Vol 16 No 11 November 2017 by ijlter.org

IJLTER.ORG

p-ISSN: 1694-2493 e-ISSN: 1694-2116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.16 No.11

PUBLISHER London Consulting Ltd District of Flacq Republic of Mauritius www.ijlter.org

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 16

NUMBER 11

November 2017

Table of Contents Pre-Service Elementary Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Experiences, Expectations, Beliefs, and Attitudes toward Mathematics Teaching and Learning........................................................................................................................................................... 1 Roland Pourdavood, Xiongyi Liu Factors Influencing the Poor Academic Performance of Learners with Vision Impairment in Science Subjects in Kgatleng District in Botswana ............................................................................................................................................ 28 Joseph Habulezi, Kefilwe P J Batsalelwang, Nelly M Malatsi Mapping Free Educational Software Intended for the Development of Numerical and Algebraic Reasoning ....... 45 Eliane Elias Ferreira do Santos, Aleandra da Silva Figueira-Sampaio, Gilberto Arantes Carrijo PUP Graduate School Services: A Critique Assessment by the MBA Students ........................................................... 67 Cecilia Junio Sabio, Ralph Abenojar Sabio The Professional Development of Adult Educators: The Case of the Lifelong Learning Centres (L.L.C) in the Prefecture of Evros, Greece.................................................................................................................................................. 77 Kyriaki Georgios Anthopoulou, Efthymios Valkanos, Iosif Fragkoulis Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Loans by Financial Institutions: The Way to Reduce a Burden for Government Funding to Higher Education in Tanzania .......................................................................................................................................................... 92 Veronica Robert Nyahende EducActiveCore: Computational Model to Educational Personalization Based on Multiagent and Context-Aware Computing ........................................................................................................................................................................... 116 Fernao Reges dos Santos, Pollyana Notargiacomo Influence of Management on Quality Assurance in National Teacher's Colleges ..................................................... 138 Josephine Lubwama, David Onen, Edris Serugo Kasenene

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 11, pp. 1-27, November 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.11.1

Pre-Service Elementary Teachers’ Experiences, Expectations, Beliefs, and Attitudes toward Mathematics Teaching and Learning Roland G. Pourdavood, Ph.D. and Xiongyi Liu, Ph.D. Cleveland State University (CSU) Cleveland, Ohio, USA Abstract. Many elementary pre-service teachers (PSTs) have negative experiences regarding learning mathematics. They carry these prior negative experiences with them as they take their mathematics methods courses for teaching young children and they express their lack of confidence in teaching mathematics. This qualitative and descriptive study describes 23 elementary PSTs’ stated experiences, expectations, beliefs, and attitudes toward mathematics during their K-12 schooling and college mathematics courses. The study examines how a semesterlong methods course in mathematics provides these PSTs an opportunity to re-evaluate their assumptions about what mathematics is and the role of teachers and learners in mathematics classrooms. In addition, the study describes the challenges that the primary researcher and the instructor of the course face. It illustrates the strategies he uses to accommodate PSTs’ professional transformation. Data was collected throughout participants’ enrollment in a semester-long course called Mathematics Instruction in Preschool and the Primary Grades, which was taken in conjunction with their practicum. Data sources included university classroom observations, pre-service teachers’ verbal and written responses to class discussions, reading assignments, course activities, presentations, and a final reflective paper. PSTs’ responses were categorized and common themes were derived from the triangulation of data to include prospective teachers’ critical reflections on teaching and learning, transformation of their stated beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics, and their concerns and struggles. Keywords: Pre-service teachers; constructivism; mathematics education.

Introduction Ideas about what mathematics is and is not may have a strong influence on the teachers’ and learners’ experiences, expectations, beliefs, and attitudes toward mathematics teaching and learning. Many people are convinced that they can

never learn mathematics. Psychologists call this attitude, “learned helplessness.” They define learned helplessness in the mathematics education context as a pattern of beliefs whereby learners attribute failure to limitations of ability (McLeof & Ortega, 1993). McLeof & Ortega (1993) compared learned helplessness with “mastery orientation,” in which learners have confidence in their ability to solve challenging problems. Learned helplessness is negatively correlated with persistence, while mastery orientation is positively related to persistence. Psychologists also found that this conception of the ability to learn can be modified by social context. They describe how classroom conversations can encourage a learner to be more confident in their ability to solve problems. Such positive beliefs can also be developed through positive experiences of persistence in problem solving. Sometimes, characterizing a problem as “easy” can profoundly demoralize learners, because from their point of view it may be difficult. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) calls a learner’s attitudes and self-confidence toward mathematics a mathematical disposition (NCTM, 2000). Some researchers define mathematical disposition as interest in, appreciation for, and persistence into mathematics (Briley, 2012). Mathematical disposition also includes confidence, curiosity, perseverance, flexibility, inventiveness, and reflectivity. A strong mathematical disposition is important for learning and understanding mathematics and can be developed if mathematics is presented in a real world context. To learn more about real world contexts, this study examined 23 elementary preservice teachers’ (PSTs) reported experiences, expectations, beliefs, and attitudes toward mathematics from Kindergarten through their college mathematics courses. The study explores how a semester-long mathematics methods course provides these PSTs an opportunity to re-evaluate their prior beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics. The primary researcher and the instructor of the course describe the challenges faced during the semester such as PSTs’ lack of confidence in learning mathematics, fears of standing in front of the classroom teaching mathematics, and prior experiences relative to the role of teachers and students in the mathematics classroom. To face these challenges, the instructor designs the course to provide opportunities for PSTs to reconstruct their prior assumptions through reflective readings, reflection of personal philosophy, writing and solving non-routine problems, cooperative learning, and use of manipulatives and technology for teaching and learning mathematics. The primary researcher communicates with the PSTs regarding roles and expectations relative to mathematics classroom culture and spends extra times with PSTs at risk of failing the course. The study is context specific and does not intend to generalize the findings (i.e. 23 PSTs in one mathematics methods course). It is the researchers’ hope that sharing the study’s challenges, strategies, and findings will engage educational communities in reflection of their beliefs and attitudes toward teaching and learning mathematics and providing opportunities for their students’ personal and professional transformation. The primary research question is, “How may a semester-long methods course in mathematics provide opportunities for PSTs to transform their expectations,

attitudes, and beliefs as they take more participatory roles in their mathematics methods course?”

Literature Review Pre-service elementary teachers’ (PSTs) attitudes toward teaching and learning mathematics are influenced by their prior mathematics education experiences in K-12 schooling (Jong & Hodges, 2013; Itter & Meyers, 2017; Stohlmann, Cramer, Moore, & Maiorca, 2014; Xenofontos & Kyriakou, 2017). However, mathematics methods courses that are part of teacher education programs can serve to improve the attitudes of PSTs (Burton, 2012; Jong & Hodges, 2013; Jong & Hodges, 2015; Stohlmann et al., 2014). In their study, Stohlmann et al. (2014) provided PSTs opportunities to transform their attitudes toward a conceptual rather than procedural understanding of mathematics. This shift is important as it shows that PSTs can be given teaching and learning models that present a better understanding of principles, roles of teachers and learners in mathematics classrooms, and the connections among interrelated concepts in mathematics classrooms, rather than just reviewing sequences of procedures for solving problems. Research shows that mathematics methods courses designed specifically to impact elementary PSTs confidence and motivation in relation to mathematical content knowledge (M-CK) and mathematical pedagogical content knowledge (M-PCK), are more likely to do so than PSTs who did not participate in the courses (Cardetti & Truxaw, 2014). It has been hypothesized that increases in attitude toward M-CK and M-PCK will increase teachers’ self-efficacy, which is thought to be related to teacher efficiency and effectiveness (Cardetti & Truxaw, 2014). Similarly, research showed that elementary PSTs have little knowledge of the value of multiple representations in mathematics education (Dreher & Kuntze, 2015; Dreher, Kuntze, & Lerman, 2016; Özmantar et al., 2010). There is evidence that teachers in general and PSTs in particular see multiple representations as a method to motivate students to learn mathematics in a fun way rather than a tool to enhance conceptual understanding of mathematical ideas. They often minimize the need to explain connections among different representations explicitly, which is necessary for students’ understanding of mathematical procedures (Dreher & Kuntze, 2015). The accepted notion that an understanding of the interrelatedness of different representations is essential in order to thoroughly understand mathematical concepts sets an important target for further research and professional development (Dreher & Kuntze, 2015; Dreher, Kuntze, & Lerman, 2016). Furthermore, Dreher & Kuntze (2015) recognize a need for research into how domain-specific content knowledge influences PSTs’ views of how to utilize multiple representations meaningfully. Briley (2012) examined the connections between mathematics teaching efficacy, mathematics self-efficacy, and mathematical beliefs in 95 elementary PSTs with the use of surveys. PSTs with more sophisticated beliefs in regards to doing, validating, and learning mathematics, as well as beliefs about the usefulness of mathematics, tended to have higher mathematics teaching efficacy, which had a statistically positive relationship to mathematics self-efficacy. Since

mathematics-teaching efficacy is essential for positive performance as a teacher, the author suggested that teacher educators ought to evaluate and facilitate, if necessary, the transformation of PSTs’ beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics.

Theoretical Framework The theoretical assumption of this study is grounded in social constructivist perspective (Cobb, 1994; Cobb & Yackel, 1996). “Learning is a constructive process that occurs while participating in and contributing to the practices of the local community” (Cobb & Yackel, 1996, p.185). The primary researcher and instructor of the course believe that a constructivist approach is reflected in the instructor’s classroom activities and instructional practices. He believes teaching and learning are constructed individually, as well as socially, while participating in the activities of the classroom learning community (i.e., cooperative learning and partnership). His intention is to create a learning environment where his PSTs can get a sense of constructivism in action. To incorporate constructivist beliefs in his classroom practices, he employs several strategies. First, he uses small group cooperative learning to create learning opportunities for PSTs to build their own meaning of mathematical procedures (i.e., inquiry, contextualism, and partnership). Second, he requires the PSTs to write non-routine, open-ended problems (inquiry-based mathematics). Writing encourages PSTs to take risks and reflect. Third, he attempts to create a supportive learning climate in the classroom by spending the first couple of weeks in class discussing with PSTs about roles and course expectations. This discussion is ongoing. Fourth, he continually tells the PSTs they are capable mathematicians who can do mathematics and create relevant mathematical problems. Fifth, he encourages and facilitates PSTs’ discussion and active listening (professionalism). In problem-solving situations, he expects his PSTs to restate what the problem is asking, articulate how they are interpreting the problem, model their solution (visualization), and write about their thinking, reasoning, and computation. The above method of instruction is crucial for his classroom community to experience constructivism in practice. Although there are a variety of constructivist frameworks (Hennessey, Higley, & Chestnut, 2012), there is general agreement in the mathematics education community that constructivist practices are more viable to educate our future mathematics teachers and promote alignment with the standards put forth by the NCTM (Briley, 2012; Kalchman, 2011; Narli, 2011; Zain, Rasidi, & Abidin, 2012). Traditionally, learning in school occurs in a teacher-centered environment, in which the teacher is the center of attention and tells the students what they need to know and do (Zain, Rasidi, & Abidin, 2012). However, constructivism calls for approaches to learning that are student-centered and focused on inductive learning and discovery. In constructivist classrooms, students are active learners and construct ways of knowing that would make sense to them (Garcia & Pacheco, 2013; Zain, Rasidi, & Abidin, 2012). Ample evidence exists that constructivist teaching leads to better learning outcomes.

Studies have also shown that constructivist learning environments lead to better real-world connections, helping students realize how much mathematics is a part of their lives outside of school (Kalchman, 2011; Zain, Rasidi, & Abidin, 2012). This is important because “students learn best when they are able to relate what they learn in the classroom to the immediate environment and create meaning from different experiences” (Zain, Rasidi, & Abidin, 2012, p. 324). This heightened ability to form connections, along with a wider variety of learning practices (kinesthetic, visual, and auditory) is significant for learning mathematics. In addition, an emphasis on cooperative learning from teams and peers promotes a high degree of participation and in result, a high degree of retention (Narli, 2011; Zain, Rasidi, & Abidin, 2012). Perhaps most importantly, students also report that learning in a constructivist manner is enjoyable, more interesting than traditional approaches, and leads to better understanding of abstract concepts (Garcia & Pacheco, 2013). As for teacher education, Briley (2012) found the reflection that is involved in constructivist learning was sufficient to produce positive change in PSTs’ mathematical beliefs, mathematics self-efficacy, and mathematics teaching efficacy. Clearly, movement from teacher-centered learning environments toward constructivist, student-centered learning environments, can make a profound positive impact in our education system at all levels, particularly in the area of mathematics education.

Context of the Study Participants The study is conducted in a state-supported university located in a large metropolitan area in Midwestern America. The course has a dual numbered section that includes both graduate and undergraduate students. There were 23 students in the classroom in the fall of 2016 (20 females and 3 males). Twentyone students were undergraduates and two were graduates. Four of 23 students were undergraduate special education majors with emphasis on mild/moderate intervention specialty and only one of them was doing her practicum in a suburban school setting. The other 19 students were in the early childhood program, 14 of which were doing their practicum during the course in different school settings, six PSTs were in pre-k-kindergarten classrooms (four in urban settings and two in suburban), and eight PSTs were in 1st-3rd grade classrooms, in urban settings. All participants were enrolled in a three-credit, semester-long methods course called Mathematics Instruction in Preschool and the Primary Grades. This course focuses on development of a sound rationale for teaching and learning mathematics that takes into account the constructive processes that young children need to acquire numeracy and problem-solving strategies. The 23 prospective teachers who participated in this study ranged from 20 to 30 years old. While 20 (87 percent) of the participants were female, the class was ethnically and racially diverse including five Black or African Americans, three Hispanic or Latino students, two Asians, and two Middle Eastern students. The remaining eleven individuals were White and of European descent. The course meets once a week for three hours per meeting and is often taken in conjunction with a field-based practicum. During the fall of 2016, 15 of the enrollees were concurrently completing a 240-hour practicum in a preschool or primary school setting. The instructor and primary researcher of this study has been teaching

mathematics methods for 21 years and has experience supervising PSTs in the field. Registration for the course requires prior completion of a sequence of three mathematics courses with a grade C or better. The three mathematics courses are Mathematics for Elementary Teachers I, II, and III, also known as MTH 127, MTH 128, and MTH 129. MTH 127 focuses on numeration systems and whole number arithmetic, integers and number theory, rational and real numbers, problem solving, and applications. MTH 128 is the second course in the three courses sequence designed to provide the interns opportunity to have a better understanding of geometry, congruence, symmetry, similarity, and coordinating geometry. MTH 129, the last course in the sequence, includes topics relative to measurement, probability, and statistics along with appropriate use of elementary classroom technology.

Design Mathematics Instruction in Preschool and the Primary Grades provides prospective teachers an opportunity to consider and evaluate various philosophies, principles, practices, and problems associated with teaching mathematics in preschool and primary grades. One of the required textbooks is a course packet designed and developed by the primary. The course packet is an evolving resource for him and for his students in the sense that the contents of the course packet changes in order to accommodate students’ needs. The contents of the course packet include short articles and activities about the history of teaching and learning mathematics, co-operative learning, assessment, and non-routine problems relative to NCTM contents and processes. The rationale for using his own course packet as a required text is to model the importance of reflectivity, professionalism, contextualization, and inquiry. The cost of the course packet is covered as a part of their lab fee ($35) that they pay when they enroll for the course. The rest of the lab fee goes towards overhead manipulatives such as Base-10-Blocks, Square Tiles, Pattern Blocks, Tangram, Cuisenaire Rods, and Geoboards. They keep their course packet and manipulatives with them as their instructional resources at the end of each semester. The other required text is: Putting it Together: Middle School Math in Transition by Tsuruda (1994). The students receive the book free in the beginning of each semester and are required to return it by the end of each semester. The rationale for using Tsuruda’s book is that the author talks about his professional story of transformation from being predominantly behaviorist to more constructivist in his beliefs and practices. He describes how the “seed of change” and “paradigm shift” occurred in his experience. He asserts that it took him 15 years to change his approach to teaching and learning mathematics. He argues that his own systematic reflection on his teaching and his students’ learning, his exchange of ideas and information with his school colleagues, and his participation in and contribution to the national organizations such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), are key factors of his evolution. Tsuruda’s professional story is interesting and inspiring for all preK-12 teachers to hear and to reflect on. In addition to the required textbooks, participants must read

and reflect on at least eight current research articles relative to early childhood teaching and learning mathematics as selected by the instructor. Collectively, these readings provide the basis for classroom discussion and reflection. Other assignments and activities of the course include writing a statement describing the intern’s initial personal philosophy of teaching, learning, and assessing mathematics; designing and presenting their lesson plan in collaboration with other members of their group; writing an assessment letter to a parent communicating how they would assess their children’s mathematical learning; searching and evaluating internet resources relative to teaching and learning mathematics for early childhood classrooms; creating non-routine problems appropriate for early childhood classrooms; completing a comprehensive problem solving exam, demonstrating their content knowledge of mathematics; and revisiting their initial personal philosophy paper and writing a reflective final paper about teaching, learning, assessment, and the use of technological tools in mathematics classrooms. In addition, PSTs are required to submit their portfolios that demonstrate their semester-long performance and accomplishments for the course. The contents of portfolio include: a table of contents, a summary letter regarding who the author is and what is in the portfolio, and all of the course assignments organized by the author of the portfolio. Major themes of the course include: mathematics as an activity of constructing and perceiving patterns and relationships; problem-centered learning, sharing solutions and negotiating meaning; writing as a vehicle for developing thinking, reasoning, and expressive abilities; and the role of technology in mathematics learning. Finally, as a vehicle for promoting culturally-responsive pedagogy that contributes to children’s confidence, sense of purpose, and well-being, participants are challenged to employ teaching strategies that support intellectual engagement, connectedness to the wider world, and respect for diversity. To this end, PSTs are empowered to examine and identify the relative strengths and limitations of various strategies for structuring constructivist teaching learning environments that facilitate: problem-based, student-centered learning; problem solving; reasoning and critical thinking; mathematical communication; mathematical modeling; and collaboration.

Classroom Culture In Mathematics Instruction in Preschool and the Primary Grades, the primary researcher and instructor of the course is frequently dealing with PSTs who enter the classroom with low self-esteem and low self-confidence around teaching and learning mathematics. Although, all PSTs pass the sequence of mathematics prerequisite courses, demonstrating their competence in teaching elementary school mathematics, most of them remain unconfident teaching it. They fear that they lack pedagogical content knowledge to teach young children. They bring these attitudes with them into their mathematics methods course classrooms. They carry the belief that they are not good at mathematics; they think they cannot do mathematics; they do not like mathematics; mathematics is something they think people either know or do not know. Sometimes, they say

similar comments to, “I’m going to teach elementary students, so why do I need to know this?” The first challenge for the primary researcher and the instructor of the course each semester is to debunk the myths they bring with them and to create an environment in which they can safely question their prior assumptions about mathematics. He starts from the beginning by posing questions that are relevant to their experiences and open-ended. For example, in the beginning of each semester, he model a problem-centered classroom and continues this modeling throughout the semester so PSTs can see how it works and how they may use this strategy for teaching mathematics. One example of a problem-centered classroom activity is presented below. Consider these three problems: 1. A person takes a 5,000 miles trip in his/her car. He/she rotates his/her tires (4 on the car and one spare) so that at the end of the trip, each tire is used for the same number of miles. How many miles are driven on each tire? Use any strategy and communicate your solution. 2. A farmer needs to take his goat, wolf, and cabbage across the river. His boat can only accommodate him and either his goat, wolf, or cabbage. If he takes the wolf with him, the goat will eat the cabbage. If he takes the cabbage, the wolf will eat the goat. Only when the man is present, are the cabbage and goat safe from their respective predators. How does he get everything across the river? Communicate your thinking and reasoning. (Adapted from Pappas’s Book entitled: the Joy of Mathematics, 1986, p. 159). 3. A person bought a horse for $50 and sold it for $60. He/she then bought the horse back for $70 and sold it again for $80. What do you think was the financial outcome of these transactions? Explain your Reasoning. These problems are interesting for our PSTs, as they discover that they do not need to memorize mathematical roles to solve these problems. They want to figure out solutions to these problems in their ways. Problem-centered strategy, which the primary researcher and the instructor uses, is very effective relative to the PSTs’ change of attitudes and beliefs toward mathematics teaching and learning. The problem-centered classroom has three components: (1) a task that is interesting and requires mathematical thinking and processing, (2) small group cooperative learning (4 to 5 interns in each group), (3) whole class discussions and presentations of multiple solutions/ perspectives. Throughout the semester, the primary researcher communicates with his PSTs regarding his expectations relative to their participation in and contribution to the classroom activities. When PSTs are working together, they are first expected to provide support for each, then communicate their solution to others struggling to understand and if they still have an issue, ask the teacher/the instructor for help, if the question is the group’s question. By establishing and communicating with PSTs his expectations, they develop and understanding of how a problem-centered classroom works. During

problem solving activities, they are advised to: restate what the question is asking or how they are interpreting the problem; to use a variety of strategies for gathering information about the problem such as drawing, making a diagram, building a chart, using manipulatives such as play money or Base-10-Blocks, for mathematical modeling and representations. It is necessary and required to be able to communicate both verbally and in writing regarding how they solve the problem. The primary researcher encourages discussions and multiple representations during the problem solving situations. He values the PSTs’ thinking processes and encourage risk-taking. In addition, as a classroom instructor, he models the importance of active listening, asking questions, wait time for connecting with children’s responses, and authentic assessment. He uses this mathematical teaching model throughout the semester in order to illustrate constructivism in action. The second challenge for him as an instructor of the course is reaching all of the PSTs, especially those who are at risk of failing the course. One way to face the challenge and accommodate/enhance those PSTs learning experience in the methods course is to spend extra time with them before class, after class, and to continue ongoing conversation with them via email communication. Spending extra time with struggling PSTs seems to be an effective strategy for engaging them in learning and facilitating their success in the course. When PSTs reach the realization that they do not have to memorize formulas in order to solve problems, they become more confident in their own abilities to think independently and defend their solutions. When the primary researcher sees them reaching that point, when he sees the light bulbs come on and sees their joy of doing significant mathematics, he feels he have succeeded in positively impacting someone else’s life. He believes there are more of these moments now, than there were when he began teaching the course 21 years ago. Through the process of interaction with his PSTs, he have become an observer of himself and his participants (i.e. reflective inquiry). He have used their feedback and his own systematic reflection of his teaching to reconstruct his course packet, these strategies and inquiries are consistent with the spirit of NCTM (2000, 1995, 1991, 1989) and constructivist epistemology. Another sample of our classroom activities is that the PSTs are required to develop a lesson plan, a lesson presentation, and group project appropriate for the preK-3 level. The primary researcher and the instructor of the course provides them with guidelines regarding their lesson plans and presentations. Each group consists of four or five members. In order to facilitate their group project productively, he asks the PSTs not to change their group once they have started working and developing their lesson plan. In their small group, the PSTs have opportunities to interact, negotiate, and make decision three times during the instructional time per semester, for about 40 minutes each time. In addition, the PSTs are encouraged to exchange ideas and information via internet for further communication prior to their group lesson presentation. During the inclass discussions, PSTs’ tasks are to make decisions about: (1) who will be the team leader, (2) who will teach which grade level, and (3) what theme to use for

the content that they intend to teach. They need to provide a rationale, communicating why it is important to learn this lesson. The theme should put their mathematics content in a meaningful context so that their lessons flow seamlessly and are developmentally appropriate for each grade level following the State Common Core Standards. For example, if a team decides to teach measurement content standards for preK-3rd grades, they may think about a context such as designing a playground or designing a room. Then, they need to develop their lesson plans following the State Common Core Standards for pre-k3rd grades. The job of the team leader is to make sure that the collective lessons are submitted to the instructor on time prior to their teaching so that PSTs have opportunity to modify their lessons if needed. The PSTs working in groups of four or five, teach their lessons to the class (10-15 minutes for each lesson presentation, maximum 75 minutes for the group). Coherency and interconnectedness of the group project is very important. The lesson presentations should be hands-on, inquiry-based, student-centered, and interactive. A lesson may focus on a mathematical game, puzzle or problemsolving activity, numbers and operation, geometry, measurement, probability, and early concepts of algebra. They are encouraged to use technology for finding and adapting ideas and activities for their lessons. They are asked to use Internet resources with clear references and connection to the origin of the lesson. Before and after lesson presentation the PSTs receive feedback from the instructor as well as their cooperative group members regarding the strengths and weaknesses of their lesson plans and their presentations. In addition, the lessons ought to include accommodations for Learners with Varying Abilities and Exceptionalities (VAE), Emergent Bilingual Learners (EBL), and Gifted Learners (GL). Furthermore, after lesson presentation, they are required to write a narrative, analyzing their own teaching.

Methodology A number of researchers indicate a need for future research to include more qualitative data relative to PSTsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; experiences, expectations, beliefs, and attitudes toward mathematics (Briley, 2012; Burton, 2012; Cardetti & Truxaw, 2014; & Dreher et al., 2016). Briley (2012) posited that qualitative data could add richness and clues to complexities of our current understanding of the relationships between mathematics teaching efficacy, mathematics self-efficacy, and mathematical beliefs. Similarly, Burton (2012), who researched the ability of certain content methods courses to change PSTsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attitudes toward mathematics, suggested that qualitative data could provide valuable information on different factors that influence the change process that occurs in PSTs. Cardetti and Truxaw (2014) and Dreher et al. (2016) presented suggestions in line with the previously outlined, asserting that qualitative data would provide details that quantitative data fails to capture. This qualitative research study is grounded in constructivist inquiry (Guba & Lincoln, 1989; 1994; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). This methodology is consistent with the theoretical framework of our research study. A constructivist views reality as local and context-specific. As such, reality, according to constructivists, is shaped by experience and social interactions. Such a perspective sees the

relationship between knower and known as dialectical and suggests that researcher and the researched interact and are interconnected. It is impossible, therefore, to distinguish cause from effect. The constructivist questions the generalizability of any research finding in positivist terms, arguing that research is value-dependent. Guba and Lincoln (1989; 1994) suggested the approaches for establishing trustworthiness of interpretation and analysis of research findings. They focused on four criteria namely credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability. Credibility refers to certain activities that increase the probability that the findings will be authentic. One such activity is investment of time. It is imperative that the inquirer spend time becoming oriented to the situation. There is no answer as to how much time is needed for becoming familiar with the research study. One indication of credibility is acceptance of the findings by all participants, including the researchers. Data, analytic categories, interpretations, and findings must be examined by the members who provided the information to prove it’s credibility. Lincoln and Guba (1985) called this “member checking”. Member checking continually occurs through the data collection process and is an important component of credibility. The second component of trustworthiness is transferability. Transferability refers to the potential for others to identify with the research context and apply the findings to their own particular situation. Transferability is obtained through the provision of “thick description” (McCracken, 1988; Guba & Lincoln, 1989; 1994; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The third component of trustworthiness is dependability. Lincoln and Guba (1985) describe dependability as a means of establishing reliability. Dependability can be established in two ways: through the use of inquiry teams or the use of the audit. An auditor examines the process by which the data was collected and is closely connected to conformability, the fourth component of trustworthiness. Therefore, we, the researchers, used constructivist methodology to investigate the relationship between PSTs’ prior experiences, expectations, attitudes, and beliefs toward mathematics learning when they were in K-12 schools and their current attitudes and beliefs as they participate classroom activities.

Data Collection and Data Analysis Data collection and data analysis for this research are from the fall semester of 2016 and were gathered from 23 college students. Data sources include university classroom observations, pre-service teachers’ verbal and written responses to questions, verbal and written discussions, reflections on reading assignments and course activities, presentations, and a final reflective paper. Most data presented in this paper focuses on pre-service teachers’ written responses to three questions presented in the beginning of the semester, reflections on classroom activities and discussions, and their final reflective papers. I, the instructor of the course and the primary researcher, acted as a participant-observer, a facilitator, and a coach in the classroom. The on-going process of sharing my understanding and interpretations of the findings with interns (i.e., triangulation of data processing) played an important role for establishment of a caring community and trustworthiness. Triangulation

occurred in three ways. First, we triangulated data via an on-going conversation with interns before and after each class meeting or during the following week’s class after reading their papers. Second, we triangulated data by comparing multiple data sources (i.e., reading reflections, classroom discussions, observations, and one-on-one conversations). Third, we triangulated data through member checking (i.e., exchange of ideas among the researchers). Data collection and data analysis occurred simultaneously throughout a semester-long course that aims to provide conceptual understanding of mathematical ideas and enable the participating pre-service teachers to enact these perspectives and contexts throughout their pedagogy. Data was continually compared, applying a constant comparative method (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Based on emergent patterns and themes, several factors were identified as being important considerations in regards to PSTs’ professional transformation. The research methodology, data collection, and data analysis are characterized by the following features suggested by Bogdan & Biklen (1982): (1) a natural setting as the direct source of data; (2) the researcher as “developer”; (3) the research as descriptive; (4) researchers’ concern for process over outcomes and product; (5) inductive analysis; (6) analysis supported by phenomenological theory which accepts multiple realities and suggests change is the result of an individual’s thoughts and ideas; and (7) meaning as the essential concern.

Constructing Meaning from the Data In the beginning of each semester, the primary researcher and the instructor of the course asks the PSTs to write a response to three questions: (1) what is your definition of a good mathematics teacher?; (2) how do you describe your experience, beliefs, and attitudes toward mathematics learning during your K-12 schools and college?; and (3) what do you hope to learn from this methods course? Regarding the first question, most PSTs define a good mathematics teacher as someone who is patient, who can “show” multiple ways to solve a problem, who can make mathematics “fun”, who has good knowledge of the subject matter, who understands and considers that children are different with varying abilities and varying learning styles, and someone who can “show” application of mathematics in the real world. Relative to the second question, most PSTs expressed their negative experiences, attitudes, and beliefs toward mathematics learning during their K-12 schooling. For example, one PST stated: Within my K-12 grades, I found my experience to be very difficult. I was having a difficult time interpreting and memorizing the material, which caused me to be placed within special classes where I was taught extra mathematics by computer. I internalized these situations that I am not good at math and I expected math to be always difficult after each year due to the little attention I received when I was struggling with math. I disliked mathematics because of the difficulty I had during these years. (PST Response to the Second Question)

Similarly, another PST reflected on the negative experience they had in their K12 schooling: My experiences in mathematics while in K-12 were not the most positive experiences. I remember that I was never given the opportunity to “explore”, I was just taught through lectures and direct instructions. My expectations were to “learn” math and be successful, but I suppose I never truly learned most concepts. I never believed math would be very beneficial. (PST Response to the Second Question) Although most PST participants expressed their negative experiences, attitudes, and beliefs toward mathematics, some PSTs shared positive experience, attitudes, and beliefs toward mathematics learning during elementary schools. For example, one PST wrote: I loved math when I was in elementary school. I credit this to having parents who also enjoyed math, and good math teachers. Math content always came natural to me. In middle school my love and success in math continued. I was fortunate enough to have good math teachers throughout K-8 grade. I believed that math was an easily grasped subject. In high school, math became harder, but I still had some very good teachers. During my senior year of high school, I struggled the most, because I transferred schools and my math teacher was less than satisfactory. (PST Response to the Second Question) All PSTs stated that their experiences, attitudes and beliefs, whether positive or negative, were significantly impacted by their teachers’ instructional approaches and the teachers’ expectations. As one PST put it: I always enjoyed math in elementary school because I had good math teachers. My attitude towards mathematics began to change in middle school and high school because the way I was taught mathematics. I found that my teachers were not as engaging. Math became harder and I became discouraged. As a result, I did not have as good of an experience as in my elementary school years. My middle school and high school mathematics did not fully live up to my expectations because they were not fun. (PST Response to the Second Question) Relative to college mathematics experiences, the PSTs’ reactions were mixed. Some stated they had positive experiences due to the engaging nature of mathematics classroom environment and their instructors’ expectations: I learned a lot in my college mathematics classes. I took three math classes before taking this methods course. The professors always told us how important math is and had high expectations. I did not like being asked to communicate my answer verbally. However, little by little I began to enjoy it. (PST Response to the Second Question)

However, not many PSTs shared these positive experiences. In my freshman year my math instructor was so impatient with me. I started skipping so that I would not feel so judged and stupid. It got better later on, as I advanced in my program. I realized how important it was for me to be there, learning it. I really like math. (PST Response to the Second Question) Negative experience in college can significantly influence a PST’ self-confidence. Another PST stated how her positive attitudes turned negative because of her college mathematics experience. In college, I brought with me the high expectations but my attitudes quickly changed from enjoyment back to resentment, as I did not enjoy the classes and was unable to connect with the instructors much. I was able to maintain high grades in math. I have taken three math classes before taking this class. I dreaded going to those math classes. (PST Response to the Second Question) Relative to the third question, PSTs stated their expectations in many different aspects. They hoped to learn strategies for teaching mathematics. They wanted to have a better understanding of mathematical contents and pedagogy. They wanted to learn about current research on mathematics teaching, learning, and assessment. They hoped to learn how to incorporate technological tools such as calculators, computers, and Smartboards, into their teaching and learning of mathematics. They stated their desire to become good mathematics teachers who can inspire their students to having positive experience, attitudes, and beliefs toward mathematics learning. In what follows, we describe the PSTs’ critical reflections of their semester-long experiences in the mathematics methods course, their professional transformation, and their current concerns, struggles, and obstacles. The paper ends with discussions, implications, and recommendations regarding understanding and transforming complex processes of PSTs expectations, experiences, beliefs, and attitudes toward mathematics.

PSTs’ Critical Reflections Promoting reflectivity in the PSTs is an essential component of teacher development. As the semester evolved, the participating PSTs were engaged in various assignments and activities such as reading and reflecting on assigned articles and the textbook; classroom discussions on theoretical and practical issues raised by the instructor and the PSTs; problem solving and communication, writing lesson plans, presentations, and a final reflective paper. The PSTs participants reflected on several importance issues such as constructivism and the role of culture in a mathematics classroom, how children learn mathematics, the role of teachers in a mathematics classroom, authentic assessment, and their professional transformation. In what follows we describe each of the above.

Constructivism and mathematics classroom culture. Classroom activities and discussions provided the PSTs opportunities to reflect on the limitations of the traditional teacher-centered way they learned mathematics (i.e., direct instruction). They became more aware and appreciative of constructivism as a new, effective way of learning mathematics and the notion of culture in the mathematics classroom. For example, one PST stated: When teachers are dispensers of knowledge, it leaves little room for children to question facts that are presented by the teacher and often leads to misunderstanding in mathematical relationship. Critical thinking will be disabled because children will depend on their teachers to tell them the right answer from a one-sided perspective. (PST Reflection on Classroom Discussion) Another PST mentioned the importance of knowing and understanding what children already know as a starting point for instruction. Perhaps I am teaching kindergarten, and one student comes in with a plethora of learning experience, while the other has not had a single one. Do I start them both off on addition and wonder why the child without the experiences can’t keep up? Perhaps I want to do a lesson on the metro parks and counting stones. Will the student who has never been to the metro parks be as engaged as the student who goes once a week with his grandma? This is where constructivism comes in. (PST Reflection on Classroom Discussion) After listening to the above PST, another PST reflected on his learning experience, “As a child, I always thought something was wrong with me in regards to math. I was considered very slow in the math classroom. As I reflect know, I think it has a lot to do with the way I was taught math.” (PST Reflection on Classroom Discussion) The PST participants discussed the importance of mathematical connections with real world and teaching contents in meaningful and relevant contexts. For instance, one PST asserted, “Children who live in Florida may have a difficult time talking about snow/winter condition and measuring snow fall because they live in a state that normally has higher temperature than northern states. The children in Florida will not be able to relate to the idea of winter in the same sense that children from New York will be able to relate.” (PST Reflection on Classroom Discussion) The PSTs discussed the value of culturally relevant mathematics. They stated that teachers should respect the cultural differences among their students. As one PST puts it: So far, many of the readings and the overall structure of the course influenced my growth in this area because all of these showed me how to integrate students’ culture into mathematics instruction. This will prove to be an important concept to have learned for the future when I am

working as a teacher in any of the numerous culturally diverse school districts. These cultural ties to mathematics will give students more motivation and more of a solid platform as to why they should learn mathematics. (PST Reflection on Classroom Discussion)

On children learning mathematics. As the semester continued, the PSTs were involved in discussions of readings and classroom activities. The PSTs participants reflected on various issues such as the importance of problem solving, students writing, and cooperative learning. The PSTs noted that mathematics learning ought to be meaningful and focus on building young learners’ problem solving abilities. The PSTs stressed that problem solving is an important component of mathematics learning. They mentioned that problem solving should encourage learners to focus on their thinking processes rather than the final product or solution. “A teacher whose goal is to facilitate their students’ learning will promote problem solving as a process and allow them to use multiple points of entry and a myriad of solution strategies.” (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities) As another PST put it: I will ask my students to write in their journals at least three times a week to give an explanation of what they learned during the classroom activities, how they can apply it outside of the classroom, and what areas that they may need improvement. This will also improve children’s written communication skills as well as help those who struggle with verbally communicating their ideas or thought processes. Another method that I think is beneficial in assessing children understanding is writing down the steps needed for problem solving such as restating the question, drawing pictures (visual representations of what is being asked in the problem), communicating thoughts, and answering the question. (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities) Writing about mathematics is a strategy for showing problem-solving process suggested by many PSTs. Another PST agreed with the above statement by saying that as teachers, we do not really know what our students are thinking unless we provide them the opportunity to explore their mental processes: I have come to learn the value of student writing. Writing and math are typically not seen as having a synonymous relationship. However, after learning about math essays and practicing how to write out answers to problems, I have come to find that writing in math allows you to reflect on your thinking, as well as, gives your teacher a portal into your thoughts and understanding. Assigning students thought provoking problems that require time and effort to complete allows them to engage in metacognitive processes related to math content. (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities) Through classroom actions and reflections of their own experiences learning mathematics, the participating PSTs observed benefits of problem solving and communication such as learners’ metacognition (i.e. thinking about thinking),

informing instruction, and assessing learners’ understanding of mathematical ideas. In addition, they reflected on the importance of cooperative learning.

