(3), pp. 40-42. ISSN: 1082-5754. Moore, G. C., & Benbasat, I. (1991). Development of an Instrument to Measure the Perceptions of Adopting an Information Technology Innovation. Information Systems Research, 2(3), pp. 192-222. Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/isre.2.3.192 Mora, C. V. (2005). Modelo Pedagogico con fundamento en Cibernética Social. Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia. P. 70. Retrieved Aug 14, 2015, from https://pt.scribd.com/doc/214956099/Modelo-MICEA-pdf Moroder, K. (2013, November 4). Push My Thinking: TPACK or SAMR or? EdTech Coaching. Retrieved Jul 16, 2015, from http://www.edtechcoaching.org/2013/11/ed-tech-frameworks-why-i-dontuse-tpack.html NCES (2002, November). National Center for Education Statistics. NCES 2003-313. Technology in Schools: Suggestions, Tools, and Guidelines for Assessing Technology in Elementary and Secondary Education. Chapter 7: Technology

Integration. Retrieved Jul 20, 2015, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2003/tech_schools/chapter7.asp Neyfakh, L. (2011, April 17). Where does good come from? Harvard’s Edward O. Wilson tries to upend biology, again. Boston Globe. Retrieved Jul 28, 2015, from http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2011/04/17/where_does _good_come_from/ O’Brien, O., & Glowatz, M. (2013). Utilising a Social Networking Site as an academic tool in an Academic Environment: Student Development from Information-Sharing to Collaboration and Innovation (ICI). The All Ireland Journal for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Autumn, 5(3). Retrieved Aug 15, 2015, from http://ojs.aishe.org/index.php/aishe-j/article/view/137 Penn State College of Education (2015). The Krause Innovation Studio. Retrieved Jul 16, 2015, from http://innovation.ed.psu.edu/ Perez, G., & Zwicker, R. (2010). Determinant factors of information systems adoption in the health area: a study of the electronic patient record. Revista de Administração Mackenzie (RAM), 11(1). ISSN: 1678-6971. Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1678-69712010000100008 Pino, U. H., Pino, Y. M. H., Chaustre, J. J. M., Dias, S. L. A, & Piamba, P. B. (2011). Los Proyectos Pedagógicos de Aula para la integración de las TIC. Como sistematización de la experiencia docente (2nd ed.). Sello Editorial Universidad del Cauca. p. 102. ISBN: 978-9587320855. Retrieved Aug 14, 2015, from http://www.iered.org/archivos/Publicaciones_Libres/2011_PPA_para_Integra cion_TIC_2Ed/PPA-TIC-Sistematizacion_2Ed.pdf Plair, S. K. (2008). Revamping Professional Development for Technology Integration and Fluency. Clearing House, 82(2), pp. 70-74. ISSN: 0009-8655. Retrieved Aug 14, 2015, from http://marianrosenberg.wiki.westga.edu/file/view/PlairSRevampingProfessio nal.pdf Puentedura, R. (2014, December 11). Ruben R. Puentedura's Weblog. Ongoing thoughts on education and technology. Retrieved Jul 18, 2015, from http://www.hippasus.com/rrpweblog/archives/2014/12/11/SAMRandTPCK _HandsOnApproachClassroomPractice.pdf Quotes for Yoda (n.d.). Internet Movie Database (IMDb). Retrieved Jul 20, 2015, from http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0000015/quotes Reasoned action approach (2013‎, September 13). Retrieved Aug 5, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasoned_action_approach Rielley, J. (2015). Technology Integration Models. ELED 532 Course Portfolio. Retrieved Aug 7, 2015, from http://jessicarielley.weebly.com/technology-integrationmodels.html Ringstaff, C., Yocam, K., & Marsh, J. (1997). Integrating Technology into Classroom Instruction: An Assessment of the Impact of the ACOT Teacher Development Center Project. ACOT Report #22. Cupertino, CA: Apple Computer, Inc. Retrieved Aug 9, 2015, from http://www.apple.com/euro/pdfs/acotlibrary/rpt22.pdf Rogers, E. (2003). Diffusion of Innovations. (5th ed). Free Press: New York. 576 p. ISBN: 0743222091. Roth, R. (2013). Implementation Strategies and Development of an Open and Distance Education System for the University of the Azores. Ponta Delgada: UAC. 162 p. Retrieved Jul 16, 2015, from http://hdl.handle.net/10400.3/2327 Roth, R. (2014). Technology Integration at a Crossroads: Dead End Street or New Horizons? TOJDEL, 2(4), pp. 112-140. ISSN: 2147-6454. Retrieved Jul 16, 2015, from http://www.tojdel.net/volume.php?volume=2&issue=4

Roth, R. (2015a). The Impacts on the Educational Landscape ahead the Free Internet Offers, Traps and Surveillance that Threatens the Safety and Privacy on the Web. IJLTER, 10(3), pp. 102-127, 2015. ISSN: 1694-2116. Retrieved Jul 16, 2015, from http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/issue/view/12 Roth, R. (2015b). Institutional Strategies and Practices for Integrating Learning Technologies in the Inner, Outer and Virtual Spaces. IJLTER, 12(3), pp. 80-97, 2015. ISSN: 1694-2116. Retrieved Jul 18, 2015, http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/issue/view/19 SAMR Model (2014).Technology Is Learning. Retrieved Jul 18, 2015, from https://sites.google.com/a/msad60.org/technology-is-learning/samr-model Sandholtz, J. H., Ringstaff, C.,& Dwyer, D. C. (1997). Teaching with Technology: Creating Student-Centered Classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press. 211 p. ISBN: 978-0807735862 Santos, A. M. (2007). Fatores influenciadores da adoção e infusão de inovações em TI. In: In Anais do IV Simpósio de Excelência em Gestão e Tecnologia (SEGeT). Retrieved Jul 30, 2015, from http://www.aedb.br/seget/arquivos/artigos07/1471_Fatores%20influenciador es%20da%20adocao%20e%20infusao%20de%20inovacoes%20em%20TI.pdf SCT (2006‎, October 31).Social cognitive theory. Retrieved Aug 9, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory Sherry, L., & Gibson, D. (2002). The path to teacher leadership in educational technology. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 2(2). ISSN: 15285804. Retrieved Aug 20, 2015, from http://www.citejournal.org/vol2/iss2/general/article2.cfm Shuldman, M. (2004). Superintendent Conceptions of Institutional Conditions That Impact Teacher Technology Integration. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 36(4), pp. 319-343. ISSN: 1539-1523. Retrieved Jul 24, 2015, from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ690934.pdf Shulman, L. S. (1986, February). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), pp. 4-14. ISSN: 0013-189X. Struchiner, M. (2011). Análise do Processo de Integração de Tecnologias de Informação e Comunicação em Atividades Educativas no Ensino Fundamental no Contexto do “Programa Um Computador por Aluno” (PROUCA). CNPq/CAPES/SEEDMEC nº 76/2010. LTC/NUTES/UFRJ. Retrieved Jul 24, 2015, from http://ltcead.nutes.ufrj.br/prouca/proucamadrid/images/pdf/prouca-projeto.pdf Swanson, E. B. (1994). Information systems innovation among organizations. Management Science, 40(9), pp 1069-1092. Retrieved Aug 13, 2015, from http://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/mnsc.40.9.1069 Tabata, L. N., & Johnsrud, L. K. (2008, April). The Impact of Faculty Attitudes toward Technology, Distance Education, and Innovation. Research in Higher Education, 49, pp. 625-646. ISSN: 0361-0365. Retrieved Jul 24, 2015, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11162-008-9094-7 Technology acceptance model (2003, September 23‎). Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_acceptance_model Technology education (2005, April 16‎). Retrieved Jul 14, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_education Technology integration (2005, September 22). Retrieved Jul 20, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_integration Teo, H. H., Wei, K. K., & Benbasat, I (2003). Predicting Intention to Adopt Interorganizational Linkages: An Institutional Perspective. Mis Quarterly, 27(1), pp.19-49. Retrieved Aug 13, 2015, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30036518 Theory of planned behavior (2005, April 15). Retrieved Aug 3, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Theory of reasoned action (2005‎, November 23). Retrieved Aug 3, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_reasoned_action TIM (2011). Technology Integration Matrix. Florida Center for Instructional Technology. College of Education. University of South Florida. Retrieved Aug 8, 2015, from http://fcit.usf.edu/matrix/matrix.php TPACK (2006, November 16). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge. Retrieved Jul 16, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_Pedagogical_Content_Knowledg e TPACK.ORG (2009, February 2). Aactive repository of news and information about TPACK. . Retrieved Jul 16, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_Pedagogical_Content_Knowledg e Unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (2008, May 1). Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_theory_of_acceptance_and_use_of_tech nology Velandia, C. (1990). Metodología interdisciplinaria centrada en equipos de aprendizaje. Teoría del color. Colombia. Venkatesh, V. (2000). Determinants of perceived ease of use: Integrating control, intrinsic motivation, and emotion into the technology acceptance model. Information Systems Research, 11(4), pp. 342-365. Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from http://www.vvenkatesh.com/Downloads/Papers/fulltext/pdf/2000(4)_ISR_V enkatesh.pdf Venkatesh, V. (n.d.). Theoretical Models. Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from http://www.vvenkatesh.com/organizations/Theoretical_Models.asp Venkatesh, V., & Bala, H. (2008). Technology Acceptance Model 3 and a Research Agenda on Interventions. Decision Sciences, 39(2), pp. 273-315. Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from http://www.vvenkatesh.com/Downloads/Papers/fulltext/pdf/Venkatesh_Bal a_DS_2008.pdf Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. D. (2000). A Theoretical Extension of the Technology Acceptance Model: Four Longitudinal Field Studies. Management Science, 46(2), pp. 186–204. Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from http://vvenkatesh.us/Downloads/Papers/fulltext/pdf/2000(2)_MS_Venkates h_Davis.pdf Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, F. D., & Davis, G. B. (2003). User Acceptance of Information Technology: Toward a Unified View. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), pp. 425478. Retrieved Aug 12, 2015, from http://www.vvenkatesh.com/Downloads/Papers/fulltext/pdf/2003(3)_MISQ _Venkatesh_etal.pdf Watson, D. (2006). Understanding the relationship between ICT and education means exploring innovation and change. Education and Information Technologies. 11(3-4), pp. 199-216. ISSN: 1573-7608. Retrieved Jul 24, 2015, from http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/S10639-006-9016-2 Wepner, S., Tao, L., & Ziomek, N. (2006). Broadening Our View About Technology Integration: Three Literacy Educators' Perspectives. Reading Horizons, 46(3), pp. 215-237. Retrieved Aug 14, 2015, from http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/reading_horizons/vol46/iss3/5 West, R., Waddoups, G., & Graham, C. (2007, February). Understanding the experiences of instructors as they adopt a course management system. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(1), pp. 1-26. ISSN: 1042-1629. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11423-006-9018-1 © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 55-65, September 2015.

Japan‟s Global 30 Program: The Push and Pull Factors of International Student Mobility Jonathan Aleles Kyushu University Fukuoka, Japan

Abstract. The Internationalization of Japanese higher education started in 1982. The original target set back in 1983 of attracting 100,000 international students to Japan was accomplished in 2003 due to Prime Minister Nakasone‟s “International Student 100,000 Plan”. From that original plan, The Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has concentrated its energy on internationalizing higher education by forming an educational system called the Global 30 Project (G30). The G30 Project and other programs were instituted to turn Japan into an international destination for higher education. Data in this paper is based on surveys directed at prestigious universities in Japan. The focus of this study is on the pull factors that attract international students to Japan and the particular G30 participating university, and the push factors that contributed to participants deciding to leave their home country. Findings in this report will be used to identify pull factors of the G30 program. Results will assist in future recruiting efforts. Keywords: Global 30 Program; Higher education; International education; Japan

History of the Internationalization of Japanese Higher Education The push to move Japanese higher education into a period of internationalization started in 1982 with the establishment of the Nakasone cabinet. Japan and other industrialized nations recognized the need to adapt to the new era of interconnected societies that were undergoing cultural, monetary and political transformations as world economies were being transformed by great technological and communication advances (Burgess, Gibson et al., 2010). Nakasone‟s 1984 policies laid the foundations needed to have Japan integrate into the international community „international country‟ by creating the National Council on Educational Reform (NCER). When Prime Minister Nakasone took office in 1982, Kenichi Koyama, a close © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

advisor to Nakasone, wrote a lengthy article, known as the “grand design” (Pyle, 1987) outlining the future direction of Japan. The four dimensions of Nakasone‟s “grand design” was a kind of road map for what Nakasone‟s administration would accomplish. The second dimension called for Japan to be a more international state. From Nakasone‟s perspective, Japan needed to harmonize its national policies and institutions to be more flexible, to allow Japan‟s economic, social and education system to undergo major changes. A significant aspect of Nakasone‟s drive to internationalize Japan was to overhaul its educational system by attempting to be more internationalized by creating a scheme to attract more international students.

The International Student Plan The most significant educational reform, pioneered by Nakasone, was the plan to attract 100,000 international students by the beginning of the year 2000 (hereafter called “the International Student 100,000 Plan”). As the International Student 100,000 Plan was in its infancy and planning stages, a report published clarified the close relationship between Japan‟s new internationalized educational policies to political and financial interests, The Report of the Advisory Group on Economic Structural Adjustment for International Harmony, published in April 1984, set in motion several transitional national policies to propel Japan into the future. The report stated “the time has come for Japan to make a historical transformation in its traditional policies on economic management and on the nation‟s lifestyle.” A more in-depth, fundamentally important report was published two years later in 1986, the Second Report on Educational Reform; it delved into more detail on the essentials of internationalizing the education system of Japan, appealed for sweeping changes. The comprehensive report sought to change the basic premise of the Japanese educational philosophy to one that underscored the importance of “freedom, autonomy, and responsibility, principles that differed from traditional Japanese education.” The most important aspect of the Second Report on Educational Reform called for more international influence through exposure from a more internationalized curriculum and through intercultural communication, The International Student 100,000 Plan and future programs targeting the increase of foreign students in Japan, and, more generally, internationalization of Japanese education, are rooted in these values found in the report: Internationalization in education is not limited to the system but involves liberalizing Japanese Education and the consciousness of its educators. To this end, it is important to foster through every possible educational opportunity, constant interests in and tolerance of what is different, and establish an educational system with the capacity for self-renovation that can handle everchanging international relations with flexibility and improve itself on its own (Koyama 1986, p.2).

Features of the G30 Project According to the Japan Association of Student Services (JASSO) as of 2013, there were 135,519 foreign students enrolled in Japanese private, public and national universities (JASSO, 2013). At this rate of foreign student enrollment it would appear that the goal of 300,000 foreign students by 2020, set by MEXT is not an attainable goal. The original policies of the G30 Project were established in 2001 with the intentions of promoting 30 prestigious universities (Yonezawa, 2010). These innovative policies included a 15 billion Yen budget to expand 30 institutions that would be recognized as the „internationalized core‟. The core or key component of this venture of creating an internationalized core was to recruit international students to Japan. The premise of the G30 project is to internationalize higher education in Japan. In 2009, 13 universities were selected to be part of the G30 project offering degree programs in a wide range of disciplines ranging from life science, agriculture, environmental studies, information and communication technology and social sciences to name a few. All courses are taught entirely in English; however, G30 students also take Japanese language classes as part of the curriculum. The G30 project consists of national and private universities; each university has autonomy over the organization, management, acceptance, curriculum and other aspects related to the education of international students. The 13 G30 universities are as follows: Doshisha University, Keio University, Kyoto University, Kyushu University, Meiji University, Nagoya University, Osaka University, Ritsumeikan University, Sophia University, Tohoku University, University of Tokyo, Tsukuba University and Waseda University.

Attracting International Students The core principle behind the Global 30 Program is to capitalize on the vital opportunities that are related to a more internationalized higher education system e.g. intellectual resources and international alliances. One of the most prominent factors affecting the internationalization of higher education is the mobility across borders of international students. There have been numerous significant studies conducted on significant aspects of international student mobility since the 1980s (e.g. Lee and Tan 1984; McMahon 1992; Marazzarol and Soutar 2001; Altback 2004). Factors and influences have drastically changed since those informative studies; international student mobility has increased dramatically. Economic conditions of receiving and hosting nations have altered the overall supply and demand of international student programs. Altbach‟s historic study investigating international student mobility identified the „push-pull‟ model that identified reasons why some students were „pushed‟ from their home country due to negative social, academic and financial situations, and, why others were „pulled‟ by foreign universities offering favorable educational conditions such as significant financial scholarships and © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

better economic opportunities (Altbach 1998, p. 240). The connection between push and pull factors is often complex that is affected by an intricate set of socioeconomic, political and financial factors. In some cases, the host nation is uncertain or uneasy about subsidizing programs for foreign students, whereas, host nations view hosting and subsidizing education for foreign student as an investment and as a method of improving the overall educational system. According to Davis (1995) „push‟ factors do not provide a precise set of patterns or reasons why students seek to study overseas. Conversely, „pull‟ factors of the host nation and/or universities in question include modern facilities, comfortable economic situations and favorable political environment. In 1984, Cummings conducted research into the complex patterns that influenced the immigration and migration of secondary education. In 1992, McMahon published informative research that pinpointed several key features that impacted the decision making process of an international student to seek an education overseas. The “push” and “pull” model (McMahon, 1992) helped direct future research by Mazzarol and Soutar (2002) where three distinct stages were labeled in the pursuit of a university education in a foreign place. First, the preliminary decision to seek an international education is made. Inevitably, the decision to not study domestically is ultimately affected by a “push” factor previously published by McMahon (1992). The second stage is choosing a host country, which is affected by the following factors: (1) awareness of host country, (2) advice from family and friends, (3) issues related to finance, (4) development in the host country, (5) close proximity to the native country, and (6) recommendations from family and/or friends who previously lived in the host country (Mazzarol et al., 1997, cited in Mazzarol and Soutar, 2002). The third and final stage is when the student chooses which foreign university to attend. In 1985, the Iwao study (cited in Chandler, 1989) carried out in Japan to classify key reasons why a foreign student chose to study in Japan; it identified an interest in Japanese language and culture as major factors in the decision to study in Japan. Another early study by Hicks and Amifuji (1987) showed academics were the most important factors where students gained the most satisfaction out of improving their Japanese language abilities, obtaining knowledge that would benefit their future, and the potential to join work-study programs at a Japanese company.

Importance Of Research This study attempts to provide additional scholarly knowledge on the push and pull dynamics that impact the decision-making process international students face when choosing Japan as a destination country. Specifically, pull factors of G30 Japanese universities are identified and analyzed.

Research question What aspects of higher education of international students in the G30 Program may be expanded, modified, or improved to enhance Japan‟s international competitive position in attracting students worldwide?

Method Data sources and analysis The data presented in this paper were collected by an online questionnaire service. Data presented and analyzed in this paper represents 2 survey questions designed to measure the specific pull factors of the Global 30 Program. Further research is currently being conducted to evaluate challenges of intercultural communication that exist within the G30 program. The questionnaire consisted of 28 questions to assess studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; perspectives in the following areas: demographics, factors that influenced their decision to choose Japan as a destination country, issues related to intercultural communication, perceptions of their educational experience and future aspirations upon completion of their degree. Apart from questions related to demographical information, all questions had an option for open-ended responses. The abovementioned questions consisted of 5-point Likert scale questions, and Radio Button Grid questions that allowed respondents to rank specific choices. In addition, a Chi-Square test was used to collect data identified in Table 1. Participation in this survey was voluntary and participants were required to answer consent questions before continuing with the questionnaire.

Participants Data were collected from May 16th, 2014-July 31st, 2014. There were 96 total respondents with a breakdown of 52 Males (54.2%) and 44 females (45.8%). The Age range of the respondents was 18-24 years old. Of the 96 respondents, 36% were first year students; 29% second year students; 20% third year students; 15% fourth year students. There were no graduate students who took part in this survey. The original target of this research was to get 200 respondents. It should be noted that all of the 13 Global 30 Universities in Japan were contacted by email to outline the goals of the study and to invite each university to participate in this research project. Of the 13 universities designated as G30 universities, 4 agreed to participate in this study. The remaining 9 universities either did not respond to the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x;s request or refused to participate for various reasons. The distribution of nationality represented in this study are as follows: China, 26 (27.2%); Indonesia, 13 (13.6%); Japan, 9 (9.4%); Vietnam, 9 (9.4%); South Korea, 6 (6.3%); India, 5 (5.2%); Malaysia, 4 (4.2%); Singapore, 4 (4.2%); Taiwan, 4 (4.2%); Thailand; 3 (3.1%); Egypt, 3 (3.1%); Hong Kong, 2 (2.1%); Argentina, Brazil Kenya, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, U.S.A. 1 (1%). There are several factors that affect the distribution of nationalities in the Global 30 program. Participating Global 30 universities have recruiting offices in Hanoi, Vietnam; Seoul, South Korea; Beijing and Shanghai, China; Jakarta, Indonesia. Further research must be conducted to analyze the direct impact recruiting offices have on the distribution of nationalities. In addition, further research must be conducted on how each participating Global 30 University actively works to advertise and promote their degree programs worldwide. Majors represented of the 96 respondent are as follows: Civil Engineering 39; Mechanical Engineering 11; Social Sciences 9; Agriculture 8; Applied Chemistry 6; Aerospace Engineering 3; Biological Sciences 3; Japan Studies 2; Policy Science ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2; Environmental Science 1; Chemistry-Biology (combined major) 1; Applied Physics 1; Environmental and Information Sciences 1; Others 9.

Results In Table 1., the first survey item to be explored, “my primary reasons for choosing to study at my university are related to the following”. The data represented in Table 1 clearly shows that the location of the national and private universities was of a moderate importance to the 96 respondents. 37.5% listed this quality as “important”. Conversely, respondents did select the “specific course of study offered (Major)” and “positive reputation connected to my university” as “Important” or 67.7% and 62.5% respectively. These factors directly relate to a previous study by Mazaarol and Soutar (2002) where specific factors were characterized as having an impact on international and domestic students in Australian educational institutions. The six variables identified in this study were “the quality and reputation of the institution, the recognition of the institution‟s qualifications in their own country, the international strategic alliances the institutions had, the quality of the institution‟s staff, its alumni base and its existing international student population” (Mazzarol and Soutar, 2002:87). Table 1: Factors Influencing University Choice (n = 96)

Number of Students (%) Specific course of study offered (Major) Not important Somewhat important Important Positive reputation of my university Not important Somewhat important Important Location Not important Somewhat important Important

Male Female

5 26 65

(5.2%) (27.1%) (67.7)

1% 4.2% 15.7% 11.5% 37.5% 30.1%

9 27 60

(9.4%) (28.1) (62.5%)

5.2% 4.2% 15.7% 12.5% 33.3% 29.1%

14 46 36

(14.6%) (47.9%) (37.5%)

5.2% 9.4% 29.2% 18.7% 19.8% 17.7%

Table 2. Factors Influencing Choice of Japan as Destination Country identifies reasons why international students decided to choose Japan as their country of choice. “My primary reason for choosing to study in Japan are related to the following”, This Chi-Square Test item listed eight items that respondents ranked from “not important”, “somewhat important”, and “important”. Of the 96 respondents, 81.3% stated, “not being accepted to my first choice country”, as “not important”. This is significant in that it shows that for the vast majority of the students who took part in this survey indicated Japan was their primary selection for choosing a host country. This data corresponds to (Mazzarol et al., © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

1997) recognition of factors discovered to impact how students select a host country. They acknowledged that the “knowledge and awareness” of the host country in the student‟s home country had a direct influence on the availability of information related to the host country as a possible destination for overseas study. Also, part of this factor was the destination‟s reputation for quality (Mazzarol et al., 1997). This theory also supports the data from Table 1 where 62.5% of respondents listed “positive reputation connected to my university” as an important factor when selecting which university to attend. Another key factor in choosing to study in Japan is the “availability of financial aid and/or scholarships”, where 56.2% of respondents chose this variable as “important”. This factor is related to cost, another key factor identified by (Mazzarol et al., 1997). In addition, specific courses offered throughout the G30 universities seem to be somewhat appealing to international students. 52.1% selected “opportunity to pursue a career in my field of interest” as “important”. Table 2: Japan as Destination Country

Not important 6.3% (6) M=3.15% F=3.15% 19.8% (19) M=10.4% F=9.4% 6.2% (6) M=2.1% F=4.2% 10.4% (10) M=7.3% F=3.1% 16.7% (16) M=7.3% F=9.4% 31.3% (30) M=13.5% F=17.8%

Somewhat important 28.1% (27) M=13.5% F=14.6% 24% (23) M=11.4% F=12.6% 41.7% (40) M=23% F=18.7% 43.8% (42) M=18.7% F=25.1% 37.5% (36) M=18.75% F=18.75% 38.5% (37) M=23% F=15.5%

Important

Responses

65.6% (63) M=37.5% F=28.1% 56.2% (54) M=32.3% F=23.9% 52.1% (50) M=29.2% F=22.9% 45.8% (44) M=28.1% F=17.7% 45.8% (44) M=28.1% F=17.7% 30.2% (29) M=17.8% F=12.4%

home 45.8% (44) M=27% F=18.8%

32.3% (31) M=11.4% F=20.9%

21.9% (21) M=15.6% F=6.3%

Not being accepted to my 81.3% (78) first choice country M=44.8% F=36.5%

13.5% (13) M=6.3% F=7.2%

5.2% (5) M=3.1% F=2.1%

Ability to study in English while living in Japan Availability of financial aide Opportunity to pursue a career in my field of interest Affordability of the Global 30 program General interest in Japan and Japanese culture Interest in learning the Japan language

Close to country

F=Female

More recent findings by Macready and Tucker (2011) identified „push‟ factors in international student mobility that are relevant to the „push‟ factors found in this study of international students in the Global 30 Program. Although no statistical information was found on the most prevalent „push‟ factors, the following list is representative of general „push‟ factors found to have attracted international students to the Global 30 program. Table 3: ‘Push’ Factors of International Student Mobility

o High-quality study opportunities o Specialize study opportunities o Language o Affordable cost o Recognized qualifications o Prospects of successful graduation within a specified time o Effective marketing Note. Adapted from Macready & Tucker, 2011: p. 21-25

Discussion As outlined by MEXT in the 5-point framework for establishing measures to successfully implement the “300,0000 International Student Plan”, the underlining reasons behind the G30 program are to internationalize higher education in Japan or “promote the globalization of universities” (MEXT, 2009a). The thirteen universities chosen, as G30 institutions were to “increase courses taught in English. For Japanese universities to attract quality students, “raising the quality of education and research in universities has become the most important factor in attracting high-caliber foreign students” (Kitayama, 2003, p. 72). As the Japanese language is of little commercial use outside of Japan, the most effective approach to attracting foreign students was to offer full-degree programs in English. This was a means of attracting advanced international students “who otherwise would not have considered studying in Japan (Tsuneyoshi, 2005, p. 65).” The data represented in Table 2 clearly shows the importance of offering English degree programs. 65.6% of respondents reported that the “ability to study in English while living in Japan” was a major pull factor in deciding to study in Japan. Only 6.3% of respondents list this reason as “not important”. English is considered a global language and is an essential component in attracting quality international students who by their presence increase the diversity of student population on campus and contribute to the internationalization of the domestic student body. The results of this research project clearly indicate that academic courses offered in English are a very important „pull‟ factor in attracting international students (de Wit, 2005; Wachter, 2005). In a related study conducted in China, Zheng‟s (2003, p. 226) identified crucial factors that influence Chinese students‟ decision to study overseas. Zheng‟s study identified the following concerns in order of importance: issues related to economics (29%), educational aspects (27%), personal issues (15%), social aspects (13%), issues related to culture (9%), and political factors (7%). In connection © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

with economic concerns, availability of financial aid and affordability were cited as the most important factors; educational factors demonstrated that 65.6% of students surveyed indicated that “ability to study in English while living in Japan” was of paramount importance. Zheng‟s findings in 2003 are comparable to the findings of this report that identify the most significant „pull‟ factors in attracting international students; quality of education and affordability of that education are the top considerations. In summary, Table 2 provides comparisons of fundamental „pull‟ factors that affect students when deciding to choose Japan as a host nation. Main „pull‟ factors specific to this program are (1) full degree programs offered in English, (2) financial aid, (3) career prospects, and (4) overall affordability. The results of this analysis are analogous to Mazzarol and Soutar (2001), a study of international students from many different countries who lived and studied in Australia. The study ranked student responses as to why they decided to choose Australia as a destination country. Leading reasons were quality and reputation of degree program, quality of education, and opportunity for scholarships. These results mimic this study in that leading pull factors of international students in Australia appear to be quite similar to international students in Japan. Reputation, high standard of education, affordability and financial assistance remain essential pull factors sought by international students in these two studies.

Conclusion This study indicates the most important factors students considered in selecting a host country are: specific majors offered, the excellent reputation of the select universities and the availability of obtaining a university degree, in specific course, content in English. Referring to Mazaarol and Soutar (2001) and the „push‟ and „pull‟ factors that greatly affect the movement of international students across global borders, Japanese universities and the administrators who dictate policy can work toward improving already existing positive „pull‟ factors while working toward enhancing additional „pull‟ factors to attract more international students to Japan. Japan as a host nation can enhance certain pull factors by maintaining current tuition levels, facilitating the process of obtaining financial aide, easing restrictions on obtaining student visas and working with local authorities to help international students in certain geographical areas to feel more welcome. Analyzing data from this study show that there are distinct pull factors that are attracting students to the G30 program and specific G30 universities. On a micro level, specific courses offered through the 13 G30 universities, and the excellent reputation shared by those participating universities are major pull factors for students when deciding which G30 University to select. On a macro level, academic pull factors are: the potential of pursuing a desired career, and the opportunity to enroll in a four-year degree program where all course work is offered in English. Economic pull factors of the G30 program are its affordability, and readily available financial aide. The differentiating and most © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

important factor of the G30 program, compared to other international study programs in Japan, is the availability of all degree course work in English. Greater recruiting efforts need to be made to increase the total amount of international students in the G30 program by creating marketing schemes that highlight its attractive points such as its affordability and excellent reputation of participating universities. Japan has many attractive points as a destination nation most of which are widely publicized and well known to youth around the world. Japanese culture is known worldwide in terms of its food, animation and sub-culture. By combining target marketing of these appealing characteristics together with the opportunity of living and studying in a fascinating country while obtaining a degree in English, Japanese institutions can be successful in increasing the number applicants to the G30 program.

Limitations This study identifies pull factors that attract international students to the G30 Program; however, certain limitations remain. There were no graduate students included in this study. In addition, future research could be further divided by identifying specific pull factors in each major represented in the study. Lastly, a larger sample size is needed to more accurately analyze the various pull factors outlined in this study. Thus, it is essential to obtain access to all G30 students in the thirteen participation universities in order to attain more detailed and thorough statistics. This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology-Japan (MEXT) Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) (Challenging Exploratory Research) 2014 [No. 26590195]

References Advisory Group on Economic Structural Adjustment For International Harmony, & Nakasone, Y. (1986, April 7). The Report of the Advisory Group on Economic Structural Adjustment for International Harmony. Retrieved June 6, 2014, from http://digitalcollections.library.cmu.edu/awweb/awarchive?type=file&item=48673 8 Altbach, P.G. (1998). Comparative Higher Education: Knowledge, the University, and Development. Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong. Altbach, P.G. (2004). „Higher education crosses borders‟, Change 36(2), 18–24. Burgess, C., Gibson, I., Klaphake, J., & Selzer, M. (2010). The „„Global 30‟‟ Project and Japanese Higher Education Reform: An Example of a „„Closing In‟‟ or an „„Opening Up‟‟?‟. Globalisation, Societies and Education,, 8(4), 461-475. Chandler, A. (1989) Obligation or Opportunity: Foreign Students in Six Major Receiving Countries, Institute of International Education, ISBN 87206-178-.7 Cummings, W.K. (1984), Going overseas for higher education: the Asian experience, Comparative Education Review, 28(2), 241-257. Daily, et al, (2010) Factors Influencing the University Selection of International Students, Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 14(3): 59-75 Davis, T. (1995). „Flows of international students: Trends and issues‟, International Higher Education 1, 2–4. © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

de Wit, H. (ed.) 1995. Strategies for Internationalization of HE. Amsterdam: European Association for International Education. Goodman, R. (2007). The concept of Kokusaika and Japanese educational reform. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 5(1), 71-87. Hicks, J., Amifuji, Y. “A Questionnaire of the Study Needs of Asian Foreign Students at Selected Japanese National Universities-A Breif Report of the Main Findings,” Research in Higher Education-Daigaku Ronshu, No. 17 (1987), Passim. Japan Student Services Organization, Result of an annual survey of international students in Japan 2012, Japan Student Services Organization, 2013 Kitayama, S. (2003). Models of agency: Sociocultural diversity in the construction of action. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 49, 1–57. Koyama, K. (1986). The Future Has Already Begun— The Third Educational Reform Aims to Cultivate World Citizens for the 21st Century. Look Japan, 2, 2-3. Lee, K.H. and Tan, J.P. (1984). „The international flow of third level less developed country students to developed countries: Determinants and implications‟, Higher Education 13(6), 687–707. Macready, C. & Tucker, C. (2011), Who Goes Where and Why? Global Education Research Reports, Report 5, Institute of International Education: New York Mazzarol, T.W. and G.N. Soutar (2001), “Push-pull” factors influencing International student destination choice, International Journal of Education Management, 16(2): 82-90. Mazzarol, T.W. (1997) International Students Who Chose Not to Study in Australia: An examination of Taiwan and Indonesia, Australian International Education Foundation, Canberra. McMahon, M.E. (1992), “Higher education in a world market: an historical look at the global context of international study”, Higher Education, 24(4) 465-82 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), (2009a), MEXT. (2009), Outlines of Measures for 300,000 International Student Plan, Higher Education Bureau, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), (2009b), Launching the project for establishing core universities for internationalization (Global 30). Retrieved June 6, 2012, from http://www.mext.go.jp/english/news/1283454.htm NCER: The National Council, First Report on Educational Reform, Tokyo Government of Japan, 1984, 44-45 Pyle, K. (1987), In Pursuit of a Grand Design: Nakasone Betwixt the Past and the Future, Journal of Japanese Studies 13(2), Special Issue: A Forum on the Trade Crisis, 243-270 Rivers, D., Ideologies of Internationalisation and the Treatment of Diversity within Japanese Higher Education, Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 32(5) (2010): 441–454. Tsuneyoshi, R. (2005). Internationalization strategies in Japan: The dilemmas and possibilities of study abroad programs using English. Journal of Research in International Education 4(1), 65-86. UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS), (2014). GLOBAL FLOW OF TERTIARY-LEVEL STUDENTS. (2014, May 5). Retrieved August 16, 2014, from http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Pages/international-student-flow-viz.aspx Wächter, B. (2005). Internationalisation at home: The context. Internationalisation at home: A position paper (pp. 5-13). Amsterdam, Netherlands: European Association for International Education (EAIE). Yonezawa, A. (2010). Much ado about ranking: Why can‟t Japanese universities internationalize? Japan Forum, 22(1), 121-137. Zheng, X.H. (2003). An Analysis on Study Abroad of Graduates of Undergraduate in Tsinghua University, Research on China’s Foreign Cultural Exchange in Higher Education. Beijing: Minzu Press, 199–237.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 66-76, September 2015.

The Impact of Self-Monitoring Paired with Positive Reinforcement on Increasing Task Completion with a Student Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Case Study Jeremy R. Mills, Ed.D Wright State University Dayton, Ohio, USA

Abstract. It is not uncommon for students diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder to struggle with the ability to self-regulate on-task behavior and translates into failure within an academic setting. This case study implemented a single-subject withdraw design with repeated measures to evaluate the impact of self-monitoring paired with positive reinforcement on the task completion for a student diagnosed ASD. Results indicated that self-monitoring paired with positive reinforcement increased the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s homework completion each time the intervention was presented. Key Words: Self-Monitoring, Self-Regulation, Task Completion, Autism Spectrum Disorder, Math, Stimulus Preference Assessment

Introduction The rise in teacher accountability paralleled with the increase in the number of students diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) entering classrooms has made it critical for teachers to identify evidence-based practices (EBP) that can be used with consistence. This is particularly challenging in the field of special education when working with students diagnosed with ASD when it is considered common knowledge that what is effective for one individual diagnosed with ASD may not work at the same level of impact for another individual with a diagnosis of ASD (Lerman, Vorndran, Addison, & Kuhn, 2004). This dichotomy highlights the importance for special education teachers to have knowledge of many EBP to implement with various students as well as how to adapt the practices for different environments and for different students with similar struggles. Students diagnosed with ASD often have similar struggles in their inability to independently selfregulate on-task behaviors for non-preferred tasks (Hume, Plavnick, & Odom, 2012;

Rafferty & Raimondi, 2009). Therefore, it comes with no surprise that on-task behavior is often cited as a primary reason for the already struggling student’s failure to complete academic task demands (Falkenberg & Barbetta, 2013; Axelrod, Zhe, Haugen, & Klein, 2009). An identified evidence-based intervention that increases on-task completion for students diagnosed with disabilities is the use of self-monitoring (State & Kern, 2011; Axelrod, Zhe, Haugen, & Klein 2009; O’Reilly et al., 2002). Self-monitoring is designed to teach students to maintain control of personal behavior by using a multi-step process of self-observing, self-evaluating, and then self-reinforcing (State & Kern, 2011). It is a flexible intervention that can be adapted to meet the specific academic and behavioral needs based on the individual’s developmental and cognitive level (e.g. using pictures for a child who cannot read). Research has consistently demonstrated that the use of self-monitoring results in an immediate increase of on-task behavior for students, thus increasing their level of task completion (Falkenberg & Barbetta, 2013; Bialas & Boon, 2010; O’Reilly et al. 2002; Trammel & Schloss,1994). Students without disabilities and with disabilities have a higher probability of developing independent self-monitoring skills when consistently taught how to self-motivate and self-evaluate. This leads to a greater potential for the functional skill to generalize increasing independency. Yet, because students diagnosed with ASD often have deficits in the ability to attend to lowpreferred tasks (Hume, Plavnick, & Odom, 2012) the use of self-monitoring may be dismissed. It is not uncommon for students diagnosed with ASD to have difficulty attending to specific tasks as a result of a deficiency in the brains ability to properly utilize their metacognitive functions (also known as executive-functions) that aid in such areas as self-regulate behaviors, problem solving, organization, and self-evaluation (Hume, Plavnick, & Odom, 2012; State & Kern, 2011; Loftin, Gibb, & Skiba, 2005; Solomon, Goodlin-Jones, & Anders, 2004). However, evidence from research suggests that the use of self-monitoring is an EBP that has the capability to bridge the gap between the metacognitive skills and task demands for individuals with disabilities (Mithaug & Mithaug, 2003; Morrison et al., 2001; Rafferty, & Raimondi, 2009; Solomon, Goodlin-Jones, & Anders, 2004; Trammel & Schloss, 1994). Despite whether and individual has a disability or not, for greater probability of self-monitoring behavior to be maintained and eventually generalized the administration of a reinforcing stimulus must follow the correct self-monitoring behavior (Mithaug & Mithaug, 2003). The implementation of a highly preferable reinforcing stimulus following the demonstration of a targeted behavior will increase the probable frequency rate of the target behavior occurring again in the future under similar stimulus conditions (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). For the reinforcing stimulus to maintain its effectiveness it is best to intermittently administer back-up reinforcers. This schedule of administrating reinforcement establishes a greater control over the possibility of satiation (Alberto & Troutman,

2013; Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). Loftin et al. (2005) express, â&#x20AC;&#x153;To ensure success when first beginning an intervention, frequent reinforcement is recommended. Offering a choice among preferred reinforcers increases the likelihood of a successful interventionâ&#x20AC;? (p. 12 - 13). Identifying potential highly preferred reinforcers for individuals diagnosed with specific disabilities, such as ASD, might prove difficult. Fisher et al. (1992) developed a stimulus preference assessment (SPA) called paired-choice (also called forced-choice) to identify potential reinforcing stimuli. The evidence from Fisher et al. (1992) suggests that the paired-choice SPA is an effective procedure for any individual (i.e. severe and profound disabilities, mild disabilities, or without a disability). The paired-choice SPA pairs various stimuli together and repeatedly present the paired stimuli to the individual in alternating orders. Data are collected on the frequency of what is defined as approach behaviors versus non-approach behaviors to the presented stimuli. After multiple presentations of the paired stimuli, the stimuli that is approached with greater frequency is identified as the highly preferred reinforcer while the remaining items that are approached 80% of the time or more are identified as back-up reinforcers. When an individual with a disability or without a disability is at the acquisition stage of learning self-monitoring it is essential to pair the intervention with a highly reinforcing stimulus. This pairing increases the internal consistency of selfmonitoring and provides the opportunity for individuals to increase personal responsibility for behavior strengthening the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s understanding of the relationship between his or her behavior and the consequences that follow. Evidence has indicated that individuals with ASD are capable of high achievement when the proper interventions are implemented (Rafferty, & Raimondi, 2009; Mithaug & Mithaug, 2003; Morrison et al., 2001). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the impact of positive reinforcement paired with selfmonitoring on the completion of note-taking and homework with a student diagnosed with ASD. A single-subject withdrawal design with repeated measures is used to examine the functional relationship between self-monitoring paired with reinforcement and task completion.

