Vol 16 no 10 october 2017 by ijlter.org

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.16 No.10

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 16

NUMBER 10

October 2017

Table of Contents Education of Students with Disabilities in the USA: Is Inclusion the Answer? .............................................................. 1 Myung-sook Koh and Sunwoo Shin A Cloze-styled Textual Enhancement Targeting Prepositions ...................................................................................... 18 Michael Heinz Understanding and Responding to the Unique Needs and Challenges Facing Adjunct Faculty: A Longitudinal Study....................................................................................................................................................................................... 27 Kimberly Buch, Heather McCullough and Laura Tamberelli “Being together in the locker room is great, but showering together – just forget it!” The Janus Face of the Wardrobe Practice in Physical Education .......................................................................................................................... 41 Bjørn Tore Johansen, PhD, Martine Mæhle, MSc, Øyvind Oland, MSc, and Tommy Haugen, PhD How Pre-Service Teachers Learn: An Investigation of Motivation and Self-Regulation ............................................ 58 Ali A. Alenazi, PhD What Makes up an Effective Emotional Intelligence Training Design for Teachers? .................................................. 72 Niva Dolev and Shosh Leshem Advanced Academic Writing Course for International Students Belonging to “One Belt, One Road” .................... 90 Chang Chen*, Habiba Khalid, and Farrukh Raza Amin A Correspondence Analysis of Nine Japanese Historical English-as-a-Foreign-Language Textbooks ................... 100 Ryohei Honda, Kiyomi Watanabe and Toshiaki Ozasa And Still They Persisted: A Discussion of Indigenous Students Perspectives on a Year in Pre-Nursing Transitions ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 114 Kathy Snow The use of Social Networks by the Students of a Mexican Public University............................................................. 132 Juan Ignacio Barajas Villarruel, María Gregoria Benítez Lima, Ricardo Noyola Rivera and Juan Manuel Buenrostro Morán

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 1-17, October 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.10.1

Education of Students with Disabilities in the USA: Is Inclusion the Answer? Myung-sook Koh Eastern Michigan University Michigan, USA Sunwoo Shin Oakland University Michigan, USA

Abstract. American society has continued to question what the most appropriate way is to educate students with disabilities. Whether teaching students with and without disabilities in the same classroom is a best practice has become the most controversial topic in education. The present study attempted to examine the present state of inclusive education through a comprehensive review of the literature from 30 years of practice and current teacher preparation programs. Results showed that although quantitative physical inclusion in the United States has doubled, new general education teachers were not prepared enough to teach students with disabilities confidently and have held the similar perceptions, concerns, and perceived barriers regarding the success of inclusion to the ones since the beginning of the inclusion movement. Accountability for the academic and social success in the inclusive classroom did not result in a more effective system than the dual educational systems of general education and special education. Keywords: Inclusion; inclusive education; perceptions of inclusion; elementary teachers

teacher

preparation;

Introduction While holding common concerns in the rapid inclusion movement of students with disabilities, inclusion practice has gained popularity while gathering feasibility over the last 30 years. Various supporting models, inclusion designs, and educational strategies involving the curriculum, staffing, instruction, accommodation, and modification have been designed and implemented to make classrooms more inclusive as well as more appropriate learning environments for students with and without disabilities (Cronis & Ellis, 2001; Shogren, Gross, & Forber-Pratt, 2015; Walther-Thomas, Bryant, & Land, 1996). For example, special education positions have changed to include a teacher

consultant position, with enriched and advanced educational and assistive technology being developed and used for instruction, functional skills, and communications. Even special education related documents and forms have become available in electronic forms, in order to reduce time involved in writing an Individualized Education Program (IEP). The key question is, then, what is the results of these changes? How has inclusive education in the United States progressed toward providing the best education to both students with and without disabilities? Are the changes and efforts to improve inclusive education over the past three decades effective? Is the education of students with disabilities in a general education setting working for all involved? Is the inclusion movement now supported by empirical evidence? Obtaining a Right for Public Education Since 1975, American society has continued to question what the most appropriate way is to educate students with disabilities. Consequently, the educational system has undertaken multiple reforms over the last 30 to 40 years (Ross-Hill, 2009). The civil rights movement and the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (PL 94-142) affected every school in the country and have resulted in public schools opening their doors for students with disabilities. Under this law, a federal list of educational disabilities was identified and used to qualify the students to receive special education services. In addition, the “least restrictive environment (LRE)” and “appropriate” education pushed public schools to provide “a continuum of special education services” to students with disabilities. Consequently, professionals and parents could choose the most appropriate educational settings for their students‟ best educational opportunities. These revolutions required changing the roles of general and special educators, school administrators, parents, and others involved in the educational process. Training of special education teachers (versus general education teachers) began as a requirement for those teachers who would become case managers of educational programs of identified students with disabilities (Heward, 2012; Shogren, Gross, & Forber-Pratt, 2015). Questioning about the Receiving Specialized Education The goals identified in PL 94-142, however, came up against another educational perspective in 1982, as a result of the publication of A Nation At Risk (U.S. Department of Education, 1982), which resulted in a widespread call for a systematic reform of schools. The debates on Regular Education Initiative (REI), the “full” inclusion movement, had its beginnings during this restructuring period and resulted in an increasing number of students with disabilities “moving back” into general education classrooms, ultimately calling for general education teachers to be more responsible for the education of students with disabilities (Ainscow, 1997; Cagran & Schmidt, 2011; Patton & Edgar, 2002).

Two Perspectives on “Appropriate” Education Interpretations of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandatory regulations and the 1980s‟s REI reform movement sparked ceaseless debates on what the best educational services for students with disabilities are, in order to guarantee their rights and privileges for an education (Heward, 2012). These debates included two perspectives for LRE. Full inclusion proponents believed that educating students with disabilities in special education settings or apart from their typically achieving peers limited their rights to public education and was therefore a type of “segregation” (Eitle, 2002). Full inclusion opponents believed that special education settings and supports, like the continuum of special education services, could provide a free “appropriate” public education for students with disabilities who need unique supports and educational delivery (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1994). The inclusion proponents hold that LRE is a mandatory regulation requiring that students with disabilities not be segregated from general society and general education classrooms, in the interest of “human rights.” The opponents of the full inclusion movement question how best to address the human rights of the students with disabilities including their rights to a free and “appropriate” public education. Placing students with disabilities in a general education setting with the same teacher, curriculum, and standard regardless of the nature and severity of their disability and difficulty is not sufficient support for their educational needs. Teaching all students in heterogeneous classroom does not address the rationale of offering a continuum of special education services: students with disabilities were referred for special education due to their inability to learn in general education classrooms (Farrell, 2000; Ferri & Connor, 2005; Ruijs & Peetsma, 2009). How have these two perspectives (full inclusion vs. continuum of services) used empirical evidence of the effects on students to defend their interpretations? Inclusion proponents have insisted that students with disabilities would learn better academically and socially in general education classroom. Socially, students with and without disabilities would experience more balanced friendships in the inclusive settings, and academically, students with disabilities would acquire more academic knowledge through the effective general education teacher instruction because general education teachers were the ones certified to teach academics (Grider, 1995; Hartzell, Liaupsin, Gann, & Clem, 2015; Hunt, Farron-Davis, Beckstead, Curtis, & Goetz, 1994; Mather & Robers, 1994). In other words, inclusion proponents believed that general education settings were the best educational setting to provide “appropriate education” to students both with and without disabilities. The opponents, however, provided evidence that almost 90% of the students with disabilities were identified as needing special education in schools after earning learning deficiencies in the general education classrooms. Returning these students to a general education setting means they were going back to failed educational settings without hands-on system or structure (Farrell, 2000; Fuchs & Fuchs, 1994; Grider, 1995; Ruijs & Peetsma, 2009). After 30 years, the debate continues, unresolved still today in the field of education in the United States.

Quantitative Practice of Inclusion Since 1986 Without any resolution of these controversial debates regarding the best service delivery model for educating students with disabilities, the national prevalence statistics from the NCES showed that over the course of a 22-year period (19882014), the practice of inclusion for students with disabilities, age 6-21, who received education in general education settings for at least 80% or more of school day (not 100% full day, but 20% may be for related services) in the U.S. has doubled (from 31.7% to 62.2%). Figure 1 shows the percentages and a line graph denoting the progress of the number of students being included (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017). Prevalence Trends of Physical Inclusion

65.0 60.0

54.8

55.0

46.8

50.0

45.7

45.0

44.8

48.2 45.9

46.1

51.5

46.0

46.5

48.2

49.9

54.2

60.5

58.5 56.8

59.4

61.2 62.2

61.1

61.8

40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0

33.1 31.7

Figure 1. The Percentage of students aged 6 through 21 served under IDEA educated in the general education classrooms more than 80% of school time.

Additional statistics from the NCES website showed this information on prevalence trends disaggregated by primary educational disabilities. As seen in Figure 2, there was an increase in the education of students with disabilities in inclusive education across each disability category. For example, students with speech/language impairment (SLI) were educated in inclusive settings more than any other disability area, although over time, the total percentage decreased by 1%. All disabilities increased their instructional time in general education settings, especially students with autism (113% increase) and deafblindness (98% increase), followed by emotional disability (73% increase), TBI (63%), OHI (53%), and specific learning disability (SLD, 51%). On average, national statistics showed that only one disability (SLI) area ranked at the 50% level of their education being in inclusive settings for 80-100% of the school day in 1988, increasing to six (almost seven) of 12 disability areas ranked at that level by 2011. Surprisingly, students with learning disabilities, the disability with the highest incidence and strongly related to academic learning deficits, were not educated in inclusive settings as much as those students with speech/language impairments. There was no data available specifically for students with mild intellectual disability separate from those with moderate/severe/profound intellectual disabilities, although students with mild intellectual disabilities comprise more than 85% of the entire intellectual disability category, and academic areas are typically their main school concerns resulting in IEP goals and objectives.

Increase Rate of Inclusion by Disability Categories

Percentages

100 80 60 40 20 0

Multiple Intellect D ual D

DeafBlind

Autism

Emotion al D

TBI

Orthope dic I

OHI

SLD

Speech Lan.

Year 1997

12.6

13.6

18.3

24.9

29.8

38.8

41.4

48.1

43.8

87.8

Year 2014

16.4

22.6

39.9

46.6

49.9

54.3

65.1

65.8

68.8

Figure 2. Percentage of students ages 6 through 21 served under idea, part b, by educational environment, year and disability category: Fall 1997 and fall 2014.

Common Concerns As a result of the varying perspectives for best practice in teaching students with disabilities, there have been vague roles for general education and special education teachers, and insufficient planning and preparation to support the needs of students with disabilities involved in the inclusion movement (Dorn & Fuchs, 1996; Kauffman & Smucker, 1995; Will, 1986). With more inclusion of students with disabilities, their education in general education settings predominantly fell to general education teachers. In the mid 1980â&#x20AC;&#x;s when the REI began in the United States, both proponents and opponents of inclusion movements shared a common concern about the general educational system not being prepared to meet the diverse educational needs of students with disabilities and to remediate their learning deficiencies, especially general education teachers. The major concern was whether or not general education teachers were prepared for successful inclusive education, because successful inclusion necessitates highly qualified teachers who were ready to meet the needs of exceptional learners (Allday, Neilsen-Gatti, & Hudson, 2013; Harvey, Yssel, Bauserman, & Merbler, 2010; Smith, Polloway, Patton, & Dowdy, 2012; Thompkins & Deloney, 1995). The purpose of this study is, therefore, to investigate how much inclusive education has progressed toward the goal of providing the best education to students with disabilities. Specifically, is inclusive education working overall for the education of students with disabilities? This question will be addressed by investigating these three important questions: 1) Are general education teachers well trained to handle the additional responsibilities of teaching in classrooms with increasing numbers of students with disabilities? 2) Are the perceptions of general education teachers positive and supportive towards their students with diverse needs, and have their concerns lessened or subsided? 3) Are there measureable academic and social outcomes that demonstrate the success of students being educated in inclusive classrooms?

Method Search Procedure of Literatures and Teacher Preparation Programs The focus of the extensive literature review conducted for this study included identifying research and statistics in three key areas. The results were aimed to draw conclusions as to the success of the inclusive education over the past 30 years. For question one, an online review of current teacher preparation programs in all 50 of the United States was conducted. The data was collected and analyzed in the following sequence. First, using the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) website, the list of NCATE accredited university/college names were selected and sorted by states. Second, these university/college names, each were then searched to identify colleges of education, undergraduate programs (graduate programs were looked at when they were the only ones), majors, teacher education, and elementary education. Third, from the teacher education and elementary education programs, program requirements, required courses, plans of study, student handbooks, and university catalogs; course requirements/descriptions were reviewed including prefix and course numbers, the title of courses, credit hours, and field experience requirements. Some programs did not have clear course prefixes, describing whether or not it was a special education course, so an extended search for confirmation was needed. Fourth, information from evaluated programs was sorted using qualitative categories of perceived level of preparation, labeled as: None, basic, and more complete (more than two courses including method courses). The authors reviewed only elementary programs for initial certifications because they were the main teacher preparation programs and were more comprehensive than secondary level programs that needed to be searched by specific subject areas and in addition, may have different special education course requirements by subject area. Although the time involved in this comprehensive website review was intensive (10 to 50 minutes per university/college to find listed information), this information was essential for a complete understanding of teacher preparation programs in the United States and specifically of special education training within general education teaching. For questions two and three, comprehensive literature reviews of peer-reviewed journals were conducted using ERIC as the research tool with no-restricted dates. For question two (teacher perceptions and concerns regarding inclusive teaching), the database was searched using the key words of „inclusion‟ and „perception,‟ and for question three (measurable success of academic and/or social inclusion), the search was conducted using the keywords „inclusion‟ as a document title and „academic‟ or „social‟ within the articles. The articles were then filtered while focusing on in-service (not pre-service) teachers, grades PreK12th, and research sited in the United States only. The results for question two were then sorted in a qualitative manner, based upon the independent interpretation of each author, using the following labels: positive, negative, or mixed perceptions about inclusion. The articles were sorted as positive when the perspective of teachers within the article was supportive of the inclusion effort, negative when they were not. The category of

“mixed” was used when the teachers supported the concept of inclusion but also identified a list of concerns, barriers, or conditions. It was sometimes difficult to determine whether the study results should be classified as having either positive or negative results, because both perspectives were offered. An example of these cases, teachers might have been responding positive for mild disabilities but negative for severe disabilities. For question three, the number of studies and results (gains, no difference/decreased, or mixed) were sorted by decade (three groups: 1986-1995, 1996-2005, and 2006 to current) to look for changes over time and by quantitative/measurable evidence. Only literature published after 1986 was selected because prior to this, inclusive education was not actively practiced and not officially on-debates for the efficacy of inclusive education yet. Also, studies on this topic were not active before then. In addition, students of disability rates consisting of the total enrollment were reviewed to see the prevalent trends of students with disabilities as well as high incidence disabilities during the inclusion movement periods.

Results The present study examined the 30-year practice of inclusive education. Approximately 225 elementary teacher preparation programs in 50 states were reviewed and 158 peer-reviewed articles were identified and examined in order to answer the three research questions. Question 1: Teacher Preparation State General education teacher training and preparation for teaching in an inclusive classroom is undoubtedly a critical factor for successful inclusive education (McCray & McHatton, 2011). There was no pre-data available to compare how general education teacher preparation programs have trained teacher candidates for inclusive education each decade. The current review of 225 elementary teacher preparation programs encompassing all 50 states, found that approximately 15% (34 programs) of the universities did not include any special education course in their programs, approximately 62% (140 programs) of the universities required one introduction to special education course and 3% (7) of the programs offered only elementary and special education combined majors without a separate elementary program. The table 1 shows the summary of the national teacher preparation status. Table 1 Comparison of Elementary Teacher Preparation Programs with Special Education Courses (N=225)

SPED Courses Course Credits Field Experiences

None 15% 2 credits 7% None 62%

Intro. to SPED 62% 3 credits 82% Required 30%

Two or more courses 19.5% 4 credits 4% Exact hours or credits 18%

Classroom/behavior management courses were not counted as a special education course, because most universities offered it as a non-special education course. The number of credit hours for the special education courses and the field experience requirements were checked as an indicator of how rigorous the special education courses were. Among 218 special education courses offered by 191 programs (34 had no courses), the majority of programs offered three-credit special education courses. Approximately 21% (48 programs) of the programs offered unique major/minor programs, such as elementary and special education double endorsements, special education concentration, or minor programs. Among those 48 elementary and special education dual programs, 41 programs offered two options: only elementary major or the elementary and special education combined major. In these 41 two-option programs, elementary only programs did not require any special education courses. Some programs offered special education as a supplemental component in their elementary major such as a no-licensing-based add-on to the elementary majors with 12 to 20 extra special education credit-hour requirements. In these programs, special education was one of the options the candidates could choose amongst three or four other areas such as English Language Learners (ELL), extracurricular subjects, etc. Some programs made supplemental add-on programs as mandatory for the elementary majors and some offered it as an option. The fiveto six-year combined undergraduate and master program majoring elementary and special education did not have separate elementary or special education licensing programs, nor the undergraduate or graduate only degree programs. Among 225 programs, approximately 30% (68 programs) required some form of field experiences in special education settings and 62% (143 programs) did not mention it in the course descriptions. Among 68 programs requiring field experiences, only 61% (41 programs) clearly required exact field hours (40 minutes to 40 hours) or one credit lab/course hour, but 39% stated that „field experience may be required.‟ Among the required field hours, 10, 15, and 20 hours were the most frequently required hours in the course descriptions. Question 2: Perception Trends of Teachers Regarding Inclusion Results of 86-literature review from 1970s to current were sorted by decades and then by positive, negative, and mixed feelings. Mild disabilities and learning disabilities were addressed most often in the studies as the target population. A majority of these perception studies focused on the participants‟ feelings on “the general concept or principle of inclusion.” While reviewing the literatures, the following points were identified by the authors regarding how professionals perceive the meaning of inclusion. First, some studies differentiated between the teachers‟ perceptions on the general concept of inclusion and their willingness to teach in an inclusive classroom; the participants‟ responses showed ambivalence where they supported the concept of inclusion but were not willing to teach in such settings because of the listed concerns and barriers. Second, some studies demonstrated discrepancies between the teachers‟ support and self-confidence in terms of their knowledge on how to teach diverse learners and their actual teaching in inclusive classrooms. Third, the teachers‟ length of teaching experiences or previous inclusive teaching experiences did not impact their

positive perception, but their special education backgrounds positively impacted their willingness to teach in inclusive classrooms. More experienced teachers supported inclusion less, but those who came from stronger special education backgrounds were more supportive of inclusion. Overall, 14% of the studies concluded their participants supported inclusion, 62% were against, and 24% had mixed feelings about it. Figure 3 demonstrates the trends of teachers‟ perceptions regarding inclusion in each decade. Percentages of Teacher Perceptions Regarding Inclusion Positive

Negative

Mixed

69 60

18 6

0 1970's

29 11

1980's

1990's

24 16 2000-current

Figure 3. The percent of teachers’ perceptions on inclusion between 1970 and 2014.

In the 1970s, a majority (88%) of teachers voiced negative feelings about the inclusion, but it has gradually changed to mixed feelings (60%) in recent years while the negative feelings have dropped to 24%. Overall, after the 1990‟s, it would appear that teacher perceptions of inclusion began to improve, which continued into the recent years and the decreasing negative feelings may have influenced the increase in teachers with more mixed feelings. Interestingly, teacher perceptions that are positive about teaching in inclusive settings have remained low, at less than 20% over the entire four-decade period. Teacher-perceived barriers and concerns to effective inclusion. Although the results of this literature review showed less negative and more mixed feelings regarding inclusion in recent years, it also showed that the factors contributing to the teachers‟ ability to teach students with and without disabilities in inclusive settings have not changed over the last 30 years. Even the most recent studies (Cameron & Cook, 2007; Kilanowski-press, Foote, & Rinaldo, 2010; Logan & Wimer, 2013; Muccio, Kidd, White, & Burns, 2014) disclosed that several impeding factors played a part in participants‟ mixed feelings about inclusion. In other words, the same barriers and concerns to effective inclusive education were listed throughout the 40-year inclusion practices. Among 86 studies, 44 studies clearly included barriers and concerns, either as the main focus of the study or as add-on results. The most frequently mentioned barriers and concerns throughout time periods were inadequate and insufficient training to help teach in inclusive classrooms and lack of resources available for effective inclusive education from the early decades to current. Lack of planning time and class size are other demands for teachers that affect their feelings about inclusion. The adequate training needs were mostly focused on how to adapt and modify curriculum, teaching materials, and programs, to collaborate with special education teachers and multidisciplinary team members, to assess

academic progress and interpret evaluation results, to manage behavior problems, to write behavioral objectives and IEP, to lead IEP conferences, etc. General education teachers were found to prefer co-teaching with special education teachers in their classrooms than collaborating with teacher consultants. Question 3: Accountability of Inclusive Education: Academic and Social Outcomes From 1986 to 2014, 72 studies were reviewed and sorted by publication decades, 40 focused on academic outcomes and 32 on social outcomes. A majority of studies on both study topics (approximately 88% of 40 on academic outcomes and 81% of 32 on social outcomes) were published in the first two decades (19862005). Although this might still allow for good pre- and post- comparisons, an imbalance of the quantity of studies in recent years (2006 to 2014) did not lend itself to such comparisons. Academic outcomes of inclusive education. Among 40 peer-reviewed studies on academic outcomes, a little less than 50% utilized standardized measures involving pre- and post-testing before and after inclusion practices. Approximately 28% used self-reported data, such as interviews, surveys, etc., and another 28% used existing records such as state-wide test results, report cards, graduation rates, referral rates, etc. Some studies utilized more than two measures. Given the limitations in comparing the results of these studies comparing the academic outcomes of inclusive education for students with disabilities, the reported outcomes find that approximately 20% of the studies (8 studies) showed evidence of academic gains, approximately 48% (19 studies) found no difference or a decrease in academic scores, and approximately 32% (13 studies) showed mixed results. The comparisons made in these 40 studies varied. Most of the studies (68%) investigated the academic outcomes of inclusive classrooms (no particular inclusion models or strategies were specified), which may be able to be compared with non-inclusive general education classrooms and/or special education settings (resource rooms or self-contained classrooms). Approximately 40% of the studies focused mainly on the academic achievement of students with mild disabilities and learning disabilities in inclusive classrooms, and the results with overall 20% gains were not encouraging. Approximately 33% of the studies compared academic outcomes of students with disabilities and typically achieving students. These studies showed varied results, such as comparing the outcomes of students with learning disabilities with low achieving general education students. The results of that study found students with learning disabilities gained academic skills, but not the lowachieving students. Another inclusion study compared the academic outcomes of students with learning disabilities, low, middle, and high achievers. The example results were that students with learning disabilities and high achievers demonstrated progress, but not low or average achievers. The typical studies were measuring reading, math, spelling, and writing achievements of students with mild or learning disabilities and typically achieving students in low,

middle, and high academic levels. Only 10% of the studies had typically achieving students as subjects and measured whether including students with moderate/severe disabilities negatively impacted typically achieving students‟ academic achievements or academic behaviors. The results of these studies found that there was no negative impact on academic learning when students with moderate/severe disabilities were included. Approximately 32% of the studies on academic outcomes were focused on measuring the efficacies of specific inclusion models, evaluating the inclusion process, or strategies, such as Welsh Inclusion Models which measured the results of intensive year-long professional development on how to implement inclusive education through academic outcomes of students with disabilities and typically achieving students. Social outcomes of inclusive education. Among 32 studies on the social outcomes of inclusive education, approximately 41% (13) of the studies found inclusion was effective in promoting social skills and growth, while approximately 25% (8) did not demonstrate growth, and approximately 34% (11) showed mixed results for students‟ social skills changing as a result of inclusion. Approximately 31% of studies focused on the social skill improvement of students with mild and learning disabilities while only 15% had severe/moderate disabilities as subjects. The remaining studies did not indicate specific disability areas but rather, general disabilities. Approximately 31% included typically achieving students. Approximately 72% of the studies utilized self-reported data based on surveys or interviews, only 9% of the studies used standardized measures using pre- and post-testing, and about 34% used data from direct observations on the growth and gains of peer interactions and contacts, friendships, social acceptances using commercial-based checklist or researcher developed rating scales and sociometric measures like peer– nominations. Only 19% of studies examined the efficacy of specific inclusion models or evaluated how the inclusion process on social aspects was conducted, which usually was through testimonial type of narrative. In summary, the extensive research review designed to show whether the trend towards more inclusive education over the last three decades has resulted in improved learning and social skills finds inconclusive results. Figure 4 shows a comparison of the academic and social outcomes of inclusive education from the literature identified across the last 28 years.

Academic and Social Outcomes of Inclusive Education % of Outcomes

55 45

Academic Social

48 41

34 32

25 15

20 Gains

25 No differences

Mixed

Feature 4. Academic and social outcomes of inclusive education from 1986 to 2014

Discussion The number of students with disabilities being educated in general education settings for at least 80% of the school day has almost doubled since 1988. Is this effort to teach atypically achieving students with typically achieving students working in the United States? The intent of the current study was to investigate how much inclusive education has progressed toward the goal of providing the best possible education to students with and without disabilities. To answer this question, the study investigated three critical facts regarding the inclusive education: The teacher preparation status for inclusive education, teacher perceptions and any progress of their perceptions regarding inclusive teaching during the 30-year inclusive practices, and academic and social outcomes of students with disabilities. When PL 94-142 was enacted in 1975 to address the education of students with disabilities, there was a sudden need to train special education teachers, requiring at least a Bachelor‟s degree with specific training for teaching students with particular disabilities. However, in the mid 1980‟s, when the REI was initiated, which required general education teachers to take more responsibility for educating students with disabilities, there was no national effort to mandate special coursework or certification to prepare general education teacher candidates for their future teaching students with educational deficiencies and behavioral issues. In fact, this study found that by 2014, there has been no mandatory changes of general education teacher preparation programs to address the increasing need for teaching academically and behaviorally diverse students, although the number of these students has been doubled in general education classrooms. The alarming findings are that the majority (77%) of elementary teacher preparation programs in the United States require only one introduction course or none. Preparing to be an effective teacher for inclusive education requires a sound knowledge base along with direct classroom experiences working with students with exceptionalities. Yet, the results of this study showed that only 18% of the 220 NCATE accredited elementary teacher preparation programs in the United States clearly required any special education field hours/credits. Although inclusive education has doubled since the 1980‟s, the preparation of general education teachers to effectively teach in inclusive classrooms has not matched the needs that they will face in their classrooms. There is no evidence that the teacher preparation programs in the United States prepare general education teachers to take the responsibility of teaching ALL students regardless of the nature and severity of disability and educational need. This study also addressed teacher perceptions of teaching in inclusive classrooms, to better understand if their teacher training and/or field experience has helped them to feel confident to manage the wider range of student abilities and needs. Results of the extensive literature review showed that even after 40 years of special education and 30 years with a focus that has increasingly served students with disabilities in general education settings, general education teachers still hold negative and mixed feelings (84%) about teaching in inclusive classrooms. Teachers in the early decades expressed that they did not have sufficient training and resources available to provide effective inclusive education, and most modern studies disclosed that teachers universally face the

same barriers for successful inclusive education. Considering only 23% of teacher preparation programs are requiring more than two special education courses or are offering elementary and special education combined majors and only 30% of these programs require some form of basic field experience, it is not surprising to see 84% of the recent studies (2000s to the present) found that teachers still had negative or mixed feelings about inclusive education. The inadequate training for teaching students with disabilities has been the number one concern of general education teachers. The alarming fact is that from the 1970‟s to 2014, teachers‟ positive perception on inclusive education has stayed below 20%. Yet the feeling of empowerment to teach academic and functional curriculums to students with any academic abilities and learning deficiencies is the most critical factor for successful and efficient inclusive education. Thus, if general education teachers feel too much frustration regarding their effective teaching in inclusive classrooms, positive outcome of inclusive education cannot be expected (Kilanowski-Press, Foote, & Rinaldo, 2010; Muccio, Kidd, White, & Burns, 2014). Educational effectiveness is the result of efficient teaching by highly competent and qualified teachers. With the limitations found in teacher preparation and weak teacher competence and supports regarding inclusion, the results of 82% of the studies on academics and 57% of studies on social outcomes with “no or mixed” gains are not surprising. Considering all these intertwined results, is inclusion the answer? Perhaps the answer is “not yet.” Given the findings on the limitations in teacher training programs to provide a strong background in knowledge and skills for working with students with disabilities, then, could an improvement (suggested by the self-reported data) in training programs nationwide for general education teachers better prepare them to teach the array of abilities of students within their classroom? Limitation of the Study As in all studies, there are a number of limitations the authors must disclose. First, this study was not able to review all teacher preparation programs offered in the United States, specifically those not accredited by NCATE. There may be different requirements in the programs accredited by the different authorities. Second, the results of teacher preparation status may not equally represent all 50 states because nine states had less than four universities/colleges in the NCATE list. Four states had only one university/college, another four states had two universities/colleges, and one state had only three programs in the NCATE list. Third, the information found regarding field experience requirements in the teacher preparation programs was dependent only on course descriptions. Thus, there may be more programs, which require special education field experiences but that information could not be found from online descriptions. Fourth, there was no pre-data available in the early stages of the inclusion movement to compare teacher preparation status. Fifth, the literature used in this study may be limited because only the ERIC database was used. There could be a larger number of studies found by using other search engines as well as by using different key words. Sixth, by limiting this study to information about inclusion in the United States, the study was not able to review as many studies as are

available about the results of inclusive education especially for the academic and social outcomes. Many studies have been published in European countries, which the authors had to exclude from this study. Specifically, very rare studies have been conducted using empirical, experimental, and scientific research methods (standardized instruments), which can be critical for the efficacy testing studies of any particular program or policy, but could not be included in this study using professional literature about U.S. education. As Lindsay (2007) claimed, using more empirical study methods is important to provide a clear endorsement for the positive effects of the efficient inclusion. As a result, the final limitation of this study is that there is a lack of evidence from appropriate studies in the United States to conclude that there are positive social and academic outcomes of inclusive education.

Conclusion The United States has established the expectation that ALL students will learn and have access to a free, appropriate public education. If the goal is to educate ALL students to the highest-level possible, and in the least restrictive environment, inclusion makes sense, but not as it exists presently, which ironically, was already addressed by opponents of rapid inclusion movements almost three decades ago when inclusion was initiated. The research (Caspersen, Smeby, Olaf Aamodt, 2017; McHatton & McCray, 2007; Schumm & Vaughn, 1995) shows that in fact, the success of the academic and social skills for any student is dependent on their teachers‟ strong feelings of empowerment for teaching the curriculum for students of any ability and disability. According to Van Reusen, Shoho, and Barker (2000, p.13), teachers‟ limited learning and training opportunities produce lowered achievement for students, thereby further reinforcing teachers‟ negative attitudes or beliefs about inclusion. Pre-service cross training of general education and special education teachers is vital if inclusion is to be the answer. Thus, it is time to blend the skills of general education teachers who are adept at teaching content with the skills of special educators, who have been trained with specific skillsets to address the learning needs of students with disabilities. Many schools in the nation have already identified this need and are trying to support general education teachers with special education consultants. But even more importantly, it may well be time to cross train general education teachers with special education knowledge and experiences, just as special education teachers are required to have general education teaching certificates. In addition, once teachers are in the field, the practice of co-teaching could bring more confidence and strategies into the successful teaching of all students in inclusive classrooms (DaFonte & Barton-Arwood, 2017; Strongilos, Tragoulia, Avramidis, Voulagka, & Papnikolaou, 2017). This practice is already occurring in many schools in the United States, especially secondary schools, where general and special educators work together in classrooms to address the individual needs of the students. If co-teaching strategies were added to preservice education courses, the skills and feeling of synergy and empowerment that could result from having two teachers plan and execute lessons might result in even greater success for students, both typically-achieving and those with disabilities. General and special education teachers need time to learn these new

strategies and techniques and to keep abreast of new technology as they continue efforts to link the general education teachers‟ knowledge of curriculum with the special education teachers‟ knowledge of methods and materials for diverse learners. Without preparing teaching personnel and pushing full inclusion for all school age students regardless of their ability, disability, personal uniqueness, and individual learning needs, we may be trying to provide „equal‟ educational opportunities, but will also provide „unfair‟ educational quality, resulting in inappropriate education to both groups of students. National special education data collection in the United States shows that teaching students in inclusive classrooms continues to grow as the preferred service delivery model. More research is needed to highlight the strengths and to build accountability into the practice of using this delivery model. This study showed the need for more research in the United States that scientifically measures the academic and social outcomes of inclusive education for students both with and without disabilities and to show what is and is not working in regards to the instruction to help all students to learn. This same type of scientifically-measured research is needed to compare the effectiveness of different inclusion models, the inclusive classroom‟s instructional environment, and behavior management and teacher effectiveness.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 18-26, October 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.10.2

A Cloze-styled Textual Enhancement Targeting Prepositions Michael Heinz Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Seoul, South Korea Abstract. Even at the highest level of bilingual competency for Korean learners of English, prepositions remain a significant challenge. Based on the classroom observation that incidental learning was not significantly improving proficiency with prepositions amongst a group of graduate school interpretation majors, a classroom exercise was executed as form of intervention. The participants in this study demonstrated very high proficiency in both English and Korean although all consider Korean to be their mother tongue. The exercise involved giving ten texts with Clozestyled textual enhancements to 33 students to determine if their proficiency with prepositions could be improved. Students were given a pretest and a post-test before and after the assignments respectively. The results were promising showing an average increase of 5.7% from pretest to post-test. Additional examination of the data showed that students of lower proficiency on average saw a 9.6% increase in scores. Qualitative feedback from students confirmed positive educational experiences and strongly supported the idea that incidental learning is insufficient. Further study is recommended based on the findings in this study. Keywords: Cloze; Text Enhancement; Incidental Learning; EFL; SLA

Introduction For Korean-speaking learners of English, preposition errors tend to persist even at the highest levels of bilingual competency. This can be a great source of frustration for those learners and can lead to a sense of hopelessness. At the highest levels most of these learners have already learned all of the rules related to prepositions and may even be able to execute them accurately on standardized tests. However in speaking tasks preposition errors often appear. Since most of the standard aspects of language learning have been exhausted already students look to find new methods. This study examines a particular teaching method utilized to improve preposition usage for English learners, but we must first look at what prepositions are before we can delve into how teaching them has been approached and how this study contributes.