Importance of cooperative learning. In the methods course, PSTs reflected on the impact of cooperative group work on their own learning. They asserted how beneficial this approach could be for children to learn mathematics. They mentioned cooperative learning as a source for creating learning opportunities for all children. They stated multiple benefits of cooperative learning such as improving children’s self-confidence, self-concept, relationships with their classmates, and communication skills with their peers from different ethnic backgrounds. As one PST stated: Cooperative learning is a vital component in a student-centered classroom. It allows for students to work together in small groups on the same task. The collaboration is extremely effective because the students must explain their reasoning, understanding, and confusion. By helping students develop confidence through an affectionate environment, project-based learning, differentiation strategies, group collaboration, writing opportunities, and authentic assessments, my students will be far more confident in all content areas. My goal as a teacher is to provide my students with experiences which will create a loving relationship with school and specifically, with mathematics. (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities)

On a teacher’s role in mathematics classroom. The participating PSTs reflected on their current beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics instruction, assessment, classroom environment, and the appropriate use of manipulatives and technology for mathematical modeling and representation. Following we describe PSTs’ current stated beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics teaching as they participated in and contributed to the classroom discussions and activities. The most important factor, relative to role of teacher mentioned by the PSTs, was classroom environment and relationship between teacher and students. The PSTs stated that a transformative teacher is the one who has good content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. This teacher has patience, values students thinking, and respects his/her students’ thoughts, ideas, and opinions. This instructor also believes in their students’ abilities and challenges them to think beyond their comfort zone. As one PST noted: As a child, I always thought something was wrong with me in regards to math. In English, I was considered gifted, but then in math I was considered very slow. In this semester, so far, I learned there are many different, engaging strategies that a teacher can use to reach her students with varying abilities. These strategies would have benefitted me so much in my early education. Our earlier learning experiences directly correlate to our long-term success. What I come to know now is that as a teacher, I will get to know my students extremely well and build

relationships with them, “you cannot teach me if you do not know me.” I want to provide my students with positive math experience and confidence, which will travel with them throughout their lives. (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities) The PSTs’ notion of classroom environment and the value of teacher/students relationships were mentioned by several PSTs throughout the semester. For example, one PST stated the following: If I can develop personal relationships with all of my students, I will be better prepared as a teacher to create a curriculum connected to each of their unique learning styles and abilities. Understanding where each child comes from will also allow me to work with their best interest at heart, as I will be able to know what their lives are like, and where they may come from. Children are able to learn more comfortably when they have a personal relationship with their teacher, and it is my job to make sure I connect with each student in that way. (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities) The PSTs reflected on their prior learning experience in mathematics and changed their views regarding teacher’s role as a facilitator of students’ learning rather than dispenser of knowledge. One PST noted: This is something that I have witnessed first-hand through this course and can speak to the effectiveness of it. This type of role offers a greater sense of equity in the classroom in that learning becomes more of a shared experience between students and teacher. For students, the classroom serves as a social environment in which the engagement and collaboration with other students promote critical thinking and acquisition of knowledge. The role of the teacher then becomes creating these simulated instances in which students can interact with each other. A way that this was achieved in this course was creating lesson plans that shared the same content for a variety of grade levels. (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities) The PST was referring to one of the course assignments relative to the PSTs’ group project for developing and presenting their lesson plans that were appropriate for the pre-kindergarten through third grade levels. The group project component of the lessons refers to a coherent unit connecting prekindergarten lessons to kindergarten, first, second, and third grade.

Manipulatives and technology in the mathematics classroom. Another important factor that the PSTs reflected on, wrote about, and discussed throughout the semester was the relationship between mathematics teaching and the role of manipulatives and technology for mathematics instruction. The PSTs experienced using a variety of manipulatives such as Based-10-Blocks, Color Tiles, Pattern Blocks, Cuisenaire Rods, Tangrams, Geoboards, etc. during classroom activities, as well as technological tools and resources such as a

Smartboard, computers, and calculators. One PST stated, “As a student in this class, I found using manipulatives to be very useful in solving problems, especially non-routine problems. It is a powerful way of visualizing mathematical problems.” (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities) The PSTs reflected on the value of manipulatives as instructional tools for teaching mathematics. They mentioned these tools provide learners with opportunities visualizing mathematical relationships through game playing and explorations. Furthermore, they stated that conceptual understanding of mathematical procedures requires moving from concrete manipulations of tools to abstract symbols. As one PST explained: To effectively teach math so that young students grow to love and appreciate it, you must teach it in a way that is appealing to the group of students in your classroom. Math is often taught through the use of teacher-directed, drill and practice instruction. However, many young learners do not benefit from this type of instruction and often slip through the cracks because of it. Math should be visual and hands-on. Manipulatives are beneficial tools that teachers can use to enhance math instruction. These tools allow students to create their own visual representations of math problems such as fraction units. Visual representations allow students to gain new understanding for mathbased concepts that would regularly be difficult to understand. For example, a student could use rubber bands and geoboard to find the area of an irregular shape by creating a rectangle or square around the shape and seeing how many whole units and half units the irregular shape contains. Completing this type of problem on paper can be difficult, because the shape is one-dimensional and abstract, whereas, creating the shape with a manipulative transforms it into a concrete, tangible object. (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities) Similar to the PSTs’ support for use of manipulatives was their reaction and reflections toward technology as an integral aspect of mathematics teaching and learning. As part of their course assignments, the PSTs participants searched, described, and evaluated many online materials relative to teaching and learning mathematics. Through the mixture of this research and classroom activities, they became more aware of the strengths and limitations of technological tools in mathematics classroom. They suggested that technology is an essential part of mathematics instruction, as one PST mentioned: In my opinion, technology is going to be more present in our schools as the years go on. Therefore, I think that new-age teachers should critically analyze the pluses and minuses of the various website they are using before making it available to their students. Having said that, I believe young teachers ought to make their students technology literate, because many of them grew up during the boom of 21st century technology. I believe that becoming a technology literate teacher is an essential part of educating young learners, and, in my opinion, technology is a positive

addition to modern day classroom and will keep getting better as time goes on. (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities)

Authentic assessment. As the semester evolved, the PSTs reflected and critically analyzed the limitations of standardized tests as the only way of evaluating learners’ understanding and performance. They argued that the standardized tests “measure” what learners can not do, where the purpose of assessment is finding out what learners can do and using the information to enhance student understanding and adjust their instruction. One PST participant reflected on limitations of standardized tests: I am not a fan of the increased focus on standardized testing in schools and I believe that schools should be reformed and give less focus on this matter. Standardized testing gives schools and states a small snapshot of understanding of what children know, but it doesn’t assess the whole child. Sometimes children may answer multiple-choice questions correctly through guessing. Scorers will never know that a child guessed on that particular question, but the child is either punished or rewarded based on a guess. I think it is very important for the process to be assessed and not the product. (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities) The PST participants were in favor of more authentic assessment instead of standardized tests. One PST asserted that the best type of assessment is authentic because it allows him to gauge his students for understanding of mathematical ideas as well as their confusions. He described his authentic assessment approach this way: One example of the type of assessment I will conduct is students creating a concept map. With a group, they will have to create a concept map on a big poster to explain their understanding of the lesson we did. Another example I have for an authentic assessment is role-playing. Perhaps students are pretending to be geologist searching for lost treasure, and having to scale a map to find their route. Role-playing provides students with confidence, accountability, and engagement. (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities) The PST participants stressed that assessment is a key component to any type of instruction. A shared notion is that assessment ought to be used more for formative instead of summative purposes. Specifically, PSTs mentioned that assessment allows a teacher to gather data, make necessary changes to instruction, learn more about their students, and learn their students’ strengths and weaknesses. PSTs also indicated that effective assessment requires multiple approaches. As one PST explained: Assessment can be done in a variety of different ways. I believe that the most effective ways to assess are creating comprehensive portfolios, including built in formative and summative assessment into lessons, and

taking notes on the student’s abilities and performance in the classroom. Assessment in a mathematics classroom should go beyond homework assignments, drill and practice activities, and tests. (PST’s Reflection on Readings and Classroom Activities)

PSTs’ Transformation of Beliefs and Attitudes The PSTs’ semester journey in the mathematics methods course provided them with opportunities to reflect and reevaluate their prior assumptions, beliefs, and attitudes relative to what mathematics is, how students learn mathematics, the role of teachers, classroom culture, authentic assessment, the role of manipulatives, and technology in mathematics classroom. At the end of the semester, they presented their concerns, struggles, and obstacles. One PST wrote: My main concern and struggle in teaching mathematics is the fact that I have struggled with learning mathematics throughout my schools. It is not my strong suit. Nevertheless, when I put my greatest effort into learning and understanding mathematical concepts, I am successful. I feel that even though I lack confidence in math due to years of being told I was no good at it, I will overcome that insecurity for the good and education of my future students. I truly care about the education and well-being of my students. I care about their experiences, background, and learning process. (PST Final Reflective Paper) The PST stated that her passion for teaching would always lead her to face her obstacles and find ways to solve problems in the future. She stated “teaching mathematics is an act of love and I am determined to show this act of love to my students” (PST Final Reflective Paper). Another PST stated her concern in regards to her level of experience relative to creating a classroom climate conducive to learning for all students. “I think I have knowledge that is required to teach math content. However, I am concerned with my ability to teach it to children” (PST Final Reflective Paper). Several PSTs clearly indicated their change of beliefs as a transformative process that will effect their expectations for future teaching careers. One PST reflected on her semester-long learning experience and indicated the desire to become a teacher who can transform experiences and beliefs of his/her future students: This course has taught me how to encourage children to think for themselves and to make connections to the world around them. As a future teacher, I hope to influence children to think outside of the box and explore different ways to solve mathematical problems. With the use of technology, manipulatives, games, storytelling, and other fun activities, math should never be viewed as a subject that is hard to accomplish. Negative attitudes have a negative impact on the way that one learns math and it will always appear to be difficult until their mindset is changed. I’ve also realized that teaching math calls for someone who is dedicated to teaching young children and constantly

learning new methods to better meet the needs of children learning math. (PST Final Reflective Paper) Other PSTs shared similar concerns, struggles, and obstacles with respect to teaching mathematics including motivating learners and finding an instructional balance that is engaging for students, yet comprehensive in terms of the distribution of contents. This is something that they are in the process of figuring out how to balance. Many PSTs asserted that they would continue to reflect on their teaching and seek out resources to create a more engaging classroom experience for their students. One PST summed it up: Going into this class, one concern I had was that I had trouble with math growing up. When I was younger, math was one of my weakest categories in school. I had fear when I would think about being an educator that how can I teach children when I don’t always understand math myself? This is still a conflict I am trying to solve, but I have learned from this course that teachers need to be confident in themselves in order to teach students. I know I am able to teach the math this is required in these young grades, so I learned a lot about trusting myself as a teacher and knowing I can do this. One piece of information I really took with me from this class was something you [the instructor of the course] taught us on the first day. I used to often say, “I hate math” or “math is the worst subject,” and it was a worry I had because I was not sure I was going to be able to teach it. On the first day, you told us that a child does not want to learn from a teacher who hates what they are teaching, and I have taken that with me. Is math my favorite? No, but the children don’t need to know this. It will only discourage their learning. No child wants to learn from a teacher who does not want to teach the material. I think that is the most valuable lesson I learned, and I will take it with me. As a teacher, we must always be evaluating ourselves and trying to learn what we can do differently. Learning does not stop after earning a college degree. I believe we are life-long learners. (PST Final Reflective Paper) Overall, although the PSTs expressed some concerns, struggles, and obstacles relative to their new careers as teachers, especially when it involves mathematics content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge for specific grade levels, they were optimistic regarding facing the complexities of teaching and learning and were determined to resolve those obstacles or conflicts in their future teaching mathematics. It seems that some of them also learned to become self-aware of their attitudes and beliefs as well as the causes and consequences and use selfregulation strategies (e.g., self-evaluation and self-monitoring) to increase positive experiences, maintain positive attitudes and beliefs, and rebuff negative attitudes and beliefs.

Discussions, Implications, and Recommendations Pre-service teachers’ reflections on their mathematical experiences, expectations, attitudes, and beliefs in a constructivist classroom might bring about more

lasting change to their mathematics beliefs, self-efficacy, and teaching efficacy, which might continue on into their teaching careers. Briley (2012) suggested mathematics content courses for elementary pre-service teachers ought to be taught in a more constructivist manner so that pre-service teachers can develop beliefs that are consistent with the NCTM reform movements. While ambitious goals have been set in the area of mathematics reforms, teacher education and professional development have been largely unsuccessful in educating teachers in line with such suggested reforms (Simon, 2013). Furthermore, pre-service teachers showed a general desire to teach in an informed way, different from how they learned mathematics in schools, but this is intimidating for some, as it requires a restructuring of their mathematics beliefs and requires a deep level of understanding of how children learn mathematics (Jong & Hodges, 2013). Grounded in constructivist theories and using a qualitative approach, the present study explored a group of pre-service teachers’ transformative experience taking a semester-long methods course in mathematics. Through a series of structured reflective activities, the PST participants shared their previous mathematics learning experiences and their transforming beliefs, attitudes, and expectations regarding role of teacher and students in mathematics classroom, classroom culture, authentic assessment, role of manipulatives, and technology in mathematics classroom. There is much evidence that most PSTs gradually developed a more sophisticated understanding of mathematics learning process, which also lead them to fully embrace a constructivist approach. A recurring theme is that PSTs strongly opposed the traditional, teacher-centered mathematics classroom characterized by direction instruction, lectures, and drill and practice where students are directed to memorize but struggle with conceptual understanding. Instead, they favored a student-centered classroom where the teacher focuses on facilitating students’ mathematics thinking by engaging them in problem solving, visualization, writing and communication, etc. The findings of the study suggest that PSTs’ critical reflections on the assigned readings, classroom discussions, and activities are responsible for transforming their beliefs and attitudes toward mathematics teaching and learning. PST participants were able to reflect, analyze, and evaluate their mathematics learning experiences from elementary school to college and become aware of how their beliefs and attitudes regarding important aspects of mathematics teaching and learning had evolved over the years through either positive and negative experiences with different teachers. Such reflections not only helped the PSTs to make sense of their past experiences, but also enabled them to reconstruct their existing beliefs and attitudes and develop new expectations for mathematics teaching that are more consistent with their reconstructed beliefs and attitudes. Many of our PST participants reached a new level of understanding of the teacher’s role in building relationships with learners from different cultural backgrounds and that the teacher’s understanding of different students learning styles is crucial for creating learning opportunities for all learners. Another major theme in their transformation involves understanding that as a mathematics teacher, believing in children’s abilities for doing

significant mathematics and setting clear goals and high expectations for all learners is pivotal for turning negative attitudes, beliefs, and experiences to positive. One PST participant expressed: I want to apply myself to the “Big Picture Education” model. This model includes teaching to attain long-term, meaningful goals. It focuses on teaching children based on all areas of development, not just cognitive processes. It also focuses on real-world applications, rather than out-ofcontext, assumptive lessons. I think that this is the only way to truly teach students. However, I must stay committed to this approach and not fall into poor practices that steer away from this model. I also want to approach teaching in a way that creates personal goals for students that address all types of learning. Creating goals that are specific to all parts of the student’s education and well-being are essential to effective teaching. Students should reach goals based on emotional and social facets of their lives, as well as process goals based on subjects. I think this approach ensures that students are receiving their best learning. To achieve this goal consistently, I must consistently create goals for students based on their individual needs. (PST Final Reflective Paper) Interestingly, the PSTs’ transformative experiences seemed to resonate with the constructivist beliefs and practices incorporated and modeled by the primary researcher and course instructor in the classroom. There is evidence that our participants had a general agreement toward the end of the semester that establishing goals for both teacher and learners, negotiating expectations, communicating role of teacher and learners in mathematics classroom, believing in learners’ abilities for doing mathematics, and building caring relationships with learners are essential for educating all children in today’s society. This research study is significant for two important reasons. First, as Simon (2013) noted, modest changes in teacher education fail to address PSTs’ major assimilatory structures, or the core conceptions, including actions, knowledge, values, beliefs, feelings, and skills, that contribute to the teaching of mathematics. This research study supports Simon’s assertions and describes how the PSTs’ critical reflections, as an essential component of teacher development, and analysis of their prior experiences, expectations, beliefs, and attitudes provide them the opportunities to deconstruct their prior assumptions and reconstruct them from different perspectives (i.e. change in epistemology). Second, the PSTs’ epistemological shift from teacher-centered perspective to constructivism is more than a teaching strategy but rather an essential component of praxis (i.e. action and reflection). This was particularly evident in their changed understanding of the role of assessment as a tool for reward and punishment to a tool for informing instruction and improving learning. What was also relevant was the PSTs’ growing emphasis on problem solving and encouraging and facilitating mathematics thinking processes instead of the final product or solution in a student-centered classroom. The present study has significant implications for teacher education practices.

We suggest that the participating PSTs’ sustained transformation of beliefs and attitudes requires ongoing professional development opportunities and supports as they start teaching in various school settings during their studentteaching and first few years of their professional lives. In addition, providing the PSTs with mentoring opportunities is an essential component of teachers’ professional development relative to sustaining teachers’ transformations. Connecting the PSTs with transformative mentor teachers, so that they can share ideas and exchange information with one another, is vital for reforming mathematics education. This kind of teachers’ practices is aligned with reform movement suggested by NCTM. Another implication of this research study is to demonstrate constructivist epistemology into action for the mathematics education community as well as a broader educational research community. The first group might be familiar with methods for establishing a constructivist-oriented mathematics classroom. The second group of readers might understand the principles of constructivism but could possibly find it difficult to envision a mathematics classroom that is structured in accordance with constructivist principles. Providing these two groups opportunity to engage in praxis (i.e. action and reflection) may create a milieu for crossing the boundaries of their own familiar cultural contexts in order to meet the needs of diverse students in their own classrooms. Finally, our study has some limitations and future research is warranted to further investigate transformative experiences for different populations in different settings. As far as teacher preparation programs are concerned, we recommend more follow-up research relative to these practicing teachers’ expectations, beliefs, and attitudes toward mathematics as they start teaching in their own classrooms. It is possible that engaging pre-service teachers and new in-service teachers in becoming action researchers in their own classroom may benefit the school and university partnership as transforming learning communities. Furthermore, for better understanding of pre-service and inservice teachers’ transforming expectations, attitudes, and beliefs, mixed methods research that combines qualitative and quantitative approaches is needed. We believe that mixed methods research benefits from the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research and therefore provide a better perspective for understanding, analyzing, and interpreting the complexity of teacher change and mathematics education reform in general.

Acknowledgment: A short draft of this research paper was presented at the proceedings of 14th International Conference of the Mathematics Education for the Future project: Challenges in mathematics Education for the Next decade, September 10-15. 2017, Balatonfüred, Hungary. We would like to thank Mr. Nicholas M. Chmura for his time regarding editing of the of this manuscript.

Endnote: We obtained the Cleveland State University Institutional Review Board’s (CSU, IRB) approval for conducting this research study. This paper has not been previously published, nor is it before another journal for consideration.

About the Authors: Roland Pourdavood is a professor of mathematics education at Cleveland State University, Department of Teacher Education. His research interests include mathematics teachers’ dialogue and reflection for transformation and school reform. In addition, he focuses on cultural diversity, sociocultural aspects of education, and emancipatory action research for personal and social praxis. Xiongyi Liu is an associate professor of educational psychology at Cleveland State University, Department of Curriculum and Foundations. Her research interests include motivation, self-regulation, collaborative learning, and peer assessment. Her research has a special focus on computer based learning environments.

References Bogdan, R. & Biklen, S. (1982). Qualitative research of education: An introduction to theory and methods. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Briley, J. S. (2012). The relationships among mathematics teaching efficacy, mathematics self-efficacy, and mathematical beliefs for elementary pre-service teachers. Issues in the Undergraduate Mathematics Preparation of School Teachers, 5, 1-13. Burton, M. (2012). What is math? Exploring the perception of elementary pre-service teachers. Issues in the Undergraduate Mathematics Preparation of School Teachers, 117. Cardetti, F., & Truxaw, M. P. (2014). Toward improving the mathematics preparation of elementary preservice teachers. School Science and Mathematics, 114(1), 1-9. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/ssm.12047 Cobb, P. (1994, Oct.). Where is mind? Constructivist and sociocultural perspectives on mathematical development. Educational Researcher, 23, 13-20. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/1176934 Cobb, P., & Yackel, E. (1996). Constructivist, emergent, and sociocultural perspectives in the context of developmental research. Educational Psychologist, 31 (3/4), 175-190. doi: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3103&4_3 Dreher, A., & Kuntze, S., (2015). Teachers’ professional knowledge and noticing: The case of multiple representations in the mathematics classroom. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 88(1), 89-114. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-0149577-8 Dreher, A., Kuntze, S., & Lerman, S. (2016). Why use multiple representations in the mathematics classroom? Views of English and German Preservice Teachers. International Journal of Science & Mathematics Education, 14, 363-382. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-015-9633-6 Garcia, I. & Pacheco, C. (2013). A constructivist computational platform to support mathematics education in elementary school. Computers & Education, 66, 25-39. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2013.02.004 Guba, E. G. & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Comparing paradigm in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research (pp.105-117). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Guba, E. G & Lincoln, Y. S. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage .

Hennessey, M. N., Higley, K., & Chestnut, S. R. (2012). Persuasive pedagogy: A new paradigm for mathematics education. Educational Psychology Review, 24(2), 187204. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9190-7 Itter, D. & Meyers, N. (2017). Fear, loathing and ambivalence toward learning and teaching mathematics: Preservice teachers’ perspectives. Mathematics Teacher Education & Development, 19(2), 123-141. Jong, C., & Hodges, T.E. (2015). Assessing attitudes toward mathematics across teacher education contexts. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 18, 402-425. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10857-015-9319-6 Jong, C., & Hodges, T.E. (2013). The influence of elementary preservice teachers’ mathematical experiences on their attitudes towards teaching and learning mathematics. International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education, 8(2-3), 100122. Kalchman, M. (2011). Preservice teachers’ changing conceptions about teaching mathematics in urban elementary classrooms. Journal of Urban Mathematics Education, 4(1), 75-97. Lincoln, Y. S. & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. doi: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412986229 McLeof, D.B. & Ortega, M. (1993). Affective issues in mathematics education. In P. S. Wilson (Ed.), Research Ideas for the Classroom: High School Mathematics (pp. 21-36). New York: McMillan. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1995). Assessment standards for School mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1991). Professional standards for teaching mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1989). Curriculum and evaluation standards. Reston, VA: NCTM. Narli, S. (2011). Is constructivist learning environment really effective on learning and long-term knowledge retention in mathematics? Example of the infinity concept. Educational Research and Reviews, 6(1), 36-49. Özmantar, M. F., Akkoc, H., Bingolbali, E., Demir, S., & Ergene, B. (2010). Pre-service mathematics teachers' use of multiple representations in technology-rich environments. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 6(1), 19-36. doi: https://doi.org/10.12973/ejmste/75224 Pappas, T. (1986). The Joy of Mathematics: Discovering Mathematics All Around You. San Carlos, CA: Wide World Publishing/Tetra. Simon, M. A. (2013). Promoting fundamental change in mathematics teaching: A theoretical, methodological, and empirical approach to the problem. ZDM Mathematics Education, 45, 573-582. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-0130486-6 Stohlmann, M., Cramer, K., Moore, T., & Maiorca, C. (2014). Changing pre-service elementary teachers' beliefs about mathematical knowledge. Mathematics Teacher Education & Development, 16(2), 4-24. Tsuruda, G. (1994). Putting it together: Middle School. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Xenofontos, C. & Kyriakou, A. (2017). Prospective elementary teachers’ beliefs about collaborative problem solving and dialogue in mathematics. Mathematics Teacher Education & Development, 19(2), 142-158. Zain, S.F.H.S., Rasidi, F.E.M., & Abidin, I.I.Z. (2012). Student-centered learning in mathematics: Constructivism in the classroom. Journal of International Educational Research, 8(4), 319-328. doi: https://doi.org/10.19030/jier.v8i4.7277

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 11, pp. 28-44, November 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.11.2

Factors Influencing the Poor Academic Performance of Learners with Vision Impairment in Science Subjects in Kgatleng District in Botswana Joseph Habulezi, Kefilwe P J Batsalelwang and Nelly M Malatsi University of Botswana Gaborone, Botswana

Abstract. This study employed qualitative research design. The main purpose was to determine factors that influence the poor academic performance of learners with vision impairment in science subjects at a senior secondary school in Botswana. Using purposeful sampling, 14 learners and 5 teachers were selected for the study. Data collection involved interviews, observation and document analysis. The findings revealed that multiple factors influence the poor performance of learners with vision impairment. The factors include shortage of human and material resources, teaching methods, teacher and learner attitudes. It is very clear from the findings that learners with vision impairment are experiencing challenges in learning science that are a result of deficient pedagogical practices, shortage of specialised teachers of science and material resources. The study, therefore, recommends intensive review of human resource deployment policies and improved monitoring and evaluation of inclusive education practices in schools if learners with vision impairment are to achieve the desired outcomes. Keywords: Academic performance; science subjects; learners; vision impairment.

Introduction Unsatisfactory academic performance of learners with vision impairment in science subjects has been pervasive at schools in Botswana. The Government of Botswana (2015) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) (2015) report the declining academic performance in the country. The Botswana Daily News (2017) quoted the Minister of Basic Education, Dr. Unity Dow, reporting in parliament that the results for learners with special educational

needs are not satisfactory. Government, though, has been working very hard to facilitate improved outcomes for all learners by addressing issues of quality, relevance, access, equity and accountability across the entire education sector (Government of Botswana, 2015). Table 1: Performance of learners who use braille in science subjects Year

# of learners sat for exam

number passed

number failed

2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010

9 11 8 6 5 4 3

0 1 2 2 1 1 1

9 10 6 4 4 3 2

pass %

0 9 25 33 17 25 33

fail %

100 91 75 67 83 75 67

credit pass # (A-C) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

quantity pass # (A-E) 0 1 2 2 1 1 1

Source: Special Education Department, 2017

The nature of science Scientific ingenuity is strongly linked to visual imagination and this is why within the world of science, numerous images cross science domains at all levels of practice (Maguvhe, 2015). This is why learners are generally exposed to visual displays in text books, teacher presentations and other multimedia materials (Jones, Minogue, Oppewal, Cook & Broadwell, 2006). As a consequence, the capability of learners to infer and comprehend the representations has become more and more significant in education. In addition, science learning allows learners to gain problem-solving competency, experience inquiry activities, simulate their own thoughts and find the connection of science with everyday life. Science versus learners with vision impairment In learners with vision impairment, conceptual development and abstract thinking appear to be delayed by the absence of graphical stimulus or imageries; cognitive development occurs more slowly and standards for chronological age groups are void (Fraser & Maguvhe, 2008). The fact that the greater parts of science representations are visual, learners with vision impairment frequently face educational challenges. This scenario emanates from the fact that most general education classroom teachers lack the appropriate teaching and learning strategies for learners with vision impairment. The consequent practices are text book science pedagogies which do not favour learners who have sight problems. In addition to the foregoing, (Beck-Winchatz & Riccobona, 2008; Moreland, 2015), majority of the general education classroom teachers find it difficult to teach learners with vision impairment because they have negligible experience and

embrace rigid views as regards to the abilities of learners with vision impairment. There also seems to be a large gap between teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perspectives about what learners are able to do and the availability of teaching and learning resources to help the learners realize their full potential. In short, McCarthy (2005) and Pressickkilborn and Prescott (2017) are of the view that learners with vision challenges are deprived of the opportunities to experience science even when there is substantiation that hands on-science approach yields better results for learners who have vision challenges. Essentially, learners with vision impairment have cognitive abilities equivalent to their peers and can equally become scientists. With the right methods and assistive technology, the science learner who is visually impaired, can learn and do the same assignments as other science learners (Beck-Winchatz & Riccobono, 2008). Science curriculum for learners with vision challenges The science curriculum offered should be broad, balanced and accessible to provide the maximum educational opportunities possible for all its learners regardless of the diversity or complexity of their needs (Habulezi & Phasha, 2012). Although science education for those who are visually impaired is very challenging and expectations are low, learners who are visually challenged perform very well or moderately depending on the learning support provided. Every piece of material, instrument or text can somehow be modified with creativity, skill and tenacity to make it accessible for those who have vision impairment. Employing appropriate instructional methods, accommodations, adaptations, use of innovative forms of assistive technology, having a positive mind set and embracing all learners regardless of their circumstances helps learners excel in their own right (Ayiela, 2012). Use of concrete materials and tactile graphics Science subjects are highly painterly in nature and frequently utilise visuals to convey significant materials, bestowing supplementary difficulty for learners with vision impairment (Smith & Smothers, 2012). The use of concrete material and tactile graphics largely benefit all learners because the practice increases computation accuracy, helps them reason and solve problems (Hansen et al., 2016; Hatlen, 1996). Manipulatives further offer children with vision impairment concrete experiences to help them understand their environment and learn concepts parallel to sighted peers in the classroom setting (Saracho, 2012). It is, therefore, of necessity for teachers of learners with visual deficits to not only provide concrete objects and tactile graphics but also teach learners how to read and make sense of concrete materials and tactile graphics in science subjects (Zebehazy & Wilton, 2014). In order to teach learners to be effective in the management and understanding of a diversity of manipulatives and tactile graphics, teachers ought to use a sequence for introduction of the materials (Koenig & Holbrook, 2010). Teachers should first present learners with opportunities to handle real objects, transition to the use of models and finally implement two dimensional representations. The effective

interpretation of manipulatives and tactile graphics needs knowledge of spatial and geographic concepts and strategies for exploring and interpreting the displays (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010; Kapperman et al., 2000; Claudet, 2014; O’Day, 2014). Finally, after all tactile observation experiences, teachers should help learners connect concrete objects, tactile graphics and abstract. Aims of the study The aims of the study were to investigate the factors that influence the poor academic performance of learners with vision impairment in science subjects at the school and to propose ways of improving the academic performance of learners. The study used the following research questions: What factors affect the academic performance of learners with vision impairment in science subjects at the school? How can the school improve the academic performance of the learners in science subjects?

Method The study employed a qualitative approach because it is concerned with the exploration of problems and this eventually leads to the understanding of a given phenomenon (McMillan and Schumacher, 2014); in this case, factors that influence the poor academic performance of learners in science subjects Participants and research setting An inclusive senior secondary school with a special education unit catering specifically for learners with vision impairment, (at least up to 2013 when the inclusive education policy came into effect), was used as a research site, following permission the Ministry of Basic Education granted the regional education office to conduct the study at the school. This research was part of the wider research carried out during the Inclusive Education workshop under the North/South collaboration inclusive research project. Multi stage sampling technique was used to select the sample for the study. The first stage involved purposive selection of 14 learners with vision impairment (out of a total of 28 learners) who were taking sciences. The learners, whose age range was 16-21 years, were then stratified based on their gender (6 males & 8 females). Further, volunteer sampling procedure was used on the special education and general education teachers. Three female and two male teachers were selected and their age range was 29 – 44. In total, the study had 19 participants (8 males and 11 females). Instruments Interviews, observation and document analysis were used to collect the data. Interviews lasted for approximately 20 - 40 minutes, depending on the interviewees’ willingness to talk. In-depth interviews were asked in an open-ended manner. The semi-structured interview permitted the researchers to control the interview.

School authorities granted access to documents which were provided for analysis to supplement data collected by means of interviews and observation. The documents included inspection reports, special education termly and annual reports, assessment reports and items, scripts from learners and attendance registers. Week long observations were done in two classes of the 6 which had learners with vision impairment. The two teachers of the classes volunteered to be observed. Data collection process A pilot study was conducted to trial data collection instruments with the aim of determining their suitability. For a pilot study, 6 participants who were not among the participants for the research (3 males and 3 females) were interviewed. The results of the pilot study led to the addition of school documents which include assessment items, inspection and departmental reports. Before data collection, two meetings were held with the participants to address ethical issues and share the purpose of the research. Participants were urged to seek clarifications on anything concerning the research. Permission was obtained to record the conversations using digital voice recorders and participants were assured that the recorded data would be kept confidentially. Data analysis Data were transcribed verbatim. When transcriptions were ready, they were repeatedly read to gain familiarity with the data (Creswell, 2007). As a way to corroborate the interview data, it was compared with the data from observations and document analysis. The following stage involved categorising data according to the meanings generated. This was followed by relating categories and subcategories in order to provide explanations with regard to the poor academic performance of learners with vision impairment in science subjects which culminated into the explication of data on the studied subject.

Results From the interviews conducted with participants, observations made and information from the documents, it was evident that there are multiple factors influencing the poor academic performance of learners with visual deficits at the school. This is against the mammoth efforts and government resources invested in the education of learners with vision impairment. Below are the themes that emerged as factors influencing the poor academic performance of learners at the school.

Large class sizes The records analysed yielded results as tabulated in the table below. Table 2: Class enrolments for 6 classes with learners with vision impairment Class Form # of VI learners # of sighted learners 1 5 3 38 2 5 4 35 3 5 3 38 4 4 3 38 5 4 2 35 6 4 4 36 Source: Pastoral records (class registers)

Total 41 39 42 41 37 40

The attendance registers perused indicated the above class enrolments for the various classes. The registers confirmed interview results from three of the teachers interviewed who complained of the large class sizes that translate into huge teaching loads. When the senior teacher was asked about the number of learners in the classes, she indicated that the issue was beyond their control. Authorities from Ministry headquarters would just refer learners and instruct the school to admit and the school has no power to deny a child a place. Shortage of human and material resources The two Biology classes observed had teachers by themselves handling all the learners. In one class, when experiments were being carried out the teacher told learners with vision impairments: Go to the Special Education Department and read The statement above resonated with complaints from three learners with vision impairment who stated that every time there are experiments being done in the laboratory or when the class is writing notes from the chalk board, we are told to go to the Special Education Department and do something else. Asked what the teacher would do to compensate for the missed experiment, she stated that learners who are blind do not carry out experiments, instead, they sit for paper 4 , alternative to practical. The teacher further said: The learning support workers are supposed to be working with us during practical sessions as practical assistants but Special Education Department claims there is a shortage of learning support workers. In an interview with a special education specialist teacher, we learnt that there was only one science special education trained Biology teacher in the Science Department trained to teach learners who have vision impairment. She stated that: The officers at Teaching Service Managment are missing a point, when specialist teachers graduate; they send them anywhere in the name of inclusive education and

send ordinary teachers here. Areas like VI and HI are specialised areas and need trained teachers. Imagine all those twenty something teachers in the Science Department, I am the only trained special education teacher. No one for Chemistry and Physics. In addition I have 4 classes to teach. The excerpt above coincides with the information obtained in the special education annual reports that there is a shortage of specialist trained science teachers. Some known science trained special education teachers refuse to be deployed at the school because they claim there is too much work in special education and besides, they are already enjoying scarce skill allowance as teachers of science. On the part of learning and teaching resources, 8 of the 14 learners interviewed complained of the shortage of assistive technology. One learner stated that: They do not buy the equipment we need but buy what they want. How can they buy stacks and stacks of braillon paper when what we need is zytex or ordinary braille paper, adapted computers, CCTVs, digital voice recorders (meant for the VI, not for journalists), â&#x20AC;Ś One of the specialist teachers echoed similar sentiments that: Government has bought a lot of materials that are not really relevant. You know this merging of special education and guidance and counselling is not working for us. How can they appoint a person from a related field to be in charge of special education? This is the result, buying wrong stuff and failing to defend order requests at the tender board because they do not know. The records also indicted that the shortages of material resources were artificial as government allocates money for items but during the procurement stage, delays due to bureaucracy and lack of justification for the items would work against the department. One teacher was quoted saying: The government is very transparent in its purchase procedures, when our representatives from related fields fail to justify why we have to buy this or that, things are not bought. A check at the Special Education Department revealed that there were a lot of perkins braillers, (mostly malfunctioned), 3 thermoforms, 3 CCTVs, a few scientific talking calculators, 2 braille embossers, two old adapted computers. Learners were observed sharing a talking calculator during a test and others taking turns in using the three CCTVs. There were neither prescribed books in braille nor in large print despite the sighted learners being given all the prescribed books in each subject. Attitudes of learners and teachers When asked what they think are the factors influencing the poor performance of learners in science subjects at the school, 11 of the learners interviewed frankly stated that sciences were too difficult for them because they had a lot of diagrams. Further probing revealed that they have a lot of past examinations tactile graphics

to use during the lessons and there are no teachers to tactile orientate the learners to these diagrams which are not tailored towards the topic being taught. One of the learners said: You know sir, every time a teacher comes in class talks about some diagrams in a book or on the chalk board, they first discuss then later, will say eeh special ed learners, after the lesson go to Special Ed so that they search for diagrams on this topic for you from past exam papers, ok! Because of some of these statements and teachers remembering that we are also in their classes upon seeing us in classes, I hate any science subject. After all, no special education learners who are totally blind pass sciences. The excerpt above suggests a negative attitude by the learners towards science subjects. On the other hand, 2 of the 5 teachers interviewed indicated that it was not their responsibility to teach learners who are blind outside the normal scheduled lessons. One of them said: Look, there are people who are paid scarce skill allowance to teach special education learners. We are all not here for them, in fact given a chance, I wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t want them in my class because they are a bother. You have to prepare work twice and wait for their work to be transcribed â&#x20AC;Ś no man! The statement above was understood to be negative attitude from the teacher. The records also showed that in 7 of the report books, marks for special education learners were not recorded yet for the previous term. Class teachers referred all queries to the Special Education Department. A member of the Special Education Department retorted: These teachers and their attitude! What will it take for them to change and treat all learners equally? The book is here, all scripts were submitted to all teachers and signed for. The statement above also suggests negative attitude that has been going on in the school about learners with vision impairment. Inadequate adaptation and modification of teaching and learning resources The learners complained of the fatigue they go through when trying to decipher meaning from the many tactile diagrams found in science assessment items. They claimed the sensation on their fingertips sometimes lets them down as they have to battle the different textures of paper; the question paper on ordinary braille paper which is a bit hard and the diagrams on soft zytex paper. One learner emotionally said: Imagine in one of the science papers with 60 questions, 47 of the questions have diagrams you are not even familiar with. Even some of the questions that one can answer without a diagram will have a diagram. Similarly, one learner who is partially sighted complained that a facility where she was assessed from recommended a font of 24 but teachers were just enlarging print

anyhow using the photocopying machine. Sometimes the font was better but other times not. Rarely were the notes Brailled for braille users in most science subjects except Biology. Most of the times, fellow learners had to dictate the notes to learners with vision impairment. Teaching methods Government of Botswana (2015) whole school inspection report reads in part: The teaching methodologies the majority of the teachers employed were teacher centred and as such did not promote cooperative and practical learning (p.12). â&#x20AC;Ś Learners were not actively involved in the learning process since they rarely demonstrated knowledge and understanding of what they learnt. The preceding excerpt confirmed the findings from the observations where one teacher spoke in a low voice; neither read nor described what she had written on the chalk board for the sake of learners with vision impairment. The writing was illegible as she wrote small letters in cursive. While she had teaching aids for the sighted learners, there were no embossed diagram for learners with visual deficits. Three of the teachers interviewed claimed they did not know the learning and teaching methods for learners with vision impairment. To the contrary, special education departmental reports indicated that a workshop was held for teachers on the same. In addition, induction workshops are held every year for new teachers in the school. Large teaching loads The five teachers interviewed were all concerned over the large teaching loads that teachers carry. They contest that the guidelines being followed were prepared when the class enrolments were favourable. One of the teachers stated that: You know, our population was very small and we could afford something like 25 to 35 learners in a class. We did not even have as many special education learners like we do today. Maybe only one or two special education learners in a year. But this time, we are talking about 30 learners with special educational needs in the school and an average of 43 learners per class. Some comments from teachers suggested that the administrators heading schools with special education units should be trained in the area so that they can easily articulate the issues concerning special education. This was meant to indicate that management and the regional office do not represent the special education area well because they were not trained in special education.