Methods A single-subject withdraw design (A1-B1-A2-B2-A3-B3-A4) was used to assess the impact of self-monitoring, paired with positive reinforcement, to increase homework (HW) completion and note-taking (NT) completion for an individual diagnosed with ASD in a pullout secondary math class. A withdraw design with repeated measures design was selected for its simplistic ability to identify a causeeffect relationship through its repeated design and periodic removal of the intervention (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). The data for the study were

collected for a total of 50 instructional days. During each baseline condition the data were collected for 5 instructional days. During the intervention conditions data were collected for 10 instructional days. Participant The participant in the study was a 15-year-old male diagnosed with ASD. At the time of the study, the participantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s current psycho-educational evaluation indicated that he received special education services in the pullout classroom for 20% of the day and services in the inclusive education classroom for 80% of the day. His evaluation scores indicated that he is capable of retaining 90% to 100% of what he hears and sees but has deficits in written communication, oral communication, and task completion. Two special education teachers collected data for the study. At the time of the study both teachers combined had a total of 7 years of experience in the field of special education. The primary special education teacher taught the pullout class while the second special education teacher collected reliability data. Setting The study took place in a rural public high school with a student enrollment of 1,048. Data were collected in a pullout secondary math classroom with 9 other students who received special education services. The class duration was 70-m and met 5 days a week. The class began each day with a set of opening problems that reviewed previously taught mathematical skills, followed by the instruction of new content with guided notes, guided practice, and then concluded with independent practice. The class grading procedure stated that all students received full credit for assignments based on completion and not based on accuracy. Students would receive a zero on assignments if they did not attempt the work, did not turn in the work, copied a peerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s HW, wrote answers that were determined non-mathematical in nature (e.g. 2+2 = yes), or a combination of the aforementioned. Dependent Variables The dependent variables were the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s HW and NT completion. At the start of each class session the student was provided with guided notes with fill-in-theblanks that he was expected to complete during the guided lecture. NT was calculated by adding the number of blanks filled in on the guided notes divided by the total number of blanks, multiplied by 100. The percentage of HW completion was calculated by dividing the number of completed problems on all assignments for the class session (completed meaning all of the work was attempted to be answered based on the class policy) divided by the total number of problems to be completed on all assignments for the class session, multiplied by 100. Prior to the study the student had an average of 60% in the class (according to the school policy, failing was a score of 64% and below), and had scores of zeros on 10 out of 21 assignments during an 8-week period. Likewise, he had not turned in 48% of his assignments for the first 2 nine-weeks of the school year. During the same

time period, his peers had an average grade of 81% with an average of 5 out of 21 assignments with scores of zeros. Procedures A paired-choice stimulus preference assessment (SPA) was administered prior to the collection of the data following the procedures used by Fisher et al. (1992). A list of 5 potential reinforcers for the SPA was identified through a parent interview: (1) Nintendo Game Boy, (2) Twix, (3) Snickers, (4) 3-Musketeers, and (5) Milky-Way candy. The two stimuli approached 80% or more during all trials of the SPA were identified as reinforcers. An approach was scored if the subject made physical contact with the stimuli using his hands. The SPA was conducted one time prior to the collection of the first baseline data. The results of the SPA indicated Snicker’s candy as the stimulus with the greatest potential to reinforce the targeted behaviors and the Nintendo Game Boy as the second stimuli (the back-up reinforcer). The special education teacher and an additional special education teacher, who was brought into the classroom during the study, collected the data during all sessions. It was established by the primary special education teacher prior to data collection that the student’s completion goal for his HW and NT was 75% based on the objective goal of WH completion in the student’s Individual Education Plan (IEP). Data were collected for 50 instructional school days, graphed, and analyzed within conditions and across conditions (Figure 1). A frequency count measured the number of blanks filled in on guided notes and the on number of problems completed on the homework. Baseline (A). During each baseline condition data were gathered for 5 instructional days on the student’s completion of HW and NT. A training session on how to use the self-monitoring forms was administered at the conclusion of the fifth day of the first baseline condition. The student was provided a folder to keep the selfmonitoring data sheets in and directed to keep the folder in an easily accessible location within the classroom (a filing cabinet behind the teacher’s desk was used in the study). The student was allowed to continue to use the self-monitoring form in the subsequent baseline conditions if he chose to but no reinforcement or verbal redirection was provided for its use. The student elected to not use the selfmonitoring form during each baseline condition. Intervention (B). During each intervention condition data were collected for 10 instructional days. Each day during the intervention condition the student obtained the folder from the designated place within the classroom. At the conclusion of the class the student self-observed and self-evaluated for that day of the week in the identified columns labeled, “Did I Take Notes Today?” and “What Assignments Do I have and did I complete them?” If the task was completed for each column, a check mark was placed in a small box in the bottom corner of that column. If the task was not completed, an X was placed in the provided box in the column. Both teachers

independently recorded the student’s task completion behavior and self-monitoring behavior using the same form that the student was provided. After all columns were filled in, the student and the two teachers simultaneously compared data to measure the fidelity of the self-monitoring. The teachers initialed that day of the week’s column if they agreed that the student self-observed, selfevaluated, or completed both actions correctly. If they disagreed with the student’s documentation or with each other they did not initial the column. If the student self-observed and self-evaluated correctly a smiley face sticker was placed on that day’s column to reinforce the documentation process and the student was provided the choice between a Snickers candy bar or free time to play with his Nintendo Game Boy (approximately 15-m of access time). If the student inaccurately self-evaluated he was still provided the smiley face sticker but given verbal redirection and denied access to the candy or video game system. If the student did not complete both the self-evaluating and self-recording accurately verbal redirection was administered and no sticker, candy, or video game system were provided. Reliability. The additional teacher collected data on interobserver reliability and procedural reliability. Interobserver reliability was calculated using the point-bypoint method by comparing the primary special education teacher’s data with the additional teacher’s data. Procedural reliability data were collected by using a task analysis checklist. A minimum score of 90% was required to establish interobserver reliability and a minimum score of 95% was required to establish procedural reliability. Both the interobserver reliability and the procedural reliability for this case study was 100%.

Results Data collected were analyzed within each condition and across conditions. Results indicate that the student’s NT and HW completion increased each time selfmonitoring parried with a positive reinforcement was implemented. The student’s NT and HW completion scores decreased each time self-monitoring parried with positive reinforcement was removed (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Homework Completion and Note-Taking Completion Using Self-Monitoring

Data Analysis within Conditions The data collected were analyzed within each condition through the use of the calculated mean of HW completion and NT, the data variability, and the use of split-middle tend analysis. The level of variability was determined based on the calculated stability range of the data. The data were considered stable if 80% of the data within the condition fell in a +/- 20% range of the mean score. Baseline (A1). The calculated mean for the first baseline condition for the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s HW completion was 15.4% (range: 0% - 50%). The calculated mean for the first baseline condition for NT completion was 15% (range: 0% - 36%). The calculated stability of the data for HW completion and NT completion had high variability. The percentage of stability for HW completion was 0% (range: 12.3% - 18.5%) and for NT completion was 20% (range: 12% - 18%). Using the split-middle trend analysis, the trend for both HW completion and NT were decelerating. Intervention (B1). The calculated mean of the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s HW completion for the first intervention condition was 92.1% (range: 81% - 100%). The calculated mean for NT completion with the intervention condition was 83.4% (range: 71% - 100%). The calculated stability of the data for both HW and NT completion had low variability. The percentage of stability for HW completion was 100% (range: 73.7% - 100%) and for NT completion was 100% (range: 66.7% - 100%). Using the split-middle trend analysis, the trend for both HW completion and NT were accelerating. Baseline (A2). The calculated mean for the second baseline condition for the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s HW completion was 16% (range: 0% - 55%). The calculated mean for baseline condition for NT completion was 8% (range: 0% - 40%). The calculated stability of the data for HW completion and NT completion had high variability.

The percentage of stability for HW completion was 0% (range: 12.8% - 18.2%) and for NT completion was 0% (range: 6.4% - 9.6%). Using the split-middle trend analysis, the trend for both HW completion and NT completion were decelerating. Intervention (B2). The calculated mean of the student’s HW completion for the second intervention condition was 90.8% (range: 70% - 100%). The calculated mean for NT completion with the second intervention condition was 83.3% (range: 55% 100%). The calculated stability of the data for both HW and NT completion had low variability. The percentage of stability for HW completion was 100% (range: 62.6% 100%) and for NT completion was 80% (range: 66.7% - 99.9%). Using the splitmiddle trend analysis, the trend for both HW completion and NT were accelerating. Baseline (A3). The calculated mean for the third baseline condition for the student’s HW completion was 14.2% (range: 0% - 41%). The calculated mean for the baseline condition for NT completion was 5% (range: 0% - 15%). The calculated stability of the data for HW completion and NT completion had high variability. The percentage of stability for HW completion was 0% (range: 11.4% - 17%) and for NT completion was 0% (range: 4% - 6%). Using the split-middle trend analysis, the trend for both HW completion and NT completion were decelerating. Intervention (B3). The calculated mean of the student’s HW completion for the third intervention condition was 92.7% (range: 78% - 100%). The calculated mean for NT completion with the third intervention condition was 84.5% (range: 70% - 100%). The calculated stability of the data for both HW and NT completion had low variability. The percentage of stability for HW completion was 100% (range: 74.2% 100%) and for NT completion was 100% (range: 67.6% - 100%). Using the splitmiddle trend analysis, the trend for both HW completion and NT were accelerating. Baseline (A4). The calculated mean for the fourth baseline condition for the student’s HW completion was 16.4% (range: 0% - 46%). The calculated mean for the baseline condition for NT completion was 6% (range: 0% - 15%). The calculated stability of the data for HW completion and NT completion had high variability. The percentage of stability for HW completion was 20% (range: 13.1% - 19.7%) and for NT completion was 20% (range: 4.8% - 7.2%). Using the split-middle trend analysis, the trend for both HW completion and NT completion were decelerating. Data Analysis across Conditions Data were collected on the student’s HW completion and NT completion for 50 instructional days. The trend was calculated for analysis across conditions using least-squares regression. The mean scores of each condition and the rapidity of behavior change from one condition to the next were assessed. The trend across the study was a positive acceleration for HW completion and NT completion. The student’s mean HW completion increased from each baseline condition to intervention condition by 76.4% (HW baseline = 15.5%; HW

intervention = 91.9%). Similarly, the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mean NT completion increased from each baseline condition to intervention condition by 75.2% (NT baseline = 8.5; NT intervention = 83.7%). The immediacy of change from the difference between the ordinate values of each intervention condition to the last data point of each baseline condition for HW completion increased by 92% (baseline = 0%; intervention = 92%), 70% (baseline = 0%; intervention = 70%), and 89% (baseline = 0%; intervention = 89%) and for NT it increased by 57% (baseline = 14%; intervention = 71%), 15% (baseline = 40%; intervention = 55%), and 78% (baseline = 0%; intervention = 78%). Each time the intervention was withdrawn, HW completion decreased by 67% (baseline = 25%; intervention = 92%), 70% (baseline = 0%; intervention = 70%), 90% (baseline = 0%; intervention = 90%), and 52% (baseline = 46%; intervention = 98%). Likewise, NT completion decreased by 35% (baseline = 40%; intervention = 85%), 55% (baseline = 0%; intervention = 55%), 63% (baseline = 15%; intervention = 78%), and 75% (baseline = 15%; intervention = 90%).

Conclusion The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of self-monitoring paired with positive-reinforcement on increasing HW completion and NT completion for a student diagnosed with ASD in a pullout math course. Based on the evidence of this study the goal for HW completion and NT rate increased for the student during each intervention condition and decreased each time the intervention was removed. The goal was for the student to achieve a 75% completion rate for both variables during the intervention conditions. This goal was achieved for 97% of the intervention condition days for his HW completion and for 87% of the days for NT completion The increase in the percentage of completion from the baseline data to the intervention data and then the decrease in percentage when the intervention was removed, suggests that a possible functional relationship exists between at least one of the independent variables of self-monitoring and positive reinforcement and the dependent variable of task completion. The analysis of the data does not confirm with confidence that the increase in completion of both HW and NT was because of the self-monitoring. Rather, it does suggest that the increase may have been because of the preferred reinforcer used during each intervention condition. This conclusion is established because during each baseline condition the student was provided access to the self-monitoring forms but was not reinforced for using them. It was observed that the student elected to not use the forms and the data collected indicates that the completion rate decreased during each baseline condition but increased once the intervention was reintroduced. Yet research suggests that the use of a reinforcer is necessary for self-monitoring to be effective for students with disabilities (Koegel, Singh, & Koegel, 2010). Therefore, the evidence of this study adds further affirmation to previous research that the intervention of self-

monitoring paired with reinforcement increases the probability of achieving a high level of independence for individuals with disabilities such as ASD. Future Studies This study requires further replication across settings and individuals to establish a stronger functional relationship as well as an extinction process to fade out the reinforcement to establish if a functional relationship exists between self-monitoring and task completion. Similarly, future studies may want to consider using more than one assignment at a time to potentially increase the stability of the data and provide more training for students on self-monitor. The completing of a given task is an expectation for students with disabilities and without disabilities in the educational classroom. Students who learn the reinforcing value of self-monitoring can learn to generalize this skill to other academic areas and eventually adapt it for functional skills. Thus, it is advantageous to the individual student, teacher, and society to understand potential strategies that may increase the frequency of an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to properly complete a given task.

References Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (2013). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Axelrod, M. I., Zhe, E. J., Haugen, K. A., & Klein, J. A. (2009). Self-management of on-task homework behavior: A promising strategy for adolescents with attention and behavior problems. School of Psychology Review, 38(3), 325 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 333. Bialas, J. B., & Boon, R. (2010). Effects of self-monitoring on the classroom preparedness skills of kindergarten students at-risk for developmental disabilities. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 35, 40-52. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Falkenberg, C. A, & Barbetta, P. M. (2013). The effects of self-monitoring package on homework completion and accuracy of students with disabilities in an inclusive general education classroom. Journal of Behavioral Education, 22, 190-210. Fisher, W., Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., Hagopian, L. P., Owens, J. C., & Slevin, I. (1992). A comparison of two approaches for identifying reinforcers for persons with sever and profound disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 491-498. Koegel, L. K., Singh, A. K., & Koegel, A. K. (2010). Improving motivation for academics in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1057 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1066. Hume, K, Plavnick, J., & Odom, S. L. (2012). Promoting task accuracy and independence in students with autism across educational settings through the use of individual work systems. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 42, 2084-2099. Lerman, D. C., Vorndran, C. V., Addison, L., & Kuhn, S. A. C. (2004). A rapid assessment of skills in young children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 11-26.

Loftin, R. L., Gibb, A. C., and Skiba, R. (2005). Using self-monitoring strategies to address behavior and academic issues. Impact 18, 12 – 14. Mithaug, D. K., & Mithaug, D. E. (2003). Effects of teacher-directed versus student-directed instruction on self-management of young children with disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 36, 133-136. Morrison, L., Kamps, D., Garcia, J., & Parker, D. (2001). Peer mediation and monitoring strategies to improve initiations and social skills for students with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3, 237 – 250. O’Rielly, M., Tiernan, R., Lancioni, G., Lacey, C., Hillery, J., & Gardiner, M. (2002). Use of self-monitoring and delayed feedback to increase on-task behavior in a postinstitutionalized child within regular classroom settings. Education and Treatment of Children, 25, 91-102. Rafferty, L. A., & Raimondi, S. L. (2009). Self-monitoring of attention versus self-monitoring of performance: Examining the differential effects among students with emotional disturbance engaged in independent math practice. Journal of Behavior Education, 18, 279 – 299. Solomon, M., Goodlin-Jones, B. L., & Anders, T. F. (2004). A social adjustment enhancement intervention for high functioning autism, asperger's syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder nos. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 649668. State, T. M. & Kern, L. (2012). A comparison of video feedback and in vivo self-monitoring on social interactions of an adolescent with asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Behavioral Education, 21, 18-33. Trammel, D. L., & Schloss, P. J. (1994). Using self-recording, evaluation, and graphing to increase completion of homework assignments. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27, 7582.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No.2, pp. 77-87, September 2015

Effects of Hybrid Active Learning Strategy on Secondary School Students’ Understanding of Direct Current Electricity Concepts in Nigeria Mangut Mankilik Department of Science and Technology Education, University of Jos Jos, Nigeria Uche Connie Ofodile Federal Education Quality Assurance Service, Federal Ministry of Education Abuja, Nigeria

Abstract. This study examined the effects of Hybrid Active Learning Strategy (HALS) on secondary school students’ understanding of direct current electricity concepts (DCEC) in Nigeria. The study used a pretestposttest control group as the design. Proportionate stratified random sampling method and table of random numbers were used to select four co-educational senior secondary schools in Kaduna Educational Zone, Kaduna State from which 172 physics students were also sampled. Randomly, the students were assigned to the experimental (n=86) and control (n=86) groups. Using HALS, the experimental group was taught DCEC while the conventional lecture approach was used to teach the same concepts to the control group. The Written Concept Test (WCT) and the Direct Current Electricity Practical Test (DCEPT) developed by the researchers with reliability coefficients 0.81 and 0.83 respectively were used to collect data. The validity of these instruments was established by experts. Employing SPSS software, data analysis was done using t-test and effect size based on Cohen’s d. The findings of this study showed that the performance levels of both experimental and control groups before treatments were low with no significant difference in their understanding of DCEC. The results further showed that students taught using HALS performed significantly better than their counterparts taught with conventional lecture approach. Furthermore, the result revealed that gender and school type had no effect on students’ performance when taught using HALS. The researchers concluded that the use of HALS package promotes students better understanding of concepts translating to optimal performance in physics examinations. Keywords: Active Learning Strategy; Electricity; Hybrid; Understanding.

Concepts;

Direct

Current

Introduction Over the years, it has been found that physics is the bedrock of scientific and technological developments worldwide. The technologies associated with physics, especially space and nuclear science, determine the economic and military powers of nations. Thus, at the senior secondary school level in Nigeria, physics has been identified as one of the core science courses as stated in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004). The Nigerian government in recognition of the importance of science and technology, especially physics has taken a number of steps towards its improvement. These steps included the implementation of the Science and Technology Education Post Basic project with support from the World Bank which focuses on the production of adequate and quality science and technology graduates. Furthermore, the inclusion of Physics in Technology in the recently reviewed Senior Secondary School Physics Curriculum was a significant step towards the improvement of science and technology in Nigeria. This curriculum came into effect in September 2011. Despite the efforts of the Nigerian government, researchers generally observed students’ low enrolment and poor performance in physics (Mankilik & Umaru, 2011; Erinosho, 2013; Aina & Olanipekun, 2014). The students’ low enrolment and poor performance in physics is indicative of a serious variance between the expectations of the Nigerian Government as spelt out in the National Policy on Education (NPE) and the actual situation of physics in our schools and this calls for a review of the strategies teachers adopt in the teaching and learning of physics (WAEC, 2008). Generally, the way physics lessons are delivered in senior secondary schools in Nigeria is by expository method. The expository teaching method is a teacher-centered, student-peripheral approach where the teacher with or without the use of instructional materials delivers a pre-planned lesson to the students (Akinbobola, 2009). In agreement with the low enrolment of students in physics, the analysis of the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) results shows that on the average between 2006 and 2014 in Nigeria, about 35% of the total number of students that registered for West African Senior School Certificate Examinations (WASSCE) entered for physics. In terms of performance, the WAEC Chief Examiner’s reports (2005-2013) in physics indicated poor performance of students generally despite the favourable standards of the paper and the moderate severity of the marking scheme. In line with this, the analysis of the WAEC and National Examinations Council (NECO) results of candidates’ performance in physics for the May/June 2006-2013 SSCE in Nigeria indicated general poor performance. For WAEC, in 2011 for example, 43% of the 12,123 physics candidates that sat for the examination in Kaduna State had credit passes and above, out of which about 1% passed with distinction. In the same year for NECO and in Kaduna State, 16% of the 24,498 candidates that sat for the examination had credit passes and above, out of which less than 0.1% passed with distinction. Also, in 2013, for WAEC, the case is even worse as 0.05% of the 38,738 candidates that sat for physics in the State had distinction. It is to be noted that a performance level of less than 1% pass with distinction is grossly inadequate for Nigeria’s quest for rapid scientific and technological development. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

In Kaduna State, students’ low enrolment and poor performance in physics has been attributed to inadequate human and material resources as well as inappropriate presentation of materials as recorded in the analysis of the education sector conducted by Kaduna State Ministry of Education (KSMOE, 2008). The situation is further compounded as the teaching of physics (direct current electricity) in senior secondary schools, is adversely affected by problems such as perceived abstract and difficult nature of direct current electricity concepts (DCEC), lack of modern equipment and poor teaching strategies. In realization of Vision 20-2020, Nigeria must strive for optimum performance in physics not just average performance. The realization of this vision entails rapid production of the workforce that is versatile in the development of modern technologies which are based on the principles of direct current electricity. Direct current electricity concepts (DCEC) are the underlying concepts of one of the branches of study in physics dealing with the steady flow of electrons around a circuit. The concepts include those of current, voltage, potential difference and resistance in an electric circuit. Direct current electricity is an area of physics that teachers find difficult to teach due to its abstract nature and students make a lot of mistakes in answering questions on it (Baser & Durmus, 2010). Furthermore, they stated that instructional materials should be developed to promote the development of basic scientific reasoning skills. To this end, in any teaching method, all efforts should be directed at the students’ better understanding of concepts being taught (Akinbobola & Afolabi, 2010). When a concept is well understood, it is retained much longer, it can be built upon to acquire further understanding and facilitates creativity (Reigeluth, 2009). In this light, visualization of phenomena through computer simulations can contribute to students’ better understanding of physics concepts (Zacharia & Olympiou, 2010). In the same vein, cooperative learning as an active learning strategy which involves students interactively working in groups to accomplish a common goal brings about deeper understanding of learned task that is relevant to life after school (Bello, 2011). In addition, several studies on gender issues in physics education noted differing views. Gender has been identified as having significant effect on students’ performance in physics at the secondary school level (Onah & Ugwu, 2010). Another study indicated that gender is not a strong determinant of students’ academic achievement in physics rather the teaching approaches adopted which should not discriminate between the sexes (Akinbobola & Afolabi, 2010). Consequently, the active learning strategies for instruction could be structured to eliminate any undue effect of gender on student’s performance. Furthermore, some researches in school type (public and private) showed conflicting views. For example, in a study, students from public schools lagged behind in their performance in the sciences when they were compared with those in private schools (Olatoye & Agbatogun, 2009). On the contrary, in another study, students in regular public schools performed as well as students in private schools when presented with equal learning opportunities (Lubianski

& Lubianski, 2006). It is therefore of importance that the effect of school type be properly investigated and addressed. However, a number of lapses have been observed in the application of active learning strategies. The lapses include lack of use of a combination of active learning strategies which are recommended in order to have a better student engagement and interest (Afolabi & Akinbobola, 2009; Adeyemo, 2010). Therefore, it is necessary to critically study ways of applying a combination of active learning strategies to enhance students’ understanding of physics concepts especially direct current electricity concepts at the secondary school level. In line with this, a typical computer simulation package developed and named Hybrid Active Learning Strategy (HALS) was used in teaching senior secondary two (SS2) physics students for better understanding of DCEC. This simulation package was a combination of strategies of computer simulation, cooperative learning, questioning, class discussion, manipulation, exploration and experimentation (Ofodile & Mankilik, 2015). These strategies encouraged scaffolding which refers to a learning situation where the teacher guides the students appropriately. HALS structured to be highly interactive and engaging was used to study its effects on the understanding of direct current electricity concepts by students.

Statement of the Problem The inappropriate utilization of relevant teaching strategies and lack of application of innovative technology in teaching physics, especially, DCEC have been major concerns of physics educators. Specifically the defective methodology employed by the teachers, as well as the non-use of modern equipment during instruction generally leads to students’ low enrolment and poor performance in physics (Adegoke, 2011). This implies that the way learning materials are presented to the students manifests in their non-active participation in learning, lack of interest and proper understanding of DCEC. Therefore, the broad question to be answered in this study is: What could be the effects of HALS on senior secondary school students’ understanding of DCEC in Kaduna Educational Zone?

Purpose of the Study The objectives of the study were to: 1. find out the performance levels of SS2 students in DCEC before exposure to HALS and the conventional lecture approach. 2. determine the performance levels of SS2 students in DCEC after exposure to HALS and the conventional lecture approach. 3. determine the effects of gender on the performance scores of students in DCEC after being exposed to HALS. 4. determine the effects of school type (public and private) on the performance scores of students in DCEC after being exposed to HALS.

Hypotheses 1.

3. 4.

There is no significant difference between the pre-test performance mean scores of experimental group exposed to HALS and those of the control group not exposed to HALS. There is no significant difference between the post-test performance mean scores of experimental group exposed to HALS and those of the control group not exposed to HALS. There is no significant difference between the post-test performance mean scores of male and female students who are exposed to HALS. There is no significant difference between the post-test performance mean scores of students from public and private schools exposed to HALS.

Research Methodology This study adopted the true experimental design. It used the pretest - posttest control group design with randomization. The population for the study comprised 16 co-educational senior secondary schools in Kaduna Educational Zone that have at least 40 SS2 physics students. This presented a total population size of 1,034 students. The samples of 4 schools (2 public and 2 private) and 172 students (89 males and 83 females) were selected using proportionate stratified random sampling method and table of random numbers. The instruments, Written Concept Test (WCT) and the Direct Current Electricity Practical Test (DCEPT) developed by the researchers were used for data collection. The content validity of the instruments was established using four experts, one test and measurement expert and three physics educationists. Their comments and independent observations, corrections and suggestions were incorporated into the final form of the instruments. The instruments were trial-tested using 40 SS2 physics students that were similar in all respect to the students for the study but were not part of the study sample. The reliability coefficients for WCT and DCEPT using Cronbach Alpha were 0.81 and 0.83 respectively. The selected students were assigned randomly to the experimental (n=86) and control (n=86) groups using table of random numbers. WCT was administered as pre-test to the students and used to measure the degree of the dependent variable before treatment. The treatment was administered to both groups for six weeks. The experimental group was exposed to HALS for DCEC while the conventional lecture approach was used to teach the same concepts to the control group. The experimental group students in smaller groups of 2 or 3 were provided with either a desktop or laptop on which the HALS package was installed. At the end of the treatment, WCT and DCEPT were administered to both groups as post-test. After scoring, the data were collated and subjected to statistical analysis using SPSS software. Using t-test at 0.05 level of significance, the four hypotheses were tested.

Results Hypothesis One There is no significant difference between the pre-test performance mean scores of the experimental group exposed to HALS and those of the control group not ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

exposed to HALS. Result of the t-test analysis for independent samples is presented in Table 1. Table 1:

Pre-test Analysis Results of Scores of Students in the Experimental and Control Groups

Group

Number

Mean

Standard Deviation

Experimental

n 86

͞Х 33.38

SD 8.37

Control

33.49

8.72

Degree of Freedom df

t-Cal

170

0.08

p value 0.936

Not significant at p> 0.05 The result in Table 1 showed that the t-test failed to reveal a statistical significant difference between the pre-test performance mean scores of the experimental group exposed to HALS (͞Х =33.38; SD=8.37) and the control group not exposed to HALS (͞Х = 33.49; SD=8.72); t(170) = 0.080, p >0.05. The null hypothesis was retained. Therefore, prior to treatment, there was no significant difference in the performance mean scores of students from both experimental and control groups. As a result, the groups were considered the same as far as their understanding of DCEC is concerned.

Hypothesis Two There is no significant difference between the post-test performance mean scores of the experimental group exposed to HALS and those of the control group not exposed to HALS. The result of the t-test analysis for independent samples is presented in Table 2. Table 2: Post-test Analysis Results of Scores of Students in the Experimental and Control Groups

Group

Number

Mean

Standard Deviation

Degree of Freedom

n 86

͞Х 70.02

SD 16.57

Experimental Control

45.31

8.73

170

t-Cal

p value 12.24

0.000

Significant at p<0.05 The result in Table 2 showed that the t-test revealed a statistical significant difference between the post-test performance means score of the experimental group (͞Х = 70.02; SD = 16.57) and the control group (͞Х = 45.31; SD = 8.73); t(170) = 12.24; p < 0.05. The null hypothesis was therefore not accepted. This implies that a significant difference exists between the post-test performance mean scores of experimental group exposed to HALS and those of the control group not exposed to HALS. An effect size of 1.88 was also recorded, which according to © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

the range recorded by Becker (2000) indicated a large effect as a result of the intervention.

Hypothesis Three There is no significant difference between the post-test performance mean scores of male and female students who are exposed to HALS. The result of the t-test analysis for independent samples is presented in Table 3. Table 3:

Gender

Post-test Analysis Results of Scores of Male and Female Students Exposed to HALS

Number

Mean

Standard Deviation

Degree of Freedom

͞ Х 70.36

SD 17.03

Male

n 44

Female

69.67

16.26

t-Cal

p value 0.194

0.847

Not significant at p> 0.05 The result in Table 3 showed that the t-test failed to reveal a statistical significant difference between the post-test mean scores of male (͞Х =70.36; SD=17.03) and female students exposed to HALS (͞Х = 69.67; SD=16.26); t(84) = 0.194, p > 0.05. The decision was to retain the null hypothesis. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the post-test performance mean scores of male and female students exposed to HALS.

Hypothesis Four There is no significant difference between the post-test performance mean scores of students from public and private schools exposed to HALS. The result of the t-test analysis for independent samples is presented in Table 4. Table 4:

School Type

Public

Post-test Analysis Results of Scores of Students from Public and Private Schools Exposed to HALS

Number

Mean

Standard Deviation

Degree of Freedom

n 44

͞ Х 69.91

SD 15.75

df 84

Private

70.14

t-Cal

p value 0.065

0.948

17.57

Not significant at p> 0.05 The result in Table 4 showed that the t-test failed to reveal a statistical significant difference between the post-test mean scores of students from public (͞Х = 69.91; © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

SD=15.75) and private schools exposed to HALS (͞Х = 70.14; SD=17.57); t(84) = 0.065, p > 0.05. The decision was to retain the null hypothesis as there is no sufficient ground to reject the hypothesis. Therefore, there is no significant difference between the post-test performance mean scores of students from public and private schools exposed to HALS.

Discussion The study examined the effect of Hybrid Active Learning Strategy (HALS) and conventional lecture approach on students’ understanding of Direct Current Electricity Concepts (DCEC). The analysed results disclosed that there was no significant difference between the pre-test performance mean scores of experimental and control groups in their understanding of DCEC. This outcome collaborates the research finding of Agbatogun, Ajelabi, Oyewusi and Inegbedon (2011) which indicated that the entry performance of both intervention and control groups were at par. Determining if there are any pre-existing differences between the two groups was a good starting point for the treatments. This agrees with the findings of Akinbobola and Afolabi (2010), Bello (2011) and Tebabal and Kahssay (2011) that indicated same background knowledge in pretest for experimental and control groups in their studies. Furthermore, the analysed data showed that the performance level of the two groups before exposure to treatment was low. This confirmed WAEC Chief Examiners’ reports (2005-2013) in physics that indicated poor performance of students generally. Mankilik and Umaru (2011), Udoh (2012) and Erinosho (2013) also reported poor performance of students in physics. One major factor that might have contributed to this research outcome was the fact that equivalence was maintained between the two groups of students prior to treatment using random assignment. The experimental group students’ post-test mean scores were higher than that of the control groups. This implies that in the performance of students taught using HALS and those taught with the conventional lecture approach, there was a significant difference. This showed that HALS was effective in improving students understanding of DCEC. It was observed during the treatment that the experimental group students were actively participatory than the control group. This is in line with the findings of Tebabal and Kahssay (2011) and Bello (2011) which pointed out that a well-structured activity oriented, cooperative learning environment in physics enhanced students’ performance thereby enabling them to outscore their counterparts in the other group. The findings were also in agreement with the positions of Baser and Durmus (2010), Kiboss (2011) and Gambari and Yusuf (2014) that computer simulation improves students’ understanding of physics concepts through focusing on the dynamic characteristics of the simulated circuits, as well as strengthening students’ domain knowledge by retrieving and explaining problem solving steps. In addition, the recorded effect sizes imply that the intervention on the experimental group resulted in the large effect on their performances as compared to the control group. Generally, this means that there is sufficient evidence to claim that the HALS instruction improved students’ understanding of DCEC. © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Also, this research revealed that gender had no effect on the performance of students in DCEC when taught using HALS. Hence, there was no statistically significant effect of gender on students’ performance in DCEC. This is in line with the findings of Afolabi and Akinbobola (2009) and Ogunleye and Babajide (2011) that there is no significant effect of gender on students’ performance in physics. The finding also is not in agreement with the findings of Onah and Ugwu (2010) where they concluded that gender differences do exist in students’ achievements in physics. Researchers’ differing views on gender effect on students’ performance in physics suggests that if care is taken to make the classroom environment conducive for learning through the use of appropriate teaching strategy, both male and female students will perform equally well in any given task (Baser & Durmus, 2010). This suggests that HALS has been structured in such a way that it does not give one group an edge over the other. To give credence to this, Akinbobola and Afolabi (2010) observed that any good teaching approach used in teaching physics should not discriminate between sexes. It was also found that there was no statistically significant difference between the performance of students in the public and private schools taught using HALS. This means that there is no statistically significant difference between students’ performance in DCEC in both school types. This finding agrees with the findings of Lubianski and Lubianski (2006) who reported that students in regular public schools do as well as students in private schools when presented with equal learning opportunities. This shows that HALS which the students were exposed to in both the public and private schools, is an effective instructional strategy that presents equal learning opportunities to the students resulting in no significant differences in their performances.

Conclusion This study provides evidence that the use of HALS through computer simulation, cooperative learning, questioning, class discussion, manipulation, exploration and experimentation promotes students understanding of physics concepts in the classrooms. The result of this study showed that the performance level of both the experimental and control group students before treatments were low with no significant difference in their understanding of DCEC. The result further showed that students taught using HALS performed significantly better than their counterparts taught with conventional lecture approach. Furthermore, the result revealed that gender and school type had no effect on the performance of students taught using HALS indicating that HALS presents equal learning opportunities to the students. The implication of the findings of this work is that using HALS package, students can be taught abstract concepts in physics in a way that would promote their better understanding and make learning an enjoyable experience for them. This translates to optimal performance in physics examinations which can lead to the rapid production of a better workforce for the country’s technological advancement.

Recommendations The findings of this study, gave rise to the following recommendations:

4. 5.

Hybrid Active Learning Strategy (HALS) should be used in secondary schools for the teaching of direct current electricity concepts (DCEC) in physics to promote students’ understanding of concepts. Physics teachers should endeavor to use activity oriented mode of instructions like HALS in order to enable students participate actively in learning for better understanding. Nigerian secondary schools should be equipped with technologies like computers in conjunction with relevant computer assisted instructional packages such as HALS that will be fully accessible to the students to enhance learning and improve performance. Re-training of physics teachers through series of workshops and seminars on how to incorporate effectively small-size interactions using computer simulation such as HALS during physics lessons. Subject inspectors should impress it on teachers to effectively use handson and minds-on mode of instructions as contained in HALS that will yield positive results. Curriculum developers for senior secondary school physics should incorporate modern, adequate and appropriate strategies as incorporated in HALS in the teaching of physics.

References Adegoke, B. A. (2011). Effects of multimedia instruction on Senior Secondary School students’ achievement in physics. European Journal of Educational Studies, 3(3), 537550. Adeyemo, S. A (2010). Students ability level and their competence in problem solving task in physics. International Journal of Educational Research and Technology, 1(2), 3547. Afolabi, F., & Akinbobola, A. O. (2009). Constructivist problem- based learning technique and the academic achievement of physics students with low ability level in Nigerian secondary schools. Eurasian Journal of Physics and Chemistry Education, 1(1), 45-51. Agbatogun, A. O., Ajelabi, P. A., Oyewusi, L. M., & Inegbedion, J. (2011). Computerassisted programmee instruction revisited. A study on teaching typewriting in Nigerian higher institutions. ASCAN Journal of Information Technology, 10 (2), 6064. Aina, J. K., & Olanipekun, S.S. (2014). The influence of English language on students’ academic performance in physics in colleges of education. Asian Academic Research Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 1(23), 272-281. Akinbobola, A. O. (2009). Enhancing students’ attitude towards Nigerian senior secondary school physics through the use of cooperative competitive and individualistic learning strategies. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 34(1), 19. Akinbobola, A. O., & Afolabi, F. (2010). Constructivist practices through guided discovery approach: The effect on students’ cognitive achievement in Nigerian senior secondary school physics. Eurasian Journal of Physics and Chemistry Education, 2(1), 16-25. Baser, M., & Durmus, S. (2010). The effectiveness of computer supported versus real laboratory inquiry learning environments on the understanding of direct current electricity among pre-service elementary school teachers. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology, 6(1), 47-61.

Becker, L. A. (2000). Effect Size. Retrieved from http://web.uccs.edu /lbecker/Psy590/es.htm Bello, T. O (2011). Effects of group instructional strategy on students’ performance in selected physics concepts. The African Symposium, 11(1), 71-79. Erinosho, S. Y, (2013). How do students perceive the difficulty of physics in secondary school? An exploratory study in Nigeria. International Journal for Cross-disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), 3(3), 1510-1515. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education, Lagos: NERDC. Gambari,I. A., & Yusuf, M. O. (2014). Development and Validation of computer instructional package on physics for secondary schools in Nigeria. Educational Research International, 3(1), 112-130. Kaduna State Ministry of Education, KSMOE, (2008). Kaduna State Education Sector Analysis. Kaduna: Author Kiboss, J. K. (2011). Influence of e-learning environment program on pupils’ instructional approaches in physics measurement lessons in Kenyan secondary schools. Creative Education, 2(3), 244 – 251. Lubianski, C., & Lubianski, S. T. (2006). Private vs public schools: some surprises. Retrieved from http://educationwonk.blogspot.com/2006/01/private-vs-public-schoolssome.html Mankilik, M., & Umaru, M. G. (2011). Effects of teaching methods and ability level on students’ achievement in physics. African Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 1(1), 39-49. Ofodile, U. C., & Mankilik, M. (2015). Development and validation of a hybrid active learning strategy for teaching direct current electricity concepts for secondary schools in Nigeria. International Journal for Innovation Education and Research, 3(8), 55-66. Olatoye, R. A., & Agbatogun, A. O. (2009). Parental involvement as a correlate of pupils’ achievement in mathematics and science in Ogun state, Nigeria. Educational Research and Review, 4(10), 457-464. Ogunleye, B. O., & Babajide, V. F. T. (2011). Commitment to science and gender as determinants of students’ achievement and practical skills in physics. Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 46(1), 125-135. Onah, D. U., & Ugwu, E. I. (2010). Factors which predict performance in secondary school physics in Ebonyi north educational zone of Ebonyi state, Nigeria. Advances in Applied Science Research, 1(3), 255-258. Reigeluth, C. M. (2009). Understanding Understanding. Retrieved from http: //en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Understanding:_The_Importance_of Understanding Tebabal, A., & Kahssay, G. (2011). The effects of student-centred approach in improving students’ graphical interpretation skills and conceptual understanding of kinematical motion. Latin American Journal Physics Education, 5(2), 374-380. Udoh, O. A. (2012). Refocusing physics education in Nigeria: Issues and challenges in teacher education. Mediterranean Center of Social and Educational Research, 3(13), 1119. WAEC. (2005-2013). The West African Examination Council: Chief examiners’ reports (Nigeria). Lagos, Nigeria: Author. WAEC. (2008). Executive summary of entries, results and chief examiners report on West African Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) conducted in Nigeria. Lagos, Nigeria: Author. Zacharia, Z. C., & Olympiou, G. (2010). Physical versus virtual manipulative experimentation in physics learning. Learning and Instruction, 21(3), 317-331.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No.2, pp. 88-96, September 2015

Problem-Based Learning: Mandatory Personal Qualities of Effective Facilitators Nor Junainah Mohd Isa, Ahmad Jazimin Jusoh and Mohd Muzafar Shah Mohd Razali Department of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Education and Human Development, Sultan Idris Education University, 35900 Tanjong Malim, Perak, Malaysia.