Unlike other aspects of language that can be somewhat superfluous or based purely on conventional usage, prepositions are grammatical words whose purpose is to help execute the essential grammatical goal of a sentence (Thornbury 2002). Moreover their prevalence is such that they appear in nearly all aspects of speaking and writing (Morenberg, 1997). Form, function and meaning can be used to classify prepositions. In terms of form they may be a simple one-word preposition, or they be contain two or more words making them complex prepositions. Single word prepositions are essentially fixed in the sense that new prepositions cannot be created whereas new complex prepositions are created with some frequency ((Grubic, 2004, cited in De Felice & Pulman, 2008). Prepositions in the English language are considered one of the most challenging grammatical features for L2 learners to master (Kao, 1999). Some have gone so far as to argue that the mastery of prepositions may be the greatest challenge that English learners face (Takahashi, 1969). EFL teachers and learners generally regard prepositions as taxing aspect of learning English due to the inconsistent ways in which they collocate with verbs requiring a considerable amount of memorization (Pittman, 1966). The rules for applying prepositions are not great in number and many prepositions themselves may possess a variety of functions (Swan, 1988). It is against this backdrop that the current study was undertaken. Initially conceived of as a classroom activity to improve L2 learners‟ mastery of prepositions; the data collected from the students revealed some strong patterns which made it worthy of development. The current study examines the effect of using text enhancement in the form of a cloze test assignment utilizing authentic materials to see if students‟ mastery of prepositions could be improved.

Literature Review Much of the impetus for this study began with classroom observations over several years that determined incidental learning to be insufficient in terms of meaningfully impacting mastery of prepositions. The researcher observed that preposition errors (and article errors) amongst students for whom Korean is their mother tongue persisted long after high bilingual capacity had been achieved. This is not surprising since incidental learning through extensive reading interventions has shown improvements mostly in vocabulary ((Brown et al., 2008; Cho and Krashen, 1994; Hayashi, 1999; Pigada and Schmitt, 2006; Rott, 1999; Sheu, 2003). Though some studies have shown some improvement in grammar as well (Sheu, 2003; Tudor and Hafiz, 1989). Overall it has been concluded that while incidental learning is not without merit, it is on the whole a process that is unpredictable and not particularly fast (Hulstijn et al., 1996; Paribakht and Wesche, 1999). As such it has been asserted that input most be attended to with conscious deliberation with a particular need for the subjective experience of noticing to acquire greater linguistic sophistication (Schmidt 1990; Schmidt 1993; Schmidt 1994; Schmidt1995). Studies have established that there is link between learners‟ noticing of forms and successful learning (Robinson 1995; Skehan 1998). That noticing can take on many forms of textual enhancement that draws attention to particular

language structures such as altering text by italicizing it, making it bold, underlining it, color coding it and so on (Cross, 2002). In order for this to be effective it may require a certain amount of frequency for the learner to actively notice the language structuresâ&#x20AC;&#x; unique features (Swain, 1998). Ellis (1997) with his focus on forms asserts that it is perfectly natural to attend to meaning before noticing form. Thus students of a new language are quick to key into content words and to guess based on context at the meaning of an utterance or sentence. Therefore things such as prepositions, articles or conjunction are often unconsciously disregarded initially. However with the help of a qualified L2 teacher, students can be brought to an awareness of these target language forms and in time students will come to grow and enhance their linguistic abilities. Ellis (1997) asserts that this noticing of a grammatical feature is essential to acquire usage of it. Studies based on this assertions have looked at the role of textual enhancement and noticing and found promising results for rule-based linguistic forms (Fotos, 1991; Simard, 2009). Another study found a strong link between article acquisition and textual analysis (Ha, 2017). Two more studies found textual enhancement was helpful in the learning of phrasal verbs (Behzadhian, 2016; Ahmadi & Panahandeh, 2016). Additionally, one study has even looked into the role of textual enhancement and the acquisitions of prepositions with findings that support the usage of such methods (Hassani, Azarnoosh, Naeini, 2015). The current study wanted to see if noticing could be made more explicit and more effective by using textual enhancement that changed large numbers of authentic texts into Cloze tests. The research question being: if such texts were done in repetition many times would student proficiency increase?

Test Subjects 33 students in an interpretation and translation graduate school were identified as having persistent preposition errors despite possessing overall high fluency. None of the students in the present study considered their English to be at a native level. The students are considered to have high level bilingual capacity as the entrance exams for the graduate school seek to single out those abilities specifically. Standardized tests are not relied upon to assess students due to general distrust of their results in East Asia. Instead, students are given four essays to write: two in Korean and two in English. Numbers vary but typically the number of applicants is above 500 students minimally and may go as high as 1,000. Roughly 120 students are singled out based on their essay responses to go through an oral interview. During the interview students are expected to perform basic interpretation skills for English and Korean in both directions without preparation or note taking. The governing principle used to select the roughly 60 students that are selected is bilingual competency. The researcher noted after years of teaching at this graduate school that despite the high bilingual competency possessed by the students, that their greatest number of errors occurred in the area of prepositions and articles. Corrective

feedback whether immediate or delayed seemed not to make much of a difference which led to the formation of more direct approaches to correct these issues.

Methodology The study was undertaken in the form of homework but careful data collection and promising results led to the development of this paper. As such certain flaws in the experimental design are obvious and cloud interpretations of the result but the results themselves do suggest the value of further study. Students were given a pretest, homework and post-test all in the form of Cloze tests drawn up by parsing authentic speeches for some of the most common prepositions. Authentic texts were selected because they are thought to be more effective as teaching tools and tend to be more engaging (Guariento and Morley, 2001; Mishan, 2004) Texts for the pretest, homework, and post-test were all draw from speeches with subject matter that is common to the students such as presidential addresses by then U.S. President Barrack Obama or talks about economics. The texts were parsed using the "replace all" function common to text software. In this case the author wrote a bit of java script to hasten the process but the “replace all” function in software such as Microsoft Word or Google docs would work just as well. The prepositions: “From,” “On,” “With,” “To,” “In,” “By,” “At,” and “For” were selected as being representative of the most commonly occurring prepositions and as the items often misused by the students. Prepositions were replaced in one of two ways. The first stage was to replace prepositions such as "of" or "to" with an empty parenthesis block liking like this: ( ). The second stage employed on the tests and the homework was to parse the texts so that the existence or position of the aforementioned prepositions could not ascertained. Instead student would have to make sense of the sentence and include prepositions wherever they thought they were necessary. The pretest and post-test were identical and consisted of 72 questions in which the position of a missing preposition was indicated and a second text in which 72 prepositions had been removed but their number, and position were not known to the student. Placing a preposition where no preposition should was valued as a loss of a point so it was possible to achieve a negative score on the second half of the pretest or post-test. Two samples are given below to illustrate what the pretest looked like: Section 1 (Missing prepositions‟ positions are indicated) It’s an honor ( ) be back ( ) the American Legion. ( ) the story ( ) your service we see the spirit ( ) America. When your country needed you most, you stepped forward. Section 2 (Missing prepositions‟ are not indicated) And more broadly, the crisis Iraq underscores how we have meet today's evolving terrorist threat. The answer is not send large-scale military deployments that overstretch our military, and lead us occupying countries a long period time, and end up feeding extremism.

After student pretest results were scored and collected, students were given access to a database of speeches parsed in the manner of both sections of the pretest/post-test. Students were given the originals as well and tasked with repetitively taking the Cloze worksheets to the point of mastery. Students were given 10 weeks to work on 10 worksheets at their leisure and were not observed therefore the level of student engagement cannot be accurately measured. However, the students were all graduate school students who tend to show high level study habits and motivation.

Results The average score on the pretest for the 33 participants was 103.5 out of a possible score of 142 (Standard deviation=8.99), which means they displayed an accuracy rate of 72.9% and showed some variance in test score average. The average score on the post-test was 111.6 out of a possible score of 142 (Standard deviation=6.56), which means they displayed an accuracy of 78.6% with a slight reduction in score variance. So the reported increase in proficiency on average was 5.7%. A t-test revealed that the results were statistically significant. Overall the method can be seen as successful with some qualifications. First and foremost there was no control group so the results lack external validity. Moreover, the homework of the students was not monitored and as such the effort put into the process itself cannot be verified when considering all participants. The final concern is that the pretest and the post-test were identical so some of the improvement seen in the data could have resulted from familiarity with the test document, however the students were not shown the correct answers after they took the pretest. When looking at the data a pattern was clear beyond the overall results. Students who scored above 105 (73.9%) on the pretest showed generally no improvement between pretest and post-test or in many cases actually had a reduced score. Conversely students who scored below 105 saw greater improvements in the scores overall. For this low scoring group the pretest average was 97.5 (68.7%) and their average post-test score was 111.3 (78.3%), so overall an increase of 9.6% in terms of proficiency. After the data had been collected and analyzed qualitative feedback was generated in terms of in-depth discussions with the students in which a number of affirming comments were made about the process. Overall students reported learning a lot about prepositions through the process and the general feedback was positive about the learning outcomes. Many said that they broke long term patterns that they had not been aware of previously. Generally students with lower levels of bilingual competency were more positive about the homework. Some students admitted to not taking the homework as seriously as they might have and lamented not having the time to do so. All agreed that it was time consuming process which is one of the definite downsides to this technique. Additionally all students agreed that the text enhancement in which the placement of prepositions is unknown was a much harder task than simply engaging the Cloze-styled text enhancement.

One of the more interesting and encouraging comments was about the text selection. One student was certain that the researcher had selected texts that mirrored the questions on the exams so that we would learn the proper collocations for certain prepositions. Many students agreed with this comment feeling that the texts were selected with some pattern as to preposition usage. It was this comment that led the researcher to move towards publishing this data because absolutely no consideration was given to which prepositions occurred in each homework text. Instead texts were chosen purely on the basis of authenticity and relevance.

Discussion Considering 5.7% increase in proficiency on average or the 9.6% increase seen amongst the less proficient students, either way the results are modest but not insignificant. What is encouraging about these results however comes from the anecdotal experience researcher which is that generally students do not appear to approve in this area of proficiency over time within the program. There may be an extent to which this approach can improve students and it may be that more arduous direct instruction may need to accompany this kind of activity. The comment made by a student regarding the apparent patterns between the homework and the tests that he thought was intentional, may provide some insight into the learning that takes place in this process and seems not to be occurring during incidental learning. The general agreement with that studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; comment suggests that students did not realize that the placement of prepositions and their natural collocations were passing before their eyes all the time. These texts were in no way unusual for them to read or interpret/translate into Korean. These students read as many five such texts every day and dissect them for meaning vigorously. This may be a very strong indicator that incidental learning is wholly insufficient for this particular issue. It is conversely a strong endorsement of textual enhancement and for the notion that learners seek out meaning independent of form. There is a serious question posed by the data that either reveals a need for greater controls in future studies or suggests a learning plateau of some importance. The fact that in general the students who scored lower on the pretest scored considerably higher relative scores on the post-test cannot be properly accounted for. It is entirely possible that students with higher proficiency (though there were no scores on the pretest or post-test above 85%) did not aggressively engage the homework assignments because they did not feel they had much to learn. It could also be that students with high proficiency are somewhat negatively affected by this kind of exercise and it may cause them to overthink their responses in the quest for perfection. An additional possibility is that there was a smaller gap to close for the higher proficiency students so improvements they may have made may need to be interpreted as smaller steps forward given that an overall improvement in scores did occur.

Future Studies This study serves in many ways as a preliminary study for a much more thorough examination of this Cloze-styled text enhancement. A future study is being planned that can examine this technique with a proper control group and an additional group distinction that compares the Cloze-styled text enhancement with and without direct instruction about prepositions. For such a study a number of variables remain to be determined. One of the most significant drawbacks of the current study was the lack of control over student work. By having the students do the work as homework there was no way to determine if they were legitimately repeating exercises to the point of relative mastery. It is entirely likely that some or many students did not engage the texts given to them more than once or twice before moving on. Any future study should find a way to keep the students under observation as they complete assignments. One variable of additional concern is text selection. The current study opted for an authentic text but this comes with a number of drawbacks. First, there was no way to control for the types of prepositions that were in each of texts. Thus it was possible that many of the homework texts did not prepare the students to take the post-test. On other hand student feedback seems to suggest otherwise fairly strongly. Yet with some measure of control or even some editing of an authentic text there such enhancement may better streamline the learning process. Another variable that was left unaccounted for was the differences between learning impact of the two forms of text enhancement used in the study. Students noticed a difference in terms of difficulty but not enough serious discussion occurred about the perceived differences in learning that came from the different textual enhancements. A future study would need to decide if both should be included, or only one, or conversely a third one might be added such as colorcoding prepositions read in a similar text before engaging the other forms of textual enhancement.

Conclusion Overall this pilot study contains a number of imperfections that occurred due to its not having been launched as a study but merely as a classroom activity. The findings are still suggestive of strong possibilities given the ease with which the process can be replicated using any modern form of document software. Much of this classroom activity grew out of the realization that Cloze tests could be created in massive quantities with just a little software-based manipulation of texts. Still a larger and better designed study is needed to determine the significance of many of this studiesâ&#x20AC;&#x; findings.

References Ahmadi, Badri F & Panahandeh, E. (2016). The Role of Input-based and Output-based Language Teaching in Learning English Phrasal Verbs by Upper-intermediate Iranian EFL Learners. Journal of Education and Learning. Vol. 10 (1) pp. 22-33. doi: https://doi.org/10.11591/edulearn.v10i1.2860 Behzadian, Khatareh (2016) The Effect of Input Enhancement and Concordance-based Activities on Iranian EFL Learners' Acquisition and Retention of Phrasal Verbs. Michigan Academician: 2016, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 29-50. doi: https://doi.org/10.7245/0026-2005-44.1.29

Brown R, Waring R, Donkaewbua S (2008) Incidental vocabulary acquisition from reading, reading-while-listening, and listening to stories. Reading in a Foreign Language 20(2): 136–63. Cho KS, Krashen SD (1994) Acquisition of vocabulary from the Sweet Valley Kids series: adult ESL acquisition. Journal of Reading 37(8): 662–67. Cross, J. (2002). Noticing in SLA: Is it a valid concept? TESL-EJ, 6 (3). from: http://www.writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej23/a2.html De Felice, R., & Pulman, S. (2008). Automatic error detection in non-native English. Journal of CALICO, 26(3), 512-528. Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0272263100014479 Fotos, S., & Ellis, R. (1991). Communicating about grammar: A task-based approach. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 605-628. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/3587079 Guariento, W. and J. Morley. 2001. „Text and task authenticity in the EFL classroom‟. ELT Journal 55/4: 347–53. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/55.4.347 Ha, Jong-Bum (2017) Integration of Formal Instruction and Textual Enhancement in the Learning of English Articles. The Joongwon Linguistic Society of Korea, 44, 355377. doi: https://doi.org/10.17002/sil..44.201707.355 Hassani M, Azarnoosh M & Naeini J (2015). The Role of Noticing and Input Enhancement on the Acquisition of English Prepositions. International Journal of Language and Applied Linguistics, 1 (4), 47-52. Hayashi K (1999) Reading strategies and extensive reading in EFL classes. RELC Journal 30(2): 114-32. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/003368829903000207 Hulstijn JH, Hollander M, Greidanus T (1996) Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreignnlanguage students: the influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. The Modern Language Journal 80(3): 327–39. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1996.tb01614.x Kao, C. C. (1999). An Investigation into lexical, grammatical, and semantic errors in English compositions of college students in Taiwan. Fu Hsing Kang Journal, 67, 1-32. Mishan, F. 2004. „Authenticating corpora for language learning: a problem and its resolution‟. ELT Journal 58/3: 219–27. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/58.3.219 Morenberg, M. (1997). Doing grammar (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Paribakht TS, Wesche M (1996) Enhancing vocabulary acquisition through reading: a hierarchy of text-related exercise types. Canadian Modern Language Review 52(2): 155–78. Pigada M, Schmitt N (2006) Vocabulary acquisition from extensive reading: a case study. Reading in a Foreign Language 18(1): 1–28. Pittman, G. A. (1966). Activating the use of prepositions. London: Longman. Robinson, P. (1995). Attention, memory, and the “noticing” hypothesis. Language Learning, 45, 283-331. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1995.tb00441.x

Rott S (1999) The effect of exposure frequency on intermediate language learners‟ incidental vocabulary acquisition and retention through reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 21(04): 589–619. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0272263199004039 Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 12958. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/11.2.129 Schmidt, R. (1994). Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied linguistics. In J. Hulstiyn and R, Schmidt (eds): Consciousness in Second Language Learning. AILA Review, 11, 11-26. Schmidt, R. (1995). Consciousness and foreign language learning: A tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 1-63). Hawai‟i: Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center. Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sheu SPH (2003) Extensive reading with EFL learners at beginning level. TESL Reporter 36: 8–26. Simard, D. (2009). Differential effects of textual enhancement formats on intake, System, 37, 124-135. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2008.06.005 Swain, M. (1998). Focus on form through conscious reflection. In C. Doughty, & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 6481). New York: Cambridge University Press. Takahaski, G. (1969). Perception of space and the function of certain English prepositions. Language Learning. 19, 217-234. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/s0272263100281059 Thornbury, S. (2002). How to teach vocabulary. Essex: Longman. Tudor I, Hafiz F (1989) Extensive reading as a means of input to L2 learning. Journal of Research in Reading 12(2): 164–78. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14679817.1989.tb00164.x

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 27-40, October 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.10.3

Understanding and Responding to the Unique Needs and Challenges Facing Adjunct Faculty: A Longitudinal Study Kimberly Buch, Heather McCullough and Laura Tamberelli University of North Carolina Charlotte

Abstract. This study reports the results of a longitudinal study of adjunct faculty at a large research-intensive institution. A needs assessment found that adjunct faculty felt isolated and disconnected from their departments and colleagues, and reported a lack of formal and informal supports needed for success in their instructional roles. These findings guided the development and campus-wide implementation of adjunct-specific programming and resources. A program evaluation found improvements in adjunct faculty perceptions of support as well as directions for future programming and development opportunities. Keywords: non-tenure-track faculty; adjunct professors; professional development; part-time instructors.

Introduction Non-tenure-track faculty are the largest and fastest growing segment of the American professoriate. Recent data (Kezar & Maxey, 2014) indicate that over 70% of all faculty across 2- and 4-year institutions work off the tenure track, a trend that has been on the rise for the past two decades. Non-tenure-track faculty also tend to carry heavier teaching loads and teach larger course sections than tenure-track faculty (AAUP, 2013). Clearly, this â&#x20AC;&#x153;new faculty majorityâ&#x20AC;? (Kezar & Sam, 2010) is impacting a growing percentage of American college students. This reality raises many important questions in need of exploration: Who are non-tenure-track faculty? What are their unique needs and challenges? What types of targeted resources and professional development opportunities are most responsive to these needs and challenges? How do adjunct faculty respond to institutional efforts to deliver targeted resources and programming? We attempted to address these questions with a three-year study of adjunct faculty at a large, research-intensive public university.

Who are Non-Tenure-Track Faculty? This diverse group of faculty presents definitional challenges as researchers have counted over 50 terms used to describe them (Kezar & Sam, 2010). The American Association of University professors (AAUP) uses the term “contingent faculty” because it signals the tenuous, contractual relationship between these faculty and their academic institutions, while the American Society for Higher Education (ASHE) prefers the term non-tenure track (Kezar & Maxey, 2014). Both terms (contingent and non-tenure track) are widely accepted umbrella terms that include part- and fulltime faculty who are appointed off the tenure track, ranging from adjuncts (typically part-time and compensated on a per-course basis) to lecturers (typically full-time and paid a salary). Both the AAUP and ASHE argue that it is important for researchers and practitioners to be aware of and acknowledge the heterogeneity within this group of faculty (Kezar & Maxey, 2014). Of the dimensions on which non-tenure-track faculty differ, perhaps that with the greatest bearing on their professional development needs is the part-time vs. full-time dimension. First, part-time (here referred to as adjunct) faculty are the fastest growing segment of the professoriate, and constitute an estimated 51.2% of instructional faculty in American higher education (Kezar & Maxey, 2014). Sheer numbers will require institutions to leverage the strengths and manage the challenges of this large and rapidly growing group of faculty. Thus, this study focused exclusively on part-time adjunct faculty and intentionally excluded fulltime lecturers, even though the latter are non-tenure-track faculty whose jobs also differ significantly from traditional tenure-track faculty. What are the Unique Challenges and Professional Needs of Adjunct Faculty? Although there is a relative paucity of research examining adjunct faculty, there is much anecdotal evidence that adjunct faculty face challenges unique to their part-time status. One challenge is a general lack of understanding about adjunct faculty—e.g., it is widely assumed that adjunct faculty work part-time completely by choice and that they often have other employment (and benefits!) outside of the university. However, many adjunct faculty are working part-time because they cannot obtain a full-time teaching position (Kezar & Maxey, 2014), and the majority of part-time adjunct faculty do not have professional careers outside of academe (AAUP, 2013). This exacerbates the problems inherent in their place at the bottom of the “multi-tier academic labor structure” (AAUP, 2013). This multi-tiered system that is increasingly bottom-heavy, is clearly inequitable in terms of salary, benefits, and job security. The median pay per course for adjunct faculty is $2,700 (Kingkade, 2013), and part-time faculty are estimated to make 65% less than full-time faculty for the same work (Levin & Hernandez, 2014). They face working conditions that often differ dramatically from those of full-time faculty, including fewer instructional resources, less institutional support, limited interaction with colleagues, and little input into faculty governance (Buch & McCullough, 2016; Kezar, 2012; Levin & Hernandez, 2014). Based on the above, it is not surprising that adjunct faculty are much more likely than full-time faculty to experience feelings of isolation, lack of connectedness to

the academic community, and perceptions of marginalization (e.g., Buch & McCullough, 2016; Fagan-Wilen, Springer, Ambrosino, & White, 2007; Forbes, Hickey, White, 2010; Levin & Hernandez, 2014; Webb, Wong, & Hubball, 2013). Other researchers have noted the relationship between these experiences of isolation and the job satisfaction and turnover rates among part-time faculty (e.g., Hoyt, 2012; Meixner & Kruck, 2010). It seems clear that these realities have important implications, including concerns about workplace fairness and equity and threats to the instructional mission of post-secondary institutions—after all “faculty working conditions are student learning conditions” (New Faculty Majority, 2015). Given the changing state of the professoriate, and its tremendous implications for higher education, increased attention to adjunct faculty is urgently needed (Kezar & Sam, 2010; Levin & Hernandez, 2014).

Methods Phase 1: Needs Assessment. This study took place at a large, public researchintensive institution and was initiated by faculty and staff in The Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL). The study emerged from an effort to better understand the needs of the adjunct faculty so that institutional supports and professional development opportunities could be developed in direct response to these needs. As described above, the faculty population of interest was the group most typically referred to in the literature as “adjunct faculty,” which we define as non-tenure-track faculty working part-time and compensated on a percourse basis. Although adjunct faculty at this institution can and do participate in all instructional and professional development opportunities provided by the CTL, we wanted to ensure programming and support that was aligned with the unique needs of adjunct faculty. Data obtained from the Office of Institutional Research at the beginning of the study indicated there were 398 adjunct faculty (approximately one-third of all faculty), who together taught 26,992 students in 730 courses, for a total of 2,094 course-hours. A brief electronic survey was developed by the researchers and sent via university email to 390 adjunct faculty. The survey contained five openended questions asking about major challenges facing adjunct faculty; types of professional support provided them in their adjunct role; awareness of professional development support available from the CTL; types of additional support/resources/ programming they would find beneficial; and factors that would encourage them to participate in professional development opportunities. Responses were received from 98 faculty, a 25% response rate. A qualitative analysis of responses identified a gap between current levels of support received and desired levels of support, as well as suggestions for closing this gap based on the reported realities and challenges of adjunct faculty. Specifically, results indicated that fewer than 10% of respondents were satisfied with the level of support they received from the institution. Approximately 25% indicated they received no support from their academic departments, or support only when they seek it out or ask for assistance. Of the 75% reporting they receive professional support, the type of support varied. The major form of support reported was administrative (secretarial, office space and supplies,

email access, etc.); for many, this was the only type of support received. Fewer than a quarter of respondents reported some type of pedagogical/ instructional support from their units (e.g., shared syllabi, teaching plans and ideas, advice and teaching suggestions, drop-in consultations, feedback on teaching materials, etc.). The majority of reported support was informal (ad hoc, on request), with fewer than 25% participating in formal support from administrators, peers, or mentors. Sources of support varied, with about 10% provided by department chairs; another 10% reported support from colleagues, and a smaller percentage reported support from a mentor or “lead instructor.” Another line of questioning asked about the instructional and professional development opportunities offered by the CTL. Over one third of respondents had not participated in any resources or programming by the CTL. Over one third of respondents had participated in one or more technology workshops (e.g., Moodle, Mahara, Clickers) conducted by the CTL; almost that many reported use of the online CTL teaching tutorials and guides. These findings are consistent with the literature in several ways. Studies consistently reveal a gap between the desire of non-tenure-track faculty to participate in professional development activities and the institutional provision of opportunities to do so (Fagan-Wilen, Springer, Ambrosino, & White, 2006; Gappa & Leslie, 1993; Hoyt, 2012; Kezar & Sam, 2010). The next open-ended question asked respondents to identify specific types of supports not received which they would find most beneficial. Again, the responses varied greatly but two major themes emerged from content analysis: pedagogical/instructional support and basic orientation support. Almost 40% of comments were related to teaching and pedagogy, ranging from use of the LMS (learning management system) to attendance policies, to pedagogical strategies, to online teaching, to classroom management. The other theme pertained to more basic, “onboarding” types of supports, such as accessing campus resources, policies and procedures, human resources, parking, textbook adoptions, etc. Both of these themes would be instrumental in the design of our adjunct initiatives, as described in stage 2 below. The needs assessment also asked faculty to report (via write-in format) the major challenges they face as adjunct faculty. While a wide range of challenges were reported, the overwhelming theme to emerge from content analysis was a sense of isolation and disconnectedness from their departments and colleagues. Comments related to this theme were reported by almost a third of respondents (32%). The following quotes are illustrative of this theme:  “I have little contact with my department.”  “It requires a lot of extra effort to stay connected with colleagues.”  “It is entirely an independent enterprise.”  “Lack of interaction between adjunct and full-time faculty.”  “Being an island. Being unaware of the larger picture.”  “Isolation.”  “No real support.”

 

“Feeling marginalized and excluded.” “You constantly feel on the run and out of the loop.”

The next most frequently reported challenge loaded on the theme of “lack of training or orientation,” which was mentioned by 24% of respondents, followed by juggling multiple job demands (9%); poor pay and benefits (5%); lack of contracts (4%); lack of space (4%); and cost of parking (3%). Only 11% of respondents either left the item blank or wrote in that they currently faced no challenges. (See Table 4 below for a comparison of challenges reported in the needs assessment and how they changed in the post-survey.) Another line of questioning in the needs assessment asked respondents what would encourage them to participate in the support and development opportunities that currently are or will be offered in the future. This was important because the literature suggests that participation rates in development opportunities and institutional supports among part-time faculty are modest, ranging from 48% to 56% to 63% (Hoyt, 2012). As shown in Table 1, the following themes emerged from responses to this question: 1) timing of offerings; 2) incentives to participate; 3) awareness of offerings; 4) format of offerings; and 5) usefulness of offerings. Clearly, the first of these is a simple matter of better communication among units, the CTL, and adjuncts. The others are more important as considerations in program design, and contributed greatly to our programming and design decisions, as described below. Table 1. Needs Assessment: Thematic Results and Direct Quotes of Respondents What Would Encourage you to Participate in Professional Development Opportunities?

Timing of Offerings “Evenings; Afternoons; Early mornings; Multiple repeat offerings to accommodate diverse schedules;” Incentives to Participate “Payment/stipend; Recognition by department; Certificates of Achievement; Make it worth my time; Not having to pay for parking to attend; Some kind of monetary incentive; Current pay level not sufficient to invest more time” Awareness of Offerings “Access to a training schedule at the start of the semester; Better advertising of opportunities and recurring each semester; A monthly calendar; Knowing about opportunities in advance; Overview of opportunities and timely notice; Reminders” Usefulness of Offerings “Anything that would benefit my students; Knowing they will positively affect my students’ learning; Relevant topics; The promise of practical training and classroom-ready methods; Meaningful and directly aligned to what I teach; A course specifically designed for adjuncts” Format of Offerings “Digital; Online; Remote Access; Face-to-face if opportunity to meet other adjuncts”

Phase 2: Institutional Response to Adjunct Needs. The needs assessment provided a wealth of information for designing targeted adjunct resources and programming. First, findings on the types and sources of support—both received and desired—identified a strong need for institutional-wide, formal supports in two major areas: a general adjunct orientation and instructional/pedagogical support. Findings about the high level of isolation and disconnectedness suggested a strong need for some type of face-to-face programming or opportunities for adjunct interactions, yet scheduling challenges suggested a concurrent need for online, on-demand offerings. Findings also suggested that adjunct faculty need to be compensated for their time investments in professional development activities. In response to the needs assessment results, the university developed a range of support and development opportunities for adjunct faculty. In designing professional development opportunities and resources to be responsive to these findings, we also tried to be cognizant of the heterogeneity of the adjunct community, as recommended by Kezar and Maxey (2014) and others. Each of the initiatives designed and implemented by the institution within a year of the needs assessment is described below. 1. “Adjuncts-Only” online resources. In the absence of any centralized orientation for new adjuncts, and with a quarter of adjuncts reporting they receive no support from the departments that hire them, there was a clear need for a university-wide welcome and orientation program for new hires. Adjuncts’ preference for on-demand resources and timely, targeted and relevant information provision confirmed beliefs that the program should be developed and delivered via the University’s learning management system (LMS) at the time, Moodle 2. Another advantage of this design choice was to provide adjuncts the opportunity to see the LMS from the perspective of their future students. The goal of the orientation was to welcome new adjunct faculty to the institution and to equip (new and returning) adjunct faculty with the information needed to be successful instructors and satisfied employees. It was designed just as one of their courses may be: introduction, lessons with additional materials, and quizzes. The lessons built upon each other chronologically from becoming an adjunct through course design and professional development, as follows: 1) Getting Started; 2) Policies & Guidelines; 3) Classroom Guidance; 4) Campus Resources. Beginning with a welcome from the Provost, the self-guided modules can be completed in order or as needed by each user. Completion of the modules is optional but the goal is for each new hire to be directed to the program by their hiring unit and encouraged to use it as a getting-started guide and as a departure point for seeking additional information. The online orientation went live to all adjuncts (new and returning) in June 2015. From June 2015 through August 2016, the orientation was hosted exclusively in Moodle 2 and was accessed by 274 faculty members. During Summer 2016, the University rolled out a new LMS (Canvas) and adjunct orientation went live in Canvas by the beginning of that academic year. During the first semester in use,

it was accessed by over 205 faculty, had greater than 5,000 pages views, and over 130 quiz submissions. Our second online adjunct resource to follow the needs assessment was an adjunct website (adjunct.uncc.edu), designed as a “one-stop shop” for adjunct faculty. This website contains much of the same content as the orientation but is designed with quick reference in mind. As a public-facing website, it provides general information to prospective adjunct faculty in addition to existing ones. Usage data collected for a one-year period after launching indicate the website was viewed 2,847 times from unique IP addresses. Each visit consisted of an average of 2 clicks per visit. More user data about these new online resources was obtained from our post-survey of adjuncts and is reported in Phase 3, below. 2. Adjunct-specific professional development programming. In response to the needs assessment theme of “isolation and disconnectedness,” we felt it important to supplement the online resources with face-to-face programming exclusively for adjunct faculty. We chose faculty learning communities (FLCs) as a vehicle for building adjunct community because of their flexibility and proven track record in the faculty development literature. Cox (2004) defines a Faculty Learning Community (FLC) as a form of professional development that brings together cross-disciplinary groups of professors to engage over a period of time in an active and collaborative program focused on building a sense of community and enhancing teaching and learning. Faculty Learning Communities have become a popular method for improving teaching and learning as well as for promoting the professional success of faculty at all levels (e.g., Herrelko, 2016). Cox identified two basic forms of FLCs—cohort-based and topic-based. A cohort-based FLC consists of a group of faculty who share a common characteristic, need, challenge, or goal, and is more likely to be sustained over time and to focus on developmental needs of its members. Thirty years of studies offer definitive evidence supporting the use of cohort-based FLCs to promote the success of tenure-track professors (Cox, 2013) and more limited research has shown promising potential of FLCs with adjunct faculty (Buch & McCullough, 2016; Lambert & Cox, 2007). The first adjunct FLC cohort was implemented at the beginning of the academic year following the adjunct needs assessment with 15 diverse faculty members who received a modest stipend for their participation. Since then, the program has evolved from a year-long to a semester-long program and has served 84 adjunct faculty. FLC program popularity has been so great that we have gone from one to two concurrent cohorts per semester, each consisting of 15 adjuncts facilitated by a separate CTL staff member. FLC members are selected through an application process on a first-serve basis, and every semester each FLC fills quickly and we have a wait-list. Each FLC session consists of two parts, each designed in direct response to needs assessment findings. The first half of each session is for community-building and consists of facilitated discussions about topics of relevance to adjuncts at our institution. The second half responds to the expressed need for more pedagogical/instructional support, and consists of

a choice of two teaching workshops delivered by CTL faculty or staff. In a pilot program evaluation, FLC participants reported positive effects on teaching effectiveness and professional satisfaction (Buch & McCullough, 2016). Our inability to meet the demand for the FLC program led to our second face-toface program, a book club for adjuncts. Faculty who applied for but were unable to be accommodated in the FLC were encouraged to attend the book club, which was held at the same time on Friday mornings once a month during the academic year. The first book club book was the same one used by the first FLC cohort (Grieve & Lesko, 2011) and all adjunct faculty were invited to attend on a drop-in basis (in contrast to the monthly commitment required of FLC participants). The book club was facilitated by a former CTL faculty fellow and university teaching award winner. Marketing for the club included direct emails to all adjunct faculty and digital signage in prominent places on campus. During the first academic year, attendance averaged 5-10 adjuncts per session, and this declined during its second year. We did not offer a book club exclusively for adjuncts this past semester, but instead encouraged adjuncts to participate in one of the book clubs offered by CTL to the entire faculty and staff. Our post-survey, as reported below, indicates that this was our least utilized adjunct initiative but anecdotal evidence suggests that adjunct faculty participate in the full-faculty book clubs at rates higher than tenure-track faculty. Phase 3: Adjunct Post-Survey. A follow-up survey was sent to all adjunct faculty members 5 semesters (2.5 academic years) after the needs assessment reported in Phase 1 above. The survey was completed by 111 of the 319 adjunct faculty employed at the time of the survey, a 35% response rate. Both the pre and postsurveys were completely anonymous and the adjunct population had of course changed, so there was no way to match respondents on the two surveys. The survey methodology was the same as the first survey, but most survey items were changed from an open-ended format to a check-list format consisting of responses obtained from the first survey. Item 1 listed the four adjunct initiatives (described in Phase 2 above) by name and asked respondents to check all they were “aware of” and a second item asked them to check all they had “participated in or utilized.” The next two items listed 11 specific types of support (formal and informal) reported by adjuncts in the needs assessment survey and asked respondents to check all that they “Do/Did” receive in their adjunct role (see Table 3 for list of supports). There was a twelfth option stating “NONE—I did not receive any type of formal or informal supports” as well as a space to write in additional (unlisted) supports they may have received. A fourth item provided the same list of supports and a space to write in additional ones that they “did not receive but would find beneficial” in their adjunct role. Item 5 was an open-ended question asking for “major challenges facing adjunct in your unit.” The final open-ended item solicited additional “input toward the goal of adjunct support and development.”