Discussion The academic performance of learners with vision impairment in science subjects at the school is faced with a lot of factors. The attainance of viable institutional improvements needs thorough understanding of the factors that robustly combine to create institutional failure. This section therefore discusses some of the factors identified during the study. Large class sizes Hattie (2006) cites McGiverin, Gilman, and Tillitski (1989) who conducted a metaanalysis of 10 studies of Indiana’s Prime Time project, a longitudinal study which aimed to reduce class size to 14 in 24 Year 1–3 classes. They reported that Year 3 learners, who had been in smaller classes for 2 years had significantly higher achievement test scores than did learners in larger classes. The significant academic achievement in smaller classes is the intended destiny the Ministry of Basic Education, Botswana would want to achieve. It laid guidelines regarding the reduction in the number of learners in the classes that had learners with vision impairment. School authorities are therefore expected to work in line with the national guidelines. In Botswana, one learner with vision impairment is equal to four sighted learners. So, to have 38 sighted learners and 3 learners with vision impairment in a class means that the class had an enrolment of 50 learners which is just too much. These findings are similar to Koh and Shin’s (2017) observation that class sizes are other demands for teachers that affect their feelings and performance in inclusionary practices. In a case like this one, the rate of learning support is compromised as reduced class enrolment is meant to maximise the support to learners who are disadvantaged (Bruwiler & Blatchford, 2011; Njue, Aura & Komen, 2014). It is worth noting that the school authorities make frantic efforts to reduce the number of learners in classes which learners with vision impairment are allocated. The largest of the classes where learners with vision impairment were had 42 learners. There are however, some classes without learners with vision impairment that had class enrolments of 46. School authorities explained they experienced challenges in reducing the number of learners because the transition rate from junior to senior secondary school has been increasing to give all Batswana children a chance of being educated as the country is marching towards being an educated and informed nation. Shortage of human and material resources The Botswana Government awards scarce skill allowance to Science, Mathematics and Special Education teachers as a way of retaining and motivating them. Despite the incentive, some science teachers choose to teach in the mainstream school because they would still receive the scarce skill allowance. The teachers’ move leaves a gap in the number of special education trained science teachers; hence the shortage. On the other hand, mainstream science teachers outnumber special education trained science teachers. This paints a picture that there is shortage of

staff when in fact; the teachers are according to the staff establishment register. What is required, therefore, is to deploy more special education trained teachers to the school. Besides, some teachers during the interview confessed that they do not have requisite skills in teaching learners with vision impairment. The lack of skills of most of the teachers teaching learners could be one of the contributing factors to the learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; poor academic performance in science subjects (Mphale1 & Mhlauli1, 2014). However, according to Koh and Shin (2017), barriers and concerns of this nature are frequent even in countries like United States of America. Most frequent in their study were inadequate and insufficient training for teachers to help them teach in inclusive classrooms and lack of resources for effective inclusive education practices. One of the concessions in the education of learners with vision impairment is providing aides or other special arrangements to undertake teaching, learning or assessment tasks (Fraser & Maguvhe, 2008; Capps, Kingsley, Kuo & Roecker, 2014). The provision is meant to increase support because some learners may require one on one teaching. This is common occurrence in practical subjects like Art and Sciences. In the two classes observed in this study, there were no learning support workers to act as experiment aides. Instead, learners with vision impairment were asked to go and read at the Special Education Department. This denied the learners a learning opportunity and would contribute to their poor performance in science subjects. Classroom support helps to increase learner participation and academic achievement. Use of special needs teachers and other learning support workers would bring some needed additional resource to augment on teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; efforts in the classrooms. At the time of this study, there was only one learning support worker who was overwhelmed by demands of the tasks in the Special Education Department. During debriefing though, it was observed that the number of learning support workers had increased to four, which is a good move except the high learner enrolments would demand more. The school has basic assistive devices and instructional technology that teachers and learners use. These include CCTVs (3), Photocopying machine, talking calculators, digital voice recorders, tape recorders, embossing kits, braille and swell paper, embossers, thermoforms, perkins braillers, slates and styluses to mention but a few. There were a few models found in the Special Education Department. During class observations, neither models nor concrete objects were used despite their importance in increasing computation accuracy, helping learners to reason, solve problems and offering learners concrete experiences to help them understand their environment (Hatlen, 1996; Saracho, 2012). There is an abundance of tactile graphics mostly from past examinations. These are not serving the learners well because they are not topic specific. Besides, the science teachers do no tactile observations to help the learners understand the materials. Learning support workers give learners embossed diagrams which are meaningless because no one takes the learners

through the embossed graphics to make sure the learners understand. This practice has a bearing on the learners’ performance. Attitudinal barriers From the interviews conducted with the learners, their poor performance in sciences is partly due to self-prophecy fulfilment. The learners are resigned to the belief that learners with vision impairment do not pass science subjects. Additionally, the many diagrams that characterise science assessment tasks frustrate the learners that they have some negative attitude towards the subjects. Teachers’ lack of inclusive preparations that result in failure to arrange for embossed diagrams prior to meetings with the learners encourages the learners’ negative attitude towards sciences. Teachers, too, have their own attitude towards the teaching of learners with vision impairment. The fact that Government of Botswana awards scarce skill allowance to special education teachers makes some teachers feel that the onus of teaching learners with special educational needs is for teachers receiving scarce skill allowance. The mainstream teachers’ attitude therefore falls short of a positive one. Some of their teaching sessions are devoid of a sense of care, responsiveness, adaptation, cohesiveness and synergy that bonds people together (Landberg, Kruger & Swart, 2016); hence, the learners’ poor academic showing in science subjects. Modification and adaptation of teaching and learning materials Science teaching and learning content as well as assessment tasks are inundated with graphic representations that are too much for learners with vision impairment during examinations. Learners are sometimes fatigued in an effort to explore the diagrams which they rarely understand and eventually perform poorly. Some of the diagrams included in assessment tasks have no bearing on the answering of questions and these just increase material for reading when in fact the effort should be to reduce it. Njue, Aura and Komen (2014) advise that individual differences of the learners should be put into consideration and the teachers should therefore choose materials which maximally benefit individual learners. The photocopying of learners’ work without being font specific is dreadful and would destroy learners’ sight or create other problems to the learners. Effort should be made to avail recorded, brailled or enlarged teaching and learning resources to promote equal access to education for all learners. Teaching methods The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) recognise accountability actions including annual assessment of learners in the technical areas such as sciences. The teacher centred teaching methods that do not accommodate all learners, (Habulezi, Molao, Mphuting & Kebotlositswe, 2016), are counterproductive and detrimental to learners’ performances. The Ministry of Basic Education’s (2015) findings in the inspection report and findings from the observations during this study leave a lot to

be desired. Teachers are assets, rich resources of information and support. Therefore, they need to be responsive, creative, accommodative and inclusive in their routine facilitation of classroom activities for the benefit of all learners. In the case of learners with vision impairment, pre or post lesson sessions would be appropriate to compensate for the missing incidental information acquisition and to promote parity in classroom participation. Landberg, Kruger and Swart (2016) advise that teachers should encourage critical thinking, argumentation, reflection and action on the part of learners in the learning situation. In addition, Rose and Meyer (2002)’s three principles of universal design of learning, (multiple means of representation, multiple means of action and expression, multiple means of engagement), hold great potential to establish truly accessible learning environments for all that can improve learners’ performance. Holbrook and Koenig (2010) agreed that in the absence of vision, it was important to give learners sensory training to the remaining senses like the senses of touch and hearing so that they might be used as sources of information. To the contrary, the results in this study indicate that learners were not being tactile orientated to the embossed diagrams given to them. Further, some teachers neither read nor described what they wrote on the chalk board. This does not compliment to the missing incidental learning other learners with sight enjoy. Besides, the tactile diagrams presented to the learners with vision impairment were not topic tailored but related past examination diagrams. The practice denies learners equal and fair opportunity to access teaching and learning materials. In some instances, learners with vision impairment were sent to the Special Education Department to read while the learners with sight carried out experiments which augmented on the theory they had learnt, but alas for learners with vision impairment, it is an opportunity of learning missed for ever. Large teaching loads Landsberg, Kruger and Swart (2016) observed that teachers are overwhelmed by workloads that over stretch them such that they even fail to implement intervention strategies or support stakeholders. The foregoing observations were reflected in teachers’ comments in this study where teachers were unable to employ intervention strategies due to the increase in enrolments and other demands in their daily routine operations. Further, the Biology special education teacher had four classes to teach in addition to her special education duties that include brailling, remediation, consultations and transcription among others. Two science special education teachers concentrated on their duties in the mainstream school and did not want to associate themselves with the special education duties because they still enjoyed scarce skill allowance as science teachers. Understanding of the important role special education teachers play in supporting learners and other stakeholders would be very helpful in improving service provision to the learners and consequently improve learners’ performance in the subjects concerned. Clear

policies and awareness campaigns would be very helpful in this regard (Mutanga & Walker, 2017).

Conclusion Learners with vision impairment are facing challenges in learning science due to multiple factors. Even well-meaning efforts if not properly handled retrogress learner performance. The awarding of scarce skill allowance to special education teachers led to some teachers who were not awarded the same to be reluctant in helping learners with vision impairment. Objectionable teacher and learner attitudes also play some part including pedagogical practices that are not really tailored to meet individual learner needs. Although there are tolerable human and material resources, the resources are not good enough to yield the desired academic performance of the learners. Positive efforts in some instances are abound, but what should be borne in mind is that all schools, even the most successful ones, have occasional slumps in performance to fluctuating gradations. This is occasionally linked to shifts in learner composition, changes in the external environment and issues of staff turnover. Recommendations Intensive intervention measures targeted at improving learners’ academic performance in science subjects are suggested. These should include enhanced teaching and learning activities, deployment of more special education trained science teachers, learning support staff and acquisition of specialised equipment. Further, continued public sensitization on positive inclusive education practices would be handy in the quest for excellency.

References Ayiela, O. J. (2012). Factors affecting KCPE performance of learners with hearing impairments in special schools in selected counties, Kenya. Unpublished thesis, Kenyatta University. Babbie, E., & Mouton, J. (2010). The practice of social research. Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Beck-Winchatz, B., & Riccobono, M. (2008). Advancing participation of blind students in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. Advances in Space Research, 42, 1855–1858. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2007.05.080. Botswana Daily News, (2017, March 7) Special Education results not satisfactory. BOPA: Gaborone. Bruwiler, C., & Blatchford, P. (2011). Effects of class size and adaptive teaching competency on classroom processes and academic outcome. Learning and Instruction, 21 95-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.11.004. Capps, K., Kingsley, K., Kuo, K. Y., & Roecker, L. (2014). Inquiry-based education for students with visual impairment. Deborah L. Rooks-Ellis: Orono. Claudet, P. (2014). Designing tactile illustrated books. Journal of Blindness, Innovation and Research. 4, (1). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5241/4-52 . Creswell, J. W. (2007). Research design, qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Dalton, E. M., Mckenzie, J. A., & Kahonde, C. (2012). The implementation of inclusive education in South Africa: Reflections arising from a workshop for teachers and therapists to introduce Universal. Design for Learning. African Journal of Disability 1(1) 13. Doi: 10.4102/ajod.v1i1.13. Dubnick, M. (1994). Response to David Wohlers' presentation: The visually-impaired student in Chemistry. Access to scientific data by persons with visual disabilities. In Egelston-Dodd, J. (Ed.), A future agenda: Proceedings of a working conference on science for persons with disabilities. IA: University of Northern Iowa, pp. 68-70. Government of Botswana, (2015). Whole school inspection report, Molefi Senior Secondary School. Kgatleng Education Region. Ministry of Basic Education: Gaborone. Fraser, W. J., & Maguvhe, M. O. (2008). Teaching life sciences to blind and visually impaired learners. Educational Research 42(2) 84-89. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2008.9656116 . Habulezi, J. & Phasha T., N. (2012). Provision of learning support to learners with visual impairment in Botswana: A Case Study. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 69(24) 1555-1561. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.098. Habulezi, J., Molao, O., Mphuting, S., & Kebotlositswe M. K. (2016). Inclusive education and challenges of providing classroom support to students with blindness in a general education classroom at aschool in Botswana. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 15(1) 30-41. Hansen, E. G., Liu, L. Hakkinen, M. T., & Darrah, M. (2016). Designing innovative science assessments that are accessible for students who are blind. Journal of Blindness, Innovation and Research, 6 (1). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5241/6-91. Hatlen, P. (1996). The core curriculum for blind and visually impaired students, including those with additional disabilities. RE:view, 28(1), 25–32. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483329253.n3. Hattie, J. (2006). The paradox of reducing class size and improving learning outcomes. International Journal of Educational Research, 43 387–425. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2006.07.002. Holbrook, M. C., & Koenig. A. J. (2010). Foundations of education: History & theory of teaching children and youths with visual impairments. AFB Press: New York. Jones, M. G., Minogue, J., Oppewal, T., Cook, M. P., & Broadwell, B. (2006). Visualizing without vision at the microscale: Students with visual impairments explore cells with touch. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15(5), 345-351. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10956-006-9022-6. Kapperman, G., Heinze, T., & Sticken, J. (2000). Mathematics. In A. J. Koenig & M. C. Holbrook (Eds.), Foundations of education: Instructional strategies for teaching children and youths with visual impairments (Vol. II, pp. 370-399). New York: AFB Press. Koh, M., & Shin, S. (2017). Education of students with disabilities in the USA: Is Inclusion the answer? International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 16(10)1-17. Doi: https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.10.1. Landsberg, E., Kruger, D. & Swart, E. (2016). Addressing barriers to learning. A South African perspective. (3rd ed). Van Schaik: Pretoria. Maguvhe, M. (2015). Teaching Science and Mathematics to students with visual impairments: Reflections of a visually impaired technician. African Journal of Disability 4(1), 1-6. Doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.4102/ajod.v4i1.194 .

Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2010). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective differentiated instruction. (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. McCarthy, C. (2005). Effects of thematic-based, hands-on science teaching versus a textbook approach for students with disabilities. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42, 245263. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tea.20057. McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2014). Research in education: Evidence-based enquiry. (7th ed). Pearson: Boston. Moreland, L. M. (2015). Science for visually impaired students and accessible technology. Theses, Dissertations and Capstones. Paper 978. Marshall University. Mphale, L. M., & Mhlauli, M. B. (2014). An investigation on students’ academic performance for junior secondary schools in Botswana. European Journal of Educational Research, 3(3), 111-127. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.3.3.111. Mutanga, O., & Walker, M. (2017). Exploration of the academic lives of students with disabilities at South African universities: Lecturers’ perspectives. African Journal of Disability, 6(0), a316. Doi: https://doi. org/10.4102/ajod.v6i0.316. Njue, S. W., Aura, L. J., & Komen, Z. (2014). Braille Competency among learners with visual impairments: Methodology and learner preparedness factors in Thika and Meru Counties, Kenya. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(10) 109-116. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5901/jesr.2014.v4n1p479. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002). O’Day, A. R. (2014). Proof reading the tactile graphic: The important last step. Journal of Blindness, Innovation and Research, 4(1). Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5241/4-59. Peters, S. (2004). Inclusive education: An EFA strategy for all children. World Bank: Washington, DC. Pressick-kilborn, K., & Prescott, A. (2017). Engaging primary children and pre-service teachers in a whole school Design and Make Day: The evaluation of a creative science and technology collaboration. Journal of the Australian Science Teachers Association, 63 (1). Rose, D. H., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age: Universal Design for Learning. ASCD: Alexandria, VA. Rose, D. H., & Strangman, N. (2007). ‘Cognition and learning: Meeting the challenge of individual differences’, Universal Access in the Information Society, 5(4), 381–391. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1102187.1102193. Saracho, O. (2012). An integrated play-based curriculum for young children. Routledge: New York. Smith, D. J. (1998). Inclusion: Schools for all students. Wadsworth Publishing Company: Albany, NY. Smith, D. W., & Smothers, S. M. (2012). The role and characteristics of tactile graphics in secondary Mathematics and Science textbooks in Braille. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 106(9), 543. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1949-8594.1985.tb09639.x. Special Education Department, (2017). End of term one departmental report. Molefi Senior Secondary School: Mochudi. Wagner, B. V. (1995a). Guidelines for teaching science to students who are visually impaired. In Egelston-Dodd, J. (ed.), "Improving science instruction for students with disabilities: University of Northern Iowa, pp. 70-76.

Wohlers, H. D. (1994). Science education for students with disabilities. In Egelston-Dodd, J. (ed.), A future agenda: Proceedings of a working conference on science for persons with disabilities. IA: University of Northern Iowa, pp. 52-64 Web Resources, Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10209-006-0062-8. UNESCO, (2015). Education for All 2015 National Review Report. Government printers: Gaborone. United States Department of Education, (2007). ‘No child left behind: Choosing a school for your child’ viewed 07 June 2015, from http://www.ed.gov/parents/school/find/choose. Zebehazy K. T., & Wilton, A. P. (2014). Quality, importance and instruction: The perspectives of teachers of students with visual impairments on graphics use by students. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 108(1), 5-16.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 11, pp. 45-66, November 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.11.3

Mapping Free Educational Software Intended for the Development of Numerical and Algebraic Reasoning Eliane Elias Ferreira dos Santos Escola de Educação Básica – ESEBA Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Brazil Aleandra da Silva Figueira-Sampaio Faculdade de Gestão e Negócios – FAGEN Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Brazil Gilberto Arantes Carrijo Faculdade de Engenharia Elétrica – FEELT Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Brazil

Abstract. Educational software has significantly changed how mathematics is taught and learned. One challenge for educators is choosing the most appropriate software among numerous options. Therefore, we mapped free mathematics education software according to number and operation content. The study was carried out with public elementary school teachers (grades 6 - 9). The teachers watched a presentation on the features of each software type and filled out a checklist about the software and its content. The results showed that 63% of the 32 software titles were appropriate for developing numeric and algebraic reasoning. According to the teachers, these titles were appropriate for developing and consolidating concepts related to the number system, operations and properties of natural and whole numbers, numeric expressions, divisibility, prime numbers, decomposition into prime factors, GCD, LCM, operations with rational numbers in fraction and decimal form, comparison and operations on equivalent fractions, first degree equations, and first and second degree polynomial functions. Keywords: Element school; Mathematic; Software; Number and operations; Algebra

Introduction Every day we deal with data related to the weather, advertisements, percentages, account balances, debits, purchases, sales that demand arithmetic

competence. This type of thought includes the ordered use basic mathematical operations, as well as the understanding of numerical calculation processes (Savion & Seri, 2016), in addition to the ability to estimate quantities and evaluate the reasonableness of results. These skills are built throughout elementary and middle school and encompass numerical and algebraic reasoning. According to curriculum guidelines (Brasil, 1998; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2000), students can develop these thought processes through various strategies including the exploration of learning situations that help them broaden and consolidate their understanding of numbers, in various numerical sets, using social, mathematical, and historical contexts. Thus, problem-solving situations should allow students to expand on and consolidate their understanding of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponents, and root operations while selecting and using different calculation procedures. Strategies should also include the ideas of proportionality and percentage calculations. Studies have focused on the use of calculators (Ahn, 2001; Lee, 2006), concrete materials (Figueira-Sampaio, Santos, Carrijo & Cardoso, 2013) and computers and software (Figueira-Sampaio, Santos, Carrijo & Cardoso 2012) in education to assist in the development of mathematical skills that involve mastery of numbers and calculations. The use of digital resources in teaching can favour positive attitudes when learning mathematics (Chen, Lee & Hsu, 2015). There exists considerable qualitative evidence concening the benefits of computers and software in the education of mathematics: an increase in critical thought and in the ability to solve problems (Condie, Munro, Seagraves & Kenesson, 2007; Keong, Sharaf, & Daniel, 2005); an increase in motivation, interest and participation (Keong et al., 2005; Neurath & Stephens, 2006; Reynolds & Fletcher-Janzen, 2007); encourage collaboration which favours dialogue and working in teams (Balanskat, Blamire & Kefala, 2006; Reynolds & FletcherJanzen, 2006); improvements to basic abilities, such as reading, writing and calculating; improvements to behaviour and attention during the class (Balanskat et al., 2006); better retention of knowledge (Reynolds & FletcherJanzen, 2007). While numerous software packages have been developed for education, the use of such material does not arrive into the classroom at the same proportion or speed. The selection and even finding accessible software may distance teachers and teaching practices from these educational resources According to FigueiraSampaio et al. (2012), the teachers choose the software through indications made by the teachers that used such in their teaching. Aimed at aiding in the choosing of software, as well as present the viable options of software in mathematics, the objective behind this work was to map free educational mathematics software for the development of concepts and procedures relevant to numeric reasoning and algebra.

Method The associated research was structured into two stages (Figure 1), these being classified as exploratory and descriptive. In the first stage bibliographic research was performed in order to carry out a survey of mathematical educational software. The search was performed using sites or promotional material in digital format. The selection of software was concluded from only available freeware, with online access of installation files that are available and developed for elementary school teaching in the 11 to 15-year age range.

Figure 1: Stages of research.

In the second stage, two meetings were held with teachers of mathematics from the elementary levels, the objective being to identify possible content for the development of numeric and algebraic thought, which in turn could be used in the software programs. In total 34 Brazilian teachers from the public teaching sector participated in the study. During these meetings, the software interface was projected through use of a projector and computer set up to evaluate the features from the didacticmathematical point of view. The features were demonstrated through providing

examples, along with menu tabs and tools, buttons and on screen instructions. It was not possible in this set up that the teachers themselves explore the software. The teachers received a checklist with specific math content for Number and Operations as well as Algebra at the beginning of each demonstration. The checklist was elaborated based on essential content from an elementary mathematical teaching level (NCTM, 2000).

Results and Discussion During the survey of the all available freeware for the teaching of mathematics, identification was made as to 32 programs with features that contribute to the teaching and learning of mathematics at the elementary level (Table 1). From this number, 59% need to be downloaded and installed onto the computer and 41% were accessed through browsers. According to the teacher group, 63% of the free software could be used to teach elementary school content involving numbers and related operations and elementary concepts of algebra (Figure 2). Mathematics at this level is centered on numerical concepts and operations (Dunphy et al., 2014; Lemonidis & Kaiafa, 2014; Mohamed & Johnny, 2010; NCTM, 2000; Thanheiser, Whitacre & Roy, 2014) and problem solving (Lemonidis & Kaiafa, 2014; Ontario Ministry of Education, 2005; Thanheiser et al., 2014). Students use operations and properties involving different types of numbers to solve various problems. Algebraic representations also contribute to the students’ experiences with numbers (NCTM, 2000). Students encounter different sets of numbers (natural, whole, rational, and irrational) progressively and according to necessity as their problem solving requirements evolve. The set of natural numbers is the most fundamental mathematical object (Lengnink & Schlimm, 2010). These numbers arose at the beginning of ancient civilizations and are used today to solve problems requiring counting, ordering, and coding (Debnath & Basu, 2015). To solve problems of this type, students need to understand both the meanings and properties of the numbers. The teachers identified the following software packages as appropriate for this objective: Árvores Algébricas (Algebra Trees), Butterflies, Circle 21 and 99, Criba de Eratóstenes, Diffy, Roman Numbering, Prime Numbers, Tic Tac Go, and Tux of Math Command. Students consolidate their understanding of the meaning of numbers by exploring different symbolic representations of numbers and the relationships between them (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2005). Writing and manipulating numerals contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of their properties (Lengnink & Schlimm, 2010). Thus, it is common to work with both Roman numerals and the Hindu-Arabic numbering system. Roman numerals were widely used throughout the Roman empire, but are still used for numbering centuries, book chapters, and the faces of some analog clocks. The group of teachers recommended the Roman Numbering software for

addressing relationships between two numbering systems. The objective of this software is the conversion of Western-Arabic numerals into Roman numerals and consists of two players taking turns proposing challenge problems to one another. The first player presents a Western-Arabic numeral between 1 and 1000 and the second player converts the number to a roman numeral. Table 1: List of free educational software for mathematics and the percentage of teachers that identified the potential of software for developing a numeric and algebraic thinking (n = number of teachers that answered the checklist for software). Software 2 Árvores Algébricas (Algebra Trees) 1,2 Butterflies 1,2 C.a.R – Compass and Ruler 1,3 Circle 0, 3, 21, 99 3 Criba de Eratóstenes (Sieve of Eratosthenes) 1,3 Diffy 1,2 Dr Geo 1,3 Fractions-Equivalent 1,2,3 GeoGebra 1 Geometry 2.1 1,2 Geonext 1,2,3 GrafEQ 1,3 Grapher 1,2,3 Graph 1 MathGV 1,2 Prime

Numbers Numbering 2 Polígonos (Polygons) 1,2 Roman

1,3 Poly 1,3 Percentages 2 Raízes

(Roots)

1,3 Pythagorean 1 Shape

Theorem Calculator

1,2,3 SpeQ

Mathematics 32 1,2 Pitagoras' Theorem 1 Tic Tac Go 2 Tangram

2 Triângulo

(Triangle) 1.1 (Trigonometry) 1,2,3 Tux of Math Command 2 Trigonometria

1,2,3 Wingeom 1,2,3 Winplot

Internet address http://www2.mat.ufrgs.br/edumatec/atividades _diversas/maquina/arvore.htm http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/mn/ http://car.renegrothmann.de/doc_en/index.html http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav http://nlvm.usu.edu/es/nav

% teachers (n) 100 (24)

http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav http://www.drgeo.eu/download http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/ http://www.geogebra.org/cms/download http://www.somatematica.com.br/zips/geometr y1.zip http://geonext.uni-bayreuth.de/ ftp://ftp.peda.com/grafeq_setup.exe http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav http://www.padowan.dk/download/ http://www.mathgv.com/ http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/mn/ http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/mn/ http://www.somatematica.com.br/softw/poligo nos.zip ftp://ftp.peda.com/poly32.exe http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav http://www.somatematica.com.br/zips/raizes.zi p http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav http://www.somatematica.com.br/softw/Shape Calc.zip http://www.speqmath.com https://rachacuca.com.br/jogos/tangram-32/ http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/mn/ http://www.fisme.science.uu.nl/toepassingen/0 3088/toepassing_wisweb.en.html https://sites.google.com/site/softwaretriangulos http://www.somatematica.com.br/zips/trigono. zip https://tuxmath.br.uptodown.com/windows/do wnload http://www2.mat.ufrgs.br/edumatec http://www2.mat.ufrgs.br/edumatec

100 (4) 100 (20) 48 (25) -

Some Languages: 1Inglês, 2Portuguese, 3Spanish

100 (22) 100 (18) 100 (13)

8 (24) 100 (2) 96 (27) 80 (15) 90 (21) 100 (17) 100 (18) 100 (13) 100 (17) 100 (4) 100 (3) 100 (3) 89 (19)

Figure 2: Software mapping by Numbers and Operations and Algebra.

Mathematics curricula for elementary and middle schools include the study of the multiplicative structure of natural numbers (Brasil, 1998; NCTM, 2000). This knowledge is applied at various levels and in diverse areas of mathematics (Dias, 2005). Understanding the concept of the multiplicative structure includes experience with the representation of natural numbers as the product of prime numbers. This construction, in turn, includes the concepts of the greatest common divisor (GCD) among two or more natural numbers, the least common multiple (LCM), and the ability to recognize and justify divisibility relationships (Brown, Thomas & Tolias, 2002). Divisibility criteria are important tools for determining whether a quotient is exact or not, without needing to know the quotient (Brown et al., 2002). Usually, a simple calculation is made with the digits (Crandall & Pomerance, 2005; Peretti, 2015). For prime numbers, it is sufficient to recognize that the number is only divisible by one and the number itself. The problem of distinguishing

between natural prime numbers and compound natural numbers and of decomposing compound numbers into their prime factors is considered one of the most important and useful in arithmetic (Debnath & Basu, 2015). The teachers identified the following software as appropriate for developing content related to prime numbers and divisibility criteria: Butterflies, Criba de Eratóstenes, Prime Numbers and Tux of Math Command. These software packages provide activities in which students actively participate in building understanding of operations and calculation techniques. Each software with its own features. In the software Butterflies, quick animations and actions are necessary on the part of the user. The Butterflies package displays numerous butterflies, labeled with numbers, that move around the screen. The student needs to use mouse clicks to capture the butterflies in the shortest time possible. Three different tasks with primes and multiples can be used to capture the butterflies. Butterflies with prime numbers are captured in the first task, butterflies with numbers that are multiples of 3 in the second task, and in the third task, those with numbers that are even when multiplied by 3. The software Criba de Eratóstenes reproduces the methodical process of the Eratosthenes sieve. The method for finding a finite number of prime numbers greater than one (Debnath & Basu, 2015). The user interface presents a cell grid (10xn), with natural numbers greater than 1. Students select the desired number of rows and then choose whether or not to display the multiples of the number chosen from the numbers on the screen. This functionality allows educators to not only explore prime numbers but also the calculation of the least common multiple between two natural numbers from the complete set of multiples. The option "Quitar Múltiplos” (Remove Multiples) eliminates the multiples of the natural numbers successively selected by the student. Thus, prime numbers between 1 and n are obtained after a finite quantity of selections. In the software Prime Numbers, the result for right and wrong answers is presented to the user without any type of animation. The Prime Numbers application is used to identify the prime numbers among the first 25 (or 100) natural numbers. Selections are made using two on-screen buttons. The "Give Up” button shows the prime numbers within the natural numbers selected by the student. Counters for correct and incorrect choices are updated after each selection. Rational numbers are used to solve problems involving whole/part relationships, quotients, ratios, proportions, scales, percentages, rates, indices and simple interest. The concept of rational numbers is one of the most important and complex in mathematics education at the elementary/middle school level (Bezuk & Biek, 1993; Lemonidis & Kaiafa, 2014). Understanding this type of number is important in school and in everyday life (Van Hoof, Verschaffel & Van Dooren, 2015). Rational numbers can be written in many ways including fractions, decimals, percentages, indices, and rates

(Beyranevand, 2014). Learning these numbers involves not only understanding each representation, but also transforming one format into another (e.g., fractions to decimals, percentages to fractions). Understanding and correctly using decimal numbers is essential to understanding more advanced mathematical topics (Isotani, MClaren & Altaman, 2010) and daily activities involving measures and money. The decimal form of rational numbers has been a significant source of difficulty in mathematics education (Stacey et al., 2001). Sadi (2007) highlights the mistakes made by students in performing operations with decimal numbers. The software Circle 3, Diffy, and Percentages were recommended by the teachers as potential aids for improving fluency with operations using decimal numbers. These applications provide activities that involve the addition, subtraction, and relative visualization of decimal numbers, respectively. The Georgia Department of Education (2015) defines fluency as the ability to perform procedures in a flexible, accurate, efficient, and appropriate manner. Proportional thinking, which includes an understanding of ratios, proportions, and proportionality, is necessary in mathematics, science, and practical applications (Lundberg, 2011; Ontario Ministry of Education, 2012; Silvestre & Ponte, 2012). It is important to use a variety of experiences involving proportional reasoning and to encourage students to make conjectures, create rules, and generalize learning (Adjiage & Pluvinage, 2007; Ontario Ministry of Education, 2012). In math education, some concepts are interconnected to aid in the construction of proportional thinking. Understanding rational numbers in different forms is included in these concepts (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2012). The teachers in our study group recommended the Percentages application not only works with decimal forms of rational numbers, but also helps build understanding of the concept and calculation of simple interest and the calculation of the fourth proportional. The software interface shows three text boxes representing unit, part, and percentage (Figure 3). The essence of proportional reasoning is the ability to consider numbers in relative rather than absolute terms (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2012). In this software, the value of an unknown is displayed by pressing the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Computeâ&#x20AC;? button. Afterwards, a graphical representation of the result appears in a bar graph and a pie chart. The software thus encourages a comparison between an absolute value and its percentage or relative value. Students struggle with the representation of numbers as fractions, which differs from the representation of natural numbers (Nunes & Bryant, 2009; Stafylidou & Vosniadou, 2004). The fraction is interpreted as a pair of integers and while students can usually write the fraction correctly, they are often unable to make a connection between a fraction and an integer (e.g. 5/5 and 1) (Amato, 2005). A

fraction is a relation between numbers that represents their quantities but not their independent values (Nunes & Bryant, 2009).

Figure 3: Percentages software.

The teachers in our study group recommended the Fractions-Equivalent application to build understanding of rational numbers in fractional forms. This software was chosen for its potential in developing skills related to the representation of fractions by dividing integers into congruent parts, by relating them to their symbolic numerators/denominators, and by visualizing a partwhole model. The software interface presents a diagram of the part/whole relationship and its respective fractional representation (Figure 4). The relation established between these two forms of representation builds an understanding of the terms of the fraction. The student can then recognize that the denominator represents the number of parts into which the integer is divided and that the numerator is the number of parts that were considered when associating the diagram with the part / whole symbolic representation. Another important perception is the relationship between the number of parts and the relative size of these parts (Way, 2011). This involves the realization that the greater the number of parts that a shape is divided, the smaller the pieces become. Symbolically, this means that the greater the denominator, the smaller the parts. This knowledge can then be used to compare unit fractions. The Fractions-Equivalent application randomly alternates the representation of an integer with shapes such as squares, rectangles, and circles. The software also responds to changes made in the diagram with corresponding changes in the symbolic form of the fraction. The great advantage of digital resources over other physical models is that different representations can be dynamically linked, allowing experimentation with cause and effect relationships that demonstrate the connections between different representations (Way, 2011).

Figure 4: Fractions-Equivalent software.