Abstract. In any teaching context, shifting traditional methods of learning to problem-based learning often invites many questions and views from various parties. For more than thirty years, there have been ongoing debates as to issues such as the proper method of execution, appropriate curriculum, and learning environment for problem-based learning, as well as the cognitive skills and personal qualities of the facilitator (lecturer). Because the facilitator is a crucial component to this form of learning, this article focuses on investigating two personal qualities that are the main prerequisites to producing an effective facilitator. The importance of these qualities, as well as the proposed measures to implement problem-based learning, are also discussed. Keywords : problem-based learning, knowledge, competence, effective facilitator

Introduction Problem-based learning is an approach that began in the mid-1960’s (Dolmans et al., 2002; Major, 1999) at Canada’s McMaster University. The method was born in the field of medical education (Nesargikar, 2010), and soon expanded further into other countries by the year 1970 (Rhem, 1998; Savin-Baden, 2000), where the method was soon adopted in higher education (Wood, 2004) for business (Peterson, 2004; Whelan-Berry & Marshall, 2000), nursing (Dehkordi & Heydarnejad, 2008), statistics (Bude’ et al., 2009), and engineering education (Shahrom et al., 2005). Today, teaching and learning methods that use problems as a motive and main focus (Hillman, 2003) to generate knowledge are also being applied to students in secondary schools all around the world (Belland et al., 2009; Ramlee & Zaharatul Laili, 2008).

This increasing push for problem-based learning is due to its effectiveness in shaping students’ flexibly, so that they may be able to apply their knowledge and skills more readily in the real world. As Savin-Baden (2000:2) notes: Problem based learning is an approach to learning through which many students have been enabled to understand their own situations and frameworks so that they are able to perceive how they learn, and how they see themselves as future professionals. Perhaps because it is being incorporated into more and varying fields of study, problem-based learning is often at the center of many debates. Some issues include tackling the early challenges of adapting the paradigm of traditional learning to problem-based learning (Ertmer & Simons., 2005; Nesargikar, 2010); defeating misconceptions about the practice (Savin-Baden, 2000); understanding the benefits and negative implications of problem-based learning in specific curriculum or courses (Banta et al., 2000; Neville, 1999); and comparing views on the roles of an effective facilitator (Dahlgren et al., 1998; Dolmans et al., 2002; Van Berkel & Dolmans, 2006), as well as said individuals’ skills and competencies needed to lead groups (Azer, 2005; Sadaf et al., 2009; Jung et al., 2005). These issues remain heavily debated and studied, particularly in regards to the roles, responsibilities, and qualifications of effetive facilitators. This matter deserves attention, considering the importance of a strong authority figure in ensuring the success of problem-based learning; thus, the discussion in this article will focus on two personal qualities that are the main prerequisites for proficient faciliators. The requirement of these personal qualities not only help to clarify the nature and role of the facilitator, but also alleviate other relevant issues such as the finding the proper method of execution, curriculum, and educational environment for problem-based learning. Finally, with more faciliators posessing the required qualities, we can challenge existing misconceptions about this form of teaching and learning.

Personal Quality Effective Facilitator Problem-based learning is an alternative method that produces individual that can meet the demands of the job market (Savin-Baden, 2000), which are often complex, unstructured, and cannot be obtained through reading and studying alone (Peterson, 2004). By practicing their curriculum, students are exposed to activities that enhance problem-solving skills (Belland et al., 2009), comfort in interacting and socializing (Wood, 2003), self-sufficiency, and life-long learning (Low Chin Han & Ng Hui Teng, 2005; Wood, 2004). Students’ abilities to build knowledge and hone these skills are heavily dependant on their lecturers’ abilities to efficiently control active methods of learning (Bude’ et al., 2009; Hillman, 2003; Van Berkel & Dolmans, 2006; Woods, 1996). Based on the review of literature, it appears that there are two important personal features that enable a faciliator to effectivly implement problem-based learning: 1) content

knowledge and competence, and 2) skillfulness in handling groups. The following is a description of both features:

Content Knowledge and Competence Effective facilitators are those who have proficient knowledge and expertise in the courses they are teaching (Dolmans et al., 2002). Furthermore, they must understand what discipline entails in their respective fields, the underlying philosophy of that work, and the learning outcomes that can be achieved by students. However, as confirmed by Neville (1999) and Peterson (2004), problem-based learning should not encompass the whole of any curriculum or course, since this method has its limitations. In fact, its implementation must first be in line with existing knowledge of students and must be introduced by the facilitator at appropriate stages so that optimal results can be obtained. Therefore, each lecturer must have an accurate understanding of the curriculum and courses, so that he or she may select and plan out the most appropriate operation of teaching for his or her line of study. In addition, the facilitator should also understand the differences and similarities of various teaching methods (philosophy, procedures, outcomes, etc.), as to avoid misunderstanding or confusion when implementing a particular practice. According to Savin-Baden (2000), unclear understandings and interpretations may cause some people to believe that they are carrying out a certain methods, when, in reality, they are being ineffective or negligent. Amongst common confusions, Savin-Baden (2000) notes that many faciliators have trouble identifying differences in problem-based learning with simply learning to solve specific problems. He cautioned that, although both provide scenarios to resolve problems, the focus of learning outcomes, scope of solutions, and context are all different. This is because the scope of the discussion when learning to solve problems depends on the content of the studied topics; in contrast, problem-based learning offers methods of understanding and thinking that can cross all courses and curriculum, and be applied to most contexts. Without recognizing these differences, facilitators may carry out “problembased learning” because it sound attractive (Ertmer & Simons, 2005), even though they do not truly know the purpose and benefits of this specific method. In problem-based learning, the facilitator's role is to design a quality problem (Van Berkel & Dolmans, 2006)-unstructured, complex (Peterson, 2004), practical, realistic, and across disciplines (ESCalate, 2007)-in line with the prescribed learning outcomes. The next task of the facilitator is to guide students in solving the problem (Ramlee & Zaharul Laili, 2008) through cognitive activities (Dolmans et al., 2002), such as asking open-ended questions (Peterson, 2004), motivating students to learn (Pederson & Liu, 2003), constructing and evaluating hypotheses to help students focus on their inquiries (Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006), challenging students’ critical thinking skills (Woods, 1996), and creating relationships and formulas to obtain information (Ertmer & Simons, 2005). After these procedures, counseling can be reduced little by little, depending on the

capabilities of and exposure given to the students, as well as their abilities to carry out independent learning (Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006). Facilitators must have knowledge of the educationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s content and understanding of how problem-based learning should be implemented. Proficiency in both these areas will not only help facilitators adapt their leadership styles to various types of students, but also address issues such as the role and involvement of facilitators, the application of problem-based learning to larger groups of students, and the resources required to support student activities. The facilitator must also determine which courses are applicable and appropriate for problembased learning, thereby planning problems that give meaning to students. Once faciliators perform these steps in the learning process and determine the appropriate valuation of the learning outcomes defined, they can encourage students to be independent in acquiring knowledge.

2. Skillfullness in Handling Groups It is well known that the problem-based learning involves the construction of small, active groups of students (ESCalate, 2007; Wood, 2004), who collaborate with each other to solve problems (Ertmer & Simons, 2005). However, the success of this group depends on the dynamism that allows members to play a role in the learning and teaching (Jacob et al., 2009). Dynamism (Azer, 2005), according to Jacob et al. (2009), can be observed through the interaction between the facilitator and the group members, and between members themselves. Moreover, Corey et al. (2010) and Ohlsen (1970) also associates dynamism with therapeutic and anti-therapeutic energies, which both operate in a group. Researchers such as Gambhir (2007), Jung et al. (2005), Nesargikar (2010), and Van Berkel & Dolmans (2006 agree that group dynamics are key to group learning activities and need to be addressed by the facilitators when implementing problem-based learning. The group dynamic, as noted by Wood (2003), is key to establishing the skills and attitudes necessary for use in the real world. A dynamic group can be formed if the facilitator has the competence and skills of handling groups. Discussions amongst facilitators, as oberserved by Azer (2005), Chen & Rybak (2004), Corey et al. (2010), Ertmer & Simons (2005), Jacob et al. (2009), Liwen (2007), Nesargikar (2010), Ohlsen (1970), Wood (2004), and Yalom (1975), revealed that there are several abilities that a facilitators must have full grasp of in order to provide optimum guidance to the group. These features help facilitators play their roles effectively, solving issues that arise while implementing problem-based learning, such as conflicts among members or difficulties in reaching conducive answers to a given problem. In their discussion, facilitators summarized necessary characteristics, competencies, and skills for handling groups: 1. Facilitators must understand the nature, goals, limitations, and advantages of the controlled group. A clear understanding can help facilitators devise a plan beforehand, choose the appropriate members

for the group, and have a degree of leadership within the framework of the relevant groups. Facilitator must clearly understand the different levels of understanding that exist in a particular group to ensure that learning and development occurs smoothly for everyone. This knowledge allows the facilitator to prepare and implement appropriate interventions, such restructuring the group so that members can be more productive. Facilitators must be trained and practice leadership skills such as providing feedback, drawing out, cutting off, spinning off, linking, modelling, and using eyes and tone of voice to encourage all members to participate in discussion. Guidance, support, and appreciation can also increase the motivation of each member to work in tandem to solve a problem Facilitators must understand and pay attention to verbal or nonverbal elements that may influence the group dynamic. The size of the group, the facilitatorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attitude, meeting settings, and the attitude exhibited by all members of the group can all determine whether the groups are therapeutic, neutral, or anti-therapeutic. Facilitators must be comfortable in their roles and have knowledge about the topic of discussion, all the while being patient, flexible, friendly, and open-minded. These feature allow the facilitator to effectively guide the group through both the understanding of the problem and the process of solving it. Facilitators must realize the challenges that come with leading a group. Some concerns to keep in mind are the attitudes of members who try to dominate discussion, empty conversations, storytelling that deviates from the original point, fights and conflicts between members. In addition, faciliators must also be constantly aware of their own feelings of disappointment or anger towards the members. Awareness of the possible problems can help facilitators build trust and ties between members of the group.

In short, facilitators must 1) wisely and efficiently execute the lesson content, and 2) adeptly handle the group process. However, as confirmed by Wood (2004), listening, speaking, and arguing are not only responsibilities of the facilitator, but also the students. Cooperation and interaction in group activities will also increase the students' skills to work as a team, build trust, and nourish positive attitudes towards altruism and self-compassion.

Implications And Recommendations With the understanding that facilitators must possess both personal qualities to effectively implement problem-based learning, appropriate changes must be taken to ensure that individual can provide the best guidance. The following recommendations could be considered to help identify and develop effective personal qualities:

1. Courses or workshops on philosophy, curriculum, and learning outcomes An expert facilitator is one who understands the teaching curriculum (Wood, 2003) and is able to plan and implement appropriate learning methods. Appropriate resources and help should be provided to every lecturer in any department so that he or she may understand the curriculum fully and develop learning outcomes consistent with the program or universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goals. As of now, not all lecturers are clearly informed about the disciplines that are taught, either because they do not understand the philosophy behind the curriculum or how to achieve a specific learning outcome. Ambiguity and lack in these areas hinder the teaching process, since the facilitator will not know when or if to problembased learning, or any other learning methods for that matter. Therefore, all lecturers must be required to attend courses that detail the curriculum and learning outcomes, so that they do not deviate from the intended path.

2. Facilitator Training: Problem-Based Learning The shift from traditional teaching methods to problem-based learning causes confusion in its definition and execution, as well as how the facilitator advances the change (Dolmans et al., 2002; Ertmer & Simons, 2005; Savin-Baden, 2000). Difficulties and obstacles are often encountered in the early stages of implementation (Jung et al. 2005), coupled with the lack of support and resources to fully go through with it (Ertmer & Simons, 2005). These problems arise from facilitatorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; misunderstanding of and reluctance towards modfying their teaching to more student-centered learning methods. Without the proper educationa and practice, facilitators will feel neither confident nor prepared in their work. Thus, in order for lecturers to fully accept and feel comfortable with this method, their training in lectures, workshops, and discussions must cover implementation, advantages, limitations, suitability, and the importance of problem-based learning. In addition to this core training, tips, materials, and resources must be made available to them at all times.

3. Facilitator Training: Handling Small Groups Facilitators must be able to guide small groups effectively to have a strong dynamic, all the while preventing them from running off course; however, such skills cannot be learned through books alone and require hands-on practice. As explained by Chen & Rybak (2004), Corey et al. (2010), and Jacob et al. (2009), before an individual is eligible to operate the group, he or she must first experience small group settings as a member of co-facilitators, who then receive guidance from expert facilitators. In addition to gaining exposure to different ways of implementation and leadership styles, the facilitators-in-training will also gain an accurate understanding of the theoretical framework behind problem-based learning, since they themselves will experience the group setting and see their performance. By practicing therapeutic techniques on themselves, facilitators will have insight on the most effective ways to reach out to the groups they will lead in the future.

4. Feedback and Continuous Assessment The faculty and university are advised to conduct activities that will continue to improve faciliators’ professionalism in implementing problem-based learning. Through feedback and ongoing assessments, facilitators can share their experiences, identify barriers, and make improvements. As also recommended by the Dolmans et al. (2002) and Jung et al (2005), facilitators must be given space and supportive environment to reflect on their practice. Therefore, it is proposed that facilitators be kept up to date with periodical skill training. These sessions will give facilitators the opportunity to practice new skills in different settings through role-playing activities, and their performance will be given immediate feedback. Through dialogue, narration, session "mini-pbl," and constructive feedback, facilitators will continuously have solid foundations on which to carry out their teaching methods effectively.

Conclusion In order to introduce problem-based learning into the educational space, an effective facilitator must possess knowledge and competence of the content they are teaching, as well the skills to control groups. These personal qualities not only reflect the professionalism and character of the facilitator, but also address many questions that arise when considering the implementation of problembased learning. These qualities are not necessarily inherent, but require continuous training in order to be fully established and then properly utilized by the facilitator. In order to promote effective implementation problem-based learning, appropriate actions should be taken so that every lecturer can be supplied with enough knowledge and resources to feel confidence in their work.

References Azer, S.A. (2005). Challenges facing PBL tutors: 12 tips for successful group facilitation. Medical Teacher. 27 (8) : 676–681. Banta, T.; Black, K.E.; & Kline, K.A. (2000). PBL 2000 plenary address offers evidence for and against problem-based learning. PBL Insight. 3 (3). Belland, B.R.; Glazewski, K.D.; & Ertmer, P.A. (2009). Inclusion and problem-based learning: Roles of students in a mixed-ability group. RMLE Online. 32 (9): 1-19. Bude’, L.; Imbos, T.; Wiel, M.W.J.; Broers, N.J.; & Berger, M.P.F. (2009). The effect of directive tutor guidance in problem-based learning of statistics on students’ perceptions and achievement. Higher Education. 57 : 23-36. Chen, M.W & Rybak, C. J. (2004). Group leardership skills: Interpersonal process in group counseling and therapy. (1st ed). Belmont: Brooks/Cole Corey,M.S.; Corey, G; Corey, C. (2010). Group: Process and practice. (8th ed). Belmont: Brooks/Cole. Dahlgren, M.A.; Castensson, R.; & Dahlgren, L.A. (1998) PBL from the teachers’ perspective: Conceptions of the tutor’s role within problem based learning. Higher Education. 36 : 437-447. Dehkordi, A.H.; & Heydarnejad, M.S. (2008). The impact of problem-based learning and lecturing on the behavior and attitudes of Iranian nursing students: A randomised controlled trial. British Medical Bulletin. 55 (4) : 224-226.

Dolmans, D.H.J.M.; Gijselaers, W.H.; Moust, J.H.S.; DeGrave, W.S.; Wolfhagen, I.H.A.P.; & Van der Vleuten, C.P.M. (2002). Trends in research on the tutor in problem based-learning: Conclusions and implications for educational practice and research. Medical Teacher. 24 (2) : 173-180. Ertmer, P.A.; & Simons, K.D (2005). Scaffolding teachers’ efforts to implement problembased learning. Dimuat turun pada 18 November 2010 dari www.edci.purdue.edu/ertmer/docs/Ertmer-LC05.pdf ESCalate (2007). Problem based learning. Dimuat turun pada 18 November 2010 dari www.escalate.ac.uk Gambhir, P.B. (2007). Staff development in India: An experiment in orienting conventional teaching strategy to problem-based learning discourses. Kertas kerja dibentangkan dalam International Problem-Based Learning Symposium, 7 hingga 9 Mac 2007 di Singapura. Hillman, W. (2003). Learning how to learn: Problem based learning. Australian Journal of Teacher Education. 28 (2) : 1-10. Hmelo-Silver, C.E. & Barrows, H.S. (2006). Goals and strategies of a problem-based learning facilitator. The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning. 1 (1) : 23-39. Jacobs, E.E; Masson, R.L; Harvil, R.L. (2009). Group counseling: Strategies and skills. (6th ed). Belmont: Brooks/Cole Jung, B.; Tryssenaar, J.; & Wilkins, S. (2005). Becoming a tutor: Exploring the learning experiences and needs of novice tutors in a PBL programme. Medical Teacher. 27 (7) : 606–612. Liwen, Q. (2007). Relation-oriented facilitation in problem-based learning. Kertas kerja dibentangkan dalam International Problem-Based Learning Symposium, 7 hingga 9 Mac 2007 di Singapura. Low Chin Han & Ng Hui Teng (2005). Effects of Problem-Based Learning on Students’ SelfDirected Learning Behaviours in Mathematics. Kertas kerja dibentangkan dalam Redesigning Pedagogy: Research, Policy, Practice, 30 Mei hingga 1 Jun 2005 di Singapura. Major, C. (1999). Editor’s notes. PBL Insight. 2 (1). Nesargikar, P.N. (2010). From student to tutor in problem based learning: An unexplored avanue. British Journal of Medical Practitioners. 3(2) : 313. Neville, A.J. (1999). The problem-based learning tutor: Teacher? Facilitator? Evaluator? Medical Teacher. 21 (4) : 393-401. Ohlsen, M.M. (1970). Group counseling. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Pederson, S.; & Liu, M. (2003). Teachers’ beliefs about issues in the implementation of a student-centered learning environment. Educational Technology Research and Development. 51 (2) : 57-76. Peterson, T.O. (2004) So you’re thinking of trying problem based learning?: Three critical success factors for implementation. Journal Of Management Education. 28 (5) : 630647 Ramlee Mustapha & Zaharatul Laili Abdul Rahim (2008). Pembelajaran berasaskan masalah bagi mata pelajaran elektronik: Satu kajian tindakan di sekolah menengah teknik. Jurnal Teknologi. 49 : 109-127. Rhem, J. (1998). Problem-based learning: An introducation. National Teaching and Learning Forum. 8 (1). Sadaf, S.; Ali, S.K.; & Zuberi, R.W. (2009). Problem-based learning: Enhancing tutors' facilitation skills using structured small group experiential learning. Education for Health. 22 (1). Savin-Baden, M. (2000). Problem-based learning in higher education: Untold Stories. Buckingham: The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press.

Shahrom Mohd Zain, Noor Ezlin Ahmad Basri, Hassan Basri, & Fatihah Suja’(2005). Ke arah pembelajaran berasaskan masalah (pbl) dalam kursus pengenalan kejuruteraan sekitaran. Dalam Pascasidang Seminar Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Berkesan (hlmn 46-53). Bangi. Van Berkel, H.J.M. & Dolmans, D.H.J.M. (2006). The influence of tutoring competencies on problems, group functioning and student achievement in problem-based learning. Medical Education. 40 : 730-736. Whelan-Berry, K.S.; & Marshall, J.B. (2000). Undergraduate business education and problem–based learning. PBL Insight. 3 (1). Wood, E.J. (2004). Problem-based learning: Exploiting knowledge of how people learn to promote effective learning. BEE-j.3. Wood, D.F. (2003). ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: Problem based learning. British Medical Journal. 326 : 328-330. Woods, D.R. (1996). Problem-based learning: Helping your students gain the most from PBL. (3rd. ed). Ontario: Waterdown. Yalom, D. I. (1975) The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Publishers.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No.2, pp. 97-115, September 2015

Scenario-Based Design Methods for Developing a Breast Cancer Health Care Information Website Dr. Chih-Lin Tseng Department of Multimedia and Game Design, Overseas Chinese University Taichung, Taiwan Abstract. This study uses scenario-based design (SBD) method to develop support tools that can facilitate brainstorming ideas for breast cancer health care (BCHC) information website. It engaged in experiment with nine designers using support tools to develop 42 concept sketches and divided 5 types of solution scenarios into; Guideline, Menu, GUI, Scenario and Game. SBD method is converted into the cyclical process of “information analysis to concept synthesis to design evaluation” using a post-experiment interview. Although SBD can integrate pre-design work, support tools can effectively stimulate the speed for brainstorming design concept and consider multifaceted user needs. Furthermore, support tools can empower designers quickly develop feasible BCHC information design solutions to the problems encountered by Taiwanese women. Keywords: Scenario-based Design, Breast Information, Website Design, Concept Design.

Cancer

Health

Care

Introduction Patients’ medical consumption and health information environment have changed dramatically since the rise of internet (Caron, Berton, & Beydon, 2007). Robinson, Patrick, Eng & Gustafson (1998) have defined "interactive health communication" as "the interaction of an individual-consumer, patient, caregiver as well as professional-with or through and electronic device or communication technology to access or transmit health information or to receive guidance and support on a health-related issue". The advantage of health information website is providing integrated information during comprehensive health education process, to detail description of treatment information at each period that easy to update knowledge and provide clinical cases (Clayman, Boberg, & Makoul, 2008). Thus, designers must understand users how to seek BCHC information, to utilize information providing and support tools from BCHC website when a user-centered health information website is designed. Hence, how to offer correct, easy understanding information to affect users’ medical seeking behavior then decision making on their medical choice. © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Literature Review Online breast cancer health care information Breast cancer is a common disease among women (Sutton & Patkar, 2009; Schmidt et al., 2015) and is the most frequent cancer of women in both developed and developing worlds (World Health Organization [WHO], 2012). However, more women are surviving this cancer due to the improved treatment and detection of symptoms at an early stage (Burgess et al., 2005). According to the Health Information National Trends Survey, online health information resources offer prevention and treatment options and decision making for patients (Hesse et al., 2005). The traditional face-to-face communication method is insufficiencies such as dept and breadth information needs, comprehension of professional language, controlling over consultation times, promotional content and responses questions to public etc. Internet information of breast cancer has become an important source and assist patients to enquiry doctors’ appropriate questions while in consultation (Shaw et al., 2007). Research by the Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project and the California HealthCare Foundation (2009) indicated that 61% of adults had searched for health information online. Ghaddar, Valerio, Garcia and Mlis (2012) expressed that 81% of adolescent had accessed health information online and 59% had sought health information related to a family member’s health online. Sabee, Bylund, Weber and Sonet (2012) also pointed out that patients had various goals for discussing internet research with their health care provider as follows; seeking opinion or advice, verifying information, managing impression, learning and testing. The health information had been reported and provided by internet and media thereby breaking down the barriers of time and space, but it had also immersed people in complicated health information. Readers must often consider information source while seeking information online, such as the author who writes behind the text (Rouet & Puustinen, 2009). WHO (2004) emphasized that a majority (69%) of all breast cancer deaths occur in developing countries. This study considers Taiwanese women as the Breast Cancer Health Care (BCHC) end-users. The provision of trustworthy information, easy browsing and website interaction process of Taiwanese women were filtered principles for medical websites (Lin, Tseng, & Lee, 2010). Hence, effective BCHC information websites could facilitate promoting BCHC information, thus achieving easy of use. Usability has been shown to be a key factor when the services organization using internet (Flavian, Guinaliu, & Gurrea, 2006) and poor interface functionality has been seen as a potential cause for web usability breakdown (Nielsen, 1999). Zhang and Dran (2000) indicated to achieve satisfaction, users may spend more time at website, revisit website and recommend website to others. Javenpaa and Todd (1997) indicated users’ situation would be considered and gave more service then to offer perfect experience except technology promotion when website in designing. In fact, advantages and disadvantages of online health information exist. For example, the availability of online information may aid in making decisions that are more definitive and increase the participation of patients in their treatment; thus, patients can make more comprehensive preparations in advance of professional care and consultation (Berland et al., 2001). However, because © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

internet cannot be regulated, information provided is of uneven quality (John, 2005). Consequently, the content of health information websites should conform to the standards for evaluating good health information websites (Eysenbach, Yihune, Lampe, Cross, & Brickey, 2000) by embracing guidelines for health information and usability considerations (Winker et al., 2000). The constitute elements of communication online health information included; to satisfy patients’ questions, to display respectfully patient’s interesting information and patient’s ability (Bastian, 2008). Breast cancer has three periods of measurement indicators; prevention, treatment and follow-up and currently has different health information for each periods (Lin, Tseng, & Lee, 2011), therefore, the design of BCHC information websites should consider and satisfy different periods of users’ needs to acquire correct information for using and understanding easily.

The design process of website Website design analysis, design, construction and evaluation have received considerable attention from researchers and designers. Newman and Landay (2000) studied actual website design practices and observed that during design process and designers use multiple websites for reference which could help them focus on different aspects of design, furthermore graphic design, web development, presentation, word-processing software, pen and paper are all important tools used in design process. Sketch is seen as an important and indispensable part in conceptual of design phase (Lawson, 1994). Paper sketches are especially important during exploration phase of website design and designers attempt to explore different design possibilities without concerning themselves with lower level details (Newman & Landay, 2000). Tseng, Moss, Cagan and Kotovsky (2008) noted that professional designers usually took a break when they encountered difficulties during conceptualization process to read magazines or webpage, seemingly without specific objectives, only returned to conceptualization process that new concepts tend to originate frequently. Laseau (1989) suggested that design involved the endless cycling process of “brain-hand-media-eyes”. Schӧn and Wiggins (1992) proposed design process that follows theoretical model of “see-move-see”, it was conformed a cyclical, interactive process between designer and using tools. This cycle working was likely one self-dialogue that discovered on the visual of “sketch-check-revision” when designers investigated their own conceptual sketches. Herbert (1993) indicated that design was the result of continuous “drawing-response-drawing” between sketches and media. Many studies focus on the domain of design thinking when they seek to clarify conceptualization process of design.

The role of Scenario-based design The basic concept of scenario-based design (SBD) seeks to understand user task and user interaction which leads designer to consider the important issues and user needs to enable design (Carroll, 1995). In design, scenario design methods or situation-description methods primarily focus on future usage contexts for product to satisfy consumers’ emotional needs at beginning of design process (Mcllroy, 2003). Alexander and Beus-Dukic (2009) defined a © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

100

scenario as communicating a situation, usually as it evolves through time in a series of steps. This design process of contexts was used to determine a userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior model through analyzing and interpreting behavior and using problem scenarios to construct procedures that are utilized to guide users to background theme. This method uses abstract and latent knowledge such as usage context, interactive models and key issues, such as the function base module for writing and scenario experiences, to resolve the important points of user design problem. User experience should include; user sees, hears and comes into contact with anything, their experience include factors; the product being easy to buy, easy to set up, easy to learn, easy to use, intuitive, engaging and useful (Vredenburg, Isensee, & Righi, 2002). Any experience is important for users (Shedroff, 2001). Although not all usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; experiences can be applied to design, designers have to understand experiential elements that can be designed. The creation and sharing of scenario method is used to return to a context that has happened or to present future virtual experiences (Battarbee, 2001). First, designers using SBD methods for problem scenarios must actively search for new ideas to use in transforming problem scenarios into design scenarios (Rosson & Carroll, 2002). SBD using for information technology addresses five technical challenges that could help designers; coordinating design action and reflection, managing the fluidity of design situations, managing consequences that result from any given design move, recognizing, capturing and reusing technical knowledge that often lags behind needs of technical design and making design activities more accessible for better communication to stakeholders (Carroll, 2000). A scenario-based design and an ethnographic study have previously been used as methods for user-centered design (UCD) as an analytic method (Park, 2011; Vincent, & Blandford, 2015). UCD has been popularized to improve the usability of websites, systems and many products (Vredenburg, Mao, Smith, & Carey, 2002). This study explores user-centered considerations of issues on preliminary design of BCHC information websites. In design conceptual development, the designer often uses various methods to originate a concept. Therefore, design method operations also emphasize the need for assistance in brainstorming design concepts. This study focuses on giving sufficient design information to designers in conceptual of design phase to explore whether this information can help with brainstorming ideas for BCHC information website concept. Furthermore, three questions of research hereunder; RQ1: How is the feasibility of supporting tools based on a SBD method in creating BCHC information website design concept? RQ2: Do the differences reveal between support tools based on a SBD method and traditional creative brainstorming methods during the concept developing process? RQ3: Can this study discover any effects on BCHC information website due to using support tools as design methods?

Methods Analysis user needs through interviews Because the nature of SBD involves predictive descriptions, this study used interviews and observation to engage in user analysis to avert subjective production. The analysis of user needs was summarized from interviews with ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

101

three medical practitioners; a health hospital consultant, a doctor and a registered nurse were invited to determine that current promotional materials of health information in Taiwan hospitals focused on regular breast examinations, the communication of health information and instructions for breast selfexaminations (BSE). The information focused on nurses, case managers and volunteers demonstrating BSE and preventative content of breast cancer DVDs in hospitals. Most users received professional BCHC information directly from hospitals. Environmental factors were considerably influential also (McCoy & Evans, 2002); thus, this study used treatment environment and procedures of Taiwan public hospitals to record the promoting ways of BCHC information provided by consultation, promotion, broadsheets and promotional films. These findings were applied to the context configurations of problem scenario. This study also interviewed twelve Taiwanese women (A1-A12) to represent prevention, treatment and follow-up periods. Prevention period; they are healthy without breast cancer (A1-A8). Treatment period; they have breast cancer and are accepting medical treatment (A9-A10). Follow-up period; they had breast cancer before (A11-A12). Interviewees all had experience in searching for health information online. The interview content included four topics such as family history of cancer, living habit, using what channel for BCHC information and knowledge of BCHC information. The average age of interviewees was 37.6 years; Nine of the twelve interviewees have someone in their family who currently has or had cancer (75%) and five of them have someone in their family who has or had breast cancer (41.7%). Therefore, the age distribution of interviewees and presence of cancer in their family histories generally conformed to conditions for crucial groups; their lifestyles and user characteristics had referential value for future studies. This study organized the lifestyles of users from above mentioned three periods and its results were; 1. Users in these three periods not only showed differences in terms of their needs and their urgency for BCHC information but also in their knowledge of BCHC. Women during prevention period generally didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have the habit of regularly checking for BCHC information (A1-A7). These women only sought information if they themselves or their friends had similar diseases in which case they felt panic and increased their frequency of seeking medical help or online information (A3-A6, A8). 2. A summary based on the lifestyle experiences of interviewees had shown that women living at regular lifestyle and stress were important factors affected health under treatment and follow-up periods (A9-A12). 3. Women of three periods all had searching experience of BCHC information online. Among them, women during treatment period had the greatest urgency and time-sensitivity for seeking BCHC information. The frequency of these women searching BCHC information online was one to three times per week, their searches content focused on health information such as check-up schedules and post-operative diet recommendations. 4. Women of three periods all emphasized the reliability of BCHC information and primarily used hospital, television and internet. 5. Women above 50 tend to accept help from their children in searching for BCHC information online (A10-A12). They noted that they were difficult to read information on screen due to small font size and also unfamiliar with ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

102

interface operations. 6. Women in prevention period had more diverse using information access mediums of BCHC information than women in treatment and follow-up periods through media of computers, cell phones and iPod touch. Thus, they were relatively familiar with internet, WiFi and mobile internet, but didn’t have strong impressions regarding the content of BCHC information (A1A8). Women in treatment period had the greatest and most urgent needs for BCHC information and participated in regular meetings at the Kaihuai Association. These women regularly received BCHC information, citing attentive care on a psychological level as another important need (A9, A10). Women in follow-up period had ample experience with their own cancer treatment and could consult with their friends or acted as volunteers (A11, A12).

The construction of supplementary tools This study used the BCHC information website’s blueprint of the needs framework (Figure 1) and the problem scenario (Figure 2) as experimental support tools were configured hereunder; 1. First, the outcome of analysis’ user needs based on interview with twelve Taiwanese women to summarize a blueprint regarding the framework of needs for BCHC information website. The problem scenario further developed by survey results, the aim was utilizing user’s background environment, the user s’ needs and lifestyles obtained from interviews and observation to adjust the orientation of BCHC information website. 2. The BCHC information website’s blueprint of needs framework showed that three periods of users demand certain features from online BCHC information; a fast speed of learning, ease in operation, an increase of new knowledge, a review of BCHC information, personalized BCHC information and BCHC information consultation. Women in follow-up period who had participated in volunteering and medical nursing needed the functions of BCHC instruction and promotion. Not only computers but also smart phones and digital devices such as iPads with WiFi connectivity which could effectively resolve urgent user needs for browsing health information. 3. The problem scenario needed to add contextual factors presenting user needs and problems. The contextual factors included specific tasks, information needs and user knowledge (Wang, Hawk, & Tenopir, 2000). This problem scenario used interviewing results to determine online BCHC needs of users in three periods to develop 14 context storyboards (Figure 2). The content included scene of user reception of BCHC information, the opportunity and problems were encountered while searching online BCHC information.

103

Figure 1: BCHC information website’s blueprint of the needs framework.

Figure 2: Construction of the Problem Scenario.

104

To develop conceptual sketch by using SBD and data analysis As regards nine designers’ participating in experiment, they had exceeded five years of design experience and all had college education background. Nine designers had website design expertise and thus were permitted to participate in experiment. The experimental process included a conceptual sketch design and a post-experiment interview; With BCHC information website concern the conceptual sketches would be developed after designers read support tools. The experimental instructions required that all designers propose at least three conceptual sketches for homepage, without any limitation on the number of subpages. After experiment, semi-structured interview included four questions on design concept, traditional methods, usage experiences and differences in designer’s experience (Table 1) which could further understand their design concept and assist concept developing methods by themselves. The samples were taken as support tools’ efficiency of BCHC information website conceptual sketches development, to measure the differences between traditional design and using these support tools for brainstorming. Verbal Protocols was used to allow designers engaging on more detailed description of design concept after experiment had ended. This technique originated in the field of cognitive psychology and cognitive science (Cross, 1999); by designers described their thinking, researcher could understand their process of thinking at short-term memory (Ericsson & Simon, 1993). Two encoders collected data from experiment and interview transcripts to extract important concepts for encoding. The encoded content was subjected to a reliability test before further analysis. Table 1. The content of semi-structured interviews Items Categories Contents 1 Conceptual design Please explain your conceptual sketches for BCHC information website. 2 Traditional methods Do you use any stimulated methods to assist you while you are implementing a design? 3 Experienced usage Do the support tools increase your inspiration while creating a design? Experienced Are your design experiences different when you use the supplemental tools to carry out a 4 differences design?

Encoding Reliability Nine designers (B1- B9) participated in experiment to propose 42 conceptual sketches. The experiment summarizes designers’ sketch concepts for improving health information browsing and interface operations which were used to propose design solutions for BCHC information website. Then, two encoders used the data collected in experiment, as well as the interview transcripts, to extract concepts from the solutions proposed by designers. A consistency percentage formula was used to measure the reliability of encoders (Holsti, 1969) and to test for consistency between items extracted by two encoders. The data analysis derived 112 items, with a calculated encoding reliability of 0.93; the reliability (r≧0.8) is clearly acceptable and conforms to the Krippendorf’s rule standard (Krippendorf, 2004). Reliability = (2×average mutual agreement)÷[1+(2-1)× average mutual agreement] Mutual agreement = (2×the number of complete agreements between the two encoders)÷(2×the number upon which the two encoders should agree) © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

105

The number of complete agreement between the two encoders=112-13=99 Average mutual agreement = (2×99)÷(2×112)=0.883 Reliability = (2×0.883)÷[1+(2-1)×0.883]=0.93 Additionally, this study used further Cohen’s kappa “quadratic weighting” to test inter-rater reliability; an explanation of the kappa value is provided by Landis and Koch (1977). The result of k=0.819 is evaluated as “Almost perfect”, coinciding with two encoders. The proportion of agreement observed is greater than the proportion of agreement expected due to chance, thus indicating data reaches a level of consistency.

Solution Concept The encoded results (Table 2) show that designers proposed 5 solutions which are classed as Guideline, Menu, Graphics User Interface (GUI), Scenario and Game solutions. By ranking the 42 research samples (Table 3) for both homepage and subpage forms that GUI solution is clearly preferred first, followed by Scenario and Menu solutions. Table 2. Encoding of Designers’ concept Coding B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6

Items Solution Scenario(SS) Guideline Menu GUI Scenario Game Work-Based Design (W) Observation & inspection Referring to website information Correcting graphics & text Interviewing key users Users’ own experience Group discussion Design methods Scenario-Based Design (S) Context Scenario creation Design details Pre-information integration Multifaceted Users’ demands Speeding of stimulating development Comparing with WBD & SBD (C) Different pre-works Creates more scenario More multifaceted Cost effect Addition of objectivity design Total

Total

SS-1 SS-2 SS-3 SS-4 SS-5

1 0 3 2 2

1 2 2 2 1

0 1 0 0 2

1 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 3 0

2 0 2 1 0

0 1 1 0 0

0 1 1 1 1

0 2 1 0 0

5 8 10 9 6

W-1 W-2 W-3 W-4 W-5 W-6 W-7

0 0 1 0 0 0 2

1 1 1 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 1

2 3 4 4 3 1 5

S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 S-7

1 1 0 1 0 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 2 1

0 1 1 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1 0 1

3 2 1 2 5 2 6

C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5

1 1 0 0 1 18

0 1 1 0 0 17

0 1 1 0 0 9

0 1 1 1 0 9

1 0 0 1 0 11

1 0 1 0 0 10

0 0 1 0 1 8

0 0 0 0 1 10

0 1 0 0 0 7

3 5 5 2 3 99

106

Guideline As regards the solutions on using functional concept of guidance and explanation, four designers proposed 5 conceptual sketches of map guidance as presentation form for homepage, proposing solutions including “map-style browsing,…when menu is selected, one moves to target location (B6)” and the “use of virtual clinic map blocks to classify BCHC information, classifying the path-seeking system of users in three periods, so they can select information based on their needs (B1)” to present the concept of individual BCHC path-seeking. Among the conceptual samples, designers didn’t utilize map guidance method to develop subpages. 2. Menu Focusing on operational flow as a means of presenting the solutions for BCHC information concept, three designers proposed 5 conceptual sketches in which menus were used to present simple BCHC information. These designers proposed, “…basic horizontal menus…the menus link to sub-menus and the right side presents the latest information (B3)” and that website should “present one type of information on one page to simplify operational flow (B4)”. 3. GUI Six designers proposed 9 conceptual sketches in which GUI was used to present homepage, “…such as personal diagnostic sheet forms,…can be used to fill in personal information and system filters information needed by users (B9)”. GUI is most appropriate presentation form to subpages which can display personal BCHC examination data procedures. For instance, one of designers indicated that “using graphic interface design for brainstorming to select data folders or selecting health information personnel to serve as a menu or button design, to go into subpage interface similar to diagnostic sheets (B1)”. 4. Scenario Four designers proposed 8 conceptual sketches of scenario interface that dealt with typical situations encountered by users, one of designers pointed out expressing the spatial concept of virtual clinic such as “users can click based on their usual feelings upon entering clinic (B2)”. Moreover, using the concept of virtual nurse roles to guide users into context, such as “using virtual nurses as a character and after they click on icons, the nurse will start explaining (B5, B6)”. 5. Games Focusing on interactive games for solutions, 4 conceptual sketches of gamebased sketches had been proposed as homepage by three designers. On homepage, three female roles represent as three different age groups are used as menu for selecting and classify information. “…the entry homepage uses different age groups for classification, providing information needed by different age groups (B8)” or with role-based and contextual simulations as fundamental concept behind the website’s design, such as “the homepage have buttons that represent the roles of women in prevention, treatment and follow-up periods, clicking on them allows one to read information needed by women in different periods (B1)”. 1.