Results The first four items were tabulated as percentages and are reported in Tables 2 and 3. Results revealed that both awareness levels and participation rates among adjuncts are encouraging: 62% of respondents have utilized or participated in at least one adjunct initiative and many of these have participated in more than one program. The most popular program is the FLC, which almost a third have participated in. Almost half of respondents have utilized at least one of our online resources. This number may not reflect true usage rates for our target audience (new adjuncts) since our respondents may disproportionately represent more seasoned faculty who no longer have a need for an orientation and may have fewer questions that can be answered on the website. Less encouraging is that about a quarter of respondents were not aware of any of our new initiatives, indicating that we may need to step up our marketing efforts. There was a relatively small gap between awareness of and participation in the FLC (44% aware and 31% participated), suggesting that faculty who know about it are likely to participate in it (written comments indicated that several had applied but had not yet been accepted). Table 2. Post-Survey Responses to Adjunct Initiatives Aware of Participated Initiative/ in/ Utilized Resource Adjuncts Website 32 23 Online Orientation 41 24 Faculty Learning Community (FLC) Book Club for Adjuncts

None

Table 3 identifies the types of “formal and informal supports” received by respondents, as well as those not received that they would find beneficial. The most compelling finding is that only one respondent (.9%) reported NO support, a huge improvement over the 25% reporting an absence of support in the needs assessment. Another change from pre to post-survey is the types of supports most frequently received; in the pre-survey the most common was administrative support while in the post-survey more received instructional support than administrative support. This finding reflected intentional efforts to center all adjunct initiatives around their core work activity—teaching. The only other types of support received by more than half of respondents in the postsurvey were: 1) receipt of communications, 2) administrative support, and 3) contact with colleagues and opportunities to collaborate. Direct comparisons of the two surveys cannot be made because the pre-survey solicited this information with open responses while the post-survey listed items identified in the pre-survey and could more easily be quantified.

Table 3. Post-Survey Responses to Formal and Informal Supports Received

Not received but beneficial

Administrative Support (typing, copies, etc.)

Adjunct Orientation

Instructional Support (course syllabi, advice, etc.)

Communications (on events and opportunities) Formal Mentoring

57 22

10 26

Inclusion in unit business/ operations Inclusion in instructional decision making

31 21

15 20

Contact with colleagues and collaboration opportunities Referrals to useful resources/opportunities on campus

Professional development by college/department

Professional development by CTL (Center for Teaching & Learning) Other (write in) Peer Teaching Observation and Feedback Opportunity to observe others teaching

Graduate Assistants

Post-survey responses reveal that over a third of respondents did not check any items as “beneficial but not received,” which, when taken with the write-in comments to the last open-ended item, may indicate satisfaction with available adjunct supports (see Table 5 for item 5 response summary). Of the listed supports, those endorsed the most as “beneficial but not received” include (in order of frequency): formal mentoring, contact with colleagues and opportunities to collaborate, referrals to useful resources, and professional development by college/department. Clearly, given the many adjuncts reporting receipt of these same supports, it can be extrapolated that delivery of these supports varies across units and that some units are better at referrals and collaboration than others. Two colleges have formal mentoring programs and professional development for adjuncts and these results suggest that adjunct faculty from the other five colleges would benefit from similar programs. Of the write-in supports ranked as not received but beneficial, peer observation of teaching was listed the most frequently. The open-ended item asking adjuncts to list the major challenges they face in their adjunct role were content analyzed and revealed the following themes, in order of endorsements: 1) no challenges listed, or “none” reported; 2) poor pay and benefits; 3) isolation and disconnectedness; 4) lack of job security; and 5) lack of on-campus space to work and meet with students. Table 4 shows these challenges and how they differ from those reported in the needs assessment. Most notably is the sharp decline in adjuncts reporting a sense of isolation—

dropping from 32 % to 7%. Another notable decline is the percentage of adjuncts either not reporting any challenges or reporting “none,” dropping from 11% to 33%. Other challenges showed little change from pre to post-surveys, although the frequency of these was relatively low. Table 4. Major Challenges Facing Adjuncts: Pre and Post Surveys Themes

Pre

Post

No challenges faced

11%

Isolation and Disconnectedness

32%

33% 7%

Poor Pay and Benefits

10%

12%

Lack of Job Security

5. Lack of Campus Space to Work and Meet with Students

The final post-survey item asking respondents for open-ended “input toward our goal of adjunct support and development” were content analyzed and themes are reported in Table 5. One encouraging theme was that many adjuncts reported satisfaction with current levels of support and appreciation for the new adjunct-specific initiatives. Two additional themes (see Table 5) reflected adjuncts’ desire for a continuation and expansion of formal adjunct-specific programming, as well as the provision of more informal campus-wide adjunct supports, including a forum for adjuncts to communicate with each other, more opportunities to meet and interact with other adjuncts, centrally-shared dedicated work/ meeting space for adjuncts, and a one-day adjunct conference, perhaps including adjuncts form other area institutions. A final theme was labeled “structural changes to adjunct faculty role” which was comprised of issues also mentioned in Table 4, such as poor pay and the lack of benefits and yearly contracts. The low percentages of respondents mentioning structural issues like these in either survey is likely related to the purpose and source of the surveys. Both surveys were sent from the CTL, and both were clearly focused on soliciting input about professional development rather than structural issues. Overall, results of our longitudinal study provided strong support for the success of our institution’s adjunct-specific resources and professional development programming, and also identified new opportunities to improve institutional support for adjunct faculty. Table 5. Post-Survey Write-in Comments: What other input do you have toward our goal of adjunct support and development?

Themes and Illustrative Quotes 1. Satisfied with Current Support “I am satisfied with the support I receive” “I participated in the adjunct FLC and found it extremely beneficial” “I am supported and valued by my department” “I am very happy with what’s offered” 2. More Formal Adjunct-specific Programming

“More online opportunities through CTL” “Summer Canvas (LMS) course for adjuncts” “More professional development geared specifically to adjuncts” “Ability to take existing courses online/ virtually” 3. Informal Campus-wide Adjunct Support “Forum for adjuncts to communicate with each other” “Monthly meetings with other adjuncts” “Social events/ opportunities to meet other adjuncts” “Brown-bag lunches for adjuncts” 4. Structural Changes to Adjunct Faculty Role “Need yearly contracts” “Living wage” “Health Benefits” “Transition assistance to full-time roles”

Discussion We began this paper with several important questions about adjunct faculty that our findings have helped elucidate. Can targeted resources and professional development opportunities meet the unique needs and challenges of adjunct faculty? How do adjunct faculty respond to institutional efforts to deliver targeted resources and programming? Our needs assessment found that adjunct-specific online resources and face-to-face programming were desired by adjuncts and our post-survey found that these offerings were widely embraced, with about two-thirds of responding adjuncts utilizing or participating in at least one. Our study also found that increased attention to the unique needs of adjunct faculty can enhance adjunct faculty’s perceptions of their level of institutional support, both formal and informal. We also observed that the provision of targeted resources and programming in direct response to adjuncts’ voiced needs can alleviate major challenges such as feelings of isolation and disconnectedness. There are some clear implications of this study for our own as well as for other institutions. First, as reported in the literature (e.g., Forbes, Hickey, & White, 2010; Kezar, 2012; Meixner & Kruck, 2010) and discussed above, adjunct faculty are different from full-time faculty and have unique needs and challenges. Institutions should respond with tailored professional development opportunities, targeted resources, and a range of formal and informal supports. While there are some cross-institutional trends in needs and challenges—both professional development and structural—each campus should begin with its own needs assessment which should drive all subsequent adjunct initiatives. Once adjunct initiatives have been implemented, it is important to track both awareness and participation levels and to continue to monitor changing adjunct needs and perceptions. We are already using our data to make changes to existing resources and programs and to identify directions for future programming. For instance, this study identified several promising directions for future programming and support, including an expansion of the peer observation program that is currently isolated in one college, as well as the

provision of more unit-specific (department or college) professional development opportunities to supplement the institutional initiatives reported here. Respondents in the post-survey made some suggestions for innovative adjunct support that we in the CTL had never even considered, such as the adjunct-specific conference and the shared adjunct commons. Other suggestions reinforced some ideas we had been discussing, such as professional development credits (e.g. badges), prize drawings, or other tangible incentives for participation besides stipends. Our findings also identified ways to improve the assessment process itself in order to better understand which specific groups of adjunct faculty we are serving and which are not being reached, and why— which in turn will allow us to refine and improve our initiatives. While our findings offered support for our research-guided approach to supporting adjunct faculty, it is important to acknowledge that our successes are limited and that there is still much work to do. In spite of serious campus-wide communication efforts during the past five semesters, a quarter of adjuncts responding to our post-survey were unaware of any adjunct-specific resources or opportunities. And even though we tried to incorporate adjuncts’ input from the needs assessment in our design and delivery, we still have not reached over a third of responding adjuncts with any of our initiatives. Finally, our professional development initiatives have not—and cannot—address some of the major issues and challenges facing adjunct faculty on our campus and across the nation. These are structural issues of inequity in pay, benefits, upward mobility, and job insecurity for adjunct faculty in relation to tenure-track faculty. Not only is it an ethical imperative to begin a dialogue around these difficult inequities, it is also vital to the instructional mission of the university for many reasons. First, as already stated, faculty working conditions are student learning conditions, and student learning is clearly impacted when faculty are not provided with the support and resources needed to be effective teachers. Second, adjunct faculty have been shown to be dedicated, competent, hardworking professionals committed to the success of their students and eager for community with their colleagues (e.g., Kezar & Sam, 2010; Webb, Wong, & Hubball, 2013). Failure to provide working conditions that will retain this workforce can lead to higher rates of turnover in an increasingly tight labor market (Flaherty, 2017). Inviting open dialogue about structural inequities can also help build a climate of trust and collaboration for adjunct faculty while raising awareness among tenure-track faculty, many of whom are unaware of the implications of a two-tier faculty system for adjunct faculty or students. Finally, those involved in centers for teaching and learning, faculty mentoring programs, and other forms of faculty development and support must realize that failure to acknowledge and confront structural issues can undermine or negate even the most well-intentioned and effective professional development initiatives.

References AAUP (American Association of University Professors, (2013), Contingent Appointments and the Academic Profession. Retrieved from http://www.aaup.org/report Buch, K., & McCullough, H. (2016). Addressing the needs of adjunct faculty with a cohort-based faculty learning community. Learning Communities Journal, 8(1), 3550. Cox, M. D. (2004). Introduction to faculty learning communities. In M. D. Cox & L. Richlin (Eds.), Building faculty learning communities (pp. 5-23). New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 97. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cox, M. D. (2013). The impact of communities of practice in support of early-career academics. International Journal for Academic Development, 18(1), 18-30. doi: 10.1080/1360144X.2011.599600 Fagan-Wilen, R., Springer, D. W., Ambrosino, B., & White, B. W. (2007). The support of adjunct faculty: An academic imperative. Social Work Education, 25, 1, 39-51. doi: 10.1080/02615470500477870 Flaherty, C. (2017). Youngstown State adjuncts celebrate 25 years without a raise. Inside Higher Ed, February 22, 2017.Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/20137 Forbes, M. O., Hickey, M. T., & White, J. (2010). Adjunct faculty development: Reported needs and innovative solutions. Journal of Professional Nursing, 26(2), 116-124. Doi: 10.1016/j.profnurs.2009.08.001 Gappa, J. M., & Leslie, D. W., (1993). The invisible faculty: Improving the status of part-time faculty in higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Grieve, D., & Lesko, P. (2011). A handbook for adjunct/ part-time faculty and teachers of adults (7th Edition). Ann-Arbor, MI: The Part-Time Press. Herrelko, J. M. (2016). How learning community guidelines impacted a mathematics professional learning community. International Journal of Learning, Teaching, and Educational Research,15, 11, 111-127. Hoyt, J. E. (2012). Predicting the satisfaction and loyalty of adjunct faculty. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 60(3), 132-142. doi:10.1080/07377363.2013.722417 Kezar, A. (2012). Spanning the great divide between tenure-track and non-tenure-track faculty. Change, http://www.change.org/se/util/display Kezar, A. & Sam, C. (2010). Special Issue: Non-tenure-track faculty in higher education: Theories and Tensions. ASHE Higher Education Report, 36, 5, 1-91. Kezar, A., & Maxey, D. (2014). Troubling ethical lapses: The treatment of contingent faculty. Change, July/August, 34-37. Doi: 10.1080/00091381.2014.925761 Kingkade, T. (2013). Faculty pay survey shows growing gap between public, private colleges. The Huffington Post, 4/8/2013. Lambert, H. E., & Cox, M. D. (2007). The two-year effort to build a program that provides part-time faculty pedagogical support, community, and a sense of mission. In R. E. Lyons (Ed.), Best practices for supporting adjunct faculty. Bolton, MA: Anker. Levin, J.S. & Hernandez, V.M. (2014). Divided identity: Part-time faculty in public colleges and universities. The Review of Higher Education, 37, 4, 531-557. doi: 10.1353/rhe.2014.0033. Meixner, C. & Kruck, S.E. (2010). Inclusion of part-time faculty for the benefit of faculty and students. College Teaching, 58, 141-147. doi:10.1080/87567555.2010.484032 New Faculty Majority (2015). Retrieved from http://www.newfacultymajority.info/equity/ Webb, A. S., Wong, T. J., & Hubball, H.T. (2013). Professional development for adjunct teaching faculty in a research-intensive university: Engaging in scholarly approaches to teaching and learning. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 25(2), 231-238.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 41-57, October 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.10.4

“Being together in the locker room is great, but showering together – just forget it!” The Janus Face of the Wardrobe Practice in Physical Education Bjørn Tore Johansen, PhD, Martine Mæhle, MSc, Øyvind Oland, MSc, and Tommy Haugen, PhD University of Agder Kristiansand, Norway Abstract. The aim of this study is to examine the wardrobe context among students in physical education (PE) in lower secondary school and describe their various experiences of the atmosphere in the locker room and their showering habits. 16 semi structured in-depth interviews with eight boys and eight girls, all aged 15, in the 10th grade (third and final year of lower secondary school) were conducted to grasp some of the ongoing interactions between students and the context of the wardrobe practice before and after PE lessons. The planning of the interviews is grounded in a variety of topics such as the class environment, the influence of teacher behavior, selfevaluation, and the role of social media. Four main categories emerged when describing the students’ various experiences of the wardrobe practice in PE; 1) Friendship, 2) Physical Facilities, 3) Digital Life and 4) Shyness. Overall, the students feel comfortable as well as motivated for participation in the PE lessons and the atmosphere in the wardrobe seems to play a vital part. However, students may be exposed to an unhealthy body image through their fellow students, the role of social media, and the society’s view of what is an ideal body. The results may suggest that in general puberty and the major bodily changes occurring in this age create unpleasantness and shyness of being exposed to other students previously unknown to them. Habitually, most of the girls choose not to shower while exposed to fellow female students after ended PE session while the boys who are showering do it in their underwear. Keywords: Wardrobe practice; comradeship; puberty; shyness; showering habits

Introduction There are reasons to believe that students perceive the context of the wardrobe practice differently, and O'Donovan, Sandfjord, and Kirk (2015) argue that the wardrobe in physical education (PE) is perceived as a value-laden place where physical closeness to others can facilitate a process of comparison, monitoring, and self-regulation which may lead students to develop barriers for undressing and showering. Moreover, the mandatory practice of showering after PE lessons is long gone, and today the teacher, at least in Norway, has no further opportunity to decide whether the students should shower or not after PE lessons. Routine showering at school after PE seems to be relatively rare and may be causally related to lower physical activity levels and cardiorespiratory fitness, especially among girls (Sandercock, Ogunleye, & Voss, 2014). In a study of English students Sandercock et al. (2014) documented that 53% of the total 2,141 boys and 67.5% of the total 1,779 girls choose to never be showering after PE lessons. In Norway, an informal online poll conducted by www.ung.no in March 2016, with 10,500 people responding revealed that seven students out of ten choose not showering after PE lessons (Ung.no, 2016). The question addressed on the website was: "Take a shower after PE classes?” and the results are indicating that a combination of several reasons play a part in explaining this perceived barrier for showering (frequency of answers in percent): 34.5%; 26.5%; 17.5%; 7.1%; 5.9%; 4.4%; 4.0%;

Yes, it is important to shower after training No, do not like being naked with other Showers, but feel uncomfortable Only if I get a private cubicle / cloakroom Showers, but uses bikini / bathing shorts No, afraid someone will come in to see or take a picture of me No, the showers at school are dirty / nasty

Based on the results of the poll it is more than fair to claim that students in Norway feel a kind of embarrassment related to exposing their own body to others, even peers in their own class. May this perceived barrier be related to body image, nakedness itself, or is it general human shyness? Moreover, if students are reluctant to shower after physical education classes and reduce their own involvement in PE, the potential benefits of PE may not be realized (Sandercock et al., 2014). Consequently, for teachers in PE to fulfill the ambitious goal for the subject; “Physical education is a general education and a subject to inspire a physically active lifestyle and create lifelong enjoyment of movement” (Udir, 2016, p. 1), they seem to have a mountain to climb to create a positive learning climate. However, as much as the shower habits among students is only a part of the wardrobe practice, there is also a need to clarify distinctions of the shower pattern. For instance, Sandercock et al. (2014) found that students who reported being physically active with their parents were 73% more likely to take a shower at school. This may reflect familial social norms and values around sport and exercise within families (Wheeler, 2012). Moreover, those who play team sports or those who work hard in PE tended to shower after PE lessons (Sandercock et al., 2014). Thus, the more positive shower pattern among active and team sport

students documented by Sandercock et al. (2014) may be due to that the wardrobe or locker room in the sports context is where the club feeling is created, camaraderie developed, news can spread, and common values can be created. One may argue that the wardrobe at school is not exactly a place where “sport club feeling” is important, but can it function as an arena for forming companionship and belonging? Hence, Sandercock and colleagues (2014) claim there is little research examining the shower behavior in the school, and they suggest that the potential socializing effect of the wardrobe practice should be examined. Moreover, all human development and learning takes place in context (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), and our behavior is always shaped by the constraints of where we live and who we are (Silbereisen, 2003). Therefore, the primary subject of this paper is the repeated processes of increasingly complex interactions between an active receptor (e.g., student in PE) and the other individuals, objects, and symbols in the immediate surroundings (e.g., the wardrobe in PE). To grasp some of the meaning of the interactions going on in the wardrobe practice in PE, the shape, strength, content, and direction of these processes that vary systematically as a function of the overall characteristics of the person, as well as the physical and social environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) should be examined. The individual is both a manufacturer of its own development and the result of development processes (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). The acceptance of multidimensional relationships and interaction processes as a basis for development is essential in the quest for new knowledge (Magnusson, 2001). Even though the wardrobe context appears at school and during school time, it differs from the traditional school context in way that there is no teacher present and the students may feel free to play some music, be loud and extrovert with each other. Conversely, this context and its interactions may also for some students lead them to develop barriers for nakedness and showering (O’Donovan et al., 2015). Consequently, one may claim that the notion for investigating the development of the wardrobe practice in PE correspond to Bronfenbrenner’s (1977, p. 513) view on research generally conducted on human behaviour:” … the science of the strange behavior of children in strange situations….. .”” When human development occurs, it is in fact the interaction between human and human environment that has changed (Hutchins, 1995; Johansen, 2009; Lerner & Damon, 2006). Moreover, Lerner and Damon (2006) clarifies that when we consider the context then it will first and foremost say that we recognize that we are all in constant interaction with complementary contexts of everyday life. Magnusson and Stattin (1998, p. 694) claim that to understand human development, behavior, and functioning, two parallel processes should be considered: “a) the continuously ongoing bidirectional process of interaction between the person and his or her environment, and b) the continuously ongoing process of reciprocal interaction among mental, biological, and behavioral factors within the individual”. Høigaard and Johansen (2015) believe that the context in sport and PE refers to both a relationship and interaction, and the context change with different social contexts and environments. Thus, the social context may be different in the wardrobe in PE than for example in the class room. In PE lessons the students are often evaluated based on their demonstration of different skills and appropriate movements in sport activities,

and not through oral or written sentences which most of the time is the case in the class room (Høigaard & Johansen, 2015). There are reasons to believe that the students’ self-evaluation, or at least part of it, in the PE lessons will influence their self-evaluation in the wardrobe practice before and after a PE lesson. This may be considered as a new context with different opportunities for different actions and realizations. However, it is still more or less a complementary context with the same individuals, and the behavior demonstrated in the wardrobe practice is most likely a result of the constraints in this “new” context perceived by the student based on for example the teacher behavior, peer relations, and self-perception in PE. Consequently, the abovementioned contextualization and interactional assumptions of the wardrobe practice in PE provide consequences for methodological choice and/or instruments. Hence, the participants in this study will be interviewed and asked to elaborate on their thoughts and experiences related to their perception the wardrobe practice in PE including their showering habits. Therefore, the overall aim of this study is to investigate the students’ experience of the wardrobe practice context prior to and after the PElessons.

Method Participants The participants in this study are 16 students (eight girls and eight boys, all aged 15 years) from 10th grade in a lower secondary school in southern part of Norway. In rural areas of Norway, students generally come from various school districts and different elementary schools before being assigned to new schools and classes at lower secondary level. To avoid factors such as insecurity of unfamiliar school environments, new class mates, and new teachers, students from the third and final year were recruited. Additionally, to gain variation of the students’ experiences of the research topic at hand, different background among the selected participants was warranted. Therefore, two contact teachers were asked to select 16 students that voluntarily agreed to participate in this study after the following inclusion criteria; 10th graders, age 15 years, different competencies in PE, different level of activity in PE lessons, and active in sports or not. The study has been approved by the Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD). Procedure All selected students expressed an interest in taking part and were orally informed about the study and their rights in accordance with ethical guidelines for social science. Written consent from the participants was obtained, in accordance with the National ethical regulations. The interviews were conducted at the students’ school during the school day, located in convenient facilities. To create an optimal and adequate atmosphere, the semi-structured interviews were conducted by a female researcher for girls and a male researcher for the boys. The interviews lasted between 20 and 35 minutes and the audio-recordings were subsequently transcribed as textual files. The transcription-process resulted in a total of 128 pages of raw data (double spaced, font Times New Roman in Microsoft Office for Mac 2011, size 12).

Instrumentation Interview guide A semi-structured interview guide was developed with the intention of exploring how a selection of informants experienced the wardrobe practice among students in physical education. The interview guide had questions relating to the informant’s thoughts and experiences concerning perception of the teacher (e.g., Ommundsen & Kvalø, 2007; Siedentop & Tannehill, 1999), peer relations (e.g., Bjørnebekk, 2015; Siedentop & Tannehill, 1999; Borgen & Rugseth, 2014) self-evaluation (e.g., Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990; Harter, 2000; Kvalem, 2007; Zimbardo, 1981) and digital environment (e.g., Bjørnebekk, 2015; Moen, Westlie, Brattli, Bjørke, & Vaktskjold, 2015). Figure 1 illustrates the four main themes used to highlight the topic "wardrobe practice among students in physical education".

Teacher Perception

Peer Relations

Selfevaluation

Digital Environment

Figure 1: The figure shows the four main themes in the interview guide. Note. The grey background area represents the contextual and interactional life of the wardrobe practice experienced by the students participating in this study (see Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

Data analysis The interviews verbatim were transcribed immediately after completion and subject to a descriptive phenomenological analysis (Robinson & Englander, 2008). The four steps of Giorgi´s (1985) human scientific method were used to explicate the data. Step one and two are mainly practical steps and required reading of all the raw data and sorting it into meaning units (Robinson & Englander, 2008). Step three required transformation of the data to a physical education science perspective through describing the meaning of the text (Robinson & Englander, 2008). In the last step Microsoft Excel was used to organize and sort data in emerging primary and secondary categories. This

process was repeated to gain a better overview to ensure that the most exact meaning units and categories of descriptions were found (Malterud, 2012).

Results The experiences of each student of the wardrobe practice in PE appeared to follow a similar pattern or sequence of events. After the data analysis four main categories of description emerged; 1) Friendship, 2) Physical Facilities, 3) Digital Life and 4) Shyness as illustrated in Figure 2. The result section will provide an overview over these categories, including sub-categories, accompanied illustrating quotations.

Friendship

Physical Facilities

Digital Life

Shyness

Figure 2: The figure shows the four main categories that influence the students’ experience of the wardrobe practice in PE, emerging from the data analysis.

1) Friendship “Room of Cohesion” The wardrobe in PE seems to be a room where students thrive. They say that it is socially, they sing, they dance, they talk, and they fool around; "In the dressing room there is really very good atmosphere, lots of singing, chatting and dancing. (...) It's usually just that we are kidding and having fun. It's just that it's a fun place to be. One can be loud without it having any consequences, without anyone necessarily pays attention to you." Several students are talking about that the wardrobe may be forming good cohesion between students. They are gathered together at the same place and this has a positive effect among them; "No, it's nice there. We're good buddies and friends all together. We always have something to talk about. We thrive in wardrobe. (...) Indeed, it is a place we all have in common. When its break time in the school yard, everyone goes everywhere."

“Togetherness and Enjoyment” Overall the interviewees expressed a general perception that they enjoy school, in the wardrobe, and that they thrive well in PE lessons. The students claim that physical education is a subject they learn a lot and emphasize cooperation, respect, fun, variety, and motivation as the main factors for the well-being. One student reported; “Everyone takes the initiative, and everyone has at least one friend. So, there is a sense of solidarity. It is good. We work and there is nothing negative. We respect each other for what we are, whether we participate in gym class or not. " The perspective of enjoyment is pinpointed by a participant as; "Perhaps, because many people find it fun. At least in the gym room, so they think it is very fun with different activities and stuff." The enjoyment through variation in PE is underlined by a participant as; "It's a lot of theory otherwise, so it's very nice with something practical." “Respect and Cooperation” The students experience the class in PE good at cooperating, provide excellent feedback, and they respect each other. Students believe that the teacher focuses on fair play, which has a positive impact on attitudes to each other. The learning environment in PE seems therefore to be supportive and they are good at encouraging each other also in the wardrobe; "That's cooperation then. We are a very tight-knit class.”; "Yes, they are good at making positive things and are encouraging."; "We are quite confident in each other." Asked what the teacher focuses on in PE lessons concepts such as fair play, well-being, enjoyment and effort are reported; "Hmm, you learn that it’s smart to put in maximum effort and do the best you can in addition to fair play. That’s what our teacher says something about. (...) Partnership, positive comments, helpful feedback, and some different stuff. " Students were asked what makes a teacher a good PE-teacher. Some students reported that they found that the teacher him/herself should participate in activities during lessons as they believe this might increase the motivation of students and their perception of the wardrobe practice; "As long as there is a physical education teacher who is active. It is a plus if the gym teacher can participate in the activities themselves. I do not think it is any fun when gym teacher just sits on the bench. (...) She sits mostly on the bench and note if she sees something. It has been okay so far but I think it would be more fun if she had been running along with us." "The positive feedback on how you are doing it. For example, in the gym then, they [the teachers] say your name and tell you what was good. Then you remember it longer and at least until the lesson is over." 2) Physical Facilities A very characteristic observation in this study is the distinguishing difference students make between the locker room and the shower room in their experience of the wardrobe practice in PE. While the social environment connected to the wardrobe situation was experienced as positive, the physical

environment or more precisely the built environment exemplified through shower facilities played a more multifaceted role.

“The lack of Shower Facilities” The results revealed that bad shower facilities at the school influenced the students’ experiences of the wardrobe practice and even their behaviour during the lesson in PE; “Showers are old and ugly, there are cracks in the tiles and there is almost no water pressure in the showers.” "It’s dirty and it tempts not exactly going in there [in the shower], and in that way, it affects how you are working in the gym, so one cannot do everything, because you cannot shower afterwards." When students were asked about the showering habits and why it was more or less okay for students to undress in front of each other but not to take a shower together they emphasized the significance of better facilities and shower routines among the students; "Best had probably been if all had showered. (...) And in the wardrobe, it should be a change that people should shower more." “Inserting cubicles, shower curtains, and private locker rooms would have helped but the cubbyholes are not a guarantee that they choose to shower. But shower curtains most certainly.” “Lack of Privacy” When the students were asked about the showering habits body pressure and body focus were mentioned as reasons for not taking a shower after a PE lesson; "It may be some do not like that the showers are so close together. It's sort of half a meter to one meter between each shower. They may be afraid that others will see "the knob" maybe. (...) Most tend to have soap or boxer in front when they enter.” "Although we have a very good class, people can be insecure about their body ... that there is a bit like that if they see that no one showers, then they think that, nor can I shower because then they will look down on me… " "It's probably due to body pressure, and that they do not feel safe in class … for … it's showering together with someone. It's sort of very embarrassing ..." "I do not think so much about it, but … no, it is quite normal [not to shower]." "I think I'm a little afraid of being judged or that other girls in the class will judge me because of my body.” The respondents were also asked about the practice in the locker room when someone was having a shower. A male student reported; “We stand with "the knob" against the wall. It is silent. Or maybe someone ask if they can borrow soap or something. Maybe we are not so fond of showering with others. We like to keep things a little private, not too fond of showing off "the knob" to others.” “It's more thigh against thigh. There are those on our side who are close. It's sort of just a small half meter, and when one is naked it is found within the intimate zone really."

“Exposed to Puberty” Some of the students refer to puberty and the transition phase over to a new school and new classmates as plausible reason for discomfort. There are also students who demonstrate that puberty and new hair growth makes it uncomfortable to shower naked together; "No, I'm a little unsure. When we went from elementary school, then had a shower we, yes, but when you get into a new school and new pupils, so it becomes a little embarrassing. When one begins not to shower, and it has just become a habit that one does not. (...) It is well because one will not show off some might not have reached puberty etc. Some may think it is embarrassing not to have come so far. (...) There is no shower culture here. " "Probably because many reach puberty, and then the hairy some places, and so yeah ... (...) Yes, it is embarrassing then. (...) Firstly, it was a whole new class with new people, and then it's not the first thing one does to walk naked in the shower with.” "Think maybe it has something to do that they are afraid to show off their bodies, that they are unsafe. They are afraid to get ugly feedback, or little positive feedback / comments. Maybe there are some who find it unnecessary to shower, but I think most that it is what they are afraid of what other people think. (...) That body changed differently. Perhaps some feel uncomfortable if their body changed later than others, that they somehow feel they are not accepted." 3) Digital Life All informants in the present study reported that they use different social media such as Facebook, Snapchat, and/or Instagram and they cannot imagine a life without them. How this use affects their experience of the wardrobe practice is somehow complicated to apprehend. “A Perfect Body” Some of the girls in study admitted that the various online services affect their relationship to their body. They reported the media can be both strengthen and weaken upon their confidence; "I see the kind of girls who are really nice, and they have the body, right? But then you can feel better that you look like other girls that has forms and shapes like your own body, right? You can in a way look at yourself in the picture. One can somehow see that it is actually fine, and I might be good enough if she is good enough.” "It affects it really pretty much. People [class mates/friends] put the pictures of the sort when they are out and exercise, shirtless, or with only a bra or something like that, for them to show that they are fit and like that and to show as much of their bodies. And then it is very like the feeling you are not good enough, the other is thinner than yourself, and it affects it [body image] really quite a lot." “Likes and be Liked” The informants reported that social media is used to catch up on what friends are doing and that you have get as many “likes” as possible to get recognition. And what is posted seems to affect the students’ body image;

"It's always a real treat with much likes, but it is not what really matters. There are certainly many who like image to duplicate images somehow, but it is not certain that they actually like it.” "Yes, I feel it. One will often have as many as possible likes his picture, if you post something. To get some recognition then." A boy in this study says that you notice what the girls press "like" and what they comment in relation to the images on social media and in media. It may seem that this creates an illustration of what is good and how you ideally should look like; "Or it's like someone who sees the image, for example, if a girl scrolls down on Instagram and look at an image of a nice man with a good six pack and she says, “that's fine". Then perhaps the boy who sees that is feeling that it is a plus to have a great six pack.” "It might be that, but I think it is most especially on snap chat and Instagram in that regard. People post pictures where they are somewhat scantily dressed. Then people are in that way being influenced to look a little thinner or to have more muscle." “The Silent Pressure” Additionally, it seems to exist agreement or understanding among the students about liking each other’s pictures and some believe that someone adds more "friends" to get more "likes" on their images, but nobody is talking about it in public; "It depends a little on how many friends you have on Facebook, etc. I know usually all I have on Facebook. There are a lot that just add many without really knowing them to get more likes.” "It could be that the focus of social media is how you should look like and like it has meant that they did not feel they meet the requirements for how one should look like. It is well simply that they certainly feel insecure about themselves, and perhaps in some schools it's said that one gets to hear it if you are not this or that.” “It is a kind of body pressure out there [on social media], but that it is not being said aloud. Some of us call it a silent or silently body pressure. I think this is a part of the reason that the shower culture has become so taboo.” 4) Shyness “Cover up and Hide” Shyness in terms of discomfort, embarrassment, and shame seems to be a common term about how students experience both the wardrobe situation and the showering habits in school. Furthermore, some of the students expressed how the feeling of discomfort presents itself when to change clothing and/or be naked in front of each other. The need to hide with towel or other clothing when they change is regarded as quite necessary; "No, they like, go down t-shirt sort of … It is only with your pants … many standing with jacket still on so that it covers ... Maybe they do it to not see the body, I do not know …". "I think it has something with the body to do .... I am afraid to be judged, or that other girls in the class will judge me because of the body ". "I don’t shower because I'm afraid to show myself."