The The Fractions-Equivalent application randomly alternates the representation of an integer with shapes such as squares, rectangles, and circles. The software also responds to changes made in the diagram with corresponding changes in the symbolic form of the fraction. The great advantage of digital resources over other physical models is that different representations can be dynamically linked, allowing experimentation with cause and effect relationships that demonstrate the connections between different representations (Way, 2011). The concept of equivalent fractions is one of the most important abstract mathematical ideas for elementary/middle-school students to assimilate (Ni, 2001). To build this skill, students must be able to determine equivalent fractions using part-whole models instead of mechanically using an algorithm that changes numerator and denominator through multiplication or division (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2014). According to the teachers in our study group, Fractions-Equivalent helps build this concept using part-whole models (Figure 4). The software allows students to change the number of parts by which an integer is divided without changing the initial division of the integer. This feature is extremely useful because it allows students to observe cause and effect (Way, 2011). Equivalent fractions are obtained when the lines that divide the original integer coincide with lines from the new division. After this step, students identify and write the new terms in text boxes and thus recognize the equivalent fractions. Pressing the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Checkâ&#x20AC;? button displays a message indicating whether the equivalence is correct or incorrect. Finally, the software also allows users to find multiple fractions that are equivalent to the original fraction. Understanding the meaning and multiplicative structure of natural numbers and related operations is insufficient for solving problems in everyday situations involving impossible differences, debt, and the idea of opposing or symmetric quantities. These situations require integers (natural numbers plus negative numbers). The concept of integers emerged concurrently within the context of symbolic algebra used in solving algebraic equations (Brasil, 1998; Heeffer,

2008). The set of integers and related operations present some challenges (Fuadiah, 2015; Heeffer, 2008; Kar & Işik, 2015). One of these challenges is how students perceive the logic of negative numbers and attribute meaning to negative quantities. Unlike the logic used with natural numbers, negative numbers make it possible to, for example, "add 6 to a number and get 1" or "subtract 2 from a number and get 9" (Brasil, 1998). The challenge of assigning meaning arises from the fact that students are surrounded by objects that are counted with positive numbers (Fuadiah, 2015). In addition, students interpret negative numbers as numbers having properties other than those of positive numbers, which leads students to difficulties with operations of type a + (-b), -b + a and a - (-b). The teachers in our study group chose Árvores Algébricas (Algebra Trees), Circle 0, 21 and 99, Diffy, Tic Tac Go and Tux of Math Command as software that could help build calculation skills with whole numbers and deal with the challenges highlighted in Brasil (1998) and Fuadiah (2015). Although studies on the understanding of and the didactic approaches used for irrational numbers (Voskoglou & Kosyvas, 2011) are rare, the topic is essential for rebuilding the concept of numbers so that it extends from the idea of rational numbers to include the set of real numbers (Sirotic & Zazkis, 2007). Definitions of rational numbers at the elementary/middle-school level are strongly linked to representations (Zazkis & Sirotic, 2010). Geometric representations are an indispensable teaching tool for understanding the concept of this type of number (Sirotic & Zazkis, 2007). Lewis (2007) presents a construction based on the Pythagorean Theorem for the rational numbers √2, √3, √5, √6 and √7. In this construction, students are provided with a visual representation of the irrational number that they can then compare to the unit. Constructions such as this can be produced with the GeoGebra software (Figure 5), which was recommended by the teacher group for the visualization of irrational numbers. For Voskoglou and Kosyvas (2011), activities with geometric constructions have helped students improve their ability to construct immeasurable magnitudes and to represent irrational numbers on the real axis. Extending the concept of numbers and gaining fluency with arithmetic operations are goals of elementary/middle school mathematics education (NCTM, 2000). Students need to develop their conceptual understanding and computational skills equally to develop operational fluency. Conceptual understanding refers to an integrated and functional understanding of mathematical ideas (i.e., understanding more than just isolated facts and methods) (Kilpatrick, Swafford & Findell, 2001), while computational skill refers to the ability to calculate accurately and efficiently (NCTM, 2000). The teachers in our study group recommended Árvores Algébricas (Algebra Trees), Circle 0, 3, 21 and 99, Tic Tac Go and Tux of Math Command for developing addition skills and the same applications and Diffy for activities involving subtraction. Only Árvores Algébricas (Algebra Trees), Tic Tac Go and

Tux of Math Command were recommended for multiplication. From the last three cited programs, Tic Tac Go is the only one that does not work with division.

Figure 5: Construction in GeoGebra for the visualization of irrational numbers.

In Árvores Algébricas (Algebra Trees), students need to fill in text boxes and then drag and link them to each other with arrows denoting the order of operations. White boxes are used for data entry and output, while orange boxes are used for addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponent operations. The software can be used to carry out operations with natural, rational, whole, and irrational numbers in the form of radicals. The user interface in Circle 0 displays seven overlapping circles with integers spread out around the circles (Figure 6). The “New Game” button refreshes the numbers on the screen and in circles, or keeps the current problem in the circles. Students drag numbers into each circle such that the sum of the numbers is zero. If students choose correctly, the circle is highlighted red. Circle 3, Circle 21 and Circle 99 are analogs of Circle 0. However, the algebraic sum of the numbers placed in each circle must be equal to 3, 21 and 99 respectively. In Circle 3, operations are performed on rational numbers in decimal form, while in Circle 21 and Circle 99 operations are performed on natural numbers. Tux of Math Command can be played by more than one student and works with elementary arithmetic operations, including negative numbers, and "missing number" questions. The difficulty increases as the player progresses through the game. The goal is to destroy asteroids that are falling on igloos. To destroy the

asteroids, the students must mentally solve the math problems displayed on each asteroid. It is worth noting that mathematical knowledge includes proficiency with tools such as pencil and paper, technologies, and mental techniques (Seeley, 2005).

Figure 6: Circle 0 software.

The Diffy application is a virtual manipulator designed to encourage students to learn subtraction. The software simulates a board made up of five quadrilaterals, with integers placed on the vertices of the outermost shape. The remaining shapes are formed from the midpoint of each segment (Figure 7). The objective is to fill in the text boxes with the result of the difference between the largest and smallest number on the same line. The text box remains blank until the student answers the question correctly. This process is repeated until all text boxes are filled. The subtraction operations can be performed on natural, fractional, decimal, and monetary values. With Tic Tac Go, version 3, users can explore addition, subtraction, and multiplication of whole numbers. Each cell contains an operation with integers. A number at the top of the grid corresponds to the result of the operation (Figure 8). Players scan the operations, perform an operation, and then select the cell that will produce the correct answer. The activity is concluded when the player can mark three correct squares in sequence, either horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. Competition between two students is also possible. The winner is the first to complete a correct sequence. In Tic Tac Go 5, the objective is to mark a sequence of five correct results in the grid. As arithmetic problems become more complex, mental calculations and approximations are no longer sufficient to solve them. These more difficult problems must then be modeled algebraically. Thus, emphasis is given to using symbols to represent numbers and express mathematical relationships (Star et al., 2015). Previous experience with numbers and their properties are fundamental for working with algebraic symbols and expressions, which are

elements of mathematical modeling (NCTM, 2000). Solving these types of problems allows students to develop their capacity to generalize and deepen their understanding of the relationships between patterns and algebra (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2013). The systematic use of symbols to express quantitative and structural relationships (i.e. representation) allows students to solve problems (Smith & Thompson, 2007). This context allows mathematical language and ideas to acquire meaning. Algebraic reasoning provides the basis for the development and understanding of abstract mathematics (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2013; Star et al., 2015). Equations and systems of linear equations are used to represent, analyze, and solve a variety of problems (Common Core State Standards Initiative [CCSSI], 2010).

Figure 7: Diffy software.

Figure 8: Tic Tac Go software.

The technological modernization of algebra teaching, points to a shift from memorization to meaningful mathematical action that leads to the development of initiative and decision making (Yerushalmy, 2006). The visual and numerical benefit gained from using computers and graphing calculators to work with symbolic expressions can help students give meaning to algebraic expressions and equations (Kilpatrick et al., 2001). The teacher group identified Árvores Algébricas (Algebra Trees) and GeoGebra for working with algebraic expressions and GeoGebra and Raízes (Roots) for equations. The Árvores Algébricas (Algebra Trees) software, which was recommended for developing fluency with arithmetic expressions, can also be used with algebraic expressions and includes an option for graphing functions. When students first work with mathematical sentences that express equality, they need to understand that the equal sign represents a relation between quantities and is not a symbol indicating that a calculation must be performed. Activities are necessary that involve recognizing equalities such as 4+3=5+2 and not just 4+3=7 and 5+2=7 (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2013). The teacher group observed that the Árvores Algébricas (Algebra Trees) software can assist with this type of activity. In this software, students recognize the equality between the expressions 4+3=5+2 (Figure 9) when performing the operations 4+3=7 and 5+2=7 (Figure 10) by successively selecting the options “Expressão” (Expression) and “Valor” (Value).

Figure 9: The “Expressão” (Expression) option in Árvores Algébricas (Algebra Trees) software.

Figure 10: The “Valor” (Value) option in Árvores Algébricas (Algebra Trees) software.

When students calculate the roots of equations, most errors arise from using the quadratic formula (Didis & Erbas, 2015). The Raízes (Roots) application displays empty boxes where the coefficients a, b and c can be entered. The “Calcular” (Calculate) button returns either the roots of the equation or a message “Sem raízes reais” (No real roots). Students can also use the software to calculate the root of a linear equation by simply setting the coefficient of x2 (i.e. a) to zero.

Once students understand how to solve linear equations, the concept can then be extended to systems of equations (i.e. two linear equations sharing the same two variables). According to the Georgia Department of Education (2015), this process should start with systems whose solutions are ordered pairs of integers. This makes it easier to locate the intersection of the graphed equations and simplifies the calculations. More complex systems are then investigated and solved using graphing technologies. CCSSI (2010) and the Georgia Department of Education (2015) recommend that in addition to solving systems of linear equations algebraically, students also estimate solutions by graphing the equations. For graphing linear systems, our group of teachers identified GeoGebra, Grapher, Graph, MathGV and Winplot. Each of these applications allows users to simultaneously graph multiple equations and estimate whether the system has one, zero, or infinite solutions (for concurrent, parallel, or coincident lines, respectively). Although Algebra is historically rooted in the study of general methods of solving equations, the principles advocated by NCTM (2000) emphasize the need to work with relationships between quantities, including functions, which are ways of representing mathematical relationships. This same document recommends that the focus in middle school should be on linear functions (rather than non-linear functions) and that these can be demonstrated via tables, graphs, or equations. The teachers identified GeoGebra, Geonext, GrafEq, Grapher, Graph, MathGV, SpeQ Mathematics and Winplot for working with 1st and 2nd degree polynomial functions. One important feature that these applications share is the ability to introduce functions and their properties while observing graphical and tabular representations of their domains and ranges. According to Chen et al. (2015), the understanding of different conversion processes for representing mathematics, increases the understanding of the mathematical concepts involved. The software GeoGebra GeoGebra has been accepted in the teaching of mathematics for the teaching of Geometry as well as for Algebra (Mingirwa, 2016). GeoGebra not only provides the dynamic geometry features (Cardoso, Nogueira, Figueira-Sampaio, Santos & Carrijo, 2013), but also shows both an algebraic and a graphical representation of each mathematical object, which is a useful feature for the study of algebra. The software also allows students to find the roots of functions. If users change an object in one representation, the other representation is immediately updated. Furthermore, the “View” button displays, it a spreadsheet with ordered pairs that correspond to coordinates on the graph within the domain of the function. Our teacher group noted that many of the applications give students the opportunity to check their answers and discover their mistakes. Feedback on correct and incorrect actions allows students to correct themselves (Way, 2011) immediately and then attempt more effective strategies (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). This in turn, allows students to rebuild concepts (Allen, 2007).

Inequalities, notable products, and algebraic fractions are essential to mathematics education at the elementary/middle school level (Brasil, 1998; NCTM, 2000). However, none of the analyzed software offered features or resources that could help in the development of this content.

Conclusion Numerical understanding encompasses the ability to deal with numbers and solve problems. Our map of free software identified viable options for developing and consolidating concepts related to the number system, operations and properties of natural and whole numbers, numeric expressions, divisibility, prime numbers, decomposition into prime factors, GCD, LCM, operations with rational numbers in fraction and decimal form, comparison and operations on equivalent fractions, first degree equations, and first and second degree polynomial functions. Our map lists some content that was not covered by any of the analyzed software. The software interfaces are simple and intuitive and some of the applications can be configured for different languages. The universality of mathematics characters and symbols makes it easy to use the software in any of the available languages. In some cases, activities can be performed either on paper while others require rapid responses that can only be accomplished mentally. In content areas where more than one application is available, software selection should consider the didactic-pedagogical requirements of the teacher and the technical requirements of the computer laboratory. The software and mapping content feature relationship facilitates the selection of the resource in the planning of the teaching practice. The teacher develops their activities around the resources that aid the student in their understanding of mathematics, in developing computational fluency and in acquiring a positive attitude in terms of mathematics. In terms of possible future work, it would be pertinent to consider the use of educational software in the teaching of mathematics to (a) validate the numerical concepts and procedures indicated by educators for each software, (b) evaluate the efficiency of software implementation for numerical and algebraic learning. Finally, (c) develop and validate strategies and/or material with the use of software for numeric and algebraic content.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful for financial support from the following Brazilian agencies: Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG) and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES).

References Adjiage, R., & Pluvinage, F. (2007). An experiment in teaching ratio and proportion. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 65(2), 149-175. doi:10.1007/s10649-006-9049-x Ahn, B. (2001). Using calculators in mathematics education in Korean elementary schools. Journal of the Korea Society of Mathematical Education Series D: Research in Mathematical Education, 5(2), 107-118. Allen, G. D. (2007). Student thinking. Lesson 1 - Misconceptions in mathematics. College Station, TX: Department of Mathematics. Retrieved from http://www.math.tamu.edu/~snite/MisMath.pdf Amato, S. A. (2005). Developing students’ understanding of the concept of fractions as numbers. In H. L. Chick, & J. L. Vincent (Eds.). Proceedings of the 29th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (pp. 49-56). Melbourne, Australia: PME. Balanskat, A., Blamire, R., & Kefala, S. (2006). The ICT impact report: A review of studies of ict impact on schools in Europe. Brussels, Belgium: European Schoolnet. Beyranevand, M. L. (2014). The different representations of rational numbers. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 19(6), 382-385. doi:10.5951/mathteacmiddscho.19.6.0382 Bezuk, N. S., & Bieck, M. (1993). Current research on rational numbers and common fractions: Summary and implications for teachers. In D. T. Owens (Ed.), Research ideas for the classroom - middle grades mathematics (pp. 118 - 136). New York, NY: Macmillan. Brasil (1998). Parâmetros curriculares nacionais: Matemática. Brasília, Brazil: MEC/Secretaria de Educação Fundamental. Brown, A., Thomas, K, & Tolias, G. (2002). Conceptions of divisibility: Success and understanding. In S. R. Campbell, & R. Zazkis (Eds.), Learning and teaching number theory: Research in cognition and instruction (pp. 41-82). Westport, CT: Ablex. Cardoso, M. C. S. A., Nogueira, T. C. A., Figueira-Sampaio, A. S., Santos, E. E. F., & Carrijo, G. A. (2013). Software gratuitos de geometria dinâmica. In J. Sánchez, & M. B. Campos (Eds.). Nuevas ideas em informática educativa. Actas del Congreso Internacional de Informática Educativa (pp. 515-518). Santiago, Chile: Universidad de Chile. Chen, M., Lee, C., & Hsu, W. (2015). Influence of mathematical representation and mathematics self-efficacy on the learning effectiveness of fifth graders in pattern reasoning. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 13(1), 1-16. Common Core State Standards Initiative (2010). Common core state standards for mathematics. Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/Math/ Condie, R., Munro, B., Seagraves, L., & Kenesson, S. (2007). The impact of ICT in schools— A landscape review. Glasgow, Scotland: University of Strathclyde. Crandall, R., & Pomerance, C. (2005). Prime numbers: A computational perspective (2nd edition). New York, NY: Springer. Debnath, L., & Basu, K. (2015). Some analytical and computational aspects of prime numbers, prime number theorems and distribution of primes with applications. International Journal of Applied and Computational Mathematics, 1(1), 3-32. doi: 10.1007/s40819-014-0014-6 Dias, A. (2005). Using lattice models to determine Greatest Common Factor and Least Common Multiple. International Journal for Mathematics Teaching and Learning, 730-738. Didis, M. G., & Erbas, A. K. (2015). Performance and difficulties of students in formulating and solving quadratic equations with one unknown. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 15(4), 1137-1150. doi: 10.12738/estp.2015.4.2743

Dunphy, E., Dooley, T., Shiel, G, Butler, D., Corcoran, D., Ryan, M., … Perry, B. (2014). Mathematics in early childhood and primary education (3-8 years): Definitions, theories, development and progression. (Research Report no. 17). Dublin, Ireland: NCCA. Figueira-Sampaio, A. S., Santos, E. E., Carrijo, G. A., & Cardoso, A. (2012). Survey of teaching practices with educational software for mathematics in Brazil. AWER Procedia Information Technology & Computer Science, 2, 358-363. Figueira-Sampaio, A. S., Santos, E. E., Carrijo, G. A., & Cardoso, A. (2013). Survey of mathematics practices with concrete materials used in Brasizilian schools. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 93, 151-157. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.169 Fuadiah, N. F. (2015). Epistemological obstacles on mathematic’s learning in junior high school students: A study on the operations of integer material. In Proceeding of the 2nd International Conference on Research, Implementation and Education of Mathematics and Sciences (ICRIEMS 2015) (pp. 315-322). Yogyakarta, Indonésia: Faculty of Mathematics and Science, Yogyakarta State University. Georgia Department of Education (2015). Georgia standards of excellence framework GSE Grade 8: Mathematics: Unit 7: Solving systems of equations. Retrieved from https://www.georgiastandards.org/Georgia-Standards/Frameworks/8thMath-Unit-7.pdf Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. Heeffer, A. (2008). Negative numbers as an epistemic difficult concept: Some lessons from history. In: C. Tzanakis (Ed.). Proceedings of the History and Pedagogy of Mathematics Conference (pp. 1-13). Mexico City, Mexico: Centro Cultural del México Contemporáneo. Isotani, S., McLaren, B. M., & Altman, M. (2010). Towards intelligent tutoring with erroneous examples: A taxonomy of decimal misconceptions. In V. Aleven, J. Kay, & J. Mostow (Eds.). Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS-10), Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 6094 (pp. 346-348). Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-134371_66 Kar, T., & Işık, C. (2015). Comparison of turkish and american seventh grade mathematics textbooks in terms of addition and subtraction operations with integers. Education & Science, 40(177), 75-92. doi: 10.15390/eb.2015.2897 Keong, C., H. Sharaf, H., & Daniel, J. (2005). A study on the use of ICT in mathematics teaching. Malaysian Online Journal of Instructional Technology, 2(3), 43-51. Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Lee, K. P. (2006). Calculator use in primary schools mathematics: a Singapore perspective. The Mathematics Educator, 9(2), 97-111. Lemonidis, C., & Kaiafa, I. (2014). Fifth and sixth grade students’ number sense in rational numbers and its relation with problem solving ability. Journal of Educational Research, (1), 61-74. Lengnink, K., & Schlimm, D. (2010). Learning and understanding numeral systems: Semantic aspects of number representations from an educational perspective. In B. Löwe, & T. Müller (Eds.), Philosophy of mathematics: Sociological aspects and mathematical practice (pp. 235-264). London, England: College Publications. Lewis, L. (2007). Irrational numbers can “in-spiral” you. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 2(8), 442-446. Lundberg, A. (2011). Proportion in mathematics textbooks in upper secondary school. In M. Pytlak, & T. Rowland, & E. Swoboda (Eds.). Proceedings of the Seventh Congress of the European Society for Research in Mathematics Education (pp 336-345). Rzeszów, Polonia: University of Rzeszów.

Mingirwa, I. M. (2016). Teachers’ technology uptake, a case of GeoGebra in teaching secondary school mathematics in Kenya. In P. Cunningham, & M. Cunningham (Eds). Proceedings of International Information Management Corporation (IIMC) (pp. 1-11), Durban, South Africa: IST-Africa. Mohamed, M., & Johnny, J. (2010). Investigating number sense among students. ProcediaSocial and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 317-324. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.044 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Neurath, R. A., & Stephens, L. J. (2006). The effect of using Microsoft Excel in a high school algebra class. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 37(6), 721-727. Ni, Y. (2001). Semantic domains of rational numbers and the acquisition of fraction equivalence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(3), 400-417. doi: 10.1006/ceps.2000.1072 Nunes, T., & Bryant, P. (2009). Understanding rational numbers and intensive quantities. In T. Nunes, P. Bryant, & A. Watson (Eds.), Key understanding in mathematics learning (Paper 3, pp. 19-23). London, England: Nuffield Foundation. Ontario Ministry of Education (2005). The Ontario curriculum: Grades 1–8 mathematics. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printer for Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Education (2012). Paying attention to proportional reasoning K-12. Support document for paying attention to mathematical education. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printer for Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Education (2013). Paying attention to algebraic reasoning K-12. Support document for paying attention to mathematical education. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printer for Ontario. Ontario Ministry of Education (2014). Paying attention to fractions K-12. Support document for paying attention to mathematical education. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printer for Ontario. Peretti, A. (2015). Some notes on divisibility rules. Working Paper Series. Department of Economics. University of Verona. Retrieved from http://dse.univr.it/home/workingpapers/wp2015n19.pdf Reynolds, C. R., & Fletcher-Janzen, E. (2007). Encyclopedia of special education: A reference for the education of children, adolescents, and adults with disabilities and other exceptional individuals. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sadi, A. (2007). Misconceptions in Numbers. UGRU Journal, 5, 1-7. Savion, H. & Seri, M. (2016). Mathematics vis-à-vis arithmetics. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 15(2), 1-18. Seeley, C. (2005). Do the math in your head! National Research Council. NCTM News Bulletin. Retrieved from http://www.nctm.org/News-and-Calendar/Messagesfrom-the-President/Archive/Cathy-Seeley/Do-the-Math-in-Your-Head!/ Silvestre, A. I., & Ponte, J. P. (2012). Missing value and comparison problems: What pupils know before the teaching of proportion. PNA, 6(3), 73-83. Sirotic, N., & Zazkis, R. (2007). Irrational numbers on the number line – where are they? International Journal of Mathematical Education in Scienceand Technology, 38(4), 477488. doi: 10.1080/00207390601151828 Smith, J., & Thompson, P. W. (2007). Quantitative reasoning and the development of algebraic reasoning. In J. J. Kaput, D. W. Carraher & M. L. Blanton (Eds.), Algebra in the early grades (pp. 95-132). New York, NY: Erlbaum. Stacey, K., Helme, S., Steinle, V., Baturo, A., Irwin, K., & Bana, J. (2001). Preservice Teachers’ Knowledge of Difficulties in Decimal Numeration. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 4(3), 205– 225.

Stafylidou, S., & Vosniadou, S. (2004). The development of students’ understanding of the numerical value of fractions. Learning and Instruction, 14(5), 503-518. doi: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2004.06.015 Star, J. R., Caronongan, P., Foegen, A. M., Furgeson, J., Keating, B., Larson, M. R, … Zbiek, R. M. (2015). Teaching strategies for improving algebra knowledge in middle and high school students. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Thanheiser E., Whitacre, I., & Roy, G. J. (2014). Mathematical content knowledge for teaching elementary mathematics: A focus on whole-number concepts and operations. The Mathematics Enthusiast, 11(2), 217–266. Van Hoof, J., Verschaffel, L., & Van Dooren, W. (2015). Inappropriately applying natural number properties in rational number tasks: Characterizing the development of the natural number bias through primary and secondary education. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 90(1), 39-56. doi: 10.1007/s10649-015-9613-3 Voskoglou, M. Gr., & Kosyvas, G. (2011). A study on the comprehension of irrational numbers. Quaderni di Ricerca in Didattica (Scienze Mathematiche), (21), 127-141. Way, J. (2011). Developing fraction sense using digital learning objects. In J. Way, & J. Bobis (Eds.), Fractions: Teaching for understanding (pp. 153-166). Adelaide, SA: Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers. Yerushalmy, M. (2006). Slower algebra students meet faster tools: Solving algebra word problems with graphing software. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 37(5), 356-387. Zazkis, R., & Sirotic, N. (2010). Representing and defining irrational numbers: Exposing the missing link. In F. Hitt, D. Holton, & P. W. Thompson (Eds.), Research in collegiate mathematics education VII (pp. 1-27). Rhode Island, USA: American Mathematical Society. doi: 10.1090/cbmath/016/01

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 11, pp. 67-76, November 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.11.4

PUP Graduate School Services: A Critique Assessment by the MBA Students Cecilia Junio Sabio Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila (University of the City of Manila) and Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP) Ralph Abenojar Sabio Chairperson, Business Management Department, St. Scholastica's College, Manila, Philippines

Abstract. This paper looks into the services of PUP graduate school from the point of the students. Some criteria/areas of accreditation were considered to be assessed by the MBA students such as security and safety, facilities, faculty members and the learner management system (LMS). Of the four areas in the PUP graduate school services, the LMS was rated to be high by the MBA student respondents which obtained an overall mean score of 4.09; it was followed by (from highest to lowest mean) safety and security, faculty members and facilities. Keywords: PUP, Graduate School, Critique Assessment, MBA students.

Introduction Generally the management of higher education in the Philippines is traditionally concerned with the maintenance and enhancement of academic standards and processes. The expansion, diversification and privatization of higher education systems worldwide have brought with them an increased concern with the quality of higher education, in both developed and developing countries (Martin & Estella, 2007). During the past two decades, there has been an occurrence of a worldwide call to propose or propagate a new model of teaching-learning processes for the twenty-first century, especially in graduate education. In the Philippines, various institutions exist to provide graduate education. As defined by the Commission on Higher Eduation (CHED), graduate education is at the apex of the educational system. It is expected to showcase the best of the academic and intellectual products and processes of the system. Specifically, graduate education shall be so structured as to enhance quality, efficiency and effectiveness of higher education; it shall be made more relevant and responsive to the development needs of the educational system as

well as to the regional and national development thrusts; and it shall take the lead role in enhancing the quality of Philippine higher education towards global competitiveness and world-class scholarship (CHED MORPHE, 2008). The Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP) Graduate School which was formerly known as the Faculty of Graduate Studies started in 1970 through the issuance of Republic Act 6089 (series of 1970) which gave rise to the former name of PUP, the Philippine College of Commerce (PCC) to increase the number of its course offerings (PUP, 2017). As a whole, the institution was conceived to be a government school of Commerce or Business when it was built hundred years back. Prior to its name PCC, it was initially called the Manila Business School which objective is to develop scholars fit for office work and business establishment. As the years passed by, the former PCC grew to what it is known today as the biggest University in the Philippines in terms of student population. Specifically, the PUP Master in Business Administration (MBA) program, which is the subject of this research, officially opened on July 20, 1971. The PUP-MBA program, of which current students are the subjects of this research, is designed to: “develop capable, socially responsible and mature managers and leaders in today’s global marketplace.” (PUP-MBA program, www.pup.edu.ph). Currently, the MBA program of PUP has already acquired Level III accreditation from the Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines (AACCUP) Inc. Accreditation as defined by AACCUP (2017) is a process by which an institution at the tertiary level evaluates its educational activities, in whole or in part, and seeks an independent judgment to confirm that it substantially achieves its objectives, and is generally equal in quality to comparable institutions. For University setup the highest accreditation that can be granted to an institution which is categorized with a University status is Levvel IV. Accreditation in the Philippine setting forms part of the quality assurance mechanisms undertaken by higher education institutions. This is true to all public and private higher education colleges/universities. In accreditation process, a group of assessors or accreditors look into the quality of programs being assessed based on the ten (10) criteria such as: Mission, Vision, goals and objectives, Faculty Qualification, Curriculum and Instruction, Students, Research, Extension and Community Involvement, Library, Physical Facilities and Laboratories, Administration and Alumni. According to FGSR (2013) the assessment of quality in graduate education is critical not only to the success of graduate students but also to the future of research and creative activity both inside and outside academia. The fundamental commitment of graduate programs is to achieve the best outcome or each individual student informs quality assessment. Through on-going and transparent quality assessment, stakeholders in graduate programs are able to monitor the progress on improving the quality of the graduate education being offered. Quality assessment is aimed at monitoring the degree of progress towards the goals of the graduate program that will lead to the delivery of the best possible graduate education. Quality assessment is envisioned as a regular

and on-going part of managing graduate programs, and the results of quality assessment should be used to inform strategic planning. In this research, the students as respondents were the ones who assessed the PUP graduate school and not the group of accreditors, who, in the usual process of accreditation, are generally composed of academicians from different Universities in the country. Specifically, the students from Masters in Business Administration were considered as respondents of this research. Quota sampling was employed and a total of sixty respondents were considered in this research. The respondents were composed of more than 50% of the total student population enrolled during the Saturday MBA class, 2nd semester of School Year 2015-2016. Those who are enrolled in Sunday and week night classes are no longer included in this research. Those who were available during the class hours of 7am to 5am were included in this research. These classes were composed of three (3) MBA sections who were present during the conduct of the survey. The survey as a data gathering instrument was used in this research; it considered some criteria/areas of accreditation which are necessary in the school‟s operation and the point of view of the students were taken to assess physical facilities, faculty, library, and laboratories. To the researchers‟ view, the students‟ assessment or critique analysis is a more factual and reliable information that can be considered in any attempt to improve the services of the school/university as the students are the ultimate stakeholders and beneficiaries of all reforms and development of an institution, hence the conduct of this research. The researcher made use of a descriptive research method approach. Descriptive research determines the existing condition and answers the question “what is”. According to Calderon (1993), descriptive research is defined as the “purposive process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data about prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs, process, trends, cause and effect relationship, and then making adequate and accurate interpretation about such data with or without the aid of statistical treatment. Further, according to Franekel and Wallen (1993), descriptive studies described a given state of affairs as fully as carefully as possibly. The most common instrument and the data gathering techniques used in the descriptive method are the questionnaire, interview, observation, and documentary analysis. Further, a focus group discussion was executed to gather some inputs from the students In the graduate education areas/services that needs to be assessed, hence, mixed method approach was used. Specifically, the students enrolled in the Master‟s in Public Administration (MPA) class were asked to consider areas for assessment with four specific areas for critique analysis. In the focus group discussion, the MPA students considered the importance of assessing the following: safety and security, graduate school faculty members, facilities in the graduate school Mabini Campus and the Learning Management Systems. In the process of determining these items through a focus group discussion, students were likewise asked to come up with specific items under each areas of critique analysis, resulting with the questionnaire used to gather

student data from an MBA class. After gathering inputs from the MPA students, the entries in the questionnaire were subjected to authority judgement and content validation by two subject experts in the graduate then all their inputs were considered in the final questionnaire. The final questionnaire were then constructed in positive statements. However, to be able to validate some entries in the questionnaire, some negative statements were incorporated in the final questionnaire. All the necessary protocol were followed before the questionnaires were floated. Given that qualitative and quantitative research were employed through the focus group discussion and survey questionnaire, the researcher employed Mixed Method research techniques.

Objective of the Study This study aimed to gather an objective critique assessment of the PUP Graduate School Services, Mabini Campus through students in the MBA program. It specifically provided the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of gender, civil status and employment position. Also, it provided a critique assessment of the graduate school services of PUP in terms of safety and security, faculty members, facilities and learner management system. The primary objective of quality assessment is the continuous improvement in the quality of educational experience being offered by the graduate programs. Hence, quality assessment should be informed by the fundamental commitment of graduate programs to achieve the best outcome for the individual student which will only become effective when faculty, in close consultation with students as the fundamental stakeholders, play the primary role in designing or refining assessment procedures. Further, regular review processes should be used to sustain and advance quality in graduate education using benchmarks derived from comparable programs at peer institutions. An additional key benefit of quality assessment is to inform internal and external stakeholders of the quality and the relevance of the educational experience. Sharing the goals and outcomes of assessment with all relevant stakeholders, including the public, helps ensure that assessment efforts are understood and valued, henceforth the publication of this research.

Focus Group Discussion To be able to come up with a good questionnaire, twenty students from the Masters in Public Administration program were invited for a focus group discussion to get input concerning the things they think should be assessed as students enrolled in the PUP Graduate School, Mabini Campus. Those who formed part of the FGD composed of one class in the MPA program which is 20% of the total number of respondents. Those in the Sunday classes, week nights and off-campus MPA students as well as those enrolled in the PUP Open University were not considered in this research. Guide questions were formulated and were given to the students to assist them in their assessment. Focus group members were specifically given four (4) different types of services in the graduate school to be assessed, such as safety and security, faculty members, facilities and learner management systems; their inputs were then considered as part of the simple survey using Likert Scale technique with 5 being strongly agree and 1 being strongly disagree. The extent of agreement and

disagreements to the statements were used as verbal interpretation in the survey questionnaire to be able to fully determine their perception of the respondents on how the services in the graduate school were felt, experienced or otherwise.

The Profile of the Respondents The respondents of this research were generally Masters in Business Administration students enrolled during the first semester of School Year 20162017. Sixty students were randomly selected to respond to the simple survey. The profile of the respondents is as follows: female dominated which is about 60%, generally single or 70%, majority are in rank and file position which is about 60%.

Results and Discussion Table 1 shows the mean distribution of the respondents‟ assessment on PUP Graduate School‟s safety and security. As seen in the said table, the sufficiency in the number of security guards who ensures the safety of the stakeholders obtained the highest mean score of 4.22 which is verbally interpreted as “strongly agree”. All the other items in the safety and security were rated by the respondents as “agree” which includes (from highest to lowest mean) the presence of fire exit, fire extinguisher,etc. which are to be used in case of emergency purposes with a mean score of 4.05; the readiness of the university clinic and ambulance in case of emergency with a mean score of 3.93; visibility of CCTV cameras and surveillance cameras in the campus with a mean score of 3.82 and the observance of the security guards of proper protocol in inspecting the people that gets into the campus with a mean score of 3.70. Table 1. Mean Distribution of the Respondents’ Assessment on PUP Graduate School’s Safety and Security

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Items in the Safety and Security

Mean

There are enough of security guards to ensure the safety of the stakeholders There are CCTV and surveillance cameras in the campus The guards observe the proper protocol in inspecting the people that gets into the ingress and egress of the campus There are fire exit, fire extinguisher, etc. to be used in case of emergency The university clinic and ambulance are ready in case of emergency OVERALL WEIGHTED MEAN

4.22

Verbal interpretation Strongly Agree

3.82 3.70

Agree Agree

4.05

Agree

3.93

Agree

3.94

AGREE

Generally, the MBA student respondents “agree” on all the items indicated in the safety and security of PUP graduate school with an overall mean score of 3.94. One quality indicator in graduate education is to have a relatively high student satisfaction with regards to security and access to school facilities. When students feel safe and secure in an educational facility, the learning process is enhanced.

Table 2. Mean Distribution of the Respondents’ Assessment on PUP Graduate School’s Faculty Members

Faculty members have the necessary qualifications Faculty members do not adhere to the original schedule of classes Faculty member uses various teaching strategies Faculty members are professional and ethical in their dealings to students and colleagues Faculty members are abreast on recent development in their field of specialization

4.12 3.0 4.02 4.22

Verbal Interpretation Agree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

4.17

Agree

OVERALL WEIGHTED MEAN

3.91

AGREE

Items in the Faculty Members 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mean

Table 2 shows the mean distribution of the respondents‟ assessment on PUP graduate school‟s faculty members. The sense of professionalism and ethical standards exhibited by the faculty members to student and colleagues obtained the highest mean score of 4.22 which is described as “strongly agree”. The statement that the faculty members do not adhere to the original schedule of classes given to them in the PUP graduate school obtained the lowest mean score of 3.0 which is verbally interpreted as “neutral”. The result implies that since classes in the graduate are done in a conventional and structured way there is no effective way of conducting classes but to do it traditionally using face to face technique following the usual schedule given to them. It is essential that faculty members conduct classes on a regular basis since it is only done on a once a week meeting. Also, the result could be attributed to the fact that some faculty members are also teaching in an Open University System of PUP, hence may somewhat mix the method to an open learning system or self-directed/self-paced methodology. This findings require immediate attention of administration of the graduate school so as not to short change the quality of teaching-learning processes. The following were rated by the MBA students as “agree” (in the order of preference, highest to lowest mean) faculty members are abreast with the recent development in their field of specialization with an overall mean score of 4.17; faculty members have the necessary qualification with a mean score of 4.12; and faculty members uses various teaching strategies with a mean score of 4.02. While there is one neutral result on faculty assessment, it garnered an overall mean score of 3.91 which is verbally described as “agree”. Specifically the respondents expressed agreements on the following: faculty members are qualified, employs several teaching strategies, they professional and ethical and abreast with recent development. The findings is also supported by the report of the FGSR (2017) of the University of Alberta that one of the goals of graduate education is to provide high quality training environment for graduate students and this can only be attained if faculty members are of high quality. In addition, the Philippine commission on Higher Education in their policies, standards and guidelines (PSGS) about graduate education, an emphasis was made on high calibre faculty members for the graduate school. The Rackham Graduate School, University Of Michigan (2015) recognized that faculty members‟ play a crucial role in the success of graduate students at the

graduate school. Faculty members should mentor their students as it supports the students‟ achievement in research activity, conference or paper presentation, publication, pedagogical skill, and grant writing. The knowledge that someone is committed to their progress, who can provide solid advice and be an advocate, can help to lower stress and build confidence. A study by Chen, Lattuca, and Hamilton (2008) found that what faculty do in their programs and courses, both inside and outside of the classroom, might influence student engagement. And since student engagement is a function of faculty engagement, faculty members in general influences the quality of student learning. Hence, the commitment of faculty members in the graduate school to provide valuable, effective and responsive teaching-learning processes are necessary for the effective delivery of graduate education. Table 3. Mean Distribution of the Respondents’ Assessment on PUP Graduate School’s Facilities Classrooms are conducive for learning Proper waste disposal are being observed in the campus The university library, clinic and laboratory facilities are always available for the students Classrooms are equipped with LCD projector, monitors/smart TV, among others Other facilities are not enough to cover the number of students, e.g. case room, IT research room, etc.