107

Forms

Table 3. Conceptual sketches of BCHC website interface Categories Development on BCHC Website Interface

Guideline

Home Page

B1, B2, B4, B6

Home Page

B3, B4, B7

Sub Pages

B2, B8

Home Page

B1, B2, B6, B7, B8, B9

Sub Pages

B1, B2, B5

Home Page

B1, B2, B5, B6

Sub Pages

B2, B8

Home Page

B1, B3, B8

Sub Pages

Designers

GUI

Scenario

Game

Discussion A semi-structured interview was conducted to further understand differences between traditional design brainstorming and using support tools for concept development, a Verbal Protocol was used for encoding the results of interview hereunder; 1. Work-Based Design (WBD) is the conceptual brainstorming method traditionally used by designers. Designers expressed their brainstorming experience on executing website design concept was primarily multilateral data collection; existing observation at related venue, to refer websiteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s information and to search for relevant books, documentary data (B1, B2, B5, B7). The in-dept design information obtained discussion such as design needs of entrepreneurs (B3, B4, B6), experience discussion of related key users (B2, B8), discussion of design groups (B6). The preliminary data analyzing then constructed basic framework of website through various design methods to stimulate creative brainstorming and ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

108

classification during conceptual development such as Manddala method (B1), Brainstorming (B1, B8) and Directed Association (B9) were used for divergent conceptual brainstorming and KJ method (B8) of classification, filtering concept were used by designers to evaluate conceptual design (B1, B2, B8, B9). Interview results can be summarized hereunder; traditionally, designers carry out conceptual design by using work content planning for an implementation sequence, primarily relying on preliminary information collection and discussion as the source of data for conceptual brainstorming to further implement information analysis, framework establishment, conceptual synthesis, design evaluation and design completion. The overall conceptual brainstorming process primarily follows linear steps and procedures. 2. SBD can improve the speed of designers’ conceptual brainstorming. Designers used support tools after integrating information to utilize in situation-based conceptual brainstorming which primarily included 7 items of textual context, context creation, detail design, preliminary data integration, multifaceted brainstorming, user needs and increasing the speed of brainstorming. Most designers believed that the main feature of using SBD for concept design was to increase brainstorming speed. “These support tools can effectively increase the speed and integration of designers’ conceptual brainstorming (B8, B9)”. The benefits for designers in observing details and multifaceted user problems; using support tools can improve designers’ attention to details. “Some detailed parts that I haven’t normally paid attention to were shown in support tools and it helps with design of details (B5)”. Support tools can further aid in observing multifaceted user’s problems, “Designer can directly and multilaterally associate related problems and user needs (B3)”. It shows that when using objective preliminary research, support tools could inspire designers to consider different aspects of user needs and increase breadth and conceptual fitness of the association. “There can be more multifaceted key points for extended brainstorming and collected data from different aspects to complete more comprehensive conformity to user needs at the same time (B2)”. Support tools improve particularly conceptual brainstorming, because they have integrated preliminary data collection and content such as surveys and interviews. “Because it reflects problem points and points for improvement, these support tools essentially summarizes related design information and conditions to designers (B1, B2)”. SBD can be effectively used for design association and conceptual synthesis; scenario-based models integrate designers’ design thinking into the cycle of “information analysis to conceptual synthesis to design evaluation” which means that support tools also have positive influence on conceptual design process. Designers emphasized that support tools, using scenario guidance and development, can create an imaginative space within the narrative of story text which effectively allows for design association and conceptual synthesis, “allowing for faster creation of a situation in the mind based on the images and script which can help designer carry out design association of topic (B1, B7, B6)…there are more rooms for imagination, support tools make designers feel likely they present at location and can make more helpful designs (B5)…different ideas can be created when implementing designs (B7)”. 3. SBD increases bilateral conceptual brainstorming more than WBD The comparison of diversity between WBD and SBD that designers believed both difference in preliminary work, SBD could better encourage context creation, multifaceted brainstorming, cost-effectiveness and objective © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

109

design than WBD. Different of preliminary work exist; designers expressed that support tools not only helped with brainstorming but also decreased the amount of time needed. “In past design experience, the preliminary work takes more time and period from reviewing data to implementing design usually takes longer. The advantage of support tools is that it takes less time to get to work and enhances the efficiency of implementation (B5)”. Designers using support tools differs from past experiences designing website concept; for example, “…unless dealing with designs relating to animation or images, without preliminary design of script design, so using support tools for website design brainstorming differs from past design experience (B1)”. Support tools have improved contextual creation; except differences in information presentation, support tools made it easier for designers to understand design problems. “It has a context that can help me associate ideas. With descriptions of images and texts, it is easier to understand information than with just images or just text (B9)” and “Compared with my design experience in the past, support tools had more concrete presentation of data, user and backgrounds (B4)”. SBD is better than WBD for systematic multifaceted brainstorming; Designers indicated that design methods were difference between support tools and WBD. The value of SBD could be developed into concrete and systematic scenario after integration of preliminary data, leading designers to design based on users’ crucial questions. “…support tools have more systematically guides designers’ ideas, let designers avert their creating images from too broad, aimless or too abstract (B6)”. SBD has better cost benefits than WBD; As regards practical view, using support tools is one of advantage on effective time saving then reflects on lower design costs, “after all, design projects have time and cost limitations, so the collection of images and text data for integration and meetings is the same as the cost devoted to most projects (B3, B4)”. Designers mentioned that Support tools can avoid subjective design biases; “Support tools can invigorate content and depth of design thinking and can improve upon previous problems of using our own design and usage experiences as basis in subjective design (B8)”.

The diversity of WBD & SBD web concept design process This study used coded data from the experiment and Verbal Protocols to clarify important points of design concepts and solutions to construct design experiment context for designers using SBD to develop BCHC website conceptual sketches. Norman (1986) proposed that activity cycle framework of system design is “goals, execution, interpretation and evaluation”. It has been suggested in literature that design process consists of repeated iterations of three sequential activities; analysis, synthesis and evaluation (Alexander, 1964). During evaluation of support tools, it was discovered that website design activities are primarily divided into design problems, information input, design thinking and final output. Using support tools for “integrating design information and framework” change how designers receive information and time required for data processing in information input stage, thus changing design process from traditional WBD to SBD (Figure 3).

110

Figure 3: The Work-Based Web Concept Design Process.

Design is frequently seen as a problem-solving method and conceptual sketches are methods that manifest creative concepts. In the field of design education, scholars propose using the CPS (Creative Problem-Solving) model (Parnes, 1976) as a thought strategy, the use of systematic design methods (Archer, 1984) to resolve problems and developing the “Think-maps” thought process for design students (Oxman, 2004). The designers mention that during the process of WBD website design, different “design methods” are seen as important methods for inspiring creativity. The information presented by support tools for experimentation is seen as an example of using SBD method which is different from past methods of website design experience. Most designers respond that SBD design method can “effectively stimulate the speed of conceptual brainstorming” and that support tools can effectively inspire wider association and more suitable concept, thus helping designer to conform “multifaceted brainstorming” to “user needs”. The results agree with conclusions of Tseng et al. (2008) who demonstrated that giving information high similarity information to designers before they consider solutions could stimulate creativity. Kokotovich (2008) mentioned that during an early phase of design process, thinking tools’ using might assist with problem analysis. This effect is known as information integration and aiding design thinking method can encourage designers to develop deliberate thinking methods, such as using SBD methods to create support tools. As regards the differences between WBD and SBD design methods, SBD use support tools to integrate design thinking into the cycle of “information analysis to conceptual synthesis to design evaluation (see Figure 4)”. This finding of similar results found by Liikkanen and Perttula (2009), with process of concept creation during problem deconstruction was the same as process of repeated synthesis and analysis cycles. The results also showed that usercentered SBD differs from WBD in five ways; “a difference in preliminary design”, “more situation creation”, “more multifaceted brainstorming”, “costbenefit effects” and “subjective design conditions”. Most designers stated that “more situation creation” and “multifaceted brainstorming” were the greatest benefits of SBD which means that using UCD methods to provide greater depth of information could guide designers in increasing speed and breadth of design concept brainstorming.

111

Figure 4: The Scenario-Based Web Concept Design Process.

Conclusion This study explores user-centered considerations while using SBD to develop conceptual sketches for BCHC information website. Research interviews were used to obtain information about lifestyles of users during the analysis of needs which led to understand their behavioral models. Users expressed demand attitudes for BCHC information in each of three periods that reflected their understanding of health information, time-sensitivity and urgency. In prevention period, women use more diverse search channels of BCHC information; hence, many researchers expresses (Sillence, Briggs, Harris, & Fishwick, 2007; Winker et al., 2000) reliability online as one of important factors. With conceptual sketch design, nine designers used support tools for experimentation, producing 42 valid design samples that were grouped into 5 types of design solutions; Guideline, Menu, GUI, Scenario and Game. The consequence of study further indicated both homepage and subpages, GUI was the first choice for design solution then followed by Scenario. This expressed using a graphic interface, using interactive presentation forms for virtual roles can be displayed the best content of BCHC information website. Therefore, SBD can guide designers to discover users’ needs, problems and to propose solutions subsequently.

Diversity of taking SBD proceeds conceptual brainstorming process and using traditional brainstorming process The study also found that designers used traditional WBD for conceptual brainstorming during website design in a linear manner. Use of these support tools can help designers to integrate design thinking into conceptual brainstorming using the cycle “information analysis to conceptual synthesis to design evaluation”. The consequence of research appearance in designers rely on different “design methods” in WBD to stimulate conceptual brainstorming such as Mandala method and KJ method, whereas SBD integrates preliminary design work that effectively use support tools to increase the speed of conceptual design brainstorming.

112

The support tools based on the SBD can be a design method for BCHC information website design The SBD method was applied for brainstorming a website design concept when integrating result was shown, two effects had appeared; First, time of design costs could be reduced. Second, support tools created context and could effectively encourage designers to consider multifaceted user needs. Therefore, support tools were used to develop conceptual sketches of website so that potential problems could be discovered during pre-production of prototype design and provided more useful demands of creating design for users to avoid effectively the waste of subsequent development time. Clearly, SBD method can be used to construct BCHC information website effectively.

References Alexander, C. (1964). Notes on the synthesis of form. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Alexander, I., & Beus-Dukic, L. (2009). Discovering Requirements: How to specify products and services. John Wiley & Sons. Archer, L. B. (1984). Systematic Method for Designers. In Cross, N. (Ed.), Developments in Design Methodology. John Wiley & Sons. Bastian, H. (2008). Health literacy and patient information: Developing the methodology national evidence-based health website. Patient Education and Counseling, 73, 551556. Battarbee, K. (2001). Design for user experience. Helsinki: University of Art and Design Helsinki. Berland, G. K., Elliott, M. N., Morales, L. S., Algazy, J. I., Kravitz, R. L., Broder, M. S., Kanouse, D. E., Munoz, J. A., Puyol, J-A., Lara, M., Watkins, K. E., Yang, H., & McGlynn, E. A. (2001). Health information on the internet: accessibility, quality, and readability in English and Spanish. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 2612-21. Burgess, C., Cornelius, V., Love, S., Graham, J., Richards, M., & Ramirez, A. (2005). Depression and anxiety in women with early breast cancer: five years observational cohort study. British Medical Journal, 330, 702-705. Carroll, J. M. (Ed.). (1995). Scenario-Based Design: Envisioning Work and Technology in System Development. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Carroll, J. M. (2000). Five reasons for scenario-based design. Interacting with Computers, 13, 43-60. Caron, S., Berton, J., & Beydon, L. (2007). Quality of anaesthesia-related information accessed via Internet searches. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 99, 195-201. Clayman, M. L., Boberg, E. W., & Makoul, G. (2008). The use of patient and provider perspectives to develop a patient-oriented website for women diagnosed with breast cancer. Patient Education and Counseling, 72, 429-435. Cross, N. (1999). Natural intelligence in design. Design Studies, 20, 25-39. Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol Analysis, Revised Edition: Verbal Reports as Data. Cambridge: MIT Press. Eysenbach, G., Yihune, G., Lampe, K., Cross, P., & Brickey, D. (2000). MedCERTAIN: Quality management, Certification and rating of health information on the Net. AMIA Symposium, 230-234. Flavian, C., Guinaliu, M., & Gurrea, R. (2006). The role played by perceived usability, satisfaction and consumer trust on website loyalty. Information and Management, 43, 1-14. Ghaddar, S. F., Valerio, M. A., Garcia, C. M., & Mlis, L. H. (2012). Adolescent health literacy: The importance of credible sources for online health information. Journal of school health, 82, 28-36. ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

113

Herbert, D. M., 1993. Architectural study drawing. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Hesse, B. W., Nelson, D. E., Kreps, G. L., Croyle, R. T., Arora, N. K., Rimer, B. K., & Viswanath, K. (2005). Trust and sources of health information: The impact of the Internet and its implications for health care providers: findings from the first Health Information National Trends Survey. Archives Internal of Medicine, 165, 2618-2624. Hogarth, R. (1980). Judgement and choice. John Wiley & Sons. Holsti, O. R. (1969). Content analysis for the social science and humanities. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Westly. Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Todd, P. A. (1997). Consumer reactions to electronic shopping on the World Wide Web. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 1, 59-88. John, A. K. (2005). A critical appraisal of internet resources on colorectal cancer. Colorectal Disease, 8, 217-23. Kawakita Jiro. (1967). The KJ-method (in Japanese). Chuokoron-sha. Kokotovich, V. (2008). Problem analysis and thinking tools: an empirical study of nonhierarchical mind mapping. Design Studies, 29, 49-69. Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications. Landis, J., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33, 159-174. Laseau, P. (1989). Graphic thinking for architects and designer (2nd ed.). NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Lawson, B. (1994). Design in mind. Oxford: Butterworth Architecture. Lin, F. S., Tseng, C. L., & Lee, C. Y. (2010). Why people search breast cancer health care information through internet. The 11th Asia Pacific Industrial Engineering and Management Systems Conference, Melaka, Malaysia. Lin, F. S., Tseng, C. L., & Lee, C. Y. (2011). Researched into the Breast Cancer of Health Care Education Information Delivering and Visual Assistive Tools Online (I), NSC 99-2410H-224-020. Liikkanen, L. A., & Perttula, M. (2009). Exploring problem decomposition in conceptual design among novice designers. Design Studies, 30, 38-59. McCoy, M. J., & Evans, G. W. (2002). The potential role of the physical environment in fostering creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 14, 409-426. Mcllroy, A. (2003). Culture industry funding: Sponsorship or investment? Opportunities and case studies in the promotion of cultural industries. International Forum, 3, 18. National Health Insurance Bureau (2007). 2007 Annual Report Bureau of Health Promotion, Taiwan. Newman, M. W., & Landay, J. A. (2000). Sitemaps, storyboards, and specifications: A sketch of web site design practice. DIS2000 proceedings of the 3rd conference on Designing interactive systems: processes, practices, methods, and techniques, 263-274. Nielsen, J. (1999). User interface directions for the Web. Communications of the ACM, 42, 65-72. Norman, D. A. (1986). Cognitive engineering. In User centred system design, In Norman, D. A., & Draper, S. W. (Eds.), Erlbaum Hillside, NJ. 31-62. Oxman, R. (2004). Think-maps: teaching design thinking in design education. Design Studies, 25, 63-91. Park, J. (2011). Developing a knowledge management system for storing and using the design knowledge acquired in the process of a user-centered design of the next generation information appliances. Design Studies, 32, 482-513. Parnes, S. J. (1976). Idea-stimulation techniques. Journal of Creative Behavior, 18, 62-66.

114

Pew Internet & American Life Project (2009). 61% of American adults look online for health information. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/PressReleases/2009/The-Social-Life-of-Health-Information.aspx. Rosson, M. B., & Carroll, J. M. (2002). Usability engineering: scenario-based development of human-computer interaction. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann. Robinson, T. N., Patrick, K., Eng, T. R., & Gustafson, D. (1998). An evidence-based approach to interactive health communication: a challenge to medicine in the information age. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 1264-1269. Rouet, J., & Puustinen, M. (2009). Introduction to Learning with ICT: New perspectives on help seeking and information searching. Computers and Education, 53, 10111013. Sabee, C. M., Bylund, C. L., Weber, J. G., & Sonet, E. (2012) The association of patients’ primary interaction goals with attributions for their doctors’ responses in conversations about online health research. Journal of Applied communication Research, 40, 271-288. Schmidt, A., Kowalski, C., Pfaff, H., Wesselmann, S., Wirtz, M., & Ernstmann, N. (2015). The Influence of Health Literacy on Information Needs Among Women Newly Diagnosed With Breast Cancer, With Special Reference to Employment Status. Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives, 20(10), 1177-1184. Schӧn, D. A., & Wiggins, G. (1992). Kinds of seeing and their functions in designing. Design Studies, 13, 135-156. Shaw, B. R., Han, J. Y., Hawkins, R. P., Stewart, J., McTavish, F., & Gustafson, D. H. (2007). Doctor-patient relationship as motivation and outcome: examining uses of an interactive cancer communication system. International Journal of Medical Informatics, 76, 274-82. Shedroff, N. (2001). Experience Design. Indiana: New Riders Press. Sillence, E., Briggs, P., Harris, P., & Fishwick, L. (2007). Health websites that people can trust - the case of hypertension. Interacting with computers, 19, 32-42. Sutton, D., & Patkar, V. (2009). CommonKADS analysis description of a knowledge based system for the assessment of breast cancer. Expert Systems with Applications, 36, 2411-2423. Tseng, C. L., Lin, F. S., & Lee, C. Y. (2011). Evaluating the preferences and effectiveness of different Online Breast Cancer HealthCare Information presentation formats. The 4th World Conference on Design Research (IASDR), Delft, Netherlands. Tseng, I., Moss, J., Cagan, J., & Kotovsky, K. (2008). The role of timing and analogical similarity in the stimulation of idea generation in design. Design Studies, 29, 203221. Vincent, C. J., & Blandford, A. (2015). Usability standards meet scenario-based design: challenges and opportunities. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 53, 243-250. Vredenburg, K., Isensee, S., & Righi, C. (2002). User-centered design: an integrated approach. New Jersey: Prentice Hall PTR. Vredenburg, K., Mao, J., Smith, P., & Carey, T. (2002). A survey of user-centered design in practice. In Proceedings of the conference on human factors in computing systems processing (CHI). ACM Press. Wang, P., Hawk, W. B., & Tenopir, C. (2000). User’s interaction with World Wide Web resources: An exploratory study using a holistic approach. Information Processing and Management, 36, 229-251. World Health Organization (2004). The global burden of disease: 2004 update. Switzerland: WHO. World Health Organization (2012). Breast cancer: prevention and control. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/cancer/detection/breastcancer/en/index.html. Winker, M. A., Flanagin, A., Chi-Lum, B., White, J., Andrews, K., Kennett, R. L., DeAngelis, C. D., & Musacchio, R. A. (2000). Guidelines for medical and health © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

115

information sites on the Internet: Principles governing AMA web sites. Journal of American Medical Association, 283, 1600-1606. Zhang, P., & von Dran, G. M. (2000). Satisfiers and dissatisfiers: A two-factor model for website design and evaluation. Journal of the American society for information science, 51, 1253-1268.

116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No.2, pp. 116-129, September 2015

Effects of Reflective Learning on the Listening Behaviors of EFL College Students Yi-Chun Pan Department of International Trade National Pingtung University Pingtung 900, Taiwan

Abstract. Even though listening can be quite a challenge for EFL learners, they are rarely taught how to listen effectively. This study explored the degree to which reflective learning, one method of teaching students how to listen, affected the listening behaviors of EFL college students on the TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication), a high-stakes test in Asia. A total of 31 Taiwanese first-year college students participated in this study. Reflection sheets and interviews show that the participating students activated the use of effective listening behaviors (bottom-up and top-down alike) from reflective learning. However, counterproductive behaviors were identified during this process, suggesting that students should receive additional support when this occurs. Pedagogical implications and suggestions for further research were discussed at the end of this paper. Keywords: Reflective learning; listening behaviors; lexical intervention; Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC)

1. Introduction Listening comprehension is an important language skill to develop. In regard to the acquisition of a second or a foreign language (L2), listening allows the learner to internalize language rules and brings about the development of other language skills (Feyten, 1991; Mendelsohn, 1995; Rost, 2002). Beyond the crucial role that listening skills play in facilitating language learning, they are also a vital vehicle for gaining access to the globalized world, where the lingua franca is English (Jenkins, Cogo, & Dewey, 2011). Language learners, as an example, have a desire to comprehend L2 speakers so that they will be able to learn more about their various cultures. They also wish to have the ability to engage with the tremendous wealth of audio and visual L2 texts now available online, including podcasts, YouTube, and blogs. Furthermore, even setting aside the critical contributions listening comprehension makes to the learning of L2 and the access it grants learners to the world, it has also become an indispensable skill that students must foster for ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

117

testing purposes. Many Asian nations have always implemented tests while attempting to enhance language learning (Chen, Warden, & Chang, 2005; Chu, 2009). Taiwan, one of the countries of Asia, also has an exam-oriented tradition in its culture and education (Chen, Warden, & Chang, 2005; Chu, 2009). To improve its students‟ English proficiency in its institutions of tertiary education, Taiwan‟s Ministry of Education (MOE) went so far as to mandate an English proficiency benchmark policy for college undergraduates in its 2003-2008 Administration Guidelines (Chu, 2009). The guidelines require each university and college to establish its own English benchmark for graduation that uses standardized tests such as the TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) and the GEPT (General English Proficiency Test). These standardized tests each have a section that assesses the test takers‟ comprehension of aural text, once again calling attention to the importance of developing listening comprehension. One test frequently taken by Taiwanese college students to meet this English benchmark graduation policy is the TOEIC. Many college students choose this test because, in addition to taking it as an exit exam, an increasing number of companies use it as a criterion for screening potential employees and for promoting workers. The TOEIC is a reality for not only students in Taiwan but also in many other non-English speaking countries in Asia, Europe, and South America (Gilfert, 1996; Lai, 2008; Miller, 2007; Phillips, 2006), and this reality is growing in intensity and dimension. According to a TOEIC newsletter (2011), the number of people around the world who have taken the TOEIC has boomed from 3.5 million in the year 2004 to around 6 million in 2010. This sharp increase is also reflected in Taiwan, where the number of TOEIC test takers has grown significantly, from 40,000 in 2004 to around 200,000 in 2010. The implication of the popularity and widespread use of the TOEIC, therefore, is that EFL teachers should feel obligated to respond to their students‟ need to improve their TOEIC scores. Clearly, the development of L2 listening competence is important, yet in spite of this, teachers rarely teach L2 learners how to listen effectively (Berne, 2004; LeLoup & Ponterio, 2007). This study is an attempt to address this concern through an exploration of the effects of listening support on EFL students‟ aural performance. Because L2 learners generally consider listening to be a difficult task, providing them with some form of support before or during the listening process may be of great benefit to their comprehension of aural input (Chang & Read, 2007; Vandergrift, 1999). The listening support employed in this study was reflective learning, an idea derived from Wilson‟s (2003) concept of discovery listening. Does this form of listening support have different effects on TOEIC listening? Given the fact that extant research has only provided limited evidence in response to this question, it is critical that this present study be undertaken.

118

2. Literature Review In this study, reflective learning, an idea derived from Wilson‟s (2003) concept of discovery listening, is expected to help students gain insights into their shortcomings and develop solutions to the problems they encounter. Following in the footsteps of Wilson‟s concept of discovery listening, reflective learning focuses on student discovery and the subsequent resolution of problems they have with listening. The rationale behind the discovery and resolution components of reflective learning is similar to that of metacognitive listening— the objective is to give learners a more comprehensive understanding of both themselves as L2 listeners and of the demands and process of L2 listening. Another one of metacognitive listening‟s goals is to assist learners with the management of their comprehension and learning (Goh, 2008; Vandergrift, 2002). Empirical support for metacognitive instruction may also reinforce the use of reflective learning due to the fact that the two share many characteristics. For example, Pressley and Gaskins (2006) showed that metacognitive instruction in reading was beneficial, particularly for first language readers with lower proficiency levels. Goh and Yusnita (2006) observed that metacognitive listening enhanced the listening comprehension of lower-proficiency second language listeners as well. Vandergrift and Tafaghodtari (2010) recently conducted an assessment of the listening comprehension of 106 tertiary-level learners of French as a second language after a 13-week course. Based upon scores from pre- and post-tests, learners who had been exposed to metacognitive listening experienced significant performance improvements. A small-scale study conducted by Cross (2011) also offers evidence of the ability of metacognitive listening to facilitate positive outcomes. Twenty adult Japanese EFL learners participated in metacognitive listening wherein they completed the steps of predicting, monitoring, problem identification, and evaluating. A comparison of pre- and post-test scores determined that 75 percent of listeners who possessed lower proficiency achieved significant improvements during the course of the five lessons. Similarly, Nathan (2008) discovered a positive effect on young language learners‟ development of metacognitive knowledge about listening. Zhang and Goh (2006) explained why metacognitive knowledge helped aural understanding. First, learners who have appropriate metacognitive knowledge about listening may plan, monitor, and evaluate what they do, thus being more likely to lead to improvement in listening performance (Goh, 2008). Another reason metacognitive knowledge assisted aural comprehension was that learners who are conscious of their own listening problems may also be motivated to find ways to address them. The resolution of their problems will likely result in effective listening. This study explored the listening behaviors the students exhibited and whether their behaviors changed in response to the TOEIC test items, a field for which very little research has been conducted. It is hoped that the present study will

119

shed light on the effectiveness of reflective learning and point out possible problems, constraints, and pedagogical implications for classroom application.

3. Methodology 3.1 Participants Thirty-one first-year college students in southern Taiwan were recruited to be participants in this research. The participants had studied English for at least six years, but they had been initially exposed to English learning much earlier. On average, they had 8.7 years of English learning experience. While they had almost nine years‟ experience learning English within an academic context, they had little exposure to English outside of class. In fact, 96.7% of the students were exposed to less than two hours of extracurricular English every week.

3.2 Procedure Throughout the 18-week term in a required General English course, the 31 participating students did reflective learning and completed reflection sheets as homework. During the last week of the course, group interviews were conducted with fourteen students.

3.3 Reflective Learning and Reflection Sheets Students turned in six sets of reflection sheets to record their reflective learning, three before and three after the midterm. To do reflective learning, the students would follow seven steps that had been adapted from (Hulstijn, 2003). They would: (1) study lexical items prior to listening, (2) listen to the recording several times, (3) determine reasons why they have difficulty comprehending aural text, (4) read the aural text and highlight the parts with which they have trouble, (5) read the text while listening, (6) read the aural text aloud, and (7) replay the recording as often as necessary to understand all of the oral text without written support. While doing reflective learning, students were expected to identify their weaknesses by marking the options listed on the reflection sheet (for instance, „hearing unfamiliar words while listening‟ or „concentrating on the beginning of utterances and then failing to follow the latter part‟) or writing down their own shortcomings if they were not specifically listed on the sheet. In addition, they had to record how they solved the problems they faced (such as by reading the troubled part aloud, comparing how they said the sentence with the recording, or practicing lexical items more times), and they also received feedback from their teacher. Finally, they were required to jot down what they had learned from this reflective learning assignment, things such as linguistic knowledge (e.g., new words, syntax) and strategic knowledge (paying attention to interrogative terms and not translating every single word).

4. Results and Discussion In this study, eleven effective and three counterproductive behaviors were identified (see Table 1). Effective behaviors referred to those that facilitated TOEIC comprehension, whereas counterproductive behaviors were a hindrance to understanding the TOEIC. The definitions and categorizations of these

120

identified behaviors were based upon those utilized in previous studies (Goh, 2002; O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990; Toekshi, 2003; Vandergrift, 1999). Table 1 Effective and Counter-productive Listening Behaviors

Awareness of factors that interfere with listening  Monitoring attention and avoiding distractions Metacognitive  Noticing specific aspects of input  Checking understanding while listening  Checking understanding after listening  Making educated guesses  Finding related information on Cognitive hearing key words  Using key words to recreate meaning  Reducing anxiety and increasing Socio-Affective confidence  Overcoming problems perceiving words and phrases Bottom-up  Decoding text more rapidly Translating what was heard Focusing on linguistic cues and ignoring main points Focusing all attention on a small part of the message 

Effective Behaviors

Counterproductive Behaviors

4.1 Effective Listening Behaviors During the course of the current study, eleven effective listening behaviors were identified and categorized into metacognitive, cognitive, socio-affective, or bottom-up classifications based upon designations employed in previous research (Goh, 2002; O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990; Toekshi, 2003; Vandergrift, 1999). Metacognitive behaviors demonstrate how listeners manage complex listening processes before, during, and after the processing of aural input, whereas cognitive behaviors illustrate how listeners complete the task. Socioaffective behaviors are associated with the affective and social aspects of listeners. Finally, bottom-up behaviors depict how listeners construct meaning from information drawn from the text. 4.1.1 Metacognitive Behaviors Awareness of Factors That Interfere with Listening During the first week of the course, the student participants were given a TOEIC listening test. After the test, the researcher asked the students how they felt about it. One of the students said it was a very difficult test for her. The researcher asked her what caused her difficulties, but she couldn‟t provide any specific reasons; she simply said that because of her low language levels she © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

121

possessed knowledge of only a few words and grammar rules. Several other students shared similar responses, saying that they felt the TOEIC listening test was difficult because of the simple fact that their English was terrible. Generally speaking, before this course, the students knew that their English was bad but could not clearly state why, so they could not determine any solutions for the obstacles they were facing. However, things changed with the participants who were given reflective learning during the course of the study. The participants were more aware of their specific listening problems and they tried to ascertain solutions to those problems. For example, in her reflection sheet, Student (4) wrote that she knew that her main problem was vocabulary: “I don‟t know too many words. This makes it difficult for me to understand what I‟m hearing. As soon as incomprehension occurs, I immediately get distracted and finally totally mess up.” Knowing the specific problem that prevented her from comprehension, this lowlevel student noted on her reflection sheet how she managed to solve the problem. “I have to preview related vocabulary items before listening, not only the meanings of the words should I know, but also their pronunciations. I feel that after reading the vocabulary items aloud several times, I can effectively deal with the speed of the speaker, and my comprehension improves a little bit.” Another student (1) was also able to clearly identify the major obstacle he faced while listening and the solution to this problem. He reported in his reflection sheet that “insufficient vocabulary knowledge made it difficult for me to understand the conversation. Although I know the printed forms of words, I have difficulty recognizing them in their aural forms when I hear them. This is a big problem for me. I have to read those words out loud and familiarize myself with their pronunciations. Practice, practice, practice will help me be a better listener.” The ability to identify their listening problems is significant to these students, just as it is important for doctors to first determine the cause of a patient‟s illness and then prescribe a treatment. Not being able to provide the right medication for the disease would be pointless. Monitoring Attention and Avoiding Distractions Reflection sheets from the students showed that they learned self-management in order to make a better learning environment. For instance, Student (20) reported that there used to be light music on while she was studying, but after realizing that even low-volume music would affect her concentration on listening, she turned off the music, which she felt was helpful because the voice on CD was much clearer. Another student (26) reported how she managed to continue to listen in spite of a particularly bothersome situation: “My roommate always talked on the phone, which bothered me a lot, but even after I asked her to stop, she kept talking. Instead of stopping my practice, I tried an alternative method—I used the time when my roommate wasn‟t talking on the phone to do listening assignments.” She said that the reduced noise made the listening tasks much easier compared to listening while having to contend with her roommate. © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

122

Although she still felt that she didn‟t understand the text as well as she expected to, her situation was improving. Noticing Specific Aspects of Input Prior to the administration of this course, many students were overwhelmed by the swift speed of the speakers and easily gave up after struggling for a short time. However, after their training in reflective listening, some students exhibited a metacognitive ability to redirect their attention to the listening task by noticing specific aspects of input, such as listening for familiar content words. As one student (3) explained, “The speed was very fast. The linking pronunciations in particular made me misunderstand. I told myself not to think about it. I tried my best to focus on content words that I knew. I caught „Triumph Airlines‟ and then immediately directed my attention to the flight times after „Triumph Airlines‟. So I circled the correct answer. Before this, I only focused on words I didn‟t know, which made me miss the subsequent.” In the interview, Student (8) said that he felt that his comprehension had improved because he realized that effective listening didn‟t require paying attention to everything. Instead, selectively listening for necessary information could point him in the direction, unlike swimming in the open ocean with no idea which way to go. Checking Understanding While Listening Another metacognitive behavior, checking understanding while listening, was found in the reflection sheet of a student (22). She wrote that “this Question and Response is easy. I learned the multiword unit „subscribe to the magazine‟ before listening. When I heard the answer item „We will get the first issue next item‟, I was pretty sure that this was the correct option. „Subscribe‟ and „issue‟ are usually related.” One student (12) also agreed in the interview that studying vocabulary prior to listening helped him to check if comprehension had occurred. He claimed that he had previously relied heavily upon words that were perceptually salient (which he considered “key words” or “key phrases”) even if they were not important for the meaning of the text. However, after engaging in practice on pronouncing lexical items before listening, he improved his ability to identify the “real” key words or ideas of the text, which allowed him to choose the correct answer. Checking Interpretation After Listening One common metacognitive behavior exhibited by the participants was that they checked the interpretation after listening. This behavior occurred more often when participants listened to a long text, such as Part III: Short Conversations or Part IV: Short Talks. One possible reason for this was that some students still failed to construct a mental model of the text after studying related vocabulary items prior to engaging in the listening task. Although checking the interpretation of the text after completing a listening task through reading transcripts is impractical in a test situation, it is certainly beneficial to students in terms of augmenting their abilities and reducing the © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

123

anxiety they experience. One student (21) expressed this viewpoint in her reflection sheet: “I usually conduct word-by-word translation while listening to short conversations. This tends to result in me falling far behind the speaker and missing quite a bit of information as well. However, I find myself not doing word-by-word translation if I understand the contents of the conversation. Moreover, I found that it makes the listening process much easier and smoother.” 4.1.2 Cognitive Behaviors Making Educated Guesses The analysis of reflection sheets demonstrated that the participants made educated guesses, a particularly effective cognitive behavior. One student (25) reported in her reflection sheet that “studying phrases like „non-stop flight‟, „leave for the airport’, and „book an earlier flight‟ made it easy for me to predict the topic of conversation. With this in mind, I prepared myself for the airport scenario and focused on the specific information that the questions asked for. This conversation wasn‟t difficult for me at all. It is really important to study words before listening.” One student (4) claimed in the interview that “making predictions is not difficult, but learning how to make sensible predictions is a big problem for me. I feel like if I have trouble recognizing words and decoding text that my predictions are just complete nonsense. Therefore, expanding my vocabulary bank is a high priority for me.” The experiences of these two participants clearly show that while making guesses can be a useful strategy to facilitate comprehension, L2 listeners must build up sufficient linguistic levels (e.g., sufficient vocabulary knowledge) before they will be able to use it effectively. If they do not do so, they quite often end up making wild guesses. Finding Information on Hearing Key Words One student (12) noted in his reflection sheet that “before taking the course, I used to just listen to the words I understood, that is, I based my interpretation simply upon any word that I could understand. As a matter of fact, I already knew about using key words and phrases to construct main ideas, but because of my limited vocabulary knowledge, I could only rely on words that I was able to understand instead of extracting meaning from the key semantic cues denoted by stressed words such as nouns and verbs. The result was that I constructed a picture that was different from the intended meaning of the speaker.” However, after practicing the vocabulary provided before doing listening tasks, he mentioned in the reflection sheet that “I was able to identify which key words to listen to, and I used them to consider the content. For example, knowing „the Sonic Flights frequent flyer club‟ prompted me to correctly choose the flight time.” This transition from the use of any random word to generate an understanding of the passage to the more systematic utilization of key words is a clear indication that an effective cognitive behavior occurred in this instance. Using Key Words to Recreate Meaning

124

The utilization of key words and sometimes background knowledge to recreate meaning is known as “reconstruction” (O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990). As was evident from the reflection sheet, Student (56) illustrated this behavior thus: “Initially, I didn‟t understand the concept of „not impressed‟ when the woman said „I‟m not impressed with the receptionist.‟ I kept listening and heard „make mistakes all the time‟ and „having such a hard time‟, at which point I understood the meaning of being „not impressed‟ to be when one does not have a favorable impression of someone or something—in this case, the receptionist.” The behavior of reconstruction seldom occurred in this study; in fact, only one highlevel student exhibited this complex behavior, probably due to the fact that it requires the involvement of both top-down and bottom-up processing (Omally & Chamot, 1990). 4.1.3 Socio-affective Behavior Reducing Anxiety and Increasing Confidence It was determined from the data collected from reflection sheets and interviews that reflective learning helped some students decrease their anxiety levels and increase their confidence. As far as lowering anxiety is concerned, one student (6) with lower listening proficiency mentioned in the interview that “the first time I took the TOEIC, I was really frustrated. I knew everything I was hearing was English, but beyond that I couldn‟t figure out any of the specific meanings. I really had no idea. Now, I am not so nervous. The teacher gives us word lists to study and also tells us the steps to follow when listening. I finally have directions to follow. It‟s much better now. I‟m no longer as afraid as I was.” 4.1.4 Bottom-up Behaviors Overcoming Problems Perceiving Words and Phrases Quite a few students experienced difficulty recognizing words aurally that they would immediately know in written form; they also had trouble identifying the start and end points of phrases. In order to solve these problems, students in this study were asked to use visualization strategies in which they anticipated what the words in question would sound like before they heard them. They also listened to the words while looking at their written form and then listened to the words again without the written aid, this time trying to visualize them. Student (17) practiced each of these three steps while performing her assigned listening tasks and responded in her reflection sheet that “This question is quite easy. I have no problem understanding what is being said because I can clearly hear every word in the utterance and quickly figure out its meaning. In addition, the lexical items provided by the teacher really help me to be able to effectively break the speech down into manageable chunks. I feel that before doing listening assignments, I have to practice lexical items to the point that I can immediately say its meaning and pronunciation without any hesitation. In this way, I will reduce the chance that I will get stuck due to an inability to recognize words.” Decoding Texts More Rapidly During the bottom-up listening process, listeners decode texts primarily from the words themselves. Provided lexical practice prior to their listening tasks, © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

125

some participants reported that the speed at which they decoded texts was improving. For example, one student (15) noted in his reflection sheet that “In Conversation 59-61, I could understand the overall meaning because I memorized related words before doing the task. Pronunciation is important. I used Google to determine how to say those words and also asked my Applied English major roommate about their pronunciations. Sometimes if the way I pronounce a word isn‟t like the way it is pronounced on the CD, I get stuck.” This reflection highlights the fact that lexical support facilitates the decoding of a message, and more importantly, lexical support refers to familiarity with not only the meanings but also the pronunciations of words. 4.2 Counterproductive Listening Behaviors In addition to the effective behaviors observed among the participants, some counterproductive behaviors that hindered TOEIC comprehension were found in some learners as well. The following sections will discuss each of those counterproductive behaviors, which have been determined to be cognitivelyoriented (Goh, 2002). 4.2.1 Translating What Was Heard According to Goh (2002), the process of translation usually slows down processing time and often diverts listeners‟ attention away from clues that may have assisted their comprehension. In light of the ephemeral nature of listening, translation is therefore counterproductive. Unfortunately, this behavior was often identified in some of the participants. In the reflection sheet of one participant (10), it was found that “I cannot understand this conversation because I am still translating the previous sentence. I should have concentrated on what I was hearing so I could clearly hear the subsequent utterances.” Although realizing that translation would interfere with the interpretation of the new input, the student couldn‟t help but to do so. Likewise, Student (7) pointed out in the interview that “When I hear some parts that I don‟t understand, I have a habit of stopping to find their equivalent in L1. This usually leads to horrible results. I totally mess up and want to give up immediately.” This student participant was also aware that in TOEIC, where the rate of speech of the speakers is quite fast, there was no time for translation, which prevented her from processing new input. 4.2.2 Focusing on Linguistic Cues and Ignoring Main Points Aside from the translation problem, some participants only listened for the lexical items given in the word list and test questions and ignored the construction of a general overview of the text. This is the so-called lexical overlap phenomenon—that is, when the words used in test items match the words spoken in the listening passages (Buck, 2001). For instance, one student (10) disappointedly mentioned in the interview that “In fact, I try to familiarize myself with the words—both their meanings and pronunciations—that my teacher offers to us before we do our assignments. I do © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

126

hear words I previewed earlier in both word lists and test questions, but I still don‟t understand what is being said.” Chang (2008) contends that the use of lexical overlap is both an ineffective strategy and quite risky to employ in a listening test because it relies heavily on linguistic cues while at the same time distracting attention from continuous textual interpretation, so listeners will not get the gist of the discourse and their comprehension will suffer as a result. 4.2.3 Focusing All Attention on a Small Part of the Message Similar to the issue of lexical overlap, some participants focused all of their attention on one small part of the message and therefore could not keep up with the speaker for the rest of the message. This behavior is termed as “fixation” by Goh (2002), and it is clearly illustrated in the reflection sheet of one student (11). The student noted that “I stopped listening to think about the meaning of the previous phrase in the hope that I could match it with something I already knew, but I failed and missed the next part.” In a comparable manner, another student reported that “I heard familiar sounds but was unable to relate those sounds to their meanings. I repeated the sounds of those words several times hoping that I could figure out their meanings, but spending too much time on this impeded my subsequent listening.”