“But if you shower with boxer, for example, I think like most others that it's stupid to be scared. But no one says anything. It's sort of allowed to be you really. (...) No, there are not so many. We are about 4 or 5 that shower maybe." “Intimate Zone” The students reported that they feel discomfort in that the showers are so close together. They feel they come within intimate zone to another. A few did take a shower, but it still depends on whether they are sweaty or not; "Depends on what we do in physical education class. Some activities will be sweatier than others." "Surely no one had showered, but we had perhaps thought that one had to smell sweaty the rest of the day. It's someone who washes their arms." “Reduce Effort or Forget” Several girls in the present study reported that they deliberately lessened intensity level in PE because they did not want to take a shower afterwards and to avoid smelling sweaty. One of the girls deliberately forgot gym clothes if there was a risk to get sweaty; "Yes, sometimes I don’t bring gym clothes because of that [being in the locker room and/or need for showering]." "We tend never to look exhausted after a hard lesson but if we had so I think I only had washed my face in a bit of water in the sink and under the arms and stuff. Do not think I ever have taken a shower."

Discussion The overall purpose of this study was to investigate the wardrobe practice in PE and to examine how this context influence the students’ experiences and their attitude towards the subject PE, and whether they shower or not after the lessons. After analysing all the interviews, four main categories emerged when describing the students’ various experiences of the wardrobe practice in PE; 1) Friendship, 2) Physical Facilities, 3) Digital Life and 4) Shyness. Even though we put the students’ experience in four various categories of descriptions they are all interwoven and equally highlight the phenomenon studied. Nevertheless, the first reason for operating and presenting four distinct categories describing the students’ experiences of the wardrobe practice in PE is to emphasize that these categories are not merely description but also represent an interpretation. In this study what we mean by interpretation is the adoption of a non-given factor to help account for what is in the students’ experience, such as a theoretical bearing, a hypothesis, or an assumption (Giorgi, 2012). In that way it is easier to reveal not only if students are showering or not after PE lesson (i.e., description) but what might be the reason behind their showering habits (i.e., interpretation). The second reason for the data presentation is that one may highlight the complexity of the phenomenon studied and grasp different distinctions and peculiarities of the informants’ experiences (subcategories and illustrating quotations). Hence, the findings in this study have revealed that students in lower secondary school experience the wardrobe practice in PE both in a positive and in a negative way. Additionally, the contrast in the students’ thoughts and feelings have painted a picture that vary

from (1) that the wardrobe practice in PE is the greatest place and arena in school for growing friendship on one hand to (2) being a place and arena they almost hate and avoid being a part of if possible on the other hand. One may claim that for some of the students in the present study the wardrobe practice, and probably the PE subject itself, represent what we might call a Janus face, showing two different sides of one face. Moreover, the intricacy in the informants’ different experiences in the present study also emphasize the value of using a contextual and interactional theoretical framework when describing and interpreting development and behavior among adolescents. There is also a Janus face tendency when it comes to the showering habits of the students participating in this study, some did shower, and some did not. In line with previous research in the field (Bjørnebekk, 2015; Sandercock et al., 2014; O’Donovan et al., 2015; Moen et al., 2015) approximately 1/3 of students did shower regularly after PE and there were more boys than girls showering. Almost everyone among the informants who did shower reported that they used underwear. Based on the participants’ different background such as varying competencies for PE, diverse level of activity in PE lessons, and active in sports or not, provided by the contact teacher in advance, we found the same pattern of showering habits as in Sandercock et al. (2014). Students of high intensity level in PE lesson, occupied in sport, and girls participating in team sports were those who did shower after the lessons. Thus, findings related to shower habits in this study may reflect positive familial (parental) attitudes to physical activity in general or PE lessons at school (Birchwood, Roberts, & Pollack, 2008; Wheeler, 2012). Interestingly, but not surprisingly, students who reported high selfconfidence and expressed a positive self-perception were also those who did shower. This well-being affects students at many levels will probably affect how students act socially and positive experiences of physical activity may create feelings of satisfaction and may be fun (Yli-Piipari, Watt, Jaakkola, Liukkonen, & Nurmi, 2009). There are reasons to believe that these students don’t perceive any barriers connected to nakedness nor exposing their bodies. However, most of the participants did report these barriers and felt quite some embarrassment connected to not only undressing and being naked in front of their class mates, but also standing close to another person when showering. This embarrassment is in line with what Zimbardo (1981) has described as a short-term acute loss of self-esteem and students seem to react with shyness. This situational embarrassment, like shame and shyness, seems to be triggered because of an unconscious and bodily mirroring process with others present, as Bjørnbekk (2015) also have demonstrated. Additionally, other findings indicate that the shyness or the body image among the students may interact with the digital life they live. All informants reported that they were consumers of Facebook, Instagram, and/or Snapchat similarly to all their friends. They revealed that the use of social media when class mates or friends gave likes of posted picture of either a girl or a boy they know or any famous model, it influenced their perception of their own body. As pointed out earlier, the concept of body image is complex (Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990; Harter, 2000; Kvalem, 2007; Tiggemann, 2014), and when the boys in this study were asked whether they are affected by the girls' views on the ideal body several answered without hesitating yes because they know what the girls in

their class appreciate about the boys and their bodies, and what they comment on Facebook and Instagram. Nevertheless, the boys still seem to have a nuanced picture of the ideal body and reported that they are not so concerned if someone is thick or thin if they are satisfied themselves. Whether students’ body image makes them unsafe in the locker room or the shower may be difficult to conclude, however, based on the present findings one may suggest that students’ self-evaluation may vary with the different contexts they live in and are comfortable with. None of the informants reported that they were afraid of be filmed or taking a photo of in the wardrobe for this material to eventually being distributed. However, several participants pinpointed the backside of social media by reporting the huge pressure perceived should they not receive enough “likes” on their profile and, consequently, their popularity was sinking. This affected their well-being and their attitude towards school in general and the subject PE and the wardrobe practice in special. In this study we have tried to shed some light on various aspects in and around the wardrobe practice in PE. The overall findings indicate that the wardrobe itself is perceived as positive. Students seem to thrive, they are enjoying chatting, singing, dancing, they fool around, and some students mentioned that there is even better well-being in the wardrobe than at recess. They are experiencing the wardrobe practice as unifying and social and this practice seems to lead to the formation of social relationships, particularly between the boys. However, when the informants were asked about the shower habits the situation abruptly contrasts. Most of students did not shower and according to several of the informants it seems like the transition between primary and secondary school is a critical period. Students come from different elementary schools and meeting with new students in a new class creates challenges in relation to shower together. Findings indicate that the body image and puberty have a vital role where the student feels uncomfortable with the rapid transformation of the body. This causes embarrassment, discomfort, and shyness even among 10th graders knowing each other for more than two years. However, there seems to be a different trend when students talk about showering before and after swimming lessons. In this setting, it is regarded as normal behavior to shower and everyone does it some with swimming trunks/suits on while others with out. Students reported that it is easier to shower when everyone else is doing it and one would probably not be the one who will not shower. Further, there seems to be several practical reasons for not showering. Reasons reported in this study are that it is better to shower at home if PE is the last lesson of the day, gym clothes occupies too much space in your pack, a lack of time, or that they are simply too lazy. Some students reported showering as too challenging work and there is simply no shower culture among these adolescents. In addition, some feel that they are not sweating enough during PE lesson and there is no point in showering. Whether the wardrobe practice has an influence for activity and participation in PE is difficult to conclude and is beyond the scope of this paper. However, based on most of the informants’ experiences they thrive in the PE lessons and want to do their utmost to achieve the best possible grade. Based on this fact and that students want the PEteachers to be active themselves one may, perhaps, ask the question: Is the level

of activity in PE lessons in this study at a level (so low) that the students find it not necessary to shower? Strengths, limitations and implications This study is not without its limitations and these issues should be considered when interpreting the findings. The limited numbers of participants in this study require carefulness in the interpretation process but the style of analysis employed was taken to establish validity and consistency of the data. In our opinion, the empirical material succeeds in saturating the phenomenon examined, meaning that it is sufficient to reveal the main aspects of students’ experiences of the context wardrobe practice in PE and more interviews will probably not uncover something decisively new or different. Hence, Thelwell, Weston, and Greenlees (2005) pinpointed in their study of mental toughness in soccer that the interviews with six player generated data subject to the phenomenon examined that were more than adequate in terms of richness and content. Lincoln and Guba (1999) argue that a thick description and prolonged engagement are preconditions establishing trustworthiness of a qualitative study. Moreover, the strategic variation in the data generated from the 16 contributors in the present study should, therefore, be more than adequate to gain detailed descriptions of the phenomenon experienced by the informants (Malterud, 2012). All quotations used in this article were translated from Norwegian to English. To avoid possible limitations in the analysis because of language the whole analysis process was completed in the original language (van Nes, Abma, Johnson & Deeg, 2010). The findings in present study do not represent a diverse socio-economic group and a more heterogeneous population could provide insight into subcultural demands of students of different ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Common criticism of the phenomenological method is that different researchers may find dissimilar meanings in the same interview and because of this the method is not scientific (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009). Nonetheless, the researchers’ background and pre-understanding can be an advantage in qualitative research because of the access gained into the informant’s everyday world (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009). Robson (1993) argue that qualitative data often must face criticism that the work is unreliable and invalid and the problem, which is the central strength at the same time, is the reliance on the human instrument. Both these conditions are taken in consideration and strengthen trustworthiness in the present study. In relation to the procedures that can be facilitated to get more students to thrive in the wardrobe and feel comfortable when showering after PE lessons, one may start with the physical facilities. Shower curtain/cubicles, private locker rooms, and at least modern and hygienic showering facilities are all a possible solution. However, given the complexity of the phenomenon studied there is no guarantee for minimization of the bodily embarrassment perceived by these adolescents. Moreover, this implies an economic burden most of the schools may be unable to bear. Further, the habit of not showering after a PE lesson appears to come from a kind of trend among the youth, and PE-teachers and parents should do a better job to motivate students for several reasons to take a shower. A better collaboration between school and home, especially

regarding the transition from primary school to secondary school, seems to be warranted. A clarification of the role of the teacher in PE related to not only motivate but also gain more knowledge about what is going on in the wardrobe is recommended. However, adopting peephole in the teachers’ wardrobe monitoring the students are not recommendable, but some closer mental attendances when students want to be seen either during the PE lesson or in the context of the wardrobe practice could be fruitful. These are just a few practical implications and assumptions that may help young people in a rapid and critical period of development and, hopefully, in the subject of PE to be inspired for a physically active lifestyle and create lifelong enjoyment of movement.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 58-71, October 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.10.5

How Pre-Service Teachers Learn: An Investigation of Motivation and Self-Regulation Ali A. Alenazi, PhD. College of Education, Jazan University Jazan, Saudi Arabia Abstract. This study investigated the effect of using a self-assessment tool known as a Knowledge Survey (KS) on the motivation and selfregulation of thirty-four pre-service teachers in an introductory educational course. The pre-service teachers were provided with a 115question KS during the first week of class to use as an independent study guide for a 14-week semester. Data collection included journals entries, observations and focus group interviews. The results provided evidence indicating that the use of KS contributed to an increase in the pre-service teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; motivation and ultimately improved their own learning through self-regulation. The pre-service teachers employed metacognitive and cognitive strategies to learn the content and skills required for the course through the KS, tracked the progress of this learning, and adjusted strategies as needed. Keywords: pre-service teachers; self-regulation; self-regulated learning; motivation; knowledge survey.

1. Introduction Self-regulation is a significant aspect in pre-service teacher education endeavors. It is crucial to academic success and also to teaching career development (Buzza & Allinotte, 2013). Pre-service teachers need to learn self-regulation skills that enable them to evaluate their teaching and to gradually improve it over time. Ryan and Cooper (2012) depict this notion as follows: Although it is important to prepare ... teachers for initial practice, it is even more important to help them develop the attitudes and skills that will enable them to become lifelong students of teaching. Ideally, rather than relying on authority... they will continually examine and evaluate their practice, effectiveness, and accomplishments. (p.164) Unfortunately, developing teacher self-regulation skills is often not perceived as a priority in teacher preparation programs (Dembo, 2001; Bembenutty, White, & Velez, 2015). The main focus in teacher preparation programs is often restricted to pre-service teacher knowledge of subject matter, knowledge of students, and instructional practices and how to put those practices to effective use in their

classrooms (Edge, 2015). Zimmerman (2008) supported the notion that selfregulation skills are essential for pre-service teachers to develop and thus demanded that current research focus on investigating the ways pre-service teacher motivational feelings influence their self-regulation learning. One way to gather insight into such influence is to provide self-regulation related learning experiences to pre-service teachers (Randi, 2004). Accordingly, this study aimed to address how motivation and self-regulation of pre-service teachers interact in an introductory educational course.

2. Background Self-regulation is a cyclical process of taking control of one's own learning. According to Zimmerman (2000), self-regulated learning (SRL) consists of three stages. The first stage is forethought where a learner analyzes the task and sets goal(s) to complete it. The second stage is performance where the learner selects metacognitive and cognitive strategies to perform the task, monitors the effectiveness of the strategies selected, and adjusts them as needed. The third stage is reflection on performance where the learner evaluates his/her performance on the learning task. Metacognitive strategies are referred to those used for regulating the learner’s own activities, such as thru planning (Nelson & Narens, 1994; Pintrich, 2002). Meanwhile, cognitive strategies are approaches used for processing of information, which learners apply to learn and understand their study material. Examples of this include rehearsal (Duncan & McKeachie, 2005). Jaafar, Awaludin, and Bakar (2014) argued that acquiring a knowledge of metacognitive and cognitive strategies is significant, but insufficient for selfregulation in which learners must be motivated in order to able to use such strategies to regulate their cognition and effort. Pintrich and Groot (1990) advocated the notion that self-regulation is inspired by motivation. In their study, they proposed three motivational components that influence self-regulation. The first component is an expectancy component, “Can I do this task?” This is self-efficacy, which refers to the beliefs of the learner about his/her ability to perform a certain task (Bandura, 1997). The second component is an emotional component, "How do I feel about this task?" This refers to the emotional reactions of learner when performing a task that might affect the final outcomes. The third component is a value component, “Why am I doing this task?” It represents the learner’s reasons for performing the task. The interaction of the three motivational components determines the type and magnitude of the influence on self-regulation. The current study explores how the interactive relations of the three motivational components influence pre-service teacher self-regulation as they use a self-assessment tool, a Knowledge Survey (KS). A KS is a self-assessment tool that includes the full-breadth of learning objectives of a course, which are presented as a large collection of questions. These questions are designed according to Bloom’s Taxonomy (i.e., knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation). Learners are not required to answer the KS

questions; rather, they use a rating scale to assess their confidence levels in their abilities to answer each question with competence if the question were to appear on an actual test. That is, what is being surveyed is the confidence learners have in their own judgment compared to actual performance (Nuhfer & Knipp, 2003; Wirth & Perkins, 2005). Research shows that KS is a useful self-assessment tool that allows pre-service teachers to predict performance and to monitor their learning over time (Clauss & Geedey, 2010; Alenazi, 2014). Pre-service can apply a pre-course KS to gain insight into their learning needs, a post-course KS to determine their learning gains, or a KS throughout a course to monitor their learning. KS can be used as a “study guide [to] support students in learning their material, focus their attention on important topics and help them review for quizzes and tests” (Conderman & Bresnahan, 2010, p. 169). Namely, it focuses student attention on what to learn and how to learn it. However, little is known about whether a KS can motivate pre-service teachers to regulate their own learning. The purpose of this study is to investigate how the three motivational components influence pre-service teachers’ self-regulation learning in an introductory educational course as they apply a KS. This investigation focuses on three sub-questions: Can pre-service teachers answer the KS questions? How do pre-service teachers feel about answering the KS questions? and Why are pre-service teachers answering the KS questions? Analysis of the answers to these questions and the magnitude of self-regulation applied by the pre-service teachers were utilized to understand the extent that KS can motivate pre-service teachers to regulate their own learning.

3. Research Question To what extent does a Knowledge Survey motivate pre-service teachers to regulate their own learning in an introductory educational course?

4. Methodology 4.1 Sample

The current study sample consisted of thirty-four pre-service elementary school teachers from a male college of education at a Southern University in Saudi Arabia. The participants were 19–22 years old with a mean age of 20. The participants needed to successfully complete a four-year teacher preparation program in order to graduate and become certified elementary school teachers. Among the thirty-four participants, fifteen were special education majors, fifteen were art majors, and four were physical education majors. The participants were in their coursework stage of study in the program; this stage precedes the stage that includes student teaching experience. At the time of the present study, the participants were enrolled in a three-hour introductory educational course that emphasizes learning basic principles of curriculum and instruction. All the participants volunteered to participate in the study based on their desire to learn about and to help the researcher learn more about motivation and selfregulation.

4.2 Instrument Development

The instrument for this research was a KS of 115 questions. The KS contains all the content and skills assigned for the course, but are presented in a particular structure, with a question format. In other words, every part of the required course requirements was presented in the KS as a question. For example, the book states the definition of a teaching method as the strategies implemented by the teacher to achieve desired learning goals by students. In the KS, this definition is presented as “What is a teaching method?” The questions in the KS measure all levels of thinking as evenly as possible. The answers to questions of low-level thinking (i.e., knowledge, comprehension, and application) were often found in the required book or readings as opposed to the high-level thinking (i.e., analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) where participants need to generate new answers by examining and breaking information into parts, compiling information together in a different way, and making judgments about certain statements. The process of developing the instrument underwent two stages: 4.2.1 Item collection and creation

Questions were collected or created to cover all the course materials (a 405-page book titled, “Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction” and readings of 21 pages). First, high-volume questions were collected from: 1) previous exams conducted by the researcher or other instructors during past years of teaching the same course and 2) the literature. Second, other questions were created for parts of the course materials that were not covered by the collected questions. In order to cover such wide range of course materials, most of the collected or created questions were subjective. The reason is that subjective questions (e.g., extended-response essay) cover more content as opposed to objective questions (e.g., multiple choice questions). 4.2.2 Item identification and selection

Two faculty members who have taught the course for at least three years were asked to identify the best questions that meet the course objectives from among the questions collected and created in the first stage. Next, the candidate questions were organized into six order-levels according to Bloom’s Taxonomy. To develop the KS, 115 questions were selected and distributed as evenly as possible across Bloom’s Taxonomy and to cover all the content and skills imbedded in the course materials. The KS included a 4-point scale (0 = I cannot begin to answer this problem; 1 = I can partially answer this problem; 2 = I can answer most of the problem; and 3 = I can answer the entire problem with full confidence) that participants can use for each question to predict and monitor their mastery level in the course (See Table. 1).

Table 1: Excerpt of six items from the 115-item knowledge survey

Bloom Level 1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Synthesis 6. Evaluation

Question

0 1 2 3

What are the essential components of curriculum? Explain how goal seating can contribute to good curriculum design? Write learning objectives in each level of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Compare student-centered leaning to teacher-centered learning. Develop an original lesson plan in your field. In your opinion, which is more effective in measuring student-learning outcomes: subjective test questions or objective test questions? Why?

4.3 Procedures

The study was conducted over fourteen weeks. Every participant was handed a hard copy of the 115-question KS during the first week of class for use throughout the semester as a study guide and was instructed on how use it. No obligation was imposed to solve the survey questions. The participants were informed that two mid-term exams would be given in the 6th week and the 12th week in addition to a final exam at the end of the semester. All exams were counted as 70% towards the total grade of the course (10% for each mid-term and 50% for the final exam). They were also informed that the course exams questions would be drawn from the KS, but not necessarily with the same format or quantity. To illustrate, answering the following question, “In your opinion, which is more effective in measuring student-learning outcomes: subjective test questions or objective test questions? Why?” The answer of this question entails having an adequate knowledge of the definition, representative examples, and pros and cons of both subjective questions and objective questions. Thus, several subquestions can be derived from the above question. One sub-question can be elicited as, “Discuss the pros and cons of using subjective questions to measure student-learning outcome.” Another sub-question would be, “What are objective test questions? Provide examples.” 4.4 Data Collection

Data were collected from: (1) one open-ended question survey, (2) participant journals (3) researcher observations and (4) follow-up focus group interviews with the participants. First, participants were asked in the first week to review the KS and then answer the expectancy component sub-question, “Can you answer the KS questions?” This was done through an open-ended question survey in order to gain an insight into the participants’ self-efficacy. Second, each participant was asked to write a journal entry every two weeks until before the second mid-term. Skipping the mid-term exam weeks (6th and 12th), each participant submitted five journal entries to describe in details their experience with using the KS. No limitations or restrictions were imposed.

Third, participants’ activities were observed. I took notes when I met participants before class, in the classroom, during breaks, or even when they visited me in my office. I expanded my notes by writing descriptive notes as soon as passible and described what I heard or saw in details. Next, I wrote reflective notes by jotting down my thought and opinions regarding these specific activities. The journal entries and observations were meant to document 1) the participants’ statements that could provide answers to the emotional component sub-question, “How do pre-service teachers feel about answering the KS questions?” and the value component sub-question, “Why are pre-service teachers answering the KS questions?” 2) Actions taken by the participants to regulate their learning, if any. Fourth, focus group interviews were conducted after the second mid-term exam. Each interview lasted for one hour. The class (34 participants) was divided into groups based on their total scores on the two mid-term exams. The mean score was computed for each participant on the two exams. The scores ranged from 50% to 95%. Accordingly, three groups were created using a 15% interval as follows: lower performing participants from 50% to 65% (8 participants), moderate performing participants from more than 65% to 80% (11 participants), and higher performing participants from more than 80% to 95% (15 participants). To obtain meaningful interaction among the participants, the number of group members was restricted to between 5 and 10 in order for the group to be large enough to generate rich discussion, but not so large that some participants were left out. Since each group of moderate and high performing participants included more than 10 members, each group was divided into two smaller groups: (5,6) and (7,8), respectfully. The interviews were mainly conducted to probe participants’ statements found in the journals or the survey and actions noticed during the observation regarding the three motivational components and self-regulation activities. 4.5 Data Analysis

The study involved qualitative data. The survey results, journal entries, observation reflective notes, and interview transcripts were read carefully and searched for participants’ answers and actions regarding two categories: 1) the three motivational components and 2) the nature and magnitude of selfregulation. A table of three main columns was created to document the entire participant’s answers and actions regarding these two categories. The first column read “participant” that included the participant’s name. The second one had a main title read “motivational component” and was divided into three subcolumns, one for each component: expectancy, emotional, and value. The third one read “self-regulation”. Each answer or action made by a participant was marked and tabulated under the related category. All the documented answers and actions and their relationships were analyzed in light of participants’ learning outcomes and utilized as the basis for arriving at a theoretical understanding of how motivation and self-regulation of pre-service teachers interact as they apply a KS in an introductory educational course.

5. Results The study reports on participant experience with the use of a Knowledge Survey as they progressed throughout the semester. This experience is discussed in two phases. Phase 1 is from week 1 to week 5 (from first day of classes until prior to the first mid-term exam). Phase 2 is from week 7 to week 11 (between the first mid-term exam and the second mid-term exam). All participants’ statements were translated from Arabic. 5.1 Phase 1 (week 1 to week 5) 5.1.1 The Expectancy Component

The first sub-question addressed in this study was, “Can pre-service teachers answer all the KS questions?” The results from the survey administered in the first week of the semester indicated that 28 participants expressed a positive prediction of their ability to solve the KS. They showed confidence in their ability as they claimed that they will be able to solve the KS questions in one way or another as they progressed through the semester. An example of a typical statement is as follows: “Right now, I do not know all the answers for the KS questions, but I am sure I will be able to solve them as the semester proceeds… There are so many highlevel questions, but nothing is impossible. I encounter challenges every semester and I enjoy overcoming them…I am confident I will find solutions to the KS questions alone or with the help of classmates.” 5.1.2 Emotional Component

The second sub-question addressed in this study was, “How do pre-service teachers feel about answering the KS questions?” The results from the journal entries indicated that 31 participants expressed that the KS was overwhelming. Accordingly, participant use of the KS was minimal. Evidence was clear from the observation that only two participants brought their copy of the survey to the classroom for every class session. The rest of the participants never brought along the survey to class. There were also no indications of discussion about the KS among the participants inside or outside the classroom. Certain reasons for such disinterest in the use of the KS were found as follows: 5.1.2.1 New Teaching Tool

Participants expressed that using the KS was a new experience for them. This is reflected in the following comments, “I’ve never seen such a survey. I don’t feel comfortable using it,” and “I am not used to this method. It is confusing.” Additional comments included, “[We] usually get a summary of the course content at the end of the semester to study for the final exam, but [the KS] is different.” Another participant suggested applying a traditional approach, commenting, “I think it would better to assign specific areas/sections of the book for us to study. This is what other instructors usually do.” 5.1.2.2 Question Volume

The volume of items in the survey was a major complaint from a majority of the participants. They said, “[The survey] has too many questions [and they] do not know if [they] will have the time to answer all these questions”. One participant

explained, “I have a busy schedule. It will be challenging for me to answer the entire set of questions alone.” Another stated, “I have other courses to study for.” 5.1.2.3 Question Level

A few participants seemed to have uncertainty in their ability to solve items designed in terms of higher-order level thinking: analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Answers to such questions are not usually found directly in the assigned book or suggested readings. Participants needed to make an effort to create the answer. Their statements in the journal entries were similar and included the following, “I could not find answers to some questions (higherorder level thinking) in the book or the readings… we do not usually get this type of question… I think that I will not be able to depend on myself to obtain the correct answers to some questions.” 5.1.2.4 Question Type

Participants reported having a large number of subjective questions in the KS was a turn off for them. They preferred objective questions over subjective questions because such questions entail less time and effort to answer. Preservice teachers said, “The majority of the questions are subjective. We usually have only one or two subjective questions on exams…we need multiple-choice, false/true, and fill-in-blank questions.” 5.2 Phase 2 (week 7 to week 11) 5.2.1 Value Component

The third sub-question addressed in thus study was, “Why are pre-service teachers answering the KS questions?” The survey results, journal entries, and focus group interviews indicated that a majority of participants had strong intrinsic motivation towards the course, as they believed that the course content and skills in the KS are essential for their future teaching career. They often pointed out that their main goal is to master such content and skills by the end of the semester. Using the KS to achieve such goal; however, was overwhelming for them due to the heavy workload associated with it as they preferred to learn through typical instruction such as lectures. This overwhelming feeling completely changed after the first mid-term exam where a large change was observed in participant behavior in the weeks after the first mid-term exam. Participants started to pay substantial attention to the KS, whereas two main activities were detected. First, there was noticeable continuous discussion about the KS questions amongst the participants inside the classroom during the break as well as outside the classroom. Second, participants started asking me during class, after class, or even during my office hours for clarification about certain questions on the survey. Most of the journal entries in this time period focused on challenges that were overcome. Participant expressions changed from passive to active, and they switched from describing challenges and how they were difficult to deal with to describing their own ways of overcoming these challenges. The journal entries

from this period mention how the first exam was a main reason for considering the survey in a serious manner, as demonstrated by the following comments: “[The instructor] told us that we might have questions with the same format in the exams from the survey, but I had doubted that. I am not used to that… we had two questions out of five in the first exam directly from the survey… I started paying more attention to answering the survey questions... I have the exam questions, this is nice. I will solve all of them no matter what it takes.” After the first mid-term exam, the participants actively began the regulation process for their own learning. The participants collectively created their own groups and set goals to solve the KS questions as described in representative statements such as, “We believed that we could solve all the KS questions with the help of each other… Thus, we created a WhatsApp group of five members to discuss and share our answers.” WhatsApp is an instant messaging application for smartphones that allows users to exchange texts, photos, audios, videos, documents, location, voice calls, and video calls for free anytime anywhere in the world. Since the survey questions were high in volume, the participant explained, “We divided the questions among our group members, and each student selected a mixture of approximately 24 questions from the different sections of the KS to solve throughout the semester…3 questions per week, and posted the answers to the group.” Next, each participant created personal strategies to come up with answers to the allocated set of questions, track the effectiveness of these strategies, and adjust them as needed. One participant said, “I devoted one hour for the KS the night before each class. I looked up answers in the book…once I found an answer in a page in the book, I wrote the page number next to the question in the survey… [And/or] I wrote the question number next to the answer in the book.” However, if they encountered difficulty regarding some questions, they responded in various ways. Another participant said, “I had to search the Internet to get more information about some questions.” A third stated, “I read a different book to help me find certain answers.” In a few cases, lower performing participants sought help from their peers. A lower performing participant claimed that he “asked his friend Ahmed to help him find the answers of a few questions.” On a weekly basis, the participants evaluated their performance progress on the learning tasks of the KS as shown in a participant’s statement, “We reviewed our answers weekly during the break in-class…in cases where we could not find or disagree on an answer in our group, we discussed it with another group.” Another participant said, “We usually compared our answers with the other groups’ answers.” Ultimately, the majority of participants improved their grades on the second mid-term exam compared to the first mid-term exam as shown in Table 2. They also expressed interest in having a KS for all the classes they attend. They agreed that the KS can be time-consuming and requires considerable effort, but the benefits of using it made it a load they could handle and deal with. In their

opinion, the KS provided them from day one with a clear road map of what and how to master by the end of the course. Table 2: Comparison of participants’ scores on mid-term exam 1 and mid-term exam 2

MTE 1

MTE 2

MTE 1

MTE 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

7 4.5 6.5 4 6 7 6 3 5 7 5 9 9 7 7 6.5 5.5

8 5.5 7.5 9.5 9 9 7 7 6 10 8 9.5 8.5 9.5 10 10 7

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

8 9 7.5 5 8.5 5.5 6 6.5 8 7.5 6 8 7 5 4.5 6 7

9 9.5 10 9.5 8 8 10 10 8.5 9.5 6 10 7.5 9 7 8.5 9.5

Note. P: Participant, MTE: Mid-tem Exam.

6. Discussion and Conclusion The study aimed to investigate to what extent a Knowledge Survey can motivate pre-service teachers to regulate their own learning in an introductory educational course. The study results suggest that the sample of pre-service teachers in this study often utilized the KS designed for the course, which produced a positive learning outcome. These results provided evidence indicating that the use of the KS contributed to an increase in the participant motivation and improvement in their own learning through self-regulation. These positive learning outcomes were the end result of the interaction between the three motivational components of the self-regulated learning: the expectancy component, the emotional component, and the value component. The expectancy component involved the answer to the question, “Can pre-service teachers answer the KS questions?” The participants were able to recognize what questions they could and could not answer after an initial scanning of the survey at the beginning of the semester. All but a few participants claimed they were confident with their ability to learn the content and skills covered in the KS in one way on another. This alone, however, was insufficient for self-regulation. The reason for this is that the expectancy component was negatively affected by the emotional component, “How do pre-service teachers feel about answering the KS questions?” The participants had negative feelings towards the KS due to the high volume of work associated with it. They claimed that the content and skills needed was explicit and systematic in the KS and they were clear on what to learn. However, the application of the KS requires abundant effort and is very

time-consuming. Thus, they preferred to ignore the KS and learn the required content and skills through typical in-class instruction. Thus, the value component, “Why are pre-service teachers answering the KS questions?” was the most effective in changing behavior. The participants firmly believed that the content and skills impeded in the KS was important to their future teaching career and mastering them a key to success in this course. Still, they showed a clear disinterest in the KS until after the first mid-term exam. Interestingly, participant interest changed from non-interested to very-interested in the KS after the first mid-term exam, which included two questions directly from the KS and three others with equivalent formatting. Although the participants were informed in the beginning of the study that all the course exams questions would be drawn from the KS with the same format or an equivalent one, they apparently doubted this as this type of tool was new to them. Once this doubt became a certainty, the instrumental value became real and clear to them. This contributed to a noticeable increase in their motivation to use the KS and learn the content and skills required in the course through selfregulation. In fact, the participants were not interested in the KS itself, as solving the entire set of questions can be tedious and very time-consuming. They were actually interested in the outcomes of solving the KS questions, which was mastering the content and skills required in the course and obtaining good grades as a result (Panadero & Tapia, 2014). To regulate their own learning of the KS content and skills, the participants employed the first and third stages of SLR collectively and the second one individually at most. The first stage (i.e., forethought) was done collectively where the participants set goals with certain properties to solve all the KS questions. The goal properties were labeled as specific, short-term, and achievable. The following sentence is a representative example of these goals, “each student selected a mixture of approximately 24 questions from the different sections of the KS to solve throughout the semester (specific) …3 questions per week (short term)... we could solve all the KS questions with the help of each other (achievable).” Schunk (2001) argued that these three goal properties are empirically found to boost motivation and enhance selfregulation. The reason is that 1) specific goals determine a clear framework and the amount of effort needed to perform a certain task as opposed to general goals, 2) overly easy goals and overly difficult goals do not usually motivate people. Moderately difficult goals that are perceived as achievable do motivate, and 3) short-term goals are clearer and are executed quicker than long-term goals. The second stage (i.e., performance) was mostly done individually where each participant created their own strategies to come up with answers to the allocated set of questions, monitored the effectiveness of the strategies, and adjust them as needed. In limited cases, some participants performed the second stage with the help of another participant. The third stages (i.e., reflections on performance) was done collectively where the participants evaluated the entire group

performance on the learning task as a whole. This finding is consistent of the view of that learners employ different types of regulations during cooperative learning situations: self-regulation (an individual learner regulates his/her own learning), co-regulation (an individual scaffolds and regulates another individual’s learning), and shared-regulation (individuals work together to regulate each other’s learning) (Hayes, Smith & Shea, 2015; Fernandez-Rio, Cecchini, Méndez-Gimenez, Mendez-Alonso, & Prieto, 2017) One might argue that the KS served as an extrinsic motivation that could undermine participant intrinsic motivation to learn. While the KS is considered to be a form of extrinsic motivation, it did provide the participants with more autonomy, which linked their motivation more closely with internal causality (Harmes et al., 2015). The results showed that the participants were already motivated intrinsically to learn the content and skills of this course because they believed that this course was important to their future teaching career. The KS was just a boost to stimulate their existing intrinsic motivation. What differed is that the participants usually engage in learning course materials throughout the semester in typical in-classroom instruction. The KS was a new approach, and also a unique change in instruction, that highly energized them to learn the course materials. In view of the results of the study, there is one main implication for researchers studying pre-service teacher self-regulation. The study suggests the inclusion of self-regulation in teacher preparation programs as a priority. This suggestion, however, does not imply deemphasizing the main priorities of the programs that include knowledge of subject matter, students, and instructional practices. Rather, it suggests including self-regulation within these priorities in two forms. First, teaching self-regulation skills with the subject matter. Pre-service teachers become motivated to apply a certain self-regulation approach once they acknowledge its benefits to their subject matter knowledge compared to other approaches. In fact, they may learn how to self-regulate during a general selfregulation program, but they should be given the opportunity to practice it in a classroom. Once they experience self-regulation benefits on their own learning of the subject matter they are studying, they are more likely to apply it to other subject matter. Ekeke and Telu (2015) went further to argue that learning selfregulation in school helps extend its effect to life. That is, learners become intrinsically encouraged to apply it to in all facets of their lives and become lifelong learners, which is an important goal in education. Second, teaching self-regulation can be accomplished through tools that consider the three motivational components in their design. On the one hand, the preservice teachers in the present study described solving the tasks of the tool as overwhelming (the emotional component), which indicated a negative feeling towards the tool tasks. On the other hand, they described the tasks as achievable (the expectancy component) and significant to their future career (the value component). Regardless of the negative result of the emotional component, they applied the tool and produced positive learning outcomes as a result of the interaction between the three motivational components. It is axiomatic, then,

that pre-service teacher would learn better via a tool that provides them with a positive result regarding the three motivational components. In other words, the tasks of a tool that are perceived as achievable, interesting, and valuable are more likely to motivate self-regulation. This study, however, has limitations. One limitation of the study is that the KS mostly included subjective questions. Tools in future studies should include a balanced mixture of subjective questions and objective questions in order to obtain better insight into pre-service teacher self-regulation. Another limitation is the absence of female participants in the study. Although the present study resulted in insights on self-regulation, the sample only included males. A sample with a mix of male and female participants may yield qualitatively different results.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 72-89, October 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.10.6

What Makes up an Effective Emotional Intelligence Training Design for Teachers? Niva Dolev .Kinneret Academic College, Israel Shosh Leshem Kibbutzim Academic College of Education, Technology and the Arts, Israel Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa Abstract. Recently there has been a growing interest in ways in which Emotional Intelligence (EI) can be enhanced among teachers. However, although it has been noted that effective teaching requires high levels of EI, little is known about effective methods to develop teachers' EI. The current qualitative study followed a two year EI development training for 21 teachers in one school in Israel. Main emerging themes related to the training design included the focus on teachers' own development, the combination of personal and group processes, flexibility and self direction, long-term in-school training, and leadership support. Implications for future teachers' EI training design are discussed. The findings advance our understanding of possible mechanisms for promoting high-quality EI professional development for teachers. Keywords: Emotional intelligence (EI); Teachers' training; EI development; Coaching; EI workshops.