4.02 3.73 3.67

Verbal Interpretation Agree Agree Agree

3.50 3.05

Agree Neutral

OVERALL WEIGHTED MEAN

3.59

AGREE

Items in the Facilities 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mean

Table 3 exhibits the mean distribution of the respondents in terms of their assessment on PUP graduate school‟s facilities. As shown in Table 3, all the items included in the facilities were rated by the respondents as “agree” except for one. The respondents gave a “neutral” rating or assessments on “the other facilities are not enough to cover the number of students, case room, IT research room, etc.”, implying that the MBA students are generally satisfied with the number of facilities in the PUP graduate school in relation to the number of students. The student respondents expressed agreement on the statement classroom are conducive for learning which obtained the highest mean score of 4.02. All the other items were rated by the respondents as “agree” such as proper waste disposal, availability of library, clinic and laboratory facilities. As a whole, the respondents rated the PUP graduate school facilities as “agree” with an overall mean score of 3.59. , suggesting the MBA students are generally happy or satisfied with the facilities of the said university. These findings find similarities in the study made in the University of Alberta. When more than 1800 graduate students were asked to rate the university resources based on the quality they have experienced, it was revealed that research laboratories, student counselling/resource centre and information technology services obtained a mean score of 3.66, 3.40 and 3.62, respectively which are among the highest mean obtained among the 19 items listed in their questionnaire (University of Alberta, 2013). Verily, assisting graduate students in gaining access to required school facilities and research materials ensures

graduate school completion and success, leading to a lower attrition rate and greater number of graduating students. Table 4. Mean Distribution of the Respondents’ Assessment on PUP Graduate School’s Learner Management System (LMS)

Learner Management System (LMS) are accessible to the students anytime and anywhere for viewing of grades, requirements and other purposes The LMS of the graduate school of PUP regularly encounters a system malfunction The LMS of the University is user-friendly and hassle free The learning packages (or modules) are also made accessible in the LMS The LMS provides convenience to all the students transacting in the graduate school of PUP

4.22

Verbal Interpretation Strongly Agree

4.03

Agree

4.07 4.05 4.10

Agree Agree Agree

OVERALL WEIGHTED MEAN

4.09

AGREE

Learner Management System 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mean

Table 4 shows the mean distribution of the respondents in terms of their assessment in the learner management system (LMS) of PUP graduate school. Of the five items included in this part of the survey questionnaire the accessibility of the LMS obtained the highest mean score of 4.22 which is nterpreted as „strongly agree”. The convenience the LMS providing students user-friendly and hassle free availability of learning packages in the LMS were rated as “agreed” by the respondents. This means that the students are generally satisfied with the benefits and presence of LMS. However, the result that the respondent expresses agreement on the “malfunctioning” of the LMS on a regular or frequent basis is alarming. This result should be given much attention by the administrators of PUP graduate school to be able to address this problem. The fact that the respondents expressed agreement to this statement requires immediate attention by the administrators. Krogman (2014) identified the following aspects necessary to improve the quality of LMS: 1. Provide early guidance to graduate students to increase graduate success; 2. Increase accountability of supervisors and departments for good supervision; 3. Provide training and mentorship to supervisors and graduate coordinators to raise standards of supervision and mentorship; 4. Improve the culture of mentorship by continuing to provide, and provide more, forms of guidance to graduate students. Umbach and Wawrzynski (2005)identified evidence that suggest faculty attitudes and behaviours create a culture that emphasizes best practices in undergraduate education.Faculty practices (e.g., active learning, higher-order cognitive activities) create an environment that is connected to student engagement behaviours, student perceptions of the environment, and student self-reported gains.

Table 5. Summary of the MBA Students’ Critique Assessment on PUP Graduate School’s Services

1. 2. 3. 4.

Items in the PUP Graduate School’s Services Safety and Security Faculty Members Facilities Learner Management System 9LMS) OVERALL WEIGHTED MEAN

Mean

Verbal Interpretation

3.94 3.91 3.59 4.09

Agree Agree Agree Agree

3.88

AGREE

Table 5 shows the summary of the MBA students‟ critique assessment on the services of PUP graduate school. In the order of preference by the respondents the following were rated “agree” (from highest to lowest) LMS with a mean score of 4.09; safety and security with a mean score of 3.94, faculty members with a mean score of 3.91 and finally, facilities with a mean score of 3.59. As a whole, the respondents agreed to the all the services of the PUP graduate school which obtained an overall mean score of 3.88. This result indicates that the respondents are generally satisfied with the services of the PUP graduate school. While the result of the critique assessment is high, the graduate school should still strive to provide the best services to its ultimate beneficiaries and clientele – the students. There should be continuous improvement on the safety and security, faculty members, facilities and LMS especially in the items that were rated to be neutral.

Conclusion Results of analysis revealed that the Level III accreditation, one of the highest accreditations any program in a University can attain, validates the high standards of quality that PUP graduate school exhibits. Whether the critique assessment would come from the AACCUP assessors, accreditors, or the students, the result would reveal one result – PUP graduate school epitomizes efficiency and effectiveness in its systems and processes, as evidenced by the agreement of the MBA students in all the four services. Its responsiveness to the students‟ needs and its goal of aiding them in their learning processes realizes the goal of providing quality graduate education.

References AACCUP (2017). Definition Of Accreditation, http://www.aaccupqa.org.ph/index.php/aaccup-accreditation (retrieved on 10 June 2017). Calderon, F.C. (1993). Methods of Research and Thesis Writing, Manila National Bokstore, Inc. Chen, Helen; Lattuca, Lisa and Hamilton, Eric (2008). Conceptualizing Engagement: Contributions of Faculty to Student Engagement in Engineering. Journal of Engineering Education, July 2008, Vol. 97(3): 339-353. CHED (2008). Manual of Regulations for Private Higher Education (MORPHE), Article XIII, Section 66, p.51 ISBN 978-971-94347-0-2.

Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research (FGSR) Council Working Group on Quality Measures (2013) A quality Assurance Framework for Graduate Education at the University of Alberta.Franekel R. & Wallen, Norman. How to design and Evaluate Research in Education, 2nd Ed. New York: Mc Graw Hill, 1993. Krogman, Naomi (2014). The Quality of Graduate Student and Trainee Supervision. Faculty of Agriculture, Life, and Environmental Sciences. University of Alberta. Martin, Michaela and Stella, Antony (2007) ExternaL Quality Assurance in Higher Education: Making Choices, UNESCO: International Institute for Education Planning (IIEP), ISBN:978-92-803-1304-8. PUP (2017) Graduate School History, https://www.pup.edu.ph/gs/history.aspx, retrieved on 11 June 2016) . PUP MBA Program (2017), https://www.pup.edu.ph/gs/MBA.aspx, (retrieved on 11 June 2016) . Rackham Graduate School, University of Michigan (2015), “How to Mentor Graduate Students: A Guide for Faculty, http://www.rackham.umich.edu.publications (retrieved on June 25, 2017). Umbach, Paul D. and Wawrzynski, Matthew R. (2005). FACULTY DO MATTER: The Role of College Faculty in Student Learning and Engagement. Research in Higher Education, Vol. 46, No. 2, March 2005. Doi: 10.1007/s11162-004-1598-1. University of Alberta (2013). Canadian Graduate And Professional Student Survey.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 11, pp. 77-91, November 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.11.5

The Professional Development of Adult Educators: The Case of the Lifelong Learning Centres (L.L.C) in the Prefecture of Evros, Greece Kyriaki Anthopoulou English Language Teacher Alexandroupolis, Greece Efthymios Valkanos Associate Professor, University of Macedonia Thessaloniki, Greece Iosif Fragkoulis Professor, Hellenic Open University Patras, Greece

Abstract. The purpose of the present study was to record the opinions of the Greek adult educators who were occupied in the Lifelong Learning Centres in the Prefecture of Evros during the academic year of 20162017, in relation to the concept of the professional development. The partial aims of this specific research were: the recording and comparison of their individual aspects regarding the skills, the training, the professional development as well as the certification of qualifications that modern adult educators should obtain. In order for the research to be realised and for the interpretation of the data the qualitative method was selected. This became feasible by individual interviewing on ten adult educators, who cooperated with the Lifelong Learning Centres existing in the Municipality of Alexandroupolis and the Municipality of Orestiada. After monitoring the participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x; viewpoint, the collected data showed that there was certain converge relating the derived results around the skills that characterize an adult educator. The general opinion in the total of the educators was estimated encouraging regarding their professional development while simultaneously the latter proved to possess great potential progress. Although the majority of the adult educators took part in continuous educational programs, they found them someway insufficient. In conclusion, it was obvious that the overwhelming majority of the participants did not certify their qualifications. Keywords: Adult educators; Skills; Professional development; Certification of Qualifications; Lifelong Learning Centres.

Introduction Life long or continuing learning during adulthood is considered a global phenomenon, sourcing from the rapid changes occurring in the technological, scientific and sociopolitical contexts (Tsopozidou, 2014). An adult educator is one of the fundamental elements of the non formal educational system. Therefore, a significant voluminous Greek and international literacy is available concerning this complex term. Many academics such as Jarvis, Rogers, Courau etc, attempted to conceptualize the educatorâ&#x20AC;&#x;s professional identity and to elucidate the required qualifications. Generally, any individual who desires to impart any kind of knowledge could be characterized as an adult educator (Jarvis, 2004). Specifying on the Greek terms, a person who teaches adults may be a university Professor or a person who is occupied in the non formal educative structures. Accordingly, adult educator may also be a Primary or Secondary teacher who trains his colleagues taking part in literacy classes or even a business executive when large corporations organise training programmes for their employees. Rogers (1999) stated that adult educators are considered not only the individuals who teach but also those who plan educative programmes and more specifically, the advisors or the overseers. In addition, the Greek legislation declared during 2012 that adult educators are the persons who maintain the typical and the substantive qualifications rating the Cert for Educators of Adults in the highest priority (Greek National Organisation for the Certification of Qualifications & Vocational Guidance [EOPPEP], 2012). Considering the relevant literacy there is a classification among the teachers concerning their working status (Jarvis, 2004). The first category refers to those who hold a full time job, working mainly on the public sector, being the minority of the whole (Kedraka, 2009) and consecutively to those who have teaching assignments per hour. The second category is consisted of the majority of the educators and it is limited to the teaching of their specialty basically as a supplementary type of occupation.

Gaining Qualifications Any educator wishing to be effective should possess numerous skills differentiating him radically from the traditional teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x;s type. It is commonly recognised that assets associated with an adult instructor are synthetically complex hence there is a combination of different scientific fields. Except from the pedagogical certification, skills stemming from psychology, technology and sociology are crucial to be attained (Tsakirides, 2016). This skilful person obtains two categories of qualifications. The typical, that refer to the gained degrees, diplomas or certificates and the substantial that refer to the shape of the behaviour and other characteristics that the educator has acquired from his working experience in various contexts. The gained qualifications appear three dimensional: Knowledge, skills, behaviours. Furthermore, an educator should possess: teaching abilities, good communication skills, patience, adaptability, flexibility, empathy, critical thinking and role adoption (Mockler & Noble, 1981). In Greece, the individual who desires to gain professional education and to follow professional career on the field of adult education could attend university studies, undergraduate or

post graduate, seminars or short term training programmes. It should be mentioned that the European Centre for the development of vocational training [CEDEFOP] (2009) gave credits to the updated threefold of pedagogical training, professional skills and to the motive of triggering the desire to work as adult educator. As it occurs in many developed countries, in the Greek system, an adult educator is not a completely shaped profession, the qualifications are penurious and inappropriate, but simultaneously the existed training programmes are essential as they promote new knowledge, information, progress and professional development.

Professional development of adult educators The term professional development is pivotal for this study. It was firstly referred in the decade of 1970s. A great number of studies on the professional progress played a significant role to the lifelong learning. Hence, it is considered as a lifelong lasting process while it strongly constitutes a personal hypothesis. More specifically, as a person matures it measures his personal perception, his working conditions and his personal abilities and inclinations (Greenhaus, 1987). A part of Greek researches proved that the professional development starts from an early age creating working stereotypes. Professional developmental state is not a static and linear condition but it appears as a deep time consuming self interaction stemming from financial, psychological, and sociological parameters. Thus, it is true that progresses made to the profession mean additionally personal and sociological development or as Levinson (2002) strongly supports when age is combined with experience leads to progress. In a parallel concept, the adult educatorsâ&#x20AC;&#x; professional evolvement arose during 1980s, in order to upgrade the lesson quality and to meliorate the role of the educator. An intense need in development is expressed due the factor that society changes dramatically, the technology emerges rapidly, new teaching methods are continuously added and therefore the acquired skills are not enough. This notion keeps the professional status intact from many out generated factors as the aforementioned. The developmental process includes all kinds of knowledge, except for the typical, that an educator acquires from his systematic work on the adult education field. Those elements are derived mainly from his participation in the non formal education. Approaching holistically the professional development of an adult educator incorporating it in the daily life is a modern tendency. Morphologically, the term is appeared to specific forms as Training, Post graduate studies on Adult Education, Apprenticeship, Seminars, Conferences, Lectures, Assessment, and Libraries aiming in self enriching, cooperation and aspect exchange. Obtaining certain characteristics promotes cooperation and participation while it is ongoing, it has certain duration, it promotes self evaluation, critical thinking, reflective skills, it is teacher driven, it insists on applying the theory to practice and it is part of changing processes.

Among the applied teaching models that support the professional development in adult education the best known are the critical, the interpretative and the stochastic one because they focus on instructors‟ personal, educational and organizational tangible needs being recognized as professional developing modes. Training and certification are the two principal factors which promote professional development (Blackman, 1989).

Figure 1. Adult educators’ prerequisites for professional development according to Jogi & Gross (2009).

Certification of Qualifications and the Greek National Organisation for the Certification of Qualifications & Vocational Guidance (E.O.P.P.E.P.) The certification of the qualifications that an adult educator obtains has derived from the necessity and simultaneously from the absence to recognize officially the knowledge, the skills and the behaviors that the individuals have achieved in and out of the educational system in a proper function. The existence of an established national certification system fosters the financial field (Tsopozidou, 2014). The employment market widens and is more competitive being framed by highly motivated employees. In Greece, the legislated criteria appeared after the 1990s, when adult education started to gain ground. During the year 1996 the National Centre for the Accreditation of Lifelong Learning Providers (EKEPIS) was founded under law and the first adult educators‟ registry became reality but it was considered mal organized and ineffective. Progressively, the Greek National Organisation for the Certification of Qualifications & Vocational Guidance - EOPPEP was founded in 2012 under the law and the Presidential Decree (EOPPEP, 2012) for the general adult education. EOPPEP is a Statutory Body supervised by the Minister of Education & Religious Affairs, Culture & Sports. The first regulated and proven qualifications

of adult educators became a milestone for the professional career because its mission is to update and upgrade the occupational skills and to link the market with the personal needs providing at the same time recognition and reliability. In order for a person to get the certificate, the candidate should form his personal portfolio and according to the norms to take part in oral and written examinations. Today the individuals who gained the certification were listed around 32.000 (EOPPEP, 2012) is organized and linked to the European standards and policies. Greece appeared to develop an established system later than other countries. Hence, it is not fully developed. Greek gross domestic product spent on adult education seems low and it is estimated between 1 to 3 per cent (Tsigarida, 2014).

The case of the Greek Lifelong Learning Centers Lifelong Learning Centers belong to the non formal education. They were established under the Greek Law Î?.3879/2010 (Lifelong Learning Centres [kdvm], 2014). Their principal objective is to promote lifelong learning completely gratis to any citizen who has turned the age of 18 and wants to enrich his existing knowledge, to acquire new or basic skills or finally if he wishes to find or to hold a job. More specifically, Lifelong Learning Centres are a decentralised form of Institutes because it is on the municipalitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x; responsibility to perform types of adult education under the supervision of the Greek Ministry of Education & Religious Affairs. They are implemented by the National Strategic Reference Framework (ESPA) conferred by the European Union. They offer two dimensional classes. The first are the national range programmes which refer to a vast theme zone: economy, business, life quality, technology, civilization, arts, history, and foreign languages. The second refer to the local range programmes that are opted by each municipality according to the local market needs. For the proper function of these centers more than seven public bodies cooperate. The target of the Lifelong Learning Centers is to: create positive learning attitude, flexibility, availability and connection to the market place, familiarize people with technology, create active citizens, support the free access to education, upgrade the society, support sex equality, promote educative quality and certification due to the fact that these centers were recently linked to EOPPEP. It is a democratic strategy with social mission for any prefecture which wishes to organize and materialize programmes adaptable to the needs of the citizens. Each programme lasts for 25 hours and each group is consisted of 25 persons. Adult educators who teach in those centers work voluntarily but they get a working experience certificate. As far as the Lifelong Learning centers of Evros prefecture are concerned, the latter founded centers in all municipalities and more specifically in Alexandroupolis, in Orestiada, in Didimoteichon, in Souflion and in Samothrace. Due to financial problems the centers which operate are limited to two, fact that

is a confining factor for the present research. Organized adult programmes that are offered by the two municipalities are related to foreign languages, computer literacy and agriculture due to the provincial character of the prefecture. Table 1 and table 2 depict the people‟s need to participate in the classes. Table 1. Completed Programmes in LLC of Alexandroupolis from 2012 to 2016.

Table 1. Completed Programs in Alexandroupolis 2012-2016 250 200 2012 150

2013 2014

100

2015 2016

50 0 2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

Table 2. Completed Programmes in the LLC of Orestiada from 2013 to 2016.

Table 2. Completed Programs in Orestiada 2013-2016 60 50 40

2013

2014 2015

2016

10 0 2013

2014

2015

2016

Method The purpose of the approach was to monitor the educators‟ aspects on several questions relating to the fields of qualifications, continuous training and its essentiality, certification of qualifications and professional development. The data interpretation should respond to the four research questions formed for the feasibility of the present study. More specifically, the questions dealing with the topics were the following: 1. What are the basic skills that an adult trainer should possess? 2. Why do trainers are interested in continuing training and certification? 3. Do the programmes the educators’ have attended respond to their needs? 4. Have the programmes affected on the educators’ effectiveness? The principal aim of this research was to highlight an educator‟s qualifications, to outline the professional development of the field and to scrutiny the extent

that the educators are trained and certify their skills in terms of the acquired knowledge. In addition, the objectives of this work were to investigate whether the trainers consider necessary to participate in training and whether the programmes they participated in responded to their expectations. A qualitative research was conducted for the sake of immediacy because such approaches are not considered to monitor parameters only on the surface of a theme but it copes with it in detail. Furthermore, clear and special points of view are expressed and the participants may easily share their personal experiences. Additionally, the critical thinking arises and it becomes feasible to tackle overgeneralizations. The reason behind the choice of the Lifelong Learning Centres of Evros Prefecture was to record if the professional development has an impact on the provincial areas.

Time and place The research initialised after official and signed allowances were provided from each municipality. The interviews took place in the offices of the Lifelong Learning Centres in order to facilitate the educatorsâ&#x20AC;&#x; access. The research was conducted on the 23d and the 24th of March 2017 in Alexandroupolis while the rest of the interviews were taken on the 28th and the 29th of the same month in Orestiada. The data analysis and de-recording was conducted after the ten interviews were completed and the oral speech was transferred to written records. The whole process lasted approximately 3 weeks. Additionally, the transcription process began after the first interview on 23 March 2017 and was completed on April 4, 2017.

Sampling The participants of the research were 10 adult educators of both sexes who were occupied during the current academic year 2016-2017 in the two Lifelong Learning Centres. The sample was chosen randomly. Also, it can be referred as sample of convenience due to the short range of the research. The population was estimated homogenous by sharing a common characteristic: they were adult educators. Further endeavors were made to combine a variety of other characteristics such as the country of origin, the economic level, the teaching performance and the level of social behavior in order to increase the accuracy and reliability of the derived data.

Data collection tool According to the protocols, each participantâ&#x20AC;&#x;s interview was recorded to a portable recorder. The tool was a questionnaire with a unique format, segmented in 5 separate classes including close and open questions in accordance to the topic while it was customised to reflect simplicity and preciseness. The interviewing process lasted from 15 to 25 minutes for each participant. More specifically, the first question category included close questions in relation to demographic data referred in the interview format as Class A: Demographic

information, requiring first name, age, marital status, studies, teaching experience, professional/occupational status, adult education is for you a: A) exclusive work or B) complementary work (select). The second category included two open questions in order to introduce the participants normally to more complex questions or to make them feel comfortable with the interviewing process. This category was entitled as Class B: Professional career, asking the individuals to utter to the following: •Refer to your professional career to adult education? •What were the reasons that prompted you to become involved in adult education? The third category challenged the participants to answer by recalling their knowledge and by expressing their personal cogitations on critical questions such as to define who is an adult educator, to list his qualifications (typical and non typical), to comment on the training attendance, to criticise the necessity and the appropriateness of the training programmes and to refer to their occupation to the Lifelong Centres. More specifically, the third step was named Class C: Special Questions: •Who do you consider as an adult trainer? •What should be the appropriate training of an adult educator? •Have you attended a training program? (If so, how much and what, if not justify) •Do you think that the programs have responded to your needs? •If your answer was positive: evaluate their effectiveness. • Do you share the opinion that an adult trainer should attend training programs? The fourth category monitored if the participants were familiar to the Greek established certification system EOPPEP, if they obtained a certificate and how important seemed EOPPEP to their career. Consecutively, the interviewing questionnaire proceeded in Class D: Certification: • Do you obtain adult educator’s certification? • Do you belong in any registry? •Express your point of view regarding certification of educational competence. Do you consider it necessary? State your opinion. In the last category, the participants were asked to provide information about the professional development of the examined field and if any chances to promote professional development existed. Moreover, they were asked to express their feelings on the adult educator as a separate profession. Finally, they were challenged to respond if training and certification promote professional development. This last question category was referred in the interviewing format as Class E: Professional development: • Do you think that nowadays an adult educator is considered as a separate profession? • Do you think adult education provides you opportunities to be professionally developed? Justify your answer. • Do you think an adult trainer wishes to be developed in a professional level? Justify

your answer. • Do you think there are opportunities for professional development for an adult trainer? Make your references. • In what way training contributes to the professional development of the field? • Do you support the aspect that certification of qualifications is a form of professional development?

Research main Findings Commenting on the findings it is clarified that they reassure the theoretical approach. As far as the first category is concerned, it should be mentioned that it is referred to close questions about demographic data collection. The results showed that the age of the participants ranged between 29 and 39 years old, while it was consisted of 5 men and 5 women. The participants to their total held an undergraduate degree related to their teaching subject. Simultaneously, 2 individuals completed post graduate studies on adult education. All of them had a significant experience on the field which ranged from 250 hours to 10 years. The principal results recorded that 10 out of 10 were occupied in the fields of adult education complementarily while all of them worked voluntarily without being paid obtaining at the same time their teaching experience certificate. The second category included illustrative questions on the educators‟ professional progress and tried to explore the reason behind being occupied as adult educators. The derived data showed that the participants preferred adult education for a variety of reasons. 3 participants out of 10 expected a better professional future and as one of them stated "The reason I chose adult education was to gain teaching experience that would probably lead me to a better professional future"(Eleni). In addition, for 3 participants out of 10 adult education constituted a personal option, "I consider it as personal inclination and preference" (Sotiria). Furthermore, 3 out of 10 chose to work in the field because of the financial crisis and for gaining an extra income or in order to pass their leisure time creatively. Quoting on some of the participants‟ utterances: "I started two years ago, because of the economic crisis. My working hours have reduced and I had to cover up my free time creatively, even through volunteer work" (Andreas), "The reasons were highly economic" (Georgios). The third category tried to specify more deeply and was associated with special questions on the terms of training and skills. The majority of them (8 people) participated in a training seminar but they still seemed to hesitate about the outcome and the benefits that had been provided to them. Attending various training programmes or seminars appeared to be effective but a significant part expressed disappointment concerning their appropriateness and adaptation to real teaching environments. Citing on some remarkable responses, the individuals were expressed as it follows: "I think the theory is far from the practice"(George),"The knowledge I received was very important to me"(Sotiria), "The training programs I attended fulfilled my expectations" (Mary), "I consider it a waste of time" (Konstantinos). The following table depicts the training tendency of the ten educators.

The thoughts being expressed on the necessity of the training programs were in their total positive: "It is necessary for an adult trainer to be trained continuously because this is how he gets better in his role" (Mary), or "I believe he should be constantly informed about the new teaching methods" (Konstantinos) and finally, "It is a great opportunity to be informed, to learn, to revise, to apply and to experiment in practice what has been taught during the seminars" (Sotiria). Proceeding to the third category, the participants owed not only to respond to the two main questions but also to give a definition of who is supposed to be an adult educator and what qualifications should someone possess. An adult educator was defined as the person who was occupied to the non formal education, someone who trained adults, someone who wished to be trained continuously or someone who had certified his qualifications. "I consider him as the one who has as his main job to train adults" (George), "An adult trainer is one who has the appropriate knowledge to teach adults" (Panagiotis), "Whosoever wishes to teach adults" (Katerina), "The one who has been certified and trained as an adult trainer" (Andreas), "An adult trainer is a professional who has the qualifications for pursuing a profession and is able to fulfill his educational goals" (Athanasia). The answer in the question about the educatorsâ&#x20AC;&#x; qualifications varied while at the same time brought together typical and non typical skills. An educator appeared as an informed individual having democratic beliefs, promoting dialogue and critical thinking. Additionally, he was derived to possessing great communicational skills and providing motivation to others. He seemed to be an expertise in his studies. Finally, he appeared equipped with patience managing to decentralize the role of the typical teacher."I think he should be equipped with patience and perseverance, he should be continually informed and educated using new methods and technology as well as relying on dialogue" (Mary), "He should have the charisma of combining and adapting having a humble character. Trainee adults are very demanding"(Panagiotis),"Communication is everything "(Konstantinos). Asking the ten educators if there were existed any parameters that they wished to evaluate, all of them agreed and expressed ten different aspects "Yes, I would like to improve the technology involvement in the course"(Christos)," I want to be exercised on the emotional intelligence" (Athanasia),"Personally, I would like to improve the part of managing people who create obstacles during the course "(Mary). Shifting the question on the appropriate studies of an adult educator, 8 individuals uttered that it was essential to hold post graduate studies on adult education while 2 participants theorized that seminars and training were the key to success. "The trainer should definitely have a master's degree" (Panagiotis), "I think he should have higher education and postgraduate studies" (Athanasia), The fourth category referred on the expressed thoughts on the Greek certification system. Only 3 out of 10 participants have certified their qualifications. The main reason that was laid behind the low participation in the examination was that in the province areas small rates of unemployment or antagonism were recorded. Simultaneously, both approving and disapproving points of view were expressed. Certification seemed not to be an important reason in occupation. Participants claimed that the wrong strategies, the bureaucracy, the time consuming process and the cost made the organisation problematic, dysfunctional and not innovative in relation to the knowledge that was offered. On the other hand, certification constituted the first step for

objectivity in the field of adult education, separating people who really wished to be professional educators and it was claimed essential for someone who wanted to reassure his working position. "I consider the obtaining of the certificate important because through the process it will be clear who is really able to work as an adult educator"(Mary), "I think that as long as there are occupational opportunities, it is not so necessary to obtain it because the working antagonism is not as great as in the big city centers" (Georgios), "I think it is necessary but it is time-consuming. Only those who own it should work in as educators"(Christos),"It is essential and very important to highlight who is an adult trainer. However, the examination seems a bit incomplete and dysfunctional"(Andreas),"I consider certification a remarkable step for objective assessment on the qualifications of adult educators, but when I participated in the examination I noticed many shortcomings referring to the coordination and organization of EOPPEP. I considered the process of examining micro-teaching unfair"(Eleni). Asking the part of the participants who did not wish to obtain a certificate on their skills they responded that there was no further knowledge offered to acquire while the participation fee was estimated high. The fifth and last category was consisted of questions about the professional development of the field. The majority cogitated that adult education was not a complete or defined profession due to the instability and the complementary character of the occupation. One participant believed that this occurred because there were core differences between adult education and typical educational system. They noticed that there was a tendency for professional development not only by the side of the educators but also from the one of the Greek state. Besides, the chances for the educators were not numerous and they were not being paid properly. The general aspect depicted a strong preference in adult education because of the financial crisis and due to the fact that Greek adult education presented potential progress. All respondents replied that they did not believe that under the existing conditions they could be considered as professionals, but as complementary or occasional teachers, since they did not feel stability and security. "I think there is a great difference. Personally, I believe this happens because it differs from teaching children "(Mary) "For me an adult educator is not a profession because no one can teach continuously but only occasionally" (Georgios). In addition, they expressed the opinion that even though an adult trainer attempted to create a profession there was no special opportunities for professional development. "I think adult education is growing rapidly during recent years and the adult trainer has several but not many opportunities for professional development. There are very good bases for someone who wants to be developed but I am negative because the chance to work is only for a limited time period"(Mary), "I think professional development exists because of the crisis, most people work in the adult education field because they do not have other opportunities like me. There may be opportunities for professional development because of the huge number of the training organizations but I think it has an expiring date"(Panagiotis) "There are opportunities for someone who wants to seize them. The Educatorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Registrer and the EOPPEP exams are considered to be the first step towards professional development "(Athanasia),"I do not think there are any remarkable prospects" (Sotiria), I believe that despite personal study, strong effort and continuous training, the state seems to

ignore the professional development of the sector" (Eleni). Asking the participants if training contributed to the professional development of the adult educator, the views expressed by the participants were mostly positive, but some negative opinions were also heard." It is a personal preference how much and on what each one will be trained" (Eleni) "Without training there is no growth" (Katerina) finally, on questioning whether qualification certification was a form of professional development, the opinions that were stated were diametrically opposed. Participants did not believe that the aforementioned certification was something that would contribute to the professional organization while others consider EOPPEP a prerequisite. "I do not think that certification is yet another skill to prevent the trainer from losing his job" (Mary), "It could be considered a form of professional development because candidates will go through issues that deal with adult education" (Georgios).

Discussion and Conclusion This study was conducted in order to identify the personal views of the 10 adult educators and how they were incorporated to the professional development model. It was estimated that the educators did not possess the typical or the appropriate skills while the minority certified their qualifications. The certification concept was characterized ambiguous. A strong aspect that was derived was that the acquired knowledge should be officially recognized as in the case of EOPPEP, the Greek qualification certification organisation, but the educators did not feel the need to certify their skills due to the low competing rate. In addition, those who experienced the examination process insisted that it was rather problematic, feeling at the same time reluctant about the offered benefits. Certifying the existing qualifications proved controversial in this research. According to the General Secretariat of Lifelong Learning and Youth â&#x20AC;&#x153;the educational competence is defined as the proven response to professional examination by confirming existing knowledge, skills and experience as they are applied on the Certified Professional Outline of Adult Trainers in correspondence to the framework of educational Trainersâ&#x20AC;? programmes (General Secretariat of Lifelong Learning [GSLL], 2013). Although the overwhelming majority regarded educational competence as a necessary skill, they did not obtain it and did not belong to the Adult Trainer Sub-Register. Those remarkable conclusions confirmed the necessity to provide quality and objectivity in Adult Education (Sotiropoulou, 2008). It was admitted that the participation in training seminars and the presence of certification offered by EOPPEP updated the trainer to seize the opportunity to be developed (Tsopozidou, 2014). EOPPEP is the first established and organized effort of the Greek state being in a developmental stage (Savvaki, 2016). Moreover, obtaining educational competence prioritized an adult trainer. EOPPEP proved to be the only organization in our country that promoted professional development, gave prestige and clarified the different concept of adult education. Certification was estimated to lead to socio-economic development, making necessary to alter the underestimated view on adult education due to the existence of unilateral actions.

The positive aspects about training were encouraging while the sample appeared rather skeptical on the issue if those seminars addressed their more and more increasing needs realizing at the same time the difficulties that would be faced when applied in the class. There was a great disappointment because of the occupational instability and the economical issues due to the financial crisis occurring in Greece the last 8 years. Those who attended a relevant programme admitted that their participation had greatly improved their effectiveness by making them better adult educators with experience on teaching techniques and methods while others identified obstacles that they encountered during the learning process. Citing on Mavrogiorgos‟s view (2009), training on non-formal education contributed positively and responded to needs by providing to the trainers the opportunity to renew and to improve their educational and professional level. Then, it became feasible for the educator, to be updated and more effective and competitive. According to Giannakopoulos (2015), the factors that contributed to the effectiveness of the training was the target of realistic goals, the link of the theoretical knowledge with the practical application, the possibility of collaborative learning as well as the flexibility of the forms of learning according to the needs. Potential dissatisfaction during participation in training programmes is confirmed by Giannakopoulos (2015) stating that "the results of the training have not been sufficiently explored in terms of the features that make it effective. The given impression supported that education was spasmodic and uncoordinated which is reasonable because „in Greece there is a lack of organized and effective strategies‟ (Giannakopoulos, 2015, p. 34). Generally speaking, it was admitted that the adult educator‟s dimensions differ radically from the theory to the real practice. The qualifications of an Adult Trainer were not restricted on the high educational level but they appeared as a constant combination of the characteristics of an individual, the gained experience and the practical applications of the teaching techniques. The respondents uttered that those adult educators should have theoretical knowledge of the subject they teach, transmissibility, adaptability, emotional intelligence and animosity. On top of that, it proved important not only to be insistent but also to be familiar with technology and informed about innovative learning techniques. The list of qualifications of a competent Adult Teacher is long and combines characteristics from different fields of science such as pedagogy, sociology and psychology, but according to Pazianou (2007) in many teaching schools training on sociology and psychology was degraded to nonexistent. Tsakirides (2016) claimed that the qualifications of an adult trainer were typically and materially categorized. Regarding qualifications, an adult educator seems to be a complex character devoted to his job and focused on the humanized kind of education (Tsakirides, 2016). Another point that should be mentioned was the dominant notion of the professional development. In Greek reality the chances for an educator exist but they are extremely limited. People who wanted to fulfill the role of the professional teacher were often marginalized without even forming a separate

scientific field. In addition, as far as the professional development of the field is concerned, respondents believed that it ceased to grow and a respected part of trainers considered the future to be ominous due to the current financial crisis. As Tsopozidou (2014) argued, there was a fictitious line of the preconditions of the professional development on adult educators. According to several academics, professional development seemed to be linked and influenced not only by the personal and professional choice but also by the trainer's identity shaping. These components remained fluid when examining the changing social economic context, the expectations and the trainersâ&#x20AC;&#x; needs. Additionally, the population admitted that many things should be changed, developed and revised. Not surprisingly, the educators were familiar with the fact that adult education was yet an emerging and a very promising field for someone who wanted to be a professional. This study is suggested to those who are willing to investigate thoroughly the reasons and the obstacles of the adult educatorsâ&#x20AC;&#x; professional development expressing their wish to criticize on the established systems of certifying the qualifications. The present approach clarifies the problems that are encountered in Lifelong Learning Centers while it simultaneously enriches the existent literature offering ideas for further research. A further examination of the issue, based on the derived data of the present research, is recommended. The sample should be expanded including participants from a wider variety of centers and scientific fields from all over the country. Furthermore, the Greek government and the responsible ministries should be informed about the problems that are demonstrated during the current research in an attempt to make them aware of them and lead to their solution. Therefore, it is thought that the present research could constitute the tinder for the development and the elimination of obstacles in the fields of Lifelong Learning in Greece. Furthermore, the under research topics could be conducted in a quantitative research by distributing questionnaires to adult educators and educational managers or programme advisors from all the Greek Lifelong Learning Centers. This could lead to the examination of various hidden fields concerning Lifelong Learning.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Mr. Efthymios Valkanos, Associate Professor of the University of Macedonia and Mr. Iosif Fragkoulis, Professor of Hellenic Open University for supervising and supporting the present study.

References Blackman, A. (1989). Issues in professional development: the continuing agenda. In Mary Louise Holly & CavenS. Mcloughlin (eds.), Perspectives on Teacher Professional Development. London: The Falmer Press. Cedefop, (2009) : Winterton, J. , Delamare, F., & Stringfellow, E. . Typology of knowledge, skills and competences: clarification of the concept and prototype . Retrieved from http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications-and resources/publications/3048.

Giannakopoulos, A. (2015). Teachers’ views on the contribution of non-formal education to their professional development (Master‟s Thesis). HOU, Patras, p. 34. Greenhaus, J. (1987). Career Μanagement. Chicago: Dryden Press. National Organization for the Certification of Qualifications and Vocational Guidance. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.eoppep.gr/index.php/el/eoppep/framework/category/10-legalframework-eoppep. Jarvis, P. (2004). Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice (3rd ed.). London: Falmer Press. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com/lib/oculryerson/docDetail.action?docID=10093530&p00 Doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203561560. Jogi., L.& Gross., M. (2009) The Professionalization of Adult Educators in the Balti States, European Journal of Education, 44(2), 221-242. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3435.2009.01380.x. Κedraka, Αik. (2009). Adult Educators in Greece: Development, researches, wonderings. Thessaloniki: Br.Kyriakides. Levinson, S. C. (2002). Time for a linguistic anthropology of time. Current Anthropology. Retrieved from http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/342214. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/jlin.1999.9.1-2.144. Lester, P. (2000). Visual Communication Images and Messages. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Lifelong Learning Centres, (2014). Retrieved from http://www.kdvm.gr/about Lifelong Learning Secretariat (2013). http://www.gsae.edu.gr/el/glossari?id=690.