5. Pedagogical Implications 5.1 Supplying reinforced lexical support and allocating ample preparation time This study clearly illustrates that lexical intervention had a facilitating effect on students‟ TOEIC performance. In addition, a considerable percentage of the students endorsed the idea that lexical intervention was helpful to their comprehension. Hence, language teachers may offer lexical items that appear in the text to aid their understanding. These lexical items should include multiword units in addition to single words to help students to process the aural text more efficiently. Beyond that, students must receive multiple exposures (such as sentence or mini-conversation verbal practice) to and sufficient time with these lexical items to help them internalize them and prepare them for utilization. Reinforced lexical support in conjunction with sufficient preparation time may help lessen the problem of students‟ limited vocabulary, which usually results in the breakdown of their comprehension. As Chujo and Oghigian (2009) claim, in order to understand TOEIC, a learner requires a minimum vocabulary size of 4000 words or 3000 word families. However, very few Taiwanese college students possess a vocabulary of that size (Huang, 2004). Therefore, providing reinforced lexical support and sufficient preparation time might reduce the vocabulary deficit of most Taiwanese EFL college students, and this in turn will improve their TOEIC comprehension.

5.2 Having students perform reflective learning to improve deficiencies and develop listening abilities This study demonstrated that reflective learning helped the students to understand more of their listening problems and thus find ways to resolve them. As claimed by Goh (2008), listener anxiety may increase if they do not know © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

127

where to start other than to â&#x20AC;&#x17E;listen harderâ&#x20AC;&#x; when they face challenges. In contrast, if listeners are given guidance in regard to the process of listening and then reflect upon that process to fortify the components that they do not know, it is much more likely that they will listen better and will have higher levels of motivation (Vandergrift, 2004). TOEIC is a difficult exam, so students must know what problems they have at each stage in order for better performance to occur. For example, a lack of vocabulary knowledge might be a problem at the first stage; students then should reinforce their word repertoire. Moving on to the next stage, how to effectively construct a mental model of text is one challenge to overcome. At this stage, they might incorporate their knowledge of the world with their vocabulary knowledge in order to achieve comprehension. In other words, knowing the cause of the problem and being able to resolve it can sustain students on the long and difficult journey toward performing well on the TOEIC.

6. Suggestions for Further Research This study focused on the comprehension phase of listening, investigating the success reflective learning had in enhancing TOEIC comprehension. Further research should be conducted to address the acquisition phase of listening, which along with the comprehension phase are the goals of a listening course (Richards, 2005). Can the acquisition phase of listening contribute to its comprehension phase, as Richards (2005) claimed? This is an issue that certainly deserves further investigation. In the present study, it was determined that a lack of linguistic knowledge (vocabulary in particular) was a primary cause of listening incomprehension of long and difficult text. In such a situation, students relied on the scripts to understand the text and then went back to listening. According to student perceptions, the after-listening exercise (e.g. reading the scripts and reading aloud) did in fact made it easier for them to follow fast speakers when they listened to the text they had engaged in earlier again. However, can they apply the knowledge they learned from this instance of listening to another new instance? To put it another way, do they learn or consolidate knowledge from the acquisition phase of listening strong enough to facilitate their future listening? If they can, to what extent does the acquisition phase of listening contribute to the comprehension phase of listening? Answers to these questions are valuable in EFL classrooms where listening instruction focuses largely on the product of listening: the correct answer (Vandergrift, 2007).

Acknowledgements Y.C. Pan acknowledges the financial support from the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan under Contract No. MOST104-2410-H-153-006.

References Berne, J. E. (2004). Listening comprehension strategies: A review of the literature. Foreign Language Annals, 37, 521-533. Buck, G. (2001). Assessing listening. New York: Cambridge University Press. Chang, C. S., & Read, J. (2007). Support for foreign language listeners: Its effectiveness and limitations. RELC, 38, 375-395. ÂŠ 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

128

Chen, J., Warden, C., & Chang. (2005). Motivators that do not motivate: The case of Chinese imperativeness as a culturally specific motivating force. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 609-634. Chu, H-Y. (2009). Stakes, needs and washback: An investigation of the English benchmark policy for graduation and EFL education at two technological universities in Taiwan. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan. Chujo, K., & Oghigian, K. (2009). How many words do you need to know to understand TOEIC, TOEFL & EIKEN? An examination of text coverage and high frequency vocabulary. Journal of Asia TEFL, 6, 121-148. Cross, J. (2011). Metacognitive instruction for helping less-skilled listeners. ELT Journal, 65, 408-416. Feyten, C. M. (1991). The power of listening ability: An overlooked dimension in language acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 75(2), 173-180. Gilfert, S. (1996). A review of TOEIC, The Internet TESL Journal, 2(8). Retrieved June 2014, from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Gilfert-TOEIC.html Goh, C. (2000). A cognitive perspective on language learners‟ listening comprehension problems. System, 28, 55-75. Goh, C. (2002). Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns. System, 30, 185-206. Goh, C. (2008). Metacognitive instruction for second language listening development: Theory, practice and research implications. RELC, 39(2), 188-213. Goh, C., & Yusnita, T. (2006). Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners. ELT Journal, 50, 222-232. Hulstijn, J. H. (2003). Connectionist models of language processing and the training of listening skills with the aid of multimedia software. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 16, 413-425. Jenkins, J., Cogo, A., & Dewey, M. (2011) Review of developments in research into English as a lingua franca. Language Teaching, 44(3), 281-315. Lai, Y. H. (2008). A study on effectiveness of college English-featured courses on TOEIC. Kaohsiung Normal University Journal, 25, 72-90. LeLoup, J. W. , & Ponterio, R. (2007). Listening: You‟ve got to be carefully taught. Language Learning & Technology, 11(1), 4-15. Mendelsohn, D. J. (1995). Applying learning strategies in the second/foreign language listening comprehension lesson. In D. J. Mendelsohn & J. Rubin (Eds.), A guide for the teaching of second language listening (pp. 132-150). San Diego, CA: Dominie Press. Miller, K. (2007). The pitfalls of implementing TOEIC preparation courses. Retrieved December 2013, from http://englisheveryday.weebly.com/toeic-pitfalls.html Nathan, P. (2008). Cooperative learning and metacognitive awareness in second language listening comprehension. MA thesis, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. O‟Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Phillips, C. (2006). How can we help students improve their TOEIC scores without “teaching to the test”? Humanities Review, 11, 55-74. Pressley, M., & Gaskins, I. W. (2006). Metacognitively competent reading comprehension is constructively responsive reading: How can such reading be developed in students? Metacognition Learning, 1, 99-113. Richards, J. C. (2005). Second thoughts on teaching listening. RELC Journal, 36(1), 85-92. Rost, M. (2002). Teaching and researching listening. London: Longman. TOEIC (2011). Newsletter 23. Retrieved October 2013, from http://www.toeic.com.tw/file/11063019.pdf © 2015 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

129

Toekshi, M. (2003). Listening comprehension processes and strategies of Japanese junior high school students in interactive settings. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Wollongong. Vandergrift, L. (1999). Facilitating second language listening comprehension: Acquiring successful strategies. English Language Teaching Journal, 53, 168-176. Vandergrift, L. (2002). It was nice to see that our predictions were right: Developing metacognition in L2 listening comprehension. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 58, 556-575. Vandergrift, L. (2004). Learning to listen or listening to learn? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 3-25. Vandergrift, L. (2007). Recent developments in second and foreign language listening comprehension research. Language Teaching, 40, 191-210. Vandergrift, L., & Tafaghodtari, M. (2010). Teaching L2 learners how to listen does make a difference: An empirical study. Language Learning, 60(2), 470-497. Wilson, M. (2003). Discovery listening—Improving perceptual processing. ELT Journal, 57, 335-343. Zhang, D., & Goh, C. (2006). Strategy knowledge and perceived strategy use: Singaporean students‟ awareness of listening and speaking strategies. Language Awareness, 15, 199-219.

130

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No.2, pp. 130-141, September 2015

An Evaluation of Pharmacy Pre-Registration Trainees‟ Perception of Their Placement Tutors in the United Kingdom (UK) Andrew Makori Kisii University, Kenya Abstract. This paper is about a study that investigates the views of pharmacy preregistration trainees regarding their placement tutors. The study employed a quantitative survey approach and questionnaire survey was used to collect data. The questionnaires structure contained both open-ended and closed-ended items to diversify and enrich responses. The participants were purposefully selected, resulting in 14 of them. The resulting data was analyzed using paper, pencil and calculator, due to the sample size. The result shows that while a majority of trainees were positive about their placement tutors, a minority raised very important concerns that are the focus of this article. The concerns include insufficient support from the tutors; lack of clear direction of their placement; tutor lacks necessary skills to support trainees; lack of clearly agreed plan or structure for their placement. Furthermore one trainee felt that her tutor treated her like a small child that makes her feel uneasy. Based on the result, it is concluded that despite of a small sample size respondents, serious and relevant concerns have been raised that need serious attention. Otherwise preregistration trainees may go through the placement without a clear demonstration of requisite competencies.

Keywords: Placement tutors; United Kingdom; pre-registration trainees; pharmacy trainees; workplace-based learning

Introduction Work-based learning at higher education level in the UK has a long history (Little and Harvey, 2006:1): … in the 1950s the National Council for Technology Awards (NCTA) advocated that undergraduate program vmmes in engineering and technology should incorporate planned periods of industrial placements. Since that time, undergraduate programmes incorporating such work-based placements have been introduced across a wide range of subject area. In some programmes the placement is a year-long activity „sandwich‟ between significant periods of oncampus learning and the sandwich placement may be optional. In other programmes, often those seen as meeting both academic and professional

131

development objectives shorter blocks, of placements are interspersed throughout the undergraduate programme (and the blocks are compulsory). More recently there have also been growths in undergraduate programmes that allow students to opt to take a work-based unit which involves a short 6-10 weeks, placement as part of their overall programmes. Workplace learning contributes to the development of the learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s attitudes, behavior and skills, thus leading to professional growth (Lee, Schafheutle and Noyce, n.d.). Jee et al. (n.d.) regards it as a means of socializing learners into the profession. Further, Spencer, Blackmore, Heerd, MCCrorie, Mchaffie, Scherpbier, Gupta, Singh and Southgate, (2008) observe that workplace learning introduces learners to the practice environment and therefore integrates theory and practice. Elvey, Lewis, Schafheutle, Willis, Harrison and Hussell, (2011) regards it as a means of bridging the gap between education and professional practice. Elvey et al. (2011) also comments that it introduces trainees to the world of work. However, Schafhuetle, Hassell, Ashcroft, Hall and Harrison, (2010) note that differences exist regarding the stage at which trainees or learners are socialised into the work- based learning environment. For instance, medical undergraduate students or trainees are introduced to clinical environment much earlier in their course or career, while Pharmacy students who are introduced much later in their course or programme i.e. after four years of masters of pharmacy (Mpharm) degree. This suggests minimum exposure to practice within the four years of training period. This may further suggest limited workplace learning during the course prior to pre-registration placement (Schafheutle et al., 2000). Similar concerns have been reported by McAteer et al. (2004). The importance of pre-registration has been underscored by Hammer (2000), in terms of enabling the trainees to acquire the necessary competencies required in professional practice reflected in knowledge, attitude and behavior. Little and Harvey (2006), identifies other benefits associated with pre-registration training and include: communication, problem solving, creativity, personal and social skills, interpersonal skill and organizational skills. Elvey et al. (2011) also note that the one year (52 weeks) pre-registration, in terms of introducing trainees to the world of work. Elvey et al. (2011), further observe that pre-registration serves two purposes, namely, socializing trainees professionally and developing their professional skills e.g. effective communication. Elvey et al. (2011), also argue that a majority of the pre-registration trainees undertake their placement or training either in a single community pharmacy or hospital which have significant differences between them. However, they further observe that training at one hospital or single community pharmacy may also suggest limited exposure (Elvey, et al., 2011). And according to General Pharmaceutical Council, 2012) during pre-registration trainees are assigned a tutor whose responsibility is to supervise and assessment trainees. The tutorâ&#x20AC;&#x;s role can easily be placed into two broad categories but still within the assessment realm i.e. signing of three 13 weekly appraisals and confirming that the trainee is ready for the final examination, which will qualifies him or her for registration (General Pharmaceutical Council, 2012). The current study investigates the views of preregistration trainees regarding their placement tutors.

132

Literature review Understanding Pre-registration training placement According to Jee, et al. (n.d) pharmacy education and training in the UK is a five year training period, consisting of four years university training and one year work environment training (otherwise known as pre-registration). Jee et al. (n.d.) note that placement offers trainees a unique learning opportunity prior to registration. Similarly, Spencers, et al. (2000) argue that work-based placement or learning exposes and/or introduces trainees or learners to the real work environment, thereby integrating theory and practice (Spencers, et al., 2000). Placement therefore offers trainees an opportunity to work and interact with qualified professionals in the sector or field. Elvey, et al., (2011) report that preregistration in the UK is a 52 weeks placement period during which time trainees are placed at either a hospital or community pharmacy to undertaking workplace- based training. However, Elvey and his colleagues note that, in some minority or rare cases trainees are placed in a non-patient environment such as industry or academia (Elvey, et al., 2011). Besides, Elvey et al. (2011) report that a significant proportion of trainees take their placement either a community pharmacy or hospital. Important benefits associated with pre-registration placement or training have been reported by Elvey, et al (2011) and Hammer, et al. (2000) and include offering a link between education and the world of work, being socialized professionally and acquiring the necessary professional skills. Besides, acquiring the professional practice- related behavior, skills and knowledge. The current pre-registration training is situated at the end of the four years (full time) master of pharmacy (Mpharm) degree. It actually commences immediately after the four years of training and consists of 12 months or 52 weeks of practicebased placement (Schafhuetle et al., 2010). In a majority of the cases trainees only limited option their placement that‟s a hospital or community pharmacy and as noted earlier in the introduction the two exposes the trainees to different workbased environment orientations, which may raise concerns regarding the career progression of the trainees. Does this seem to suggest that those who undertake their placement in a hospital ends up working in hospitals and those who undertake their placement in community pharmacy ends up working in community pharmacies due to the nature of workplace-based socialization? Jee, et al., (n.d., Para. 6) report “that community pharmacies are independently owned, part of national chains or supermarket and operate with a single pharmacist assisted by different support staff (pharmacist, pharmacy technicians, and counter assistants)”. Further, Jee and his colleagues report that “in hospital, pharmacists work in the actual pharmacy as well as wards, and thus work with a large team of pharmacists, pharmacy technicians and other support staff, as well as other healthcare professionals including doctors and nurses”(Jee et al., n.d., Para. 6). Besides, “trainees in community pharmacy would work in a smaller team, while in hospital they would work with larger

133

and more multi-professional team with a wider variety of role models” (Jee et al., n.d., Para. 7). This indicates two distinctively different placement or workplace-based learning environments as mentioned elsewhere in this article. The two are not just generic placements but fashioned according to the work environment and interactions. The placement in pharmacy is significantly different from the undergraduate medical degree one, “in that medical students are exposed to the practice environment earlier in their career and the integration between theory and practice occurs through a range of clinical placements during undergraduate education, which is reflected in the curriculum” (Grant, 2010; Spencers et al., 2000; Jee, et al., n.d., Para. 3). The importance of integration of theory and practice is underscored by the General Medical Council, thus “the integration of practice-based learning in the clinical environment for medical students is an important part of the medical degree” (Jee et al., n.d., Para. 3.). Helmich et al (2001) and Diemers, Van De Wiel, Scherphies, Heinemann and Dolman‟s (2011) note that the exposure or contact with patients early in education has significant advantages, namely, development of communication skills and empathy, biomedical and clinical knowledge and clinical reasoning. In the UK General Pharmaceutical Council (GphC) and General Medical Council (GMC) are two regulating bodies that are responsible for setting standards for pharmacy and medicine respectively (General Pharmaceutical Council, 2009; 2012; 2013). It is the expectation of GphC that trainee gain practical experience of working within the healthcare environment during their Master of Pharmacy Degree programme Schafheutle et al. (2010). However Schafheutle and his colleagues note that in some situations the practical experiences are achieved through simulations, which may not offer adequate workplace learning and experience prior to pre-registration placement (Schafheutle et al., 2010). Interestingly, according to Lee and his colleagues “pharmacy education and training in the UK does not have formal arrangements for continued support or mentorship for learning beyond registration” (Jee, et al. n.d., Para. 7). Therefore, they argue that “it is important for pharmacists to finish pre-registration training with the full range of competencies required to practice” (Lee et al., n.d., Para, 7). According to the Pre-registration Trainee Handbook (2014), at the end of preregistration training students are expected to demonstrate that they have acquired the necessary competencies against performance standards. The handbook further states that once the students have met the performance standards, they can then sit for registration examination which will qualify them as pharmacists (Pre-registration Trainee Pharmacist Handbook, 2014).

Understanding the role of the placement tutor According to Jee, et al (n.d. Para. 7): During pre-registration training, each trainee is allocated a pre-registration tutor who is responsible for their supervision and assessment which involve carrying

134

out and signing off three 13 weekly appraisals and one final declaration confirming the trainee is declared fit to join the register. Tutors are expected to reflect on their performance continually so as to make any necessary adjustment so as to provide or offer training in accordance with GphC guidelines (Al-Ahmad Liu, 2014). The GphC guidance consists of three parts, namely: Part one describes the initial education and training of pharmacists and pharmacy technicians; Part two identifies the five GphC standards of conduct, ethical and performance, that are particularly relevant to the role of a tutor (AlAhmad, and Liu, 2014) and Part three serves to provide help to tutors in their delivery preregistration training particularly in the area of induction, assessment and providing feedback and support to trainees (Al- Ahmad and Liu, 2014). The guidance provides guidelines on what the tutor should do to achieve the following (Al- Ahmad and Liu, 2014): 

Being a professional role model;



Delivering the training programme;



Assessing your trainee performance;



Giving feedback to your trainees;



Supporting your trainees. Based on the above guidelines, the tutor is expected to demonstrate high level of professionalism and competence, and to support trainees appropriately. Mills, Blenkinsopp and Black (2013) identify three important criteria for becoming a pre-registration tutor: to have practiced in the relevant sector for three or more years; to be a registered pharmacist and not currently under investigation by GphC. The three are in line with the pharmacy pre-registration scheme which lies within the General Pharmaceutical Council (GphC). However, there is no requirement for tutors to attend training or demonstrate expertise in workplace assessment (Mills et al., 2013). In other words training is not mandatory. The main barrier to making training mandatory is that the role of the pre-registration tutor does not attract additional remuneration and is often see as an „addition‟ on top of all the other roles that the pharmacist must undertake (Mills et al., 2013). However, tutors are required to sign a selfdeclaration that they meet the criteria (Mills, et al., 2013). Having said that, it is important to note that tutors have the final decision as to whether the trainee has achieved the required standards relating to performance standards (Mills, et al., 2013: 82).

Understanding pre-registration perception on university-based training and placement Review of literature reveals varying students views regarding the universitybased training and the work-based training in general. Regarding universitybased training some trainees were very positive citing sufficient pharmacy practice with experience as an important means of facilitating transition from training to work (Jee et al, n.d.). Students found knowledge and use of pharmacy

135

law to be relevant to the practice, medical chemistry as being less important to the practice (Jee, et al., n.d.). Trainees also noted a tremendous discrepancy between university learning experience and workplace experience (Jee et al., n.d.). Some students mentions difficulties associated with adjusting to their roles, which they link to limited work-place based learning during the four years at university (Jee et al., n.d.). A study conducted by Willis, Seston and Hassell (2008: 2-3), regarding students‟ choice of placement reveal the following: 

Students chose posts that offered them good preparation for the registration of examination (91.5%);



Students chose a post that contributes to professional development; Other findings on students‟ placement based on a study conducted by Willis and his colleagues include (Willis, et al., 2008: 2-3):



Trainees described their workplace training as enjoyable (80.9%) and contribute to their professional knowledge and their clinical skills (72.7%);



About a quarter (26%) felt that they not receive significant feedback at work;



Just over a third (36.5%) felt that they were overloaded with work. Besides, Jee, and his colleagues report that some trainees lacked confidence at the initial stage of their pre-registration training, associated with difficulties in applying their clinical knowledge in practice (Jee, et al., n.d).

Method This study was conducted to offer insights on pharmacy pre-registration students‟ perception of their placement tutors in the United Kingdom (UK). The study employed a quantitative research approach and questionnaire survey was used to collect data. The questionnaire format consisted of open-ended, closedended and rating scale for the purpose of increasing response diversity. The open-ended items allowed the respondents‟ opportunity to make comments on their thought in relation to closed- ended items. This is necessary to enable the readers and researchers gain some understanding of students‟ perspective regarding their perception of placement tutors. The study respondents consisted of pharmacy students on their pre-registration placement who were purposefully selected for the study. Students were recruited for the study at a workshop conducted in Reading in Berkshire in the UK. This initial recruitment formed the basis for subsequent recruitment using snowball sampling technique (see Makori et al., 2015). Respondents were made aware of various ethical considerations such as confidentiality and anonymity, consequently they offered verbal consent. Some survey questionnaires were issued during the workshop in Reading while others were sent to the respondents through their personal email contacts. Data collection exercise lasted for 5- 6 months. The response rate was sixty per cent. Due to the size of the sample (14) closed-ended items were

136

analyzed using pen, paper and calculator resulting in descriptive data, whereas open-ended data or comments were analyzed into themes or categories.

Results Table 1: Showing trainees’ perception of their placement tutors

Trainees‟ perception

Strongly Disagree (%, n=14)

Disagree (%, n=14)

Agree (%, Strongly n=14) Agree (%, n=14)

No response (%,n=14)

Total %

I feel that I am not getting enough support for my placement I feel my tutor looks down upon me and treats me like a small child I expect my tutor to be positive and supportive I don‟t think I have a clear direction where my placement is going I have a clearly agreed plan or structure for my placement I feel my tutor has no clue on what is happening with my placement I feel that my tutor has not been well trained to support students during placement I feel my tutor lacks the skills required to support students effectively during their placement Based on what I gather from my colleagues in placements in other companies or stores it appears that every tutor support students differently I expect tutors to be well trained and be able to support students in a consistent way across the board.

43%

36%

100%

29%

64%

100%

14%

21%

57%

100%

36%

43%

14%

100%

29%

36%

14%

100%

14%

71%

14%

99%

43%

29%

101%

36%

50%

100%

29%

57%

100%

21%

57%

99%

137

Characteristics of respondents 

Four of the trainees were male and ten were female The respondents were mainly from three ethnic backgrounds: Asian (7); African (4) and British (3).

 

They all attended nine different Universities in the UK. . They were based in five counties: Oxfordshire (4), Berkshire (5), Hampshire (3); Buckinghamshire (1) and Northampshire (1) for their preregistration workplacebased placement. They worked at three community chemist or pharmacies: Rowland (1), Lloyds (1) and Boots (12).



Student perception of their placement tutors 

The following analysis is based on Table 1: Just over 2/5 of the trainees felt that they were not getting enough support for their placement. Further analysis reveals that four of the students who felt so were female, while two were male. The six students were all working with boots community chemist or pharmacy at the time of the study. Three of them were based in three different counties. The six students were of different ethnic background: three female British, one female Asian, one male white and one male African.



Just fewer than 80% (n=14) of the trainees expected their tutors to be positive and supportive. Further analysis; reveal that ten of the trainees were working at Boots community chemist or pharmacy and one at Llovyds community chemist or pharmacy at the time of the study. The trainees were based in five different counties. Of the eleven students, eight were female and three male. The students were from three main ethnic backgrounds: Africans (3), Asian (5) and British (3).



21 %( n=14) of the trainees felt that they was no clear direction for their placement. All the three students were female who worked in Boots, two British and one Asian and were based in three different counties. 14% (n=14) of the trainees felt that their tutor lacks the necessary skills to support students during placements. The two trainees were both female, one Asian and the other British, both worked at Boots community chemist or pharmacy. They were based in different counties.



14% (n=14) of the trainees felt that their tutors have no clue of what is happening with their placement. The two trainees were African male and White female. They both worked in Boots community pharmacy or chemist and were based in two different counties in the UK. 36% (n=14) of the trainees indicated that they did not have a clearly agreed plan or structure for their placement. Four of the trainees indicated „strongly disagree‟, suggesting that their placement did not have any agreed plan or structure. Further analysis reveal that all the five trainees were all female, one

138



African, two Asian and two British. They were based at various counties in the country. One student felt that her tutor looks down upon her and treats her like a small child. The student is an African and worked in Boots.



57% (n=8) and 29 %( n=14) indicates strongly agree and agree respectively that tutors support trainees differently. This may further suggest that just over 80% of the trainees felt that tutors‟ support was varied. That may raise further concerns of lack of uniformity of support offered to trainees. Five of the trainees who indicate „strongly agree‟ were female and three male. Three of the trainees who indicate „agree‟ were female and one male. Of the female trainees who indicate „strongly agree‟ three were Asians and two British. Of the male who indicate „strongly agree‟ two were Asians and one African. Three of those who indicate „agree‟ were female and one male. Three were British, one African and one Asian. Seven of those who indicate „strongly agree‟ worked with Boots community chemist or pharmacy and one worked with Roland community chemist or pharmacy. They were based at various counties in the country.



57% (n=14) and 21 %( n=14) indicates strongly agree and agree respectively, that they expected tutors to be well trained and being able to support trainees in a consistent way cross the board. This may further suggest that just fewer than 80% of the trainees were not happy with the training of the tutors and the support they offered them. Six of the trainees who indicate „strongly agree‟ were female and two male. Two of the trainees who indicate „agree‟ were female and one was male. Of the female trainees who indicates „strongly agree‟ two were Africans, three were Asians and one was British. Six of the trainees who indicate „strongly agree‟ worked with boots community chemist or pharmacy, one other trainee worked with Rowland community chemist or pharmacy, the other worked with Lloyds. The three trainees who indicate „agree‟ worked with boots. They were based at various counties in the country.

Discussion Workplace- based training or learning has been recognized in the literature reviewed as a means of facilitating transition from training institutions to work or practice environment. It plays a crucial role in the “development of learners‟ attitudes, behaviors and skills that are important for the practice profession”. It is also a means of socializing students professionally in the workplace environment (Jee, et al., n.d., Para. 1) Preregistration is a form of workplace-based training specifically designed for pharmacy students. It has been recognized for enabling students to acquire important skills such as communication skills, interpersonal skills, clinical knowledge and skills, clinical reasoning, among others which are necessary in the workplace environment ( Helmich et al., 2011; Diemars, et al. 2011; Lee et al., n.d.). However, the success of preregistration programed is dependent on an effective and competent tutor. But how can competency among tutors being fostered when training and ascertaining their expertise is not mandatory

139

(Preregistration Trainee Pharmacist Handbook, 2014). Effective training ensures that workers are consistently competent to perform their tasks effectively. One wonders how individuals who are not trained can be entrusted with the responsibility of assessing and signing off the work of pre-registration trainees. How possible is it that people who are not trained are charged with the responsibility of determining who should join the pharmacist register? If people are not trained then variations in assessment would be anticipated. If people are not trained then disparity in training and support would be anticipated. In this study the respondents raised very pertinent concerns (summarized in Table 1); they are pertinent because they all suggest something about training: 

Trainees were not getting enough support for their placement (42%);



Trainees expected trainees their tutors to be positive and supportive (80%);



Trainees had no clear direction for their placement (21%);



Trainees felt that tutors had no clue of what was happening with their placement (14% )



Trainees had no clearly agreed plan or structure for their placement (50%)



Trainees received varied support (80%)



Trainees expected tutors to be well trained and being able to support them effectively (78% )



Trainees felt that their tutors have not been trained to support student during placement (29%). According to the guidance for tutors (Al- Ahmad and Liu, 2014), they are expected to be supportive, role model, deliver training and assess training performance. This is expected to occur uniformly across the pharmacy preregistration programme in the UK. This can or may only occur if all the tutors were uniformly trained so that all sang from the same hymn sheet. Otherwise, pharmacy preregistration would continue to be offered variously resulting in serious disparity.

Conclusion and Recommendations This study has demonstrated that workplace-based training is an important activity in terms of facilitating transition from training institutions to work environment. A number of benefits have been cited in relation to workplacebased training, for instance, trainees gain confidence, communication improves and trainees also acquire skills such as clinical knowledge and skills, clinical reasoning, interpersonal skills and empathy. All these benefits are very crucial in a working environment, and especially when somebody is crossing over from a university or training institution to the practice environment However, the study finding raises serious concerns regarding placement tutors. Some of the concerns include, lack of clearly agreed structure or plan; various tutors support (lack uniformity); lack of training; lack of direction and lack of support.

140

The study therefore recommends that tutors, be well trained (mentorship) in order to enhance uniformity in the preregistration training and support systems. The mentorship course can last 3- 6 months and tutors can attend one day a week. Also tutors to be offered some allowances for tutoring preregistration trainees. This may motivate them to participate in various training in relationship to their role as preregistration tutors.

References Al-Ahmed, N. and Liu, P. (2014). The steps pre-registration tutors must take to support their trainees. The pharmaceutical Journal 11Jun 2014, 292 (7814), 610. www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/learning/learning-article/the-steps-preregitration-tutors-must-take-to-support-theirtrainees/11139065.article [Accessed on 30/08/2015]. Bowes, L. and Harvey, L. (1999). The impact of sandwich education on the education of graduates six months post-graduation Birmingham, University Central England, Centre for Research into quality. Dean, B; Schachter, M; Vincent C. and Barber, N. (2002). Causes of prescribing erroe in hospital in-patients: a prospective study. The Lancet, 359, 1373-1378. Diemers, A.D; Van De Wiel, M.W. Scerphies, A.J.; Heireman, E. and Dolmans, D.H. (2011). Pre-clinical patient contents and the application of Biomedical and Clinical Knowledge. Medical Education, 45, 280- 288. Elvey, R; Lewis, P; Schafheutle, E. I; Willis, S; Harrison, S and Hussell, K. (2011). Patient-centred professionalism among newly registered pharmacists, London: Pharmacist Practice Research Trust General Medical Council (2009). Tomorrow‟s Doctors, London: General Medical Council. General Pharmaceutical Council (2011a). Future pharmacist: standards for the initial education and training of pharmacist, London: General Pharmaceutical Council. General Pharmaceutical Council (2011b).Tutor development resources, London: General Pharmaceutical Council. General Pharmaceutical Council (2012). Pre-registration manual 2012- 2013 [online]. Available: http://www.pharmacyregulaion.org/preregistration [Accessed 10/04/2013] Grant, J. (2010). Principles of curriculum design. In: Swanwick, T. (ed). Understanding medical education: evidence, theory and practice. ChichesterWiley Blackwell. Hammer, D.P. (2000) Professional attitudes and behaviours: The “A‟s and B‟s” of professionalism. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 64, 455- 464.

141

Harvey, L; Moon, S; Geall, V and Bower, R. (1997). Graduates‟ work organizational change and student‟s attributes. Birmingham CRQ and AGR (supported by DfEE and CICHE) ISBN 1859201113 Helmich, E; Bolhuis, S; Laan, R. and Koopmans, R. (2011). Early clinical experience: do students learn what we expect? Medical Education, 45, 731- 740. Jee, S; Schafheutle, E. and Noyce, P. (n.d.) A critical perspective of workplace learning in pharmacy education and training with medicine serving as a comparison. http://file:///C:/Users/Downloads/samwel_lee.pdf [Accessed on 28/08/15] Little, B and Harvey, L. (2006). Learning through work placements and beyond. A report for HECSU and Higher Education Academy‟s work placements organization Forum. www.hecscu.ac.uk]assets/documents/Learning_through_work_placemnts_and -beyond.pdf [Accessed on 20/08/2014]. Little, B. (2000). Undergraduates work based learning and skills development. Tertiary Education and Management, 6, 119- 35. Mason, G; William, G; Grant, S. and Guile, D. (2003). How much does higher education enhance the employability of graduates? http://www.hefce.ac.uk/pubs/_drepints/2003/vol13_03_ [Accessed on 03/07/2015] MCateer, S: John, D. and Luscombe, D.K. (2004). Views of preregistration graduates on the UK pharmacy, undergraduate course as preparation for preregistration training. International Journal of Pharmacy Practice Mills, E; Blenkinsopp, A; Black, P. (2013). Quality management in pharmacy preregistration Training: Current practice. Pharmacy Education, 13(1), 82-86. Preregistration Trainee Phamacist Handbook (2014). Health Education KSS preregistration Trainee Pharmacist. Developing people for health and healthcare. Health Education, Kent, Surrey and Sussex. www.ksspharmacy.nGs.uk/dyn/-assets/folder4/prereg_handbook/preregGuide2014-15FINAL.pdf [Accessed on 30/08/2015] Spencer, J: Blackmore,D; Heerd, S.; MCCrorie, P; Mchaffie, D; Scherpbier, A; Gupta, S; Singh, K and Southgate, L. (2000). Patient-oriented learning: a review of the role of the patient in the education of medical students. Medical education, 34, 851- 857. Willis, S; Seston, L; and hessell, K. (2008). Working lives of preregistration trainee. A longitudinal cohort study of pharmacy careers. The pharmacy Practice Research Trust. www.pharmacyresearchuk.org/waterway/wpcontent/uploads/2012/11/working-lives-of-preregistration_Trainees.pdf [Accessed on 30/03/2015].

168

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No.2, pp. 168-178, September 2015

The Role of Teaching Experience and Prior Education in Teachers’ Self-Efficacy and General Pedagogical Knowledge at the Onset of Teacher Education Cynthia Vaudroz, Jean-Louis Berger & Céline Girardet Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training Lausanne, Switzerland1 Abstract. This study explored how teachers’ general pedagogical knowledge (GPK) and teachers’ self-efficacy (TSE) at the beginning of teacher education differ in terms of student teachers’ individual characteristics. The study participants were 240 teachers in their first year of education who completed a questionnaire that assessed their GPK, three types of TSE, years of teaching experience, level of prior education and sex. The results indicate that prior education, sex and, to a lesser extent, teaching experience explain a significant portion of the GPK. Prior education, teaching experience and, to some extent, sex explain a significant portion of the three types of TSE. These results emphasize the importance of individual characteristics, particularly teaching experience and prior education, in understanding heterogeneity at the onset of teacher education in GPK and TSE, two central constructs that affect teachers’ and students’ outcomes. Keywords: General Pedagogical Knowledge; Self-Efficacy; Teaching Experience; Prior Education.

Introduction Teachers’ knowledge has been shown to be associated with higher quality instruction—which, in turn, has a positive effect on student learning (Hill, Ball, Blunk, Goffney, & Rowan, 2007; Wayne & Youngs, 2003). Teachers’ knowledge is usually divided into three types: content knowledge (CK), which is knowledge about facts, concepts, subject terminology and the organization of subjectspecific concepts; pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), which is knowledge of various ways of representing and formulating a subject to make it comprehensible to others; and general pedagogical knowledge (GPK) (Shulman, 1986), which is defined as “the knowledge needed to create and optimize teaching-learning situations across subjects, including declarative and Please direct correspondence to jean-louis.berger@sfivet-switzerland.ch. The data were drawn from the research project “The evolution of teachers’ conceptions during teacher education”, founded by the Swiss National Science Foundation (Grant N°100019_146351; Primary investigator: Jean-Louis Berger, Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training; Co-investigators: Marcel Crahay, University of Geneva, and Carmela Aprea, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena). 1

169

procedural knowledge” (Voss, Kunter, & Baumert, 2011, p. 209). Researchers (König & Blömeke, 2010; Voss et al., 2011) have identified four generic dimensions of GPK: a) instructional planning, which includes knowledge about determining course goals and content, structuring the lesson process, and developing teaching methods and tools, among other aspects; b) classroom management, which concerns discipline issues (e.g., strategies to prevent and counteract disturbances), student motivation, and so on; c) learners’ heterogeneity and teacher’s adaptivity, which refers to the management of heterogeneous learning groups in the classroom, the use of a wide range of teaching methods and strategies of differentiation, and knowledge of learners’ differences and learning processes; and d) assessment, which relates to student assessment and evaluation criteria. The present study is part of a project investigating the impact of teacher education on teachers’ knowledge, beliefs, and practices in instructional planning and classroom management. Accordingly, the study considers only the knowledge related to these two teaching tasks. GPK is typically acquired during teacher education. However, many individuals entering teacher education have already developed a certain level of pedagogical, psychological or general educational knowledge. This knowledge may be acquired during practical experience, such as teaching internships, substitute teaching experiences and/or the practice of teaching without certification. According to Jones and Vesilind (1996), experiences with students are a major source of change in teacher knowledge. For instance, unexpected student behavior may significantly influence changes in student teachers’ knowledge and beliefs during teacher education. In addition, Voss et al. (2011) found that student teachers with teaching experience had higher means on all sub-dimensions of their GPK tests than those with no teaching experience. This difference was most striking in the area of knowledge of classroom management. Another likely factor contributing to GPK development is prior education: That is, student teachers may have higher levels of GPK due to general knowledge and other educational inputs. For example, Voss et al. (2011) found a significant correlation between GPK and general cognitive ability. Since general cognitive ability is linked to educational background, prior education may relate to GPK. Although a number of beginning teachers start their teacher education with some teaching experience and an educational background, the importance of this background for GPK has rarely been investigated. Another central concept in teacher education—and, more generally, in teaching—is teachers’ self-efficacy (TSE), which is defined as teachers’ “judgment of [their] capabilities to bring about desired outcomes of student engagement and learning, even among those students who may be difficult or unmotivated” (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001, p. 783). TSE is a meaningful construct because it is related to both student outcomes, such as student engagement and academic achievement, and teacher outcomes, such as the provision of support to students, burnout, and job satisfaction (Siwatu & Chesnut, 2015).

170

In a study conducted by Huberman (1992), teachers were asked to indicate the extent to which they had mastered different facets of teaching, such as “Feeling at the same level as more experienced colleagues” and “Feeling generally confident as an experienced teacher.” Huberman (1992) found that the more years of teaching experience teachers had, the higher their feelings of instructional mastery were. This concept is very close to TSE, since it relates to teachers’ perceived instructional effectiveness. Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2007) found similar results: Career teachers (four or more years of experience) rated themselves significantly higher on overall self-efficacy than novice teachers (three or fewer years of experience). Klassen and Chiu (2010) observed a curvilinear relationship between TSE and teaching experience: TSE increased from 0 year of experience to approximately 23 years of experience and then dropped afterwards. According to a study by Wolters and Daugherty (2007), the relationship between TSE and teaching experience varies depending on the type of TSE considered. For example, the impact of teaching experience on TSE is stronger for classroom management (maintaining order, discipline, keeping students quiet) and instructional strategies (using various instructional and assessment strategies to meet all students’ needs) than for student engagement (motivating uninterested students, helping students understand the value of learning). In sum, prior research suggests that TSE is related to years of experience. However, to the best of our knowledge, no research has yet explored the relationship between TSE and teachers’ prior education; thus, there is no basis from which to draw hypotheses or assumptions. In conclusion, there is only limited and unclear knowledge of the factors explaining differences in GPK and TSE at the onset of teacher education. However, this information is relevant for tailoring teacher education and for fostering the development of teachers’ knowledge and beliefs. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to investigate how teaching experience and prior education may explain individual differences in GPK and TSE.