Introduction During the last few decades a considerable body of research has indicated that beyond abilities and backgrounds, studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; cognitive, emotional and social functioning is highly dependent on the quality of the teachers that teach them (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Muijs, 2006; van Uden, Ritzen & Pieters, 2013; Hattie, 2015). While the importance of teachers' selection in entry level has been highlighted, high quality professional development in teachers has been considered essential for effective teaching and for school achievements (Guskey, 2002; Day et al., 2007; Darling-Hammond et al., 2009). Knowledge of content and pedagogy, class management and instruction skills are typically among the most common characteristics associated with effective teaching and are also the main target of teacher professional development (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009). However, other skills, such as reflection and communication skills; commitment, empathy, care and motivation; the ability to create positive and nurturing

learning environments and positive student-teacher relationships have been highlighted (Kyriacou, 1998; Anderson, 2004; Stronge, 2007). Stronge et al. (2004) suggested that such qualities are characteristic of the ‘teacher as a person’ (p.29), while others noted that many of them are included in the concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI) (Day et al., 2007). Indeed, EI, the adaptive integration of emotion and thought (Salovey & Mayer, 1990), and the set of related socialemotional skills and competencies (Goleman, 1995; Bar-On, 2006), has been recently suggested to be an important ingredient to effective teaching (Haskett, 2003; Drew, 2006). Teaching is a highly emotional and social practice (Hargreaves, 2001). Thus, effective teaching and teachers’ EI skills are closely related. Teachers experience a wide range of emotions (Nias, 1996) which affect teaching and class behaviours (Hargreaves 2001), social relationships with students and others (Palomera et al., 2008), teachers' well-being and personal and professional selfview (Nias, 1996). These, in turn, impact students' well-being, learning and academic success (Perry & Ball, 2007). In order to succeed, teachers have to identify, understand and manage their own emotions as well as those of their students, who experience a similarly wide range of emotions and which impact their well-being and successes (Brackett & Katulak, 2006). Goleman (1995) further noted that teachers play a crucial role in developing EI skills in children and helping them gain the necessary set of skills to cope with challenges, including those brought about by life in the modern era. This role requires welldeveloped EI skills and modeling emotionally intelligent behaviors (Elias et al., 1997; Brackett, 2008). It has therefore been recommended that professional development programs for teachers should define a much broader purpose than the one commonly used, which gives prominence to academic and pedagogical knowledge (Guskey, 2002; Darling-Hammond et al., 2009). More specifically, it has been suggested that teacher trainings should include efforts to develop teachers’ social emotional competence (Day et al., 2007; Palomera et al., 2008; Waajid, Garner & Owen, 2013). However, despite the fact that growing attention has been given to students’ EI development through social emotional learning (SEL) programs (Zins et al., 2007; Rivers & Brackett, 2011), there has been little focus on EI trainings and development of EI competencies in pre-service or in-service training programmes for teachers (Cohen & Sandy, 2007; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Waajid et al., 2013). The current study is aimed at addressing this gap in the literature and investigates what makes up an effective EI training design for teachers. This study is the qualitative part of a comprehensive study, which followed an EI training for 21 teachers in one school in Israel for two years and looked into the impact of the training. The training included workshops and personal EI sessions for teachers, led by an external team of EI experts. The training was based on the Bar-On model of EI which includes five main scales: intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability, stress-management, general mood and 15 competencies within it (Bar-On, 1997).

The training was found to increase teachers' EI levels on group and individual levels as measured by the Bar-On EQ-i, a self-report quantitative measure. Shifts were found in total group EI, from 101.57 to 105.24, and in 14 of 15 EQ-i subscales. Interviews indicated that the teachers embraced EI as highly important in educational context and to their own work, and viewed the training as highly effective and meaningful. The training had a profound perceived impact on teachers' EI levels and upon EI related behaviours. Shifts that were credited to the training were highly individual in nature and extent, and were perceived as an on-going process. Teachers further noted developing awareness to students' EI skills, and voluntarily beginning to develop their EI informally, through modeling and interactions and formally, through EI lessons. Additionally, improvements in team relations and atmosphere, and organizational efforts to formally incorporate EI in the curriculum were noted (Dolev & Leshem, 2016). As part of the study, the participants were asked about the elements that contributed to the training effectiveness, the focus of the present study. The insights might contribute to the design of effective teachers' EI trainings.

Theoretical Background Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence (EI) has been first introduced by Salovey and Mayer (1990) who suggested that EI relates to the effective integration of emotion and thought and described it as comprised of the ability to identify, use, understand and regulate emotions in the self and others. Defining EI more widely and discussing EI as a set of skills that manifest themselves in behaviours, Bar-On suggests that EI is â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;a cross-section of interrelated emotional and social competencies skills that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves and others and cope with daily demands (Bar-On, 2006, p. 3). Teaching has been suggested as one of the professions in which EI plays a particularly important role (Sutton &Wheatley, 2003; Drew, 2006; McCown et al., 2007; Myint and Aung, 2016). EI has been linked to different aspects of school life, such as students' pro-social behaviours (Brackett et al., 2004), interactions with teachers and peers, learning and academic achievements (Elias et al., 1997; Zins et al., 2004; Brackett et al., 2007; Eccles, Devis-Rozental, & Mayer, 2016). For example, Haskett (2003) found EI competencies, and in particular the General Mood scale of the EQ-i to correlate with effective teaching, comparing 86 Teaching Award recipients with 200 randomly selected non-winners. Similarly, Hwang (2007) found teaching effectiveness to be positively associated with overall EI, as well as with a number of specific competencies, including empathy, self-esteem and leadership. Furthermore, teachers' EI levels play an important role in developing children's EI (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009) through formal teaching, modeling EI behaviours and building secure attachments (Ulloa, Evans & Jones, 2016). Yet, while the role of EI and its contribution to teachers' effectiveness has been recently highlighted, concern has often been voiced over the lack of data regarding the emotional and social characteristics that underlie teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; effectiveness and the paucity of efforts to develop them in teachers (Haskett,

2003). Developing EI Skills A growing body of research indicates that successful EI development efforts can enhance EI levels (Bar-On, 2006; Lennick 2007; Cohen-Katz et al., 2016; Herpertz, Schütz, & Nezlek, 2016), and result in increase in personal and professional effectiveness (Cherniss & Goleman, 2001; Abraham, 2005; Clarke, 2010). For example, Slaski and Cartwright (2003) found significant improvements in the mean total EQ-i (from 95.6 to 100.8) and in the general health and well-being of group members. Significant gains in EI increases in total EQ-i score (from 94 to 100) and improved financial outcomes were also found in studies of the American Express Financial Advisors EI-training programme (Lennick, 2007). It has been argued that the development of EI in teachers could benefit teachers too; enable them to better understand what underlies their motivations and behaviours (Haskett, 2003), enhance less-developed competencies (Kaufhold & Johnson, 2005), develop greater understanding of students’ emotions (AbiSamraSalem, 2010), improve teacher-student relationships (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009) and promote effective teaching (Cohen, 2001). Teachers' EI trainings however are much less common than in other settings and have not been widely studied (Brackett et al. 2009; Corcoran and Tormey, 2010). This lacuna is also reflected in discussions of teachers’ qualities. Trainings for teachers typically take part within an SEL program and focus on providing knowledge on EI and methods to deliver EI programs to students, rather than on teachers own EI development. The limited number of existing efforts did show promising results, indicating the ability to develop EI in teachers (Dolev & Leshem, 2016; Ulloa, Evans & Jones, 2016). Such efforts have led to increased teachers’ recognition of the importance of EI to schools (Maree & Mokhuane, 2007; Dolev & Leshem, 2016). It also enhanced teachers’ sensitivity to students’ emotions in different situations and increased their ability to respond constructively to students’ socialemotional needs (Brackett et al., 2009). Characteristics of Effective EI Development With mounting evidence that certain EI training programs can increase EI, it has become important to identify the characteristics which make EI development most effective (Cherniss et al., 1998). Firstly, scholars have noted that as EI relates to personal abilities or skills, effective EI development involves not only providing a theoretical basis and an understanding of the concept, but also the development of EI competencies and changes in habits, attitudes and behaviors (Bharwaney, 2007; Boyatzis, 2007; Neale et al., 2009). Cherniss et al (1998) further identified a number of main characteristics related to effective EI training in organizations. Those included, gaining organizational and leadership support, voluntary and self-motivated participation, adjustment of the participants’ expectations and needs, and self-directed processes. These were noted to contribute to motivation and encourage participants to be personally accountable for their progress and take an active part in it (Cherniss

& Goleman, 2001; Boyatzis, 2007; White, 2006). Process-integrated personal EI assessments and feedback allow individuals to recognize areas of strength and serve as a foundation and motivation for subsequent development processes (Cherniss et al., 1998; Bharwaney, 2007; Hughes & Terrell, 2009). The use of varied, active and experiential training strategies creates and maintains interest and caters for different learning styles. Providing opportunities to practice newly acquired skills through repeated exercises and feedback sessions in different settings, would enable developing skills and establishing new behaviors (Cherniss & Goleman, 2001; Bryan, 2006). It has been further acknowledged that EI development requires an extensive, routinized, long-term effort, which provides time for the above mentioned exploration, development, practice and repetition (Neale et al., 2009), including in teachers EI training (Brackett et al., 2009). EI trainings can be conducted in groups or individually. EI group-based training is the most common type of training. Beyond its cost effectiveness, the group element has been noted to address the interdependence between learners and their environments (Dasho et al., 2001); to facilitate peer support (Cherniss et al., 1998; Boyatzis, 2007); to provide real-world training opportunities; to help solve social problems within the group (Caruso and Wolfe, 2001); and to enhance collegiality and collaboration (Cherniss & Goleman, 2001; Cohen & Sandy, 2007). Furthermore, relationships within the group in EI development processes were noted to provide participants with context, guidance, permission to change and to develop group norms (Druskat & Wolff, 2001). In particular, relationships with colleagues during teacher training were argued to promote collaborative inquiry (Zins et al., 1997), and to allow for the sharing of ideas and peer-learning (Anderson, 2004). Moreover, group work among teachers within students' social emotional learning (SEL) programmes was noted to provide a sense of ownership over processes and to create a sense of synergy (Haynes, 2007), which contributes to learning and to personal development processes in teachers (Richardson, 1998; Hargreaves, 2005). At the same time, efforts to develop EI in a one-on-one process are becoming more available, mainly with leaders. Those are often relying on the practice of coaching (Chapman, 2005). EI coaching is an individual-based training specifically designed to help individuals develop their EI skills so that they can become more effective and incorporate the theoretical and empirical aspects of EI and of effective EI development with coaching tools (Bharwaney, 2007). Typical EI coaching processes encourage individuals to select EI skills and competencies that require development (Hughes & Terrell, 2009), often utilizing an EI assessment tool (Orme & Cannon, 2000), and to define personal and professional goals that these enhanced competencies can help achieve (Peterson, 1996; Bharwaney, 2007). The one-on-one setting allows to focus on individual EI competencies, unique circumstances, strengths and challenges, vision and goals (Robertson, 2004), to adjust learning styles to the learner, and to provide a safe, supportive,

intimate and private arena for development (Chapman, 2005). One-on-one coaching has been found suitable for teachers as it allows them to understand themselves, enhance accountability and self-efficacy and to achieve personal goals (Broun, 2007). The combination of one on one coaching with group-based training has recently been recommended as an effective EI-development tool (Hughes & Terrell, 2009; Neale et al., 2009). Brackett et al. (2009) similarly suggested that incorporating a few personal coaching sessions in group EI training for teachers can be beneficial.

Methodology The study followed an EI training which took place in one secondary school in Israel. Based on the interpretive view of reality, qualitative research frameworks allowed the researchers close proximity to the participants’ experiences within the training in its natural setting and facilitated the accumulation of thick and rich descriptions (Geertz, 1973). The study, which was part of a larger study on the impact of the training, employed in-depth semi-structured interviews with all 21 training participants, 4 males and 17 females, age 33-64, all active teachers in the school. The Research Setting The setting of the research is a secondary school in northern Israel which was the only school in the country undertaking an extensive EI training. At the time of the study the school had approximately 600 students, age 13-18, and a staff of 70 full-time teachers. It is typified by a heterogeneous population, comprising students from both rural and urban settlements, different home environments and of different ethnicities and economic status. The Training The EI training programme was initiated by the school’s head-master and introduced to staff as part of the schools continual professional development programmes. Participation was voluntary and open to all teachers but management and position holders comprised a big number of the participants. All the participants went through the same elements of training and in the same sequence. The training, which lasted two years, was based on the Bar-On model of EI. The first year comprised a series of twelve interactive group workshops, conducted at the school after school hours and on holidays. Each workshop lasted from a few hours to a full day and punctuated by intervals of typically one month. The second year consisted of 10 individual coaching sessions, in 2-3 weeks intervals, accompanied by additional (less frequent) group workshops. Group workshops focused on EI’s theoretical and empirical foundations; its relevance to effectiveness among individuals, teachers, students and schools; and on each of Bar-On’s 15 EI competencies. The competencies targeted for development included self-awareness, self-regard, assertiveness, selfactualization, empathy, social responsibility, interpersonal relation, reality testing, problem solving, stress tolerance, happiness and optimism. The workshops used varied methods and facilitated activities which were conducted with the entire group of participants, in smaller sub-groups, in pairs and in individual reflective exercise. Within the coaching sessions each participant

could develop personal EI competencies and setting personal and professional goals. Coaching sessions focused on self introspection and awareness, identifying areas that will be a focus of development and working toward their development using different methods such as introspective questions, reflecting on past experiences and identifying a vision and goals. During the first introductory group session, a pre-training EQ-i assessment was carried out, as part of the comprehensive study. It was followed by a personal feedback session for each participant, in which the EI profile was presented and discussed. These profiles later served a developmental tool in the workshops and coaching sessions. Additionally, a group profile was presented and interpreted to the entire group and served as a base for the work in the group and the design of some of the workshops. Research Procedures Once the training ended, a general consent from the headmaster and all the training participants was obtained. Individual interviews were then conducted with each of the participants at a time and location of their convenience. All interviews were approximately one and a half hour long and conducted within a single, one-month period. Interviews were recorded in shorthand and transcribed prior to their analysis following the request of some of the participants. It has been made clear that participation in the research was entirely voluntary, and that the participants can withdraw at any time or refrain from answering certain questions. Participants were assured that all identifying information will be kept confidential. Interview questions were formulated on theoretical ground and incuded questions such as: can you describe the training design? How did the training elements impacted the training and its outcomes? What elements of the training were most (least) effective? Data analysis Interview analysis was carried out with the aid of qualitative software (Atlas-Ti 6). A thematic content analysis approach was used to analyse the transcripts (Weber, 1990). Each interview transcript was analysed and coded separately, using open coding to identify emerging themes. Cross interview categories were then constructed and codes were again compared in order to ensure that items were properly sorted and coded (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Major categories (themes) were then identified, allowing for clusters of codes within a conceptual category to converge into â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;clusters of meaningâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, a key step according to Creswell (1998).

Results The study was aimed at identifying the contribution of different elements to the training effectiveness. The thematic analysis revealed a number of main themes regarding the design of the training: a teachers' centered training, personal and group processes, a long-term process, a self-directed process, a holistic approach, personal EI assessment, and management support. Teacher centered training: Participants attributed importance to putting teachers at the centre of training, and focusing on their own development, a focus which was described as unique in their experience of teacher trainings. They frequently described the training as individual, personal and internal, a

'personal gain' (IE) or 'a personal gift' (ISH) designed ‘…for each of us to gain selfknowledge and self-understanding…’ (OR). Personal development of teachers' EI was viewed by the participants as essential to their professional effectiveness and to a change in the school:’ The first step towards a meaningful change in schools’(OR); It had further enhanced their motivation to 'pay foreword' their experiences to students and develop their EI voluntarily, in class and other interactions, contributed to their ability to demonstrate EI-related behaviours and to walk the talk and enhanced their ability to teach EI authentically. Many also discussed the personal focus as creating a feeling of being valued, appreciated and invested in, which enhanced their motivation within the training, and their commitment to the school and to EI implementation. Personal and group processes: The participants described the training as consisting of group workshops and individual coaching sessions. Both elements were perceived as central to the programme, and were equally valued by participants. Participants noted that the two training elements had served both distinct and overlapping purposes, found them to be complementary, and in synergy with each other. Most participants also recommended for both elements to be included in future teachers' training programmes more generally. The participants later employed both personal coaching and group workshops as part of their training sustainability efforts (for the current group and other teachers) and in the EI-training pilot programme for the students. Group workshops: The participants noted that group workshops, which were offered throughout the training, provided them with personal and group learning and development opportunities, as well as allowed for changes in the team and in the school as a whole. The participants noted that group workshops provided them with a large body of EI-related knowledge, promoted awareness and acceptance of EI among the participants and developed both personal and shared understanding of the concept, to which many were unfamiliar: ‘It [the EI training programme] addressed a topic which is most important and relevant to education’ (USH). EI provided a useful, comprehensive and practical framework for understanding and developing themselves and others, and in particular students: [EI] competencies, they sharpen your view and help you to sort things properly: What underlies different behaviours and outcomes, how to interpret certain behaviours. It [EI] offers a theory in place of intuition, and it is focused and structured’ (OY). The workshops further provided participants with opportunities to engage in EI on a personal level through self-exploration and reflection: ‘For me it all [introspection] started during the workshops, when the trainers asked us what it is that we would like people to say about us when we retire… it got me thinking…’ (TE). Likewise, within the workshops, many participants actively shared feelings, experiences and insights, including those from their personal profiles, with the group and engaged in self-disclosure. This process allowed the participants to learn from their colleagues, to see themselves through their colleagues’ eyes, and to receive feedbacks regarding their own insights and EI skills: ‘Whenever someone would raise a topic that was related to my own experiences [I was able to] learn and understand something new about myself’ (MS). "Only then, when

teachers told me, I realised that I offend people, that my cynicism that I viewed as social, is really offensive (IE). Sharing difficulties and emotions regarding EI development helped participants not to feel alone in the journey and to deal and overcome them through shared experiences and support: "'it helped to know that other people are going through similar things" (GY). Group workshops were also the setting in which the impact of the training was extended beyond the individual domains to the team and the organisational (school) domains. Participants credited the group processes within the workshops with creating cooperation and collaboration among the participants, fostering new group norms and dynamics and improved inter-team relationships: ‘We started to view teachers differently… to understand things differently… We started appreciating things that we had not paid attention to before‘ (LI). Participants allowed themselves to become vulnerable and began talking about difficulties at work and seeking advice and help: ‘People weren’t afraid to talk about themselves or to expose weaknesses… People felt safe enough to share failures and to ask for help…(WN): ‘There is more collaboration. You are not alone anymore. People no longer keep their knowledge to themselves… (VA), ‘You feel that people are really together, that they want to help each other. [There’s a feeling of] real partnership’ (BP). The group discussions led to changes in the school, resulting in an initiation and implementation of an EI program for students while still in training. The participants spoke with much pride of their implementation effort, referred to them as 'our programme' and put much time and effort in designing and executing it. These broader impacts were accomplished through group learning and discussions of pedagogic ideas: ‘It was us who had undergone the training, and now we were passing the knowledge on, in all kinds of ways, to the students, because we are actually one – teachers and students’ (OR). Personal coaching: Personal coaching was described as a self-directed process in which the participants received guidance and on-going support while becoming involved in a personal development process. While self-exploration and development began for many at the workshops, a majority viewed coaching sessions as essential for their EI development, providing a more in-depth and individual introspection and personal development. For some, self-exploration only began in personal coaching. Within the coaching sessions the participants enhanced their self-discovery and personal insights, identified and selected the competencies, behaviours and habits they most wanted to explore and develop; defined a vision and proceeded to develop the selected competencies: 'You (sic) would discuss certain topics with your trainer, and [consequently] you would see everything in a new light… things would become clearer….' (GN). :'I would not have identified many of the issues [that I had to address] myself [without my coach]. Even the personal segment of the [group] workshops was not enough’ (BP). Coaches were noted to provide a safe, supportive and challenging atmosphere: ‘I discussed many things that I had not discussed before… I was able to be me…lowered my defences. There aren’t many people who I trust to that extent’ (VA). ‘‘I could pour my heart, open up and discuss sensitive issues… I was able to take risks’ (RI). Support was particularly important to the participants as for many selfexploration was an emotional and sometimes difficult process. They often referred to the coaches as figures who are ‘…there just for you’ (FE), or ‘who care

about you’ (OY) which was seen as novelty within teacher trainings and a personal gain. While many participants noted the privacy of the coaching sessions and the insights offered by coaches as essential to their progress, some assigned much importance to the ability to share experiences with the group. A long term process: Rather than perceiving it to be a burden, the relatively long, two-year duration of the training programme was valued by all participants: ‘Schools usually don’t have time or patience. They are in a hurry. Therefore changes [in schools] are usually external and superficial’ (OR). It allowed them to engage in deep introspection to develop each at their own pace, thus affecting a ‘real change’ (GY), to come together as a group, to explore ways to bring EI to their classes, and to design and implement school changes. At the same time, despite the lengthy duration of the programme under study, efforts to engage non-participant teachers in EI during its course had hardly been noted, leading, according to some participants, a relatively limited impact of the training upon the students and the school and feelings of exclusion among some non-participant teachers. A self-directed process: Many participants drew attention to the flexible and dynamic nature of the training programme, in all its stages and domains. They said it was tailored to their individual ‘starting points’ as well as to the pretraining conditions in the school in which it took place. They appreciated the autonomy to follow directions most suitable for them, to deal with new-found challenges, to integrate new insights into their personal and professional development process, and thus to take part in designing and guiding this process. However, such flexibility did not come without a price and participants did note instances in which the programme strained to adapt to emerging needs. For example, some participants regretted the lack of SEL-related reading materials (SEL not being a direct goal of the training programme). A holistic approach: Participants explored competencies and behaviours, values, perceptions, habits and aspirations in a variety of settings. The programme supported exploration of both personal and professional themes, in school and out, and thus allowed for different sources of motivation, such as the desire to achieve personal growth, to increase effectiveness at work and to develop EI in others. These, in turn, provided a variety of ways for EI to ‘permeate’ the school, and turned the concept of EI into a ‘life view’: ‘Even newspapers, I now read them differently, I see in them things that I haven’t seen before… I now often bring newspaper articles with me to class, I highlight events that have to do with EI’ (BP)). Personal EI Assessment: A majority of the participants noted that their personal EI profiles (using the EQ-i) provided them with valuable information about themselves and were central for their development and the effectiveness of the training 'The assessments … benefited each of us personally. I was able to get a ‘scientific proof’ of what I knew about myself, and to learn new and surprising things about myself’ (OY). The profiles increased awareness to personal EI skills, motivated the participants to engage in a more thorough exploration of their EI and to understand the manner by which EI competencies manifest themselves in their behaviours and impact their lives and work. This, in turn, laid the foundation for

a later process of looking at other people, mainly students, through the same lens, as noted by one of the participants: ’Once we saw ourselves differently we were able to see our students differently, everything became clearer…’ (BP). The profiles were also found to evoke deep emotions in participants who found their EI lower than they expected or were faced with specific lower skills: I was in a state of great uncertainty and confusion… It [the feedback] touched upon my self-esteem and affected my image as a teacher and as an educator… It was really hard to go through this process but worthwhile’ (MS). For the majority of them, such emotions were temporary and did not discourage them. Two veteran teachers, however, decided not to engage in active personal development but rather on students' development. Management role: a number of participants referred to the important contribution of the commitment of the school management to the programme, the financial, administrative and professional support and in particular, their support for various initiatives, including the pursuit of career transitions in search of more fulfilling roles. Beyond it, management staff members were noted to participate in all stages of the training as equal partners. They openly discussed personal weaknesses, shared personal experiences with other participants during group workshops, attended personal coaching sessions, and took an active part in coaching students and in teaching EI.

Conclusion During the last two decades a growing body of research suggests that social-emotional skills are linked with the abilities to cope effectively with life challenges and to succeed in a variety of vocations (Parker et al., 2009), including teaching (Sutton & Wheatley 2003; Maree and Mokhuane 2007; McCown et al., 2007). This creates the question of how to design effective EI trainings for teachers, of high importance. However, only a few training programmes have attended to the emotional competence of teachers (Cohen & Sandy, 2007; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Corcoran & Tormey, 2010). Thus, not much is known about effective EI training design for teachers. The current study followed an EI training for teachers within a school. It revealed the specific training elements which contribute to a useful framework for EI development in a school setting, as well as areas for further improvement. Firstly, the present findings indicate that a focus on teachers within EI training contributed to many of the outcomes of the training program under study, including the participants’ favorable view of the EI training; their high motivation to engage in the training and their proactive initiatives to further EI learning in their school. It has been noted that as EI is an individual capacity in nature, EI development requires a focus on individual skills (Cherniss et al., 1998). Others emphasized the need for teachers’ professional development to be one which focuses on teachers’ personal development (Richardson, 1998; Friedman & Philip, 2004). Recently, the need to focus on developing social and emotional skills in teachers (Brackett et al., 2009), and in particular experienced teachers (Corcoran & Tormai, 2010) has been discussed. The findings echo Cherniss et al. (1998) and White (2006) who noted that motivation to become

engaged in development is higher when perceived as promising personal, rather than only organizational gains. The flexibility and self-direction inherent in the teachers' focus of the training allowed for a dynamic and evolving process which suits personal and school needs, supporting Boyatzis (2007) claim that self-direction is crucial within EI development efforts. Indeed, while participants were introduced to the program in the same manner, they each joined at their own starting point, chose whether and to what extent to be engaged in self-exploration, focused on different skills, chose different paths and developed in their own pace and on different levels. The self-directed nature of the training exceeded to the group level and the participants designed the EI development program for students themselves in a facilitated process. Focusing on areas which are personally and professionally relevant to the teachers enhanced motivation, engagement and accountability. Group workshops and personal coaching were found to be central to the training. They were described as useful in embracing EI, developing personal EI skills, accounting for different learning and development styles, and motivating teachers to voluntarily develop students' EI, informally and formally. These current findings support the emerging body of recent literature in which the incorporation of individual development and group work has been recommended (Chapman, 2005; Bharwaney, 2007; McKee et al., 2009). In the present study, EI coaching and group workshops appeared to mirror two types of efforts which are common to schools worldwide, respectively: the often-noted individual efforts in classrooms, where personal effectiveness largely affects students’ success (McKinsey report 2007); and the many collaborative efforts which teachers engage in as they strive to reach shared pedagogic goals (Fullan, 1993), including those related to developing students' social emotional skills. The one-on-one work within personal coaching in this study allowed addressing each teacher’s unique set of personal behavior-related EI skills. Such a method is not typical to school training programs (Griffiths, 2005), and many training programs provide all teachers with the exact same training and consistently fail to recognize differences among teachers and to address their personal needs (Anderson, 2004). Furthermore, in view of the complex and multi-dimensional nature of EI development (Cherniss et al., 1998; Weare & Gray, 2003), and the inherent difficulty in identifying and changing teachers’ self-behaviours (Argyris, 2000), personal EI coaching was found in this study to support self-discovery and encourage the development of personal skills. Indeed, and in line with Lasky (2005), teachers in the present study were more likely to risk vulnerability during the change process when they felt safe and believed that these changes would lead to personal or professional gains. At the same time, Richardson (1998) has warned that failure to address group processes in teachers' trainings may lead to incoherence in pedagogical views and hence may negatively impact upon students. The school-located

group-based workshops allowed for emotional and social processes within the group, the fostering of new group norms and dynamics, and group discussions of pedagogic ideas which led to shared views and to the design and implementation of organizational change. These findings support earlier claims regarding the contribution of group work to learning and personal development (Anderson 2004; Hargreaves, 2005), and to the enhancement of emotionally intelligent group norms (Druskat & Wolff, 2001). The use of a personal assessment within the training was found to be an important tool in the development of personal skills, extending Cherniss et al. (1998) insights to teachers, providing valuable insights, promoting selfunderstanding and creating a sense of urgency. The long term effort was found to allow personal and group processes to take place. This was in line with effective CPD programmes guidelines which were recommended to be long term (TDA, 2008), and in view of the work and effort required for an EI development process (Cherniss et al., 1998). Grant (2007) highlighted the importance of intervals as an integral part of long-term training processes rather than a short-term (two days), block intensive programme. This suited the view of the participants of EI development as an ongoing process, and allowed for real life practice and reflections. However, the impact of investing in one group of teachers within a school setting for a long time period should be examined. Limitations of the study The study has a number of limitations: examining a single program in one school, relying on a small sample, limited to personal interviews using teachers' views only. Moreover, while various scholars have noted that training programmes should lead to sustainable outcomes (Boyatzis, 2007), the present inquiry ended soon after the completion of the EI development programme under study, not allowing examining sustainable impacts. However, the findings have an important contribution as they highlight elements which contribute to the ability to develop teachers EI skills. Studies could examine the elements of the training design and their effectiveness in other settings and help determine and optimise a variety of programme parameters, such as the optimal length of EI training programmes for teachers, or the effects of voluntary versus compulsory participation in such programmes. More generally, studies of other types of EI training programmes could help identify the most effective way to develop EI in teachers.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 90-99, October 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.10.7

Advanced Academic Writing Course for International Students Belonging to “One Belt, One Road” Chang Chen*, Habiba Khalid, and Farrukh Raza Amin College of Chemical Engineering Beijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing, China

Abstract. China has attracted many international students in the past five years through Chinese Scholarship Council (CSC) to improve the standard of higher education and research productivity. Most of the students come from “One belt, One Road” countries to pursue master and doctoral degrees. The School of International Education and Graduate School at Beijing University of Chemical Technology (BUCT), China implemented Advanced Academic Writing Skills (AAWS) as a mandatory course for non-native English-speaking students, belonging to One Belt, One Road (OBOR), to enable them to improve and polish their academic writing skills. The ultimate goal of this paper is to critically investigate student‟s perception of the AAWS mandatory course to improve their academic writing skills. Formative and summative assessments and student perceptions were used to assess the student satisfaction and knowledge. An evaluation index was administered to collect student perceptions about the course. Students reported a high degree of satisfaction with the course, indicating that the course was well-designed and implemented. The results provided a model to other universities to bring adjustments for the improvement of the academic writing skills of young researchers, and comprehensively improve the quality of research and publications worldwide. Keywords: Academic writing; One belt, One Road; Research productivity; Research quality; Critical thinking; Graduate writing.

Introduction Dissemination of knowledge is essential for the growth of any academic field and publishing scholarly work is highly expected from the people working within academia (Morton, 2013; Uçar & Yazıcı, 2016). Publication not only

measures the research productivity necessary for promotion and performance review but is regarded as a professional obligation (Langum & Sullivan, 2017; Moussa-inaty, 2017). Many scientists have busy schedules, due to which they procrastinate the task of scientific and academic writing. Furthermore, some scientists and researchers have not developed the habit of writing on a regular basis and therefore, have inadequate academic writing skills. Others might have skills for writing a term paper, acquired from their past educational experience but do not exactly know how to submit an impressive piece of writing to a professional journal. Thus, academic writing is perceived to be a difficult and painful task for many researchers and scientists, such that it reaches to the point of being completely neglected. Some studies have mentioned the obstacles faced by researchers belonging to different disciplines in publishing valuable scientific work, however, there is a very little evidence of the successful implementation of various initiatives in general academia to improve students‟ writing skills (Casañ-pitarch & Calvo-ferrer, 2015; Eaton, 2017; Klimova, 2013; Rakedzon & Baram-tsabari, 2017). Countries with a well-established education system focus on writing courses coupled with group writing activities that divide the workload and promote joint authorship of a publishable work (Ness, Duffy, Mccallum, & Price, 2014). However, the countries seeking a better repute in the provision of quality research are becoming more focused on polishing the academic writing skills of young researchers and scientists. China has attracted a great number of international students in the past five years through Chinese Scholarship Council (CSC) to improve the higher education and research productivity in the country. Most of the students come from countries alongside the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road, which links China to Europe, through Central and Western Asia, and connects China and Southeast Asian countries via the sea to Africa and Europe. The routes are jointly referred to as the „„One Belt, One Road” (OBOR) (Sheu & Kundu, 2017). The international students pursuing master and doctoral programs at Beijing University of Chemical Technology (BUCT), China belong to Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Senegal, Iran, Afghanistan, Korea, Myanmar, Yemen, Thailand, Somalia, and Russia (Ejdys, 2017; Marsden, 2017). In November 2016, the School of International Education and Graduate School at BUCT approved Advanced Academic Writing Skills (AAWS) as a mandatory course for multi-ethnic and multilingual, non-native English speaking students coming from all the above-mentioned countries, to enable them to improve their academic writing skills. Although these students have been trained in English for 10-18 years, they still have poor academic writing skills, which need to be improved. The significance of the course is to enable the students to get started with writing different types of research papers and improve the quality of an already prepared manuscript. Besides, the course is significant in improving the international education of BUCT with the accompanying objective of increasing publication success rates. Thus, the course was subsequently opened to master and doctoral students in 2017, as a first trial session. This mandatory course had meticulously designed chapters to broaden students‟ perspective regarding academic writing and to enable them to avoid writing errors. AAWS might be useful for students coming

from OBOR countries, as they are connected globally and have more chances to exchange the research ideas in future and train more students in their respective countries. The specific objectives of this study are to (a) describe the design and implementation of this two-credit academic writing course (b) assess the experience of participants in the course, its effectiveness and usefulness, and how it influenced their peer-reviewing and writing skills.

Educational activity In the curriculum used at BUCT, each course is offered once during an academic year. The number of credit hours assigned to a course depends on the duration of the course, just as in most other academic institutions. For example, a twocredit course in a traditional program is equivalent to 32 instructional hours, (16 weeks, two hours each week). Keeping it in consideration, the nature and duration of the elective course “Advanced Academic Writing Skills” is rather unique. AAWS serves as an introduction to the academic writing in various fields of sciences such as Biochemistry, Organic Chemistry, Microbiology, Computer Sciences, Material Sciences, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, and Environmental Engineering. The course includes both classroom activities and volunteer presentations on the use of different software mentioned in the “Sample course activity section”.

Sample of course schedule The course requires 32 hours of classroom. The specific expectations are provided by the instructor of the course. An example of a class schedule is provided in Table 1.

Table 1. An Example of Class Schedule in AAWS Chapters

Title

Learning Objectives

Introduction

Importance and Characteristics of Scientific Paper

Principles and Grammar in Writing/Class practice related with correcting grammar and logic of the manuscript

Article Types/Class Presentations

How to Submit to an Appropriate Place?/Class Practice of submitting scientific manuscript to the relevant journal, starting from relevant journal search to final submission

To motivate students to be all-rounded researchers and scientists. To enable students to identify their research problems. To learn the scope and importance of academic writing. To learn the difference between academic writing and other writings. To learn the most important key points of a standard manuscript such as novelty, significance, clarity, organizing ideas logically, using appropriate scientific language and meticulously working on the draft to ensure quality. To learn to connect the logic tightly, while drafting a manuscript. To learn the format/style and scientific language of the manuscript. To practice some examples and improving the dexterity. To learn the difference between research paper, full length/regular article, review, mini-review, communication, notes, technical notes, reports, case study, special issues, book review, announcement, and calendar. To learn to select a conference or journal. To learn different examples of different indexed sources such as Science Citation Index (SCI), Engineering Index (EI), Index to Scientific & Technical Proceedings (ISTP) along with their development and calculation of Impact Factor (IF).

How to Organize Main Structure?

To understand a journal's true place in the research landscape and learning the procedure of selecting a journal based on Web of Science data and Journal Citation Report (JCR). Learning common structure for scientific paper starting from Title to Abstract, Keywords, Introduction, Experimental part (Materials and methods), Results, Discussion, Conclusions, Acknowledgment, Reference as well as properly going through the instructions of the relevant journals for authors and artwork instructions (instructions for creating illustrations). Instructor of the course (HSS511E) has spent quality time in demonstrating the drafting of each section with at least five examples each.

Data Processing, Displaying, Graphing/Detailed volunteer presentations on the use of Origin, Excel, and SPSS Reference Managing/Detailed volunteer presentations on using Endnote and Mendeley

Submission and Review Process

Ethics & Anti-Plagiarism

To learn to distinguish between high-quality versus low-quality tables, graphs, and other relevant illustrations and learn to create them using the different powerful softwares. To learn managing references, principles of inserting in-text citations and creating a bibliography for a given manuscript. A detailed presentation on the use of different reference managing softwares, (Mendeley and Endnote) introduced students to the most advanced features offered by softwares including creating their own template, creating an online library, and modifying the reference style as per the journal guidelines. To learn three main barriers in the submission and review process; the first barrier is experimental design and data processing & analysis; the second barrier is writing a quality draft and choosing the most relevant journal; the third barrier is strictly abiding by the author's instructions given by the journal, formatting and polishing the manuscript prior to submission. The instructor gave valuable solutions to the students to overcome these barriers. To have insights into the submission and review process, which has four categories namely writing work, editorial work, review work, and publication work. Students were introduced to four potential outcomes of the mentioned process such as acceptance of the manuscript for publication, minor revision, major revision, and rejection with major concerns. A checklist for authors, editors, and reviewers were provided to the students to know the process well. To understand research ethics and issues such as conduct of individuals, research fraud, mistreatment of lab animals, accuracy and honesty in reporting results, plagiarism, violation of intellectual property rights and conflict of interests. In this course, students have learnt to overcome these issues. Students were also informed of the serious repercussions of the unethical behavior during research. This would result in a more careful behavior on their part as researchers and scientists. Students were introduced to different categories of plagiarism such as intentional plagiarism and unintentional plagiarism. Not only this, they were given some useful tips to avoid plagiarism in their work.

Sample of a course activity Since the students engaged in the course have diverse research backgrounds and are too numerous to describe here, we will provide a representative example of a student activity. One group of two students gave a one-hour presentation as volunteers regarding the use of graphing software, Origin 9.1. The students were asked to demonstrate interactive scientific graphing and data analysis. One group of two other students gave a detailed presentation on the use of Microsoft Excel to demonstrate commonly used functions such as constructing improved pivot tables, getting familiar with additional image editing capabilities, to use many new, most highly specialized formulas to improve accuracy and create multiple graphs. One group volunteered to give a detailed presentation on the use of SPSS for logical batched and non-batched statistical analysis. The presenter has also taken the other students through the procedure of creating multiple charts and graphs in SPSS. One group of two students gave a one-hour presentation on the use of Mendeley, to demonstrate the reference management in the manuscript or any other academic piece of writing. The students introduced various concepts such as managing in-text citations, bibliography and creating the library in the software by adding the most relevant research articles germane to their research. The other group of two students who have taken the coursework were also introduced to advance features of powerful reference managing software, called â&#x20AC;&#x153;Endnoteâ&#x20AC;?. The last group of two students gave a detailed presentation on managing different reference styles and creation of their own reference style if they intend to launch their own academic journal in future. Furthermore, the instructor of the course got actively involved in the class and explained some important points missed out by the presenters. Some of the presenters created multiple illustrations during the presentation using the software, the instructor had given valuable comments on the improvement of the illustrations and improved some of the illustrations himself as a practical demonstration of a better learning of the students.

Students performance evaluation strategies The class emphasized a training component, but also include interactive lectures, discussion groups, and assessments at the instructor's discretion. In all sessions, both formative and summative assessments were used by the instructor. Grades followed the standard BUCT grading policy published in the syllabus and provided to students prior to the course. The instructor and students agreed that teaching in a classroom is best suited to this course. This course not only served as an information transfer but also stimulated creative and critical thinking; therefore, questions and answers flowed in both directions between instructor and students. The summative assessment included the already designed manuscript assessment for reviewing and focused group discussion on a bigger canvas than minor details such as grammatical errors and misspellings. The title and the keywords of the manuscript were removed prior to distributing the manuscripts among the students. Eighteen different manuscripts were distributed among the students to ensure that all group members actively participate and make a different analysis, which facilitated a sharp comparison of the writing.

Furthermore, this format facilitated focused group discussions, optimizing the use of time, providing an equal opportunity for all members to share their opinion and avoiding one person taking control of all the group discussion. The readers of the manuscript having different experience and skill level provide their input from their manuscript drafts. Each participant has actively contributed in writing comments. All the group members working on one draft were asked to give detailed comments while avoiding redundancy or repetition. Every member of the group was encouraged to give new comments. The group leader was responsible for keeping the group members on task ensure each person‟s timely feedback. It is important to note that all participants have been given sufficient time to contribute to the assignment. The students were asked to “Enlist a minimum of two manuscript strengths and weaknesses” such as novelty and scope. The participants were encouraged to start with highlighting the positive points of the manuscript to enhance their ability to suggest improvements. The second question was to “Enlist at least two specific ways to strengthen the manuscript.” This question received diverse answers which helped in keeping the focus on the bigger canvas including clarity, flow, and organization, instead of pointing out minor mistakes. However, the students were encouraged to point out redundancy in the manuscript, which made it difficult to read. For instance, if the writer of the manuscript continuously lacks the logic and has poorly organized the sections or paragraphs, this could be marked as a major element which needs improvement. The last question asks students, “To point out the single most important item to be focused on for revision?” It helps to determine whether the manuscript is rejected out rightly rather than getting an acceptance for revision and resubmission. The assignment was concluded with the summary of the main points of the group discussion, confirming that the writer of the manuscript was given sufficient guidance about their next steps in the revision process. This assignment has helped to enhance the overall effectiveness of the course.

Evaluating the effectiveness of the course Since it is the first time to implement this course and there is less literature available to enable the teacher to apply models to evaluate the effectiveness of the course. This paper provided a guideline and useful information to its readers to further build on the effectiveness of academic writing courses. However, two parameters were used to assess the value of AAWS, the first was the attendance of the students who regularly attended the course in the given year. Results showed that 90% of the students attended the classes. High attendance rate and a very low rate of students quitting the course indicated that the course has not only attracted but retained many students. Another parameter applied in this study was satisfaction of this course. The effectiveness of the course was further confirmed by employing satisfaction point, an evaluation index is given by the participants of the course, based on their own opinions. The evaluation indicators were taken from the previous study (Chen, Zhao, & Wang, 2016). The indicators have been modified for relevance for the current research. Specific evaluating indicators are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. The Evaluating Indicator of Satisfaction Points No.

Evaluating Indicator

Weight

0.2

I have learnt a lot from this course, understood and mastered the main content taught by the teacher. I can troubleshoot writing problems in the already designed manuscript Teacher was confident and passionate while teaching this course

Teacher has prepared well for this course; lectures were understandable

0.1

Assignments were designed meticulously, and instructor paid enough attention to analyzing scientific writing problems. This course had provided the students an effective model for becoming a more meticulous revisionist of their own writing Teaching methodology was appropriate

0.2

0.1

Communication inside and outside the class was effective, and students were highly encouraged to share their opinion Students were taught in accordance with their aptitudes

This course helped to promote critical thinking

0.1

5 6

0.1

Each indicator has 5 options, A for 95 points, B for 85 points, C for 75 points, D for 60 points, and E for 50 points. The total points were then obtained according to the weight and grade. All students were asked to give their own evaluation anonymously, the final score was calculated to be 95% by using weight and grade. Finally, three indications have been given, the first was the successful accomplishment of this course. The second indication was that the students mastered the basic concepts of AAWS and they can meticulously review their own manuscripts prior to submission. The third indication was that it enhanced the research productivity and lowered the chance of the manuscript rejection. The students were also provided the opportunity to provide free-text comments to the course. Some of the comments are as follows: (1) The course has provided us the unique opportunity to develop hand on software skills, which we would not have learned otherwise. It is important to note, that the volunteer presenters who presented on the use of different softwares had first learned using them and then delivered presentations. (2) The course has encouraged us to develop critical thinking. (3) The course has enabled us to become more meticulous researchers and writers and gave us new directions of brainstorming prior to getting started with the manuscript or any other technical writing. Others did offer some suggestions: (1) We would have been more comfortable in taking the course if it was offered in the beginning (first year of Ph.D. and Master). It would have helped us to enhance our research productivity earlier. (2) It would have helped us a lot more if we were given a little background document/reading materials to read prior to the course.

Conclusion Results indicated that the implemented course is successful. This course offered a series of positive adjustments in the academic writing skills of young researchers and scientists at BUCT to improve the quality of research, education, and publication. The instructor provided the students with courage and expression ability, reinforced their confidence, taught them initiating the technical writing, and increased their self-learning ability. This study provided international students connecting with OBOR, a brief exposure to the art of writing an impressive manuscript. Most of the students who have studied the course were from Pakistan and other OBOR countries, who could further disseminate the contents of AAWS to improve scientific writing skills and educational performances in their respective countries. The most important outcome of the study was provision of an opportunity to OBOR countries to improve experience exchange, teaching cooperation, and education communication. Furthermore, the results offered a model to other universities or majors to bring adjustments for the improvement of the academic writing skills of research scholars in China and worldwide.

Acknowledgement This study was supported by the Teaching Reform Program in Graduate Education at Beijing University of Chemical Technology (G-JG-PT201603) and "One Belt, One Road" National Talent Training Project of Beijing, China.

References Casañ-pitarch, R., & Calvo-ferrer, J. R. (2015). Developing writing skills in the classroom: A corpus-based analysis of multi-genre structures. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 198, 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.421 Chen, C., Zhao, C., & Wang, B. (2016). Teaching reform in biochemistry-facing the Washington accord and engineering accreditation. Education Journal, 5(4), 75–80. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.edu.20160504.16 Eaton, S. E. (2017). Perceptions of ESL program management in Canadian Higher Education  : A qualitative case study. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 16(9), 13–28. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.9.2 Ejdys, J. (2017). New Silk Road–a weak or a strong signal? Procedia Engineering, 182, 182–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.03.159 Klimova, B. F. (2013). Developing thinking skills in the course of academic writing. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 93, 508–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.229 Langum, V., & Sullivan, K. P. H. (2017). Writing academic English as a doctoral student in Sweden: narrative perspectives. Journal of Second Language Writing, 35, 20–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2016.12.004 Marsden, M. (2017). Actually existing silk roads. Journal of Eurasian Studies, 8(1), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euras.2016.11.006 Morton, P. G. (2013). The importance of being published. Journal of Professional Nursing, 29(4), 187–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2013.06.011 Moussa-inaty, J. (2017). Student experiences of a blended learning environment. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 16(9), 60–72. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.9.5 Ness, V., Duffy, K., Mccallum, J., & Price, L. (2014). Getting published: Reflections of a

collaborative writing group. Nurse Education Today, 34(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2013.03.019 Rakedzon, T., & Baram-tsabari, A. (2017). To make a long story short: A rubric for assessing graduate students‟ academic and popular science writing skills. Assessing Writing, 32, 28–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2016.12.004 Sheu, J. B., & Kundu, T. (2017). Forecasting time-varying logistics distribution flows in the One Belt-One Road strategic context. Transportation Research Part E, 1–18. https://doi.org/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tre.2017.03.003 Uçar, S., & Yazıcı, Y. (2016). The impact of portfolios on enhancing writing skills in ESP classes. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, 226–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.001

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 100-113, October 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.10.8

A Correspondence Analysis of Nine Japanese Historical English-as-a-Foreign-Language Textbooks Ryohei Honda, Kiyomi Watanabe Fukuyama Heisei University Fukuyama, Japan Toshiaki Ozasa Hiroshima University (Professor Emeritus) Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan

Abstract. The present paper aims to quantitatively describe and explain the features of nine Japanese historical EFL textbooks and their current counterpart, by using a correspondence analysis (CA), focusing on their similarities / differences. The following are the obtained results. First, the CA results proved capable of differentiating the features of the nine historical textbooks and their current counterpart quantitatively, showing their similarities and differences. In particular, the CA map comprised of the two major dimensions indicated that the ten textbooks acan be divided into four groups and that it was only Dimension 1 or the axis of „difficult vs. easy texts‟ that differentiated the two major groups. Second, when compared with their current junior-high counterpart, Sunshine, all the textbooks, except for Seisoku, StandardP and Globe, proved to be similar to each other in terms of the „drillcentered vs. natural‟ category (Dim 2). This suggests that the six historical textbooks are similar to their current counterpart, Sunshine and that the other three textbooks are different from their current counterpart in terms of the drill-centered vs. natural‟ texts category. Third, the explaining categories (dimensions, axes) proved to be the „difficult vs. easy‟ texts axis (Dim 1), the „drill-centered vs. natural‟ structure axis (Dim 2), „multi-viewpoints vs. single viewpoint‟ discourse axis (Dim 3), „redundant vs. concise‟ texts axis (Dim 4) and „children‟s vs. adults‟ viewpoint‟ axis (Dim 5).‟ Finally, it was concluded that the results of the present study suggest that CA is a useful tool for describing, interpreting and diagnosing the features of Japanese EFL textbooks. Keywords: Correspondence analysis; Japanese EFL textbooks; Corpora.

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1. Introduction It has to be stated first of all that the qualitative and quantitative analysis of Japanese historical English-as-a-foreign-language (henceforth EFL) textbooks is a narrow, limited area with very few researchers participating in the development and accumulation of the academic expertise in this field. This is probably because the research itself necessarily takes a time-consuming and energy-consuming process, which has to start with collecting relevant data scattered around and digitizing the collected historical data for quantitative analysis, transforming their graphic texts into digital corpora. Presumably, Ozasa and Nakamura (2001) was the first academic contribution to the qualitative analysis of Japanese historical EFL textbooks in Japan, which, after presenting a bibliographical introduction of the eight Japanese historical EFL textbooks, depicted the contents of the eight textbooks based on a close reading of the texts. Ozasa and Erikawa (Eds.) (2004), the second contribution to the area, was a more comprehensive diachronic analysis of Japanese historical textbooks, this time, both qualitative and quantitative. In this study, sixteen historical textbooks were described and quantitatively analyzed, covering most of the representative ones, and nine textbooks, including H. E. Palmerâ&#x20AC;&#x;s The Standard English Readers, were quantitatively analyzed in terms of nine lexical, grammatical and readability indices. It is to be noted in this respect that the readability measuring indices used in this study and the following ones were widely-known, universal ones, i.e., Flesch Reading Ease and Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level. In 2007, Nakamura and Ozasa analyzed two corpus databases, (1) fourteen EFL textbook series used in Japan across a span of 135 years and (2) five Asian EFL textbooks, in terms of gender awareness, while Weir and Ozasa (2007) measured the naturalness of the discourse of three Japanese historical EFL textbooks as denoted by their appropriateness to the parts-of-speech profile represented by the American English Brown corpus. Further, in this context, Weir and Ozasa (Eds.) (2007) and Weir and Ozasa (Eds.) (2008) reported various kinds of synchronic and diachronic textbook studies using the techniques of corpus analysis, covering the areas of grammar, vocabulary, lexical collocation, semantics, readability, language acquisition, etc., among others. Specifically, Ozasa, Umamoto, Matuoka and Motooka (2008) reported on the diachronic comparison of the first year books of twenty-three historical EFL textbooks and one current one, focusing on overall tokens, types and new types, and Matsuoka, Umamoto, Ozasa and Motooka (2008) reported on the diachronic comparison of the same set of EFL textbooks, focusing on the frequency of the past and the present forms of be-verbs and general verbs, while Hosaka and his team reported a diachronic comparison of seven Japanese historical EFL textbooks focusing on the occurrences of toinfinitive forms (Hosaka, Abe, Uenishi & Ozasa, 2008) and of verbal forms (Hosaka, Erikawa, Miura & Ranjan, 2008). Weir, specialist in computer science and computer programming, put his high-tech expertise into practical use in the quantitative analysis of EFL textbook corpora. Weir and Ozasa (2008) computed and compared the frequency of individual words and multiword sequences (n-grams) across three Japanese historical EFL textbook corpora. Weir and Ozasa (2009) performed a

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test of the assumption that three sets of Japanese historical EFL textbooks exhibit priority of grammatical over vocabulary consideration. Weir and Ozasa (2010) reported on the application of computer-based text analysis tools, using three Japanese EFL textbook corpora, in terms of n-gram frequency, hapax legomena and Dolch word. In 2016, a new attempt was made with an innovative approach in Kawamura, Umamoto and Ozasa and Kawamura, Umamoto, Matsuoka and Ozasa (2017), in which, using the same textbook corpora analyzed in Ozasa and Erikawa (Eds.) (2004), new quantitative analyses were carried out by using a newly developed readability measuring tools, Ozasa-Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.4.2nhnc1-5 (Ozasa, Fukui & Watanabe, 2015) and Ver. 3.5nhnc1-6 (Ozasa, Watanabe & Fukui, 2016). These studies were further followed by three related studies, Sakamoto, Watanabe and Ozasa (2017), Watanabe, Asai and Ozasa (2017) and Uenishi, Watanabe and Ozasa (2017). In Sakamoto et al, a correspondence analysis was carried out using five Japanese historical EFL textbooks and their current counterpart. In Watanabe et al, the same type of corpus analysis was performed using five different Japanese historical EFL textbooks and two of their current counterparts. Again in Uenishi et al, the same type of quantitative analysis was performed, this time, using six Japanese current EFL textbook corpora, in order to quantitatively examine their similarities / differences. The present study, motivated by the same awareness and goals as in the preceding ones, aims to quantitatively analyze the same textbook corpora as in Ozasa and Erikawa (Eds.) (2004), from a different perspective, using a different, new corpus analysis technique, i.e., correspondence analysis (Henceforth CA).

2. Aim The present paper aims to quantitatively describe and explain the features of nine Japanese historical EFL textbooks and their current counterpart, by using a CA, focusing on their similarities / differences. The following are the research questions of the present paper: (1) How similar / different in contents are the nine Japanese historical EFL textbooks to / from each other? (2) How similar / different in contents are the nine Japanese historical EFL textbooks to / from their current counterpart? (3) What kinds of dimensions explain the similarities / differences among the ten textbooks? The textbooks used in the present CA were nine historical EFL textbooks used during the period from 1861 to 1952, and a currently used EFL textbook, which was included in the present analysis for comparative purposes (Ozasa & Erikawa, (Eds.), 2004). They were the following. 1) New English Drill Books 1 (Kenjiro Kumamoto, 1907, Kaiseikan) (Henceforth Drill.)

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2) New Jack and Betty: English Step by Step 1 (K. Hagiwara, M. Inamura & K. Takezawa, 1952, Kairyudo) (Henceforth Jack & Betty.) 3) The Standard English Readers 1 (Tsuneta Takehara, 1932, Taishukan) (Henceforth StandardT.) 4) Sanders’ Union Readers 1 (Charles Walton Sanders, 1861, Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co.) (Henceforth Union.) 5) New National Readers 1 (C. J. Barnes, 1883, A. S. Barnes & Co.) (Henceforth National.) 6) English Readers: The High School Series 1 (Education Department, Japan (W. Dening, 1887, Education Department Publishing, Japan ) (Henceforth Dening.) 7) Seisoku Education Department English Reader 1 (Education Department, Japan, 1889, Education Department Publishing, Japan) (Henceforth Seisoku.) 8) The Globe Readers 1（Yoshisaburo Okakura, 1907, Dainippon Tosho）(Henceforth Globe.) 9) The Standard English Readers 1 (H. E. Palmer, 1926, Institute for Research in English Teaching, Japan） (Henceforth StandardP.) 10) Sunshine English Course I (Masao Niizato, et al, 2012, Kairyudo) (Henceforth Sunshine.) Through this analysis, we hope to quantitatively clarify the similarities / differences of the nine Japanese historical textbooks and their relationships with their current counterpart.

3. Method The present study employed a one-way CA model with ten nominal variants, in order to explore the relationships among the ten Japanese EFL textbooks, i.e., Drill, Jack & Betty, StandardT, Union, National, Dening, Seisoku, Globe, StandardP and Sunshine. First, a cross tabulation table of the above-mentioned ten textbooks was prepared as a basic datum for the present CA, using the ten textbook corpora. This is practically a cross-textbook word-frequency table, which was made using AntConc, a vocabulary processing tool. In this frequency table the most frequent 100 words (content words and function words) were picked up from the frequency list and their frequency values were placed for each of the ten textbooks. (Since the ten kinds of 100 word lists were incorporated into one cross-frequency word table, the number of words of the cross tabulation table was more than 100.) Then, using the digital datum of the cross tabulation table, CAs were carried out by using Fukui‟s College Analysis, a statistics computer program developed for social studies by Masayasu Fukui, professor of applied mathematics at Fukuyama Heisei University, Japan. In evaluating and interpreting the results of the analysis, some of the ideas and techniques developed in Tono (2000) were used for reference where they were deemed relevant and appropriate to the topics dealt with in the present paper.

4. Results and Discussion Table 1 shows the basic statistics of the present CA, i.e., the eigenvalues, coefficient correlations, contribution rates and cumulative contribution rates of

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the analysis. As the contribution rate indicates in Table 1, the relationship among the ten nominal variants (textbooks) were explained 31.6% by the first dimension, 16.8% by the second dimension, 13.8% by the third dimension, 11.7% by the fourth dimension and 10.2% by the fifth dimension, the cumulative contribution rate being 84.1% on the fifth dimension. This means that the five dimensions should be included in the analysis and interpretation of the present corpora. Table 1. Basic CA Data, Ten Textbooks) Dim 1 Dim 2 Dim 3 Dim 4 Dim 5 Dim 6 Dim 7 Dim 8 Dim 9 Eigenvalue 0.102 0.054 0.045 0.038 0.033 0.021 0.014 0.009 0.008 Correlation 0.319 0.233 0.212 0.195 0.181 0.144 0.116 0.097 0.089 Contribution rate 0.316 0.168 0.138 0.117 0.102 0.064 0.042 0.029 0.024 Cumulative 0.316 0.483 0.622 0.739 0.841 0.904 0.946 0.976 1 contribution rate

Table 2 shows the values of the ten textbooks on the five dimensions and Figure 1 visualizes the CA results of the ten textbooks on Dim 1, as a description of the relationships among the ten variants. As it is clear in Table 2 and Figure 1, on the first dimension, the value is the highest for Dening (1.864), the second highest for Union (1.142), and the lowest for Sunshine (-1.564), the second lowest for Jack & Betty (-1.088), the third lowest for Drill (-0.914), while National, StandardT, Globe, StandardP and Seisoku coming in between them. In decreasing order, the ten textbooks were: Dening > Union > National > StandardT > Globe > StandardP > Seisoku > Drill > Jack & Betty > Sunshine. Table 2. Values of Ten Textbooks on Five Dimensions Dim 1 Dim 2 Dim 3 Dim 4 Dim 5 StandardP -0.252 -0.862 -0.544 0.576 -1.027 StandardT 0.591 -0.224 0.103 0.056 -0.084 Jack&Betty -1.088 -0.021 -0.235 0.44 0.201 Union 1.142 0.403 0.869 -0.176 -0.696 Seisoku -0.316 2.129 -1.413 -0.963 0.696 Drill -0.914 -0.154 -0.398 -0.242 -2.044 National 0.708 -0.119 1.546 -1.788 0.094 Globe 0.273 -1.953 -1.181 -0.608 1.441 Dening 1.864 0.592 -0.296 2.039 0.241 Sunshine -1.564 0.204 1.628 1.019 1.159

Figure 1. Values of Ten Textbooks on Dim 1

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The differences / similarities among the ten textbooks on the first dimension could best be explained by the category of „difficult vs. easy texts‟; in Dening, Union and National, grammatical and lexical items were not strictly controlled, allowing more freedom for natural communication and communicative activity while in Sunshine and Jack & Betty, the texts were written using a small, limited number of basic grammatical and lexical items in every lesson. For example, when the following two pieces of the first lessons of the two contrasting textbooks, Dening and Sunshine, are compared, it is obvious that in Dening the text sounds more natural and therefore more challenging for fresh EFL learners and their readability is contrastively high while Sunshine uses easy and basic patterns repeatedly. For this reason, the first dimension was termed „difficult vs. easy texts‟. The contribution rate of the first dimension was 31.6%, covering approximately one-third of the whole contribution. (Dening) Once upon a time a clam, who had opened his shell wide, was basking in the sunshine on the sea shore. A snipe happened to see what was going on. (Lesson 1) (Sunshine) Hi, I am Saki. Oh, you are Saki. I‟m Tom. (Program 2. Program 1 is on Classroom English.) It is to be noted at this stage that this CA readability judgment is not a direct, measurement-based estimation like readability measurement but an indirect one based on a highly advanced correlation-based mathematical processing of cross-frequency tabulation of the top one-hundred words of the ten textbooks. In order to ascertain the degree of accuracy of this CA estimation, the present CA results were compared with actual direct measurements of the same nine textbook corpora, quoted from Kawamura, Umamoto and Ozasa (2016). (Since all of the nine textbooks were included in the ten textbooks used in the present CA analysis, the nine textbooks were compared between the two sets, the readability sets and the CA sets except for Drill.) Table 3 and Figure 2 show the readability values of the same nine textbooks as those in the present analysis, which were measured using the then-newest readability measuring tool, Ozasa-Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.4.2nhnc1-5 (Kawamura et al, 2016, p. 95). Table 3. Readability Measured by OFYL

Dening Union National Globe StandardT StandardP Seisoku J&B Sunshine

6.68 4.23 3.4 3.22 3.11 3.1 3.07 1.51 1.49

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Figure 2. Readability Measured by OFYL

As it is clear in Tables 2 and 3, and Figures 1 and 2, when the two sets were compared in terms of their decreasing order, they corresponded to each other almost perfectly except for Globe and StandardT. It could be stated that the indirect readability estimation of the CA is fairly accurate, almost as accurate as the estimation of the direct measuring tool, on two grounds. First, the accuracy (prediction rate, r^2) of Ozasa-Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.4.2nhnc1-5 is 0.8802 or 88.02%, which means that there are about 12% chances of errors in its estimation itself (Kawamura et al, 2016, p.88). Second, the nine corpora used in the two analyses were not the same in the strict sense of the word; in the present CA, the whole corpora were used without any kinds of modification while in the direct readability measurement, the corpora were “cleaned” or processed, in which unnecessary parts of the passages were deleted so that only “normal” sentences could be measured. These facts considered, it must be concluded that the estimation of the present CA judgment of the ten corpora is surprisingly accurate, accurate enough for the purpose of the present analysis. This conclusion, or the judgment of the Dim 1 results could be generalized to the other four dimensions (Dims 2 to 5); although they are indirect estimation of the textbook categories, it could be reasonably accurate and trustworthy estimation and interpretation of their features.

Figure 3. Values of Ten Textbooks on Dim 2

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On the second dimension, as it is also clear in Table 2 and Figure 3, the value is the highest for Seisoku (2.129), and the lowest for Globe (-1.953) and the second lowest for StandardP (-0.862), the other seven coming in between them. In decreasing order, the ten textbooks were: Seisoku > Dening > Union > Sunshine > Jack & Betty > National > Drill > StandardT > StandardP > Globe. The difference of the values among the ten textbooks could best be explained by the category of „drill-centered vs. natural structure‟; in Seisoku, linguistic items were organized so that a small number of grammatical and lexical items were selected, graded and carefully embedded into the text / discourse for each lesson or unit while in Globe this kind of linguistic control is rather loosely observed, giving more freedom for natural communication and communicative activity. In other words, Seisoku observes the principle of a step-by-step progression, while Globe observes the principle of freer communication as a basic strategy of EFL textbook organization. For this reason, the second dimension was termed „drillcentered vs. natural structure.‟ The contribution rate of the second dimension was 16.8%. Also, on the third dimension, as it is also clear in Table 2 and Figure 4, the value is the highest for Sunshine (1.628), the second highest for National (1.546), and the lowest for Seisoku (-1.413), the second lowest for Globe (-1.181), the other seven coming in between them. In decreasing order, the ten textbooks were: Sunshine > National > Union > StandardT > Jack & Betty > Dening > Drill > StandardP > Globe > Seisoku. The differences / similarities among these ten textbooks could best be explained by the category of „multi-logue vs. monologue‟. In Seisoku (the lowest) and Globe (the second lowest), almost all of the texts take the form of „my monologue‟ or „my depiction,‟ in which the subject „I‟ alone talk or depict; in contrast, in Sunshine (the highest) and National (the second highest), almost all of the texts take the form of intercommunication among two or more interlocutors. In contrast, Drill and Jack & Betty, and others, whose values lie in between the two contrasting ends, are comprised of various kinds of styles such as monologue, dialogue, passages, structure-based pattern practices, etc. For this reason, this dimension was termed „multi-logue vs. monologue‟ discourse. The contribution rate of the fourth dimension was 0.138, covering only the 13.8% of the whole contribution.

Figure 4. Values of Ten Textbooks on Dim 3

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On the fourth dimension, as it is also clear in Table 2 and Figure 5, the value is the highest for Dening (2.039) and the second highest for Sunshine (1.019) , while it is the lowest for National (-1.788). In decreasing order, the ten textbooks were: Dening > Sunshine > StandardP > Jack & Betty > StandardT > Union > Drill > Globe > Seisoku >National. The differences / similarities among these ten textbooks could best be explained by the category of „redundant vs. concise texts.‟ In Dening (the highest) and Sunshine (the second highest), for example, a considerably large part of the text are long and tends to sound redundant although sentences are syntagmatic and cohesive, while in National (the highest), the dialogues and expository passages are generally brief and comprehensive without tedious repetitive drill-like sentences. For this reason, the fourth dimension was termed „redundant vs. concise texts.‟

Figure 5. Values of Ten Textbooks on Dim 4

On the fifth dimension, as it is also clear in Table 2 and Figure 6, the value is the highest for Globe (1.441) and the second highest for Sunshine (1.159), while it is the lowest for Drill (-2.044), and the remaining seven textbooks are coming in between them. In decreasing order, the seven textbooks were: Globe > Sunshine > Seisoku > Dening > Jack & Betty > National > StandardT > Union > StandardP > Drill. The differences / similarities among these ten textbooks could best be explained by the category of „children‟s vs. adults‟ viewpoint.‟ In Globe (the highest) and Sunshine (the second lowest), a considerably large part of the texts are motivated and predominated by the viewpoints of young children or learners, while in Drill (the lowest), for example, the dialogues and expository passages are generally motivated and predominated by adults‟ or instructors‟ viewpoints. For this reason, the fifth dimension was termed „children‟s vs. adults‟ viewpoint.‟

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Figure 6. Values of Ten Textbooks on Dim 5

As a summary of the above descriptions and discussions, Figure 7 visualizes the spatial relationships among the ten nominal variants or textbooks in focus, in which the x-axis represents the first dimension or the axis of „difficult vs. easy texts‟ and the y-axis the second dimension or the axis of „drill-centered vs. natural structure.‟ As it is clear in Figure 7, the ten textbooks can be classified into four category groups, i.e., Group 1 (+ on x-axis, around 0 on yaxis), Group 2 (- on x-axis, around 0 on y-axis), Group3 (around 0 on x-axis, - on y-axis) and Group 4 (around 0 on x-axis, + on y-axis). In Group 1 (difficult text and neutral in terms of „drill-centered vs. natural structure‟), there clustered were four textbooks, i.e., Dening, Union, National and StandardT. In Group 2 (easy text and neutral in terms of „drill-centered vs. natural structure‟), there clustered were three textbooks, i.e., Sunshine, Jack & Betty and Drill. In Group 3 (natural text and neutral in difficulty), there were two textbooks located, i.e., StandardP and Globe and in Group 4 (drill-centered text and neutral in difficulty), there were only one textbook located, i.e., Seisoku. Clearly, it was only Dim 1 or the axis of „difficult vs. easy‟ texts that differentiated the two big groups, Group 1 and Group 2. In other words, this large cluster consisting of the seven textbooks were divided into two groups on the basis of their locations on the difficult-easy axis. This will suggest that x-axis (difficult vs. easy texts) can be an efficient and dominant differentiator of the historical EFL textbooks in focus.