Retrieved

from

Mavrogiorgos, G. (2011). Teacher education: Why teachers do not be treated as adult intellectuals. Athens: Pedio. Mocker D. & Noble, E. (1981). Training part-time instructional stuff, in S. Grabowski (ed.) Preparing Educators of Adults. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, pp. 45-61. Pizanou, E. (2007). The contribution of training to the professional development of secondary education teachers. The case ofthe Lesbos Island (Master‟s Thesis). HOU, Patras. Rogers, A. (1999). Adult Education. Αthens: Μetaichmio. Savvaki, Ch. (2016). Perceptions of trainers of adult educators' trainers and learners on the modern role of adult educators (Master‟s Thesis). HOU, Patras. Sotiropoulou, A. (2008). Incentives for the participation of adult trainers in informal learning (Master‟s Thesis). HOU, Patras. Tsakirides, A. (2016). Investigating the views of adult teachers of non-formal education on their role (Master‟s Thesis). HOU, Patras. Tsigarida, E. (2014). The Professional Identity and Self-Advocacy of Adult Trainers in Greece (Master‟s Thesis). HOU, Patras. Tsopozidou, L. (2014). The professional profile of adult trainers in Greece: Issues on developing skills in the workplace (Master‟s Thesis AUTh. Thessaloniki, Greece). Retrieved from: https://ikee.lib.auth.gr/record/267627/files/GRI-2015-14476.pdf.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 11, pp. 92-115, November 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.11.6

Students’ Loans by Financial Institutions: The way to reduce a burden for Government Funding to Higher Education in Tanzania Veronica R. Nyahende Department of Allocation and Disbursement, Higher Education Students’ Loans Board, Dar es salaam, Tanzania

Abstract. Students’ Loans are Government Loans extended to students in Higher Learning Institutions (HLIs), these Loans has to be repaid back on or after expiry of the grace period (HESLB, 2004). The purpose of this study is to assess the feasibility of engaging financial institutions to partner with the Government in financing higher education by addressing the following objectives:(i) to determine whether there is policy consideration for students’ loans provision by financial institutions (ii) to examine the readiness of the students in the higher learning institutions to be financed by financial institutions (iii) to investigate the readiness of the financial institutions to provide loans to students of the higher learning institutions. Data were collected through interviews, review of various documents and questionnaires in which 90 respondents were obtained 7 from financial institutions and 83 from higher learning institutions. Software package for statistical science (SPSS) and content analysis was used to analyse data, results of the analysis were presented in tabular form, frequency distribution table and the bar charts. It was concluded that financial institutions in Tanzania does not have the policy to support students’ loans provision hence they are not ready, students’ in higher learning institutions are ready to be financed by financial institutions. The study recommends that the financial institutions in Tanzania should establish students’ loans provision policy in their operations, universities or colleges to include policy which allows students to seek for alternative funding for their education other than the Government. Timely repayment among Students for smooth operation of the financial institutions. Education by HESLB on the need for alternative funding from financial institutions. Financial Institutions for Higher Education Financing. Keywords: Students’ Loans; Financial Institutions; Higher Learning Institutions; Government; feasibility.

1.0 Introduction 1.1 Students’ Loans and the need for Alternative Funding Students’ loans are given to students at lower interest rate to pay off their higher education related expenses such as tuition fees, books and stationeries expenses. These costs are payable to universities or university colleges (Nyahende, 2013). According to Chapman & Mathias (2011) higher education is becoming important in the 21st century to individuals and to the society at large for sake of economic prosperity, advancement of democracy as well as social justice. Therefore, the increase in demand for higher education has lead to the increase of the cost of higher education coupled with the inability of the Government to fully fund the rising cost of higher education due to its limited budget (Barr,2009). This situation has lead to a significant growth of students’ loans schemes all over the world (Ziderman,2004). In Tanzania, the students’ loans scheme started to be operated in July, 2005 under the Higher Education Students’ Loans Board (HESLB). HESLB is a body corporate established under the Act No.9 of 2004, (as amended) with the objective of assisting needy Tanzanian students, who secure admission in accredited higher Education institutions (HEIs). The Board has the task of advising the Government on matters relating to issuance of loans including seeking for alternative source of funding (HESLB, 2004). Demand for higher Education in Tanzania has been increasing as evidenced by the increase in students’ loans applications annually, this has led to the need for other source of finance to satisfy the increased demand. 1.1.2 Mismatch between students’ loans application and allocation at HESLB The increased enrolments in higher learning institutions, as a result of the increase in Secondary schools following the recently established Ward Secondary Schools and other Secondary schools, has lead to an increase in demand for higher education. The same was evidenced by the increase in the number students’ loans applicants from 49,914 in year 2012/2013 to 55,033, and 62,359 in year 2013/2014 and 2014/2015 respectively. Table 1 shows the trend of the gap between students’ loans applications and the allocated students or accepted students under students’ loans scheme. Table 1: Number of Loan Applications and Allocations

Year

No. of Applications

No. of Allocations

(%Allocated students

No. of Students not allocated

2012/2013

49,914

29,097

58%

20,817

2013/2014

55,033

33,494

61%

21,539

2014/2015

62,359

29,473

47%

32,886

167,306

92,064

55%

75,242

Total

Source: HESLB (2015a)

Number of Applications

No. of Applications

No. of Allocations

70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 2012/2013

2013/2014

2014/2015

Financial Year Figure 1: The Trend of Loan Applications vs Loans Allocations between 2012 and 2015

During the loan allocation process, after means testing some students are left out even though they are eligible and needy due to the limited amount of fund available. By partnering with financial institutions, these students will be given an option to seek for loans from financial institutions under special arrangements (HESLB, 2017). In that case HESLB is supposed to plays the role of negotiator on behalf of these applicants so that fair terms and conditions are set for mutual benefit of students (beneficiaries) and respective financial institutions. According to Table 1, number of unallocated student or unaccepted students after means testing is increasing due to limited fund obtained from the Government. For three consecutive years, the Board (HESLB) has been receiving the same amount of money from the Government budget regardless of the increasing number of students’ enrolments, hence the number of applicants offered loans has been diminishing annually (HESLB, 2015a). With such trend, the number of students offered students’ loans is expected to decrease continuously year after year. Unless strategic interventions are undertaken, financing of higher education in Tanzania will increasingly continue to be under critical financial constraints. 1.2 Research Objectives 1.2.1 General Objective The general objective of this survey was to assess the feasibility of engaging financial institutions in financing higher education. Specific Objectives (i) To determine on whether there is policy consideration for students’ loans provision by financial institutions

(ii) (iii)

To examine the readiness of the students in the higher learning institutions to be financed by financial institutions To investigate the readiness of the financial institutions to provide loans to students of the higher learning institutions.

1.2.2 Research Questions (i) (ii) (iii)

Is there any policy consideration in the financial institutions regarding students’ loans provision? Are the students ready to be financed by the financial institutions? Are the financial institutions ready to engage in students’ loans provision?

2. Methodology 2.1 Research Design According to Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, (2007), research design is an outline of how the survey or an investigation will take place. Therefore, in this study cross- sectional research design was used in data collection, research questions were used to guide the study also frequency with which something occurred or relationship among variables were determined. Both desk and field research were applied 2.2 Area of the Study, Population and Sample Selection This survey was conducted in the Dar es salaam city. the study was conducted in seven Universities in which 83 respondents consisting of management staff, dean of students, bursars, loan officers, and leaders of students’ Organization were obtained. 4 Financial Institutions were visited too in which response were from Loan management team, Branch managers and loan officers. The Universities consists of the Dar es salaam (UDSM), Institute of Finance Management (IFM), Dar es salaam University College of Education (DUCE), College of Business Education (CBE), Dar es salaam Institute of Technology (DIT), Hurbert Kairuki Memorial University (HKMU) and Tumaini University Dar es salaam Campus (TUDARCO). Financial institutions visited were Tanzania Women Bank (TWB), Bank M, Tanzania Postal Bank (TPB) and National Bank of Commerce (NBC). The researcher obtained the list of Universities from Tanzania Commission for Universities (TCU) database. List of financial institutions were also obtained from Bank of Tanzania (BOT) database. Population of the study consists of Universities Management (22), Dean of students (7), Bursars (7), loans officers (7), leaders of the students’ organizations, (40) Loan management team in the financial institutions (4), branch managers (1) and loan officer (2). Given the researcher’s knowledge and believe that the selected sample gives the desired answers, the use of stratified and purposive sampling was relevant in this phenomenon compared to other sampling techniques. The researcher needed respondents who are from management levels, leaders in students’

organizations and leaders in loan management who understand the knowledge and the importance of engaging financial institutions in studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; loans provision. A total number of 100 questionnaires were distributed, 90 questionnaires (90%) were properly filled and returned by the respondents. 2.3 Sample Characteristics Financial Institution (FI) Under the financial institutions, the characteristics of the respondents were categorised in term of the name of the financial institution, the ownership of the financial institutions, policy for studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; loans considerations and consideration for gender parity. In order to understand the collected data, the descriptive analysis was conducted by the researcher. The detailed sample characteristic is as detailed in Table 2 to 4. Name of the Financial Institution Questionnaires were evenly distributed among the four selected financial institutions. The findings indicate that more than 40% of the respondents were from NBC followed by TPB which is represented by more than 28% of the respondents. The remaining percentages was evenly distributed among the financial institutions. This distribution has been explained more in a percentage form using the bar chart under Figure 2. Table 2: Name of the Financial Institution

Frequency

Valid

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

TPB

28.6

NBC

42.9

71.4

TWB

14.3

85.7

BANK M

14.3

100.0

Total

100.0

Source: Survey data (2017)

Figure 2: Financial Institution Name

Institution ownership A Total four financial institutions were visited with different ownership ranging from private ownership, government ownership and the private- government (Share) ownership. The results indicate that more than 1/2 of the financial institutions visited had the shared ownership between the government and the private, followed by 28% which are government owned, were by private ownership is formed by only 14%. Researcher expected to find more financial institutions under the shared ownership between the government and private compared to government ownership this is due to the recent privatization move of the public institutions. This distribution has been explained more in a percentage form using the bar chart under Figure 3. Table 3: Institution Ownership

Frequency Percent Private Governmen Valid t Share Total

Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 14.3 14.3

14.3

28.6

42.9

4 7

57.1 100.0

100.0

Source: Survey data (2017)

Figure 3: Institution Ownership

Is There Any Policy for Student Loan Consideration? 80% of the respondents from financial institutions indicates that there is no policy regarding students’ loans provision, while only 14% of the respondents indicates the presence of the policy considerations for students’ loans provision. The results represent fairly the population because the researcher expected to find the same, as most of the financial institutions do give educational loans to employees in collaboration with the social security schemes which provide guarantee to the employees. This distribution has been explained more in a percentage form using the bar chart under Figure 4. Table 4: Is There any policy For Student Loan consideration

Frequency Percent Yes Valid No Total

1 6 7

14.3 85.7 100.0

Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 14.3 14.3 85.7 100.0 100.0

Source: Survey data (2017)

Figure 4: Is There any Policy for Student Loan Consideration

Higher Learning Institutions Under the higher learning institutions the characteristics of the respondents were categorised in term of Name of the University College, Institution ownership, Enhancement of more loans to the needy students, University to surrender certificates of loans beneficiaries, Financial institutions will be allowed to request for additional securities, is there policies of considering students to seek loans from financial institutions,, should there be consideration for gender parity and financial institutions can use beneficiaries certificates as collateral. In order to understand the collected data, the descriptive analysis was conducted by the researcher. The detailed sample characteristic is as detailed in Table 5 to 11. University or College name A total of 83 respondents were obtained, respondents from UDSM forms 1/5 of the total population. The researcher expected UDSM to represent a greater portion of the population because of a big coverage it has a big number of management team, and leaders of the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; organization and it is the oldest compared to other universities in the country, respondents from IFM forms 18% of the total population, also HKMU was expected by the researcher to form the least percentages of the respondents (at 5%) because it has less coverage compared to other universities under the study). Therefore, there were fair university/college distribution, this is also explained more by the bar chart shown under Figure 5.

100

Table 5: University/College

Frequency Percent IFM 15 CBE 14 DIT 10 UDSM 17 Valid HKMU 4 DUCE 14 TUDARC 9 O Total 83 Source: Survey data (2017)

18.1 16.9 12.0 20.5 4.8 16.9

Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 18.1 18.1 16.9 34.9 12.0 47.0 20.5 67.5 4.8 72.3 16.9 89.2

10.8

100.0

Figure 5: University or College

100.0

101

Institution Ownership (College/University) Results of the respondents from Universities/Colleges presented indicates that more than 80% of the respondents were from universities or colleges owned by the government, while only 15% of the respondents were from universities or college which are privately owned. These results were expected by the researcher because the country has more public universities compared to private universities. Also, students from low income brackets who are more interested in studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; loans are found in public universities. Therefore, this implies that there was a fair institution ownership distribution among the respondents, the population was represented as anticipated. This distribution is explained more by the bar chart shown under Figure 6. Table 6: Institution Ownership

Frequency Percent Private 13 Governmen Valid 70 t Total 83 Source: Survey data (2017)

15.7

Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 15.7 15.7

84.3

100.0

Figure 6: Institution Ownership

100.0

102

Financial institution will enhance more loans to the needy students The result of the analysis indicates that nearly 1/5 of the respondents were fairly supportive to the idea of engaging Financial Institution in the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; loans provision while 1/4 of the respondents ranks the idea as good and the rest percentage were evenly distributed among the respondents. This distribution is explained more by the bar chart shown under Figure 7. Table 7:

FI Enhance more Loans to the needy Students

Frequency Percent Fair 17 Average 15 Good 20 Valid Very 16 Good Excellent 15 Total 83 Source: Survey data (2017)

20.5 18.1 24.1

Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 20.5 62.7 18.1 42.2 24.1 24.1

19.3

81.9

18.1 100.0

100.0

Figure 7: Enhance More Loans to the Needy Students

103

University or College to surrender certificates of loan beneficiaries to FI More than 1/4 of the respondents from universities or colleges advocate that they are ready to surrender their certificates as collateral to financial institution. 24% of the respondents accept that to surrender certificates as collateral to financial institution is a good idea, 1/5 of the respondents argue that it is fair. The rest of the percentages were distributed among average responses and Excellent. This result was expected by researcher because studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; who are needy are expected to have no other asset to surrender as collateral to the financial institutions. Therefore, the population was fairly represented by the sample. This distribution is explained more by the bar chart shown under Figure 8. Table 8: University to Surrender Certificates of Loan Beneficiaries to FI

Frequency Percent Fair Average Good Valid Very Good Excellent Total

Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 21.7 21.7 10.8 32.5 24.1 56.6

18 9 20

21.7 10.8 24.1

27.7

84.3

13 83

15.7 100.0

100.0

Source: Survey data (2017)

Figure 8: University to Surrender Certificates of Loan Beneficiaries to FI

104

FI will be allowed to request for additional securities A total of 83 respondents were obtained, more than 1/3 of the total respondents suggest that financial institutions should not be allowed to request for additional securities more than the certificates which will be surrendered by the universities/colleges. While only 12% of the respondents accept the submission of additional securities to the financial institutions. The population was fairly represented, because needy students were expected by the researcher to have no more security to surrender other than their certificates. This distribution is explained more by the bar chart shown under Figure 9. Table 9: FI will be allowed to request for additional securities

Frequency Percent Fair 28 Average 16 Good 18 Valid Very 11 Good Excellent 10 Total 83 Source: Survey data (2017)

33.7 19.3 21.7

Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 33.7 33.7 19.3 53.0 21.7 74.7

13.3

88.0

12.0 100.0

100.0

Figure 9: FI will be allowed to request for additional securities

105

Is there policy for students to seek loans from FI More than 60% of the respondents confirm that there is no policy which allows students to seek students’ loans from financial institutions and about 35% accept that there is such policy. The sample represents fairly the population, the researcher expected to find this result because students’ finances through financial institutions is a new phenomenon in the country therefore it is expected that most universities/ colleges have not yet incorporated in their policies. Also most universities are expected to consider only their core business in their policies, which includes education, research and consultancy, other issues concerning students’ finances remain solely personal to student him or herself. This distribution is explained more by the bar chart shown under Figure 10. Table 10: Is there Policy Considering Students To Seek Loans

Frequency Percent Yes 29 Valid No 54 Total 83 Source: Survey data (2017)

34.9 65.1 100.0

Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 34.9 34.9 65.1 100.0 100.0

Figure 10: Is there Policy Considering Students to Seek Loans

106

FI can use beneficiaries’ certificates as collateral More than 3/4 of the respondents from universities or college advocate that financial institutions can use certificates as collateral when giving students’ loans. While 1/4 of the respondents reject the use of certificates as collateral by the financial institutions. This result was expected by researcher because students’ who are needy are expected to have no other asset to surrender as collateral to the financial institutions. Therefore, the population was fairly represented by the sample. This distribution is explained more by the bar chart shown under Figure 11. Table 11: FI Can Use Beneficiaries’ Certificate as Collateral

Frequency Percent Yes 61 Valid No 22 Total 83 Source: Survey data (2017)

73.5 26.5 100.0

Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 73.5 73.5 26.5 100.0 100.0

Figure 11: FI can Use Beneficiaries Certificate as Collateral

107

3. Data collection Methods In this study, quantitative data were obtained from both primary and secondary source, Primary data were gathered through the use of structured questionnaires and interview. Structured questionnaires (Appendix 1) were distributed to the respondents from the selected universities and financial institutions. In the primary source the researcher obtained information concerning the terms and conditions for students’ loans provision if any, the policy and the current portfolio available in the students’ loans provision, what is the current interest rate on loan provision, what is the coverage for students’ loans provision example program to be considered if any, and the gender parity consideration if any. Also, the researcher obtained information on how respondents from universities perceived the engagement of financial institution to partner with HESLB in the students’ loan provision, what are terms and conditions they think are favourable for loans provision by financial institutions and how they see the consideration for the financial institutions in using beneficiary’s certificates as collateral. Interview on the other hand was conducted with 26 members of management in both the selected financial institutions and the universities. The researcher obtained information concerning the actual implementations of the intended idea i.e. the respondents were asked on how were ready to start implementing the policy on students’ loans provision, do they have the policy in operation concerning students’ loans provision. Secondary data was based on the information concerning the ownership, tenure of the financial institution or university were obtained by reviewing the policy document of organization or university with the focus to the students’ loans provision. Strategic plan was also reviewed to understand the future prospects of the financial institutions or universities in the students’ loans provisions as well as the vision and mission. Loan allocation and repayment manual were reviewed in the financial institution for the researcher to understand the terms and condition for provisions and repayment of the students’ loans or other loans managed by the financial institutions.

4. Data Analysis Analysis of the collected data were made using the Software Package for Statistical Science (SPSS) and the Content analysis. Results of the analysis from SPSS were presented and summarised in the frequency distribution table and the bar charts were also used to explain the results. Documents analysis were also conducted in which documents were interpreted to give meaning according to the subject, also documents were incorporated into coding content to give meaning before being presented into a tabular form. Output for both SPSS and Content analysis was handled with greater flexibility.

108

5. Findings 5.1 Survey Results In guiding this survey questionnaires were used to assess the feasibility of engaging financial institutions in financing higher education. These questionnaires were as mentioned below: (i) Is there any policy consideration in the financial institutions regarding students’ loans provision? (ii) Are the higher education students ready to be financed by the financial institutions? (iii) Are the financial institutions ready to engage in students’ loans provision? 5.1.1 To determine whether there is policy consideration for students’ loans provision by financial institutions Data were collected from the selected financial institutions to answer properly the questions concerning this objective. The results of the analysis indicate that more than 80% of the respondents indicates that financial institutions do not have any policy concerning students’ loans provision, while only 14% of the respondents indicates the presence of the policy considerations for students’ loans provision in the financial institution. Interview made to Tanzania Postal Bank (TPB) indicates that TPB has partnered with Public Service Pension Fund (PSPF) to issue education loans to its members. Most of the loans at TPB are purely issued to support, operations or development of businesses or projects and others to meet personal pressing needs. They don’t have specific policy for students’ loans provision. Interview results from Tanzania Women Bank (TWB) and the National Bank of Commerce (NBC) also indicates that there is no policy considerations for students’ loans provision instead available policy is for financing of working capital and personal loans for salaried workers, in which they have different terms and conditions from that of HESLB. Results of the interview made to various universities/ colleges (UDSM, CBE, and DUCE) regarding policy consideration for students’ loans provision by financial institutions indicates that financial institutions in the country doesn’t have any policy to guide provision of students’ loans. Therefore, there is no policy consideration for students’ loans provision by financial institutions

5.1.2

To examine the readiness of the students in the higher learning institutions to be financed by financial institutions

Data were collected from the selected universities or colleges to answer properly the questions concerning this objective. The results of the analysis indicate that nearly 1/5 of the respondents rank as fair the concept that engagement of the financial institutions will enhance more students’ loans to the needy students

109

while 1/4 of the respondents ranks the concept as good and the rest percentage were evenly distributed among the respondents. Also the result indicates that more than 1/4 of the respondents from universities or college advocate that they are ready to surrender their certificates as collateral to financial institution. 24% of the respondents accept that to surrender certificates as collateral to financial institution is a good idea, 1/5 of the respondents argue that it is fair. Results indicate that more than 3/4 of the respondents from universities/college advocate that financial institutions can use certificates as collateral when giving students’ loans. While 1/4 of the respondents reject the use of certificates as collateral by the financial institutions. Also the interview results from UDSM further indicates even though there is no policy which allows students to borrow from financial institutions still students have the believe that engagement of financial institutions will bring solutions to the higher education students’ financing problems. Therefore, students in the higher learning institutions are ready to be financed by financial institutions. 5.1.3

To investigate the readiness of the financial institutions to provide loans to students of the higher learning institutions.

The results from the interview indicates that some financial institutions are willing to participate in supporting students on the concessional rate below the rate charged by Banks commercially, on the agreement that the Bank will hold the original academic transcript and original certificates as collateral together with the Government guarantee on the difference among the rates. Results from the interview made at the Tanzania Women Bank (TWB) indicates that HESLB to continue giving loans to students and only the difference has to be covered by the financial institutions, this shows that financial institution is ready to engage partially in students’ loans provision. Further interview at TPB indicates that financial institutions are not sure of the repayment because of the unemployment problems facing the country as well as the Government uncertainties in loan repayment. Also, NBC is worrying about dropout in case the Government won’t guarantee. Furthermore, results of the interview from Bank M. indicates that even though there is no specific lending policy for students, the bank’ credit policy allows lending to education sector up to 15% of the bank’ portfolio. The interview also reveals that Concessional rate may be availed depending on negotiation between lender and borrowers. Key factors involved are: amount of loan, market conditions such as interest rate, exchange rate, inflation, competition from other players this indicates that negotiation with the Government on concessional rate for students’ loans will be possible because they already have the policy. Therefore, financial institutions are not ready to provide loans to students of the higher learning institutions.

110

6. Conclusions Engagement of financial institution in the students’ loans provision will reduce the Government burden and help in financing more needy students, who otherwise could go without loans due to the limited Government budget. Therefore, this study concluded that: Most of the financial institutions do not have the policy for students’ loans provision, this have been explained by more than 80% financial institutions which do not have the policy for students’ loans consideration. It was concluded that most of the financial institutions have the shared ownership between the government and private, this will result into difficulties for the government to implement its policy, because the government doesn’t have control at 100%. Financial institutions will have to implement their objectives first. The Government cannot implement the policy for students’ lending on its own, it will need to work with the financial institutions in line to their regulations. It is concluded that most universities or college do not have policies which allow students to seek students’ loans from financial institutions because it is a new phenomenon in the country. It was also concluded that students’ in the higher learning institutions are ready to surrender their certificates to the financial institutions as collateral for their students’ loans hence they are ready to be financed by financial institutions. But they don’t want to be asked for additional security such as houses etc. because they said they don’t have any other security to support them. It was also concluded that by engaging financial institutions in students’ loan provision it is sure that only the needy students will apply for loan and not like the way application is mixed-up at HESLB between the needy and not needy, which call for the need to means tests. It was concluded that financial institution were suggesting to have an opportunity to ask for more security, because they said after graduation students can leave their certificates for a long time without repaying their loan due to the unemployment and underemployment problem facing the country. In which this will be a risk to the financial institutions as they will be using other depositors’ fund to lend to students of higher learning institutions. It was concluded that most of the financial institutions doesn’t have confidence on how repayment could be, as they are not sure of how the government guarantee will cover the risk associated with the loan given hence they are not ready to engage in students’ loans provision. Through engagement of financial institutions in students’ loans provision, it is expected that only genuine students’ loans applicants who are needy will remain in this loan processing brackets others will drop because of the procedures. Those students’ applicants who are not needy will be expected to drop instead they will use their own fund for higher education It was finally concluded that submission of certificates to financial institutions will call for non-demand of certificates in some of the employers which may results into production of fake certificates if the government is not that keen in checking the authentications of the certificates through universities.

111

7. Recommendations According to the findings and conclusions it is recommended that: Financial institutions in Tanzania to establish the students’ loan provision policy to be included in their operation policy as one of their obligations. This policy should spell out specifically on how to handle repayments in case of dropouts due to discontinuous, abscondments, postponements. Aptitude test should be made before loan provision etc. Financial institutions should be advised to include the clause on gender parity considerations in their loans provision policy, because women and disabled has to be taken care due to a long marginalization which was existing in the country, they need support to catch up with the growing economy. To educate all the students’ loan beneficiaries to understand the current financial situation of the Government and the need for alternative financing to ensure sustainability of the students’ loans scheme. Also, students have to be educated on the importance of repaying their loans timely to the financial institution after grace period in order to recover the certificates handled to the financial institutions as collateral. Universities or colleges to include policy which allows students to seek for alternative funding from other sources other than HESLB to finance their education example seeking loans from Commercial Banks. The Government to assure the financial institutions on the safety of their loan provided to students by depositing a substantial amount of money as a guarantee to ensure the readiness of financial institution in students’ loans provisions also the Government should increase employment opportunities for easy implementation especially in assurance of repayment to the financial institutions against the students’ loans given out. It is recommended that due to repayment problems experienced at HESLB it is better to engage financial institutions to partner in students’ loans provision because, financial institutions are more experienced in loan provision, so it is easy for them to make follow up on repayment. However, financing of the higher education by financial institutions is very difficult, because using certificates as collateral is very risk due to the possibility of having feck certificates. HESLB should make arrangement with the Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MoEST), the Treasury and the Planning Commission to discuss on how to curtion the difference in interest rate between what will be charged by the financial institutions and the concessional rate. The Government to give a confidence to the financial institution as a main guarantor for students’ loans given, because giving loans is not a complex process as the repayment process. More researches to be conducted on issues of the students’ loans finances due to increased challenges brought about by the increased demand for higher education coupled with inability of the Government to fully fund the higher education HESLB to organize a meeting with all the financial institutions in the country, in which presentations will be made by HESLB on issues concerning the need for students’ loans support by financial institutions, the benefits, the challenges and the way forward. Financial institutions should be educated on the inclusion of

112

the insurance policy regarding all students’ loans given so that to help recovery of all loans in case of students’ death.

Acknowledgement My special thanks should go to Mr. Asangye Bangu (The then Director Planning, Research and ICT), for his guidance and material contribution towards accomplishment of this work. Mr. Chakaza Cosmas, Mr. Venance Ntiyalundura, Ms Rose Marwa and Ms Mariam Mshana (My co-workers) deserve special thanks for their corporation especially during data collection. Also, social security fund schemes, PPF and PSPF need special mention for the material contribution during the interview. Finally, I should also thank commercial banks which were visited TPB, NBC, TWB and BANK M and various Higher learning institutions for proving me with valuable information through filling of questionnaires.

References Bank of Tanzania (2015). List of registered financial institutions, BOT. Retrieved from http://www.bot-tz.org/Banking Supervision/ Registered Financial Inst.asp. Barr, N., (2009). Financing higher education lessons from economic theory and reform in England; A special issue of Higher education in Europe, (34)2, pp. 201-210. Chapman, B. & Mathias S. (2011). Student Loan Reforms for German Higher Education: Financing Tuition Fees, Ruhr Economic Papers, No.244. HESLB (2015a). Report on Local Undergraduate and local Postgraduate Applications and Allocations, HESLB. Retrieved from the Loan Management System (LMS), on 10 th June, 2015. HESLB (2015b). Report on Accepted and Rejected students’ after Means Testing, HESLB. Retrieved from the Loan Allocation Module, on 10 th July, 2015. HESLB (2004), Act number 9 of 2004 CAP 178, Dar es salaam, Higher Education Students Loans Board. HESLB (2017), Published guidelines and Criteria for granting loans in the academic year 2016/2017, Dar es salaam, Higher Education Students Loans Board. Nyahende V.R. (2013). The Success of Students’ Loans in Financing Higher Education in Tanzania. The Journal of Higher Education Studies, 3(3), pp 47 – 61. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/hes.v3n3p47 Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2007). Research methods for Business students, Fouth edition. New York: Prentice Hall. Social Security Regulatory Authority (2015). The social security schemes in Tanzania, SSRA. Retrieved from http://www.ssra.go.tz on 15th August, 2015. Tanzania Commission for Universities (2015). The list of higher learning Institutions in Tanzania based on ownership, TCU. Retrieved from www.http://tcu.go.tz/Institutions on 15th August, 2015. URT (2005); Review of Financial Sustainability in Financing Higher Education in Tanzania MSTHE, Dar es salaam, Government Printing Press. Ziderman, A. (2004). Policy options for student loans schemes: Lessons from five Asian case studies. UNESCO Bangkok Publishers. Bangkok, Thailand.

113

APPENDIX 1 QUESTIONNAIRES Questionnaire for Financial institutions only The main aim of this questionnaire is to get information which will help the Higher Education Students’ Loans Board (HESLB) in identifying and subsequent engagement of the Financial Institution which can be supportive in the Higher Education Financing. The questionnaire specifically covers the selected financial institutions and the selected Universities/Colleges in Dar es salaam in which Management, key Staff in a specific area, and students’ organizations will be required to fill in the questionnaires. The results of this Survey will be used solely by HESLB in identifying the financial institutions which will fit the purpose. You are requested to complete this questionnaire to enable timely accomplishment of the survey. We would appreciate for your prompt response. SECTION A: General Information, Please fill in the blank spaces provided/ please circle (1) Name of the Financial Institution…..…………………… (2) What is the ownership of your Institution? (a) 100% Private (b) 100% Government (c) Shared between private and Government SECTION B: Consideration for Higher Education Students’ Loans Issuance (1) Is there any Policy for Higher Education Students’ loans Consideration? (Please Circle) (a) Yes (b) No If no, Why ………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………… (2) What are the terms and conditions of the Higher Education students’ loans issuance? (Mention at least five conditions) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… (3) What is the Current portifolio for students’ loans?......................................................is there any plan to increase the portfolio?................................(Yes/No) (4) (a) What is the Coverage of the Higher education students’ loans issuance,(What kind of applicants/ Study program are considered) ……………………………………………………….……………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………….. (b) Is there any considerations for Gender Parity ( any consideration for a particular group of people).......................... (Yes/ No) SECTION C: Modus Operandi for Repayments (1) What is the conditions for Loans Repayment, (Mention at least five conditions) ……………………………………………….................................................................

114

…………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………….. (2) (a) What is the current interest rates charged?..................................................................... (b) What is time framework …………………………. (c) Is there any grace period for repayment? ( Yes / No ) (d) What is the opinion in handling the difference in case there is no any concessional rate? …………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………

Questionnaire for Higher Learning Institutions only The main aim of this questionnaire is to get information which will help the Higher Education Students’ Loans Board (HESLB) in identifying and subsequent engagement of the Financial Institution which can be supportive in the Higher Education Financing. The questionnaire specifically covers the selected financial institutions and the selected Universities/Colleges in Dar es salaam in which Management, key Staff in a specific area, and students’ organizations will be required to fill in the questionnaires. The results of this Survey will be used solely by HESLB in identifying the financial institutions which will fit the purpose. You are requested to complete this questionnaire to enable timely accomplishment of the survey. We would appreciate for your prompt response. SECTION A: General Information, Please fill in the blank spaces provided/ please circle (1) Name of the University/College…..……………………………………………. (2) What is the ownership of your Institution? (a) 100% Private (b) 100% Government SECTION B: Consideration for Higher Education Students’ Loans Issuance by the Financial Institutions (Please Circle) 1=Fair, 2=Average, 3=Good, 4=Very good, 5=Excellent (1)Financial institution will enhance more students’ loans to the needy students Not at all 1 2 3 4 5 To a great extend. (2) Universities/ Colleges will surrender the certificates of the students’ loans beneficiaries, who benefited from the Financial Institutions as collateral to lenders Not at all 1 2 3 4 5 To a great extend (3) Financial Institutions will be allowed to request for additional securities on top of the beneficiaries Certificates. Not at all 1 2 3 4 5 To a great extent.

115

SECTION C: Others (Please fill the Blanks) (1) Is there any Policy (within the university/ College) considering students to seek loans from Financial Institutions? (Please Circle) (a) Yes (b) No If no, Why ………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………… (2) What do you think should be the terms and conditions of the Higher Education students loans issuance by the financial Institutions? (Mention at least five conditions) …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… (3) (a) What do you suggest to be the coverage of the Higher education students’ loans issuance by the financial institutions? (What kind of applicants/ Study program are considered?) .…………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… (b) Should there be the considerations for Gender Parity ( any consideration for a particular group of people).......................... (Yes/ No). (c) Financial Institutions can use beneficiaries’ certificates as one of the collateral instruments for Higher education students’ loans. ( Yes / No ). If No, give explanations. ................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................................. ...............................................................................................................................................

THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR CO-OPERATION

116

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 11, pp. 116-137, November 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.11.7

EducActiveCore: Computational Model to Educational Personalization Based on Multiagent and Context-Aware Computing Fernão Santos Mackenzie Presbyterian University São Paulo, SP, Brazil Pollyana Notargiacomo Mackenzie Presbyterian University São Paulo, SP, Brazil Abstract. With the growth of online courses and, usage of mobile access allowing students execute educational activities in multiple locales, with variety of data and media content, new perspectives of educational support using different computing models can be observed. Some of most recent evolved computing models stand out in areas like Social Networks Analysis, Artificial Intelligence, Mobile Computing and Context-Aware Computing. Understanding the combination of these computing areas as complementary researches, this work investigates the applications of these computing technics to modeling an intelligent computational engine with educational personalization purposes. In this resume of a research in progress, a reduced implementation prepared as proof of concept simulating aspects of the target model, operates as centralized adaptive engine. The implemented engine, applied Artificial Neural Networks on classification tasks and routing recommendation. A group of 27 students participated in an experiment interacting with the adaptive engine using a mobile application provided. The mobile application allowed tracking of interface during usage flow by students, and provided to students the adaptive engine recommendation results. Around 59% of students confirmed the recommendation effectiveness of adaptive engine. In this experiment, at the end of each participation, students sent feedbacks about application features. The current results indicate the viability of computational model related to automation of classification tasks to environment identification and activity routing recommendation. In brief, the initial experiment presented encouraging results, indicating that the continuity of research could result in a useful tool to online educational platforms. Keywords: Artificial Neural Networks, Artificial Intelligence, ContextAware Computing, Multiagent Systems.

117

INTRODUCTION This research investigates the elements of an artificial intelligent model to support the personalization of educational process. Currently, with growing mobile computing adoption, students involved in educational process can perform activities interacting with a variety of application platforms, devices and physical environments in different locales. Considering the growth of online curses, this scenario creates an opportunity and a requirement to increase the availability of educational resources in different locations and appropriate time. To realize it in a proper manner, educational environments and resources should be mapped and analyzed to correctly identify and qualify its relevance to students within learning process. An automated and adaptive computational model can be applied to perform this process. The basic behavior expected to this model should vary according to specific student's needs and experience on each environment accessed and depends on student's profile interacting with the model. This intelligent computational model comprehends collect and process information from various studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perspectives, including data of urban mobility, social networks, educational activities, environments frequented and educational resources. In a concrete example, if a student performs educational tasks interacting with social networks on a bookstore and change location to a library or university, this change of location can reflect on type of media provided as content in social network accessed. Beyond the adaptability of content provided, the model manages useful information regarding availability of physical resources on a given environment, like 3D printers and other educational equipment under reservation or limited usage polices in locations intended to be visited by students. In current technological scenario, the most common computing interaction to activate and coordinate similar behavior could be through mobile and wearable devices connected on wireless networks and in mostly cases activating different applications. Considering the possibilities of variety models of applications in student's interaction, the unconnected flow of information and unmanaged process of activation between these applications, can distract the student from specific and relevant educational content. The computational model proposed in this research covers an alternative approach to support reduction of student time loss on content mapping and collection. Another aspect of proposed model is automated planning of educational tasks and its optimized route. The optimized route allows anticipate technical setup tasks with environments while students moves from a locale to another. This article introduces the basic concepts of this work in progress, the research proposing an adaptive computational model structured to support studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interactions with context-aware environments. Considering the research comprehensiveness, this paper highlights the scope of optimized routing and the process of context-aware interaction. Results of first experiments involving this scope are presented. This article summarizes the others complementary concepts

118

covered by research. The content of this paper is organized in the following structure: An introduction to Context-Aware Computing is presented on Section II. Multiagent Systems and Context-Aware Computing are introduced in a correlated domain at Section III. A macro view of proposed EducActiveCore platform and the its principal decomposition and objectives is presented in Section IV. Initial conclusions and next phases are introduced on Section V.

CONTEXT-AWARE COMPUTING: DEFINITION, MODELS AND APPLICATIONS A. Definition and Computing Models Context-Aware computing models can be described essentially by computational environments that can adapt itself and current context based on user presence and interactions (Henricksen, et al., 2006), without explicit user supervision or intervention to this adaptive process (Baldauf, et al., 2007). There is no a final definition and rigid boundary to specify what compose a contextaware environment. Authors refer to key characteristics most appropriate to their research to define resources and services of a context. Some common descriptions of these resources are presented as information describing and characterizing a person or object in interaction with computer application (Abowd, et al., 1999). Beyond the informational aspects, physical elements and temporality of available resources (Bellavista, et al., 2012) went published as features that are central to define a context. Previous researches (Schilit, et al., 1994) resumed the context computing as a result on combination of three information domains regarding on where computational resources are, what kind of resources is provided and, who is using it. Modeling these characteristics in attributes, import and exchange it in form of relevant information to identify a context is a key process to support the context computing adaptive process (Makris, et al., 2013). The changing process of a context started by sensors, network events, mobile device location detection or the combination of all these examples, provides several new different set of attributes to describe the context and its related resources.

B. Context-Aware Learning Application To start the base reference of this research, works on context-aware computing applications within educational and learning domains, helps to define the objective and scope of this research central model. Investigations and development on context-aware applications to support learning process can be found on domains like language learning (Ogata, et al., 2004), using environment recognition to apply a compatible vocabulary according to userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s location, supported by mobile devices and highlighting the importance of mobile devices to interact with context and evolving the application to detect the collaborative situational needs (Ingersoll, et al., 1989). Another example based on context-aware computing implementing an instructional application (Cheverst, et al., 2000) is built to identify tourist locations, relevant content and help tourist

119

guides to take decisions considering the best matches for the group of visitors. Considerations of mobile device relevance within these tourist guide assistant and how embedding the solution on mobile devices to turn invisible and accessible to users was introduced. On collaborative learning, previous research investigates learning environment built on a peer-to-peer architecture (Yang, S. J., 2006) and demonstrate the applicability of a common protocol (using metadata structure) to determine context resources identification, information extraction and interoperability. The structure of meta-data, proposed in form of context-aware learning environment ontology, is processed with an adaptive model to evolve the ontology with aim to expand the interoperability.

MULTI-AGENT SYSTEMS AND CONTEXT-AWARE COMPUTING Commonly, Context-Aware Computing considers the self-managed configuration. Previous investigations with Agent systems applied to ContextAware Computing, covered e-commerce business domains applying intelligent negotiation through case base reasoning and context history analysis (Kwon, et al., 2004). Related to user context personalization, frameworks based on Internet webservices, Internet address identification and segmentation proposes frameworks to act on behalf of users on pre-selection and definition of context content and services before turn it available to users (Kwon, et al., 2005). References regarding technical aspects to support multiconnected environments using agent-based model (Soldatos, et al., 2007) helps to establish this work base. Related researches covering the orchestration needs performed by multiple agents to process individual tasks adapting it behavior according to a collective result (Aouatef, et al., 2014) indicates an applicability of the concepts together. Previous research presented a specific approach proposing adaptive content to Digital TV environment applying the multi-agent model on personalization of educational process (Santos, F. R. D., 2010). Diverse domains of applicability with multi-agent and context-aware computing establish support to this current research and, mainly, those that directs the investigation to educational models.

EDUCACTIVECORE: ADAPTIVE SUPPORT TO STUDENT'S INTERACTIVITY WITH CONTEXT-AWARE COMPUTING Research Proposal and Objectives The main objective of this research is propose an intelligent computational model to provide a multimodal tool to support student’s interactivity with context-aware environments during educational process. The multimodal concept considered in this research is regarding to student's and educator’s perspectives attended by this model, named as EducActiveCore. Observed from the perspective of a tool to education domain experts, this model has the objective to be an additional tool to acquire information about data related to learning tasks elaborated by other educators, content recommended to students through automated process and expert’s designation. As complementary objective, is to help educators to identify how this content and the mode of its access impacts and influence the result of learning process

120

performed by students. Based on shared data, collected and processed by this model, educators can select elements from shared set of tasks and student's profiles to reuse or adjust these elements to compose a new task. This new task composition must be perceived by adaptive model through processing (applying machine learning process) and, as result of this processing, the model can suggest to educator a new alternative on task composition. From the centric perspective on students, adaptive support involving learning process emerges with the combination of context-aware computing and artificial Intelligent Agents acting on learn profiling and personalization of student’s interactions with tasks execution. Observed within this objective, the model performs a similar usefulness of an analytics system specific to process educational data. This approach delimits the boundaries of main behavior proposed: intelligent recommendation, being active and adaptive on student’s perspective. Active aspects foreseen to this model performs identification on what learning tasks students are involved, searching and classifying relevant content and resources to establish and, finally, identify the appropriate approach to provide it to students. Complementary active aspect is context-aware interaction. Beyond the actual digital consuming profile of students with multiconnected and decentralized (Rosaci, D., & Sarné, G. M., 2010) computer interaction behavior, moving its attention from screens like Smart TVs, using console games, tablets, smartphones and mobile devices, all those devices interconnected and providing convergent media content, the wearable devices and context-aware computing are evolving rapidly. Adaptive aspect in this model processing, applied in the combination of all these personal computing technologies makes sense to facilitate the access to educational resources in right place, time and format aiming fine profile personalization. It can turn available a new perspective to understand the student’s learning behavior and allow educators acquire new point of view on how student’s location moving pattern, device changing and content selection reflects on learning results. Observing this student’s behavior as an object containing the perspective of student’s navigation flow, reinforces the need of fine personalization and characterization like previous researches covered (Silva, L., et al., 2006). Connected applications have been developed under convergence perspective of content and user interface familiarity. Usability and computer human interaction aspects are constantly reviewed considering multi screen access (Viel, C. C., et al., 2013), normally covering mobile screens (smartphones and tablets), desktop and large screens (Smart TVs and digital displays) and, recently, the wareable devices (smartwhatch and connected glasses). Concerning the learning application aspects, this variety should be observed in its usefulness and effectiveness. Related to this problem, one approach proposed to support this research, is to perform the observation on how student’s behavior transitioning through different environments, using devices to access educational content and, moving

121

from several distinct connected environments, influences on performance results. The focus on this point considers the environments context-aware supported. One of the main reasons is the ability to provide connection services to learners and, hence, interconnection capabilities allowing exchange information with this proposed platform.

Model Definition and Description The central point of this research, apply different and complementary computational models, since Genetic Algorithms to Artificial Intelligent Agents. Thin boundaries and interoperability needs of the macro components idealized, leads this research to propose a modular organization (Figure 1), initially structured by responsibility domains.

Figure 1. Overview of domain composition.

Figure 1 contains an organization of main structural components foreseen. The short summary of each component and its objective in the research is described.

C. Social Network Processing Social Network platforms are key facilitators to stimulate learners sharing (Chow, W. S., & Chan, L. S., 2008) knowledge and interaction within groups. Aggregated to this view, emerges multiplicity of mobile educational applications (Ally, M. (Ed.)., 2009) socially connected. The Social Network Processing is initially proposed as an engine to act as abstraction hub, aggregating the diversity of attributes regarding studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s collaboration preferences. Different from the other components of EducActiveCore platform, that are threated as models, which can be subdivided in several engines or complementary models, this engine does not predicts evolve by itself. It necessary must attend the selected social networks to establish interoperability.

D. Collaboration Model Collaboration Model is defined in the scope of this research as an engine to manage and promote the process of sharing attributes and metadata of educational tasks. Being a premise for this research conception, the shareable characteristic of a given collection of attributes and metadata related to task composition and performance results, are assembled with a set of additional attributes indicating the level of readiness to reuse. The importance of this

122

engine as complement on Educator’s Interaction Model processing is to perform cyclic analysis on tasks, identifying which group of tasks reach the level of completeness to compose the result on a query for similarity. With this additional processing centered in collaboration model, complex filtering algorithms involving this operation can be modified and evolve the engine independently from Educator’s Interaction Model.

E. Educator’s Interaction Model Educator’s Interaction Model manages amount and variability of data collection generated by observation, interactivity and tracking of student’s activity. It provides to educator an analytic view, allowing use the result to tracking in fine granularity level the flow performed by learners as input to create new activities based on parameters generated from previous tasks. It enables the computational model to be used as a task templates repository to educators, allowing starting a new task with reusing the existents through querying or dynamically recommended. The applicability of Kernel processing is considered as support on task creation or task template extraction, to help educators reach the right match for defined purposes.

F. Content Identification and Recommendation Model As intrinsic part of adaptability and personalization process performed in conjunction with Kernel and Multiagent Model, is content identification, filtering and recommendation as main result from these combined process. Considering the delimited objectives and the modularity proposed to this research, the model responsible for recommendation can act as complimentary on overall processing. The interaction between Recommender Model and Kernel, occurs under a qualitative evaluation of information recommended to learner. This qualitative evaluation is based on a fit indicator of information relevance to learner considering a specific domain. An example of evaluation with fit indicator within a specific domain, can be described by a recommendation with a set of information mapped in an educational task witch student’s performance threshold is considered satisfactory. If student’s performance threshold is not reached and identified as unsatisfactory, the fit indicator is applied to content indicating a lower priority on reuse for similar educational tasks.

G. Learner Assistant Model The main objective of Learner Assistant Model is turn available to students an interactive tool to receive notifications, improve the dynamic of communication with other users and adjust personal profile information and preferences of platform usage. The processing from Kernel and Agent model are presented to learners as a result from combination of Kernel process synchronized with local Agent and resulting in a new state for local Agent and an updated state for notifications, messages and an eventual adjustment of interface that represents Learner Assistant model.

123

H. Knowledge Model Knowledge Model isolates adaptive kernel’s algorithms from operations to mining data and the data persistence manipulation process, grouping all related operations into this module. The concepts to persist, search and retrieve the correct data used in each component in proposed model makes sense to be reunited in unique model to abstract the complexity from diverse resources used by the intelligent modules provided and, consequently, its generated data.

I. Adaptive Processing Kernel This is the main model proposed on this research, containing the collection of algorithms acting as unique artificial intelligent engine. The aim of this kernel is identify the proper combination of student’s behavior with computing interaction and, execute the orchestration of the complementary models to increase student’s performance results on educational tasks. Each complementary model proposed to interoperate with the Kernel, can decrease the algorithm implementation needs on Kernel and allows specific points of structure evaluation, adjust and replacement according to research’s evolving and enhancement process.

Figure 2. Processing coordinated by Kernel.

Figure 2 contains an illustration exemplifying the flow of macro interoperability foreseen between components. In this simple draft, without any precision and details of all operations expected, the arrows indicate which modules communicates directly with each other. Observing the illustration, the arrows indicates interaction flows between Kernel and Multiagent Model, and between Multiagent Model and Learner Assistant Model. This example indicates that there is no direct interaction between Learner Assistant Model to Kernel without Multiagent Model intermediation. Decouple central Kernel algorithms from operations of complementary components (case of storing and retrieving data which is an operation of Knowledge Model), contributes to rapidly reorganize the Kernel algorithms, data flow and evolve it independently of changes on support modules due to replacement and adjust. This strategy keeps the scope of Kernel in its boundary that is adaptive and predictive support on learning process.

124

Processing the prediction of best match with diverse student’s specific requirements and interaction elements, technological environment, context aspects and the frequent changes involved in this process, needs continuous parameterization and adjustment. With computing models requiring constantly human intervention or supervision on data and parameter input, this adjustment process could be inefficient. Starting from initial large amount of attributes and related values and, determining the coefficients to direct the processing to appropriate results through interactive process are inherent characteristics of computing applying machine learning models. The set of algorithms in this Kernel, is organized to perform precisely mining and tracking on data collected from the complementary models. Knowledge Model provides the mining and tracking process, allowing the deep navigation in data collected, on proper format and structure depending on how the Kernel algorithms performs the query. This set of algorithms is divided into two groups of distinct operation; Students Evaluation and Students Personalization.

1) Students Evaluation Within Student’s Evaluation operation, the algorithms collect student’s data results related to educational tasks and determine their acceptance according to specific parameters. These parameters, initially established on Educator’s Interaction Model, evolve by combination of different computational technics, highlighting the application of methods adapted from Genetic Algorithms (Mitchell, M., 1998). Considering application of crossover operation from genetic algorithms, a sub selection of attributes from a parameter, combined with a second sub selection of attributes from another parameter, compose the new resultant parameter. An exhaustive analysis of each attribute contained on a given parameter to identify throughout comparison steps what could be the best for this case, possibly decreases the performance and effectiveness of algorithm. An internal organization for parameters and its classification according processing objectives, permits an identification of attribute influence due its labelled mark and position inside parameter. The parameters, are composed by complex attributes collection (for contextservice representation example). This similar internal organization of parameters is applied to other parameter classes (student’s profile, path followed to execute the defined educational task etc.) considering its specific characteristics and application. To determine the next enhanced parameters in relation to those covered on previous iteration which global result was indicated as not compatible with the criteria of acceptance, subsets of attributes from previous parameters (especially those indicated as locally positive to process) are selected and combined on a new parameter. In this scenario, indicate the attribute’s local performance implies to apply a fitness index to each attribute evaluated (locally and globally) and store this data to increase the historical knowledge base for intelligent mining and extraction. Following the example of context-service representation, from student’s

125

perspective, the usefulness result of this process is provide a new logical and optimized suggestion on how take advantage of the resources provided by current context identified or even the location mapped as next destination. Identifying what is the next location and, hence, context-service available as other related personal preference anticipation depends on complementary processing performed by group of personalization algorithms.

2) Students Personalization The group of algorithms responsible for Student’s Personalization performs its operation in alternate mode: In Self-operation mode and, in Cooperation mode. Self-operation mode occurs evaluating and monitoring student’s interaction behavior on context environments, social networks, content recommendation and collaboration model, forming a Frame of Student’s Profile.

Figure 3. Process of Frame definition.

Figure 3 illustrates the macro process of Frame definition, considering the different models foreseen. Attributes of interactions being normalized to weights and submitted to an evaluation process can indicate which model is predominant at the instant of Frame composition. In cooperation mode, in response of Student’s Evaluation process, this mode performs a cycle correlating student’s task performance with the frame obtained. This scenario is expected mainly on educational task with incremental evaluation. Tracking the Frame, allows the evaluation process to identify its recurrence and variability, hence, the influence on student’s task performance. If evaluation process detects a Frame recurrence, and correlates it to a task results with lower performance, this Frame (attributes and predominant configuration) will be marked with an indicator of performance ranking (lower in this case) and postponed on the future suggestion on similar cases. The algorithms used to determine the Frame, are based on Artificial Neural Network models, specifically a backpropagation model (Basheer, I. A., & Hajmeer, M., 2000). A crude analogy between artificial neural network models and the cooperation mode, permits associate the messages received from student’s evaluation process with neurotransmitter to activate a new iteration to update Frame identification process.

126

Is not scope of this research apply integrally and rigorously genetic algorithms models and operations used as reference (Mitchell, M., 1998) and all artificial neural networks technics (Basheer, I. A., & Hajmeer, M., 2000). The machine learning models theory and the algorithms elaborated in this research to compose kernel’s evolving process, must attend implementation according to expected operation on research.

J. Intelligent Multiagent Model To support students in interaction process, a Multiagent Model is proposed to act as local personalized assistant. For the purpose of this research, as a solution using context aware computing, becomes useful local processing with the set of records with last actions executed and, with minimal data used to compute the current action according to student’s perspective. The concept of local processing in this scenario, refers to Multiagent operation independent of interconnection with Kernel. This Multiagent Model is foreseen to frequently communicate online with Kernel but emerges as necessary due to common issues related to complementary resources like data repository based on cloud platforms and its availability (Alshwaier, A., et al., 2012) or while a network connection is not available for example. The aim of applying Intelligent Multiagent Model in this research is to simplify the different local computation models. From student’s utility view, the Agent Model can be available as embedded application on personal connected devices searching for available connections and service discovering on a context-aware environment according to student’s profile and needs.

Figure 4. Multiagent system as protocol interaction

The Figure 4, illustrates the macro view of interaction with a local instance on embedded application and its remote replica. The same Agent representation can be transported to an identified context-aware environment (in this case, acting as a protocol) and perform different computation using local resources from environment instead of consuming local processing from student’s device. This strategy reduces the problems related to device’s energy efficiency and other questions that could affect student’s experience with embedded application containing Agent Model.

127

Considering this approach to use the student’s local Agent as a protocol to communicate with context-aware environments, allows device’s embedded application to send data related to student’s profile and educational tasks where this learner is involved, previous activities performed and its results, next activities and all other necessary data used by local Agent to execute its processing

Figure 5. Agent Model specialization

An example of differences and specialization levels of each Agent model is illustrated on Figure 5. This set of data, representing the student’s local Agent, creates another instance of Agent on context-aware environment. This new instance, is described in this research as remote Agent, due its additional behavior to process according to environment model using initial state received as input parameters. Specialization applied to each Agent model attends the variability aspects of context-aware environments where some attributes and behavior related to student’s profile is shared to perform remote Agent tasks and, considering environment characteristics, specific behavior and attributes are inherent of processing. Tasks performed by remote Agent on context-aware environment, return to student’s device as a result to update and merge behavior with device’s agent instance and reflect its results on Kernel synchronization and Learner Assistant Model.

K. Context Aware Model - Service Discovery and Resource Identification Considering the objectives of this research, the basic concept of context aware model must contain resources provided by a combination of physical location identification, descriptors and its digital services, observing the student’s profile and needs. The model composition of services and resources are intrinsically characteristic to environment accessed by learner. A university laboratory can provide a 3D printer. A bookstore allows access on its book catalog. A commercial center indicates the store with specific scholar supplies. These distinct examples of environment differ on purpose and may differ on its characterization but they should present similarity with other environments under same objective classes.

128

Organizing these different group of environments classes in a common vision, consolidates the need of an interpretation where a service discovery and resource identification process must abstract the variability of each class implementation details from student’s local Agent. Conceptually observing the local Agent behavior on Service Discovery and Resource Identification interaction, some common elements from context-aware platforms definition (Zimmermann, A., et al., 2007) emerges as necessary to insure the abstraction level and reduced complexity model applied to local Agent.

Figure 6. Context Aware Platform organization

The Figure 6 illustrates this research vision with a macro organization of components proposed to establish a context-aware computing environment. The upper layer Context Aware Presentation, communicate with local Agent to present the service discovery and resource identification. The service discovery, provides the catalog of available services in environment. Operations operation of resource identification, permits the compatibility verification with a local Agent's action intent related to a determined service previously discovered. Segmentation Model layer contains the management of user adaptability that control the level of interaction with learner. The context adaptability uses this level of interaction as parameter to calibration and setup with learner without interaction history. In an overall and integrated example, if a local Agent queries and discovers an available 3D print service, resources engine verifies if the necessary drivers and supplies are compatible to attend the print request for student’s project. If an incompatibility between service and requisition is detected, the resources engine could be update the available drivers to attend the request, if applicable. Eventually, a request for supplies reposition can be started if it turn insufficient. In case of impossibility with supplies reposition or driver’s updates, the context segmentation configures the unavailability of this service specifically to user or group of users, and reflects it on presentation model to avoid new requests to same service.

129

PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS Introducing the problem and scope of initial experiment The algorithms regarding Multiagent and Kernel computational models proposed in this research, interacting with context-aware environment, are focus of initial feasibility study, and composes the first part of experiment. Due to expected variability of locales in interaction with students, becomes necessary identify and classify these locales not only based on their descriptors or identifiers provided. Given this scenario, an automated process to classify and recommend the environments mapped by Kernel, where students can access and perform educational activities, is an interesting point of analysis. A group of algorithms was elaborated to compose this second part of initial experiment.

Structure of Experiment Considering the broad effort to implement all necessary algorithms and infrastructure foreseen in this research, a reduced set of functionalities and computational resources was combined to simulate a fraction of overall model described previously. At current stage of this research in progress, the adaptive computational model proposed has a minimum flow of its logic implemented as an experimental platform to proof of concept. This flow consists in data processing to simulate classification tasks related to student’s educational activities and interactions with context-aware environments: Classification of Environment and Routing Recommendation to student’s activities. Routing Recommendation includes the implementation of mobile application to simulate the basic Multiagent operation. The research will analyze different intelligent computing architectures. In this experiment based on classification task, was applied Artificial Neural Networks. Classification process involves assigning objects into determined groups or classes based on a number of observed attributes related to those objects. The objective of experiment as proof of concept is not exhaustively compare the different architectures of neural networks and its variants (Samarasinghe, S. 2016). A neural network with Multi Layer perceptron (MLP) architecture was selected to experiment. This type of network is widely used for pattern classification, recognition, prediction, approximation and problems which are not linearly separable (Maren, A. J., et al., 2014). The structure of this experiment consists in a group of algorithms implemented to establish Kernel classification tasks using MLP Neural Networks. Distinct implementations of MLPs was used on this classification tasks. The implementation of MLPs was used to classify locales, and a set of complementary specific algorithms was implemented to execute routing recommendation and, to simulate interactivity with context-aware environments. A group of volunteer’s (university students) from distance education regular courses were invited to test the platform in parallel with their real use situations. The tracking of mobile application interface used by student's during platform tests was collected. The macro description of main process implemented during experiment are described as follows:

130

Kernel Classification Task: Determining the class of Locale The following main steps of MLP neural network implementation and execution was executed: A. Obtain/prepare dataset with attributes and records of experiment and test B. Normalize dataset C. Select training set to classification tasks D. Implement neural network to classification E. Train the networks F. Test the networks The primary classification task, will indicate the class of context aware locale in studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s current interaction where educational activities and their related contents are accessed and performed. In this initial experiment, the classes of environments went distinguished in two basic classes: Class of Educational Environment (EE) and Class of General Use (GU). The EE class refers to locale with specific educational and research purposes, including schools, libraries, universities research centers. The GU class, groups other locales with commercial or public services not specific to educational objectives.

Obtain and Prepare Data Set An educational attributes collection used as reference was obtained in http://equipment.data.ac.uk/. This data collection, forms a database aggregating equipment information across a number of UK universities and contains over 24.000 records and contains 27 attributes. The original set of attributes in this dataset after pre-processed and filtered to this experiment purposes, was reduced to following 8 attributes: 1. Type 2. Name 3. Description 4. Related Facility 5. ID 6. Technique 7. Location 8. Contact Name To elaborate a quality list of real attributes regarding General Use locales that are compatible and complimentary to attributes previously mapped, the list of attributes was based on https://www.wbdg.org/space-types/joint-use-retail. This reference contains structured descriptors to build common spaces and its related standards of architectures and services. These attributes used in the classification process are: 9. Entry Display 10. Cashier Counter 11. Display 12. Customer Service

131

13. Representatives 14. Manager Office 15. Staff Workstations 16. Lavatory 17. Store Room 18. Housekeeping Considering a data repository that conforms with this list of attributes, the sample records of this experiment was obtained from https://coworkingbrasil.org. It is a platform that aggregates information about Brazilian cowering spaces from diverse finalities and characteristics, including commercial and educational spaces. Performing queries in this platform for diverse available places, resulted in approximately 720 records to generate a initial dataset according to attributes defined. An attribute indicating this previously know class (EE class or GU class) of records was added indicating its category: 19. Environment.

Normalizing Data Set Attributes of dataset went normalized in range from 0 to 1 depending on it completeness and relevance in educational purposes. Considering the attributes of dataset in priority order, attributes from 1 to 8 has more relevance to determine if locale belongs to EE class. For example, the attribute ID on this dataset, contains the URL address of real photo related to equipment/resource indicated on record. Since this attribute contains verifiable data of resource, it receives the value 1 in normalization process. If data in attribute points to an incorrect image or non URL (absence of http prefix or â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;indicating a domain, for example) a lower value than 1 was applied, and if no data available, 0 was used. With dataset prepared with know sources of records, two output attributes added at end of dataset indicates the class. This is useful to prepare training data and validate the network after training process.

Creating Training Set In this coworking dataset, there is 350 records stablished as a main training set to this experiment, distributed in 200 records of GU class and 150 records with educational class (including scholar public spaces). Training Data distribution CLASS EE

Total Records 150

200

% Training set 43% 57%

Table 1. Class distribution

Table 1 contains the records distribution of main training dataset. Additionally, a set of 30 records (15 of each class) was selected to form a Test Set. A collection of records to validate the MLP neural network after training.

132

Implementing Neural Network To first classification task, a MLP neural network was implemented to attend attributes mapped as neurons inputs.

Figure 7. MLP Neural Network layers.

Figure 7 illustrates the topology of neurons in this network was distributed in an input layer with one neuron for each input parameter (attributes from 1 to 18), a hidden layer distributed in four neurons with randomized weights and two output neurons as result. This topology was defined after stable processing time on tests with generic dataset with higher amount of records.

Training Neural Network The type of training method chosen to this first classification task is Supervised training, to intend minimize the error of classification through an iterative process. Supervised training is accomplished by providing to neural network a sample dataset with the anticipated outputs expected for each record of these samples. As the process of supervised training proceeds, the neural network is taken through a number of iterations, until the output of the neural network matches the anticipated output, with a reasonably small and predefined rate of error. Error rate we find to be appropriate to make the network well trained is set just before the training starts. In this classification task, the highest error rate was defined around 0.010. The target limit defined 0.010 reached nearby 91 iterations and after reduction, keeps in stable converging with Mean Square Error approximately at: 0.0073344.

Testing Neural Networks In MLP implemented, all selected test records where identified correctly validating the training process.

133

Test Results MLP

Total Records Tested

% Success

Classification of Environment EE

100%

Classification of Environment GU

100%

Table 2. Result for MLP tests

Table 2 contains the amount of and the result of each class tested. To environment classification test, 30 records selected from test set was successfully categorized by MLP, being 15 from EE class and 15 from GU class. With this process, the minimal Kernel engine becomes able to identify and classify locales.

Mobile Application: Simulator of Multiagent model The mobile application built, contains the algorithms orchestrating communication with Kernel engine. Given its reduced functionalities, there is no interoperability from mobile application with studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s university platform. The dynamic proposed to participants of experiment, was to indicate on application what are the next tasks to execute and, point desired resources to be used to accomplished it.

Figure 8. Mobile Application: routing recommendation interface

Figure 8 illustrates the main activity panel of mobile application. Simulating the local Agent behavior, this implementation provides the navigation presented through integration with map services, computing locally the distance and time to reach next locale. The definition of point B presented on map as recommended destination, is defined by Kernel and queried by local Agent. This recommendation is based on a list of activities previously load into platform by

134

students. The algorithms implemented in Kernel, considers the description of necessary resources point by students and their current location coordinates. If a student confirms the start of an activity and confirm the recommendation, the accept signal of suggestion is collected to rank Kernel process as assertive. The data of coordinates collected automatically in perimeter of suggested locale, confirms this process.

Figure 9. Capture of main interfaces Figure 9 contains, in the sequence, the screens with activity start selection, the list of studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s activities and the form to indicate a new locale. In the application interface, an evaluation feedback about the locale and its resources is available to students and makes part of rank computation. If students decide to execute the activity in an unknown location, the application provides a form to describe the new place, added by a check-in process where coordinates of locale are collected. Other data related to application use by students are collected to evaluate additional questions regarding time of application use, frequency of use and operation events like network issues, for example.

RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK A detailed analysis on data collected by participants, demonstrates that given the 35 initial volunteers, 27 students followed the experiment until its expected ending. Tracking application use and navigation behavior, we identify that 16 students followed the route recommended by Kernel without location changes. Other 7 students changed the location suggested after issues with target resources and problems related to infrastructure. A special case of 4 students performed its activities indicating new locations not previously loaded into dataset. Without previous knowledge about the overall scope foreseen to this platform, students sent feedbacks at the end of each participation. They mentioned the absence of integration between the application provided and their educational platform, as an important functionality to be complemented. In these observations collected, students mentioned the effective resources reservation, and information about related costs if applicable on recommended

135

locales, as desirable functionality to be added to application. In this group, 16 students suggested an integration between this application with Google Allo and Apple Siri services. All 27 students pointed this application as a desirable tool in online education platforms if provided communication with their teachers. The feedback collected, reinforces the needs to elaborate the interactivity between the Kernel and context-aware environments, providing more information elements to student decisions. This research, faces challenge related to security, identity and privacy information management that needs to be covered. Social Networks and physical places sharing educational content and data related to groups and individuals, requires a deep and clear view on ethic questions and right methods to manipulate this information. The centric propose on this research, using artificial intelligence models to support the platform, requires an accurate analysis on which model of load, calibration and criteria of verification will be adequate to determine the refinement process of computational models proposed. Technical questions regarding to architecture of platform implementation constitute an important phase to define the ideal setup to more flexible and evolve the proposed architecture. For this case, some aspects of reconfigurable and dynamic architectures will be investigated to improve the model. To support preserve the extensibility and evolving model as an open platform, a minimum set of patterns to computational maintenance, manageability and related aspects will be investigated and adequate to this research on its implementation process. Addressing points regarding information security and architectural patterns, the interoperability with educational platforms and context-aware environment can be stablished. Context-Aware Computing definition and modeling must conform the target platform requirements considering the evolutionary environment and, to support reach this objective, a complementary study of ontology and common environment description will be covered during this research. This initial experiment indicates the implementation viability of computational model proposed in the research. The experimental behavior using the strategy of separated implementation to process environment classification an activities routing and recommendation, allows the use of different computational models (external components or specialized platforms acting as modular services) in interaction with Kernel processing as proposed in this research conception. The experiment is not conclusive in relation of definitive neural network topology and methods and, the better computational intelligence techniques to be applied on evolving model as its comprehensive form proposed on this research. The continuity of investigations will cover these theoretical details and

136

technical aspects. The complexity of environment attribute identification and verification presents one of most relevant problems to solve and, consequently, determine the method to data normalization. Conclusions initially obtained of current investigations and initial experiment provides base to evolve the research, considering the direction of educational platforms moving to cloud environment to attend growing of online courses and, consequently, the personification as a need in educational process. The interactive educator's perspective, contemplated in next phase of investigation, will analyze the approach to intermediate communication between actors involved in this dynamic. In parallel, points covered at current stage of investigation, will be improved according to new findings.

REFERENCES Abowd, G., Dey, A., Brown, P., Davies, N., Smith, M., & Steggles, P. (1999). Towards a better understanding of context and context-awareness. In Handheld and ubiquitous computing (pp. 304-307). Springer Berlin/Heidelberg. Alshwaier, A., Youssef, A., & Emam, A. (2012). A new trend for e-learning in KSA using educational clouds. Advanced Computing, 3(1), 81. Doi: https://doi.org/10.5121/acij.2012.3107. Ally, M. (Ed.). (2009). Mobile learning: Transforming the delivery of education and training. Athabasca University Press. Aouatef, C., Iman, B., & Allaoua, C. (2014, August). Adaptive composition of services in context-aware ambient intelligent systems. In Proceedings of the 2014 International C* Conference on Computer Science & Software Engineering (p. 26). ACM. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1145/2641483.2641535 Baldauf, M., Dustdar, S., & Rosenberg, F. (2007). A survey on context-aware systems. International Journal of Ad Hoc and Ubiquitous Computing, 2(4), 263-277. Basheer, I. A., & Hajmeer, M. (2000). Artificial neural networks: fundamentals, computing, design, and application. Journal of microbiological methods, 43(1), 3-31. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-7012(00)00201-3 Bellavista, P., Corradi, A., Fanelli, M., & Foschini, L. (2012). A survey of context data distribution for mobile ubiquitous systems. ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), 44(4), 24. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1145/2333112.2333119 Chow, W. S., & Chan, L. S. (2008). Social network, social trust and shared goals in organizational knowledge sharing. Information & management, 45(7), 458-465. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2008.06.007 Henricksen, K., & Indulska, J. (2006). Developing context-aware pervasive computing applications: Models and approach. Pervasive and mobile computing, 2(1), 37-64. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmcj.2005.07.003 Hsu, M. H. (2008). A personalized English learning recommender system for ESL students. Expert Systems with Applications, 34(1), 683-688. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2006.10.004 Ingersoll, G. M., Scamman, J. P., & Eckerling, W. D. (1989). Geographic mobility and student achievement in an urban setting. Educational evaluation and policy analysis, 11(2), 143-149. Doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/1163781

137

Kwon, O. B., & Sadeh, N. (2004). Applying case-based reasoning and multi-agent intelligent system to context-aware comparative shopping. Decision Support Systems, 37(2), 199-213. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-9236(03)00007-1 Kwon, O., Choi, S., & Park, G. (2005). NAMA: A context-aware multi-agent based web service approach to proactive need identification for personalized reminder systems. Expert Systems with Applications, 29(1), 17-32. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2005.01.001 López-Nores, M., Blanco-Fernández, Y., Pazos-Arias, J. J., & Gil-Solla, A. (2012). Property-based collaborative filtering for health-aware recommender systems. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(8), 7451-7457. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2012.01.112 Makris, P., Skoutas, D. N., & Skianis, C. (2013). A survey on context-aware mobile and wireless networking: On networking and computing environments' integration. IEEE communications surveys & tutorials, 15(1), 362-386. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/surv.2012.040912.00180 Maren, A. J., Harston, C. T., & Pap, R. M. (2014). Handbook of neural computing applications. Academic Press. Mitchell, M. (1998). An introduction to genetic algorithms. MIT press. Ogata, H., & Yano, Y. (2004). Context-aware support for computer-supported ubiquitous learning. In 2nd IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education. Proceedings. (pp. 27-34). IEEE. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/wmte.2004.1281330 Rosaci, D., & Sarné, G. M. (2010). Efficient Personalization Of E‐Learning Activities Using A Multi‐Device Decentralized Recommender System. Computational Intelligence, 26(2), 121-141. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8640.2009.00343.x Santos, F. R. D. (2010). Comunidades Virtuais Baseadas Em Vídeo Digital: Uma Proposta de Conteúdo Adaptativo Pautada em Redes de Aprendizagem e Agentes Inteligentes (master’s thesis). Mackenzie Presbyterian University, São Paulo, SP, Brazil. Retrieved from http://tede.mackenzie.br/jspui/handle/tede/1514 Samarasinghe, S. (2016). Neural networks for applied sciences and engineering: from fundamentals to complex pattern recognition. CRC Press. Schilit, B., Adams, N., & Want, R. (1994, December). Context-aware computing applications. In First Workshop on Mobile Computing Systems and Applications. (pp. 85-90). IEEE. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1109/mcsa.1994.512740 Silva, L., Mustaro, P. N., Stringhini, D., & Silveira, I. F. (2006). Using Conceptual Lattices to Represent Fine Granular Learning Objects through SCORM MetaObjects. Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 4(2), 141-148. Soldatos, J., Pandis, I., Stamatis, K., Polymenakos, L., & Crowley, J. L. (2007). Agent based middleware infrastructure for autonomous context-aware ubiquitous computing services. Computer Communications, 30(3), 577-591. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comcom.2005.11.018 Viel, C. C., Melo, E. L., Pimentel, M. D. G., & Teixeira, C. A. (2013, November). Multimedia multi-device educational presentations preserved as interactive multi-video objects. In Proceedings of the 19th Brazilian symposium on Multimedia and the web (pp. 51-58). ACM. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1145/2526188.2526211 Yang, S. J. (2006). Context aware ubiquitous learning environments for peer-to-peer collaborative learning. Educational Technology & Society, 9(1), 188-201. Zimmermann, A., Lorenz, A., & Oppermann, R. (2007). An operational definition of context. Context, 7, 558-571. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74255-5_42

138

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No.11, pp. 138-156, November 2017 https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.16.11.8

Influence of Management on Quality Assurance in National Teacher’s Colleges Josephine Lubwama, David Onen and Edris Serugo Kasenene College of Education and External Studies Makerere University, Uganda

Abstract. This study investigated the influence of management on quality assurance in National Teachers Colleges (NTCs) in Uganda. The study was prompted by the persistent complaints from key stakeholders about the deteriorating quality of teacher trainees from the NTCs. The study used the descriptive cross-sectional sample survey research design where both qualitative and quantitative approaches to data collection and analysis were used to gain an in-depth understanding of the issues that were investigated. Data were collected from 79 lecturers, three principals, six deputy principals, three academic registrars, and two officials from the Uganda’s Ministry of Education and Sports. Study respondents were selected through purposive and convenience sampling techniques. Data were analysed through the use of appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics as well as a content analysis technique. Study results revealed that planning (p=.001<.05), controlling (p=.047<.05), and directing (p=.000<.05) have statistically significant influence on quality assurance; meanwhile, organizing (p=.148>.05) has a statistically weak influence on quality assurance in NTCs. The researchers thus concluded that management significantly influences the assurance of quality in NTCs in Uganda, other factors notwithstanding. It was therefore recommended that periodic audits and reviews need to be undertaken by managers of NTCs in order to detect any anomalies regarding quality in their institutions. Besides, the principles of total quality management need to be incorporated in the management of quality at NTCs so as to engage all relevant stakeholders such as students and employees in managing quality at the institutions. Finally, the managers of NTCs are recommended to benchmark and adapt best practices of assuring quality from other institutions of higher education. Keywords: management; quality assurance; planning; organising; controlling.

Introduction World over, the importance of quality education is no longer debatable – more so – the quality of teacher education. This is because as world leaders and educationalists often say, there is “no educational system [in the world that] is

139

better than [the quality of] its teachers” (UNESCO, 2017, para. 1). As a result, the issue of assuring quality in teacher education is a matter of grave concern not only to government and policy-makers but scholars as well. Unfortunately, the process of assuring quality in teacher education is no easy feat – not even for developed nations. The case of National Teacher’s Colleges (NTCs) in Uganda is no exception. In this paper, the researchers present the results of a study that delved into the influence of management on quality assurance in NTCs in Uganda. The investigation was prompted by the persistent complaints from key stakeholders about the deteriorating quality of teacher trainees from these NTCs. In Uganda, NTCs have a history that dates far back to 1948 when the colonial government then established the first teacher training college at Nyakasura. According to Adupa and Mulindwa (1998), the teacher college of the time admitted students who were holders of ordinary school certificate (O’ level) and up-graders who held Grade II teacher certificate. The two authors also contend that for a long time, the teacher training colleges in Uganda continued to produce teachers of relatively very good quality if compared with the ones of today. However, the political and economic events of the 1970s and 80s caused significant damage to the country’s education system leading to a decline in the overall quality of education – including teacher education. Several scholars have already delved into the potential causes of the declining quality of teacher education elsewhere as well as in Uganda. Many such scholars attribute the decline in the quality of teacher education to the weaknesses in the quality assurance systems put in place to guarantee quality in the teacher training institutions. Yet with effective management, it can be hypothesized that quality assurance should be guaranteed. It is this kind of theorization that prompted these researchers to look into how the management in NTCs in Uganda is influencing the assurance of quality in these institutions; thus, the genesis of this investigation. Theoretically, this study was modeled on the theory of total quality management (TQM) advanced in the 1950s by scholars such as Edwards Deming, Joseph M. Juran, and Armand V. Feigenbaum (Smith, 2011). The theory states that an organization should involve all its stakeholders especially staff in the day-to-day management of quality if it is to guarantee the quality of its products and services. In fact, according to Singh (2011), TQM aims to do the right things, right the first time, every time. However, for TQM to be successful, quality management should become the culture of the organisation and the organisation should commit itself to applying the principles of TQM which according to Deming (1986), include: commitment by management and employees, meeting client requirements, improving teams has some systems to facilitate improvement, line management ownership, employee involvement and empowerment, recognition and celebration, focus on processes or improvement plans and specific incorporation in strategic planning (Hashmi, 2017). In this study, the theory of TQM was opted for because although originally the theory was applied to manufacturing operations, and for several years only used in that area, TQM is now a recognized management tool applicable even in the provision of services in public sector organizations including educational

140

institutions. The researchers believed that if the NTCs embraced the principles of TQM in their operations, then quality assurance would be guaranteed. In the study, there were two main concepts: management and quality assurance. According to Rodrigues (2001), management is the process of planning, organizing coordinating, directing, and controlling of resources to achieve organization goals. But, Mullins (2010) defines management as the process of getting things done by working both with and through people operating in organized groups. In this study, the definition of management was borrowed from the work of Rodrigues. As a result, management was looked at as the process by which administrators of NTCs in Uganda, plan, direct, control and organize the quality assurance function of their colleges. The second key concept in this study was quality assurance (QA). According to Harman and Meek (2000), QA refers to “the systematic management and assessment procedures adopted by a higher education institution or system to monitor performance and to ensure achievement of quality outputs or improved quality” (p.iv). Harman again defined QA in a more or less similar manner in his publication of 2000 titled ‘Quality Assurance in Higher Education’. Harvey and Green (1993) and Harvey (2005) on the other hand defined QA as the means by which managers satisfy themselves that mechanisms put in place are working to maintain standards and satisfy all stakeholders that the product meets the prescribed standards. It is this second definition that was adopted for the purpose of this study. As a result, QA was looked at in terms of the systems put in place by the managers of the NTCs to guarantee the production of quality teacher trainees. Contextually, this study was conducted in three out of the five public NTCs in Uganda. This was instigated by the fact that all recent reviews of the NTCs by the Ministry of Education and Sports have been revealing a decline in the quality of teacher trainees from these institutions in spite of the substantial investments that the Ministry has made over the years (Ministry of Education and Sports, 2015). Besides, the organs such as the governing councils and staff committees that were set up to ensure quality in the institutions were reportedly found to be rather inert; and according to some stakeholders, these developments were already beginning to hurt the quality of the products of these institutions since some employers were already complaining about the quality of the teachers trained by the colleges. The researchers believed that if the current scenario persisted, then the graduates of these institutions would eventually be rendered unemployable and this would lead to the wastage of resources used to train them. The researchers specifically wondered if management was playing its due role in guaranteeing quality in the NTCs; thus, the genesis of the study. Study Objectives. This study was intended to establish the influence of management on quality assurance in the NTCs. Specifically, it was meant to find out the influence of: (i) planning; (ii)organizing; (iii)controlling; and (iv)directing on quality assurance in the colleges.

141

Methodology The study employed a descriptive cross-sectional sample survey research design where both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. The use of both qualitative and quantitative data collection approaches was aimed at enabling the researchers to gain an in-depth understanding of the issues under investigation. The data were collected from 79 lecturers, three principals, six deputy principals, three academic registrars, and two officials from the Uganda’s Ministry of Education and Sports using questionnaires (for lecturers only) and interview guide (for the other categories of respondents. This study design was opted for because it enabled the researchers to collect data at one point in time in order to understand the issues that were under investigation without returning to the field to collect data several times. This implies that the research design helped the researchers to cut down on costs and to save time that would be spent in conducting the entire study. In addition, by using the survey design, it was intended to allow the researchers to generalize the findings obtained from the sampled population to the entire target population of the study. The researchers used convenience and purposive sampling techniques to choose the different groups of study subjects. Convenience sampling techniques were used to identify the lecturers while the rest of the members of the sampled population was identified through purposive sampling techniques. These sampling techniques helped in identifying those who were privy to the kind of information that the researchers were interested in. It, therefore, helped to cut down on costs and time that would be wasted trying to gather data from irrelevant subjects. The data were analysed with the use of appropriate statistical techniques and well as content analysis method of qualitative data analysis.

Results The study aimed to determine the influence of management - precisely: planning, organising, controlling, and directing on quality assurance in NTCs. In this section, the researchers present the results of the study. The first result to be presented in Table 1 is on respondents’ background information. Table 1: Demographic characteristics of the respondents

Variable Sex of respondent

Respondent’s roles

Respondent’s highest academic qualification Respondent’s years of service at College

Attributes

Frequency

Percent

54 25 79 23 16 40 79 44 35 79 6 16 22 35 79

68.4 31.6 100.0 29.1 20.3 50.6 100.0 55.7 44.3 100.0 7.6 20.3 27.8 44.3 100.0

Male Female Total Subject Head Departmental Head Ordinary Lecturer Total Bachelor’s Degree Master’s Degree Total Less than a year Between 1 and 5 years 6 – 10 years Above 10 years Total

142

The results in Table 1 show that more male lecturers (68.4%) participated in the study than their female counter-parts (32.6%). This may suggest that there are more male lecturers employed in the NTCs than their female counter-parts. Secondly, the results also show that the majority of the lecturers who participated in this study were ordinary lecturers; that is, individuals with no specific assigned administrative or managerial role(s). This means that the views and opinions they gave regarding how quality is assured in their colleges may not be biased since they hold no administrative posts in the institutions. This may help to raise the validity and reliability of the study findings. Thirdly, the results in Table 1 also indicate that the majority of the lecturers (55.7%) that participated in the study possess bachelor degrees. This implies that the bulk of the study participants were knowledgeable about the issues under investigation. Finally, the results in Table 1 also reveal that the majority of the study participants (72.1%) have worked in their respective colleges for periods extending beyond five years. This implies that they are knowledgeable about the management and the assurance of quality in their institutions. This should also help to raise the validity and reliability of the study results. Descriptive statistics on independent and dependent variables The researchers sought the views of the respondents on each of the study variables that were investigated. The respondents were given statements with which they were requested to agree or disagree in order to determine what they think or feel about the management of their colleges and how it influences quality assurance. The researchers used a three-point Likert scale ranging from disagree (D) coded as 1 to agree (A) - coded as 3. The results depicting the respondents’ views on planning, organising, controlling, and directing are hereby presented in tables 2 to 5. Table 2: Respondents’ rating on items related to planning

Questionnaire Item College plans and services are aligned to institutional mission

D 12 (15.7%)

UD 7 (8.9%)

A 60 (76.0%)

Mean 2.12

SD 1.084

College is focused on ensuring quality of its products

10 (12.6%)

7 (8.9%)

62 (78.5%)

2.33

.0981

Administrators undertake College’s SWOT analysis

6 (7.6%)

10 (12.7%)

63 (79.8)

2.40

.934

College has institutional plan in line with mission

74 (94.7%)

0 (0%)

6 (6.3%)

1.95

.766

All staff are engaged in preparing institutional plans.

4 (5.1%)

12 (15.2%)

63 (79.8%)

2.42

.854

The College has planned/set communication procedures

74 (93.7%)

0 (0.0)

2.5 (6.3%)

2.54

.945

143

College has plan for replenishing its staffing levels

6 (7.6)

5 (6.3%)

68 (86.1%)

2.40

.768

College has CPD programs for its staff

60 (75.9%)

13 (16.5%)

6 (7.6%)

1.94

.965

College has plans for its quality M & E

43 (54.5%)

13 16.5%)

23 (29.1%)

2.61

1.126

College supports staff in ensuring quality outputs

36 (45.6%)

7 (8.9%)

36 (45.6%)

2.75

1.276

The results in Table 2 indicate that most of the respondents (60 or 76%) agreed that their collegesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; plans and services were aligned to institutional vision, mission, and goals with a mean response of 2.12. However, a total of 10 (13%) respondents strongly disagreed that their collegesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; plans were aligned with institutional mission and goals. This implies that some lecturers were not aware or involved in the planning of activities in their institutions. The results also revealed that 79.8% of the respondents agreed that the academic staff of the colleges is engaged in preparing operational plans for their respective institutions, and this was reflected in the average mean response of 2.42. However, a total of 19% disagreed that they were not involved in planning for their institutions. This meant that college administrators hardly involve a section of their staff in planning for the institutions. This may make it difficult for all staff members to get involved in assuring quality. With regard to the procedures of communication used in NTCs, results in Table 2 indicate that most of the respondents (58 or 73%) disagreed with the fact that their institutions have well-planned communication procedures (mean response of 2.54). This could mean that there are coordination difficulties when it comes to implementation of institutional plans as well as in ensuring quality. Some of the respondents (31 or 39%) strongly disagreed that there were plans to provide staff with continuous professional development opportunities. Yet, 17% of the respondents were undecided about the availability of continuous professional development opportunities in their institutions. This might imply that the plans to provide staff with continuous professional development are lacking or not exposed to all the academic staff. During the interviews, several interviewees expressed different opinions regarding the planning function in the NTCs. The academic registrars observed that while the mission, goals, objectives, and rules of the institutions were wellwritten and exposed through brochures, notice-boards and other media, the staff hardly takes the trouble to read and internalize them. In fact, one Academic Registrar revealed during the interview that: It is difficult to understand academicians. Once they are given their appointment letters, they will never bother to look at anything else. I should tell you that all the appointment letters and other documents of

144

the College have the Collegeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mission and vision clearly written on them. This could partly explain why some staff members were indicating that their colleges lack institutional plans, mission, and vision. The second dimension of management that was investigated in the study was organizing. In Table 3, the researchers present the views of respondents with regard to how the organising function in their colleges was handled. Table 3: Respondents rating on organizing

Questionnaire Item In our College, academic heads coordinated academic decisions

D 15 (19.0%)

UD 6 (7.6%)

A 58 (73.5%)

Mean SD 2.14 1.237

In our College, lecturer-student ratio is satisfactory

47 (2%)

10 (12.7%)

22 (27.8%)

1.15

1.159

In our College, support supervision is well offered

11 (13.9%)

18 (22.8%)

50 (63.3%)

2.22

1.033

In our College, new staff are given good induction

66 (83.5%)

1 (1.3%)

12 (15.2%)

2.11

1.152

In our College, good staff appraisal is done

52 (65.8%)

4 (5.1%)

23 (29.0%)

2.52

1.309

In our College, there are departmental budgets

22 (27.8%)

2 (2.5%)

55 (60.7%)

2.14

1.217

Our college has adequate physical 3 infrastructure (3.8%)

7 (8.9%)

69 (87.4%)

2.41

.845

Our college has adequate nonphyiscal facilities

14 (17.7%)

19 (24.1%)

45 (57.0%)

2.87

1.221

Our College has adequate computers and its accessories

48 (60.7%)

7 (8.9%)

24 (30.4%)

2.48

1.413

In our College there is an effective 42 M & E system (53.2%)

5 (6.3%)

32 (40.5%)

2.89

1.132

In our College, ICT system is fully 73 utilised (92.4%)

4 (5.1%)

2 (2.6%)

1.65

.752

The College has sufficient library and its facilities

14 (17.7%)

46 (58.3%)

2.08

1.269

19 (24.0%)

The results in Table 3 show that 53% of the lecturers agreed that in their institutions, academic heads coordinate academic decisions as compared to 18%

145

of them who disagreed. This implies that the academic heads are to a large extent, responsible for the decisions made regarding academic affairs - including the issue of quality assurance. The results also reveal that a total of 62% of the respondents disagreed about lecturers being inducted in their roles, with a mean response rate of 2.11. However, 13.9% of the respondents agreed that lecturers were inducted in their roles. This could mean that there is the induction of lecturers in the colleges, not to all recruited lecturers. That explains why some lecturers were not aware of the induction programmes in their institutions. Moreover, it is important to induct all lecturers after being recruited because they get to learn the culture of the institution and how quality is assured in it. Further, when respondents were asked if there is a staff appraisal system in the college and whether timely feedback was given to them, some of the respondents (43%) disagreed with this statement, with a mean response rate of 2.52. This could have meant that some lecturers were not aware of the appraisal system in place. Moreover, a yearly appraisal is mandatory. The results in Table 3 also show that some of the respondents disagreed (33%) that lecture halls and computer labs were adequate and useful in teaching, with an observed mean response rate of 2.48. However, 19% of the respondents agreed with the statement that lecture halls and computer labs were adequate and useful in teaching. This meant that the staff members were unsatisfied with the state of facilities in the institutions and regarding the availability of resources. During the interviews, several interviewees expressed different opinions regarding the organizing function in the NTCs. In fact, many principals and their deputies confirmed that the lecturer-student ratio in their institutions was not yet satisfactory. One principal observed that: In this era of universal secondary education where enrolment has been increasing year after year without additional recruitment of staff, there is no way how the lecturer to student ratio can be satisfactory. Most often, we find that our lecture halls are crowded beyond capacity. This is not healthy for effective teaching and learning. Therefore, this scenario may account for the deteriorating quality of teaching and learning in the NTCs. In fact, the results from the interviews corroborated the quantitative data presented. Thirdly, the researchers investigated how the controlling function of management was handled in the NTCs and whether it was influencing quality assurance in the colleges. The descriptive results are presented in Table 4:

146

Table 4: Respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; rating on Controlling

Questionnaire Item College has established performance standards

D 7 (8.8%)

UD 3 (3.8%)

A 69 (87.3%)

Our output is compared against set goals Our performance is regularly appraised We are given periodic support supervision At College, we do selfevaluation We receive sufficient communication At College, there is assured funding source At College, funding goals are clear Our College has an effective financial system NCHE regularly monitors our College Local managers also regularly conduct M & E

64 (81.0%) 6 (7.6%) 61 (77.2%) 14 (17.7%) 21 (26.6%) 57 (72.1%) 57 (72.2%) 55 (69.6%) 69 (87.4%) 64 (71.0%)

1 (1.3%) 18 (22.8%) 7 (8.9%) 0 (0.0%) 4 (5.1%) 0 (0.0%) 4 (5.1%) 15 (19%) 0 (0.0%) 5 (6.3%)

14 (17.7%) 55 (69.6%) 11 (14.0%) 65 (82.3%) 54 (68.4%) 22 (27.9%) 18 (22.8%) 9 (11.4%) 10 (12.7%) 10 (12.7%)

Mean 2.28

SD .868 .915

2.22 .813 2.14 1.97

1.062

2.29

.930

2.08

1.023

2.53

1.338

2.24

1.283

2.23

1.154

1.87

.939

1.65

1.063

The results in Table 4 reveal that most of the respondents (80%) agreed that there were established performance standards in the colleges with a mean response rate of 2.28. However, 6.3% of the respondents disagreed with this statement. This implied that there was a small percentage of lecturers in the NTCs who were not following the performance standards or were not aware of their existence. On whether actual performance is compared against set standards, most of the respondents (66%) disagreed with this statement with a mean response rate of 2.22; however, 18% of the respondents agreed to the statement. This implied that actual performance was not compared against the set standards thereby inhibiting the assurance of quality in the institutions. The results in Table 4 also revealed that some of the respondents (41%) disagreed that there were periodic support supervision and evaluation of staff performance with a mean response rate of 1.97. However, 13% of the lecturers who participated in the study agreed that the colleges carried out periodic support supervision. This implied that periodic support supervision and evaluation of staff is irregularly carried out. The results in Table 4 also showed that a large proportion of respondents (67%) disagreed with the statement that the National Council for Higher Education (NCHE) regularly monitors and evaluates collegesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; activities, with a mean

147

response rate of 1.87. This meant that the NCHE does not regularly monitor and evaluate colleges’ activities. During interviews, several interviewees expressed diverse opinions about the issue of controlling as a management function in the colleges. One Deputy Principal observed that: As a college, we have tried to put in place several control measures. These include things timetables, budgets, duty Rota, room allocation committee, academic committee, and so on and so forth in order to help us enhance quality in the institution. However, these measures sometimes are not effective in guaranteeing quality due to several factors. For example, some lecturers do not adhere to the timetables, thereby causing confusion in the institution. This does not give a good example to the teacher trainees. With regards to academic standards, one interviewee observed that: … everybody in academia circle here knows their performance standards. They are actually clearly spelt out in one’s appointment letter, and we just keep reminding ourselves in various fora. But all I can say is that the staff here is performing averagely well, generally. While the interviewee indicated that the staff members of this NTC were doing well, from what was observed, the researchers believed that there were still gaps in performance that could be filled. In fact, this idea was supported by one Academic Registrar who said that: It is the duty of all lecturers to do a self-check on how they are performing, and although this is not mandatory, we encourage them to do it. They get feedback from the students in as far as their performance is concerned. There are reports of improved performance based on feedback from self-evaluation. This confirmed that while some managers were satisfied with the performance of their staff, others were not – implying that there was still room for improvement in the performance of the lecturers towards ensuring quality in the NTCs. Finally, the researchers examined how the directing function of management was carried out at the colleges and whether it was adequately influencing quality assurance. The descriptive results are hereby presented in Table 5 below. Table 5: Respondents Rating on items related to Directing

Item

Mea n

SD.

The administration inspires actions to be taken by others

12 (15.2%)

8 (10.1)

59 (74.6%

2.25

1.255

Understanding the workers’

50 (63.3%) 60 (76.0%)

5 (6.3%) 4 (5.1%)

24 (30.4% 15 (19%)

2.56

1.337

1.90

1.161

The administrators give timely feedback

148

Communication channels assembly

5 (6.3%)

0 (0.0%)

74 (93.7%

2.43

.904

Students are involved in academic affairs The library equipped and accessible

0 (0.0%) 24 (30.4%)

0 (0.0%) 1 (1.3%)

79 100.0% 54 (68.4%

2.59

.468

2.00

1.43

Multimedia instruction material

66 3 10 1.77 1.085 (83.5%) (3.8%) (12.6%) The results in Table 5 indicate that majority of the respondents (47%) agreed that the administration inspires them to take relevant quality assurance actions with a mean rate of 2.25. This meant that the administration motivates others to take actions that guarantee quality in the colleges. However, some of the respondents (13%) disagreed with that statement, implying that there might have been some lecturers who did not appreciate the administrators’ efforts to inspire them. In Table 5, the results also show that the majority of the respondents (41%) disagreed that the college’s leadership understand the workers’ personalities, values, attitudes, and emotions. This implies that managers of the colleges do not fully address personal issues of the lecturers and understand them. About the statement that managers give timely feedback, the majority of the respondents (53.2%) disagreed with a mean response rate of 1.90. A total of 30 percent of the respondents agreed with the statement that managers give timely feedback. This could mean that many of the managers in the NTCs hardly provide feedback to the staff about quality assurance related issues. During interviews, different respondents expressed diverse opinions about how directing was carried out in the colleges and how this was contributing to the assurance of quality in the institutions. One Principal observed that: As a Principal, I always try my best to lead my staff in a professional manner. I always encourage them to work hard, remain focused and ensure that they perform quality work. I have seen many of my staff inspired and motivated to do quality work. I believe that my other colleagues are as well doing the same. Another Principal also said something similar to the first principal cited above; she reiterated that: It is not easy today to manage public servants. Many of them have a negative attitude towards work and their superiors. This makes it difficult for institutional leaders like me to guide what the staff should do or not do. In some cases, we clash with some staff members especially on the issues of professionalism and presentation of shoddy work. This means that while the quantitative results indicate that many colleges’ leaders inspire and motivate their staff, the leaders themselves express difficulty in directing the staff as well as the institution. On the other hand, the researchers also sought the opinions of the respondents about quality assurance at their colleges. Using 15 questions, respondents were made to rate the status of quality assurance basing on a 3-point Likert scale

149

ranging from 1= Disagree (D), 2 = Undecided (UD), and 3 = Agree (A). The summary of the descriptive results is presented here in Table 6. Table 6: Descriptive Statistics on Respondents’ Rating on Quality Assurance

Item

Mean SD

30 (38.0%) 35 (44.3%) 30 (38.0%) 30 (37.9%) Structure in place to support 49 internal assessment and records (63.0%)

6 (7.6%) 11 (13.9%) 5 (6.3%) 14 (17.7%) 17 (21.5%

43 (54.4%) 33 (41.8%) 44 (55.7%) 35 (44.3%) 13 (16.5%)

2.94

1.497

2.84

1.255

2.87

1.362

1.91

1.238

2.00

1.320

There is a functional academic committee Approved and disseminated quality assurance policy Staff obtaining feedback from the stakeholders

3 (3.8%) 2 (2.5%) 2 (2.5%)

29 2.49 (36.8%) 26 2.23 (32.9%) 28 2.43 (35.4%)

1.739

stakeholders’ 60 2 (76.0%) (2.5%)

17 1.94 (21.8%)

1.530

Obtain Feedback to improve the 64 0 quality (81.0%) (0.0%)

15 1.65 (19.0%)

1.209

Student assessment procedures are 39 3 clear (47.1%) (3.8%)

38 2.99 (48.1%)

1.199

There are mechanisms monitoring and evaluation

26 33.0%)

2.75

1.126

share 31 23 25 2.70 (39.2%) (29.1%) (31.7%)

1.275

There is regular academic staff evaluation Internal examinations given to students Continuous assessment regularly conducted Lecturers use self-evaluation

College undertakes surveys

Heads of department information on quality

47 (59.5%) 51 (64.6%) 49 (62.0%)

for 51 2 (65.2%) (2.5%)

Students evaluate lecturers’ 44 teaching (54.5%) Programs are reviewed regularly 47 (59.4%)

2 (3.8%) 6 (7.6%0)

33 2.57 (41.8%) 26 2.51 (32.9%)

1.493 1.317

1.308 1.300

The results in Table 6 indicate that 44% of the respondents agreed that there was regular staff appraisal with a mean response rate of 2.94. However, there were respondents who disagreed (33%) with the statement. This could mean that some lecturers are not regularly appraised. This may affect the quality of their performance as well as that of the teacher trainees. On the issue of whether internal examinations were regularly administered to the teacher trainees in order to improve their performance, 37% of the respondents agreed with that

150

statement. However, 25% of the lecturer disagreed with that statement. This implied that the staff members were not equally keen in the manner in which examinations are handled in the colleges. This may not augur well with ensuring the quality of the products from the colleges. The results in Table 6 also show that 56% of the respondents agreed that continuous assessment was used during the training of the students with a mean response rate of 2.87. However, a significant number of lecturers disagreed (30%) with the same statement; and this could imply that some colleges or departments do not use continuous assessment during training. The results in Table 6 further reveal that most of the respondents strongly disagreed (52%) that there are functional academic committees in place at the college with a mean response rate of 2.49. However, some few lecturers (13%) agreed that their colleges had functional academic committees. This could imply that the committees that are meant to guarantee quality in the colleges are not vibrant in ensuring quality in their respective institutions. During the interviews, different respondents expressed different opinions concerning quality assurance in their colleges. One Principal observed that: For me as a Principal, I am the chief quality controller in this college. I chair the academic committee, and I am responsible for ensuring the vibrancy of its operation. However, the academic committee sometimes fails to guarantee quality due to several factors including the poor attitudes of both staff and students. Nevertheless, we continue to guide both the staff and students to ensure that we produce quality work. Another interviewee, a Registrar in one of the colleges said that: As a college, we take the issue of quality seriously. We encourage our staff to follow the timetables, honor timelines, and give regular assessments and motivate students in the course of teaching. All these are geared towards quality assurance. While a few staff members may be uncommitted to these ideals, the majority of them appear to do a good job. Overall, the quality of our products is not so bad although, there is room for improvement. The interview results indicated that the managers of the colleges are aware of the challenges they have in guaranteeing quality. They also recognized that the prevailing quality assurance systems they use are weak and need continuous improvement. During the interviews held with the Ministry of Education and Sportsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; officials, the different interviewees expressed diverse opinions about quality and quality assurance in the NTCs. One of the officials remarked that: The issue of quality and quality assurance in the NTCs is critical. With the ever-changing world and changing demands and lifestyles, program

151

reviews should take precedence in any higher education institution. This is because there are many things that were taught ten years ago, but they have become obsolete now. Unfortunately, our lecturers in the NTCs do not seem to take programs evaluation and reviews seriously. Most often, they take several years before programs are reviewed; this impact negatively on the quality of the products from the NTCs. The results indicated that both the local managers in the NTCs and the officials at the Ministryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s headquarters recognize the challenges that are associated with ensuring quality in the NTCs; and the need for continuous improvement in quality assurance. Verification of Research Hypotheses The study aimed at verifying four research hypotheses, namely: H1=Planning has a statistically significant influence on quality assurance; H2=Organizing has a statistically significant influence on quality assurance; H3=Controlling has a statistically significant influence on quality assurance, and H4=Directing has a statistically significant influence on quality assurance. To verify these hypotheses, first, the hypotheses were converted into their null form. Secondly, the researcher generated indices for each of the variables, namely: planning (plan), organizing (org), controlling (cont) and directing (direct) as well as quality assurance (qa) using data obtained from the questionnaire. Thereafter, the hypotheses were tested with the use of the multiple regression techniques. The results of the tests of the null hypotheses are presented in Tables 7 (a), (b) and (c). Table 7(a): Regression Model Summary

Change Statistics Std. Error R Adjusted R of the R Square F Sig. F Model R Square Square Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change 1

.591a .349

.314

.36242

.349

9.907

.000

a. Predictors: (Constant), Controlling, Planning, Organizing and Directing b. Dependent Variable: Quality Assurance The results in Table 7(a) show that the correlation coefficient between management and quality assurance is positive with an R value of 0.591 and R squared of 0.349. These results suggest that a unit change in management leads to a 0.349 (34.9%) change in quality assurance, other factors held constant. The observed significance (p) value of 0.000 is lower than the critical significance value of 0.05. This implies that management has a significant influence on quality assurance in the NTCs, other factors held constant. However, to determine whether the overall regression model is a good fit for the data, the researcher proceeded to perform the F ratio test which results are presented in Table 7(b).

152

Table 7(b): ANOVA Table

Sum of Squares

Model 1

Mean Square

Regression

5.205

1.301

Residual

9.720

.131

Total

14.925

F 9.907

Sig. .000b

a. Dependent Variable: Qa c. Predictors: (Constant), plan, org, cont, direct) The results in the ANOVA table above (F (1.301) =9.907, p< .05) show that the independent variable (management) significantly predict the dependent variable (quality assurance); that is, the regression model is a good fit of the data. Finally, to test for the influence of each independent variable on quality assurance, the multiple regression analysis was carried out. The results are presented in Table 7(c). Table 7(c): Multiple regulation results for influence of management on quality assurance

Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Model 1

Std. Error

(Constant) 1.832

.609

Planning

.254

.085

-.099

Organizing Controlling Directing

95.0% Confidence Interval for B

Beta

Sig.

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

3.008 .004

.618

3.045

.287

2.977 .004

.084

.425

.067

-.146

.146 1.471

-.233

.035

-.198

.082

-.238

.018 2.414

-.362

-.035

.461

.113

.388

4.081 .000

.236

.686

a. Dependent Variable: Quality assurance The multiple regression results in Table 7(c) show that planning, controlling and directing have p-values of 0.004, 0.018, and 0.000 respectively which are less than the critical value of p=.05. These imply that planning, controlling and directing have statistically significant influence on quality assurance in NTCs. Therefore, the null hypotheses associated with these three variables (planning, controlling

153

and directing) were rejected and their research hypotheses upheld. However, the results in the table also show that organizing had a p-value of 0.146 which is more than the critical value of p=.05 This implies that organizing has no statistically significant influence on quality assurance in NTCs. Therefore, the null hypothesis that “organizing has no statistically significant influence on quality assurance” was accepted and the research hypothesis rejected.

Discussion of Findings In this study, the researchers aimed at achieving four specific objectives. First, the study was intended to establish the influence of planning on quality assurance in NTCs. Study findings revealed that both planning and quality assurance were weak in the colleges. However, the study also revealed that planning has a statistically significant influence on quality assurance (p =.004<.005). The finding that planning is weak in the colleges is in agreement with the work of a number of other scholars who have generally studied planning in higher education institutions. For instance, Musaazi (2006) alludes to the fact that weak planning in many educational institutions arises out of weak implementation of both strategic and tactical plans. In fact, both strategic and operational plans of some of the colleges lacked focus on critical issues with regard to the management of quality in the institutions. In a scenario where weak planning occurs, it can negatively affect the institutional utilization of resources since effective planning, according to Ajeyalemi (2013)), is essential for controlling the use of human and material resources of an institution. But according to Azikuru, Onen and Ezati (2016) and Becket and Brookes (2008), for planning to enable the organisation to achieve its goal – say to ensure quality outputs – the process of planning needs to be more integrated and wellcoordinated. Such is the lesson administrators in NTCs in Uganda can learn. The second finding that there was a weak quality assurance in the colleges is also in agreement with the works of scholars such as Rana (2009), and Herman (2000). According to Rana (2009), higher education institutions in Pakistan for instance, have weak quality assurance systems. Rana attributes this to a weak quality assurance framework adopted by the institutions. This is more or less inconsonant with the findings of this study where the qualitative results indicated that NTCs in Uganda have weak quality assurance frameworks. This finding is also in tandem with the work of Herman (2000) who investigated the development and management of quality assurance in higher education systems and institutions in Asia and the Pacific and discovered that several higher education institutions in Asia have weak institutional quality assurance mechanisms that make it difficult for them to guarantee the quality of their products and processes. This is not any different with the findings of Ngware, Ciera, Musyoka and Oketch (2015) who reported that “the average performance in quality education of African countries appears much poorer than elsewhere in the world. …One way of improving the quality of education is through quality teaching” (p.1). However, you can hardly improve teaching without effective management of the quality assurance processes of an educational institution. This is yet another lesson that the managers of NTCs in Uganda can learn.

154

The third and last important finding under objective one had to do with the influence of planning on quality assurance in NTCs. The finding that planning has a statistically significant influence on quality assurance is also in consonant with the work of a few other scholars. For instance, Ajeyalemi (2013) indicates that planning generally has influence on quality assurance in institutions of higher education; and in particular, he reveals that planning guarantees quality assurance because it enables institutional goals to be set prior to institutional operations. This view is also in congruence with that of Azikuru (2017) who argues that planning is central in guaranteeing not only the quality of teaching but the entire output of the higher education system. Under objective two, two main findings were made. The first finding was that organizing as a management function was also weak in NTCs. Secondly, the study also established that organizing has a statistically weak influence on quality assurance in NTCs (p-value= 0.146 >0.05). The finding that organizing in NTCs is weak is also in agreement with the work of other scholars. For instance, Lawler, Mohrman, and Ledford (1992) discovered that organizations that are effectively organized in terms structure and work roles tend to have a clear span of control - thereby enhancing individual and teamwork. Under objective three, two main findings were made. First, the study established that the control function of management in the NTCs was not very effective. Secondly, the study also discovered that control has a statistically significant influence on quality assurance (p-value=0.018<0.05). These findings were also in agreement with the findings of a few other scholars. For instance, Sanyal (2013) indicated that among the nine academic assessment control factors, five factors appeared to influence quality assurance more than others. These include academic standards of students, teaching standards, student assessment, and utilization of coursework and test results. The other factors indicated minimal influential as far as assuring quality is concerned. These include research and project work. It is important to note that the two control factors that were regarded as having less influence on assurance quality are aspects that have been neglected in higher education especially in NTCs in Uganda. Moreover, these are an important aspect of preparing a teacher to always search for knowledge (Akiba, LeTendre & Scribner, 2015). The staff control factor that respondents indicated as being instrumental in assuring quality was carrying out performance appraisals. Unfortunately, in the study, it was discovered that performance appraisal takes place only once a year in the NTCs. This discourages employeesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; work effort â&#x20AC;&#x201C; thereby affecting the assurance of quality in the institutions. Finally, under objective four, two main findings were also made. First, the study established that the directing function of management in the NTCs was ineffective. Secondly, the study also discovered that directing has a significant influence on quality assurance (p=0.000<0.05). These findings were also in consonant with the work of different scholars. Mande, Nambatya, and Nsereko (2015) for instance, indicated that directing was a pertinent aspect of quality assurance in an institution. He explained that a manager's job does not only

155

include employee management but also inspiring employees to work better for their personal gain, as well as the gain of the organization. But according to Adair (2005), directing can be explained in terms of three overlapping and interdependent circle task, team and individual which form the boundaries of what a leader must do to be effective, one is to be seen and best seen in action. The researchers reinforce the subscription of Jeremy that a leader has to define the task, plans for the best alternatives engaging others in an open minded, positive and creative way. Has to get the staff informed and motivated. Encourage them to work together, promote teamwork. The leader should develop a range of attributes such as demonstrating good work habits; understanding and evaluating the staff’s work, handling pressure, dearly demonstrating the values and aims that one holds dear, encourage initiatives and enthusiasm providing regular considered feedback and listening and learning. Decisiveness, vision, understanding, and confidence contribute to the good working environment.

Conclusion Based on the findings of the study, the researchers concluded that management indeed significantly influences the assurance of quality in NTCs in Uganda, other factors notwithstanding. Therefore, if NTCs are to ensure the production of quality teacher trainees, then their managers must undertake periodic audits and reviews of their operations in order to detect any anomalies regarding quality in their institutions. Besides, the managers must apply the principles of total quality management in order to engage all relevant stakeholders such as students and employees in managing quality at the institutions. Finally, the managers of NTCs are recommended to benchmark and adopt best practices of assuring quality from other institutions of higher education

References Adair, J. (2010). Strategic leadership: How to think and plan strategically and provide direction. London: Kogan Page. Adupa, C. B, & Mulindwa, D.K. (Eds.) (1998). Institute of Teacher Education: Origins and developments. Kampala: ITEK. Akiba, M., LeTendre, G. K., & Scribner, J. P. (2015). Teacher quality, opportunity gap, and national achievement in 46 Countries. Education & Educational Research, 9 (224). Doi: https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07308739. Ajeyalemi, D. (2013). The issues of quality and quantity in Nigeria's teacher education system. Azikuru, L. M. E. (2017). Management and the quality of teaching in public universities in Uganda. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation submitted to Makerere University, Uganda. Azikuru, L. M. E., Onen, D. & Ezati, B.A. (2016). The influence of planning on the quality of teaching in public universities. International Journal of Education and Research, 4(12), pp. 121-132. Becket, N. and Brookes, M. (2008). “Quality management practices in higher educationwhat quality are we actually enhancing”. Oxford Brookes University, Oxford. Journal of Hospitability, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education. Vol: 7 No: 1. Doi: https://doi.org/10.3794/johlste.71.174 Deming, W.E. (1986). Out of Crisis. MIT Center for Advanced Engineering Study, Cambridge, MA.

156

Hashmi, K. (2017). Introduction to Implementation of Total Quality Management (TQM). An Article down loaded on 4/12/2017 from https://www.isixsigma.com/methodology/total-quality-managementtqm/introduction-and-implementation-total-quality-management-tqm/ Harman, G. & Meek, V. L. (2000). Harman, G. and L. V. Meek (2000). Repositioning Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Australian Higher Education. Canberra, University of New England: 108. Harman, G. (2000). Quality assurance in Higher Education, Bangkok: Ministry of University Affairs and UNESCO, PROAP. P.1. Harvey, L. & Green, D. (1993). Defining Quality in Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 18 (1). Harvey, L. (2005). A history and critique of quality evaluation in the UK in QA in E 13 (4). Lawler, E. E., Mohrman, S. A., & Ledford, G. E. (1992). Employee involvement and total quality management: Practices and results in Fortune 1000 companies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mande, W. M., Nambatya, A. K., & Nsereko, N. D. (2015). Contribution of middle management to enhancement of quality education in Ugandan Universities. Nkumba Business Journal, 14. Manivannan, S. (2016). Chapter-24 Assuring Quality in Nursing Colleges. Nursing Education & Quality Assurance in Nursing Colleges, 249–252. doi:10.5005/jp/books/12876_25 Ministry of Education and Sports. (2015). Inspection report on national teacher’s colleges. Kampala: Author. Mullins, L. (2010). Management and Organizational Behaviour. London: Prentice Hall. Musaazi, J. (2006). Educational Planning- Principles, Tools and Applications. Kampala: Makerere University Printery. Ngware, M. W., Ciera, J., Musyoka, P.K & Oketch, M. (2015). Quality of teaching mathematics and learning achievement gains: evidence from primary schools in Kenya. Educ Stud Math, Doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-015-9594-2 Rana, S. (2009). Quality management in higher education - a perspective. Proceedings 2nd CBRC, Lahore, Pakistan. Rodrigues, C.A. (2001). Fayol’s 14 principles of management then and now: A framework for managing today’s organizations effectively. Management Decision, Vol. 39 Issue: 10, pp. 880-889. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/eum0000000006527 Sanyal, B, C. (2013). Quality assurance of teacher education in Africa. Addis Ababa, UNESCO: International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa. Singh, R.K. (2011) "Analysing the interaction of factors for success of total quality management in SMEs", Asian Journal on Quality, 12 (1), 6 – 19. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1108/15982681111140516 Smith, J.L. (2011). Management: The lasting legacy of the modern quality giants. Down loaded on 10/10/2017 from https://www.qualitymag.com/article. UNESCO. (2017). Quality Educators for All. Downloaded on 6th December 2017 from: www.unescobkk.org/education/news/.../no-education-system-is-better-thanits-teacher.