Method Participants Participants consisted of 248 teachers in their first year of teacher education in the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Among these, 8 reported more than 20 years of teaching experience; they were removed from the sample for being outliers. Thus, the final sample consisted of 240 teachers. Among these, 128 were preservice general secondary education teachers, and 112 were in-service vocational teachers (47.1% women, 51.2% men, 1.7% unknown; mean age = 36 yrs. 1 mo., SD = 9 yrs. 1 mo.). During their first weeks of teacher education, the participants filled out a survey that included the following measures.

Measures General pedagogical knowledge GPK was measured using a French adaptation/translation of the short version of the Pädagogisches Wissen [Pedagogical knowledge] test (König & Blömeke, 2010). One section was dedicated to classroom management and included four

171

closed-ended questions (causal attributions, 4 items; classroom discipline, 8 items; learning motivation, 5 items; empathy, 6 items) and two open-ended questions (How to motivate a student; How to prevent disturbances in the classroom). The other section addressed instructional planning with one closed-ended question (Bloom’s taxonomy of learning objectives; 8 items) and two open-ended questions (How to analyze a lesson (after it takes place); How to structure a lesson plan). The questions about discipline and empathy were developed by the authors, while the others were translated directly from the German test. The items were scored according to the test coding rubrics developed by König and Blömeke (2010). The scores for the closed-ended questions were calculated as the sums of the correct items. For example, the question on learning motivation was: “Which situations involve intrinsic motivation, and which involve extrinsic motivation?” One point was given for each instance in which the respondent correctly chose “intrinsic motivation” or “extrinsic motivation” after each item (e.g., “extrinsic motivation” for the item “A student studies before a math test because he/she is expecting a reward if he/she gets a good grade”). Scores for the open-ended questions were higher if the respondent provided a greater variety of answers. For example, the question for lesson analysis was: “Imagine that you help a novice teacher who has just given his first lesson. He evaluates this first lesson with you. Which questions would you ask him in order to provide an evaluation that will enable him to better prepare his future lessons? Formulate ten questions.” One point was given for each written question if it addressed one of twelve criteria (prior knowledge, structure, time management, and so on). Two (or more) questions assessing the same criterion were rewarded with one point. Inter-rater reliability was calculated for the four open-ended questions via two independent coders. Cohen’s Kappa showed a relatively good consensus (How to analyze a lesson: number of units coded = 1263, k = .79, percentage of agreement = 81.7%; How to structure a lesson plan: number of units coded = 1456, k = .69, percentage of agreement = 80.1%; How to motivate a student: number of units coded = 456, k = 75, percentage of agreement = 80.4%; How to prevent disturbances in the classroom: number of units coded = 509, k = .67, percentage of agreement = 72%). Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs A French adaptation/translation (Dumay & Galand, 2012) of the 12-item Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001) was used. The scale assessed three types of TSE, each with four items: classroom management, student engagement, and instructional planning (developed for this study; e.g., “Considering my recent realizations, resources and opportunities as a teacher, I feel able to select content whose difficulty is adapted to the learner’s level”). Participants rated each item on a six-point Likert scale (1 = completely disagree; 6 = completely agree). Teaching experience The number of years of teaching at the time of the survey was reported (ranged from 0 to 18 years; M = 2 yrs. 2 months; SD = 3 yrs. 5 months). Prior level of education

172

Participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; highest diploma achieved was reported and coded into a 14-level scale from 1 (initial vocational education) to 14 (PhD) (M = 10.45, SD = 2.91), following the Swiss Federal Statistical Office classification.

Data analysis To investigate the effects of experience and prior level of education on GPK and TSE, structural equation modeling (SEM)2 was used. Three models were tested: one for each form of GPK question (closed-ended and open-ended) and one for TSE. The predictors were teaching experience, prior education, and sex. No assumptions were made about the effect of sex; instead, it was included as a control variable. Since only 143 of the 240 participants provided answers to the open-ended questions, GPK questions were split into two models in order to use all of the available data. Note that the distinction between preservice general secondary education teachers and in-service vocational teachers was not included as a variable in the model because the differences between these two types of teachers are strongly reflected through teaching experience and prior education. For each model, zero-order correlations are presented first; then, the model itself is presented.

Results Preliminary analyses indicated that there is no significant correlation between GPK and TSE or between closed-ended and open-ended GPK questions.

General pedagogical knowledge: closed-ended questions Table 1 shows the zero-order Pearson correlations between the individual characteristics variables and the closed-ended questions on GPK.

The maximum likelihood robust estimator was used to include deviations from multivariate normality. 2

173

Table 1: Zero-order correlations between individual characteristics variables and closed-ended questions on GPK

Measure Closed-ended Questions on GPK 1. Teacher's empathy 2. Causal attributions 3. Learning motivation 4. Discipline issues 5. Bloom's taxonomy Individual Characteristics 6. Teaching experience 7. Prior education 8. Sex

— -.16 .37 -.17 .05

— .28 .16 .22

— .12 .27

— .24

—

.19 .05 -.09

-.41 .61 .16

.05 .28 .00

-.06 -.01 -.19

.07 .18 .07

— -.19 .11

— -.23

Note: N = 240. Sex is coded: 1 = female; 2 = male. Correlations with values between .13 and .17 are statistically significant at p < .05; correlations with values between .17 and .21 are statistically significant at p < .01; correlations with values of .21 and greater are statistically significant at p < .001.

The results of the SEM model are illustrated in Figure 1. The chi-square test of the model fit is not significant (χ²(4) = 5.493 , p = .24), indicating a good fit. Only three of the closed-ended questions are related to individual characteristics. Issues of discipline and definition of empathy are not; thus, they are not shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: SEM results relating individual characteristics to closed-ended questions on GPK. Note: N = 240. GPK factors’ indicators are the mean scores of the corresponding items. The reliability of GPK scores are integrated into the model using the formula (1-α)*variance (Bollen, 1989). Sex is coded: 1 = female; 2 = male. GPKCA = causal attributions item; GPKBT = Bloom’s taxonomy item; GPKLM = learning motivation item. † p < .10 ; * p < .05 ; ** p < .01 ; *** p < .001.

174

General pedagogical knowledge: open-ended questions Table 2 shows the zero-order Pearson correlations between the individual characteristics and the open-ended questions on GPK. Table 2: Zero-order correlations between individual characteristics variables and open-ended questions on GPK

Measure Open-ended Questions on GPK 1. Lesson plan 2. Lesson analysis 3. Methods to motivate a student 4. Measures against disturbances Individual Characteristics 5. Teaching experience 6. Prior education 7. Sex

— .21 .06 .29

— .24 .14

— .18

—

.02 .03 -.03

-.01 .23 -.03

-.04 .21 -.02

-.02 .25 -.22

— -.13 -.02

— -.19

Note: N = 143. Sex is coded: 1 = female; 2 = male. Correlations with values between .16 and .21 are statistically significant at p < .05; correlations with values between .21 and .27 are statistically significant at p < .01; correlations with values of .27 and greater are statistically significant at p < .001.

The SEM model is illustrated in Figure 2. The chi-square test of the model fit is not significant (χ²(2) = .075, p = .963), indicating a good fit. Neither teaching experience nor lesson plans is related to any open-ended question; thus, neither is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. SEM results relating individual characteristics to open-ended questions on GPK. Note: N = 143. Sex is coded: 1 = female; 2 = male. † p < .10 ; * p < .05 ; ** p < .01 ; *** p < 001. The model did not converge at the estimation of the correlation between prior education and sex.

175

Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Table 3 shows the zero-order Pearson correlations between individual characteristics and TSE beliefs. Table 3: Zero-order correlations between individual characteristics variables and TSE beliefs

Measure TSE Beliefs 1. TSE for classroom management 2. TSE for student engagement 3. TSE for instructional planning Individual Characteristics 4. Teaching experience 5. Prior education 6. Sex

— .59 .47

— .71

—

.25 -.17 .05

.08 .04 -.15

.19 .10 -.11

— -.19 .10

— -.23

The SEM model is illustrated in Figure 3. The chi-square test of the model fit is significant (χ²(82) = 201.75, p < .001). The fit indices are acceptable (CFI = .90, RMSEA = .08, SRMR = .06) following Schermelleh-Engel, Moosbrugger, and Müller (2003) guidelines.

Figure 3. SEM results relating individual characteristics to TSE beliefs. Note: N = 240. Sex is coded: 1 = female; 2 = male. TSE = teachers’ self-efficacy; TSESE = teachers’ self-efficacy for student engagement; TSECM = teachers’ self-efficacy for classroom management; TSEIP = teachers’ self-efficacy for instructional planning. † p < .10 ; * p < .05 ; ** p < .01 ; *** p < .001.

176

Discussion Overall, individual characteristics were significantly linked to GPK and TSE, confirming that, combined, these characteristics explain individual differences among teachers as they enter teacher education. According to our results, GPK depends mostly on prior education. This predictor significantly explains variance in all GPK questions except knowledge of classroom discipline, knowledge of the definition of empathy and knowledge of lesson plan. There are three possible reasons for this effect: First, GPK is partly acquired when studying other subjects. Second, respondents can rely on their reasoning abilities to answer the items assessing GPK. These first two explanations imply that GPK might not be fully specific to teaching. Moreover, in support of the second explanation, Voss et al. (2011) found a latent correlation of φ = .58 between general reasoning abilities and a GPK test. In the present study, the level of prior education can be considered a proxy for general reasoning abilities. The third explanation is that people with higher levels of education are more used to providing written answers to open-ended questions, since they have often been requested to do so during their education. The absence of a positive relationship between teaching experience and GPK is surprising, since this finding is not in line with prior research (Voss et al, 2011). In our study, teaching experience is only related—negatively—to knowledge of causal attributions. One could argue that causal attributions are associated to beliefs rather than knowledge. Teachers with greater teaching experience are more likely to have encountered situations that have strengthened their beliefs about causal attributions over time. The absence of a link between teaching experience and the other GPK questions might be explained by the difficulty to acquire formal knowledge about teaching and learning when one is only having classroom experience and limited opportunity for reflective thinking as offered during teacher education. In another finding that is difficult to interpret, we found that two GPK questions were explained by sex: Specifically, male teachers had higher scores on causal attribution, while female teachers had higher scores related to knowledge of measures against disturbances. Individual characteristics did explain individual differences in TSE, but only to a certain extent (i.e., up to 7% of explained variance). Prior education was found to be negatively related to TSE for classroom management. A possible explanation is that those with the highest education feel confident in their content knowledge, but worry about managing students’ behavior. Moreover, prior education was found to be positively related to TSE for instructional planning; our interpretation is that teachers with higher levels of education are likely to have learned to plan and structure their work as students. Women reported higher TSE for student engagement and instructional planning than men. This finding contrasts with prior studies indicating that men have higher TSE (Klassen & Chiu, 2010). Finally, the results reveal that two types of TSE depend on teaching experience: TSE for classroom management and TSE for instructional planning. This could mean that teachers can develop selfconfidence in managing classroom discipline and preparing lessons by

177

experiencing teaching without certification. However, teaching experience was not found to be related to TSE for student engagement, indicating that teachers need formal education in order to know how to engage students in learning and to feel confident in doing so. These results suffer from several limits. First, the range of GPK considered is restricted (i.e., it does not include information on learners’ heterogeneity, teacher’s adaptivity, and knowledge of assessment; König & Blömeke, 2010; Voss et al., 2011). Second, for the open-ended GPK questions, the coding rubrics use the variety of answers as a criterion for providing a knowledge score. This approach offers a limited perspective on teacher knowledge by neglecting other aspects of knowledge, such as its adequacy for a given situation. Finally, the sample size is limited for the model related to open-ended GPK questions and might not be fully comparable to the full sample. Thus, the results of this study should be replicated in other samples and using other GPK and TSE measures. In conclusion, the study results emphasize the importance of considering individual characteristics, particularly teaching experience and prior education, in order to understand heterogeneity at the onset of teacher education in GPK and TSE, two central constructs affecting teachers’ and students’ outcomes. Moreover, individual differences among teachers must be considered when developing GPK during teacher education. While some teachers might think that they already acquired GPK in practicing teaching, our results indicated that this is not the case. Thus, it seems important to explain them the relevance of courses about learning and teaching. Teachers with a high level of education might more easily acquire and apply GPK; further research is however needed to examine this assumption. It is also essential to consider individual differences when fostering TSE during teacher education: Male and women teachers are not equals in terms of feeling confident about teaching tasks, and teachers with a high level of education worry more about their ability to manage classrooms. The take-away message from this article is that individual differences have to be taken into account in teacher education.

References Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley. Dumay, X., & Galand, B. (2012). The multilevel impact of transformational leadership on teacher commitment: cognitive and motivational pathways. British Educational Research Journal, 38(5), 703-729. doi:10.1080/01411926.2011.577889 Hill, H. C., Rowan, B., & Ball, D. L. (2005). Effects of teachers’ mathematical knowledge for teaching on student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 42, 371-406. doi:10.3102/00028312042002371 Huberman, M. (1992). Teacher development and instructional mastery. In A. Hargreaves & M. G. Fullan (Eds.), Understanding teacher development (pp. 122-142). New York: Teachers College Press. Jones, M. & Vesilind, E. (1996). Putting practice into theory: Changes in the organization of preservice teachers’ pedagogical knowledge. American Educational Research Journal, 33, 91-117. doi:10.3102/00028312033001091 Klassen, R. M., & Chiu, M. M. (2010). Effects on teachers' self-efficacy and job satisfaction: Teacher gender, years of experience, and job stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 741-756. doi:10.1037/a0019237

178

König, J., & Blömeke, S. (2010). Pädagogisches Unterrichtswissen (PUW). In Dokumentation der Kurzfassung des TEDS-M-Testinstruments zur Kompetenzmessung in der ersten Phase der Lehrerausbildung. Berlin, Germany: Humboldt University of Berlin. Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Test of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8, 23-74. Shulman, L.S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4-14. Siwatu, K. O., & Chesnut, S. R. (2015). The career development of preservice and inservice teachers: Why teachers' self-efficacy beliefs matter. In H. Fives & M. Gregoire Gill (Eds.), International handbook of research on teachers' beliefs (pp. 212-229). New-York: Routledge. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17(7), 783-805. doi:10.1016/S0742051X(01)00036-1 Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2007). The differential antecedents of selfefficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(6), 944-956. Voss, T., Kunter, M., & Baumert, J. (2011). Assessing teacher candidates' general pedagogical/psychological knowledge: Test construction and validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(4), 952-969. doi:10.1037/a0025125 Wayne, A. J., & Youngs, P. (2003). Teacher characteristics and student achievement gains: A review. Review of Educational Research, 73(1), 89-122. doi: 10.2307/3516044 Wolters, C. A., & Daugherty, S. G. (2007). Goal structures and teachers' sense of efficacy: Their relation and association to teaching experience and academic level. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 181-193. Woolfolk Hoy, A., Hoy, W. K., & David, H. A. (2009). Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 627-655). New York: Routledge.

179

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 179-194, August 2015

Technology Blended Learning Approaches and the Level of Student Engagement with Subject Content Zeina Nehme Department of Mathematics Australian College of Kuwait, Kuwait

Arthur Seakhoa-King and Shameem Ali School of Business Australian College of Kuwait, Kuwait

Abstract. This paper evaluates the implementation of technology blended teaching and learning in the Foundation Mathematics Program at a private college of higher education in Kuwait with a view to identifying improvements in student performance. The traditional classroom teaching was blended with a significant component of online learning with MML (MyMathLab), involving in-class tutorials and outside of class online activities. The aim of introducing this approach was largely to achieve a greater level of engagement with the course content and to increase the amount of practice time students devoted to doing problem solving exercises. The study used data generated by the MML tools as well as data on success rates from previous semesters when only the traditional approaches were used for teaching and learning in the Foundation Program. The study found that there was an increase of between 12% and 35% in the normal expected time required for problem-solving practice with the MML system. The greatest advantage was the student activity monitoring data available from the system could be used for identifying students at risk of failure and developing tailored and targeted support programs and strategies. In addition, comparison of results from previous traditional approach and the newly introduced blended approach revealed that grade inflation can be avoided and a greater degree of fairness can result in online grading. Keywords: Education technology, Learning styles, Online learning.

180

Introduction The traditional delivery of coursework which comprises lecture-based instructions where students take notes and do in-class practice at problem solving and undertake assessment of learned skills and techniques is rapidly been replaced by hybrid approaches. With the introduction of technology in the classroom, the approaches to teaching and learning is rapidly changing (Hayfa & Othaman, 2014; Ziphorah, 2014). Technology has transformed teaching and learning curriculum and a range of terminology has entered the field of education, and in some academic institutions, eLearning is now the only mode of teaching and learning, while in others it has been partially incorporated into curriculums. Terms such as “blended learning” or “hybrid learning” are frequently used to describe this development which partially incorporates technology in teaching and learning curriculums1. Scida & Saury, (2006) define hybrid learning as “classes in which instruction takes place in a traditional classroom setting augmented by computer-based or online activities which can replace classroom seat time” (p. 518). An often cited advantage of adopting technology in teaching and learning curriculum relates to accessibility. Lectures delivered online can be accessed anytime and replayed as frequent as the user wishes (Speckler, 2012). This is particularly important for Foundation Mathematics course, where frequent practice is considered critical for one to acquire the necessary skills to grasp key concepts and principles. One web-based tool which is widely used in the teaching of mathematics is MyMathLab (MML) designed by Pearson Publisher Company (Hayfa & Othaman, 2014). When properly employed, the MML tool can enhance students‟ learning especially by providing them with an alternative platform for practicing mathematics (Hayfa & Othaman, 2014). As new ways of teaching are implemented, they need to be examined for effectiveness so that improvements can be made to the development and delivery of course material, as well as to understand the impact of blended approaches on teaches and students alike. The successful implementation of technology blended approaches may require training and some modification of students and instructor perceptions (Lin, 2012). In evaluating technology based approaches, the dimensions to be investigated should be interaction, staff support, institutional quality assurance mechanisms, institutional credibility, learner support, information, as well as publicity and learning tasks (Jung, 2011). There is also the view that educational outcomes and learning approaches are not necessarily enhanced by using technology, concluding that evaluation of such programs is important for a better understanding impacts and experiences (Kirkwood, 2009). However, the 1

The terms ‘blended learning’ and ‘hybrid learning’ are synonymous which means they can be used interchangeably

181

introduction of a well-integrated technology based learning platform has the potential for improving the quality of education (Basham, Smeltzer & Pianfetti, 2013), especially with regard to increased and more convenient access (Fisher & Sadera, 2011; Keengwe, Schnellert, & Mills, 2012).

This study reports on the first evaluation of the blended approach introduced in the teaching of Foundation Mathematics and identifies the impact of the new approaches on student engagement and outcomes. Technology facilitated learning was first introduced in the Spring semester of 2014, at a private college in Kuwait. Foundation Mathematics is a pre-University unit which students take as a pre-requisite, enabling more advanced mathematics courses for students continuing to diploma and degree programs in Business and Engineering. The technology blended learning was introduced to attain a greater level of student engagement in the mathematics learning process, as traditional methods have failed to achieve the practice level required for concept application and problem solving. The initial aim was to achieve deeper learning and greater engagement with the course content. Foundation Mathematics course consisted of 4-credit hours, comprising three hours of lecture-based classes and one hour computer laboratory session per week. During the 3-hour of lectures, instructions were delivered using the traditional way of teaching, but resources from the interface website were used, like power point presentations, eBook, videos, animations, and worksheets. The one hour computer laboratory session was used to administer online quizzes and for students to carry out some assigned task on MML tool. The evaluation of the program was to explore the effectiveness of the MML tool in the teaching of Foundation Mathematics and to introduce a strategy for continuous improvement in the blended approach. The objective of the study was to investigate if greater student engagement was being achieved. In particular the aims were as follows: 1. Ascertain whether or not there is relationship between the „average time the students spent using the MML tool‟ and the „Letter Grade‟ they obtain for the unit. 2. Find out whether or not there is a relationship between the „average time the students spent using the MML tool and the „grades students achieved in the various assessments‟, namely, Quiz test, Homework, mid and final examination and overall grade for the unit. 3. Establish the effect, if any, the MML tool had on the students‟ overall grades for Foundation Mathematics unit.

182

4. Establish whether or not there were any differences between female and male students‟ Foundation Mathematics grades that could be attributed to the MML tool. 5. Establish in which major, whether Engineering or Business, the use of the MML tool was more effective.

Literature review The advancement of computer technologies and its classroom applications has brought a paradigm shift in the way instructors teach (Glass & Sue, 2008), especially in response to the generation of students who are “digital natives” (Windisch & Medman, 2008; Puyaraud & Hahn, 2012) and well accustomed to being in constant contact with the world around them. While their lifestyles are similar to previous generations, they interact differently with technology and are able to collaborate more effectively with one another wherever they are, at any time. These students do not respond well to traditional approaches used for past generations. However, the student learning outcomes resulting from the incorporation of technologies in teaching and learning relate to how the technology is used and if the student‟s approach to study is in any way modified because of the technology (Mkomange, 2012). Implementing technology in the curriculum has proved to be beneficial to teaching and learning. It has been shown to be transformational, as it enhances communication, efficiency, problem solving, research, and decision-making (Niess, 2005, Veletsianos, 2011).Technology provides students with new forms of communication to enable them to take control of their own learning (Reba & Biggers, 2008). Moreover, students in eLearning develop technology skills and knowledge that they can incorporate in their daily and working lives (Hayfa & Othaman, 2014). Educational technologists argue that technology accommodates the diversity of learning styles of learners and offers flexibility for access (Peck & Jobe, 2008). It appears that increased access to online resources in a blended environment may enrich the learning experiences of students and more conveniently engage with the course material delivered and facilitated by new technologies. Previous studies have shown that student engagement can be improved by incorporating interactive approaches to teaching. Borman & Sleigh, (2011) found that, when online teaching and assessment tools are used as an integral part of the course, an increased level of student engagement can be achieved. Once technologies are effectively incorporated into the classroom, it provides an opportunity for studying student engagement and positive learning outcomes.

183

Bulger et al., (2008) found that technology aided learning in a classroom increases the level of student engagement with the content. There have been a number of studies which report on the application of technology blended approaches. For example, Speckler (2012) analyzed 77 datadriven case studies in which MML was implemented and found that, in all cases, it has greatly supported student achievement. The case studies presented were collected from within the United States and abroad and included community colleges and two- and four-year colleges. Other studies (Kidder, 2015) support the view that student success rates improve with technology aided teaching. One of the key benefits of using the MML is that it helps in improving student retention and success, as well as increases the completion and pass rates (Speckler, 2012). Hayfa & Othaman, (2014) identified seven principles for effectively leveraging technology for more productive educational outcomes, namely contact between students and staff, student collaboration and teamwork, active rather than passive approach to learning, prompt feedback to students, effective use of time, higher expectations, and greater respect for different learning styles and backgrounds. MML allows student to get instant feedback when completing homework through a series of links to resources, similar problems and their step-by-step problem solving approach, video lectures that reiterate the concept as well as links to the textbook (Westover & Westover, 2014). Students need to be assessed on their competence and knowledge, and receiving instant feedback can help them reflect on their learning, access additional information and examine procedures and examples of problem solving. Having the immediate feedback on correct and incorrect answers to problems increase the students‟ performance and motivation to get answers right (Speckler, 2012). In addition, this feature individualizes instruction, which is similar to an instructor providing feedback to a student during office hours (Reba & Biggers, 2008). The Pearson report (Speckler, 2012) shows that the immediate feedback feature in the tool reinforces the learning process and increase student success. According to Wells, (2014), computer based instruction which has the facility to provide instant feedback has the potential to reduce “math anxiety”, which can have serious impact on learning. The MML provides powerful facility for making studying more efficient because it provides access to a number of information sources and tools. An additional advantage is that learning material can be accessed from mobile devices, enabling students to utilize time more effectively. The effective use and management of time provides scope for more teacher-students and studentstudents interactions. Speckler, (2012) confirms that one of the benefits of the © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

184

MML interface is that it saves time in the classroom and increase time spent on the learning tasks. Further, the use of the MML tool provides benefits by diversifying ways of learning. Hayfa & Hiba, (2014) confirm the fact that MML provides an opportunity for students to work at their own pace and in a learning environment that best suits their different learning styles and needs. Speckler, (2012) affirms that the use of MML provides a new form of communication that promotes active learning and encourages students to take control of their learning. However, there are drawbacks to using web-based educational system (Niess, 2005). The MML interface requires more time initially for the instructor to design it and use it (Law et al., 2012). In addition, Law et al., (2012) stated that students as well as teachers may encounter technical difficulties in accessing some features of the interface. They may not be able to install the plug-ins and players required to use those features. In addition, students may lack the time management skills that make them successful in the eLearning environment (Law et al., 2012). It is worth noting that ineffective use of technology is not necessarily associated with the technology but to inappropriate strategies in its use (Kidder, 2015).

Methodology In this study, we are using the tool of MyMathLab. It is an online educational system developed by Pearson Education to assist in the teaching and learning of a number of subjects, including mathematics. It is tightly integrated with the published textbooks. It offers an eBook, a range of practice exercises that can be assigned as homework, quizzes, or tests, an adaptive Study Plan, a Gradebook, Discussion Forums, and Instructor Resources (worksheets, solution and resource manuals, test bank, etc.). In addition, for each section, a multimedia Library is available and offers learners a range of features such as animations, videos, and power points, among others. Research over the years has shown that the MML tool has potential to enhance studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; learning of mathematics. However, the outcomes may vary depending on a range of issues such as student academic levels, implementation strategies used, and the cultural settings within which they are implemented. Therefore, findings from various studies may not have universal application and each must be evaluated within its own surroundings. In this section, we present the methodology used to explore the effectiveness of MyMathLab (MML) tool at private college in Kuwait. This was an exploratory study (Creswell, 2014) designed to investigate if greater student engagement was achieved and to evaluate the outcomes from the migration from traditional

185

to blended approach to the teaching of mathematics. An exploratory design is adopted where little is known about the phenomena of interest to the researcher (Miles & Huberman, 2014). In this, an exploratory design can help a researcher gain useful insights about a phenomena of interest, particularly in the early phases of a research, as was the case. Exploratory designs can take either a qualitative or quantitative approach or a combination of approaches; however, in this case a quantitative approach was taken to achieve a broad overview of effectiveness and shortcomings of the implemented blended learning environment. There were 200 students registered for Foundation Mathematics at the college. Data for this study were collected from two different sources. The first set of data was obtained from the „Gradebook‟ housed within the MML tool. It comprised weekly online data from quizzes, homework results and the time each student spent using the MML tool. The „Gradebook‟ function in MML tool contains information about the total time spent on MML for each of the assignments, grades of homework and quizzes, the number of attempts to get right results, the features used by each student (videos, help, and eBook), the progress of each student, the skills acquired, and descriptive statistics on each assignment. The second set of data was made up of results from paper based mid and final semester examinations, provided by the instructors of the different sections of the course. We exported the quizzes, homework results, and the time each student spent using the MML tool data sets from Gradebook into Microsoft Excel program using a procedure in the MML tool. We then manually entered data from the paper based mid and final semester examinations. After screening and checking the data for errors, we used various statistical techniques (e.g. mean, standard deviation, correlation) in Excel program to analyze the data.

Results and discussion The data provided by the online Gradebook revealed important information about the students‟ activities and progress on MML throughout the semester which can be used to answer the research objective mentioned earlier. In this section, we present our findings for each of the research objective. Data for the study was collected over one academic semester, comprising 14 weeks, at a private college in Kuwait. We sampled all 200 undergraduate students who registered for Foundation Mathematics in the Spring semester of 2014. Attrition: The tracking of weekly usage data indicated that the initial attrition was 9.5%, which comprised students who had not used MML at all, and

186

consequently had not completed the course work nor taken the final examination for the unit. These were excluded from any further analysis of the effectiveness of the program approaches. In addition, 6.5% of students who were to some degree engaged in the MML tutorials did not attend the final paper based examination. Consequently, only data from 168 (84%) of the 200 students who enrolled for the unit was used (Table 1). Student Profile: In terms of sample composition, the gender distribution of the respondents was quite even; 57% male and 43% female (Table 1). However, the majority of respondents were from Engineering (77%) and the remainder (23%) from Business School (Table 1). Table 1: Respondents’ Profile (N =168)

Respondent Profile Gender Male Female Total Major Engineering Business Total

Number 96 43 168 130 38 168

Percentage 57% 43% 100% 77% 23% 100%

Engagement measured by time spent on MML: Firstly the relationship between the average time the students spent using the MML tool and the „Letter Grade‟ they obtain for the unit were investigated. The „Letter Grade‟ is derived from combining students‟ grades for the various assessments which make up the unit. For example, „Letter Grade‟ H for Honor represents a grade of 90% above, P for Pass denotes a grade of 65% and above and lastly F means Fail which denotes a grade of 64% and below. This is presented in Table 2 below. As Table 2 indicates, 19 (11%) students achieved the overall Letter grade Honor (H) for the unit. Students who achieved the H grade on average spent a minimum of 18 hours using the MML tool. This represents on average the most time students spent using the MML tool (Table 2). Based on the various tasks that were assigned throughout the semester, the planned expectation was that students would spend on average 14 hours using the MML tool. Table 2: Average time spent on MML and resulting grade Letter Grade

H* P** F#

Average Total Time Spent onMML tool (hours)

Number (%)

18.96 15.69 9.93

19 (11%) 133 (79%) 16 (10%)

H*= Honor (90% and above), P**= Pass (65%), F# = Fail (65% and below)

187

In the case of those who achieved a Pass (P) grade for the unit (79%) the average time spent using the MML tool was 15.69 hour. Those who achieved a Fail (F) grade for the unit (10%) spent on average 9.93 hours using the MML. There was a positive correlation between the time students spent using the MML tool and the overall „Letter Grade‟ they achieved for the unit. This implies that the more time a student spent using the MML tool, the more likely they are to receive a higher grade for the unit. The data from the MML enabled the monitoring of time devoted to doing exercises and problem solving, which was not possible when teaching using traditional means. This information enabled effort to provide additional encouragement and support to students who were likely to be at risk of failure and was clear advantage of technology blended learning. Assessment: The second objective was to ascertain whether or not there was a relationship between the average time the students spent using the MML tool and the grades the students achieved in the various assessments, namely, quizzes, homework, mid and final examination and overall grade for the unit. The results of the correlation analysis we conducted to achieve the second objective are presented in Table 3 below. Table 3: Correlations Between ‘Total Time Students Spent on MML tool’ and Assessment Grades

Quiz Scores

Homework Grades

Mid

Pearson Correlation

0.25*

0.33*

0.04*

168

Final

Overall Grades

0.27

*r is significant at p<0.01 Table 3 indicates a positive correlation between the total hours students spent using the MML tool and Quiz scores r = 0.25, n = 168, p<0.01. Based on Cohen‟s (1988) interpretation r = 0.25 indicates a modest positive correlation between the total time students spent using the MML tool and their Quiz Scores. Similarly the correlation between the two variables can be considered as modest for midterm tests scores r = 0.04, n = 168, p<0.01, final exam scores r = 0.27, n = 168, p<0.01 and overall unit grade scores r = 0.23, n = 168, p<0.01. The correlation between the total hours students spent using the MML tool and Homework grades r = 0.33, n = 168, p<0.01., is within the moderate range, albeit, very low end (See Cohen, 1988). As indicated in the above section, we expected higher correlations between the variables than was obtained. Similar results were reported by Law, et al., (2012) in their study on the use of MML tool by students in Malaysia. They argue that the modest correlation could be a result of the fact that students spent lengthy time on the interface getting familiar with it

0.23* 168

188

since it was their first experience using the system. Another reason might be that students would leave their account open while doing the homework outside the campus, hence this would add time spent on the interface without actual work on it (Law, et al., 2012). Further research is necessary to explain the modest correlations between the variables we obtained in our study. Effect on final grades: The third objective was to establish the effect, if any, the MML tool had on students‟ overall grades of the Foundation Mathematics unit. Students‟ „Letter Grades‟ were compared with those from the previous semester in which the MML tool was not used. Table 4 presents the results of analysis of means conducted to achieve objective three. Table 4: Comparison of ‘Letter Grades” before and after MML implementation Letter Grade

H* P** F#

% of ‘Without MML’

30 52 18

% ‘With MML’

11 79 10

H*= Honor (90% and above), P**= Pass (65%), F# = Fail (65% and below)

The sample size for the „Without MML‟ tool results was 254 students while in our „With MML‟ tool was 168 students. We observed mixed results for this objective. First, the percentage of students who achieved an H grade for the „Without MML‟ tool (30%) was almost treble the number of those who achieved the same grade in the „With MML‟ tool. However, the percentage of students who achieved P grade was higher for „With MML‟ tool group (79%) than for „Without MML‟ tool (52%). More importantly the percentage of students who passed the unit is higher for the „With MML‟ tool (90%) group than for „Without MML‟ tool (82%) group. In addition, fewer students from the „With MML‟ tool (9%) group failed the unit than compared to the for „Without MML‟ tool (18%) group. Consequently, the results appear to suggest that the MML tool had a positive effect in increasing the number of students passing the unit and to some extent reducing the number of students achieving the highest grade H. This indicates that there may be considerable grade inflation in the traditional approach and teaching and assessment may be inconsistent across different teacher and classes. Grade inflation is a serious issue and difficult to monitor under traditional approaches, especially with large number of students and multiple classes. There are a number of important choices and decisions made on the basis of grades. For example, students make choices about courses, majors, and careers on the basis of their grades in various courses, and, graduate schools make choices about whom to admit and employers make choices about whom to hire (Butcher et al., 2014). A serious problem of grade inflation is that it tends to

189

diminish motivation. If high grades become relatively easy to obtain, students will not be motivated to realize their full potential. Therefore, the clear advantage of technology blended approach is that it provides greater uniformity in assessment, a greater degree of fairness in awarding grades and more consistency across various classes and instructors. Gender Difference: The fourth objective was to establish whether or not there were any differences between female and male students‟ grades that could be attributed to the MML tool. Male and female scores in a number of assessments and also the times each gender group spent using the MML tool, are presented in Table 5 below. Table 5: Mean Differences Between Gender Assessments and Time using MML tool

Assessment Type

Female (n=72)Mean

Male (n=96) Mean

MML Homework % score

MML Quiz % score

18.28

13.44

Midterm % score

Final % score

Overall Average Grade (%)

Total Time Spent (in hours)

The result in Table 5 indicates that female and male scores were mostly similar in the various assessments. Thus, suggesting that MML tool had a similar effect on both female and male students. However, there appears to be some gender difference in the means for the „Homework‟ grades. Male students with an average grade (79%) for „Homework‟ appears to have significantly done better than their female (62%) counterparts. On the other hand, the results appear to suggest that female students (18.28 hours) spent significantly more time using the MML tool than their male (13.44 hours) counterparts (Table 5). However, in the absence of results from appropriate statistical tests, it is not possible at this stage to conclude whether or not these gender differences in „Homework‟ and „Time spent using MML tool‟ are statistically significant. Differences in student majors: The aim was to establish in which major, whether Engineering or Business, was the use of the MML tool more effective. To achieve this, various assessment scores and the time student spent using the MML tool were compared for the two majors. This is presented in Table 6. Table 6: Mean Differences Between Students from Different Majors

Assessment Type

Engineering (n=130) Mean Business (n=38)Mean

190

MML Homework (%)

MML Quiz (%)

12.87

14.89

Midterm (%)

Final (%)

Average Grade (%)

Total Time (in hours)

Engineering studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; scores for all assessments were marginally higher than those for Business students (Table 6). To some extent we expected this result given that at the college where we conducted our study, proven prior mathematics background is an entry requirement for Engineering students and not for students in the Business programs. However, the study found that Business studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; grades were similar to those of engineering students. The Business students on average spent (14.89 hour) more time using the MML tool than did the Engineering students (12.87hours), which may account for their improved grades.

Conclusion When changes in normal practice are implemented, the evaluation stage is critical for accessing impacts and implications for the future as a part of the continuous improvement process. This evaluation identified a number of issues for improvement and further investigation. The main aim of the study was centered around the issue of student engagement; however a number of pertinent issues were identified. For example, previous studies report that a greater level of student engagement is achieved with technology blended approaches (Borman & Sleigh, 2011; Bulger, et al, 2008). This study found that blended approach introduced in the teaching of Foundation Mathematics led to greater level of student engagement with the course, revealing that the course expected minimum hours of online activities were exceeded by between 12% and 35% in the case of those students who achieved a pass grade in the unit. An important element of the technology blended approach is that it enables continuous monitoring of student online activities. With a follow-up policy, staff are able to identify those students likely to be under performing in scheduled activities and likely to be at risk of failure because they are less engaged with the course. This opportunity did not exist in the traditional approach. The system provided data on the areas in which students appeared to be having difficulty. With this new information, appropriate efforts were made to provide targeted additional support for specific students. In the next phase of the program efforts

191

will be required to develop a strategy for implementing an integrated student support program to run parallel to the online and classroom activities. Comparison of the results from traditional and blended approaches revealed that grade inflation could be overcome by greater reliance on online assessments. While the failure rate from one semester to the next relate to different groups of students, the study found that the overall failure rate was reduced from 18% to 10% under the blended approach. However, the proportion of students achieving Honor grade decreased from 30% to 11% while the Pass grade increased from 52% to 79% (Table 4). One would have expected that with the blended approach and greater student engagement, there will be grade improvement, which was not achieved. It should be noted that a comparison between two different cohorts can show differences for various reasons which may be independent of the teaching approach. This may be explained by issues relating to grade inflation. The compression of grades near the top can be a means of misinformation both for students and the institution. Grade inflation in the Foundation Programs disadvantage STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) were completion rates tend to be lower because students tend to select courses that are more leniently graded. The reasons for grade inflation where 30% of students are scoring 90% or more, may be caused by the pressure to pass students, staff worry about their job security and the fear of poor student evaluation of staff. When grade are largely based on online assessments a greater degree of fairness can be achieved.

References Basham, J., Smeltzer, A. & Pianfetti, E. (2013). An integrated framework used to increase preservice teacher NETS-T ability. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 257276. Borman, D. & Sleigh, A. (2011). An evaluation of the use of interactive approaches and integrated on-line resources. Teaching Mathematics Applications, 30, 166-177. Bulger, M. E., Mayer, R. E., Almeroth, K. C., & Blau, S. D. (2008). Measuring Learner Engagement in Computer-Equipped College Classrooms. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 17(2),129-143. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1859239 Butcher, K. F., McEwan, P. J. & Weerapana, A. (2014). The effects of an anti-gradeinflation policy at Wellesley College. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 28(3), 189-204. Chickering, A. & Ehrmann, S. C. (1996). Implementing the seven principles: technology as lever. AAHE Bulletin. 1996. Retrieved 1 Aug 2014, from http://www.iupui.edu/~cletcrse/ncaa/seven.htm

192

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design - Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. 4th Edition California: Saga. Davidson-Shivers, G.V. & Rasmussen, K. L. (2006). Web-based learning: design, implementation and evaluation. New Jersey: Pearson. Dennis, Emmett C. (2003). Enhancement Effect of MyMathLab and WebCT in a Math Class. Electronic Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual International Conference on Technology in Collegiate Mathematics. Chicago, Illinois, October 30-November 2, 2003. Paper S056. Retrieved July 14, 2013 from http://archives.math.utk.edu/ICTCM/VOL16/S056/paper.pdf Eadie, G. M. (2001). The Impact of ICT on Schools: Classroom Design and Curriculum Delivery. Wellington: Samuel Mardson Collegiate School. Fisher, C. & Sadera, W. A. (2011). Comparing student learning and satisfaction between learning environments in continuing medical education. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 8(5), 29-38. Glass, J. & Sue, V. (2008). Student preferences, satisfaction, and perceived learning in an online mathematics class. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 4(3), 325-340. Goldin, C. (2013). Can „Yellen Effect‟Attract Young Women to Economics? Bloomberg View, October 14. http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2013-10-14/can-yelleneffect-attract -young-women-to-economics-. Hayfa, N. & Othaman, H. (2014). The Use of an Interactive Website as an Assistive Technology in University Calculus Course: A Synergist for Teaching and Learning?, Athens: ATINER’S Conference Paper Series, No: EMS2014-1294. Retrieved from http://www.atiner.gr/papers/EMS2014-1294.pdf Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A.M. (2014). Qualitative Data Analysis. 3rd Edition, London, Sage. Jung, I. (2011). The dimensions of e-learning quality: From the learner's perspective. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59(4), 445-464. Kazmer, M. M. (2005). How technology affects students‟ departures from online learning communities. Newsletter ACM SIGGROUP Bulletin-Special issue on online learning communities,25(1), 25-31. Keengwe, J., Onchwari, G. & Wachira, P. (2008). The use of computer tools to support meaningful learning. AACE Journal, 16(1), 77-92. Kidder, L. C. (2015). The Multifaceted Endeavor of Online Teaching: The Need for a New Lens. In B. Hokanson, G. Clinton, & M. W. Tracey (Eds.), The Design of the Learning Experience: Creating the Future of Educational Technology, pp. 77-91. Switzerland: Springer International. Kirkwood, A. (2009). E-Learning: You don't always get what you hope for. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 18(2), 107-121.