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X-axis: „difficult vs. easy‟ texts Y-axis: „drill-centered vs. natural‟ structure Figure 7. CA Map of 10 Textbooks

It is true that the CA map based on the two selected major dimensions (axes) can differentiate the major features of the ten historical and current EFL textbooks but naturally it cannot differentiate all of their features detected in the analysis. In order to overcome this weakness, a new attempt was made to display the whole pictures of their features based on the values of the whole dimensions dealt with in the present analysis. It is a way of computing the actual distance (Euclidean distance) of the ten individual textbooks on each of the nine dimensions, by multiplying the weighted correlation coefficients by the coefficients proportional to the contribution rates. Using the thus-computed Euclidean distances of the ten textbooks on the nine dimensions, a cluster analysis was performed using College Analysis, by maximum distance method, so as to draw a dendrogram of the ten textbooks. Figure 8 is a dendrogram which visually summarizes the degree of similarities and differences among the ten nominal variants of the present analysis, based on the values (distances) of all of the (nine) dimensions computed in the present analysis, not based on the results of the two selected dimensions as in Figure 7. Dendrogam is a branching diagram like biological taxonomy, representing a hierarchy of categories based on degree of similarity or the numbers of shared characteristics and graphically displays the internal cohesion and external isolation of the variants in focus, i.e., the ten textbooks in the present analysis. As it is clear in Figure 8, there identified were two groups, one (Group A) comprised of five textbooks, StandardP, Jack & Betty, Drill, Sunshine and Seisoku, the other (Group B) comprised of five textbooks, StandardT, Union, National, Dening and Globe. In Group A, among the five constituents, Standard P

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and Jack & Betty are the highest in closeness or cohesion to each other at the first branch (clade), the relationship of which with Drill is the second highest at the second clade. In the same way, the lowest is the relationship of the four textbooks with Seisoku in Group A. In the same manner, in group B, the closeness between StandardT and Union is the highest and the relationship among Globe and the other four textbooks are the lowest. (It is to be noted in this respect that in dendrogram, the lower a clade is in height, the higher the relationship of the constituents in the group.)

Figure 8. Dendrogram of Ten Textbooks by Maximum Distance Method

The above interpretations and discussions of the dendrogram can also be summarized using brackets, as in the following. Group A: ((((StandardP, Jack & Betty) Drill) Sunshine) Seisoku) Group B: ((((StandardT, Union) National) Dening) Globe) Interestingly, Group A consists of the textbooks authored by Japanese authors except for StandardP, while Group B consists of the textbooks authored by native-speaker authors except for StandardT and Globe.

5. Conclusion So far, the results of the CA has been analyzed, interpreted and discussed, focusing on the characteristic features, similarities and differences among the nine textbooks with their current counterpart, which proved that CA is powerful enough to quantitatively analyze their features. As a summary of the results and discussions of the present CA, the RQs were answered as in the following. RQ 1. How similar / different in contents are the ten Japanese EFL textbooks to/from each other? The CA results proved capable of differentiating the features of the ten textbooks quantitatively, specifying their similarities and differences. In particular, the CA map comprised of the two major dimensions indicated that the ten textbooks can be divided into four groups and that it was only Dimension 1 or the axis of difficult vs. easy texts that differentiated the two major groups. The dendrogram, which was comprised of the nine dimensions (axes), indicated that the ten textbooks could be divided into two groups, Group

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A and Group B based on the mutual similarities / differences (distances) among the ten textbooks. RQ 2. How similar / different in contents are the nine Japanese historical EFL textbooks to/from their current counterparts? When compared with their current counterpart, Sunshine, all the textbooks, except for Seisoku, StandardP and Globe, proved to be similar to each other in terms of the „drillcentered vs. natural‟ category (Dim 2). This suggests that the six historical textbooks are similar to their current counterpart, Sunshine and that the other three textbooks are different from their current counterpart in terms of the „drillcentered vs. natural‟ category. RQ 3. What kinds of dimensions explain the similarities / differences among the ten textbooks? The explaining categories (dimensions, axes) proved to be the „difficult vs. easy‟ axis (Dim 1), the „drill-centered vs. natural‟ axis (Dim 2), „multi-viewpoints vs. single viewpoints‟ axis (Dim 3), „redundant vs. concise‟ axis (Dim 4) and „children‟s vs. adults‟ viewpoint‟ axis (Dim 5). Finally, it was concluded that the CA proved to be powerful enough to quantitatively analyze, interpret and clarify the characteristic features, similarities and differences among the nine historical textbooks and their current counterpart.

References Hosaka, Y., Abe, N., Uenishi, K. & Ozasa, T. (2008). To-infinitive in Japan‟s EFL textbooks: A diachronic comparison. Proceedings of 4th International ICTATLL (ICT in the Analysis, Teaching and Learning of Languages) Workshop, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka, September, 2008, 1-5. Hosaka, Y., Erikawa, H., Miura, S. & Ranjan, C. K. (2008). Verbals in Japan‟s first-year EFL textbooks: A diachronic quantitative comparison. In Weir, G., & Ozasa, T., (Eds.), Studies in Language and Textbook Analysis. (pp. 143-148) Glasgow: University of Strathclyde Publishing. Kawamura, K.., Umamoto, T., Matsuoka, H. & Ozasa, T. (2017). Meiji-Showaki no eigo kyokasho no ri-dabiriti bunseki: Jogakko kyokasho o chushin tosite [Readability of four English textbooks used from the Meiji to Showa Era in Japan: Focusing on girls‟ middle school textbooks]. Journal of ICTATLL (ICT in the Analysis, Teaching and Learning of Languages) Japan, 4, 71 – 85. Kawamura, K., Umamoto, T. & Ozasa, T. (2016). Meijiki-gendai no eigo kyokasho 9shu no ri-dabiriti bunseki: Ozasa-Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.4.2nhnc1-5 niyoru bunseki [Readability of nine English textbooks used from the Meiji Era to the present day in Japan: An analysis with the use of Ozasa-Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.4.2nhnc1-5]. Journal of ICTATLL (ICT in the Analysis, Teaching and Learning of Languages) Japan, 3, 85 - 99. Matsuoka, H., Umamoto, T., Ozasa, T. & Motooka, N. (2008). A diachronic quantitative analysis of the first-year EFL textbooks of Japan: With a focus on the introduction of verbs. In Weir, G., & Ozasa, T., (Eds.), Studies in Language and Textbook Analysis. (pp. 29-36). Glasgow: University of Strathclyde Publishing. Nakamura, T & Ozasa, T. (2007). Diachronic and synchronic analysis of English textbooks: With a focus on the gender awareness. Proceedings of the 12th Conference of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, Pataya, Thailand, 19-21, December, 2007, 126-129. Ozasa, T. & Erikawa, H. (Eds.) (2004). Eigo Kyokasho no Rekishiteki Kenkyu [A Historical Study of [Japanese] English Textbooks]. Tokyo: Jiyusha.

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Ozasa, T., Fukui, M. & Watanabe, K. (2015). Development of a readability index attuned to the new English course of study of Japan (3): Development of Ozasa-Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.4.2nhnc1-5. Pixel ed. Conference Proceedings, 8th International Conference of ICT for Language Learning, Florence, Italy, 12-13 November, 2015, 349354. Ozasa, T. & Nakamura, Y. (2001). Meiji, Taisho, Showa Shoki no Eigo Kyokasho nikansuru Kenkyu: Shitsuteki Bunseki to Kaidai [A Study of [Japanese] Historical English Textbooks Published in the Meiji, Taisho and Showa Era: A Qualitative Analysis and Explanatory Notes]. Hiroshima: Keisuisha. Ozasa, T., Umamoto, T., Matsuoka, H., & Motooka, N. (2008). Vocabulary of the firstyear EFL textbooks of Japan: A diachronic quantitative comparison. In Weir, G., & Ozasa, T., (Eds.), Studies in Language and Textbook Analysis. (pp. 149-155). Glasgow: University of Strathclyde Publishing. Ozasa, T., Watanabe, K. & Fukui, M. (2016). Development of a readability index attuned to the new English course of study of Japan (4): Development of Ozasa-Fukui Year Level, Ver. 3.5nhnc1-6. Conference Proceedings, ICSSB (International Conference on Social Sciences and Business), Tokyo, Japan, August 25 - 27, 2016, 385394. Sakamoto, M., Watanabe, K. & Ozasa, T. (2017). A Correspondence analysis of five Japanese historical English-as-a-foreign-language textbooks. Conference Proceedings of ICSSB (International Conference on Social Science and Business), Okinawa, Japan, July 25 - 27, 2017, 132-144. Tono, Y. (2000). A Corpus-based analysis of interlanguage development: Analysing partof-speech tag sequences of EFL learner corpora. In Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B & Melia, P. J. (Eds.), Proceedings of PALC’ 99: Practical Applications in Language Corpora, University of Lodz, Poland, 15-18 April, 1999, 323-340. Uenishi, K., Watanabe, K. & Ozasa, T. (2017). Correspondence analysis of three Japanese EFL textbooks: In reference to the improvement of a criterion measure for a readability tool. Conference Proceedings, ICEPL (International Conference on Education, Psychology, and Learning), Sapporo, Japan, August 23-25, 2017, 49-60. Watanabe, K., Asai, T. & Ozasa, T. (2017). A correspondence analysis of five Japanese historical English-as-a-foreign-language textbooks. Conference Proceedings, ICEPL (International Conference on Education, Psychology, and Learning), Sapporo, Japan, August 23-25, 2017, 61-73. Weir, G. & Ozasa, T. (2007). Estimating naturalness in Japanese English textbooks. Proceedings of the 12th Conference of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, Pattaya, Thailand, 19-21, December, 2007, 130-133. Weir, G. & Ozasa, T. (Eds.) (2007). Texts, Textbooks and Readability. Glasgow: University of Strathclyde Publishing. Weir, G. & Ozasa, T (2008). Multiword vocabulary in Japanese ESL texts. Proceedings of the 13th Conference of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, University of Hawaii, U.S.A., 20-22 August, 2008, 63-66. Weir, G. & Ozasa, T. (Eds.) (2008). Studies in Language and Textbooks Analysis. Glasgow: University of Strathclyde Publishing. Weir, G. & Ozasa, T. (2009). Verb form usage in Japanese EFL texts. Proceedings of the 14th Conference of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, Kyoto, Japan, 31 July – 2nd August, 2009, 101-104. Weir, G. & Ozasa, T. (2010). Learning from analysis of Japanese EFL texts. Educational Perspectives (Journal of the College of Education, University of Hawaii at Manoa), 43, 1 & 2, 56-66.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 114-131, October 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.10.9

And Still They Persisted: A Discussion of Indigenous Students Perspectives on a Year in Pre-Nursing Transitions Kathy Snow Cape Breton University, Sydney, Canada

Abstract. Access and Transitions Programing has been a focus in Canadian Educational reform for over fifty years. Though made smaller through transitions and access supports, the gap between nonIndigenous and Indigenous students‟ attainment in higher education, remains large. One has to ask why? Evaluation of said programs in current literature is dominated with Eurocentric approaches and bias based in institutional needs such as retention, attrition and graduation rates. However, the statistics do not tell a complete story about how Indigenous students are navigating post-secondary experiences. Through the lens of the Medicine Wheel the experiences of four women participating in a Pre-Nursing Transitions Program (PNT) at a western Canadian University will be discussed. The results of this case study which was conducted during the 2013-14 academic year identify clashes between the Eurocentric paradigm of the University and students‟ values. At face value, conflicts centered around prioritisation of family, types of knowledge valued and the way information was presented. However, these conflicts speak to larger issues around the construction and intention of transitions programming and this article aims respond with a word of caution for post secondary institutions however well intentioned aiming to respond to the 2015 Truth and reconciliation call for indigenization of the academy. Keywords: persistence; transitions; indigenous pedagogy; achievement gap; higher education reform.

Introduction A growing number of Indigenous students are graduating high school and entering post-secondary education but the gap between Indigenous and nonIndigenous students‟ university completion continues to grow (Parkin, 2015).

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Increased enrollments at post-secondary have been supported by the implementation of Access and/or Transitions programs for Indigenous students‟ entry and preparation yet evaluations of their “effectiveness” remains elusive (Maltest & Associates., 2004; Williams, 2004). In a review of literature, it was found that very little literature examined Access and Transitions programs ability to support students to graduation. The limited data that was found located the evidence in the language of institutional needs (retention and attrition) rather than student needs (persistence or life impact). It should be noted that much of this research was dated and evaluated the persistence decision making process of students using models such as Tinto‟s (1975, 2012) student integration framework. Tinto‟s framework, though considered one of foundational models for describing student persistence is problematic when describing Indigenous students, because it was not designed with them in mind, but rather the mainstream student population of the era, middle class youth entering university directly out of high school. One could further argue that both Access and Transitions programs are inherently colonizing practices through their naming with the underlying assumption being it is the students whose deficits must be accommodated (Access) or in the case of Transitions programs, the students who must to adapt to the university system and culture. Indigenous scholars such as Marie Battiste (2013) have argued that colonization continues through education with the organization of learning and there is a need for Indigenous people to make their voices heard to begin to decolonize and re-frame thinking around education in Canada. This research set out to lend evidence to Battiste‟s call by examining a Pre-Nursing Transition program designed for First Nations students from First Nations perspectives. The study question developed in consultation with members of the Indigenous community at the university became: What organizational and institutional structures support student persistence? The response to the question that is shared in this research forms two narratives. The first story describes program structure and aspects of programming that support and hinder positive persistence decisions. While the second story paints a picture of the resilience of the women within the program. Women who did not succeed because of the university, but perhaps in spite of it. The lens or framework used to evaluate the response, was not that of Tinto, nor was it based in institutional measures of success. Instead, within this article I further discussion of higher education reform from the perspective of the medicine wheel a framework found almost universally in First Nations groups within Canada and used to describe wellness and balance for individuals. I begin the article by setting the stage and sharing a brief background on transition programs and then describe the context of the Pre-Nursing transitions program and the methodology of the study. I share the stories of three women who persisted in transitions and share the themes arising from their stories through the universities ability to support persistence through well being as described by the medicine wheel. Finally, I close with a discussion about what this work does to extend the conversations around the decolonization of higher education.

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The Background Many post-secondary institutions in Canada, like the one that provided the setting for this research, offer separately named Access and Transitions programs. Access programs distinguish themselves from Transitions by focusing on mitigating barriers to access, such as applying modified entry requirements or physically locating classrooms in communities that need them. Transition programs focus on transitioning students into mainstream educational provisions by offering a period of preparation that has been tailored to meet students need. Philosophically the two types of programs are different but the actual application of supports offered by both types of programs overlaps to the extent that it may be difficult to distinguish them in practice. For the purpose of this article, the term transitions program will be used throughout because this is how the university chose to identify their program. However, the term may refer to either or both types of programming due to the limited literature available and the natural connections between the two. From an institutional perspective, transitions programs appear to have made some difference in graduation rates for Indigenous students though little empirical evidence exists as to how or exactly how well they work (ACCC, 2010; Valentine, Hirscy, Bremer, Novillo, Castellano & Banister, 2009). The structure of transitions programs vary but most commonly include revisions to the entrance requirements for the target student population alongside pre-university orientation workshops, the introduction of cultural content, preparatory credit courses, mentoring programs, tutoring, academic advisement, financial and personal counselling, housing and childcare assistance (Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC), 2010; Anonson, Desjarlais, Nixon, Whitemand, & Bird, 2008; Gregory, Pijl-Zieber, Barsky, & Daniels, 2008; Hardes, 2006; Smith & Gottheil, 2011; Swail, Redd, & Perna, 2003; Valentine et. al, 2009). In the few qualitative studies examining student experiences that were found, a list of promising practices for transition program design has been identified: the importance of a multifaceted approach, academic preparation, family support, faculty support, and flexibility to allow students to maintain an active presence in home/community (Astin, 1984; Barnhardt, 1994; Guillory & Wolverton, 2008; Larimore & McClellan, 2005; Reyhner & Dodd, 1995). In an examination of the study of nursing education specifically, successful Indigenous programming appears to include the aforementioned features with the addition of the early promotion of applied nursing skills (Kulig, Lamb, Solowoniuk, Weaselfat, Shade, Healey, White, & Crowshoe-Hirsch, 2010). Critics of transitions programs have claimed universities design and offer these programs as a form of benevolent charity through an attempt to mitigate student deficits instead of examining the factors leading to persistence and how this might impact the larger university organization (McMullen & Rohrback, 2003; Munro, 2012; Walberg, 2008). In an investigation of Australian transition programs, Fleet and Kitson (2009) criticized transition programs as being providers of short-term add-on “fixes” rather than actual support mechanisms to address the broader changes needed to combat the discrepancy between Indigenous and nonIndigenous students‟ persistence. Recent work by Fleet, Wechmann and Whiteworth (2012) outlined the need for holistic support networks which reiterated the need for collaboration between university, family and community

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to support students as one of the most significant factors enabling students to persist. However valuable these shifts have been in promoting persistence Walburg (2008) and Battiste (2013) claim the fundamental differences between the epistemologies of Western and Indigenous world views are not really addressed in post-secondary educational design. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (2015) identified this conflict as ongoing colonization through Eurocentric approaches to teaching and learning and calls for the adoption of Indigenous pedagogies into mainstream educational offerings. This is no easy task. Indigenous students entering post-secondary may be from one of three distinct cultural groups: First Nations, Inuit or Metis, and within these groupings members of different cultural groups again. The heterogeneous nature of Indigenous student populations entering higher education further complicates social and academic integration from an organizational perspective because a universal Indigenous approach cannot adequately meet diverse students needs (Bastien, 2004; Martin & Kipling, 2006; Timmons, 2009). To reduce “melting pot” effects, this research does not set out to describe Indigenous student experience universally, but rather the experience of one specific group, urban raised First Nations students in a pre-nursing program at a large urban centre. What is my role in sharing this story? As a non-indigenous researcher, my knowledge of First Nations experience will always be limited. This research is the result of two years of work with the community in question, a year of consultation and direction seeking and a year of conversations with students and faculty. Ideally these stories would be written by the women themselves, but they were busy, getting on and getting through university to obtain their goals. My intention was to act as an ally; to give voice to those not in a position to speak or write but who wanted to effect positive change for future students by sharing their experiences. So I offered my time and a safety net, an outsider with nothing to gain or lose, who could voice authentic experiences with no risk to those who spoke. The choice of the medicine wheel as analytic frame, and the degree to which this was successfully done also speaks to my own process of unlearning (Wilson, 2008) and decolonizing myself.

Setting: The Pre Nursing Transitions (PNT) Program The development of the case study was informed and guided by the Director of Indigenous Programming at a western Canadian University (referred to as the University throughout the remainder of this article). The Director stated, like many transitions programs across Canada the cost/benefit equation of the Indigenous Pre-Nursing Transition (PNT) program within the University‟s budget was being questioned. The program was expensive to operate and graduation rates were low (personal communication, 2011). Facing institutional funding cuts the Director wanted to know what aspects within the current PNT program supported students‟ transition beyond the numbers that could be obtained from the registrar‟s office. Of Indigenous descent, the Director also had first hand experience with transitioning to university and wanted to know: What aspects of the program worked well for the students and what areas needed improvement? Also, what evidence could be offered that illustrated the

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programs were having a positive effect on students to support its continued existence? The PNT program of the University was relatively resource heavy in comparison to the first year nursing offerings for mainstream students. PNT like the mainstream pre-nursing program was designed to completed in one year and included all of the first year pre-requisite courses for the three-year Bachelor of Nursing. The difference between the Transitions program and the mainstream pre-nursing year was that Transition candidates were “cohorted” and participated in specific sections of the core biology courses which were all taught by the same instructor. Cohorting reduced the typical class size of the university from over 100 to approximately 20 students. In addition, PNT students were expected to participate in mandatory tutorials, visit an academic/personal counsellor monthly as well as take part in a week long orientation program. No specific Indigenous practices were adopted in course or program design and Indigenous content was limited to elective courses in Indigenous studies. The instructor of the core courses did not alter the content or structure of the lessons from the mainstream sections but provided PNT students with additional learning supports such as recorded lectures and pre-instruction Power Point notes, which were not provides to the parallel mainstream classes. Rather than being program specific, cultural support was provided for all Indigenous students at the University through an Indigenous students‟ centre. The building was home to a full time Elder in residence and offered a friendly space to spend time, computer access, free printing and a lunch room. Staff working in the centre coordinated a variety of social and cultural events open to all students as well as facilitated mentorship opportunities.

Methodology and Methods of Data Collection Approximately a year was spent in consultation with the Director of Indigenous programming, the faculty instructor described above, the administrator of the PNT, the academic councillor of PNT and several program leads of the varied Indigenous focused programs offered at the University before a methodology was determined. Through these pre-research conversations, it became apparent that the University needed more qualitative evidence about the function of the PNT. All of the aforementioned community members discussed the need to look beyond the statistics to see the real value of the program for the students, with the most poignant example coming from the Director as she outlined the “problem” of persistent students, or more accurately, the funding problem created when students did not complete the ten-month program in the allocated ten months. As a non-Indigenous researcher focusing on questions involving Indigenous participants I felt the methodology needed to be positioned in a manner similar to the aims of the program, as a “middle ground” or bridge between two worlds (Augustine, 1998). The research methodology chosen was case study, to reflect the unique population of students in the particular context. I attempted to blend both Indigenous and non-Indigenous epistemologies through the use of predominantly qualitative methods with open ended interview protocols that became sharing sessions rather than interviews, as a form of bricolage (Kovach, 2009; Lowan-Trudeau, 2012). The research approach was also grounded in relationship building guided by the seminal

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work of Kirkness and Barnhardt (1991) 4Rs: respect, relevance, reciprocity and responsibility. Data collection took place through a series of four individual meetings with each self-selected student candidate during one academic year, September, 2013, to May, 2014. Through chain sampling, from participating students‟ identification of key influences on their persistence additional interviews were conducted with the academic counsellor and the primary faculty instructor. The sessions were recorded, transcribed and analyzed for themes using in vivo coding according to the protocols established in Saldana (2013). Trustworthiness of the data was achieved through a process of member checking and research collaboration with the participants. My interpretations were brought back to each participant prior to commencing the subsequent interview and interpretations were verified or corrected until the participants identified their experience had been accurately captured and represented. Both the primary instructor of the biology courses as well as the academic counsellor were also interviewed at the end of the data collection period in an effort to refine themes as they emerged from the data and to triangulate. The participants themselves, became co-researchers rather than the subject of research. As the year progressed they brought me stories and analysis of their university experience. They searched to describe concrete factors that could contribute to improved learning for the students following in their footsteps in subsequent years. Through these stories a picture of who they were, their motivations and resourcefulness became apparent.

The Women Three self identified First Nations students participated in research conversations but asked to remain anonymous, therefore pseudonyms have been used. All women gave their time freely without incentives. When our official communications concluded at the end of the transition year four themes emerged (1) organization of learning, (2) scaling the university experience, (3) pacing the program and (4) faculty‟s role in advocating for students. Each of these themes begins to emerge from the students‟ stories that follow. Carol Carol entered the pre-nursing transition program as an adult learner after a long gap in education as well as through a non-traditional high school graduation route. On our first meeting Carol outlined how challenges with her step-father led her to marry early as an escape from home. After raising her family and working her way up to a successful career in sales through a variety of entry level jobs. Carol was highly motivated to return to school, not only because of her own educational goals but to be able to move into a career that offered more stability to her family. Carol regularly cited her children as motivation factors for her return as well as ongoing persistence efforts over the course of the year, both in terms of strategizing her own success, “my kids, they depend on me, and I don‟t have the option to not do what I need to do” as well as the change her new lifestyle brought to the home, “I‟m home, I mean I am very busy, school is busy but I am home [more] with the kids, I notice they are a lot happier.”. Carol was responsible for the primary care of her children as well as felt responsible for care of her extended family. When an extended family

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member, who lived in another province, fell ill during the term Carol reported feeling immense guilt that she could not be physically there to support her. She felt the stress of this situation would have caused her to leave the University entirely had it not been for her close relationship with the transition program mandated counsellor. Carol often identified her relationship with the counsellor as an important aspect of her stress management, “I don‟t have time to let it [stress] creep in and if it does I just go knock on the counsellor‟s door with a box of Kleenex”. Carol also identified the primary instructor of her core biology classes as important to her success because the instructor appeared genuinely interested in students, but Carol was also critical about the way in which the content of the courses was presented, she is a fantastic instructor and she cares and all those things, but I think she is like so smart that like her language is very intense and it was well over and above what we were ready for and that was a huge difficult struggle throughout. ..I have spoken to her about it before, there is a disconnect between what I am being taught and I think I understand ... And there has been [from the beginning] and that has been a very frustrating point for me. Carol suggested both the type of content selected for the program (general science as opposed to nursing specific) as well as the way it was structured (from cells to systems instead people to parts) increased the challenge of the program, We are still learning the individual pieces the intestine, all of that, and apparently now we are going to learn how it works, apparently by the end of next term that‟s going to be the big reveal. We‟ll see. She was also disappointed in what appeared to be a complacency on the side of the institution with regard to expectations saying “[The instructor said] the average is 60%, and that‟s a good score…when I was in high school that was not good…I‟m just flabbergasted.” Throughout the year, Carol returned to these feelings of disconnect, that the university had somehow gotten the process of learning backwards. In spite of these feelings, Carol completed the PNT, in the year she entered and was accepted into the competitive nursing program. However, it is important to note that Carol deliberately took courses in advance of entering PNT, to “test out” university prior to entering PNT. When asked at the end of the year what motivated her to complete her answer was very simple, “how many times have I been told no because I don‟t have that piece of paper… so I guess just to prove to everyone else I guess, I will feel good about it.”. She felt very alone in this goal, and as a single mother she had the added pressure of supporting her children now and in the future. “Getting the paper” represented proof for her children and herself that things could be different. Anne Anne also left home at an early age and returned to complete high school as an adult learner. Anne identified herself as a high achiever stating that, “In high school up until the end of my grade 10, [the year she left school] my marks

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ranged from 85 to 95%.” Anne had successfully graduated from a college program in a different health care field and left that career to enter the PNT. She was married without children and indicated her spouse was extremely supportive of her decision to return to school, “having my husband, he‟s wicked, he is amazing it‟s so nice to have someone that is your cheerleader and is just so supportive… during exams he cooked dinner every night and he did laundry and like all these things.”. Together they had prepared a financial plan in order to be able to pay for the nursing degree without, she hoped, having to access student loans or bursaries. Anne, although considered a first year student had started taking courses at the University one term prior to her start in the PNT program in an effort to better prepare for her return to school. She did not feel she needed the counsellor and participated only to the extent that she completed the mandatory minimum number of meetings required of the PNT program. Anne was highly self-motivated and didn‟t feel she had time for socializing at the university. After the first term of varied attempts to connect with both members of her class, the Indigenous community on campus and the nursing faculty she withdrew from social contacts with the university generally. The only relationship Anne attempted to maintain was that with her primary instructor, she‟s also younger…so she‟s a lot more personable, so [she is] more inclined to have a personal conversation where a lot of other instructors really aren‟t a lot of times they seem very busy they are approachable in that you can ask them questions in regards to assignments and stuff but other than that they tend, they are gone... Anne identified this action as strategic. It was not that she did not want to have connections on campus, but as an adult learner she approached school like a job, arriving on campus daily in a 9-5 pattern. Rather than spending her out of class time in social activities she preferred to seek out quiet corners on campus to study. Originally, this home was the Indigenous student centre because she found it to be a comfortable place and welcoming space. By the mid point of the year, as her familiarity with the campus grew she moved on to find study areas in the nursing building, because she wanted to overhear and learn about what she needed to know after PNT. In her explorations with relationships on campus, once she determined a particular relationship to be a “time waster” because it did not directly lead to gains academically or contribute to her professional goals she ended it. The only non-academic activity Anne added to her daily campus routine was a regular workout time at the gym, which she said was important to managing her stress levels. Anne was highly motivated, before the completion of PNT she had mapped out an accelerated program for herself for nursing so that she could enter into a master‟s degree. Her goal was to enter nursing on her academic standing alone by not using one of the seats reserved for Indigenous students. She achieved this. When I asked her what advice she had for anyone considering entering PNT she said, “you can succeed if you use the supports, if you are committed, you really have to commit to being here in general, so if you are at that point, you know for sure that is what you want to do, and you don‟t let anyone distract you from that.”. For Anne,

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completion was all about mitigating distractions and obstacles with a sense of humour. In our interviews we laughed a great deal about the challenges she faced and her recounting of her response to them. Mary Mary entered the PNT in a more traditional route, with a three-year gap between graduation from high school and application to the University. Not confident in her ability to be successful at the university level upon graduation from high school Mary completed a two-year college program first, “I wasn‟t ready to commit to university, a long program and a lot of money right out of high school... I knew I was interested in something in the medical field but I wasn‟t sure what that was.”. However, during her internship in this program she decided she wanted a more challenging career in the medical field. She lived at home with her mother and siblings just outside the city and had a long daily commute using public transportation. Money was an important issue for Mary as she not only paid for her own tuition, but also contributed to the family income by paying rent and helping out financially as needed. Mary maintained her job on a part-time basis upon entering the University full-time through traditional channels. Shed joined the PNT program six months after her original start due to a chance encounter with another Indigenous student at the Indigenous student centre. Mary like Carol and Anne identified her immediate family as a family of “workers” who did not fully understand the complexities she faced with her return to school, “I don‟t have a horrible life, but I want better things, for my family, even though they don‟t really acknowledge [my efforts].” Mary maintained social contacts with both friend she made within the PNT and also from her previous term on campus. She regularly met “the girls” for coffee and “gossip”, although she intentionally limited these contacts to the school day and deliberately chose not to socialize on the weekends reserving this time for her friends and family outside of the University. Prior to entering PNT, Mary had a challenging first term on campus and viewed it as a learning experience because she felt it was not the content of the courses that was difficult, but rather, the course load balance and time management that had caused her the most problems. She attributed this at least in part to her lack of familial mentorship, it‟s really hard for me, no one in my family went to university so I can‟t say oh my mom is pushing me or whatever, um I would say it‟s just myself, I just changed a few things, obviously, studying habits, you know I learned, like how to group what with what and just go from there, self motivate myself. Mary also outlined stress in relation to the size of the university. Having come from a smaller school outside the city she found both the physical size of the campus and the number of students in the typical classroom to be daunting. She identified the scaled down PNT cohort as an important feature in establishing her connection to the University. Although she did not develop relationships beyond the level of “familiar faces” in the cohort, Mary appreciated the fact that she was both noticed as a person by classmates and the instructor because of the small class size. At the end of the PNT year Mary chose not to apply to nursing

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but instead to return for a second year in PNT. Her plan was to enroll in the nursing electives open to any university student as well as re-take some of her previous courses where her grades had not been strong. Having learned from her early experiences in the university, that choosing a good balance of courses was critical to success, she wanted to lighten her load in the nursing program by reducing the course credits she would need initially as well as ensuring she had the foundations in physiology and anatomy provided by the PNT.

The Medicine Wheel as Analytical Lens Pamela Toulouse (2007), an Ojibwe scholar, has put forward the argument that Indigenous Peoples‟ academic success is inherently tied to self-esteem and identity, which she describes using the medicine wheel. This lent further evidence for the need to an alternative evaluative frame. The Medicine Wheel is one of the most widespread symbols found among North American Indigenous cultures (Canada Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 1996). Each of the four directions (East, North, West and South) of the wheel may be attributed different meanings based on the cultural heritage of the speaker, but each reflects holistic attributes of an individual‟s life that should be kept in balance with the attributes of the other directions (Landon, 2012). These attributes include emotional, physical, mental and spiritual domains and should one aspect of a person‟s life fall out of balance all others are impacted (Toulouse, 2007). Entering university represents a major change in an individual‟s life causing many aspects to shift in and out of balance as a student adjusts to the new environment. Because of this, it was through the lens of the medicine wheel that I chose to describe the students‟ experiences rather than the more traditional student integration framework of Tinto (2012) which as previously mentioned is not relevant for Indigenous students and focuses on retention from an institutional perspective. As a non-indigenous researcher working with First Nations participants, I was challenged with unsettling myself, second guessing my own understanding of experiences and post-secondary education. Using the medicine wheel became a tool for me to evaluate my own expectations and question factors impacting student persistence not formally represented in literature.

Learning from the stories In reviewing the transitions program through the lens of the medicine wheel, I added two more voices, that of the instructor of the cohort courses and the oft mentioned academic counsellor. Here we see a second and perhaps more important story emerge. One that attests to the resilience of the women in the face of change and the challenges they must negotiate to persist: (1) central role of family, (2) strategies to navigate two worlds (3) isolation and the (4) desire to give, serve and succeed for others. It is important to note, these are the characteristics the students brought to the program and the areas that were not served well by the university. The East: Emotional Domain The East or emotional domain describes your mental state and how your emotions impact your relationships with others (Toulouse, 2011). Student

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participants universally approached their academic journey as one that needed to be completed alone. Their comments evidenced both feeling isolated from family as well as a need to “make in on my own”. When directly asked about the changing nature of relationships, all three students identified varying degrees of support with regard to familial understanding of the academic journey. All three women indicated because they came from a family of “workers” they were often misunderstood. Hardes‟ (2006) identified that for many Indigenous students joining the university community means, at least to some degree, a separation from family community. The academic counsellor reiterated examples from students and identified familial relationships as a key theme impacting persistence, you know when you have students that have family who don‟t understand what it takes to be a student at university or they are coming in from you know the north on a weekend and say no we want all your attention meanwhile the student is caught between working on their studies or being there with their family … they are caught in that catch 22. I‟ve heard that story so many times. Pidgeon (2009) proposed that Indigenous students must negotiate a challenging balance between the cultural values of home versus the western values given priority at the institution, with both worlds conflicting in various realms of decision making and prioritizing. The student participants discussed this conflict indirectly. All participants were hesitant to join the PNT community, citing family commitments and life outside the university as more important than investment in new relationships that were seen as transient. There was also reluctance related to involving family members in the University environment, with the only exception being the Indigenous students Christmas party. Gold (2011), has shared similar evidence claiming that family connections take priority over educational group membership for Indigenous students. Sitting between these two worlds lead to feelings of isolation and the search for someone to identify with. For Carol the search for advice and balance came from regular meetings with the academic counsellor. Anne on the other hand, felt the academic counsellor was at times a burden or requirement of the program and sought out a mentor through the Indigenous mentorship program at the University. Anne however ended the mentorship relationship after only a few brief meetings with her mentor because she did not find him relatable. Anne switched to a complete separation of relationships of university and home and found her support from her husband. During the course of the year, Mary never quite found a grounding relationship on campus. She had many loose social connections with classmates and other Indigenous students on campus, but she did not socialize with these students outside of the university environment, nor did she introduce them to her family. The isolation and lack of role models is a theme that has been addressed frequently in the literature, but has yet to be addressed in practice effectively (Battiste, 2002; Hare, 2011; Kanu, 2011). Students initially reached out for emotional connections in the university, but finding few or not prepared to invest the time needed to build deeper connections they adopted coping skills that helped them persist alone.

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The South: Physical Domain The south or physical domain of the medicine wheel represents basic needs; food, shelter, health and general well-being of an individual (Toulouse, 2011). For Carol the motivation for returning to school was based in her ability to better meet the physical needs of her children, The job that I had, I mean it paid a lot of money, it was very good financially but, um it‟s also a lot of hours and a lot of time, so it was like 6 days a week, always evenings and weekends, and like I never saw the kids, the kids were shipped around from daycare, to babysitters…They still need me right, I found my son really struggled a lot with um, me being gone all the time. Childcare and family caregiving have been found to be critical challenges impacting Indigenous women‟s education post-secondary school completion because of the absence of supports such as adequate/affordable childcare (ACCC, 2010; Kitchen, et al., 2010). The evidence presented by the students in this work indicated this remains an ongoing problem, in particular for women. Carol indicated the delay in her return to university was directly attributed to her children, “we started a family and so my education got pushed back.”. While Anne, who did not have children, indicated her delayed entry at university was caused by her need to meet her own physical needs after being forced to leave home at an early age. She only felt confident now to return to school because she and her husband had planned and set aside savings to allow them to maintain their lifestyle with the loss of her salary. Anne had faced difficult times in the past, going from a straight A student to a drop out in high school because of the large number of school days missed for work once she was living on her own. Both Mary and Carol were still facing this challenge, working and caring for family while trying to study. The same commitments that motivated them to return to university, the ability to provide better support for their family, were also the ones that caused them to miss time. Flexible and blended learning designs have been cited in the literature as possible means to further support students who must miss time (Donnelly, 2010; Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia, & Jones, 2009; Woltering, Herrier, Spitzer, & Spreckelson, 2009). For all three student participants the online learning supports in the form of the Power Point course notes provided scaffolding for filtering and prioritizing face-to-face content, however they did not access recorded lectures also made available. When questioned, the women indicated that they found recordings too time consuming to listen to when they were already trying to catch up. Using the Power Point notes or gathering notes from other students helped to filter what needed to be learned into manageable pieces more efficiently. All women also indicated the instructor‟s flexibility, caring and advocacy were important to passing the course. Citing examples of permission to hand in late submissions, allowing extended absence for personal reasons and academic support for these absences, students contrasted the qualities of their instructor against other experiences of the opposite. At some points when listening to the women, I felt the university was holding them hostage because of their physical needs, because improving ability to meet physical needs was the primary motivator for

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all women, but structures in place for academic achievement made balancing current needs challenging. This is why the women relied so heavily and appreciated so deeply the flexibility of the instructor, because she humanized institutional processes. The West: Mental Domain In the mental sphere, defined as the cerebral activities of a person, students cited conflicts with the order in which materials were presented. The first conflict students identified related to processing of information. Both Carol and Anne indicated the presentation of the course content was exactly the opposite of their own understanding of learning. Their preference was for information to be presented holistically and then deconstructed as opposed to the presentation of smaller pieces building up to the whole, as exemplified by Anne in speaking about a theoretical physiology lesson: “I don‟t even know how to ask the question to better understand whatever it is you are talking about because I don‟t even know what you are talking about.”. Within the Canadian context there is evidence that suggests that the conflict between Indigenous ways of knowing and the Eurocentric deductive approach to knowledge acquisition has indeed contributed in part to lower graduation rates for Indigenous students (Landon, 2012; OECD, 2017; Whitely, 2014; Zinga & Gordon, 2014). In their discussions of Indigenous pedagogy, Kanu (2011) and Slee (2010) raised the same concerns about the disconnection between holistic learning approaches and the Eurocentric deductive approach to knowledge acquisition. Each participating student acknowledged a level of disconnect from her desired profession, nursing. They felt there should be greater ties to the nursing community, nurses and a more obvious relationship between the content of their courses (biology and nursing) and their future role in the community as practicing nurses. Carol stated this feeling most blatantly, I don‟t want to kill somebody, I want to walk out of here and feel confident that I know what I am frigging doing when I work in a hospital I don‟t want to go be unsure and what I am hearing from other nursing students is no, it‟s up to you to know, cause you know [coursework] and then you are not ready [for work in hospital]. The personal relevance of the course content and the “important” knowledge to retain for future was a large concern for students who felt this was not being filtered appropriately. Anne made a point of spending time in the nurses‟ student lounge, not to make friends, but to find information that would help her pass critical nursing exams. The desire for personal relevance for these women was not met. However, personal relevance has long been advocated by Indigenous scholars who note that this issue is at odds with the Eurocentric approach to standardized learning progression (Battiste, 2002; Munroe, Borden, Orr, & Meader, 2014). The North: Spiritual Domain The north or spiritual domain refers to all the thoughts, activities and rituals that connect a person to the world (Toulouse, 2011). Contrary to evidence from the literature (Barnhardt & Kawagley, 2005; CESC, 2003; Fleet & Kitson, 2009),

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student participants in this research did not explicitly identify or recognize a spiritual disconnect between Western education systems and Indigenous ways of knowing. So it is here, we see an imbalance in the wheel. This absence in the study data does not necessarily indicate that one did not exist, but rather that the students were unable or unwilling to identify it. It is important to note, that all women were raised in and around urban centres and attended provincial schools prior to university entry. When these observations were discussed with the instructor, she responded, High school is already so disconnected for many of the students…I‟ve taught in isolated communities and there it is different, then you had [students who were] very culturally in touch and immersed and that is more the day to day life…in this cohort there is a mix of everything [backgrounds] but the bulk of the students are not in touch with their cultural roots. The instructor‟s conclusion was evidenced in student comments as well. After using a word in the Ojibwe language, Anne stated: “I am trying to learn all these new words,” indicating her disconnect to her heritage language. Students appeared to be distanced from traditional Indigenous languages and cultural activities. Anne made some attempts early in the PNT program to participate in Pow wows and other cultural activities however she became frustrated and began to see the events as “time wasters” in her overburdened schedule. Spiritual and cultural practice was not integrated into the students schedule either by the University or the students themselves, despite the fact that research in promising practices indicates that cultural competence leads to greater academic achievement (Chain, et. al, 2017). Although they identified some disconnects that they felt stemmed from the bias of the Eurocentric presentation of course content, they did not explicitly identify this as a cultural disconnect. When students were asked about the importance of an Elder in residence, only one student identified a desire to communicate with the Elder. All other participating students indicated this practice was foreign to them or something they had given up in their past. Battiste (2013) has claimed that the erosion of Indigenous culture, language and knowledge is an end result of the colonial education systems the students participate in and that students need to be reeducated in their own culture. To that end, the University provided open cultural events for all Indigenous students which the students appreciated. However, as the term progressed they spent less time involved in these cultural events as the demands for their studies grew.

Conclusion The evidence presented in this paper is cyclical. As my relationship with the students deepened I learned and relearned what grounded persistence decisions and the personal costs students experienced because of their decisions. Initially, I saw the surface, the program critiques and supports as outlined as organization of learning, scale of the university, pacing and faculty advocacy. As the year progressed, I learned more about the complexity of university transition and the personal conflicts participants faced in relation to family, university

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membership, isolation and desire to help others. Entering university can be a highly conflicting space for Indigenous students, impacting their sense of selfworth, their relationships and identity. Negotiating this change is the key to persistence, but the mechanisms offered by post-secondary institutions need to at minimum acknowledge this complexity. The missing connection to the spiritual domain is not insignificant. Evaluated through traditional western lenses of student integration, spirituality is seen as unimportant, but Indigenous scholars tell us it is critical to identity and well being. The lack of formal recognition of spiritual (not religious) ceremony and practice and its role on persistence demands further study, but it is an area of change that higher education is cautious to enter. Ultimately, all students were persistent, although not necessarily successful in negotiating the transition program through the plan laid out by the University. Returning to upgrade or complete missing credits meant that students were taking up seats that could not be counted as “new intake” or “graduates” and therefore un-countable, which was the original problem identified by the program director in pre-research consultation. However, in response to University or budgetary critiques of lack of success from transitions these women have evidenced not only persistence from a positive perspective but also shared insights that would facilitate a greater Indigenous student centered focus for transitions programming. Moving forward, the implications for transitions design are: 1. Students‟ lives are complex, and western approaches to timelines and lock-step processes alienates students who may miss time because of family or other obligations. Flexibility of process and understanding are critical. 2. In connecting to the university space, relationships with instructors are critical. Faculty need to be aware of the central role they play in persistence decisions because they are the key face of the university for students. 3. Building on both of the above, a holistic approach to education is needed, not only in content, which has been oft mentioned in the literature but in supporting the connection building between school, family lives and individual well being. These concepts are not new in public education. In essence the themes arising from this work speak to humanizing the educational experience. Postsecondary institutions have been far slower to adapt to the changes in educational approaches seen currently in public school. Transition programs aim to teach students how to adapt to the industrialized process of education seen at this level. But it is exactly this industrialized approach, large scale classrooms, standardized instruction and the positioning of student-faculty relationships that was identified as alienating to the students involved in this research. Until we begin to foundationally re-think and redefine the way we engage with students at the post secondary level we are guilty of perpetuating colonization effects regardless of how well intentioned our work is. Responding to the Truth and Reconciliations‟ call requires more than investing in improvements of sustaining programs built from colonial perspectives. Un settling and institution requires listening and taking time to understand the

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complexity associated with attending higher education and responding holistically using alternative frameworks such as the medicine wheel as a guide to evaluate and respond to the needs of the students.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 132-148, October 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.10.10

The use of Social Networks by the Students of a Mexican Public University Juan Ignacio Barajas Villarruel, María Gregoria Benítez Lima, Ricardo Noyola Rivera and Juan Manuel Buenrostro Morán Facultad de Contaduría y Administración, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí San Luis Potosí, México

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to determine the relation between the students’ use of digital social networks and the variables of age, time, gender, reasons and their Bachelor’s Degree program, in the context of the Faculty of Accounting and Administration (FAA) at a Mexican public university (MPU).The specific objectives were: determine the places and devices used to access their preferred digital social networks; their use and motivations to use these tools. The design of the research was non-experimental with a correlational quantitative focus. An instrument was designed, validated and applied to 842 students of a population of 3670. A descriptive analysis was done and, Spearman’s Rho, ANOVA and student’s t tests were applied. The results determined that Facebook is the most popular social network, followed by YouTube; the main significant reason was leisure. Also there is no influence among the age of the students of the FAA and the time that they spend on digital social networks; the gender of the participants does influence the reasons why they take part in the digital social networks. Furthermore, neither their BA programs, nor the reasons why they take part in the networks, influence the type of digital social networks they use. Keywords: ICTs, Digital Social, Digital Social Networks, Users, Higher Education, Web 2.0.

Introduction One of the main changes in education is the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in the teaching-learning processes; which have modified the forms of interaction between the students and their classmates as well as teachers. Prensky (2001) considers that students think and process information in a significantly different way from their predecessors and named them the “Digital Natives” generation. Also, Gardner and Davis (2014) identify them as the “App Generation”, as they believe this age group masters a

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digital language; thus, it can be said that this situation calls for innovation in terms of the educational processes. On the other hand, in the case of higher level students, influence of the Internet technological tools, has been determining. Thus, Gómez, Roses and Farías (2012) state that all applications or social media, which emerged from the 2.0 web, including the digital social networks, suppose the active participation or users, who in turn become producers and recipients. These authors also determined that the academic use of the digital social networks is low, and that the students use them for clarification of school assignments and questions from the class, and for activities during their lessons. Furthermore to this, Richmond, Rochefort and Hitch (2011) noted there is a limited impact of the digital social networks, in the current formal teaching. They deduce it is possible that traditional formal teaching is deeply rooted in Universities. Also, Herrera (2014) pointed out social networks are indeed being utilized in the university context as a mean of interaction and communication due to its ubiquity and immediacy, he added that students do not only share pictures, videos, ideas, etc., but also use them to coordinate their assignments, distribute materials and school documents. Results of the study carried out by Herrera (2014) on the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) for school tasks and socialization, showed that 98% of students belonged to a particular digital social network, and Facebook turned out to be the most popular one. A study was carried out in the Faculty of Accounting and Administration (FAA) at a Mexican Public University (MPU). The Faculty has 3698 undergraduate students and there are 298 students enrolled in graduate programs. Based on the most recent institutional report, students of this Faculty constantly demand the use of ICT, more particularly access to web 2.0 technological tools, such as digital social networks (Villar, 2016). Furthermore, the University authorities of the FAA, where this case study was conducted, have established an Institutional Development Plan 2013-2023 (PIDE 2013-2023), which states the comprehensive actions the University must carry out on the basis of the definition of policies, institutional programs, objectives and strategies (UASLP, 2013). In this regard, the PIDE’s strategies that justify this study are: a) Increased use of ICTs in order to support the educational processes of the academic institutions and, b) Improvement and innovation of the teaching practice (UASLP, 2013). In accordance to what have been said and considering that students access to digital social networks in the FAA, the research problem of this study is the lack of information on students’ use of digital social networks; also, in order to enable a greater interpretation of the research problem, three variables were taken into consideration: age, gender and the BA program they study as there is not information about the influence of such variables in terms of the time they spend

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using the digital social networks and the reasons why they used them. This information will allow us to define an instructional design proposal that includes the use of digital social networks for academic purposes, aligned with the context of the BA programs of the Faculty and according to the institutional policies of the University.

Social networks Social networks are defined as a delimited set of elements or members which can be individuals, groups, organizations, communities, global societies and others (Lozares, 1996). The members of these groups relate to each other based on compatibility. On the other hand, Castell (2009) defined social networks as “… a set of nodes which are interconnected and can have greater of less relevance for the network in such a way that the particularly important ones are denominated Centers” (p.39). Hence, social networks represent a space of communication that is generated by interconnected nodes. Furthermore, Vidal, Niurka and Hernández (2013) pointed out that social networks are a structure built by an open system of permanent construction, which involves people who are related by some similar reasons, needs and/or problems; based on principles of sharing, collaboration and creation. The concept of social network used in this study was built based on the definition provided by Castell (2009), it is then understood as a set of at least two nodes which are interconnected (people, groups, institutions, etc.) through a mean of communication in which members relate to one another and whose relationships can have greater or less relevance.

Digital social networks Digital social networks started with the use of Internet, and are part of web 2.0 technologies (Sandoval, Gómez, Demuner, 2012). According to Valenzuela (2013) Friendster and Xing are among the first sites that fostered friends’ networks and they appeared between 2001 and 2002; later in 2003 MySpace, LinkedIn y Facebook started. Initially, digital social networks were focused on entertainment and socialization; however, Islas and Arribas (2010) explained that “subsequent revisions enabled them to start implementing useful functions of linking and social bond, which was fertile ground for the development of social networks based on collective intelligence of active groups and prosumers” (p.153), this means the fusion between producer and consumer; thus, public information was generated, and the “prosumers took the primary role in the information and knowledge society” (p.154). There is a great diversity of digital social networks; Islas and Arribas (2010) classified them as follows: (a) professional purposes (b) innovation purposes, (c)

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intended for community service, (d) for virtual socialization (e) entertainment and (f) educational contexts. The concept of social network used in this study is based on the definition provided by Castell (2009), and it is as follows: a set of nodes interconnected via Internet, which enhances communication and interaction of members of a virtual community with a common interest, through technological tools built into a virtual platform.

Related studies A diversity of research shows the growth of the social networks on internet, on all social areas and the use they give them; specifically in the case of young university students, the use give the networks is of entertainment, communication, and interaction (Horgan y Sweeney, 2012). The study carried out by Gómez, Roses and Farías (2012) focused on “the university students academic use of social networks; results showed…students make intensive use of social networks as they are part of their life and daily tasks –they are essentially connected all day long; however, the academic use of social networks is limited” (p. 6). Parra (2010) studied the use of digital social networks, within the university students’ habits. Main findings of this research showed that “…curiosity and entertainment are the principal reasons for those who visit social networks” (p.206). Also, Kim, Sohn and Choi (2011) examined and compared, motifs of the use of digital social networks, among Northamerican and Korean university students. These authors determined that the main reasons to use digital social networks, on both student groups, was to look for friends and leisure. Similarly, Turkey (2013) investigated the use of social networks by university students in relation to their gender, type of use, type of cell phone, and type of sites. A questionnaire was administered on sample of 120 university students; the results showed that students use social networks mainly for social purposes and not so much for academic purposes. Furthermore Turkey (2013) the results showed that Facebook was the most common social network among the students. It was further revealed that there was no significant difference in the use of the Internet. In Mexico, within the National Youth Survey (IMJUVE, 2010), an individual questionnaire was administered to a sample of 29, 787 Mexicans between 12 and 29 years old; it was a representative sample at a state and national level, including six metropolitan areas. The results showed that out of 69.5% of the participants, 47.1% use Internet for social networking purposes; 88.2% use Facebook, only 4.1% use Twitter and 6% other social networks. According to these results, “Women and men used Internet mainly for networking purposes; in a lesser degree, they also used Internet to search and receive information; chatting on Facebook is young Mexican’s favorite choice of young Mexicans in this study” (p.33).

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Regarding the use of the social networks, “92% of the Mexicans who have access to Internet, use a digital social network regularly, the remaining 8% do not visit these sites due to lack of interest and time, and because of data protection reasons” (AMIPCI, 2013, p.19).

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this research is to determine the relation between the students’ use of digital social networks and the variables of age, time, gender, reasons and their BA program, in the context of the Faculty of Accounting and Administration at a Mexican public university. This will be done in order to collect evidences that will help build an instructional design proposal that involves the use of digital social networks in this educational context.

Research Questions 1. Which places and devices are used by the students of the Faculty of Accounting and Administration of a Mexican public university to access digital social networks? 2. Which are the preferred digital social networks of the students of the Faculty of Accounting and Administration of a Mexican public university? 3. How is the use of the digital social networks by the students of the Faculty of Accounting and Administration of a Mexican public university? 4. Which are the reasons why students of the Faculty of Accounting and Administration of a Mexican public university, use the digital social networks? 5. Is there a relation between the age of participants and the time they spend on digital social networks? 6. Is there a relation between the gender of participants and the reasons for using digital social networks? 7. Is there a relation among the participants of a BA program and the type of digital social networks they use? 8. Is there a relation between the participants’ BA program and the reasons why they take part in the digital social networks?

Method This is descriptive, non-experimental study based on a correlational quantitative approach (Creswell, 2012); parametric statistics Student’s t-tests were applied as well as the unidirectional analysis of variance ANOVA; the non-parametric statistics test of the Rho Spearman correlation coefficient was also applied (Hernández, Fernández y Baptista, 2014). The descriptive analysis helped identify the type and use of the social networks used by the FAA’ students. On the other hand, the parametric and non-parametric tests showed the existing correlations among the variables of age, time, gender, BA program, type of digital social networks, and the reasons of use of social networks. The population for the study was composed of 3670 students, who were registered during the 2014-2015 Academic session, in the following BA programs: Public Accounting; Administration; Public Administration;

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Agribusiness; and Strategic Marketing. A stratified sample was used (Hernández et al., 2014), making sure all strata were represented in every BA program. The sample consisted of a total of 450 students, distributed by BA program: 259 of Public Accounting; 348 of Administration; 123 of Public Administration; 64 of Agribusiness, and 48 of Marketing. The designed questionnaire was named: “Use of Digital Social networks by students of the Faculty of Accounting and Administration of a Mexican public university”. It was designed based on the questionnaire of the 17th Survey of the Association for Media Research (AIMC, 2014) in Spain. The ERSD questionnaire was structured into two sections. The first one contains three items that are related to the student’s general information. The second section includes the following dimensions: (a) places where they access to digital social networks (4 closed-ended items and one open-ended question) (b) devices they use to access digital social networks (5 closed-ended items and one open-ended question), (c) frequency of use of digital social networks (16 closed-ended items and one openended question), (d) use of digital social networks (12 closed-ended items), (e) activities they perform in the digital social networks (16 closed-ended items) and (f) reasons that drive them to use digital social networks (8 closed-ended items). The 61 closed-ended items provided a balanced scale of five answer choices based on the Likert Scale. The instrument was sent via Internet to all students who were registered in the school year; the level of responses exceeded the estimated samples by BA program.

Validation Process. The pilot test applied made possible to identify mistakes, correct answer choices and questions; also, Cronbach’s Alfa was applied in order to validate the congruence of the 61 instruments’ items. Table 1 shows the global results of validation were 0.820. Table 1: Validation of instrument with Cronbachs’ Alfa Number of closed-ended items

Cronbach’s Alfa

Places where they access digital social networks

.743

Devices they use to access digital social networks

.794

Frequency of use of digital social networks

.864

Use of digital social networks

.877

Activities they perform in the digital social networks

.859

Reasons to access digital social networks

.790

Total

.820

Dimensions

Source: prepared by the authors

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Results Descriptive Analysis. General information of the 842 participants in this study shows the distribution of frequencies of the four-age range. The total and percentage of each range were: 48% of the participants are between 18 and 19 years old, 39% between 21 and 23, 10% between 24 and 26; and 3% 27 years old or older. Results also show that 36.5% are men and 63.5% are women. Regarding their major, 31% of participants study the BA in Public Accounting, 41% Public Administration, 15% Marketing, and 8% Agribusiness. Table 2: Places where they access digital social networks Never

Sometimes

Do not attend regularly

Almost always

Always

Home

11%

23%

61%

Work

25%

26%

11%

23%

15%

School

37%

11%

33%

15%

Internet café

37%

31%

18%

Source: prepared by the authors Table 2 shows the places where the 842 students access digital social networks, 33% of participants said they access from the FAA, 23% from home; 37% said they never access from an Internet café, and 25% do not access social networks from their workplace. Table 3: Devices students use to access digital social networks Never

Sometimes

Do not attend regularly

Almost always

Always

Smartphone

22%

70%

Desktop computer

14%

37%

11%

25%

13%

Laptop computer

26%

35%

23%

Tablet

41%

23%

14%

12%

10%

Game console

64%

15%

12%

Source: prepared by the authors The table 3 shows that a 70% of the participants of the study always access digital social networks from their smartphone; 35% almost always access from a lap-top; meanwhile 64%, never access from a videogames console.

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Table 4: Digital social networks accessed by students of the FAA Never

Sometimes

Unknown

Almost always

Always

Unanswered

Badoo

68%

21%

Facebook

10%

28%

58%

Twitter

44%

26%

16%

11%

Fotolog

71%

20%

Google+

20%

22%

25%

29%

Habbo

71%

22%

Hi5

78%

13%

Instagram

36%

19%

15%

MySpace

80%

Neotlog

72%

21%

68%

18%

61%

19%

Sonico

72%

21%

Tuienti

70%

23%

Flickr

69%

22%

YouTube

17%

36%

41%

Source: prepared by the authors Table 4 shows the following results: 58% of the participants always access Facebook, 41% YouTube, 29% Google. Finally 50% never use networks such as Myspace, Pinterest, Tuenti among others. Table 5: Favorite social networks of students of the FAA Digital social networks Preference percentage Facebook

70%

Twitter Instagram WhatsApp

4% 6% 10%

YouTube Pinterest

7% 2%

Tumblr Source: prepared by the authors

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Table 5 shows about the students preference of social networks. 10% of the participants said they preferred Whatsapp. Even so, WhatsApp was not considered a social network in this study, but a messaging tool. Table 6: Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; use of digital social networks Never Sometimes

Unknow n

Almost always

Alway s

Unanswere d

Relationships with friends

68%

21%

Family relationships

10%

28%

50%

11%

Relationships linked to school

44%

26%

16%

11%

Hobbies

71%

20%

Social events

20%

22%

25%

29%

News updates

71%

22%

Rumors at school

78%

13%

School news

36%

20%

19%

School assignments

80%

Parties

72%

21%

Video downloads

68%

18%

File downloads

61%

19%

Source: prepared by the authors Results on Table 6, show the use of social networks; 50% are used to family related activity; 29% for social and cultural events; 19% for school related news. Meanwhile 80% never use them for school tasks; 78% for gossiping; 71% for leisure and hobbies and 71%, never use them for news updating.

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Table 7: Activities performed by students on the digital social networks Never

Few times

Uncertain Regularly

Always

Unanswered

Comment and share ideas

43%

34%

10%

Post photos

45%

35%

School assignments

19%

52%

18%

Search for bibliographic materials

18%

45%

21%

Search for scientific articles

26%

14%

38%

13%

Read newspapers

31%

12%

34%

12%

Search for academic magazines

12%

34%

15%

28%

Take a look at popular magazines

14%

31%

14%

29%

Download music

11%

19%

39%

22%

Follow singers

20%

28%

24%

15%

Follow politicians

32%

26%

10%

20%

Watch music videos

17%

43%

27%

Watch entertainment videos

22%

38%

22%

Share music

20%

33%

10%

22%

11%

Share videos

20%

33%

24%

12%

Download videos

29%

31%

18%

10%

Source: prepared by the authors Information in table 7 shows the percentage of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation in different activities performed on the digital social networks: 27% watch music videos, 22% to download music, and 22% to watch entertainment videos. Data also show that 45% of participants do not use digital social networks to post photos; 43% of participants use social networks to place comments, and 32% of them never use social networks to follow a politician.

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Table 8: Students’ reasons to participate in the digital social networks. Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree agree

Strongly disagree

Unanswered

Entertainment

49%

35%

To facilitate their learning

16%

47%

26%

Curiosity

24%

46%

17%

To stay up-todate with social and recreational activities

21%

49%

20%

To stay up-todate with news

12%

54%

27%

To make friends

12%

30%

34%

11%

To have fun

21%

48%

18%

To relax

24%

41%

18%

Source: prepared by the authors Data in table 8 inform about the students’ reasons to participate in the digital social networks. Answers show that 54% of the students use social networks to stay up-to-date with latest news, 49% for entertainment purposes; 49% of participants use social networks to stay up-to-date with social and recreational activities; 9% disagrees on the idea of using social networks to make friends. Parametric and Non-Parametric Statistics Analysis. The correlational analysis conducted in this study included the relation between the time spent by students on social networks and their age; participants’ gender with the reason they use digital social networks; their BA program with the type of social networks they use, and the reasons why they participate in the social networks. The parametric student’s t-test was applied for this correlational study, as well as the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the non-parametric statistics test of Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (Hernandez et al., 2013).

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Table 9: Spearman's Rho correlation coefficient between age and time spent on the digital social networks Correlations

Rho de Spearman

Time on the networks

Time spent on the networks

Age

1.000

-.062

.078

813

Correlation coefficient

-.062

1.000

Sig. (bilateral)

.078

813

842

Correlation coefficient Sig. (bilateral)

Age

Source: Prepared by the authors Table 9 shows the results of the Spearman's Rho correlation coefficient regarding students’ age and time spent on the social networks, data show the correlation of -.062, a significance level of .078, based on this information it can be said that age does not influence the time students spend on the social networks as the result is higher than the critical level of 0.05. Table 10: Student’s t-test between participants’ gender and reasons to take part in the digital social networks. Independent sample test t- test for equality of means

t Participation rate

Sig. Measure (bilateral) differences

Equal variances assumed

2.271

782

.023

.10995

Equal variances not assumed

2.285

604.77

.023

.10995

Group statistics

Gender

Mean

Man

3.8361

Woman 3.7262

Source: prepared by the authors. Table 10 shows the student’s t- test between participants’ gender and the reasons why they take part in the digital social networks; findings show that the measure difference of .10995 between men and women was not significant as the

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significance level was 0.023, (below the critical level 0.05), which allows to identify there are differences in terms of gender and the reasons why students participate in the social networks. Table 11: Relation between the BA programs they study and the type of social network they use. ANOVA Type of networks rate N

Mean

Typical deviation

BA in Public Accounting

205

1.9918

0.62908

BA in Administration

285

2.1077

0.60276

BA in Public Administration

115

1.9832

0.46168

BA in Strategic Marketing

2.1784

0.52084

BA in Agribusiness

2.0602

0.47825

Total

708

2.055

0.57807

Sig. 0.066

Source: prepared by the authors. Table 11 shows the results of the ANOVA test, it can be seen that the average maximum by BA program was 2.1784, and the minimum was 1.9918; because the significance analysis got a value of .066 (above the critical level of 0.05); this allows us to identify there is no relation between the BA program of students and the type of digital social networks they use. Table 12: ANOVA test. Relation between the BA programs the study and the reasons why they participate in the digital social networks. ANOVA Participation Rate N

Mean

Typical deviation

Sig.

BA in Public Accounting

237

3.7542

0.60101

0.988

BA in Administration

327

3.7764

0.6846

BA in Public Administration

117

3.7895

0.58576

BA in Strategic Marketing

3.7633

0.80388

59 787

3.75 3.7689

0.71015 0.65475

BA in Agribusiness Total Source: prepared by the authors.

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Table 12 shows results of the ANOVA test in terms of the relation between the BA program the participants study and the reasons why they participate in the digital social networks; these results show that the average maximum was 3.7895 and the minimum 3.75 as the value obtained through the significance analysis was 0.988 (above the critical level of 0.05). Such results allow us to identify there is no relation between the BA program in which students are enrolled and the type of digital social networks they use.

Discussion Results helped to determine that the majority of students who use digital social networks are in the 18-23 age group. This information is consistent with the results provided by the AMIPCI (2013) regarding the age group and the device users prefer to access digital social networks. Findings also show that women represent the majority of participants who use digital social networks. On the other hand, the most common places where students access to social networks are: their house, followed by school, work and Internet cafés. In this regard, it is interesting to identify that results suggest the existence of not very conventional places to access social networks such as: shopping centers, parks and or restaurants. In addition, results show that the Smartphone is the main device used to access the social networks, followed by laptops, desktops and tablets. It is important to point out that tablets are not frequently chosen by users as a mean to access social networks, this information is important, especially if we consider that tablets represent a technological trend whose prices seem to be more reasonable than in the past. Regarding the social networks used by the students of the faculty of Accounting and Administration, and based on the results of the National Youth Survey (2010), AMIPCI (2013), as well as Turkey’s (2013), Sánchez, Ruíz and Sánchez (2015) and Domínguez and López (2015), it is evident that the most popular social network among the students who participated in this study is Facebook, followed by YouTube, Instagram and +Google. In this respect, findings made by Quan-Haase and Young (2010) showed that 82% of university students reported they use Facebook several times a day. In regard to the use of digital social networks, results helped determine that the majority of participants in this study use social networking mainly to interact with friends or family, they use social networks less frequently to stay up-todate with news and current events, to do homework, and to download academic papers, respectively. The main activities students do on the digital social networks include watching and downloading music and entertaining videos; they also download bibliographic materials and use social networks to do their homework. On the other hand, the activities that participants do less frequently are: check out academic and popular magazines, follow politicians and singers, and post photos.

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The main reasons to access digital social networks are the ones related to socialization and entertainment as well as recreation. The foregoing coincides with the information of studies conducted by Parra (2010); Gómez, Roses y Farias (2012); Turkey (2013), Sánchez, Rodríguez, Ruíz-Palmero y Sánchez-Rivas (2015) and Domínguez and López (2015), who demonstrated that university students use digital social networks for curiosity and entertainment purposes. Other results determined that: (a) can be determined: (a) there is not influence between the participants’ age and the time they spend on the digital social networks; (b) the BA program of students do not influence the type of social networks they use or the reasons why they participate (c) students’ gender does influence their reasons to participate on the social networks. On the other hand, regarding the contribution of this research to the field of studies on digital social networks in the context of Mexican universities, it is reaffirmed the election of BA programs in economics and administration to conduct studies on digital social networks (Domínguez and López, 2015). In addition, these authors stated that the majority of these studies were conducted in institutions located in Mexico City, which means this research adds evidence about the uses of social networks in a different context, as it was carried out in a University that is not located in the Mexico City area.

Conclusions Based on the previous results, it can be concluded that it is necessary to reconsider the use of digital social networks as technological tools that communicate, organize, relate, value, and share information that supports learning processes of the students at the Faculty of Accounting and Administration. It is recommended to establish a strategic plan about the formal use of digital social networks in the learning process of the FAA, on the bases of the didactic planning (instructional design), teacher education on the use of digital social networks, and multidisciplinary collaboration through these technological tools. Facebook is the most popular digital social network among students of the FAA followed by YouTube. Consequently, further study is recommended in this area, more particularly on YouTube and its impact on Higher education students. Another important point is the use of WhatsApp, given its growth trend due to the use of mobile devices such as the smartphone. It is suggested, then to study its potential in the educational context. It is important to point out that participants in this research were mainly women and, considering the gender variables and the reasons for using social networks, it can be said that there is a relation between such variables, which permits to conclude that women have clear reasons to use digital social networks. This information is confirmed by the studies conducted by Tüfekçi (as cited in Sponcil & Gitimu, 2011) who points out that women use more social network

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sites than men; also Sheldon (2008) notes that women use social networks to keep in touch with friends and family, and for entertainment purposes. In addition, the BA program of students does not influence the reasons why they participate in social networks; regardless the BA program, they use them for entertainment and recreational purposes; based on this information it can be concluded that the approach of BA programs does not foster or promote the use of digital social networks for academic activities, thus, there are not limitations for the use of social networks based on the BA program. These results allow us to confirm that positive attitude of students towards technological tools and their great communicative potential are factors that will contribute to include such tools in the educational process if professors integrate them properly in an instructional design process. It can be said then, that giving a new meaning to social networks in the context of education remains as a major challenge.

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