193

Kvavik, R. B. & Casuro, J. B. (2005). ECAR study of students and information technology 2005: Convenience, connection, control, and learning. EDUCAUSE Centre for Applied Research. Retrieved from https://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ERS0506/ekf0506.pdf Law, C. Y., Ng, L. N., Goh, W. W., Tay, C. L., & Sek, Y. W. (2012). Students‟ Perceptions of MyMathLab: An Online Learning Management System. International Journal of eEducation, e-Business, e-Management and e-Learning,2(1), 23-27. Lin, M. L. (2012). Students' motivation and attitudes in an online distance English course for placement year undergraduates in Taiwan (Doctoral dissertation, Queen's University Belfast). http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.579768 Miles, M. B., and Huberman, A.M. (1984). Qualitative Data Analysis. London, Sage. Mkomange,C.W. (2012). Prospective Secondary Teachers‟ Beliefs About Mathematical Problem Solving. A Masters‟ Degree Thesis Submitted (unpublished) to the Faculty of Science for the award of MSc in Mathematics.Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Niess, M. L. (2005). Preparing teachers to teach science and mathematics with technology: Developing a technology pedagogical content knowledge. Teacher and Teacher Education, 21(5), 505-524. Owens, E. W., & Waxman, H. C. (1994). Comparing the effectiveness of computer assisted instruction and conventional instruction in mathematics for African American postsecondary students. International Journal of Instructional Media, 21(4), 327-336. Peck, K. L. & Jobe, H. (2008). Classrooms for the Future: Preliminary Results, Pennsylvania Educational Technology Expo & Conference (PETE&C). Hershey, PA. Prosser, M. & Trigwell, K. (1999). Understanding Learning and Teaching: the experience in higher education. Buckingham: Open University Press. Puybaraud, M & Hahn, H (2012). Digital natives: a tech-savvy generation enters the workplace. Expert Insights. Retrieved from: http://workdesign.com/2012/02/digital-natives-a-tech-savvy-generation-entersthe-workplace/ . Reba M. & Biggers S. (2008). Active Learning in Mathematics via Tablet PCs, Web-Based Software, Podcasts, and Interactive Homework Systems. Electronic Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual International Conference on Technology in Collegiate Mathematics. San Antonio, Texas, March 6-9, 2008. Paper S057. Retrieved August, 10, 2014 from http://archives.math.utk.edu/ICTCM/VOL20/S057/paper.pdf Scida, E. E. & Saury, R. E. (2006). Hybrid courses and their impact on student and classroom performance: A case study at the University of Virginia. CALICO Journal, 23(3), 517-531.

194

Speckler, M. D. (2012). Making the Grade, V.5: 77 Data-driven Case Studies Illustrating How the MyMathLab Family of Products Supports Student Achievement, Boston, USA: Pearson. Retrieved on June 2014 from http://www.pearsonmylabandmastering.com/global/northamerica/results/files/ MTGv5.pdf Testone, S. (2005). Using publisher resources to assist developmental mathematics students. Research and Teaching in Developmental Education, 21(2), 1-4. Veletsianos, G. (2011). Designing Opportunities for Transformation with Emerging Technologies. Educational Technology, 51(2), 41-46. Wells, T. J. (2014). A mixed method of developmental math students‟ perspectives on successes and challenges in math and with MyMathLab, University of Florida dissertation. Retrieved on 15 June 2015 from http://gradworks.umi.com/36/47/3647877.html Westover, J. H. & Westover, J. P. (2014). Teaching hybrid courses across disciplines: Effectively combining traditional learning and e-learning pedagogy. International Journal of Information and Education Technologies, 4(1), 93-96. Windisch, E & Medman, N (2008). Understanding the digital natives. Ericsson Business Review, 1, 36-39. Woodbridge, J. (2004). Technology integration as a transforming teaching strategy. Retrieved from http://www.techlearning.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=17701367 Ziphorah, R. M. (2014). Information and Communication Technology Integration: Where to Start, Infrastructure or Capacity Building? Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier. 116, 3649–3658

195

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 195-207, August 2015

Communication Skills Training Through an Inter Professional Education Initiative for Undergraduate Multi-Professions Students Ismat Mohamed Mutwali and Naglaa Abd Al Raheem Faculty of Medicine, Alzaeim Alazhari University, Khartoum Bahri, Sudan Awad Alkarim M Elhassan, Sara S Ibrahim and Aida Abdulhamid Faculty of Medical Technical Sciences, Alzaeim Alazhari University, Department of Nursing Khartoum Bahri, Sudan Enas Fadulalbary Faculty of Medical Technical Sciences, Alzaeim Alazhari University, Department of Anaesthesia Khartoum Bahri, Sudan Aisha Aglan Faculty of Medical Technical Sciences, Alzaeim Alazhari University, Department of Midwifery Khartoum Bahri, Sudan Abstract. Our aims were to teach multi-professions students, from Alzaeim Alazhari University, Sudan, to learn together and gain the knowledge, skills and attitude to work together. And to train them together to acquire the specific communication skill associated with ―breaking bad news‖. Methods: A session of training of trainer was first organized. Senior students from the medicine, nursing, aenesthesia and midwifery colleges were invited to join voluntary in the IPE initiative. 36 multi professions students were selected and divided into 6 multi professions groups. Selected students attended one lecture and four sessions on the IPE and the roles and responsibility of the different professions. The participants learned and practiced six different scenarios of breaking bad news. The IPE was evaluated by administration of a pre and post questionnaires to determine the attitude of the participants to the IPE and towards the training of © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

196

communication skills within multi professions teams. Results: 30 multi professions students responded to the questionnaires (83.3%). The participants` responses showed that, they have gained knowledge, and become more oriented with their roles and responsibilities. The IPE training course on ―breaking bad news‖ was accepted by all the multi professions students. The participants` overall change of attitude was significant. Discussion: The results showed that the implemented IPE initiative had positive effects on the attitude and perception of the undergraduate multi professions students; and that ―Breaking bad news‖ training is possible and practicable within multi professions teams. Keywords: Inter Professional undergraduate students; Sudan.

Education;

breaking

bad

news;

Introduction Inter professional education (IPE) is a teaching and learning process that fosters collaborative work between two or more health care professionals. The IPE can be implemented when students from different professions learn with, from and about one another. (Freeth et al 2002) IPE is evoked by the WHO since 1988When different professionals work together during training, it will be easier for them to practice together to improve the standard of health care. (Freeth et al, 2002,Jill et al2014 )The WHO defined IPE as ― a process by which a group of students (or workers) from the health related occupations with different educational backgrounds learn together during certain periods of their education , with interaction as an important goal, to collaborate in providing promotive, preventive, curative, rehabilitative care and other health related services‖ (Freeth et al.2005) . The importance of IPE to medical education is that it offers an opportunity for the different health care students to learn how to work inter-professionally enabling them to develop the knowledge, skills and ability to practice collaboratively in the work place to enhance service delivery. The values of IPE include: improvement in communication, efficiency, cost effectiveness and patient centeredness of health care team. (Freeth et al 2002) The relationship between different health professionals during practice shows some misunderstandings. These misunderstandings affect the quality of patient care. Many studies revealed that there is communication failure, poor coordination and collaboration and fragmented care; all these failures will have serious impact on patient`s care and safety. ( Carpenter 1995, Jain et al 2012, Hammick et al 2007, Barr 1998, 2002, ) As the relationship between the different health professionals plays an important role for delivering a high quality health care, an IPE programme is needed to improve communication and collaboration. Students of different health professions hold the view that they are experts in their own fields. This notion would mean that the different health professions do not overlap. However, in the modern health care systems the professional boundaries become unclear and blurred. (Barr1998) These blurred boundaries and the unclear hierarchies and roles may lead to uncertainties and even to competitions. Early and ongoing IPE programme for health care students, during the undergraduate period is therefore necessary to improve © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

197

communication and help prevent uncertainties and competitions between health professionals during practice. (Carpenter 1995, Jain et al 2012, Hammick et al 2007, Barr 1998, 2002,Morison et al 2004)

Many initiatives and curricula were described and designed for implementing IPE for undergraduate health care students. A didactic programme, where students can learn team building skills, knowledge of profession and patient`s centered care; nurse shadowing; training within simulated environment and community-based programme are examples.( Jain et al 2012, Barr 1998, Aston et al 2012, Luctkar et al 2010, Alinier et al 2008,Olenick et al 2011 )

Students of different health professions have few opportunities to learn and practice together. Simulation offers an ideal environment for learning and practicing together in a safe environment and under controlled supervision. ( Alinier et al 2008, Ker et al 2003 )

Communication skills is a program required by all health care students and it can be learned in inter professional teams within a simulated environment.( Barr 1998, Jill et al 2014 ) ―Breaking bad news‖ is a skill which is required by all health care professionals. ―Breaking bad news‖ is one of the most difficult tasks that a member of a health care team has to do. It is associated with strong emotions, fear of bearing the responsibility and negative evaluations. (World Health Organization 2010) The way a health care professional, delivers bad news may have a serious impact on the relation between the health care professional and the patient. (Walter et al 2000) Teaching and training of the technique of breaking bad news improves this communication skill. The 6- point protocol (Garg et al 1997, Walter et al 2000) can be used for teaching the undergraduate health care students how to deliver bad news to patients and their families.

Aims and Objectives The aims of our study were to teach different health care students to learn together and gain the knowledge, skills and attitude that can help them to work together. Another aim was to encourage the undergraduate students from these different health professions to learn and practice together the communication skill of ―breaking bad news‖. Specifically the study aims to:1- provide the students coming from different professional background with the knowledge and the skills to know their roles and responsibilities and the roles and responsibilities of other health professions and practice these roles collaboratively. 2-Break the barriers and misconceptions that prevent collaborative work of a team composed of different health professionals. 3- Encourage the different health care students to work in teams to gain the team-work and leadership skills. 4- Enable the participants from different undergraduate health care students to deal with difficult situations and share their skills and knowledge of breaking bad news to patients and 5- to evaluate the outcome of the IPE initiative.

198

Methods This is a descriptive, cross sectional, university based study; conducted at Alzaiem Alazhari University (AAU) Khartoum Sudan, during Feb 2014—June 2014. Ethical approval was obtained from the ethical committee of AAU. At the beginning of the project a group of interested and motivated faculty members from the health sciences colleges of AAU, formed an Inter-professional education group (IPEG).The IPEG included members from the medical, nursing, anaesthesia and midwifery and public health colleges. The group discussed the feasibility of conducting an IPE initiative for the undergraduate students from the different health sciences colleges at AAU. The first step was to organize training of trainer (TOT) workshops to train the faculty on how they can facilitate an IPE sessions. Four educational sessions (each of 2hours) were organized. 11 faculties participated in the TOT sessions. The TOT sessions discussed: 1-IPE; its definition, requirements, benefits, skills and competencies gained and how to facilitate an IPE session. 2- Communications skills in relation to IPE. 3Conflict management within IPE. 4- How to teach the skill of breaking bad news for a multi profession group of students. Each session of TOT was followed by active discussion, feedback and reflections. The second step included the means of inviting learners, establishing content, learning resources, teaching methods and selection of tools of evaluation of the IPE initiative. Senior students from the medical, nursing, anaesthesia and midwifery were invited to join the IPEG to learn the communication skills of breaking bad news within an IPE initiative. Our theme for the IPE course was: ―Working to learn together, Learning to work together‖. 12 medical students, 18 nursing students, 9 midwifery students and 6 anaesthesia students accept the invitation. The participation was voluntary, and all sessions were in the afternoons, to allow participants to attend their scheduled activities. A preliminary meeting was organized for all faculty and students of the IPEG. The aim of the meeting was to orient the participants with the aims and the objectives of the IPE initiative. Thirty six multi professional students were selected, and divided in 6 multiprofession groups. Each group was formed of 2 medical students, 2 nursing students, one midwifery student and one anaesthesia student. Participants attended one interactive lecture about the IPE and four sessions discussing the roles of the nurse, the midwife, the anesthetist and the doctor, as well as two hours of discussion about breaking bad news within a multi-profession team. The leaders of the multi-profession student groups were 2 from the medical college 2 from the nurses and one from each of midwifery and anaesthesia. The

199

activities and practice of the multi-profession groups were supervised by the faculty. Six different scenarios of breaking bad news were selected by the trained faculty and students. The students were instructed to learn and practice their scenarios under supervision of the faculty. Each multi-profession students group selected a simulator and trained him/her to participate during practice and at presentation. The scenarios were: Scenario 1: - A 26- year old female, single, is discovered during examination to have diabetes mellitus (DM). She has a bad family history of DM, with relatives having mishaps. The IPE team has to inform the patient. Scenario 2: - A 35- year old female, married with three children, is discovered on laboratory tests to be positive for HIV. The IPE team has to inform the patient. Scenario 3: - A 38 -year old male has to do a surgical operation. Unfortunately he did not recover from anaesthesia. The IPE team has to inform his wife. Scenario 4: - A 26- year old primigravida comes to the clinic. On examination is diagnosed ―Intra uterine fetal death‖. The IPE team has to inform the patient. Scenario 5: - A 30- year old male comes to the clinic. Diagnosis is carcinoma of the colon. The IPE team has to inform the patient. Scenario 6: - A 50- year old female comes to the clinic complaining of a breast lump. Diagnosis was carcinoma of the breast. The IPE team has to inform the patient. The scenarios of breaking bad news were presented during 3 sessions. All faculty and students were present during scenarios presentation. Active discussions and feedback followed each presentation. A reflection session was organized at the end of the IPE course where each one of the students and faculty reflected his/her experience, what was good and what were the strengths and weaknesses of the educational experience. The attitude of the multi-profession students to the IPE initiative was assessed by Arabic translation of the ―Readiness for Inter Professional Learning Scale‖ (RIPLS) which was administered pre and post course. Another questionnaire was also administered at the end of the course to evaluate the learners` attitude towards the content using a 5-point scale (1=strongly disagree—5= strongly agree), the teaching methods and whether they benefited from the IPE course. Certificates were distributed to all participants and simulators were offered financial incentives. Data from the RIPLS and the questionnaire for evaluation of the course was analysed for the descriptive statistics using SPSS as software.

Results Out of the 36 multi professional students, 30 responded to the RIPLS (83.3%); 93.3% of them were females. The participants were 10 medical students, 10 nursing students and 5 students from each of anaesthesia and midwifery departments. The responses of the multi professional students to the first part (Team work & collaboration) of RIPLS are shown in table 1. Table 2, illustrates the responses to the second and third parts of RIPLS. There were an increasing percentage of participants who believe that shared IPE helped them to become © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

200

good team workers, and that shared IPE is helpful in clarifying patients` problems and in understanding owns limitations. A good number of the multi professional students gained knowledge and more awareness about their roles and responsibilities and the roles and responsibilities of the other professions. The participants also became more oriented with their roles and responsibilities within the multi professional teams. Almost all the participants were aware of the importance of the teamwork. More students became convinced that communication skills learned within a multi professional group is acceptable and useful. Table 1: The pre and post course participants’ responses to the first part of ―RIPLS‖ (Team work & collaboration) No 1

Questions ―Learning with other students helped me become a more effective member of a health care team‖ ―Patients would ultimately benefit if health care students work together to solve patient problem‖ ―Shared learning with other health care students will increase my ability to understand clinical problems.‖ ―Learning with healthcare students before qualification would improve relationships after qualification.‖ ―Communication skills should be learned with other health care students.‖ ―Shared learning will help me to think positively about other professionals‖ ―For small-group learning to work, students need to trust and respect each other.‖ ―Team-working skills are essential for all healthcare students to learn.‖ ―Shared learning will help me to understand my own limitations.‖

Pre course (no=30) (%) mean sd 97.3 4.64 0.53

Post course(no=30) (%) mean sd 100 4.70 0.46

94.7

4.56

0.86

96.7

4.80

0.76

40.5

4.32

0.62

93.3

4.65

0.62

83.7

4.13

0.91

83.4

4.26

0.82

86.5

4.18

0.73

96.7

4.53

0.57

94.6

4.37

0.59

96.7

4.50

0.82

100

4.75

0.43

100

4.83

0.37

94.6

4.56

0.60

99.6

4.70

0.53

75.6

3.97

0.98

4.46

0.68

Note: The % and mean represent the agreement of the students to the statements

201

Table 2: participants` responses to the second &third part of ―RIPLS‖ (Negative professional identity and Roles and Responsibilities) No 10

18 19

Questions ―I do not want to waste my time learning with other healthcare students.‖ ―It is not necessary for undergraduate healthcare students to learn together.‖ ―Clinical problem-solving skills can only be learned with students from my own department.‖ ―Shared learning with other healthcare students will help me to communicate better with patients and other professionals.‖ ―I would welcome the opportunity to work on smallgroup projects with other healthcare students.‖ ―Shared learning will help to clarify the nature of patient problems.‖ ―Shared learning before qualification will help me become a better team worker.‖ ―The function of nurses and Anesthetist is mainly to provide support for doctors.‖ ―I am not sure what my professional role will be.‖ ―I have to acquire much more knowledge and skills than other healthcare students.‖

Pre course(no=30) % mean sd

Post course(no=30) % mean sd

94.5

0.68

92.7 1.86

1.76

91.9 1.51

0.90

1.85

56.7* 2.45 21.6‡

1.19

33* 2.41 96.6‡

91.9 4.24

0.68

96.6 4.74

0.67

97.3 4.37

0.54

93.3

4.74

1.82

83.7 4.16

0.76

4.74

2.04

67.5 4.51

0.86

96.6

4.70

0.52

37.8‡ 2.75 54*

1.34

36‡ 40*

3.45

2.89

72.6* 2.13 18.9‡ 83.8 4.00

1.15

80* 10‡ 80

2.41

3.10

4.51

2.81

1.95

0.94

Note: * =disagree; ‡ =agree.

1.87

2.01

202

Table 3: shows the comparison of the responses of the multi professional students to the RIPLS, and their significance. Parts of RIPLS

Comparing groups

mean

Team & work collaboration Negative professional identity Roles & responsibilities

Pre course (no=30) Post course(no=30) Pre course (no=30) Post course (no=30) Pre course (no=30 ) Post course (no=30)

5.53 5.26 17.13 18.00

1.94 2.25 2.22 1.94

0.49

P value 0.62

1.60

0.11

8.93 8.92

2.06 2.01

0.92

0.10

t value

Sig Not sig Not sig Not sig

sd = standard deviation; sig= significance

Table 4: The overall comparison of the multi professional students` attitude toward inter professional learning RIPLS

Comparing groups Pre course (no=30) Post course (no=30)

mean

39.56

3.96

41.36

2.48

t value

P value

2.02

0.04

Sig Significant difference

The questionnaire for evaluation of the IPE communication skills of breaking bad news was answered by 30 multi professional students 93.1% were females. The questionnaire was administered after completion of the course. Eighteen students (60%) rated the lectures as good, 20% as very good and 20% as excellent. The scenarios and their practices were rated by 53.3% of the students as very good and 23.3 as excellent. Groups` work was rated as excellent or very good by 43.3% for each and by 13.3% as good. The evaluation of the IPE communication skills of breaking bad news shows that there is a strong level of agreement to 80% of the questions except, questions 2 and 3 in which the answers are still above the level of 3(neutral answer)( see index 1).

Discussion Health care professionals have few opportunities to practice within multi professional teams. Inter professional simulation training is not a common educational opportunity at the undergraduate level especially in the developing countries. One aim of organizing inter professional simulation sessions for multi professions students is to give them the opportunity to observe each other and interact with all members of the multi professions team during practicing the scenarios.(Alinier et al 2008) The way we organized our simulated sessions allowed each multi professional student to take a different role during scenarios practice. He has the opportunity to be the leader of the team or a helper or an observer when other teams were practicing or presenting the scenario. This way ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

203

of implementing the IPE initiative leads to improving inter professional collaboration. Our results demonstrated that the multi professions students became aware of the roles and responsibilities of their profession and the roles and responsibilities of other professions. They also gained the skills of working together in collaboration with other professions and the skill of leadership. The multi professions students gained knowledge and skills because they have opportunity to work together in a multi professional team and they observed and helped each other. The results showed that the implemented IPE initiative had positive effects on the multi professions students` perception and attitude to inter professional team work. Breaking bad news is commonly associated with strong emotions, burden of responsibility and fear of negative evaluation. This stress may lead to reluctance to deliver the bad news. (Walter et al 2000, Amiel GE et al 2006) Bearing these in mind healthcare professionals may collaborate and support each other to break the bad news working together in a mutual respect and each within his/her role. The 6-point protocol can be used for teaching and training multi professional undergraduate students the technique of breaking bad news. One objective of our study was to show that itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s possible and practicable to offer a training course, in the technique of breaking bad news for the undergraduate multi professions students. Our results showed that such a course can be implemented within the available limited resources; as far as the administration and faculty are committed. Assessment of our participants` attitude towards an IPE was conducted using an Arabic version of the validated scale (RIPLS). We used the scale because it is easy to administer and its three parts can investigate all the aspect of the learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attitude toward IPE.( Desiree AL et al 2013, Page RL et al 2015) Although RIPLS has been validated in many studies, but recently Desiree reported it has a low discriminating ability for detecting the attitude of the multi-professions learners. They attributed this low discriminating ability of RIPLS to the mode of constructing the scale. (Desiree AL et al 2013) Another study showed that two of the three of RIPLS parts, namely profession identity and role and responsibilities, are less reliable for establishing the attitude of the multi profession learners toward IPE.( Lauffs M et al 2008) The fact that more than 90% of our multi profession learners were females may has had impact on the result, because some studies reported that female students and nursing students are more positive to team work than males.(Wilhelmsson et al 2011) During the reflection sessions the discussion highlighted that the multi professional training is important and feasible. However, there were some challenges: the voluntary participation, timetabling, that force the organizers to hold session in the afternoons and the commitments of the students. The difficulties which might be encountered during implementing an IPE initiative can be avoided by an online IPE course or more realistic and recommended by ÂŠ 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

204

integrating IPE in the curriculum of the undergraduate healthcare students. Further studies are warranted to investigate other modalities of IPE (community-based IPE or simulation-based training for our multi-profession undergraduate students)

Conclusion Our study explored the individual teamwork competencies as it is perceived by inter-professional students to contribute to effective teamwork in breaking bad news. The findings of our study encourage and support the necessity for greater focus on inter-professional education within the healthcare sector, with special focusing on teamwork development approach. The ―breaking bad news‖ teams’ competencies suggested that team success is assured when the team members display a strong interest in implementing the team work by active discussions, regular presence and effective interpersonal and teamwork relationships. The findings of this study will encourage faculty to initiate focused teamwork training initiatives for undergraduate multi professions students.

Acknowledgement This study is a part of a research project funded by the Administration of scientific research of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Sudan; 2013 - 2014. We are very grateful to the staff and students of the different colleges who participated in the study.

References Alinier G, Harwood C, Harwood P, Montague S, Huish E, Ruparelia K. (2008). Development of a programme to facilitate inter professional simulation –based training to final year undergraduate health students. University of Hertford shire Aug Amiel G E, Ungar L, Alperin M, Baharier Z, Cohen R, and Reis S., (2006). Ability of primary care Physicians to break bad news: A performance based assessment of an educational intervention. Patient Education counseling PEC 60(1): 10-15 Doi:http://dx.doi.org10.1016/jpec2005.04.13 Aston S J, Rheault W, Arenson C,. Tappert S K, , Stoecker J, Orzoff J, Galitski H, and Mackintosh S. (2012). Inter professional Education: A Review and Analysis of Programs From Three Academic Health Centers. Acad Med.;87:1–1. First published online doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182583374 Barr H. (1998). Competent to Collaborate: Towards a Competency Based Model for Interprofessional Education. Journal of Inter-professional Care. 12 (2). Barr H. (2002). Inter professional Education Today, Yesterday and Tomorrow Higher Education Academy Health Sciences and Practice March www.health.heacademy.ac.uk accessed 19 August 2011 Carpenter J. (1995) Inter professional education for medical and nursing students: Evaluation of a programme. Med Educ. ;29:265–272. Desiree A L et al. (2013) A comparison of two scales for assessing health professionals students ` attitude toward inter-profession learning. Med Educ Online, 18:21885http://dxdoi.org/10.3402/meov18i0.21885 © 2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

205

Freeth D, Reeves S, Koppel I, Hammick M, Barr H. (2005). Evaluating Inter professional Education: A Self-Help Guide . Higher Education Academy Health Sciences and Practice www.health.heacademy.ac.uk accessed on 15 Feb 2011 Freeth D, Hammick M, Koppell I, Reeves S, Barr H. (2002). A critical review of evaluations of inter professional Education, CAIPE. London: LTSN Centre for Health Sciences and Practice. Garg A, Buckman R, Kason Y. (1997). Teaching medical students how to break bad news. Can Med Assoc J; 156(8):1159-64 Hammick, M., Freeth, D., Koppel, I., Reeves, S. and Barr, H. (2007). 'A best evidence systematic review of Inter professional education: BEME Guide no. 9', Medical Teacher, 29:8, 735 - 751DOI: 10.1080/01421590701682576 Jain A, Luo E, Yang J, Purkiss J, and White C, (2012). Implementing a Nurse-Shadowing Program for First-Year Medical Students to Improve Inter professional Collaborations on Health Care Teams. Acad Med.;87: XXX–XXX. First published online doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e31826216d0 Jill E. Thistlethwaite, Dawn Formanlynda R. Matthews, Gary D. Rogers Carole Steketee, and Tagrid Yassine (2014). Competencies and Frameworks in Inter professional Education: A Comparative Analysis Acad Med.; 89:00–00. Academic Medicine, Vol. 89, No. 6 / June 2014 first published Online. Doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000249 Ker J, Mole L, and. Bradley P (2003). "Early introduction to inter professional learning: a simulated ward environment." Medical Education.; 37(3): 248-255 Lauffs M, Ponzer S, Saboonchi F, Lonka K, Hylin U and Mattiasson (2008). A Cross cultural adaptation of the Swedish version of the Readiness of inter-Professional Learning Scale( RIPLS). Medical Education: 42:405 – 411 doi:10.1111/j1365 – 2923,2008.03017.x Luctkar-FM, l Cynthia Baker,Cheryl Pulling, Robert McGraw, Damon Dagnone ,Jennifer Medves, Carly Turner- Kelly (2010). Evaluating an undergraduate inter professional simulation-based educational module: communication, teamwork, and confidence performing cardiac resuscitation skills. Advances in Medical Education and Practice.:1 59–66 DOI: 10.2147/AMEP.S14100 Morison S, Boohan M, Moutray M and Jenkins J. (2004). Developing prequalification inter- professional Education for nursing and medical students: Sampling students` attitude to guide development. Nurse Educ in practice, 4(1):20 – 29 Doi http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1471 – 5953(03)00015-5 Olenick M, Foote E, Vanston P, Vaskalis Z, Dimattio M J, and Samego Jr R A. (2011). A regional model of Inter professional education. Advances in Medical Education and Practice, 2:17 – 23 Page R L et al. (2015) http://www.accp.com/docs/postion/white papers/inter professional educ final 12 – 08pdf Walter F. Baile, Robert Buckman, Renato Lenzi, Gary Glober, Estela A. Beale and Andrzej, (2000). SPIKES A Six-Step Protocol for Delivering Bad News: Application to the Patient with Cancer doi: The Oncologist, 5:302- 311 DOI: 10.1634/theoncologist.5-4-302 http://www.theoncologist.alphamedpress.org/content/5/4/302 Wilhelmsson et al. (2011). BMC Medical Education, 11:15 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-920/1115. World Health Organization, (2010). Framework for Action on Inter professional Education and Collaborative Practice. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; http://www.who.int/hrh/resources/framework_action/en/

206

Index 1 : Illustrates the students` answers to the post course evaluation questionnaire on a 5- point scale (1= strongly disagree; 5= strongly agree) No

Questions

Breaking bad news is important topic and has to be learnt.

IPE with other health care students helps me to acquire communication skills in breaking bad news.

Breaking bad news should be learnt or taught as an inter professional course.

Working as a group made me more competent in breaking bad news.

Breaking bad news should be conveyed by the group that is treating the patient.

The team leader who breaks the bad news should be experienced unperturbed and have self restraint.

I gained useful knowledge in breaking bad news by taking part in an IPE course

I gained the skills of breaking bad news by taking part in an IPE.

Breaking bad news to the patient or his family will be easier if it is conveyed by a homogenous health care team.

Options 0 0 0 3 27 0 0 5 6 19 0 0 5 9 16 0 0 5 5 20 0 1 1 14 14 0 0 0 6 24 0 0 1 8 21 0 0 2 14 14 0 0 0 9 21

5-point scale 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

% 0 0 0 10 90 0 0 16.7 20 63.3 0 0 16.7 30 53.3 0 0 16.7 16.7 66.6 0 3.3 3.3 46.7 46.7 0 0 0 20 80 0 0 3.3 26.7 70 0 0 6.6 46. 7 46.7 0 0 0 30 70

Mean 4.9

3.96

3.86

4.00

4.20

4.80

4.56

4.20

4.70

207

IPE is a good method for gaining skills in leadership and group work.

0 0 4 7 19

0 0 13.3 23.3 63.3

4.10

208

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 208-230, September 2015

Teachers‟ Intentions for Outdoor Learning: A Characterisation of Teachers‟ Objectives and Actions Christina Ottander1, Birgitta Wilhelmsson1 & Gun Lidestav2 1Department

of science and mathematics education, Umeå University S- 901 87 UMEÅ Sweden 2Department of Forest Resource Management Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Skogsmarksgränd, SE-901 83 UMEÅ

Abstract. Building on authors‟ previous study of teachers‟ intentions and educational objectives for outdoor learning, this paper examine the alignment between teachers‟ predefined objectives and the kinds of knowledge and cognitive processes reflected in the outdoor activities. The Halldén‟s theory of intentional analysis and Bloom‟s revised taxonomy were combined when analysing observations of performed outdoor activities and subsequent semistructured interviews with nine teachers. Four teaching orientations were reveled: one that values affective and social objectives and promotes activities to understand factual knowledge, another orientation focuses on activities intended to gain procedural knowledge and emphasizes application of practical tasks. The other two teaching orientations primarily focus on cognitive objectives, partly to reinforce conceptual knowledge, partly to deepen understanding or improve strategies to enhance meta-cognitive knowledge. The degree of alignment between intended objectives and performed activity is higher among teachers promoting affective and social goals as well as meta-cognitive and analytical understanding, than teachers who use outdoor activities to mainly reinforce conceptual knowledge. The study shows that there is a range of possible learning goals in outdoor education and that teachers are guided by what they value and how they perceive learning. Key words: Outdoor learning; Teacher‟s intentions; Bloom‟s taxonomy

Introduction Outdoor teaching and learning as part of the school curriculum have long been of interest for teachers as well as researchers in many countries (Bentsen, 2010; Jordet, 2007; Nundy, 2001). The educational values ascribed to outdoor learning by its proponents are based upon beliefs about the potential for outdoor environments to reinforce learning, since the meeting with nature becomes more holistic and involve @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

209

all senses in the knowledge-building (Wilhelmsson et al 2012; O´Brian & Murray, 2007; Sandell & Öhman, 2010). A review of international research of outdoor learning show that depending on the setting it can be understood both as a concept and a practice which is varied and complex with extensive field activities (Rickinson et al., 2004). It encompasses many different activities, for example field-work within school subjects and projects in school grounds run by regular teachers, visits to field study centres or out-of-school learning and adventure education run by leaders other than teachers, all with a body of its own literature. Outdoor learning occurs in many different parts of the world, and even though the context varies, the experiences gained seem similar (Rickinson et al., 2004; Rea & Waite, 2009; Lai, 1999). In this study we focus on outdoor learning that is taking place outside the classroom with regular teachers following the Swedish syllabus. Many teachers in Sweden show an interest in locating learning outdoors. Personal encounters with nature (Sandell &Öhman, 2010) and teachers‟ autonomy are likely motives for why Scandinavian teachers are readily inclined to locate learning outdoors (Rea & Waite, 2009). This is in accordance with current Swedish school curricula, in which providing outdoor learning opportunities is desirable but is non-statutory, a position similar to that in many countries. Relevant objectives in science curricula include, for example, stimulating interest and curiosity and creating a desire among students to explore and understand nature. Furthermore, human relations with nature and environmental issues are highlighted in biology, social sciences, and geography curricula (The National Agency for Education, 2011). Swedish teachers‟ value arranging teaching outdoors since it creates an alternative learning arena (Wilhelmsson et al., 2012) where theoretical knowledge can be combined with experience-based learning. Outdoors can provide opportunities in terms of unique activities, which simply do not exist inside the classroom. Thereby, students‟ cognitive development as well as improvements in affective, social and physical learning domains can be gained (Wilhelmsson et al., 2012). In the review by Rickinson et al. (2004) benefits and impacts of outdoor learning was investigated. The authors made a distinction between four learning domains; cognitive, affective, interpersonal /social and physical/ behavioural, and their metaanalysis indicated that well-taught fieldwork can lead to „reinforcement between the cognitive and the affective domain with each influencing the other and providing a bridge to higher order learning‟ (Rickinson et al., 2004, p 24). The four domains were used as an analytical framework. In an evaluation study of an out-of-school programme involving schools from London, UK, with data from 2700 students reported that students gained self-confidence, a greater sense of independence, and improved relationships both between students and students as well as students and teachers (Amos & Reiss, 2012). A positive impact in the affective and social domains seems to be a prerequisite to gains in the cognitive domain. Learning objectives within the cognitive, affective, social and physical domains also became apparent through an analysis of teachers‟ intentions with outdoor teaching in Sweden (Wilhelmsson et al., 2012). A positive development of the students‟ social relationships, experience of teaching and self-perceived physical activity level is reported by Mygind (2009). The importance of the combination of classroom and outdoor teaching is also described in Norwegian research into schools which locate learning outdoors on a regular basis @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

210

(Jordet, 2007). The interaction between theoretical knowledge and hands-on experience is crucial for successful learning and can make the distinction between success and failure for many students. The teachers‟ opinions were that physical and practical learning activities may contribute to improving students‟ cognitive, affective and social development. Teachers have expressed a range of reasons for using outdoor as an alternative arena for learning including reinforcement of theoretical knowledge through experiencebased learning, to explore real objects using multiple senses, to stimulate positive feelings towards nature and to promote collaboration (Wilhelmsson et al. , 2012; Braund & Reiss, 2006; Jordet, 2007). The results correspond with previous international research concerning students' benefitting from positive influences in the affective and social domain in order to succeed in acquiring knowledge (Amos & Reiss, 2012) and confirm the importance of interaction between classroom-based and outdoor experiences to achieve deeper understanding and renewed motivation towards learning (Braund & Reiss, 2006; Frøyland 2010). Specifically inquir-based learning, which is believed to increase interest in science (EU, 2007), can be pursued in outdoor contexts. Outdoor activities can take the forms of inquiry, i.e., as a “systematic and principled process of pursuing and refining explanations for phenomena in the natural or material world” (Linn, Davis and Bell, 2004) Many of the mentioned advantages with outdoor learning are similar to the advantages linked to non-formal or informal learning e.g., to nurture curiosity and engage in socially interactive settings for learning through experience (Eshach, 2007). Outdoor teaching and learning within a school context is somewhat comparable to non-formal learning. This type of learning is described as 5structured and guided, or teacher -led, but more flexible than formal learning (Eshach, 2007). Flexible learning afforded by the outdoor arena seems to suggest important opportunities to many teachers, yet often its potential is not fully utilized, according to Eshach (2007). From an educational perspective, there is a strong case for the need for further research from different perspectives including pedagogical outcomes, effective teaching approaches and initiatives that improve as well as provide evidence of effective practice (Rickinson et al., 2004). Initiatives in the outdoor arena with young people as creators and active participants may promote scientific literacy and increase motivation to learn (Braund & Reiss, 2006). These actions do not have to form a major part of the teaching and learning, but in order to be effective they have to be carefully and purposefully organized (Wilhelmsson et al, 2012; Frøyland, 2010; Magntorn, 2007; Rickinson et al., 2004). This includes the importance of being accurate in instructions in order to promote students' understanding of, for example, making connections between theoretical concepts and practical context. According to Österlind and Halldén (2007) students construe different meanings for instructions in practical contexts with respect to theoretical concepts, which means that teachers should pay close attention to given instructions and explanations, in order to actually facilitate students' learning process outdoors. Teachers have expressed a range of reasons for using outdoor as an alternative arena for learning including reinforcement of theoretical knowledge through experiencebased learning, to explore real objects using multiple senses, to stimulate positive feelings towards nature and to promote collaboration (Wilhelmsson et al., 2012; Braund & Reiss, 2006; Jordet, 2007). The results correspond with previous international research concerning students' benefitting from positive influences in the @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

211

affective and social domain in order to succeed in acquiring knowledge (Amos & Reiss, 2012) and confirm the importance of interaction between classroom-based and outdoor experiences to achieve deeper understanding and renewed motivation towards learning (Braund & Reiss, 2006; Frøyland 2010). Specifically inquiry based learning, which is believed to increase interest in science (EU, 2007), can be pursued in outdoor contexts. Outdoor activities can take the forms of inquiry, i.e., as a “systematic and principled process of pursuing and refining explanations for phenomena in the natural or material world” (Linn et al., 2004). Inquiry in outdoor activities can be used as a dynamic approach to learning that involves exploring the world, asking questions, making discoveries, rigorously testing those discoveries in the search for new understanding, communicating findings, and considering solutions in terms of their societal impacts. Many of the mentioned advantages with outdoor learning are similar to the advantages linked to non-formal or informal learning e.g., to nurture curiosity and engage in socially interactive settings for learning through experience (Eshach, 2007). Outdoor teaching and learning within a school context is somewhat comparable to non-formal learning. This type of learning is described as structured and guided, or teacher-led, but more flexible than formal learning (Eshach, 2007). Flexible learning afforded by the outdoor arena seems to suggest important opportunities to many teachers, yet often its potential is not fully utilized, according to Eshach (2007). From an educational perspective, there is a strong case for the need for further research from different perspectives including pedagogical outcomes, effective teaching approaches and initiatives that improve as well as provide evidence of effective practice (Rickinson et al., 2004). Initiatives in the outdoor arena with young people as creators and active participants may promote scientific literacy and increase motivation to learn (Braund & Reiss, 2006). These actions do not have to form a major part of the teaching and learning, but in order to be effective they have to be carefully and purposefully organized (Wilhelmsson et al., 2012; Frøyland, 2010; Magntorn, 2007; Rickinson et al., 2004). This includes the importance of being accurate in instructions in order to promote students' understanding of, for example, making connections between theoretical concepts and practical context. According to Österlind and Halldén (2007) students construe different meanings for instructions in practical contexts with respect to theoretical concepts, which means that teachers should pay close attention to given instructions and explanations, in order to actually facilitate students' learning process outdoors. Poorly organized outdoor activities can lead to reduced learning (Openshaw &Whittle, 1993) and there are studies showing that objectives for outdoor learning are not always translated into practice, indicating gaps between intention and reality in this orientation of teaching (Bentsen, 2010). In a similar way, Jordet (2007, p. 16) emphasizes that ‘progressive ideas seem more like intentions than realities in today's schools’ (our translation from Norwegian). Furthermore, teachers‟ may set differing educational objectives even when they often perform similar activities outdoors (Wilhelmsson et al., 2012). This inconsistency raises questions about how clear such intended educational objectives are for students and, in reality, about the exact nature of learning outcomes in the different domains. Thus, teachers‟ educational objectives and the knowledge teachers require their students to develop by undertaking activities outdoors merits closer examination. @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

212

Aim and research questions The overall aim of this study is to examine the knowledge and skills teachers want their students to develop through engaging in outdoor activities. By analyzing teachers´ educational objectives, we wanted to understand which cognitive processes and knowledge perspectives the teaching is aimed at. In addition, we investigated the activities and teachers‟ dialogue with the students during activity implementation to establish insights into how the intended objectives were promoted and realized by the teacher. Hence, we are able to examine the alignment between teachers' intended objectives and the knowledge focus in performed activities outdoors. To do so, we use theories developed by von Wright (1971, 1979) explaining actions as a result of an individual's interpretation of the motives and prerequisites of the situation at hand. Further Bloom‟s revised taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) was applied as an analytical tool to categorize educational objectives of teaching in a knowledge dimension and a cognitive process dimension. We explore teachers‟ educational objectives and the knowledge and cognitive processes reflected in the activities and the alignment between these, by addressing the following questions: 1. What are teachers‟ objectives for outdoor learning, and specifically what kinds of knowledge do teachers want to promote during outdoor activities? 2. What kinds of knowledge and cognitive processes are dealt with in outdoor activities? 3. How do teachers make use of the outdoor environment to align intended objectives and activities? In order to inform practice, this paper will also discuss how the alignment between teachers‟ predefined objectives and the kinds of knowledge and cognitive processes reflected in students‟ actual performance can be improved. We aim to provide teachers who work outdoors with insight into the importance of careful consideration of how to use the outdoor environment to align objectives and activities to make use of the full potential of the outdoor arena. Methods Participants Teachers with extensive outdoor teaching practice were identified through a database of Forest in school (www.skogeniskolan.se) and recommendations of directors of educational offices in three Swedish municipalities. Nine of those teachers volunteered to participate in the project meaning that nine semi-structured interviews were conducted and twenty-six different outdoor sessions were observed (Table 1).

213

Table 1. The participants with pseudonyms, educational backgrounds, teaching grades, experience and the number of observed activities for each teacher. Teacher

Alice

Ina Anna

Johan

Annie

Sverker

Maria

Margareta

Roger

Educational background Teacher education, specialization in Swedish/ Social Science Leisure (non-teacher educator) Teacher education, specialization in Mathematics / Science Teacher education, specialization in Mathematics / Science Teacher education, specialization in Mathematics / Science Teacher education, primary school programme Teacher education, specialization in Mathematics / Science Teacher education, specialization in Mathematics / Science Teacher education, specialization in Mathematics / Science

School year

Ages of students

School

Years of teaching experience

Number of observed sessions

8/9

9/10

6.5

9/10

Not observed

10/11

5-6

10/12

Not observed

11/12

Not observed

11/12

All teachers but one (Ina) have a teacher certificate. The reason for including Ina in the study, with a certificate from a leisure-time center training, was because of her many years of experience in teaching outdoors and her responsibility for implementing outdoor activities in school year 3 (children aged 9). Alice, Ina, Anna, Annie and Margareta come from the same school whereas the others from different schools. All the schools are situated in small cities and have about 200 pupils (in school years 1-6, children aged 7-12). The study pays strict attention to the Swedish ethical principals in research (VetenskapsrĂĽdet, 2006). Data collection This paper builds upon a previous research study in which results from the interviews with four of the nine teachers are presented (Wilhelmsson et al., 2012). The study design is presented in Figure 1 and a description of how the data collection relates to the research questions is shown in Table 2. In spring and early autumn 2010, data were gathered by semi-structured interviews with the nine teachers. The interview schedule used in all interviews consisted of three parts: 1) a general discussion about why and @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

214

how outdoor teaching is used, 2) a focused discussion about successful outdoor activities, and 3) teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x; reflections on different metaphors concerning teaching and learning outdoors. The complete interview schedule is presented in Wilhelmsson et al. (2012). By late autumn 2010, three of the nine teachers had changed duties so empirical data comprising non-participant observations were collected from the remaining six teachers. These observations took place in an outdoor environment near the respective schools. Each observation of an outdoor session lasted 1.5 - 2 hours. Teacher-student dialogue was audio-recorded during observations, with a microphone attached to the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x;s collar. Before each outdoor session, the teacher described how their plan for activities had been constructed alongside their intended objectives, with a focus on knowledge and cognitive processes. These conversations took place in school without students present. Throughout the observations field notes were also made. The five teachers from the same school (school A) conducted their outdoor activities in the same location. Alice, Ina and Anna conducted outdoor activities at the same location due to safety reasons and so did Annie and Margareta. Therefore, two, and sometimes three, teachers were observed at the same time. In these cases, one of the teachers was carefully observed for continuous intervals of ten minutes each, at a short distance, while the other teacher/s was observed every four minutes in order to note, e.g., mode of acting, dialogue with students. Ina and Anna wore microphones with grades 3 and 4, as did Annie and Margareta with grades 5 and 6. The audio recorder helped to capture the conversations between teacher and students which were often not possible to follow at a distance. After the observation, a discussion followed with each teacher to elicit and summarize the activities and their intended objectives. The total number of observed activities amounted to twenty-six (twelve with Roger, seven with Ina, Alice and Anna and sevenwith Margareta and Annie). In this paper a selection of examples is described to illustrate typical results. All interviews and observations were recorded and transcribed verbatim. All interviews and observations were carried out in Swedish and the citations presented are translated from Swedish to English.

Interview transcripts from nine teachers with substantial experience of outdoor teaching

Observations transcripts and field notes from six of the teachers, in all 26 observed outdoor sessions

Reasons for outdoor teaching Teachers' intended objectives and the knowledge and cognitive processes focus in the performed activities outdoors Alignment

Figure 1. Study design used to obtain information on reasons for outdoor teaching, the kinds of knowledge and cognitive processes teachers intend to develop and the knowledge and cognitive processes focused in outdoor teaching and the alignment.

215

Table 2. Description of research design used to obtain information on reasons for outdoor teaching, identification of objectives and knowledge focused in outdoor teaching within the interviews and in the observations.

Research question Dataset

RQ 1: Teacher intentions

Interview transcripts from - General questions - Successful activities

Objectives in the cognitive RQ 1: domain achieved by Skills and intentional analysis knowledge to Interview transcripts from develop - Successful activities - Metaphors Objectives in the cognitive RQ 2: domain achieved by Bloom‟s Skills and revised taxonomy knowledge Observation transcripts and dealt with outdoors field notes

Data analysed by Information obtained Explicit and implicit reasons for outdoor learning Intentional analysis Identification of objectives within different domains

Bloom‟s revised taxonomy

Results from dataset in RQ 1 RQ 3: Bloom‟s revised Use of the outdoor and dataset in RQ 2 taxonomy environment

Identification of knowledge dimension and cognitive processes to develop by outdoor learning Identification of knowledge dimension and cognitive processes dealt with in outdoor learning Identification of alignment between intended objectives, knowledge focus in activities and teachers‟ use of the outdoor environment

Data Analysis The interview transcripts were first analysed by intentional analysis theory (Halldén, 2001; von Wright, 1971, 1979), using a modified version of Lager-Nyqvist‟s model (2003) to identify explicit and implicit reasons/intentions to locate learning outdoors (Figure 2). The internal determinants enable or limit what the teachers consider a possible performance action, while external determinants determine the teachers‟ interpretation of all the potential actions likely to be performed in the defined situation (Halldén, 2001; Lager-Nyqvist, 2003). An individual‟s intentions can be explicitly stated to a greater or lesser extent, and implicit intentions might be interpreted by the researcher from what is stated by the individual. Hence, each transcript from the teacher interviews was read through several times and all statements of intention noted. Interpretations of the teachers‟ implicit and explicit responses to all questions in the interview were used to understand teachers‟ intentions for outdoor teaching. The interpretation of the intentions is not validated by the individual interviewed but by @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

216

the degree of rationality, found by the researcher, within the analysis of the different parts of the interviews (cf. Halldén, 2001).

Internal determinants Wants, objectives Aims for the teaching and understanding of learning Wishes concerning learning process, students‟ progress and achievement in cognitive, affective, social and physical domain

External determinants Steering , influence Understanding of the performance of teaching in relation to the interpretation of norms, demands, restrictions and expectations which can be both formal and informal, e.g., syllabus, principals and parents

Intention to locate the teaching outdoors to the school forest

Abilities Understanding of personal competence to perform intended teaching

Opportunities, barriers Appreciation of the possibilities or limitations to perform the actual teaching in relation to wants and objectives and goals

Figure 2. The model for intentional analysis used to identify teachers’ intentions to locate teaching outdoors (modified from Lager-Nyqvist, 2003) which shows the examined teachers' internal and external determinants.

The analysis of transcripts from interviews and observations revealed teaching objectives in four different domains, cognitive, affective, social and physical, similar to the categories made by Rickinson et al. (2004) and also seen in Wilhelmsson et al. (2012). All of the teachers had teaching objectives in more than one domain, and each teacher described many activities expressing a similar orientation with regard to the teaching objectives. Different teachers placed an emphasis on different objectives and so this required further analysis to reveal in what way they varied. An analysis of the learning objectives in the cognitive domain was undertaken and then the results from the different analyses were cross examined (see below). The interview transcripts regarding the teacher‟s objectives for outdoor learning in the cognitive domain were further analysed by Bloom‟s revised taxonomy, a framework for categorizing educational objectives (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) to interpret which knowledge perspectives and cognitive processes the teachers were striving for (Wilhelmsson et al., 2012). The knowledge dimension and the cognitive process dimension represent a coherent continuum from basic elements to more abstract and complex categories of knowledge or cognitive processes. The knowledge dimension in the taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) proceeds from detailed, factual knowledge, to more complicated conceptual knowledge about categories, principles, @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

217

theories and structures. Further dimensions are procedural knowledge based on how to do something, and finally the meta-cognitive knowledge which is more abstract and strategic. In the cognitive process dimension, „to remember‟ is considered to be the lowest level of underlying cognitive complexity and „to create‟, the most complex level. The aim of analyzing the objectives within the framework is to describe which skills and knowledge the teachers intend to develop through activities outdoors. Concerning the analysis of the observations of the teaching activities, Bloom's revised taxonomy was also used (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). First, the objectives of the proposed activities in the cognitive domain, as expressed by the teacher in the conversation before the lesson, were analysed, coded with capital letters (A) and placed in a particular cell in the taxonomy table (table 6). Second, the activities promoted during the actual lesson were analysed, coded with lower-case letters (a) and placed into the taxonomy table. Third, the consistency between objectives and activities was analysed. If (A) and (a) were placed in the same cell, there is an alignment and the teacher has provided opportunities for the students to acquire the intended knowledge and cognitive processes as exemplified in Table 6. The interpretations have been validated through a process by which each author interpreted the statements independently and then compared the analysis such that agreement was reached by the research team. By cross examining, i.e. comparing the similarities and differences between the different analyses of teachers‟ intentions, learning goals in different domains and the analysis of teaching objectives in the cognitive domain, we were able to define four different teaching orientations: to inspire, to do, to reinforce and to inquire. The characterization of the different teaching orientations is described in table 3 and examples of different activities within the orientation is described in the results.

218

Table 3. Characteristics of the teaching orientations found among the nine teachers, based on interviews of teachers’ intentions and learning goals for outdoor teaching and categorization of educational objectives of observed activities.

Teaching orientation To inspire

To do is to learn To reinforce To inquiry

Description of characteristics within the orientation Emphasizes objectives in affective, social and physical domains, and factual knowledge within the cognitive domain Emphasizes objectives in affective and social domains, and procedural knowledge in cognitive domain Emphasizes cognitive objectives – to understand and apply conceptual knowledge Emphasizes cognitive objectives – mainly conceptual and procedural knowledge. Uses an approach to learning that involves exploring the world, asking questions, making discoveries.

Results For all teachers, the main intention for arranging outdoor learning was to create an alternative learning arena, as an important complement to classroom learning, contributing value to students‟ learning processes. It gives students the chance to experience with all the senses and combines academic skills with experience-based learning. The teachers stress that outdoor learning draws on the actual world but their objectives within these authentic activities are diverse. The intentional analysis reveals similarities in the teachers‟ intentions for outdoor learning, primarily in the external determinants but also in the internal determinant: in the „abilities‟ category (Figure 2). The differences between the teachers are mainly apparent in the internal determinant: in the „wants and objectives‟ category. The objectives were described in cognitive, affective, social and physical domains. Some teachers included objectives in all domains but the different teachers put more or less emphasis on each domain (Table 4). The similarities and differences revealed provide the basis for four different teaching orientations: to inspire, to do, to reinforce and to inquire. Within each teaching orientation there is concurrence between teachers‟ intentions, objectives and ways of using the outdoor arena to achieve educational objectives. To illustrate this further, each teaching orientation is presented separately. First, the objectives favoured by each teaching orientation are given, followed by the kinds of knowledge and cognitive processes they want to promote by learning outdoors. A summary of the teachers‟ main reasons for staging outdoor learning is presented in Table 4. Furthermore, a summary of the knowledge and cognitive processes the different teaching orientations aim to promote, analyzed using Bloom‟s revised taxonomy, is presented in Table 5. In the second part, results from the observations of the six teachers‟ outdoor activities, the kinds of knowledge they focused on, and how the teachers made use of the outdoor environment, are presented. Descriptions are included in order to discuss the alignment between teachers' intended cognitive objectives and the knowledge focus in the performed activities outdoors.

219

Table 4. Distribution of the teachers’ expressed objectives into cognitive, affective, social and physical domain sorted into four different teaching orientations. Numbers refer to how many different types of objectives in each domain. The distribution within the domains and the main reasons for locating learning outdoors is a result of the intentional analysis.

Teaching orientation

Main reasons for locating learning outdoors

To inspire

Stimulate writing and reading (Alice) Stimulate interest in nature (Ina) Generate feeling of achievement (Maria, Sverker, Anna)

To do is to learn

To reinforce To inquire

Distribution of teachers’ objectives in cognitive (C), affective (A), social (S) and physical (P) domains 2C, 2A, 1S, 1P 2C, 3A, 1S, 1P Maria: 2C, 4A, 2S, 2P Sverker: 2C, 3A, 1S Anna: 3C, 2A, 2S, 1P 4C, 2A, 1S, 1P

Confirm learning through various aesthetic expressions (Margareta) Reflect upon and reconsider responsibility for 6C, 1A, 1S own learning (Johan) Reflect upon and reconsider own learning 5C, 2A, 1S (Annie) Reflect upon and reconsider their own 7C, 2A, 1S perspectives (Roger)

Table 5. The teaching orientations with identification of knowledge and cognitive processes they want to promote through learning outdoors, analysed by Bloom’s revised taxonomy.

Teaching orientation To inspire To do is to learn To reinforce

To inquire

Identification of knowledge and cognitive processes Focus on understanding of factual knowledge (Alice, Ina) Focus on applying procedural knowledge ( Maria, Anna, Sverker) Focus on understanding and applying conceptual knowledge (Margareta) Focus on understanding conceptual knowledge, aiming at analysing conceptual knowledge (Johan) Focus on applying procedural knowledge, aiming at analysing procedural knowledge (Annie, Roger) Elements for understanding meta-cognitive knowledge (Johan, Annie, Roger)

Reasons for outdoor learning and the knowledge teachers want to promote The four defined different teaching orientations highlight the following main reasons for outdoor learning: to inspire, to do, to reinforce and to inquire. Teaching orientation: To inspire - focus on affective, physical and social dimensions This teaching orientation emphasizes mainly objectives within affective, physical and social domains. Concerning affective objectives, the aim with outdoor activities is to stimulate students‟ interest in nature and to evoke positive feelings about being outdoors (see Table 4). Opportunities for play and physical activities are essential and @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

220

it is important that students consider the outdoor environment in a positive manner, associated with both inspiring and playful activities. Group work is used to promote cooperation in various tasks. When referring to the cognitive domain, activities promoting understanding factual knowledge is emphasized (Table 5). On the one hand, objectives aimed at understanding science facts with a focus on explaining causes and effects are expressed. For instance, one activity was designed to problematize littering by telling stories about injured animals to illustrate examples of human impact on nature and to awaken empathetic feelings for nature as being worth taking care of from a life-long perspective. On the other hand, factual knowledge to support inspiration which facilitates theoretical tasks in the classroom is stressed. Here, linking writing or reading tasks to experiences in nature, e.g. in writing fairytales or explaining facts about implemented activities outdoors, is thought to stimulate studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; learning processes indoors. For Alice, for example, there is a dichotomy between outdoor learning which provides practical knowledge combined with physical activity, and learning inside which provides theoretical knowledge. After we have been out the entire morning, then it is very quiet in the classroom ... then you know, we have done something practical ... then we can, in good conscience, work on something theoretical in the classroom. (Alice) Teaching orientation: To do is to learn - focus on applying procedural knowledge Within this teaching orientation, affective and social objectives are primarily emphasised. In their affective objectives, all three teachers draw attention to the importance of generating feelings of achievement, particularly for students with learning difficulties (Table 4). The significance of strengthening studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; abilities and self confidence in order to potentially transfer feelings of achievement into theoretical subjects in the classroom is stressed here. Regarding social objectives, Maria and Anna focus attention upon the value of the group to generate well-being, while Sverker stresses student peer interactions as an important motivator for unmotivated students. When referring to cognitive objectives, the ability to apply procedural knowledge is in focus (Table 5). All three teachers view concrete outcomes as vital and emphasise activities to improve basic factual understanding, e.g. categorising certain herbs and other plant species in order to build factual knowledge, as well as exercises to attain procedural knowledge. Maria describes how she uses the forestâ&#x20AC;&#x;s growth cycle: to explain the carbon cycle, planting trees, maintaining the forest and thinning out the saplings. Anna works with camp fires to demonstrate energy flow by building a reflector oven, which shows how such flow can be affected by the use of different materials. Similarly, most of the activities Sverker mentioned have objectives related to gaining procedural knowledge, e.g., how to make charcoal and constructing water wheels. The objectives were often discussed in terms of applying knowledge with a focus on practical issues. Teaching orientation: To reinforce - focus on understanding and applying conceptual knowledge This teaching orientation stresses mainly cognitive objectives in order to understand and apply conceptual knowledge (Table 5). Outdoors, students are provided with opportunities to demonstrate learning through various forms of aesthetic expression considered valuable for improving understanding of, for example, ecological relationships or processes (Table 4). Being outdoors is fantastic...there is more space to use, to be able to understand... to process what you have done in the classroom (Margareta) @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

221

This teaching orientation is characterised by the conviction that the interaction between the in- and outdoor arenas helps the students with their learning processes, making them longer-lasting and more comprehensible. Group work is used to promote social interaction to motivate students in different tasks. In these activities students with learning difficulties have the opportunity to demonstrate practical skills that are significant for strengthening their self-esteem. By using a variety of ways of demonstrating and reinforcing learning, the students can relate to positive experiences when back in the classroom. Teaching orientation: To inquire - focus on understanding conceptual knowledge and applying procedural knowledge This orientation particularly emphasizes understanding or applying cognitive objectives, aiming at analyzing conceptual or procedural knowledge. An intention to gain knowledge in the meta-cognitive dimension is explicitly expressed (Table 5). This teaching orientation reflects a belief that the outdoor setting offers students potential to undertake the learning process differently, not merely with reference to textbooks and the teacher. Teachers assert that outdoor learning can add value to students‟ learning processes only if preparatory work has been properly done, together with accurate follow up. Moreover, students not only benefit from learning both in- and outdoors in order to become skilled and knowledgeable human beings, they also need interaction with others to develop learning processes. Thus, outdoor lessons are mostly carried out in groups with a focus on inquiry-based learning. During activities, the students are encouraged to take responsibility for both personal learning and transferring different skills and knowledge to each other in order to improve their group work. The teachers provide the students with hands-on experiences, for example, how things are related to larger physical systems in order to create a deeper understanding of nature. They also stress the importance of students' understanding of human impact on nature and our personal responsibility for that. All three teachers showing this orientation promote activities concerning conceptual knowledge, and the use of ideas from textbooks to solve problems outdoors. For example, Annie and Roger describe how they use blueberries to make indicators to discuss pH values and ask students to perform systematic observations using measuring instruments in order to gain procedural knowledge. This teaching orientation would lead to activities intended to create awareness amongst students of their responsibility for, and strategies for, learning (meta-cognition). Encouraging students to reflect upon and consider their own perspectives provides possibilities a higher level in the cognitive process dimension, moving from „applying knowledge‟ to „analysing knowledge‟ (Table 4 and 8). The kind of knowledge gain promoted in learning outdoors and the alignment between teachers’ intended objectives and actual activity outcomes This section reveals six teachers' objectives from interviews and descriptions of selected sequences from observations of outdoor learning episodes, exemplifying the kinds of knowledge and cognitive processes the teachers aim for and promote in enacted activities. Capital letters are used to code for expressed objectives before the activity and lower-case letters for performed activities, as shown in the taxonomy framework. This is to illustrate the alignment between teacher's predefined intended objectives and the knowledge focused on during activity implementation.

222

Teaching orientation: To inspire - focus on affective, physical and social dimensions In one activity the two teachers used a combined walk and quiz and the results are presented in table 6. By answering multiple-choice questions about appropriate clothes to wear, what food to bring along and which appropriate outdoor equipment to use, students were encouraged to draw conclusions about ways of being outdoors from a health perspective (A). Students were divided into pairs, instructed to follow a forest trail, and to discuss and agree on their answers. The questions gradually became more difficult and at the end, some students seemed to guess their answers. As students reached the meeting place where Alice was waiting, she encouraged them to play and to be physically active until all had completed the walk. When everyone was gathered the students took a break and had something to eat. To bring along something to eat and drink is important...you stimulate social relationships, also significant for being outdoors (Ina) A follow-up continued where Ina and the students discussed each question and the correct answers were shared. Focus was on students‟ understanding of factual knowledge (a). This case shows alignment and consistency between Ina's intentions (to understand factual knowledge) and the objectives promoted and achieved in the outdoor activities. Table 6. Bloom’s revised taxonomy, the framework used for categorizing the teachers’ intended objectives with actions outdoors in the cognitive domain (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001), showing an alignment between Ina’s expressed objective before activities (A), and the promoted outcomes during activities (a). Anna’s predefined cognitive objectives to achieve actions B, C, D, E in alignment with the outcomes achieved in outdoor activities (b, c, d, e).

The Knowledge dimension

Ina & Anna

The Cognitive Process Dimension

Factual Knowledge

Remember Understand Apply A a

Analyse Evaluate Create

Conceptual Knowledge Procedural Knowledge

B,C,D,E b,c,d,e

MetaCognitive Knowledge

Teaching orientation: To do is to learn - focus on applying procedural knowledge Sometimes Anna uses role play, aiming at providing students with opportunities to apply different techniques, in order to achieve procedural knowledge. This time students‟ tasks are to manage incidents in the forest like stabilizing a broken leg (B), moving an injured friend to a safe place (C), stopping excessive bleeding (D) and building a wind shield (E), by using objects found in nature (table 6). Students were asked to bring scarves and ropes to use in outdoor activities but no further preparation had been done. Anna told a story combining various different challenging situations for the students to handle and solve, in predetermined groups. Each group selected a suitable site in the forest and began their role play. Meanwhile @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

223

Anna circulated, supported ideas and drew attention to techniques for handling a broken leg (b) and how to lift and carry ergonomically (c). She encouraged the students to use their scarves as a compression bandage (d) and pointed out the importance of holding the wounded body part high to reduce bleeding (table 6). To promote feelings of achievement, she praised successful solutions. The aim of applying procedural knowledge was enthusiastically promoted in all exercises. Follow-up was done inside, where all groups presented their solutions and assessed learning from the outdoor activities. Anna was satisfied with the outcomes and emphasized the importance of the activities for strengthening students' selfconfidence and creating a feeling of success. The description indicates that the intended objectives and actual outcomes, as a result of the outdoor activities, are in alignment. Teaching orientation: To reinforce - focus on understanding and applying conceptual knowledge Margaretaâ&#x20AC;&#x;s aim is to reinforce conceptual knowledge building upon theoretical work done in the classroom. In the outdoor activity, students were expected to perform a role play to show understanding of conceptual knowledge about biodegradation. In preparation for this task, whilst still inside, the students used written material supported by questions about photosynthesis, cell respiration and decomposition of various materials. They used text books to help them to write definitions for difficult words connected to each process and Margareta performed a demonstration in the classroom to show decomposition of different materials. Outdoors, students were required to take part in an investigation applying what they had understood about biodegradation. They were asked to first discuss, agree and set up a hypothesis (A), then, based on their agreed hypothesis, to collect objects from nature to illustrate both rapid and slow biodegradation processes (B, C). They were then to explain their hypothesis (D) and devise a role-play using the collected objects to show rapid and slow biodegradation (E, F) (table 7). Students were divided into groups and, before the investigation began, Margareta asked them to explain biodegradation, and to give examples of objects in nature representing rapid and slow biodegradation. The students actually gave short, ambiguous answers, which revealed an inadequate understanding of the concepts and processes. Consequently, Margareta gave a brief summary about biodegradation (a) and made links to the work done in the classroom. She also posed questions to assess students' understanding. Despite incomplete responses, indicating a vague understanding, she pursued the tasks.

224

The Knowledge dimension

Table 7. Predefined intended cognitive objectives (A-F) and actual outcomes enacted in outdoor activities (a-f), Margareta.

Factual Knowledge Conceptual Knowledge

The Cognitive Process Dimension Remem- UnderApply Analyse ber stand E, F a,e,f b,c,d A, B, C, D a

Evaluate

Create

Procedural Knowledge MetaCognitive Knowledge

The students worked with differing commitment and soon some of them lost interest in the work. Margareta encouraged them to discuss, reflect and perform a role play. Finally, all groups presented their work. Collected objects and descriptions of the processes of biodegradation were explained briefly in terms of factual knowledge but most students had difficulty in explaining the processes involved. In addition, none of the groups produced a hypothesis or a role play. The first group presented a leaf and a piece of glass as examples of rapid and slow biodegradation: Student: Grass ... fast biodegradation, it takes about ... six months... to … break down. Margareta: ...What happened to the grass? Student: It starts to wither Margareta: What is it like in the spring then? Is it visible? Student: No... Margareta: But what has happened? Student: It grows again Margareta: No…It …decays and becomes ... soil The second group showed water for rapid and a plastic bag for slow degradation, while the third group chose grass leaves, then branches and trunks of trees, as examples of rapid and slow cycles. Margareta tried to maintain students‟ attention by asking questions of the reporting group but received fragmentary and often inaccurate responses during which both everyday language and scientific concepts were used, indicating perhaps unclear comprehension. Afterwards Margareta was unhappy with students‟ work and stressed that additional tasks were now needed to achieve the objectives. The data from the observation show misalignment between predefined intended objectives and the actual outcomes achieved during activities resulting in a less complex cognitive process than the intended (table 7). Due to students' lack of secure prior understanding of photosynthesis, the water cycle and biodegradation, the tasks concerning explanations of conceptual knowledge and role play were too challenging. Inadequate instruction by the teacher also made it difficult for the students to understand what to do. Hence, the students focused on describing factual knowledge. Questions were posed by the teacher, but students remained silent, perhaps so as to @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

225

not reveal their own misconceptions or lack of knowledge. The word „hypothesis‟ is used by the teacher, expecting students to make a prediction and show its relevance by using objects in nature. These tasks were neither performed by the students nor followed up by the teacher. Teaching orientation: To inquire - focus on understanding conceptual knowledge and applying procedural knowledge Annie often links theory to practice in everyday life and tries to find solutions to enhance students‟ learning processes. In one of the activities, Annie‟s aim was to improve students‟ self-confidence by providing opportunities to communicate in small groups to enhance factual and procedural knowledge. To overcome some students‟ lack of confidence with speaking when the whole class is listening, she located the activities outdoors. She asked the students to practice and perform a play, the fairytale Cinderella, first in Swedish and then in English. Each group chose a place in the forest, different roles were distributed and students started supporting each other with pronunciation and grammar. Annie supported them when needed but did not intervene unnecessarily. All students supported each other, acted and spoke English very well. At Roger's school, a yearly event known as "Maths Masters" occurs, where older students work with younger ones on mathematical problems. The aim is to encourage students of different ages to solve various mathematical problems outdoors. The pedagogical idea is to apply mathematical concepts in concrete situations. The older students are expected to be group leaders and teachers for younger students and the challenge lies in choosing the right strategy for specific situations, to promote the development of meta-cognitive knowledge (A) (table 8). To prepare the older students, Roger provided opportunities to take on leadership roles with the aim of achieving procedural knowledge. In the forest, the students were divided into groups and in hands-on activities they practiced different techniques (B). Each student conducted an exercise while the others supported and gave feedback (a, b). Roger observed and gave hints when needed. Occasionally, Roger challenged the students with questions to encourage them to reflect upon their own views, in order to appraise solutions (C). During the follow-up, Roger was keen to evaluate how activities were implemented and whether the students felt confident to convey instructions to the younger students. Each student reflected upon their own work and got feedback from other group members (c). According to Roger, this type of exercise strengthens self-reliance, thus constructing a frame of reference to relate to in continued work in the classroom. This description shows that there was an alignment between the planned objectives and actual outcomes achieved during the outdoor activities. The same holds for Annie concerning alignment between intended objectives and enacted activities.

226

Table 8. Roger’s predefined intended cognitive objectives to achieve (A, B, C) in alignment with the actual outcomes achieved in outdoor activities (a, b, c), Roger.

The Knowledge dimension

The Cognitive Process Dimension Remember Understand Apply

Analyse

Evaluate

Create

Factual Knowledge Conceptual Knowledge Procedural Knowledge

B b

MetaCognitive Knowledge

A a

C c

Discussion and Implications Teaching and learning outdoors within a school context is multifaceted. Teachers‟ reasons for using this alternative arena, often implicit, are diverse and linked to a belief about the outdoor environment reinforcing positive effects on learning, where experiences „interact‟ with all senses (Wilhelmsson et al., 2012). Our results show that, to succeed in reaching intended objectives, awareness of one‟s own ability to choose appropriate tools and/or modes of work is essential. Otherwise, there is substantial risk of inconsistency between intended objectives and the actual outcomes of outdoor activities. In our study the teachers reflect surprisingly little on the effect of the work forms chosen. Bloom‟s revised taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) functioned as a valuable analytical tool for interpreting teachers‟ educational objectives and for examining the alignment between objectives and activity outcomes. In addition, we stress the usefulness of the typology as a way of highlighting commonalities and differences between teachers‟ intentions and objectives, to examine the significance of awareness about vital pedagogical tools, such as inquiry based science teaching (Braund & Reiss, 2006) and to stimulate collaborative learning (Nundy, 2001), in order to achieve intended objectives within different learning domains. The study shows a range of expressed intentions for organizing outdoor teaching among our teaching orientations. The main ones are to achieve knowledge gain through experience-based learning, to explore real objects with multiple senses, to stimulate positive feelings towards nature and to promote collaboration. Thus, the outdoor arena was chosen as a result of its potential contribution to improving students‟ cognitive, affective, social and physical development both by the teachers in this study and in Wilhelmsson et al. (2012), and in a review of research on outdoor learning (Rickinson et al., 2004). Essential for gains in the affective domain are objectives about creating positive feelings for both nature, students' achievement and to improve self-confidence, in common with earlier research (Amos & Reiss, 2012; Eshach, 2007; Nundy, 2001). Further, group work promoting collaboration is common in development within the social and cognitive domain.

227

However, teachers focus on, and promotion of, diverse objectives are both due to teachers' varying degrees of awareness of the range of possible outcomes and their personal values concerning them. These form the basis for the choice of outdoor activities. Based on teachers‟ intentions, an objective is chosen and enacted by means of an activity that can use different ways of working or with diverse pedagogical tools. This includes recognizing personal teaching ability, pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge about students‟ prior understanding, educational methods, time for planning, accurate implementation and follow-up (Frøyland, 2010; Magntorn, 2007; Rickinson et al., 2004; Wilhelmsson et al., 2012). When the teachers' intended objectives are consistent with the ability to choose appropriate tools/modes of working, those objectives can be achieved through outdoor activities. In these cases, there is alignment between objectives and activity outcomes. On the other hand shortcomings in recognizing which tools/modes of working to use, may lead to misalignment. For the teaching orientation, to inspire, the affective and social objectives are highly valued and considered as a prerequisite to achieve cognitive development (cf. Amos & Reiss, 2012). The teachers adopting this orientation are aware of the potential range of objectives, but choose those mentioned above as a result of students' prior knowledge and selected objectives in the curriculum. For example, developing knowledge of what promotes healthy living means „understanding factual knowledge‟ is promoted in all exercises, evidently in alignment with intended objectives. The same holds true for the orientation, to do, where activities intended to „gain procedural knowledge‟ in order to promote students‟ feelings of contentment connected with something they managed to create are stressed. For this teaching orientation, the visible learning outcome is a measure of a successful student. Thus, the application of practical tasks is strongly emphasized during all outdoor activities, in alignment with predefined intended objectives. The other two teaching orientations primarily focus on cognitive objectives to reinforce knowledge, deepen understanding or apply knowledge, thereby encouraging students to reflect upon and consider different strategies for reaching a goal. This latter teaching orientation often challenges students with activities to create awareness among the students of their personal responsibility for learning and skills needed to improve group work, demonstrating alignment between objectives and activity outcomes. Here, learning is based on students' understanding of reflection, comparing and evaluating their own views with others and improving strategies to reach a higher level, moving from “apply knowledge” to “analyse knowledge”. Encouraging students to take responsibility for their own learning and supporting others seems to be a successful way of handling outdoor activities, in accordance with Nundy‟s findings (1999). This teaching orientation also make more use of the interaction between outdoor and indoor settings (cf. Braund & Reiss, 2006; Eshach 2007). In the case of teaching orientation, to reinforce, students are expected to show conceptual knowledge in practical and aesthetical exercises. In our study, as a result of insufficient instruction from the teacher and inadequate exercises both in- and outdoors, the students had difficulty in transferring ideas about the carbon cycle to what happens in nature, without doing further investigation. The teacher‟s limited experience in choosing an appropriate way of learning and setting exercises at an @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

228

unsuitable level for the students resulted in misalignment between the intended objectives and activity outcomes. In this study we have used Bloom‟s revised taxonomy to examine the degree of alignment between intended objectives, awareness of personal teaching ability in the outdoor arena and activity outcomes. We find higher alignment among teachers who primarily promoted affective and social goals, or meta-cognitive and analytical understanding than the teachers who mainly promoted confirmation of conceptual knowledge. To reinforce understanding of different theoretical concepts or processes by using objects from nature seems to be significantly more difficult than previously thought (cf. Österlind & Halldén, 2007). The strong belief about the outdoor arena reinforcing positive impacts on learning intended objectives seems to override a wellconsidered choice of instruction and modes of work to achieve the intended knowledge. Thus, the potential for learning outdoors is not fully utilized, indicating a need to improve teachers' skills in using the necessary tools (Eshach, 2007). We suggest, as do others (for example, Bentsen, 2010), that this may be a common problem. It should also be noted that the teachers in our study reflect surprisingly little on the correlation between the modes of work and kinds of knowledge possible to achieve. On this basis, one may wonder whether it is possible to perform outdoor activities which are potentially able to achieve objectives addressing every aspect of Bloom‟s revised taxonomy, and also if that is actually desirable? It would be interesting to investigate whether the pursuit of more complex cognitive processes or knowledge dimensions results in a loss of affective and social goals, which would not be desirable especially for our defined teaching orientations "to inspire" and "to do". In this study, the typologies have been useful in illuminating different teaching orientations with diverse intentions and achieved results, which are likely to be found amongst teachers in general. Teachers need to reflect more upon how diverse pedagogical tools can be suited to attaining different goals in the outdoor arena. This might be something to stress more in teacher education and during in-service teacher education. This study has highlighted the educational intentions and objectives of nine Swedish teachers‟ for outdoor learning. Nevertheless it is a contribution to greater insights generally into teachers‟ objectives and their awareness of the educational tools needed in order to achieve alignment between objectives and activity outcomes. The framework of Bloom‟s revised taxonomy analyses primarily cognitive objectives and that may be a limitation in a practical context since some objectives are in other domains. This study shows the importance of discussion, in schools and in teacher education, centered on educational intentions, objectives, tools and the alignment between objectives and outdoor activities to achieve intended knowledge outcomes. References Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing. A revision of Bloom´s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

229

Amos, R., & Reiss, M. (2012). The benefits of residential fieldwork for school science: Insights from a five-year initiative for inner-city students in the UK. International Journal of Science Education, 34(4), 485-512. Bentsen, P. (2010). Udeskole: outdoor teaching and use of green space in Danish schools. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Copenhagen, Danish Centre for Forest, landscape and Planning and Department of Exercise and Sport Sciences. Braund, M., & Reiss, M. (2006). Towards a more authentic science curriculum: The contribution of out-of-school learning. International Journal of Science Education, 28(12), 1373-1388. Eshach, H. (2007). Bridging in-school and out-school learning: Formal, non-formal and informal learning. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16(2), 171-190. EU. (2007). Science Education NOW: A Renewed Pedagogy for the Future of Europe. Retrieved March 8, 2008, from http://ec.europa.eu/research/sciencesociety/document_library/pdf_06/report-rocard-on-science-education_en.pdf Frøyland, M. (2010). Mange erfaringer i mange rom. Oslo, Abstrakt forlag AS Halldén, O. (2001). Social konstruktionism, konstruktivism och intentionell analys som heuristiskt verktyg i kvalitativ analys. In O. Halldén (Ed). Intentionell analys. Forskningsrapporter från Pedagogiska institutionen, nr 65 (pp. 1-18). Stockholms universitet. Jordet, A. (2007). ”Nærmiljøet som klasserum”: En undersøkelse om uteskolens didaktikk i et danningsteoretisk og erfaringspedagogisk perspektiv. Doctoral Dissertation, Universitetet i Oslo, Det utdanningsvitenskaplige fakultet. Lager-Nyqvist, L. (2003). Att göra det man kan: en longitudinell studie av hur sju lärarstudenter utvecklar sin undervisning och formar sin lärarroll i naturvetenskap. Doctoral Dissertation, Acta Universitaits Gothoburgensis, Göteborg Studies in Educational Science. Lai, K.C. (1999). Freedom to learn: a study of the experiences of secondary school teachers and students in a geography field trip. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8(3), 239-255. Linn, M.C,, Davis, E.A., & Bell, P. (2004). Internet Environments for Science Education, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Magntorn, O. (2007). Reading nature: developing ecological literacy through teaching. Doctoral Dissertation, Linköpings Universitet, Swedish National Graduate School in Science and Technology Education, FontD, Department of Social and Welfare Studies. Mygind, E. (2009). A comparison of childrens‟ statements about social relations and teaching in the classroom and in the outdoor environment. Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning, 9(2), 151-169. Nundy, S. (1999). The fieldwork effect: the role and impact of fieldwork in the upper primary school. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8(2), 190-198. Nundy, S. (2001). Raising achievement through the Environment: The case for fieldwork and field centres. Peterborough: National Association of Field Studies Officers. Näsström, G. (2008). Measurement of Alignment between Standards and Assessment. Doctoral Dissertation, Umeå University, Department of Educational Measurement. O´Brien, L., & Murray, R. (2007) Forest school and its impacts on young children: Case studies in Britain. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 6(4), 249-265. Openshaw, P. H., & Whittle, S. J. (1993). Ecological field teaching: How can it be made more effective? Journal of Biological Education, 27(1), 58-70. Österlind, K., & Halldén, O. (2007). Linking theory to practice: a case study of pupils‟ course work on freshwater pollution. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 16(1), 73-89. Rea, T., & Waite, S. (2009). International perspectives on outdoor and experiental learning. Education 3-13, 37(1), 1-4. Rickinson, M., Dillon, J., Teamey, K.; Morris, M., Choi; M., Sanders, K., & Benefield, P. (2004). A review of Research on Outdoor Learning. Slough: National Foundation for Educational Research. Sandell, K., & Öhman, J. (2010). Educational potentials of encounters with nature: reflections from a Swedish outdoor perspective. Environmental Education Research, 16(1), 113-132. @2015 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

230

The National Agency for Education, 2011. Curriculum for the compulsory school, preschool class and the leisure-time centre 2011. Retrieved March 9, 2012, from www.skolverket.se/publikationer?id=2687 Wilhelmsson, B., Ottander, C. and Lidestav, G. (2012) Teachers‟ intentions with outdoor teaching in school forests: Skills and knowledge teachers want students to develop, NorDiNa 8(1) 26-40. Vetenskapsrådet (2006) Forskningsetiska principer inom humanistisk samhällsvetenskaplig forskning. Retrieved February 15, 2011, from http://www.codex.vr.se von Wright, G. H. (1979). The determinants of actions. In H. Kohlenberger (Ed.) Reason, action and experience. Essays in honour of Raymond Klibansky. (pp. 107-119). Hamburg, Felix Meiner verlag. von Wright, G. H. (1971). Explanation and understanding. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul.