Vol 16 no 4 april 2017 by ijlter.org

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.16 No.4

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 16

NUMBER 4

April 2017

Table of Contents “Failing Public Schools”: The Consequences of the Misleading Framing of American Education Policy ................. 1 Karl F. Wheatley Building Integrated Situations in the Teaching of Probability and Statistics Oriented to Professional Skills for Economic Majored Students – Case Study at Lachong University Viet Nam .............................................................. 16 Hoan Van Tran and Hang Thuy Nguyen A Framework for the Creation of Leap Motion Gestural Interfaces for Handwriting Education to Children with Development Coordination Disorder ................................................................................................................................ 31 Leonardo Ramon Nunes de Sousa and Ismar Frango Silveira Teachers in Multi-Cultural Societies: Excellence and Leadership .................................................................................. 54 Tamar Ketko The Impact of Demographic Influences on Academic Performance and Student Satisfaction with Learning as Related to Self-Esteem, SelfEfficacy and Cultural Adaptability within the Context of the Military ......................... 67 Deborah Schreiber, Jean-Claude Agomate and Brian Oddi Effects of Warm-Up Testing on Student Learning .......................................................................................................... 91 Kimberly M. Levere and Matthew Demers

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 1-15, April 2017

“Failing Public Schools”: The Consequences of the Misleading Framing of American Education Policy Karl F. Wheatley Cleveland State University Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

Abstract. Over the last 20 years, American K-12 education has been profoundly transformed to reflect the values and principles of marketbased thinking. The article examines the powerful role that the “failing public schools” frame played in reducing American citizens’ faith in public education, eroding teacher autonomy, and opening the door to a range of market-based ideas previously resisted in American public education. Evidence is provided that there has been a dramatic increase in framing American public schools as “failing” since the 1990s, and that this framing of the situation is profoundly misleading. Negative practical consequences of this misleading framing of the situation are discussed, as is the way in which this framing of the situation provides a powerful obstacle to implementing superior educational practices. Practical suggestions for re-framing educational discussions are provided. Keywords: educational reform, conceptual framing, failing schools, accountability movement, neoliberal policies

Introduction We have an obligation, I think, to refuse to accept the debate as it has been framed for us. - Alfie Kohn Whether we study educational policymakers aiming to transform schools or computer hackers seeking to influence national elections, language is increasingly being used as a key tool or weapon for bringing about substantive changes in society. Reflecting that reality, one of the most striking features of recent educational policies in the United States and some other countries has been the increasing dominance of market-oriented language such as “measurable objectives, alignment, value-added assessments, and greater accountability.” However, given that education works very differently than do economic markets and manufacturing, it can be considered puzzling that the language and ideas of markets and manufacturing have come to dominate American K-12

education (Kumashiro, 2008; Wheatley, 2009). How did this happen, especially given that the practices ushered in by market advocates—highly standardized curricula, high-stakes testing, teaching to the test—were once widely considered to be inferior practices? In this article, I analyze the unfolding of market-oriented education policies over recent decades, and examine the role that the “failing public schools” frame played in transforming American public education to strongly reflect the values and principles of markets and manufacturing. I conclude that the corporate-oriented policymakers were able to gain substantial control over American K-12 education because they first took control of the organizing narratives surrounding education and society. The result is that many educational practices strongly favored by teachers and researchers alike (play, project-based learning) now lie outside the boundaries of what seems acceptable according to the current framing of educational debates in America. I begin by reviewing how the conceptual framing of issues influences thought, and then examine broader changes in American society and how those changes set the stage for a market-oriented transformation of education. I then explore the cognitive and practical consequences of Americans’ current habit of implicitly or explicitly framing their discussions of education in terms of “failing public schools.” Finally, I outline practical suggestions for more accurate and constructive framing of educational policy and practice. Conceptual Framing What cognitive neuroscience teaches us is that we think in terms of stories, images, and conceptual frames—short, punchy phrases such as “student achievement” and “greater accountability” (Lakoff, 2014). Language has the power to shift policy in dramatically different directions because different ways of framing an issue steer the mind towards certain solutions while excluding other possible solutions. For example, American politics has been strongly framed in terms of “smaller government, lower taxes,” and “tax relief,” and these frames can steer our minds and discussions towards cutting taxes and avoiding tax increases (Lakoff, 2014). Similarly, framing education as being about “student achievement” (i.e., test scores) steers the mind in a different direction than would discussing education in terms of “healthy whole-child development.” And just imagine the influence on policy if most Americans routinely discussed educational inequality and the growing shortage of good jobs in America as resulting not from “failing public schools” but from a “failing economy” designed to serve the needs of the wealthy few very well, while leaving everyone else struggling. Some ways of framing an issue directly teach an idea by creating and reinforcing an association in our minds. For example, repeatedly hearing or using the phrase “failing public schools” conditions our mind to associate public schools with failure. As the cognitive neuroscientist George Lakoff points out, when a certain way of framing an issue is wellestablished in individual’s brain and those frames are active, facts that do not fit that framing of the issue simply “bounce off”—they are rejected, ignored, or treated as crazy (Lakoff, 2014). This phenomenon explains recent research showing that when presented with facts about politics or the environment that

run counter to their dominant way of thinking, people not only have a strong tendency to reject those facts, their previous thinking is often reinforced. However, that same body of research shows that changing the framing of an issues changes the degree of acceptance of the new ideas (Khazan, 2017). In short, the language we use to discuss education or other issues powerfully influences which policies and practices seem sensible and which seem unwise or even unthinkable. The Changing Social Context and Overarching Narratives in America To be understood well, the stories we tell ourselves about education and the educational policies that result from those stories must be understood in the context of broader social and political developments. From the 1940s through the 1970s, the United State had a mixed-market economy in which the importance of a strong central government was rarely questioned and there was substantial faith in most public-sector institutions (Hacker & Pierson, 2010; Smith, 2012). Informed by the harsh lessons of the Gilded Age, Great Depression, and World War II, most Americans seemed to agree that government inherently does many things better than the private sector does, and does some things that the private sector will not do or cannot be trusted to do. This was America’s shared overarching cultural narrative, and we’ll call it the “mixed-market story” because this narrative promoted the idea that a mixed-market organization of society works best. But by the late 1970s, public faith in government and public sector approaches had taken a huge hit, with a failed war in Vietnam, three major political assassinations, the Watergate scandal, two humbling oil crises, and an economy marked by stagnant growth yet sharp inflation. This context of disillusionment and crisis set the stage for the “Reagan Revolution,” a radical change in the perception of the proper respective roles of government and the private sector (Hacker & Pierson, 2010; Smith, 2012). President Reagan’s 1981 inaugural address famously declared that “government is the problem,” and thus began decades of increasingly market-oriented policymaking in the United States. Over and over again, real or manufactured crises were blamed on the government in general or on specific government programs and institutions, an overarching narrative that I’ll simply call the “government-bashing story.” Critically, the rhetorical assault on public sector institutions paved the way for weakening, dismantling, or privatizing public sector programs and institutions, accomplished through tax cuts, de-regulation, cuts in social programs, and privatizing many government functions. The market-based assault on and transformation of American public education got underway with the 1983 A Nation at Risk report (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983), a report claiming that if another nation had intentionally caused our public schools to be as weak as the ANAR authors claimed they were, then Americans would have viewed that as an act of war. ANAR was just the beginning: For over three decades now, Americans have read and listened to an unending barrage of reports claiming that American public schools are generally failing. That dominant cultural narrative that has sounded like this, with key frames in quotes:

America and Americans are struggling largely because our “failing public schools” are “inefficient government bureaucracies” that are not adequately preparing students with the “marketable job skills” they need “to compete in the global economy,” and this scandalous situation has put our “nation at risk.” We know “our public schools are failing” due to the “poor student achievement” of American pupils on international tests, the unacceptable number of students “not on grade level” or “who need remedial college courses,” and the “skills gaps” among workers and the “shortages of scientists.” “All kids can learn,” but “our public schools are failing” due to “low standards, inefficient government-style bureaucracy, lazy and incompetent teachers, unscientific teaching methods, obstructionist teachers’ unions,” and the “lack of competition, accountability, and school choice.” Key conceptual frames—brief phrases that Americans have heard or read hundreds or thousands of times, appear in italics in the block quote above. Notice that these frames teach the reader or listener how to view reality—for example, the frame “failing public schools” teaches the listener to associate public education with failure, actually reinforcing the connection between “failure” and “public schools” in the listener’s brain. By the late 1990s and early 2000s, the unending “teacher bashing” by market advocates was so relentless and often nasty that a former teacher turned educational activist felt motivated to co-author a book titled Why is Corporate America Bashing Our Public Schools? (Emery & Ohanian, 2004). In 2004, America’s Secretary of Education, Rod Paige, actually called the nation’s largest teachers’ union (the NEA) “a terrorist organization,” a phrase he later retracted, but which captured the sense of just how aggressively the American business community and sympathetic politicians have attacked American public education. As a subset of the larger government-bashing story, we’ll refer to this general shared narrative claiming that public schools are generally failing as the “failing public schools story.” To be clear, although Americans showed much more respect for public education in the pre-ANAR era, Americans have always complained about their public schools (Rothstein, 1998), albeit not as vigorously or viciously as became common after 1983. The feeling inside public schools over recent decades is captured by a quote by the late Gerald Bracey: “A war is being waged on America's public schools. They are under siege.” With this background on conceptual framing and the changing context of American education, we turn next to analyzing the “failing schools” frame and its effect on educational policy in the United States.

Analyzing the “Failing Public Schools” Framing The Dramatic Rise of a Deeply Misleading Frame The first key thing to understand about the various “failing public schools” frames is that they have only become common during the period when business leaders and sympathetic politicians have been vigorously pressing to

re-make American public education according to market-based values and principles. For example, a Google Ngram search of word frequency in books revealed that the term “failing schools” was used over 72 times as frequently in books in 2008 as in 1983, the year when the “A Nation at Risk” report (ANAR) was published. Similarly, “failing public schools” was used 146 times as frequently in 2003—the year the No Child Left Behind Act was enacted—as in 1983. As someone who has spent much of the last decade studying the framing of educational discussion in America, I can report that the American media almost reflexively uses “failing public schools” or “failing schools” as their default language for discussing American education, and the phrase “failing schools” appears with remarkable frequency in the discourse of most American citizens, including even strong supporters of public education. The second key thing to understand about the various “failing public schools” frames is that they attribute educational failures to the public schools themselves, and thus to teachers also (e.g., Parsons, 2016). Historically, this represents a profound shift in cultural thinking, for in the 1960s, Americans routinely and largely attributed poor educational outcomes to the socioeconomic conditions the child was raised in, a tendency strongly reinforced by the findings of the highly-influential Coleman Report (Coleman, 1966). Depending on their political leanings, Americans might have viewed poverty as more or less due to personal failings or conditions in society, but either way, they did not expect teachers and schools to eliminate learning gaps created by social forces as powerful as poverty. Americans believed that the quality of teaching could influence educational outcomes at the margins, but conservatives in particular traditionally expressed profound skepticism that education could provide a substantial boost to life outcomes for children growing up in poverty. But by the early 2000s, those pushing market-oriented educational policies, including CEOs and officials in the second Bush administration, were routinely and vigorously attacking anyone who claimed that poverty was in any way determinative of a child’s educational or life chances. Specifically, president George W. Bush repeatedly decried “the soft bias of low expectations,” and any educators who argued that poorer educational outcomes among children living in poverty were partly or largely due to family SES was attacked for “making excuses.” This represented a radical shift in assigning responsibility for educational outcomes. Given this re-framing of educational causality, citizens, teachers, and other advocates for public education now often argue with one breath that socio-economic factors are the primary drivers of educational inequality (see Robinson & Brandon, 1994), but will later say “low-performing schools,” thus implicitly assigning primary blame for poor education outcomes for poor children to schools and teachers. Finally, it’s worth repeating that schools, districts, and nations do not take the standardized tests that are often used as the basis for these claims of failure, nor do they bear direct responsibility for the disappearing good jobs that are also often blamed on American education (i.e., “skills gaps”). Nevertheless, the “failing schools” framing laid the blame for educational inequality and key economic problems in America directly on public schools and their teachers. After decades of talking about education this way, educators and non-educators alike now routinely talk as if the average test scores of students in a school are a direct proxy for the quality of

the education the school provides, and thus, low test scores are treated as a direct indicator of a “failing school.” It would be difficult to overstate just how powerful a role this shift in language and understanding has played in the rise of market-based educational policies and in the inability of public school educators to regain control of educational policy. The third key thing to understand about the various “failing public schools” frames is that they directly condition the brain to view public education as a failure. Reinforcing the neural pathways between “failing” or “failure” on the one hand and “public schools” on the other hand means that anytime someone thinks of public schools, they are now more likely to think of failure, and anytime the idea of “failure” is activated in someone’s brain, “public schools” are now more likely to come to mind as one example of failure. This idea that public schools were allegedly failing was further reinforced by frequent repetition of claims that public school teachers were “lazy and incompetent.” This kind of classical conditioning or associationist learning is one of the most elementary and fundamental learning processes (Berk, 2009). While corporations routinely make use of this learning mechanism through celebrity endorsements of their products, market-oriented educational policymakers made use of it through clever framing of educational issues, framing that teaches the brain to believe that standardized tests can be objective (“objective testing”) or that private/charter schools are inherently better than public education (“high-flying charter schools”) or, of course, that public schools are allegedly failing (“failing public schools”). Finally, and critical for the agenda of CEOs and business groups intent on downsizing and privatizing government while expanding the influence of market ideology, the phrase “failing public schools” reinforces the idea that what is failing is a public-sector institution. The fourth and most critical thing to understand about the various “failing public schools” frames is that at the best, they are deeply misleading, and at the worst, they are dead wrong. There is simply is no trustworthy evidence suggesting that America’s public schools are generally failing at their assigned mission, which is largely to pursue higher test scores in schools based largely on the logic of factories (Wheatley, 2015). To be sure, American education could be much better if it were based more on principles of human development and democracy (e.g., Kohn, 1999; Littky, 2004; Little & Ellison, 2015; Meier, 1995; Sahlberg, 2015; Zhao, 2009) rather than the logic of manufacturing, but this point suggests that policymakers have sent teachers on the wrong mission, and the fault for that error rests primarily with policymakers, not public schools or teachers. Next, the indicators usually used as evidence of these so-called failures have been America’s middling ranking on international tests, but there are several problems with using average standardized test scores as indicators of the success of educational systems. Specifically, most of what people say they value most in education is not on standardized tests (Sachs, 1999; Stoddard, 2010) and these tests ignore the majority of academic subjects. Furthermore, average national scores on these international tests are not a good predictor of the future for highly-developed nations such as the United States (Ramirez, et al. 2006), and roughly 80% or more of the variance in test scores is due to out-of-school factors, primarily the socio-economic status of students’ families (Robinson & Brandon, 1994). Significantly the U.S. has the highest or second-highest rates of

both child poverty and inequality among major developed nations. With this confounding variable in mind, a 2009 analysis of 4th-grade reading scores on the 2009 PISA found that if you corrected for America’s much higher rate of child poverty by comparing students from under-10% child poverty schools in the United States to the performance of students in nations with under 10% child poverty, those American students’ scores would have ranked them #1 in the world (Riddile, 2010). A similar re-analysis of the 2009 4th-grade PISA mathematics scores would have landed American students in under-10% child poverty schools in third place globally in comparison to students from nations with under 10% child poverty. Moreover, judging the effectiveness of American teachers by the average test scores of its students is complicated by the fact that the United States has far more linguistic and cultural diversity than many of the nations whose students achieve higher average scores on these tests. Finally, among major developed nations, only the United States does not have universal healthcare coverage, and untreated medical, dental, and vision problems may also play a role in the performance of a sizable subset of American students. Thus, there has always been available a great deal of evidence that this narrative of crisis and failure was profoundly misleading, but it continued throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, thus motivating two well-respected educational researchers to author a book tellingly titled The Manufactured Crisis: Myths, Fraud, and the Attack on America’s Public Schools (Berliner & Biddle, 1995). Since then, educational scholars have published a string of books de-bunking the claim that American public education is generally failing at its assigned mission, books whose titles use unusually strong language such as “myths, lies, hoax” and “the attack on public education” (e.g., Bracey, 2004, 2009; Ravitch, 2013; Rothstein, 1998). However, most Americans don’t read such academic books, and there were also plenty of other academic sources and media sources claiming that public schools were in fact failing. Thus, there are two sets of forces that have kept many Americans falsely believing that American public schools are generally failing. Innocent Confusion or Cynical “Shock Doctrine” Ploy? Innocent confusion as a motive for the “failing schools” framing. Since the 1980s, I have engaged in literally thousands of discussions and debates about education, both in-person and on-line, and sometimes with individuals who have been influential in educational policymaking. These experiences convinced me that many caring and intelligent Americans are deeply confused about the state of American education. First, many Americans have come to believe that standardized test scores are a true and accurate measurement of student learning and teacher effectiveness, a misleading belief that market-oriented educational policymakers have strongly encouraged (and many may themselves believe). Second, conditions in American public education could be much better, a fact that is largely accounted for by the vast child poverty and economic inequality in America, coupled with the fact that educators have been instructed to organize education largely around the principles of manufacturing, not around what we know about how children develop and learn best. However,

most people are not educators and are too busy to think much about education, and it’s simpler to just blame teachers and schools. Shock doctrine motives for the “failing schools” framing. Over the last half century, politicians worldwide have realized that creating a real crisis or the illusion of a crisis can help them get even highly-unpopular policies enacted, a disturbing process that Naomi Klein reported has been implemented in virtually every field from education to economics to foreign policy (Klein, 2007). Occasionally, educational policymakers have even gotten caught in the act of creating a fictional crisis to serve their policy purposes: In September, 1995, a video was leaked to the Canadian press of John Snobelen, Ontario’s minister of education, telling a closed-door meeting of civil servants that before cuts to education (and other unpopular “reforms”) could be announced, a climate of panic needed to be created by leaking information that painted a more dire picture than he “would be inclined to talk about.” He called it “creating a useful crisis.” (Klein, 2007, p. 326) Why such urgency to create the illusion of an educational crisis? It’s possible that the most important function of the “failing schools” narratives for economic elites was to establish a credible scapegoat for the negative economic and societal consequences of the neoliberal trickle-down economic policies that were established in the United States and elsewhere. Tax cuts, de-regulation, and slashing social programs have had profoundly negative effects for average families in America and other nations where such neoliberal policies were implemented, and unless policymakers had public schools to blame for deteriorating circumstances, it’s not clear how they would have explained what caused these problems. But fictional or not, the narratives that public sector institutions in general and public schools in particular were terrible failures became widelyaccepted, largely because wealthy individuals and corporations promoted this message and also established foundations (e.g., Cato Institute, Heritage Foundation) and media outlets (e.g., Fox News, conservative talk radio stations) to relentlessly promote these messages. As Klein (2007) thoroughly documented, the power of an existing crisis or the illusion of a crisis is that it can scare or disorient people, and make people believe that “business-as-usual” will no longer work, thus enabling policymakers to enact quite radical policy changes that would be vigorously resisted under more normal circumstances. Indeed, this process has been used to enact radical neoliberal economic policies all across the globe, from Chile and Argentina in the 1970s to Bolivia, Poland, and Africa in the 1980s, to Russia and China in the 1990s, and including a steady increase in neoliberal economic and social policies in Europe and the United States. The idea of using a real or manufactured crisis to get market-oriented policies implemented was famously articulated by Milton Friedman, the person most often cited as the godfather of the effort to remake both societies and schools in the image of neoliberal economics:

Only a crisis—actual or perceived—produces real change. When that crisis occurs, the actions that are taken depend on the ideas that are lying around. That, I believe, is our basic function: to develop alternatives to existing policies, to keep them alive and available until the politically possible becomes politically inevitable. (Friedman, 1982, p. ix) Of course, what Friedman meant by “real change” was displacing mixedmarket systems with systems run according to the values and logic of unfettered capitalism, an arrangement known variously as “neoliberalism, the Washington consensus, or simply winner-take-all capitalism” (and also winner-take-all politics). Questionable motives and lamentable confusion aside, what are the practical consequences of so many people seeing the issue of American education through the lens of the “failing public schools” frame? Consequences of the “Failing Public Schools” Framing The first and most important practical consequence of the relentless framing of public education as a failure is that it profoundly affected the American public’s faith in public education as a national institution. Gallup polls given across the decades reveal that 50-60% of Americans expressed “a great deal” or “quite a lot” of faith in public education as an institution in the 1970s, but that number had dropped to 26-32% by 2012-2016 (Gallup Inc., 2017). Leading credence to the theory that this erosion of trust resulted from the concerted effort by the business community to repeatedly frame public education as a failure in the media is that fact that parents who actually have students in public schools have consistently expressed much higher levels of satisfaction with the schools their children attend than they have with “public schools in general” (Gallup Inc., 2017). Thus, the relentless teacher-bashing seems to have convinced many Americans that public schools in general must not be doing so well, even though they Americans across the nation simultaneously express quite high levels of satisfaction with the public schools that they actually know about. The second practical consequence of the “failure” framing of public education is that the resulting loss of faith in teachers and public schools undermined public support for the substantial degree of teacher autonomy that had been commonplace in American education prior to decades of attacks on public education. As a result, teachers’ claims that they should be trusted to make important curricular and assessment decisions have increasingly fallen on deaf ears. Once people believed that public schools are generally “failing” and filled with “lazy and incompetent teachers,” they lost their appetite for allowing teachers freedom and autonomy, and instead wanted someone to tell teachers exactly what to teach exactly how to teach it, and to watch them carefully to make sure they do it, or else. This loss of professional autonomy is enormously consequential for teaching as a profession because teacher autonomy has long been cited as one of the most appealing aspects of teaching (Darling-Hammond, 1997), but the dramatic erosion of teacher autonomy, coupled with decades of teacher bashing and the toxic climate created by high-stakes testing have made teaching far less attractive as a profession. Thus, despite the relative lack of good

middle class jobs in the United States, shortages of teachers have been increasing in many states. The third practical consequence of the “failing schools” framing nestled within the larger “government-bashing story” was that it opened the door for the private sector to claim that public education should be run more like a business. After all, if “government is the problem,” public sector institutions are inherently “inefficient bureaucracies,” and “failing public schools” merely reflect the inherent inferiority of public sector approaches, then where else can people turn for solutions—other than the private sector? This playbook of creating a crisis and then proposing radical market solutions had been utilized all over the globe by market advocates seeking to re-make democratic nations in the image of winner-take-all capitalism, but how did this dynamic unfold in American educational policy? The self-styled “educational reformers”—a group dominated by CEOs, wealthy individuals, and business organizations such as The Business Roundtable (Emery & Ohanian, 2004)—declared with enormous confidence that what American education needed was a much more marketbased approach. Those claims sounded like this: “Everything works better if you run it more like a business,” and “education is just like any other business,” so to fix “failing public schools,” we must “run them more like a business.” That means setting “higher standards”; focusing on “rigorous academics” and “a common core of measurable student outcomes” all aimed at “developing marketable job skills” so that our students can better “compete in the global economy.” Teachers must use “evidence-based practices” and we should “measure student achievement” using “objective tests.” To motivate teachers and students, we need to “incentivize excellence” using “value-added measurements” of teacher effectiveness and “hold everyone more accountable” for results. Overall, we need “market-based solutions” emphasizing “standardization, efficiency, competition,” and “school choice.” And don’t claim that your students’ test scores are lower just because your students are poor: “Poverty is just an excuse” and we don’t accept any excuses. We’ll call this story the “market-based solutions story,” and once again, the phrases or conceptual frames that Americans have heard countless times in recent decades appear in quotations above. To reiterate, hearing and saying such phrases repeatedly literally re-wires our brains so that the market-basedsolutions story becomes dominant in our minds and the mixed-market story fades away through lack of use. In terms of conceptual consequences, the dramatic rise of the government-bashing story and the market-based solutions story has meant that many Americans seem only able to conceive as government as a problem and believe all solutions come from market-based thinking. As it has now been 36 years since President Reagan declared that “government” is the problem, America now has more than an entire generation of citizens who have been raised entirely in a society that has rarely spoken the mixed-market story but

instead regularly repeats the government-bashing narrative and the marketbased-solutions narrative. As for practical consequences, the ascendance of market-based thinking has had profound and revolutionary consequences for American education. Americans have traditionally thought of education as being about developing well-rounded individuals, wise and active citizens, and ethical and competent workers, but the market takeover of public education largely narrowed the explicit focus of education to being about developing marketable job skills to better compete in the global economy. Even kindergarten teachers are now expected to document how they are preparing five- and six-year-olds for “college and career readiness.” In turn, this increasingly narrow focus on marketable job skills has led to profound neglect of social studies (history, economics, psychology, sociology, government, etc.), literature, health and physical education, and the arts. Like a factory trying to boost daily output, these market-based policies focus on rapidly boosting testable outcomes in reading, mathematics, and science, and this has led to increased use of long blocks of direct instruction—methods that do boost test scores faster in the short run but that also undermine intrinsic motivation, cause faster forgetting and more behavioral problems, and generally seem less effective overall in the long run (Wheatley, 2015a, 2015b). Lost in this process are broadly superior teaching methods such as play and project-based learning—transdisciplinary methods that are connected to real life and that are more effective in the long run for the whole child and whole curriculum but that do not as rapidly boost test scores in the short run. The narrowed curricular focus, loss of trust in teachers, and rise of business ideas such as standardization and alignment led to the widespread disappearance of creative and locally-developed curricula coupled with far greater use of highly-profitable commercial curriculum packages aligned with commercial high-stakes tests. Because everything often seems to revolve around test scores in this context of test-based accountability, teachers, especially in high-poverty districts, feel enormous pressure to raise students’ test scores, especially because there are often harsh consequences for failing to do so. Most educators see test-based judgments of teacher effectiveness as misleading at best or flatly unscientific and fraudulent at the worst, but most feel powerless to change the system. Not surprisingly, teachers and students alike often feel burned out or alienated by the toxic stress created by market-oriented policies centered on test-based accountability: People who haven't darkened the door of a public school in decades have no idea how “accountability” has robbed those institutions of vitality, of zest, and of the intangible elements that make children want to succeed. There's only so much brow-beating, only so much drilling, only so many test-prep worksheets a small mind can endure without zoning out. Later, when the option is availed, that uninspired child will drop out. —John Young, Waco Tribune, 10/23/05 While these market-oriented policies have not created any meaningful improvements in even long-term test score outcomes, multiple book-length accounts have been published on the wide range of collateral damage these

policies have caused for students, teachers, and society (e.g., Bracey, 2009; Nichols & Berliner, 2009; Ravitch, 2010, 2013; also see Wheatley, 2015a). Discussion and Implications What’s most striking about the findings above is that a series of profound psychological and practical ripple effects were set in motion across an entire nation simply by assigning primary blame for America’s educational and social problems to government in general and public education in particular. That framing, carefully conditioned into the minds of hundreds of millions of Americans over time, allowed for the market takeover of public education (and much of society). If we still doubt the power of frames and stories for shaping policy and the destiny of nations, let’s imagine how American education policy might have played out if the following story and frames were how most Americans had understood reality starting in the late 1990s: “Failed market ideology” is the main cause of the most serious social and educational problems facing America. The extension of the “unhealthy priorities” of market-based thinking to the broader society has created “higher levels of poverty” and “increasing inequality,” which in turn have caused a “vast array of social dysfunctions,” including “struggling families, a disappearing middle class, vast educational inequality, increasingly corrupt and dysfunctional governments,” and “accelerating environmental destruction.” “Market ideology has failed repeatedly” for achieving the broader goals we have for people and the planet, and has backfired badly in public education. “Education is a unique profession,” profoundly different than manufacturing or for-profit business, and “educators are everyday heroes” who require substantial “freedom and autonomy” in order to teach effectively. We can debate the best wording of such a statement or debate the degree to which the problems described therein are fully attributable to market-based thinking and neoliberal policies or are partly due to other factors. However, there is no debating the fact that if Americans understood their current situation in light of that story and those kinds of frames, that would lead to very different policies and practices than came about after America education was framed in terms of the government-bashing, failing schools, and market-based-solutions stories. Language matters, and the way we frame educational debates can have profound implications for which policies and practices seem sensible and which seem unthinkable. More specifically, while frames such as “measurable objectives, objective testing, student achievement, value-added assessment, greater accountability, merit pay, and school choice” all frame our thinking about education in ways that have an array of negative consequences (Wheatley, 2009, 2015), it is the framing of public schools as failures that created the possibility for market-based ideology to largely take over American public education. Given that the “failing public schools” framing is both deeply misleading and inevitably creates various negative consequences, how might American educators and citizens more constructively frame educational debates? The

insights from cognitive neuroscience can help guide us in these reframing efforts. 1) One should never use the language that was designed to promote the policies you oppose, in this case, frames that associate public education with failure or that attribute student outcomes wholly to the performance of schools themselves. That’s right, the recommendation of Lakoff (2014) and others is to try to never speak or write those frames, unless you must mention them to in a critique or use them to establish a shared frame of reference with others. 2) One should develop concise frames and phrases to challenge and replace the ideas and frames that you oppose. For example, one can discuss educational inequality as primarily resulting from a “failing market ideology” or “failing economy” that creates vast inequality across the board. And we might talk about “America’s remarkably successful public schools,” a framing that will surprise many listeners but that is fair given how American schools have performed despite facing much tougher challenges than those found in other major developed nations. These frames should be used and repeated frequently and whenever possible, because frequent repetition plays a critical role in establishing new frames in listeners’ brains. 3) Develop concise frames and phrases to establish the seed ideas, values, principles, and practices you consider most beneficial. Thus, those supporting strong public education with substantial teacher autonomy and progressive educational practices might promote the idea that “education is a unique profession,” that “public education is a national treasure” like our national parks or interstate highway system, that “teachers are everyday heroes,” and that we want and need “healthy motivations” for teachers and students alike, and that all this will require more “freedom and autonomy” for teachers and learners. To establish these frames in people’s brains, people should use these phrases whenever they get the opportunity, and repeat these phrases over and over again. 4) People should be ready with facts and examples to back up this new way of talking about education. For example, the finding that fourthgraders in under-10% child poverty schools in America would have been #1 in the world in reading scores among nations with under 10% child poverty directly contradicts the narrative of general failure for U.S. schools. However, in terms of effective persuasion, it is usually more effective to start with compelling stories and concise reframing anchored in one’s moral values, not with vague paragraphs or minor details of research findings. 5) Understand that it takes hard work and effort across years to establish a shared cultural understanding that will then allow you to

use short phrases and frames and everyone will know exactly what you mean (Lakoff, 2014).

The late Robin Williams remarked that “No matter what people tell you, words and ideas can change the world.” In this article, we have explored how one powerful way of framing the situation in American schools (and society) has enabled a profoundly destructive market-based takeover of American K-12 public education. The path to taking back American public education requires us to apply the same framing principles and strategies that were used as a weapon against American public schools and their teachers. However, this time, we should use those framing principles and strategies to promote a more accurate narrative aimed at the goals we value most for people and the planet, and anchored in principles of healthy human development and democracy. References Berk, L. E. (2009). Child development (9th ed.). United States: Pearson. Berliner, D. C., & Biddle, B. J. (1995). The manufactured crisis: Myths, fraud, and the attack on America’s public schools. Addison-Wesley: Reading. MA. Bracey, G. W. (2004). Setting the record straight: Responses to misconceptions about public schools in the U.S. (2nd ed.). Heinemann: Portsmouth, NH. Bracey, G. W. (2009). Education hell: Rhetoric & reality-Transforming the fire consuming America’s schools. Education Research Service: Alexandria, VA. Coleman, J. (1966). Equality of Educational Opportunity (COLEMAN) Study (EEOS), 1966. ICPSR06389-v3. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2007-04-27. http://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR06389.v3 Darling-Hammond, L. (1997). The right to learn: A blueprint for creating schools that work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Emery, K., & Ohanian, S. (2004). Why is corporate America bashing our public schools? Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Friedman, M. (1982). Capitalism and freedom. Chicago, Il: University of Chicago Press. Gallup Inc. (2017). Gallup polls: Education. Retrieved 4/6/17 from http://www.gallup.com/poll/1612/education.aspx Hacker, J. S., & Pierson, P. (2010). Winner-take-all politics. How Washington made the rich richer and turned its back on the middle class. New York: Simon & Schuster. Khazan, O. (2017). The simple psychological trick to political persuasion. Retrieved 4/6/17 from https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/02/the-simplepsychological-trick-to-political-persuasion/515181/ Klein, N. (2007). The shock doctrine: The rise of disaster capitalism. New York: Henry Holt and Company. Kohn, A. (1999). The schools our children deserve: Moving beyond traditional classrooms and “tougher standards.” Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Kumashiro, K. K. (2008). The seduction of common sense: How the right has framed the debate on America’s schools. New York: Teachers College Press. Lakoff, G. (2014). Don’t think of an elephant: Know your values and frame the debate. Chelsea Green: White River Junction, VT. Littky, D. (2004). The big picture: Education is everyone’s business. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Little, T., & Ellison, K. (2015) Loving learning: How progressive education can save America’s schools. New York: Norton & Company.

Meier, D. (1995). The power of their ideas: Lessons for America from a small school in Harlem. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Nichols, S. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2007). Collateral damage: How high-stakes testing corrupts America’s schools. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA. Parsons, E. (2016). Does attending a low-achieving school affect high-performing student outcomes? Teachers College Record, 118(8), 1-36. Ramirez, F. O., Xiaowei, L., Schofer, E., & Meyer, J. W. (2006). Student achievement and national economic growth. American Journal of Education, 113, 1-29. Ravitch, D. (2010). The death and life of the great American school system. New York: Perseus. Ravitch, D. (2013). Reign of error: The hoax of the privatization movement and the danger to America’s public schools. Knopf: New York. Riddile, M. (2010). PISA: It’s poverty, Not stupid. NASSP: The principal difference. Retrieved online at http://nasspblogs. org/principaldifference/2010/12/pisa_its_poverty_not_stupid_1.html Robinson, G., & Brandon, D. (1994). NAEP test scores: Should they be used to compare and rank state educational quality? Reston, VA: Educational Research Service. Rothstein, R. (1998). The way we were? The myths and realities of America’s student achievement. New York: Century Foundation. Sachs, P. (1999). Standardized minds: The high price of America’s testing culture and what we can do to change it. Perseus: New York. Sahlberg, P. (2015). Finnish lessons 2.0: What can the world learn from educational change in Finland? New York: Teachers College Press. Smith, H. (2012). Who stole the American dream? New York: Random House. Stoddard, L. (2010). Educating for human greatness (2nd ed.). Sarasota, FL: Peppertree Press. Wheatley, K. F. (2009, December). How to reframe educational debates to end authoritarian factory schooling and promote greater freedom in education. Paper presented at the Sixth International Conference on Teacher Education and Social Justice, Chicago, IL. Wheatley, K. F. (2015a). Factors that perpetuate test-driven, factory-style schooling: Implications for policy and practice. International Journal of Learning, Teaching, and Educational Research, 10(2), 1-17. Retrieved 3/1/15 from http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter/article/view/261/pdf Wheatley, K. F. (2015b). Wheatley, K. (2015). Questioning the instruction assumption: Implications for education policy and practice. Journal of Education and Human Development, 4(1), 27-39. Retrieved 8/1/15 from http://jehdnet.com/journals/jehd/Vol_4_No_1_March_2015/4.pdf Zhao, Y. (2009). Catching up or leading the way: American education in an age of globalization. ASCD: Alexandria, VA.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 16-30, April 2017

Building Integrated Situations in the Teaching of Probability and Statistics Oriented to Professional Skills for Economic Majored Students – Case Study at Lachong University Viet Nam Hoan Van Tran and Hang Thuy Nguyen Lac Hong University Dong Nai Province, Viet Nam

Abstract. Nowadays, the integration theories are applied to education has become a theoretical view of teaching and learning popular in the world to develop learner’s capacity. Teaching methods for integrating practices, impact on the integration of knowledge with the formation and training of skills, this teaching method to facilitate for learners to actively participate and improve practical capacity through integrated learning situations. Probability - Statistics is a subject that has many applications for the economic majors, applications do not only stop at the level that the subject is equipped with basic knowledge to study specialized subjects but also application of knowledge to solve the economic problems set out in practice. Moreover, teaching Probability - Statistics should be geared towards practice professional skills for economics students specified in the learning outcomes. To do this, we researched a number of integrated teaching situations in probability-statistics with other subjects and practical economic situations, to meet the learning outcomes of the economic majors. Keywords: Learning outcomes; economy; professional skill; Probability–Statistics.

integrated

situation;

Introduction Improving quality, innovation in education and training is a vital criterion in today's science and technology for a university. Innovation is an indispensable trend of the times and according to the educational development strategy reported at the 10th National Party Congress. "Educational development is a top national policy. Fundamental Innovation and universally reform Vietnam's education along the direction of standardization, modernization, socialization, democratization and international integration” (Government, 2012). Lac Hong University is a multidisciplinary, multi-level educational institutions; combine training with scientific research and technology transfer in the areas of engineering technology, economics and the humanities and social. The school

ensure to provide and care the conditions of quality learning for everyone in need of training and retraining; on the other hand ensure to provide human resources have qualifications, expertise and political savvy for the labor market at Dong Nai province in particular , and the country in general. Lac Hong University where manpower training provided directly to the industrial zones, export processing zones at Dong Nai province and the neighboring regions. Therefore, the school has set up training program according to rate of 60% theory and 40% practice and self-study. In recent years, one of the most important innovation content in Lac Hong University has implement is establish the standard output with high requirement. Standard output represents an affirmation of the ones that the students need to know, understand and be able to do at the end of the curriculum, including the specific requirements: Knowledge, skills, attitude, ability to learn and improve, work placement after graduation (Lac Hong,

2015). However, a big question arises “What occupational skills of the students are equipped and trained how through the process of learning the subjects in the field of basic science and general knowledge?”. Teaching of probability and statistics subject is always a topic of interest to many researchers. Related to this topic, with the learned material, we see three research trends associated with three goals: - Help students realize intimately intertwined relationship between Probability and Statistics. - Help learners understand the meaning of the basic concepts of Probability Statistics. - Help learners develop statistical thinking. On the world, with Universities, piece of research of Artigue M. emphasizing the relations between probability and statistics in economics education (Artigue, 1992), and research of Artaud M. (1993) with doctoral thesis "La mathématisation en économie comme problème didactique - Une étude exploratoire" made an analysis about history of mathematics and economics to indicate that the creation of economic knowledge often associated with mathematical investigations, research shows that a close relationship between economics with mathematics, especially with Probability - Statistics theory (Artaud, 1993). In Vietnam there have been many studies on teaching the Probability - Statistics in College and University, some doctoral dissertation authors, such as Trao Van Phan (2009), Hieu Huu Ta (2010), Tinh Thi Phan (2011), Hoat Tat Ngo (2011), Yen Thi Hoang Tran (2011), Hai Nam Hoang (2013),…. However, the object to which the author is interested in training Maths teacher in the field of Probability - Statistics and to improve the effectiveness of teaching Probability Statistics for students but no specific research on teaching Probability - Statistics target at occupational skills training for economics students.

For these reasons above, we have done research “Building integrated situations in the teaching of probability and statistics oriented to professional skills for economic majored students at Lac Hong university”

Research methodology Theoretical method: Analyze, summarize, collect information, research documents, … to establish theoretical foundation of the topic. Practical method: Method of observation, survey; Method of mathematical statistics: Process surveyed and actual data.

Study results and comments Introduction to integrated teaching Integrated teaching concept Integrated teaching is the teaching process in which the teacher organizes students into teams, create knowledge, skills in many different fields and Many other personal attributes such as strong-willed, co-operation, creativity,… to solve learning tasks through it is the formation and development of qualities and capacity needed (Roegiers 1996, 2004, 2005). The essence of integrated teaching is teaching theoretical contents combine with lesson practice and behind the hidden, it is a point of view of competence model in education (Allal 2001).

Characteristics of integrated teaching The purpose of integrated teaching is to take form and develop learner competencies, help learners to solve problems in the practice of life, occupation. The capacity of nature is the ability of the subject to flexibly and reasonable organizes the knowledge, skills, attitude, values, motives to meet the complex requirements of an operation, ensures that the activity is successful in a certain context (situation); and the method of creating that capacity is integrated teaching. Integrated teaching has the following characteristics (Roegiers 1996, 2004, 2005), (Gerard & Roegiers, 2003): - Establish relationships, according to a certain logic of knowledge, different skills to perform a complex operation. - Select the information, knowledge and skills that students need to perform practical activities in learning situations, to integrate them into the world of life. - Make the learning process clear and purposeful. - Teachers do not prioritize the teaching of knowledge and single information, but students must be able to search, manage, and use knowledge to solve problems in meaningful situations.

- Overcoming the habit of communicating, absorbing discrete and discrete skills make people "functional illiterates", meaning that they can be crammed with much information but cannot be used. As such, integrated teaching is reform to reduce unnecessary knowledge, to increase in useful knowledge. To select the content that is included in the curriculum, first answer what knowledge is needed and can make students aware of meaningful situations. Expression of capacity is knowing how to use the content and skills in a meaningful situation, not in discrete knowledge (De Ketele, 1996, 2004). Creating an integrated teaching situation In teaching, to develop capacity in an integrated perspective, it is necessary to build a system of practical situations (Roegiers 1996, 2004, 2005), (Su, 2005). The way to build an integrated situation is: - First of all, what is the need to identify situations to help develop competencies for learners? - Each construction situation needs to meet the following requirements: + Contains problems. + When dealing with problems, they must apply different knowledge and manipulate personal qualities. + Close to life, occupation of the learners. + The situation can be resolved. - Situation systems toward will help develop the necessary capacity. - System of integrated situations to be satisfied: + Each situation helps to develop some capacity + A Chain of situations is designed so that developmental capacities tend to rise the level of that capacity. (However, Not all capacities are satisfied. "In the following situations, that capacity must be at a higher level than in the previous situation. Sometimes the following situations just need to make sure the requirement to "strengthen" that capacity is available) (Bonniol, 1985), (Wu & Adams, 2006). The role and status of the probability and statistics teaching in comparison with the economic majors's learning outcomes

The contents in the learning outcomes of economic majors under the CDIO (Crawley et all, 2005) approach One of the most important jobs done at Lac Hong University is to develop the learning outcomes of the CDIO approach of each training discipline. After many edits, up to now the learning outcomes of the school was completed with the comments of many enterprises, departments and agencies in the area. From the mission of the school and the annual surveys, the school built "the learning outcomes 2016" (Benken 2005), (Crawley et all, 2005), (Lac Hong 2015), (Hoan & Trung 2016):

1. KNOWLEDGE AND SPECIALIZED ARGUMENTS 1.1. BASIC SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE 1.1.1. Knowledge of the basic principles of MarxismLeninism; Vietnam Communist Party's Revolutionary Platform; Ho Chi Minh Thought; 1.1.2. Have basic knowledge of mathematics and natural sciences; 1.1.3. Have knowledge of social sciences and humanities. 1.2. BASIC KNOWLEDGE AND SPECIALTY CORE KNOWLEDGE 1.2.1. Knowledge of fundamental principles for analyzing activity in the economy, to grasp the policy issues related to the overall performance of the economy, to find out some solutions to achieve the goals of the organization. 1.2.2. Basic knowledge of corporate governance, marketing, and economic law helps leaders make decisions to achieve the goals of the organization. 1.2.3. Basic knowledge of Econometrics: Probability and statistics, Linear programming,… applied to build linear programming situations to solve real problems in business to bring out optimal production options for businesses. 1.2.4. Knowledge of construction, estimating, the econometric model tests used in the analysis, economic forecast, finance. 1.2.5. Basic knowledge about international business as well as international investment has understood the factors affecting international business operations, the opportunities as well as challenges in the current trend of globalization like regulations and the importance of international investment in international economic integration. 1.2.6. Basic knowledge of accounting theory: concepts, nature, functions, objects, purposes and requirements of accounting, accounting methods, the process of collecting, recording accounting data, accounting sequence, major business processes, forms of accounting, content and organizational forms of accounting work, as well as the preparation and interpretation of financial statements. 1.2.7. Knowledge of the organization of the accounting apparatus in various types of enterprises (production, commercial, administrative careers, bank,…) as well as the accounting data processing skills of economic operations arising from the organization. 1.2.8. Basic knowledge of English for economics as well as writing, speaking and reading skills in knowledge economic growth in business. 1.2.9. Fundamental knowledge of monetary finance in general and corporate finance, in particular to take forming new thinking on monetary finance as well as corporate finance to approach, to implement policies and economic policy guidelines in reality. 1.2.10. The basic knowledge about how to use math tools in financial operations to carry out a financial instruments valuation, analyze projects, and select investment projects help managers make the right decisions in business to achieve high economic efficiency. 1.3. BASIC KNOWLEDGE AND ADVANCED MAJORS 2- SKILLS, PERSONAL QUALITIES AND OCCUPATIONS 2.1 ARGUMENTS THINKING AND SOLVING ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 2.1.1 Detect and form problems 2.1.2 Generalize the problem 2.1.3 Skills in qualitative assessment and analysis of the problem 2.1.4 Problem analysis skills when lack of information 2.1.5 Quantitative analysis skills 2.1.6 Problem-solving skills 2.1.7 To take solutions and recommendations 2.2 RESEARCH AND KNOWLEDGE DISCOVERY

2.2.1 Form the hypothesis 2.2.2 Search and synthesis of documents 2.2.3 Experimental studies 2.2.4 Hypothesis testing 2.2.5 Ability to apply research in practice 2.2.6 Skills in collecting, analyzing and processing information 2.3 SYSTEMS THINKING 2.3.1 Whole thinking /logic 2.3.2 Detect problems and correlations between problems 2.3.3 Identify priority issues 2.3.4 Analyze the choice between problems and find a balanced solution 2.3.5 Multi-dimensional analysis thinking 2.4 SKILLS AND PERSONAL QUALITIES 2.4.1 Ready to take the lead and cope with risks 2.4.2 Patiently 2.4.3 Flexible 2.4.4 Confident 2.4.5 Laborious 2.4.6 Enthusiastic and passionate about the work 2.4.7 Creative thinking 2.4.8 Critical thinking 2.4.9 Understand and analyze the knowledge, skills, qualities and attitudes of another individual 2.4.10 Discover and learn from life 2.4.11 Manage time and resources 2.4.12 Adaptive skills with the complexity of reality 2.4.13 Understanding of different cultures 2.4.14 The spirit of honor 2.4.15 Study skills and Self - study 2.4.16 Self management skills 2.4.17 Computer skills 2.5 PROFESSIONAL SKILLS AND QUALITIES 2.5.1 Professional ethics (honest, responsibility và credible) 2.5.2 Professional behavior 2.5.3 Planning skills for careers in the future 2.5.4 Organizational skills and job arrangements 2.5.5 Recognize and catch up with the modern world economy 2.5.6 Ability to work independently 2.5.7 Confidence in the international working environment 2.5.8 Target skills 2.5.9 Motivational skills to work 2.5.10 Personal and career development skills 2.5.11 Customer and partners care skills 2.5.12 Skills in use english for specific 3- SKILLS AND QUALITIES BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS (SOCIAL SKILLS) 3.1 WORK IN GROUPS 3.1.1 Create effective teamwork 3.1.2 Group operations 3.1.3 Group development 3.1.4 Team leader 3.1.5 Working skills in different groups 3.2 COMMUNICATION 3.2.1 Communication strategy 3.2.2 Communication structure (how to argue, arrangement ideas.) 3.2.3 Communication skills documents 3.2.4 Communication skills through email / media 3.2.5 Presentation skills 3.2.6 Communication skills among individuals 3.3 COMMUNICATION IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES 3.3.1. English (Equivalent level B1 according to European standard or TOEIC 450).

Thus, this learning out comes is stated that the content of probability and statistics knowledge should equip students in economic majors to meet the learning outcomes. 1.1.2; 1.2.3; 1.2.4; 1.2.10. Beside the content of knowledge, the probability and statistics teaching can be towards training skills in the learning outcomes, such as: 2.1.6. Problem-solving skills; 2.2.5. Ability to apply research in practice; 2.2.6. Skills in collecting, analyzing and processing information; 2.4.7. Creative thinking; 2.4.8. Critical thinking; 2.4.15. Study skills and self study; 2.4.17. Computer skills; 3.1. teamwork skills; 3.2.5. Presentation skills,â&#x20AC;Ś The above analysis confirms that for the teaching of probability and statistics to meet the knowledge and skills in the learning outcome built up, teaching should be equipped toward the knowledge of probability and statistics to apply in economics and students can use in studying the next module as well as learning to improve after graduation and application in economics. Not only that, the probability and statistics teaching towards skills training mentioned in the learning outcomes.

The role of probability and statistics in the learning outcome of the economic majors Probability and statistics is a basic subject and today, knowledge of this field has penetrated into almost every field and science. Knowledge about scientific probability as well as statistics have been widely applied (Devore 2004). This is one of the basic knowledge of the module that the Ministry of Education and Training has defined as a compulsory subject for students in economics, medicine, chemistry and the environment.â&#x20AC;Ś The characteristic of probability and statistics is "finding stability in the seemingly unstable, indispensable in the randomness by mathematical methods" (Hayter, 2007), (Devore 2004). Incident is an indispensable part of life. Probability and statistics becomes an important science subject, especially its applications. In fact, individuals sometimes encounter situations in front of multiple choices before deciding, the exact decision will lead they to success. Probability statistics is necessary, It is an indispensable tool when economists need a basis to make the final decision on their business strategies (Hayter, 2007).

Figure 1. Relationship between probability statistics and subjects of the economic majors Probability statistics equips economists, future engineers in the process of collecting and processing information. It is a prerequisite to other subjects such as Corporate Finance, Econometrics, Stock Market, Risk Management, Insurance,... Moreover, with particular applications in Mathematics should be training of basic mathematical skills such as: generalizations, especially, modeling, detect and solve problems... Learning probability and statistics is also contributing to training the occupational skills associated with economics students, such as: gathering skills, statistical data processing; observation skills; analytical skills, decisions through estimation problems, accreditation; skills in information technology applications; teamwork skills… These skills are an indispensable part of the requirements for occupational skills for economics students that "Learning outcomes" of Lac Hong University was set out. But, how to teach probability and statistics to contribute to meeting the learning outcomes in Lac Hong University is still a question without answers. For these reasons above, we have done research “Training occupational skills through teaching probability – statistics for economic majors ” Reality of teaching probability and statistics subjects to the requirements of the learning outcomes at Lac Hong University In (Hoan, 2014) have pointed out that, teaching of probability and statistics at school exist on limitations the following: The practice of problem-solving skills have not shown more in the lectures. Most lecturers taught in the traditional way is mainly (cognitive knowledge and application of knowledge to solve specific exercises), leading to not practice problem solving skills for students. Don’t focus on assessment with practical subject contents. Example for the tests, final exams have many properties of mathematics and applied to all majors, without the installation practical problems for students in specific occupations.

No application of information technology in teaching an effective. At present, most instructors only instruct students to compute by pocket calculator without using the tool as a specific software (such as Maple, Mathematica,â&#x20AC;Ś) for solving specific math problems like technique for students Not to promote self-learning ability, ability to work collectively of students through group exercises, assignments homework. Now, the school has not compiled the major assignments of the subject, resulting in the training of the above skills not yet implemented for this subject. This reality led to the final examination results module of probability and statistics is low, the number of students retake a test, repeat a module is high. Moreover, the majority of students said that this is a difficult subject and not the application-oriented subject for his/her specialized subjects as well as training skills through this course. This is most evident in assessment of student for teachers in the subject. For example, the content of questions, such as: 1) Lecturers provide references to students by setting many problems related to the subject; 2) Lecturer held for student group activities; and 3) Your comments about the quality of teaching in this course. With selected items for students: a) Totally disagree; b) Disagree; c) No comments; d) Agree; and e) Totally agree, the students' answers are usually c: No comments. Thus, teaching probability and statistics acccording to results of the survey (Hoan, 2014) is not meet the requirements set forth in the school's learning outcomes. Specifically, in criteria such as: The content of probability and statistics is general knowledge, theoretical heavy, not directly applied to economic majors. Teaching is not organized towards of training professional skills for students as defined in the learning outcomes The integrated teaching method allows the selection of content into curriculum and can make students apply their knowledge to specific job situations. On the other hand, knowledge is also equipped to train the skills in a meaningful situation, not just to equip the knowledge discrete. The above analysis shows that research is needed "Give some integrated situations in teaching of probability and statistics oriented to professional skills for the students economic majors at Lac Hong University" is very necessary requirement. Some integrated situations in the teaching of probability and statistics oriented to professional skills for students economic majors Some practice skills for students through teaching situations are (Roegiers 1996, 2004, 2005; Hoan, 2015; Hoan & Hang, 2016; Schoenfeld, 1992). - Skills in using mathematical language - Skills in modeling a practical situation - Problem-solving and decision-making skills

- Application research skills in practice - Skills in collecting, analyzing and processing information To solve the problem contained in the situation, students must apply the following knowledge: - Knowledge of probability and statistics: random variables, probabilities in the classical sense, probability and statistics, expectations, variance of random variables,… - Basic knowledge of economics, such as risk measurement, optimal coverage, utility function, expected return E(R), risk, balances… Situation 1. Apply probability and statistics to solve the problem of insurance Exercise. Suppose you have a motorbike worth 10 million VND. A company invites you to buy insurance with the following conditions: Every year, you pay a certain premium, if you lost the car, the insurance company will reimburse you 8 million (equivalent to 80% of the value of the car). How much is the highest premium you accepting? Now, suppose you read the People's Police Newspaper and know that in the past year, the rate of motorcycle theft in the city was 0.1% (that is, with 1000 motorcycles, 1 motorcycles was stolen). How does this new information affect the decision on the maximum premium you accept? Problem situation, given: A person thinking how to protect personal property? The solution that most people accept is to buy insurance for their motorcycles. However, whether buying or not buying insurance, he still faces the risk of being stolen. So, what to do to minimize losses, This question directs students to task the mathematical expectations model to calculate the expected level of expected holdings of all possible cases. We have to compare between two cases: When to buy insurance and not to buy insurance? Table 1. Cases of insurance fees

Insurance

Lost

Not lost

Expected asset value

(p = 0,1%)

(p = 99,9%)

(E (X))

Yes

0 million 10 million (99,9%). 10 million (0,1%). 8 (99,9%) 10 + (0,1%) 8 No 10 million million million Thus, if you buy insurance, expected asset value to be: EV1  (99,9%).10(million)  (0,1%).8(million)  IF , with IF is insurance fees. If not,

buy

insurance,

expected

asset

value is: EV2  (99,9%).10(million)  (0,1%).0  (99,9%).10(million) . So, if only based

on the level of expectations to make decisions, you will buy insurance if EV1  EV2 , it means IF < 8.000 VND. This fee is 8.000 VND called fair premium after performing all these calculations, we try to ask ourselves again what is the maximum premium we can accept? And if the premium is not 8,000VND but 10,000VND, are we willing to buy insurance?

From a real situation in class, It is possible to draw some initial comments related to the problem for students as follows: Why do we buy insurance (demand for insurance)? We buy insurance to reduce variability in consumption. Note that you only need to spend 8,000 VND a year you are not afraid of empty hands when losing a motorcycle anymore. Thus, variability or variance is one of the measures of risk. In statistics, people use the variance to measure the variability of a random variable. “Variability” here means that the variance of the mean (or expected value) (Thoyts, 2010). Starting from the practical problem, students can ask questions: Will the company always sell the desired amount of insurance? The rate of theft this year increased over last year?,... Therefore, the insurers themselves are also at risk when carrying out insurance projects above. What do they do to minimize the risks they will face? This is precisely the premise for students to enter into new, expanded and inherited models of mathematical and new economic model, broader and inheritance of probability models was built from Application of probability and statistics, such as: profit, risk, risk measurement, risk mitigation, profit maximization, the application of choice in business,... Situation 2. Apply probability and statistics of calculating the expected return on financial investment (Integrate with the stock market subject and Corporate Finance) (Hallwood & Ronald MacDonald, 2010) Exercise. Mr. An works for a company with a monthly cumulative of 30,000,000 VND and is considering two investment channels as follows: - Option 1: This amount will be deposited into the bank with a stable interest of 1,800,000 VND/year. - Option 2: Investing in a stock market of 100,000 VND to buy a stock will receive an annual dividend of 5,000 VND/year and after one year, expected market price of that stock is 105,000 VND. This is the result Mr. An obtained after collecting data, using calculations (which in fact, many investors use Probability models) to process the data.. Problem situation, given: Which strategy is optimal? Consider plan A: If Mr.An deposited money in the bank and then earn 1.800.000 VND/year, it means rate of profit equal to 1.800.000/30.000.000 = 6%/year. Consider plan B: If Mr.An invested in securities, his investment information as follows: - The investment amount is 100,000 VND - Income after 1 year of investment is: 5.000 + (105.000 - 100.000) = 10.000/ stock (this is Stock market subject) - Rates of profit = 10.000/100.000 = 10%/year Thus, if you invest in the stock, the return on investment includes stock dividends (5,000 VND/stock) and income from securities increased (5,000 VND/share), with Mr.An's 30 million VND can buy 300 stocks and earn

respectively 3,000,000 VND (300 stock x 10,000 VND/stock) (this is Business finance subjet) Therefore, in terms of margins to evaluate the efficiency of investment, we choose option 2, which is to invest in stocks, the yield will be higher. However, the risks of the two options are different. If Mr. An deposited into the bank will have a profit of 6% per year. If Mr. An buys stock and holds until the end of the year, he may or may not have the expected dividend as the stock price may fluctuate up or down, so Option 2 to suffer a loss. In terms of the degree of risk, it is clear that depositing money in a bank can not be considered as risky, but if investing in stocks, the probability of stock price volatility is higher. This shows that the choice of higher expected value always has a higher risk, that is, the expected return and risk are two variable quantities in the same direction. This problem continues to be covered in detail in the subjects: Economics of Investment, Choice Uncertainty,... Situation 3. Application of probability and statistics to solve the problem of choosing a business plan (Integration with Management Accounting subjects) (John Burns at all, 2013), (Moore & McCabe, 2006) Exercise. At HAT company, there are data on the results of business operations in accordance with the balance of receivables in November 2016 as follows: (consumption of 4,500 products), Unit: 1,000 VND Table 2. Data on the results of business operations in accordance with the balance of receivables in November 2016 At HAT company

Total

Calculated for 1 product 60 45 15

Rate

1. Revenue 300.000 100% 2. Variable cost 225.000 75% 3. Contribution margin (CM) 75.000 25% 4. Fixed cost 25.000 5. Profit 50.000 December, executives want to increase profits over the previous month, so they have offered to reduce selling price by 2,000 VND/product and increase the cost of advertising on the media by 8,000,000 VND (this is Management accounting subject). So, the question is put: Will the proposed management plan become feasible? Problem situation, given: Is the proposed management plan feasible? Before the situation, Financial analysts conduct calculations of probabilities happens when put this plan into the business model of the company. To do that, they conduct a market survey and assume that after studying the market survey results of the sample survey at some business agents when implementing the above plan, as follows: Consumption is expected to increase from 20% to 50%, with the probability that consumption increase by 20% is 60%, the probability that consumption will increase by 50% is 40%.

From the results of the probability survey, the accountant can calculate the profit (loss) corresponding to the survey results: - If consumption of products increase by 20% then: + Unit Contribution margin = (60.000 - 2.000) - 45.000 = 13.000 VND/product. + Increased receivables: (5.000 x 120% x 13.000) – 75.000.000 = 3.000.000 VND + Profit increased: 3.000.000 – 8.000.000 = -5.000.000 VND (Profit decreases 7.000.000 VND) - If consumption of products increase by 50% then: + Increased receivables: (5.000 x 150% x 13.000) - 75.000.000 = 22.500.000 VND + Profit increased: 22.500.000 – 8.000.000 = 14.500.000 VND Inferred, the increase in profitability when calculating is: -5.000.000x60% + 14.500.000x40% = 2.800.000 VND (Profit increased 2.8 million VND). The results show that the proposed management model can bring additional profits for the company. Thus, the company should implement this option. In the above situation, students realize that conducting surveys and collecting data by application of probability and statistics model allows the enterprise to verify the feasibility of a business plan from which to make the decision. Should the business plan be implemented? Research results and survey Content, methods, evaluation aims and object of surveying With the aim of evaluating the effectiveness of the application of teaching methods towards occupational skills training for students through these integrated situations in the teaching of probability and statistics, after impact methods with the lecturer about integrated situations in charge of subject, we conducted a survey on the subject is first year student of Faculty of Finance and Accounting and Faculty of International economic business, Lac Hong University, school years: 2015 to 2016. Votes have clear data to use for statistics in the survey was N = 152. Research methodology, at the time survey: Information and Documentation Center of Lac Hong University conducted a survey on student course evaluations after students semester exam in that subject, the survey was carried out through the website. Tools and content assessment survey: Questionnaire for the survey includes 20 questions with level scale: 5 = totally agree, 4 = agree, 3 = no ideas, 2 = disagree, 1 = totally disagree. Survey results Survey findings are taken from Information and Documentation Center of Lac Hong University (Here only lists of questions related to skills-table 3).

Table 3. Course evaluation results of Probabilily and Statistics courses of students in academic year 2015 - 2016

Ordinal

3 4

CONTENT SURVEY During school hours, Teacher guides for students: using mathematical language and modeling a practical situation During school hours, Teachers guides for students: using mathematical tools to solve practical problems During school hours, Teachers focus on developing: problem-solving skills and decision-making skills of students Lesson content connects with the real life, in association with future career majors

STUDENT'S COMMENTS 1 2 3 4 5 0

135

130

126

132

Survey results show that the majority of students agree with the comments set out, in there the rate agree and totally agree, high in the critical comments related to teaching towards skills training in standard learning outcomes. Specific question No. 1: “During school hours, Teacher guides for students: using mathematical language and modeling a practical situation” have 95.39% students, question No. 2: “During school hours, Teachers guides for students: using mathematical tools to solve practical problems” have 92,1% students, question No. 3: “During school hours, Teachers focus on developing expression skills, problem-solving skills and decision-making skills of students” have 94,74% students choice answers are agree and totally agree. This insists that these integrated situations in the teaching of probability and statistics have contributed to the teaching of subjects respond to standard learning outcomes, as well as contact with the practical applications for job from Probability – Statistics course.

Conclusions Thus, creating integrated situations in the teaching of probability and statistics has initially oriented teaching for economics students in order to purpose of training professional skills. The results initially showed that students learn probability and statistics in a more positively, in particular the ability to apply probability and statistics to solving occupational issues has been significantly improved. That helps us have a well-founded, synchronized goal, the content and method of teaching associated with vocational training to achieve the developmental learning outcomes.

References Allal, L. (2001), La métacognition en perspective, in Figari, G., Achouche, M. (2001). L'activité évaluative réinterrogée. Regards scolaires et socioprofessionnels, Bruxelles : De Boeck Université, p. 142-145. Artigue M. (1992), “Ingénierie didactique” Recherche en didactique des Mathématiques, La Pensée Sauvage, Grenoble. Artaud M. (1993), La mathématisation en économie comme problème didactique-Une étude exploratoire. Thèse pour l’obtention du grade de docteur de l’Université d’AixMarseille II. Marseille: IREM d’Aix-Marseille. Bonniol, J.-J. (1985), Influence de l'explicitation des critères utilisés sur le fonctionnement des mécanismes de l'évaluation d'une production scolaire. In Bulletin de Psychologie, XXXV, 353, p. 173-186. Benken J., Crawley F. et all (2005), Benchmarking Engineering curricular with the CDIO syllabus, Int. J. Engng Ed. Vol. 21, No.1, pp.121-133 Burns J., Martin Quinn, Liz Warren, Joao Oliveira (2013), Management Accounting, Mcgraw-Hill higher Education. Crawley F. (2001), The CDIO Syllabus A Statement of Goals for Undergraduate Engineering Education, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. De Ketele, J.M. (1996), L'évaluation des acquis scolaires : quoi ? pourquoi ? pour quoi ?, Revue Tunisienne des Sciences de l'Éducation, 23, p. 17-36. De Ketele, J.-M. & Gerard, F.-M. (2004), La validation des épreuves d'évaluation selon l'approche par les compétences, Mesure et évaluation (à paraître). Devore L. (2004), Probability and statistics for engineering and the sciences, sixth edition, Thomson, USA. Goverment (2012), Education Development Strategy 2011 – 2020, Decision No. 711 / QD TTg dated 16 - 06-2012, Ha Noi. Gerard, F.-M. & Roegiers, X. (2003), Des manuels scolaires pour apprendre, Bruxelles : De Boeck Université. Grangeat, M. (1998), Régulation métacognitive, transfert de connaissances et autonomisation, Educations, n°15, p. 37-40. Hayter A.J. (2007), Probability and statistics for engineering and the sciences, third edition, Thomson, USA Hoan V. T. (2014), Situation of teaching Probability - Statistics subject versus outcomes at Lac Hong University, Ho Chi Minh City University of Pedagogy, Journal of Science, 59(93), p.165–169. Hoan V. T. (2015), Some measures to train problem-solving skill through teaching probability – statistics for economic majored students at Lac Hong University, Hue University, Journal of Science, Vol. 105, No. 6. Hoan Van Tran & Hang Thuy Nguyen (2016), Teaching Probability – Statistics towards Training, Occupational Skills for Economic Majored Students – Case Study at Lac Hong University Viet Nam, International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, Vol. 15, No. 12, pp. 130-144, November. Hoan Van Tran & Trung Van Nguyen (2016), Approach CDIO in teaching of probability and statistics for students economic majors at Lac Hong University oriented to meet the learning outcomes, Proceedings of national CDIO conference, Publisher The National University - HCM city.

Jadoulle, J.-L. & Bouhon, M. (2001), Développer des compétences en classe d'histoire. Louvain-la-Neuve : Unité de didactique de l'Histoire à l'Université catholique de Louvain. Lac Hong University (2015), The report of the implementation of public regulation at Lac Hong university in 2015 - 2016 academic year. Moore DS, McCabe GP. (2006), Producing data in Introduction to the Practice of Statistics, 5th ed. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman and Company; pp. 191–250 Noël, B. (2001), L'autoévaluation comme composante de la métacognition : essai d'opérationalisation, in Figari, G., Achouche, M. (2001), L'activité évaluative réinterrogée. Regards scolaires et socioprofessionnels, Bruxelles : De Boeck Université, p. 109-117. Paul Hallwood, Ronald MacDonald (2010), International Money and Finance, WileyBlackwell publisher. Roegiers X. (1996), La Pédagogie de L’intégration ou comment développer des compétences à L’ércole?, publisher Education. Roegiers X. (2005), L'évaluation selon la pédagogie de l'intégration - Est-il possible d'évaluer les compétences des élèves?, Alger: UNESCO-ONPS. Roegiers X., (2000, 2e édition 2001), Une pédagogie de l'intégration, Bruxelles : De Boeck Université. Roegiers X., (2003), Des situations pour intégrer les acquis, Bruxelles : De Boeck Université. Roegiers X., (2004), L'école et l'évaluation, Bruxelles : De Boeck Université Schoenfeld A. H. (1985), Mathematical problem solving, San Diego: Acadermic Press. Schoenfeld A. H. (1992), Learning to think mathematically, Problem solving, metacognition and sensemaking in mathematics, in D. A. Grouws, a curadi, Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning, New York, Macmillan, pp. 334-370. Su Viet Nguyen (2005), Vocational education - The Situation and Solutions, publisher Education. Thoyts R. (2010), Insurance Theory and Practise, Routledge publisher. Wu, M., Adams, R. (2006), Modelling Mathematics Problem Solving Item Responses Using a Multidimensional IRT Model, Mathematics Education Research Journal. Vol. 18, No. 2, 93-113. ---The end--Full name of the author 1: Hoan Van Tran Degree: MSc degree Address: Lac Hong University - Dong Nai Province PhD student at Viet Nam Institute of Educational Sciences (VNIES) - specialization: theory and methods of teaching mathematics. Phone: 0973.851.989 Email: tranhoan.math@gmail.com Full name of the author 2: Hang Thuy Nguyen Degree: MAc degree Address: Lac Hong University - Dong Nai Province Phone: 0937967099 Email: nth2299@gmail.com

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 31-53, April 2017

A Framework for the Creation of Leap Motion Gestural Interfaces for Handwriting Education to Children with Development Coordination Disorder Leonardo Ramon Nunes de Sousa Mackenzie Presbyterian University and Federal University of Piauí Teresina, PI, Brazil Ismar Frango Silveira Mackenzie Presbyterian University São Paulo, SP, Brazil

Abstract. Gestural interfaced-based computational tools can be more suitable than other kinds of interfaces during calligraphy education to children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. The touchless tools reduce difficulties with handwriting of these pupils because they do not require physical contact and they dispense efforts of fine motor skills needed to perform calligraphy. They also serve as a motivational tool and they are more intuitive than touchscreen and graphical user interfaces. This paper deals with concepts of Development Coordination Disorder and human-computer interaction principles and it proposes a framework with a set of specific guidelines for software for the development of gestural interfaces for calligraphy education to children with DCD. Containing 25 guidelines in 3 stages – Prototyping, Development and Evaluation, this model takes into account the characteristics of DCD and recognizes fine motor skills technologies, relating all proposed guidelines to each other and supports the creation of appropriate gestural interfaces to assist these children at this school stage. Keywords: Gestural Interfaces; Framework; Guidelines; Developmental Coordination Disorder; Handwriting.

First Considerations As gestural interfaces for children calligraphy learning are often inappropriate or poorly designed (Saffer, 2008), it is recommended that the development of these interfaces starts with its framework which contains a number of guidelines to be followed and can be adapted to the reality of the process of teaching handwriting to children with DCD, taking into account those devices that have

the characteristic of recognizing fine movements without tactile response, for example, Leap motion (Nunes & Silveira, 2015b), (Nunes & Silveira, 2015c). A framework, therefore, is a type of system or model to formalize a conceptual process, capturing a common feature among different concepts (Ferguson, Jelsma, Versfeld & Smits-Engelsman, 2014) and allow the reuse of these definitions for analysis, design, implementation and testing, being commonly used in the software programming area in computers (Landin, Niklasson, Bosson & Regnell, 1995) and helping in the development of interfaces (Johnson & Deutsch, 1993). The advantage of using a framework is that it acts as a paradigm for the development of something in accordance with an established standard, saving additional time and research work, as the whole process is regulated, besides productivity benefits in creating new tools, with reliability and quality, as well as updating and constant maintenance of the model. A disadvantage has to be the time spent in the creation of formulations and settings. Therefore to use a framework, there is need of an analysis for a complete understanding and handling during implementation in accordance with their recommendations.

I. Developmental Coordination Disorder Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a disorder linked to fine and gross motor coordination with children and adults who commit to academic achievement, physical education and everyday activities such as dressing, personal hygiene, nutrition, social interaction/relationships and health, without any clinically evident brain injury/damage. It is mainly characterized by spatial, motor, postural and verbal difficulties, compromising movements, perceptions, thought and language (Polatajko & Cantin, 2005), (MagalhĂŁes, Cardoso & Missiuna, 2011), (Portwood, 2013). People with DCD have an intellectual capacity in accordance with the general population, but the presentation and difficulties of the disorder can vary between individuals and may change in accordance with environmental demands and life expectancy. For some, however, its impact is persistent and significant up to adulthood, affecting daily life and creating problems with time management, organization and planning (Kirby, Edwards & Sugden, 2011), (Kirby, Sugden & Purcell, 2014). It is estimated that there are 5% to 6% up to 22% of school-age children with DCD, with 2% severely affected. In the general population, the number of DCD prevalence is between 5% and 7%, most frequently with males (Martin, Piek & Hay, 2006), (Cardoso & MagalhĂŁes, 2009), (Ferguson et al., 2014). Discussing the difficulties that DCD presents before, the problem of space is many times confusing for subjects, concerning concepts like high, low, near or far, as well as the shapes and sizes of figures used in writing (Wilson & Mckenzie, 1998), (Vaivre-Douret et al., 2011). With neurological motor dysfunction, DCD prevents the brain from performing all its functions, compromising balance, generating imprecision and slowness (Geuze, 2003). The areas that suffer most are changes in body posture and temporal-spatial orientation (Ferguson et al., 2014). The stance is reflected in movements lacking rhythm and little control (Fong, Ng & Yiu, 2013). In some

cases, language is not affected, but there is a phonological and phonetic deficit in speech (Gaines & Missiuna, 2007). The main features of this disorder can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1: DCD and its characteristics. Source: Prepared by the author.

Children with DCD experience school failure, with challenges in calligraphy, as handwriting is the most affected area due to the difficulty in controlling and holding a pencil, little tactile sensation and limited concept of space, characterized by the absence of spacing between letters and the impediment to position the pencil at a specific point of the paper, along with the lack of three-dimensional perception when copying or drawing geometric figures and disorganization in presented works on paper (Miyahara & MĂśbs, 1995), (Zwicker, Missiuna, Harris & Boyd, 2011), (Jolly & Gentaz, 2013), (Scordella et al., 2015). By using digital technology, however, school problems can be overcome, since the cognitive part of the brain is unaffected and children with DCD can use them with dexterity and rapidity (Thorvaldsen, Egeberg, Pettersen & Vavik, 2011), (CzyĹźewski, Dalka, Kunka & Odya, 2014), (Ferguson et al., 2014). Educating children with DCD during literacy should focus on calligraphy and literacy with techniques and tools that improve physical and psychological aspects of the child at this stage (Othman & Keay-Bright, 2010), (Prunty, Barnett, Wilmut & Plumb, 2013), such as dotted exercises, using nontoxic modeling clay, boards and paintings, chalk or brush, chairs and adapted tables, different types of pencils, pens (that light up when pressed), erasers, rulers, lined paper which is always aligned with the child's arm, giving more autonomy and confidence for these pupils and those who are in special needs education (Kirby, 2011), (Hsu et al., 2013), (Huau, Velay & Jover, 2015). You can also allow the child to write with pre-shaped letters, requiring a certain amount of work or exercises, making use of other moments of interaction with colleagues, such as intervals, in addition to giving extra time, not scoring all errors, encouraging oral responses or use of digital technologies that benefit

from kinesthetic movements (those performed in the air), as well as technologies which use gestural interfaces, helping in the education of children with DCD as they have problems in finalizing and reverse letters (handedness and orientation) (Chen & Cohn, 2003), (Summers, Larkin & Dewey, 2008), (MagalhĂŁes et al., 2011), (Missiuna, Rivard & Pollock, 2011).

II. Leap Motion Leap motion Technology is a compact-size device with infrared sensors and cameras that have the capability to track and recognize only the movements of the fingers and hands of a user, as can be seen in Figure 2. The tool requirement is the need to calibrate prior to use so that a new user gets used to using it (Nho, Seo, Seol & Kwon, 2014), (Seixas, Cardoso & Dias, 2015).

Figure 2: Leap Motion. Source: www.leapmotion.com

This tool has a split control in 02 (two) areas: Hover Zone and Touch Zone. The first captures movements shallow as a general navigation cursor on the screen, being located between the user and the sensor. The second zone is closer to the monitor, activates buttons and other controls equivalent to for example the clicks of a mouse. It is located between the sensor and the computer monitor if it is used (Sutton, 2013). Leap Motion is a device example that uses gestural interfaces and has drawn attention because of precision in recognizing movements. Financially, the cost of acquisition is more affordable than other devices, such as ASUS Xtion Motion Sensor, Microsoft Kinect (Xbox 360) - Win and I, MYO Armband (Thalmic Labs), Interactive Projections - GestureTek (wall, floor), Nintendo Wii (U), PlayStation Move-Eye (Sony) and Wisee: WiFi signals (Potter, Araullo & Carter, 2013), (Weichert, Bachmann, Rudak & Fisseler, 2013). In addition, its physical dimensions are more comfortable to changing environments and transport for people with disabilities, also having a detection capability of your sensor more accurately than others in the market, focusing its motion capture system only on the hands (Shen, Luo, Wang, Wu & Zhou, 2014). This device also has a set of applications that can be free or paid and are available in (Leapmotion, 2017), with the example of software to be recommended for use with children with DCD the Skywriting Alphabets, Floatmotion, BT Handwriting Free and Herbi Write About (Leapmotion, 2017).

When developing applications for Leap motion, you need to use SDK (Software Development Kit) of this tool and choose a framework with a programming language for development as e.g. C ++, C \ #, Unity (V2), Objective- C, Java, Python, JavaScript, and Unreal Motor Unit (Orion). The SDK offers two (02) options for data collection on the interface - the native and websocket. This creates web applications that contain a dynamic library for creating new applications (Bassily, Georgoulas, Guettler, Linner & Bock, 2014), (Seixas et al., 2015). With these features, for example, the Leap motion can be interesting for children with DCD in literacy to enhance learning calligraphy training hand movements, also at work in the communication process, expression, interaction and storing digital actions through movements and kinesthetic movements performed in the air (Bachmann, Weichert & Rinkenauer, 2014), (Liu, Zhang, Rau, Choe & Gulrez, 2015). The application being developed will contain e.g. calligraphy activities divided into modules that reinforce the learning of uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, geometric shapes and symbols. It will be used during the process of literacy and literacy of children with DCD for later use similar procedures to (Becker, Mauer, Emer, Behar & AssumpĂ§ĂŁo, 2014), also characterized as exploratory qualitative research.

III. Work / Method Proposal To help teach and motivate calligraphy to children with DCD using gestural interfaces through devices without tactile contact, we propose a framework containing a set of guidelines for developing applications that potentially intervene in literacy steps and calligraphy of this target audience. The guidelines in this framework propose a guide on how interfaces of applications should be implemented, facilitating the accessibility and systemized usability for people with DCD and allowing gestural interface technologies being used more safely. As an example of technology that works with the recognition of fine hand movements, we recommend that software can be developed for Leap motion by virtue of its advantages listed in Section 3, taking into account the context of the subjects with this disorder, their needs and constraints, as well as being an inclusive solution for people with disabilities in general. One can create applications for handwriting activities that reinforce learning uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, geometric shapes and symbols in order to expedite learning for individuals with DCD. They will be used during the process of literacy and calligraphy of children with DCD, before teaching traditional methods for calligraphy, thus creating, for this classic methodology, training benefits and memorization as shapes, letters and numbers should be created through the practice of kinesthetic movement, making it intuitive. For this, however, a good methodology and addressing ethical issues should be involved in the development of one or more applications that effectively promote calligraphy learning in children with DCD through appropriate gestural interfaces, facilitating educational calligraphy opportunities

by way of such tools, in addition to being diverse and inclusive when considering the individuals involved. This framework is therefore the starting point of the development of gestural interfaces for people with DCD on devices that consider fine motor hand movements, in addition to highlighting the need for further and new approaches to content analysis for this audience, its characteristics and meanings, using the concepts of accessibility and effectiveness of applications created, also launching other looks to promote calligraphy learning that gestural technologies offer and are thus challenging and thought-provoking. Description of Framework The proposed framework consists of 25 (twenty five) based guidelines in the Participatory Design Principles and User-Centered Design, highlighting the characteristics of children with DCD and being divided into 03 (three) main parts: Prototyping, Development and Evaluation, as in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Proposed Framework with the parts of Prototyping, Development and Evaluation. Source: Prepared by the author.

Prototyping aims to advance understanding of the needs of children with DCD in relation to calligraphy learning, acting as a set of guidelines that will guide the development of gestural interfaces effectively targeted at these subjects and being supported by the work of (Othman & Keay-Bright, 2010), (Placitelli & Gallo, 2012), (Othman & Keay-Bright, 2011), (Caro, MartĂnez-GarcĂa, Tentori & Zavala-Ibarra, 2014) and (Caro, 2014) with regard to the understanding of user requirements for better system development, and therefore having a greater number of guidelines, fourteen (14), like the other steps of the framework, taking into account the part of planning with schematics of the product before it is generated (Dey, Abowd & Salber, 2001) and usability (Hall, 2001), (Still & Morris, 2010), reducing the chances of a bad design (Wiethoff, Schneider, Rohs, Butz & Greenberg, 2012). The second stage, Development, has 07 (seven) guidelines related to the peculiar characteristics of the devices with recognition of fine movements, therefore, particularly for Leap motion, there are some hand formats to your SDK that need to be chosen. This step concentrates the guidelines that need to unite the demands of devices (Hand Size and Position, Hand Immersion, space between objects, Highlight Selected) with the needs of children with DCD for proper use (Realism, Encouragement and Ergonomics). The evaluation phase has 4 (four) guidelines (Technologies Used, A Device for Children, Punctuation and General Checking) directed to carry out the assessment of the previous steps and guidelines by identifying the characteristics of children with DCD, the focused technology, interface

obstacles/interaction between subjects and tools, also suitable alternatives of how adversity can affect the desired results, and finally the compliance check of the recommendations with the set (Prates & Barbosa, 2003). Thus, the proposed guidelines are: Prototyping: P1. Fine Movement Applications: Consider relevant devices having feature recognition of fine motor movements centered on hands without tactile response, for example, Leap motion. These devices are relevant in a context where there are children with additional motor difficulties to normal, as with DCD, to help in the process of autonomy and security in calligraphy learning during school literacy (Nunes & Silveira, 2015a). These technological devices can be recommended for people with DCD before the traditional calligraphy learning process as it would help in the visual memory of the formation of letters by performing kinesthetic movements in the air (Sugden & Chambers, 1998), causing the child to stay focused on coordination, accuracy and dexterity needed for speedy writing motion and precision needed for calligraphy (Polatajko & Cantin, 2005), (Snapp-Childs, Casserly , Mon-Williams & Bingham, 2013); P2. For Calligraphy: The application task should be directed to exercise the difficulties in learning calligraphy. For children with DCD, these difficulties are different and more pronounced. The child has difficulty in fine motor skills in writing letters, numbers, words and the difficulty of planning the route to get there (Kaiser, Albaret & Doudin, 2009), (Sudirman, Tabatabaey-Mashadi & Ariffin, 2011); P3. Highlight Objectives: The objectives of each part of the software should be well explained and highlighted, focusing on a purpose to be achieved through the task of compliance (cognitive part) and the movements to be performed (motor part) because children with DCD have difficulty learning how to move the body and members (in this case: shoulder, elbow, wrist, hand and fingers) to perform writing and have to pay more attention to complete motor activities (Caro et al., 2014), (Caro, 2014), (Bo & Lee, 2013); P4. Interaction: Provides the communication processes and application interaction for children with DCD by providing possibly real and interactive situations as they may be disinterested in some activities and avoid interactive processes with their peers or situations closer to their reality (Othman & KeayBright, 2011), (Zwicker, Missiuna, Harris & Boyd, 2012), (Gonsalves, Campbell, Jensen & Straker, 2015); P5. Motivation: Promoting stimuli and encouragement by using animations, videos and sounds. The engagement and involvement of children in the task of compliance can increase their ability to exercise the cognitive and motor parts, making them more enjoyable and decreasing frustration. Animations, videos and sounds should be used with caution to avoid being interpreted as noise and stress. They should be fun and useful, providing opinions on actions, being used in times of transition or when nothing happens on the screen, because the

fatigue and repeated failure to shares not carried out can cause them to not participate in the activities and present secondary emotional problems, such as low self-esteem, intolerance to frustration and demotivation (MagalhĂŁes, et al., 2011), (Tresser, 2012), (Mandich, Polatajko & Rodger, 2003); P6. Levels and Transitions: Create very clear and defined transitions through easy levels without much difficulty from one level to another, showing a progress of tasks in cognitive and motor parts. Generally, children will perform the same number of tasks or task times and change, the next steps should be similar to previous so they are also executed many times and that children do not lose concentration, as children with DCD may experience problems with abrupt change, with much effort to plan and execute a task, showing in the lack of performance (Caro et al., 2014), (Missiuna, Moll, King, King & Law, 2007); P7. Movements and Repetition: Focus on repetitiveness of movements in sequence. Help in learning new moves and consolidation of motor exercises, acting significantly with intervention therapists, and empower the subjects for future action, as children with DCD may have trouble learning a new motor skill and with repetition, some of these qualifications will be performed well and others poorly (Smits-Engelsman, Wilson, Westenberg & Duysens, 2003), (Jelsma, Geuze, Mombarg & Smits-Engelsman, 2014); P8. Spatial, Visual and Body Motor Understanding: Promoting control of movements, posture, balance and hand-eye coordination (fine visual-motor), the child may feel the effects that each movement provides for the completion of a task, in addition to providing a space and visual understanding as a result of each body and motor movement, as children with DCD may have difficulty with activities with changes in body position and the custom to use vision as a feedback guide of their movements (Zwicker, Missiuna & Boyd, 2009), (Wilson, Ruddock, Smitsâ&#x20AC;?Engelsman, Polatajko & Blank, 2013), (Ferguson et al., 2014); P9. Tasks: Create simple, short, easy to remember and intuitive tasks. This will help in achieving objectives, will serve as a stimulus for other steps and reduce frustration. For children with DCD, the maximum cognitive load they support is a little less than a child with a typical development, it is important to map out the shortest and most realistic term goals, leaving the most predictable environment possible (Caro, 2014), (Sugden & Chambers, 1998), (Sugden & Chambers, 2003); P10. Accessible Navigability: Offer accessibility tools, promoting autonomy by offering buttons on the application interfaces, such as: go / back, left, pause / resume, internal search, location map, access the main menu, increase / source reduction , text size (if any), alignment, spacing, color manipulation, contrast, background. It is important to introduce and encourage the use of digital technologies with accessibility and usability features, so that children with DCD can be proficient and self-sufficient, and promote motivation for the implementation of activities (Othman & Keay-Bright, 2011), (Jacoby et al., 2006);

P11. Writing and Language: Be concise, clear and use plain words, avoiding problems of interpretation and giving time to understand the instructions to users, since according to its characteristics, children with DCD often spend more time to understand, complete an action and run the instructions. Emphasizing that they have to pay more attention to the implementation of activities than a typical child, requiring usually a longer response time and slower execution of tasks (Mandich et al., 2003), (Dewey, Kaplan, Crawford & Wilson, 2002), (SnappChilds, Mon-Williams & Bingham, 2013); P12. Instructions and Help: Provide accurate and useful instructions in order to help avoid a lot of information. Create an emergency button/icon in case of questions. This type of resource can be a support for a better understanding of the task and benefits users with more severe levels of disorder or multiple disorders (comorbidity, or co-occurrence), for the child with DCD requires the description of each step to run the required gesture by activity, assisting in the planning of the movement (Wilson et al., 2013), (Smyth & Mason, 1997); P13. Errors and Answers: Promote corrections by giving answers/tips throughout conversation, for example, about the possible misunderstanding of the user and how he can correct it by performing the right action, as children with DCD need appreciation throughout most of the activity, enforcing that effort is more important than ability (Poulsen & Ziviani, 2004), (Katartzi & Vlachopoulos, 2011); P14. Design: Use simple and strictly functional designs for the general objective of the application, preventing anxiety and nervousness before the execution of a task so the subject is not distracted by visual elements without relevance to the context of the moment, as a child with DCD needs to focus on the objective of the activity and has no opportunity to be distracted (Mon-Williams, Wann & Pascal, 1999), (Visser, 2003), (Chen, Tsai, Biltz, Stoffregen & Wade, 2015). Development: D1. Hand Size and Position: Choose a hand model that is child friendly and in a position to provide a deep understanding of space with the use of 3D lighting and texture, in addition to position control and appropriate rotation (Garber, 2013), (Potter et al., 2013), (Adhikarla, Sodnik, Szolgay & Jakus, 2015). Choose the best hand and position format as hand movements may be limited, and as handwriting of children with DCD requires greater coordination of joints and limbs for the execution of the writing movements and, consequently, significantly more effort than with children with normal development ((Prunty, Barnett, Wilmut & Plumb, 2014); D2. Immersion of Hands: Focus on the immersion of hands only while teaching calligraphy to children with DCD in literacy. It is recommended to not create an avatar of the whole body, which creates difficulties with gross motor skills, and can confuse the child and leave it devolved to keep the focus in the field of fine motor movements as writing involves constant understanding of feedback from the movement of the hands and children with DCD tend to disperse and become

discouraged with other points of distraction (Kaiser et al., 2009), (Forsyth, Maciver, Howden, Owen & Shepherd, 2008), (Cantin, Ryan & Polatajko, 2014); D3. Realism: Use the 1:1 Virtual Reality (VR) scale so that objects and virtual hands are most realistic and as natural as possible. Be as realistic as possible, it will help the child with DCD to work better in the environment of the activities, as they may have linked emotional problems and also frustration of the tasks or half of tasks are not close to the reality and discourage the use of digital technologies VR (Tresser, 2012), (Tarnanas et al., 2013), (Silva & Rodrigues, 2015); D4. Space between Objects: Set a distance between objects (buttons, avatars) in the application, as well as providing a large comfortable click area, avoiding unwanted and accidental actions, as children with DCD tend to be more clumsy, resulting in difficulties in learning, behavior, emotional character and performance in new motor tasks (Celletti et al., 2015), (Smits-Engelsman, Jelsma, Ferguson & Geuze, 2015); D5. Highlight of Selected / Selection: Enhancement through the selection of different lights or colours. Thus, users can differentiate what is being manipulated more prominently, as a child with DCD sometimes need tools that draw attention and arouse interest in activities, avoiding fatigue and dispersion (Weichert et al., 2013), (Robert et al., 2014); D6. Encouragement: Use a layout with appropriate accessibility and usability features to encourage the tasks. A layout which promotes usage by children with varying degrees of impairment of DCD, because they need to properly exercise writing movements with speed and precision for calligraphy, along with feelings of fun, development of these skills, achieving success in the tasks, participation and interaction with the application (Silva & Rodrigues, 2015), (Ferguson, Jelsma, Jelsma & Smits-Engelsman, 2013), (Jarus et al., 2015); D7. Ergonomics: Offer a comfortable hand positioning, being suitable for constant and repetitive use of fine motor movements, avoiding stress and discomfort, as for the child with DCD task performance is linked to comfort factors and fatigue, leading to demotivation for participate in motor activities, like calligraphy, which occur the early stages of transition and maturity in their implementation (Hsu et al., 2013), (Pauchot et al., 2015). Evaluation: E1. Technologies Used: Assess whether the application explains which technologies are used. It is important to inform the child with DCD on what is required with the use of fine movements technologies such as Leap motion and gestural interfaces in handwriting activities. That is, the child will know within reason which fine motor movements will be required to perform, helping the child to be aware of movement (Sudirman et al., 2011), (Souza, Prates & Barbosa, 1999), (Prates, Souza & Barbosa, 2000), (Thorvaldsen et al., 2011);

E2. An Application for Children: Check if an application for children is provided, as the disorder manifests itself differently in each child, and may also be accompanied by other disorders (comorbidity) (Visser, 2003), (Flapper & Schoemaker, 2013), (Kirby et al., 2014). Every application task should be focused on children with DCD, their needs, preferences and circumstances, and therefore customized (Caro et al., 2014), (Caro, 2014); E3. Pointing: Find out whether a pointing process was used in all phases of the tasks in a way which encourages children with DCD to attain the objective, as they are accustomed to performing the same motor skills in achieving success or anticipate movements (Jelsma et al., 2014), (Ferguson et al., 2013), (Chang & Yu, 2010). If a mission is not fulfilled, redistribute the point spread or create a subscore to motivate constant repetitions, such as colour changes of score numbers. E4. General Check: Pay attention to the proposed software for the child with DCD. Prove that all guidelines have been implemented, for example, if the application was able to keep the user's attention, if principles of ergonomics and usability were followed, it boosts motivation, if it observes the characteristics of applications which recognizes fine motor movements and directs activities for calligraphy learning (Weichert et al., 2013), (Jeffries, Miller, Wharton & Uyeda, 1991), (Nielsen, 1994), (Curtis, Ruijs, de Vries, Winters & Martens, 2009). Moreover, according to Figure 3, we can verify there are connections between all phases of the framework, having the designer of gestural interfaces freely navigate through all stages, but with the observation that not all guidelines will necessarily be interrelated. Prototyping is directly linked to development where a primary guideline may be reviewed when considering a second, being interconnected. This also presents itself in the stages of development and evaluation. In the first and last phase, prototyping and evaluation, this interconnection appears again because, after verification of the guidelines in the third stage, with the need for change in the prototype stage, this action can be performed directly, without the need to include the middle part. In general, the framework with guidelines can be reviewed in Table 1. Interconnections of the Guidelines between the Parties to the Framework: As previously mentioned, there may be connections between the guidelines for each of the parts of the framework because of similarity of themes or because of implications of configuration and implementation. Thus, the appropriate descriptions and explanations are necessary. For the stage of prototyping Table 2 was configured, showing the intraand interconnections of each guideline presented. One can see that in the first line, the guideline P1 is directly linked to the theme of this work, that is, to work with devices that map the fine motor movements of a child with DCD, taking into account the guidelines related to the task target, calligraphy (P2), making it always with usability and accessibility features (P10), while also taking into consideration the type of hand (D1) to be chosen by the designer from the SDK,

in this case, Leap motion. In addition to these guidelines, linked to the immersion of hands (D2), with the need for space between objects (D4) of the application to the correct handling of these children, due prominence to the selected items (D5) and appliance to the ergonomic criteria (D7) for this audience should also be taken into account. Regarding the evaluation guidelines to determine which technologies are used (E1) and a general verification process (E4) are related to the guideline that recommends the use in devices with tracking fine movements (P1). Table 1: Summary framework proposed with its guidelines. Source: Prepared by the author.

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 E1 E2 E3 E4

Prototyping Fine Movement Applications For Calligraphy Highlight Objectives Interaction Motivation Levels and Transitions Movements and Repetition Spatial, Visual and Body Motor Understanding Tasks Accessible Navigability Writing and Language Instructions and Help Errors and Answers Design Development Hand Size and Position Immersion of Hands Realism Space between Objects Highlight of Selected / Selection Encouragement Ergonomics Evaluation Technologies Used An Application for Children Pointing General Check

Related to the theme of calligraphy (P2) in the prototyping phase, we have the previous (P1) for manipulating fine movements tools and recommending the necessary emphasis of objectives (P3) application. In the second stage, one needs to check if the hands are handled properly (D2) and provide proper ergonomic positions (D7) for children with DCD. Related to the theme of calligraphy (P2) in the prototyping phase, we have the previous (P1) for manipulating fine movements tools and recommending the necessary emphasis of objectives (P3) application. In the

second stage, one needs to check if the hands are handled properly (D2) and provide proper ergonomic positions (D7) for children with DCD. Table 2: Connections of guidelines with prototyping. Source: Prepared by the author.

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14

Prototyping P2, P10 P1, P3 P2, P6, P8, P9, P11, P12, P14 P5 P4, P6, P7, P10 P3, P5, P7 P5, P6 P3 P3 P1, P5 P3, P12 P3, P11, P13 P12 P3

Development D1, D2, D4, D5, D7 D2, D7 D3 D2, D6 D3, D6 D3, D7 D3, D6 D4, D6 D7

Evaluation E1, E4 E1, E4 E1, E3, E4 E2, E4 E1, E2, E3, E4 E3, E4 E3, E4 E2, E4 E4 E1, E4 E4 E4 E4 E4

In the case of the directive regarding the highlighting of the objectives (P3), it is directly related to the criteria of the type of task that directs the application created, in this case calligraphy (P2), if these tasks are divided into difficulty levels and if there are transitions (P6) if they promote activities that incorporate notions of space, visual and fine motor motion (P8), if the tasks help to meet the proposed objectives (P9) if the information is placed in an understandable way in writing and language (P11) to the subject of this investigation, if there are appropriate instructions and help tools (P12) for any user's needs and the design (P14) designed for application interface was appropriate for the context. On the part of Development, P3 is not directly related to any of their guidelines, as these seven (07) are not strictly connected to the fulfillment of tasks and due prominence of their goals. Finally in relation to the assessment, P3 checks whether the targeted objective receives the explanation of the technologies used (E1), have dealt scoring criteria (E3) and happened to proof of guidelines (E4). The P4 relates to the promotion of interaction criteria for children with DCD and if there were incentives to motivate them (P5), taking into account environments closer to reality (D3), if there was only a tool for the child (E2) and if there is a check of recommendations (E4). For the guideline that emphasizes the importance of motivation (P5) for the child with DCD, checking interactivity (P4) of the application and its interface should be essential, along with the need of levels and appropriate transitions (P6), the repetitiveness of actions and movements (P7), and the provision of usability benefits and accessibility for handling (P10). On the part of Development, one needs to check if the hands were included correctly (D2) and promote encouragement (D6) so that these children achieve the application objectives with its gestural interface. As evaluative process, the P5 connects with

all (E1, E2, E3, E4) the criteria of that stage, since motivation is required in all of them. The P6 guideline (Levels and Transitions) is linked to the objective (P3) of the application, motivational process (P5) and the need to promote repeated activities and hand motor movements (P7), not relating to any development criteria because these are more targeted to Leap motion and P6 is not. And recommendations to establish punctuation/pointing (E3) and its verification by the E4 are the items of evaluation of connected P6. The recommendation on movements and repetition (P7) interconnects with the motivational (P5) and the need of levels and transitions (P6), it should focus on children with DCD and promoting their skills, for consolidation and learning new movements. Development, P7 highlights the convenience of closeto-realistic environments (D3) and situations for encouragement (D6) of these users in the calligraphy learning process. Regarding the assessment, the criteria relating to P7 are the same as the previous paragraph (E3, E4), therefore it is necessary to check whether there was accountability of punctuation to promote repetitiveness for children with DCD. The promotion of controlled movements, posture, balance and fine visual-motor coordination (P8) is directly linked to the desired objective (P3) in addition to the availability of situations close to the daily life of children (D3) and provide repetitive movements (D7) for learning consolidation. Like the evaluative process, P8 interconnects the need to have an application for children (E2) and general verification (E4). The guideline that emphasizes the creation of simple, short, easy to remember and intuitive tasks (P9) connects with the clarity of objectives (P3) that proposes the application and gestural interface development, at the level closest to the real environment (D3) and encouraging (D6) of children with DCD to perform the tasks proposed and is interconnected with a general assessment (E4) of the framework's recommendations. The guideline P10 (Accessible Navigability) connects those that promote usability and accessibility criteria in applications like Leap motion (P1), with motivational characteristics (P5) to these users and act on the development with well-located objects (D4) in interfaces for selection without errors, along with the promotion of encouragement (D6) its proper use. P10 is also linked to the technology used (A1) and the general check (E4) during the evaluation. Writing and Language (P11) is a guideline on the part of prototyping of the framework that relates to the manner in which the objectives (P3) are placed to reach the users, as well as being important for the provision of the terms of instructions and help (P12), without being directly linked to the development of recommendations, which refer to devices that implement fine motor movements, but which are evaluated in a general way (E4). Instructions and Help (P12) connect to guidelines in highlighting of goals (P3), the way they communicate (P11) and providing tools for correction of errors and appropriate responses (P13) to children with DCD while using applications with gestural interfaces and does not bind to the development and only the general check (E4) in the evaluation phase. The guideline dealing with the correction of errors through answers/tips (P13) interconnects to the one that adequately provides instructions and help

(P12) as they are antecedents and consequences to the prototyping understanding process, or to correct and need instructions, as users are new to the use of gestural interface application creation. Regarding the development phase, there are no interconnections because these recommendations are specifically directed to devices like Leap motion and are only linked to general verification (E4) of the Evaluation. And finally, P14 (Design) relates to the display mode of the target (P3) to be achieved and the promotion of ergonomic criteria (D7), and a link with the general check (E4) in the evaluation phase, not having connections with Development for these are very specific to certain device types. For the part of Development, was configured Table 3 describing the interconnections with other guidelines. Table 3: Connections with development. Source: Prepared by the author.

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7

Prototyping P1 P1, P2, P5 P4, P7, P8, P9 P1, P10 P1 P5, P7, P9, P10 P1, P2, P8, P14

Development D5 D5 D6 D5 D1, D2, D4 D3, D7 D6

Evaluation E4 E1, E4 E4 E4 E4 E3, E4 E4

Initially, it had been the relationship between the directive that standardizes hand shape and position (D1) from SDK Leap Motion, specifically. It is also connected with the first of the Prototyping phase (P1), which recommends the development of applications with gestural interfaces for fine movement devices, taking into account the part of development which provides the highlight for the selected object (D5) at the interface with in order not to happen unwanted selections, plus there is a general check (E4) Evaluation. The guideline D2 is the concentration of hands as a member to be recognized by the fine movement device (P1) for teaching handwriting (P2), so that children with DCD in the literacy process are constantly driven (P5), without the occurrence of unwanted Actions (D5) and being evaluated by the technologies used (E1) and a general analysis (E4). The system to be developed and handled by the gestural interface must be the closest to everyday life (D3) of children targeted, having an interaction process (P4) through the promotion of repetitive movements (P7) for learning, giving spatial / visual notions and body / motor (P8) and creating simple and intuitive tasks (P9) to help in encouraging activities (D6) and having a broad investigation (E4) in the evaluation phase. When setting up an appropriate distance between objects (D4), you need to check what the device recognition of fine motor movements is (P1) and their usability and accessibility requirements (P10) to properly highlight the selected objects (D5) to use, need to be extensively (E4) evaluated. For the highlight of the selected objects (D5), this guideline connects to the type of fine motor movements device (P1) to be used, according to the type

of hand (D1), how it will be placed (D2) and whether there will be adequate spacing of objects (D4) so that no errors occur and there is a general check (E4). In D6 (encouragement), there is a systematic connection with the motivational part (P5) and promotion of movements that can be repetitive (P7) in fulfillment of intuitive tasks (P9) in appropriate accessibility and usability features (P10), through the need to take everyday situations (D3) and obedience to ergonomic criteria (D7), trying to check if scores have been placed (E3) and having a thorough investigation (E4). And as the final specification, the need for a comfortable position of the hands (D7) for continuous and repetitive use, relates to the type of device (P1) to be used, the application function to be performed (P2) - Learning calligraphy, by promoting movements that give spatial sense / visual and body / motor (P8) and having a design (P14) functional for children with DCD, promoting an encouragement (D6) to participate in activities and being evaluated completely (E4). In the third phase of the framework, evaluation, we have Table 4, in which the guideline that ascertains which technologies are handled (E1) relates to the part of Prototyping, which emphasizes the importance of using fine motor movements devices (P1) with appropriate gestural interfaces for calligraphy learning (P2) and clearly identifying the objectives (P3) to be achieved, accompanied by motivational processes (P5) for the use of common form/shape and accessible (P10) for children with DCD. Also, it interconnects with the recognition of hands (D2) in the development step and with a general examination (E4) of all recommendations. The guideline that emphasizes the availability of a device per child (E2) connects, in the prototyping phase, the recommendations that preach the need for interactive processes (P4), those that promote motivation (P5) for children with DCD and provide movements that give spatial notions / visual and body /motor (P8) and show no connection with the development stage because of its specificity with technology and having connection with the general assessment (E4) of the guidelines. Table 4: Connections with assessment. Source: Prepared by the author.

E1 E2 E3 E4

Prototyping P1, P2, P3, P5, P10 P4, P5, P8 P3, P5, P6, P7 P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, P9, P10, P11, P12, P13, P14

Development D2 D6 D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7

Evaluation E4 E4 E4 E1, E2, E3

Then the E3 recommends using a scoring process at each stage of the application tasks so happens the encouragement of children with DCD to achieve a goal to be highlighted (P3) being interconnected with motivational factors (P5) through the use of levels and transitions (P6) suitable for these children, in addition to promoting repeatability (P7) to learn new movements with encouragement processes (D6) and checkout (E4) if all were observed. Finally, realize that the E4 guideline relates directly to all other guidelines, as it makes an overall assessment check, making sure that all

recommendations have been met, ensuring a very detailed view of the entire framework.

Final Considerations The literacy of children with the Developmental Coordination Disorder by the use of digital technologies in calligraphy education can be interesting with the development of applications that comply with the guiding guidelines for devices without tactile contact through appropriate gestural interfaces, so that they are mediating in the process and not a final, somewhat flexible and that presents itself as only a new look but also promote a new perspective of discovery, being interesting and dynamic, enriching education and with a multidisciplinary approach in its design. This study therefore addresses concepts of Development Disorder Coordination and Human-Computer Interaction Principles and proposes a framework with a set of specific guidelines of software for the development of gestural interfaces aimed at calligraphy education to children with DCD. 25 guidelines and divided into 3 stages – prototyping, development and evaluation, this model takes into account the characteristics of this disorder and technologies that recognize fine movements – here Leap motion, making all the proposed guidelines respect each other and can support the creation of appropriate gestural interfaces to assist these children in this school phase. For future works, we need the development of an application that meets the recommended guidelines using a Leap motion device and the evaluation of other handwriting recognition software and fine motor movements devices, verifying how the adhere to the guidelines proposed here from a set of validation points.

Acknowledgments The authors thank the Federal University of Piauí and the Mackenzie Presbyterian University Research Fund.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 54-66, April 2017

Teachers in Multi-Cultural Societies: Excellence and Leadership Tamar Ketko Kibbutzim College of Education, Culture sciences and Philosophy of History and Education Department Tel-Aviv, Israel

Abstract. Fulfilling the most significant role in shaping their studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; personalities, teachers must also regard themselves as social and political agents by playing a significant part in their activities, in addition to their academic achievement. This paper introduces several perspectives regarding the role of the teacher in a multicultural society, one who is involved not only in academic aspects, but also in complex socio-political environments, prompted to manifest his or her qualities as a commendable figure. It will also examine the special case study of training such teachers against the background of a multicultural existence with moral obligations in the State of Israel. Keywords: Multi-cultural society; Excellence; Political-educators; Israeli Teachers

Introduction Human history shows that unresolved tension has always existed between the necessity to preserve religious and cultural identities on the one hand, and the need to create contacts, dialogues and common partnerships with others, on the other. The age of technological developments which expedited global processes and theories about humanism, equal rights, and multiculturalism, is also a turning point for teachers and educational methods, particularly in those countries in which these changes evolved. It is obvious that demographic changes in Europe, the Middle-East and the United States, and social and cultural mobility over the last decades, have significantly exacerbated problems related to cultural diversity among both students and teachers. Educational systems and pedagogical theoreticians embarked on new research regarding multicultural policies and practices in teacher training colleges, and among experienced teachers in all schools. But this was not enough: a dramatic change was also necessary in thematic studies and textbook content in most subjects when race, color, and religious identities issues evolved constantly. The last century, with its global development, progressivism, and hightechnology communications, enabled unrestricted immigration, across countries and continents. The immediate results were difficulties of language, culture and behavior, in addition to political and social differences of opinion and systematic steps taken by the authorities and governmental ministers and

activists. They had to calibrate their state of mind and perform an inevitable switch in their basic attitude towards education and diverse and multicultural environments. The rise of multicultural education also coincided with several legislative and court actions in some countries particularly from the late sixties and the seventies. More and more laws in the US and in Western Europe, Scandinavia and in the State of Israel, inter alia, the Civil Rights Act and the Equal Educational Opportunity Act, were passed. This also highlighted the visibility of diverse bilingual students who inevitably developed double lives – with their families and communities to preserve their cultural identity, and with their new friends at school and their social-educational local and environmental activities. How did this affect the innovative process and prepare educators and teachers with regards to these facts and the genuine intention of paving new educational roads? This paper will introduce several ideas and dilemmas in the field of teachers and teacher trainees in relation to multicultural society, integrative methodologies, modern pedagogy, and the tasks of the leaders of education who serve as the main excellence role models and humanistic mentors.

Diversity and multiculturalism and their importance to beneficial teaching The bond between teachers and leaders is historical; Plato mentioned this aspect when he adopted the Socratic pedagogy, understanding the common denominator which they share: the nature of truth (Plato, Republic, 454d -509d). In Plato‟s ideal state, rulers, as teachers, should seek the truth and become virtuous role models as educators, as they exemplify total interaction with self-knowledge and wisdom (González, 2013). Even if it may seem utopian in our multifaceted and dynamic reality, there is an acute need for teachers who will play the role of educational leaders in the spirit of Plato‟s Republic. Most modern countries are currently facing a crisis: (a) Teachers leave their profession a few years after they complete their studies and begin work, and encounter difficulties in teaching and handling heterogenous and multicultural classes. (b) Excellent students of education realize that their choice of profession was misguided, and that being a teacher at present also requires psychological, social and political skills, a challenge which is not suitable for all, and in addition is perhaps threatening. Numerous studies and dozens of headlines relate to this ongoing process: Every year approximately forty-five thousand teachers enter the profession, and about the same number leave (including retirement), and some eighty thousand teachers switch jobs within the state school system. Europe, the Middle-East, Asia, Africa, and the US show a decline in the number of outstanding people who join the teaching profession. Furthermore, unfortunately the shortage of suitable students who choose to become teachers forces the education systems to hire candidates who decided to become teachers as their second-best choice. Half of these students leave school after a few years, or have no intention of implementing their formal certification as teachers. This has an overall effect on their young students and brings about ongoing deterioration. It is crucial that education systems throughout the world find a way to engage appropriate young people and invest all their

efforts in turning them into outstanding teachers. These teachers will be able to play the role of leading educators as motivated and courageous mentors, and will implement the required changes in their advanced pedagogical, moral, and professional points of view. They will be sufficiently talented to embark on the process of cultivating the future of the next generation, particularly within the complex reality of mounting fundamental anti-liberal movements, and intricate political, social, and economic problems. These ideas lead us to Nel Noddings' (2013) points of view: Reality necessitates us to see the world not as a collection of cultures and peoples but rather view it through global eyes and adopt a cosmopolitan way of thinking which should precede all specialization in teaching. This classroom cultural and heterogeneous mosaic mandates an attitude and didactic methodologies based on synergy and cultural collaboration, without relinquishing ethnic uniqueness. This approach will train students to become good citizens in the future – which is one of the basic values of a good educator in all cultures and countries. A change in the orientation of the teaching profession now demands not only academic and professional anchors in the teachers training program, but also a kind of „political compass‟ coupled with awareness of the fact that unlike a scientific compass, the pedagogical one is given to social, cultural and political change. The ability to accustom both teachers and students to a discussion of controversial issues, and conduct a conversation in which conflicting opinions are expressed, is not only important from the pedagogical point of view, but is also essential for cultivating doubt and reflection, particularly in heterogenous classrooms in countries in which different populations, religions, and ethnic groups exist (Naveh, 2017). In the attempt to develop theories and practices of teaching and learning, diversity and multiculturalism are most important for teacher training processes. These will assist teachers in expressing and sharing their state of mind with other students, and will expose them to other and different cultures, thus creating empathy and understanding; nonetheless, they will also create moral and educational problems. Coping with this issue is particularly crucial in times when racism defeats humanism, as is often the case throughout the world. Devoid of any form of critical thinking, people still hate others due to their religion, political attitudes, and their sexual or cultural identities. The assumption that students are deeply influenced by their cultural identity and heritage, and that their teachers should master educational approaches that appreciate and recognize their cultural backgrounds, is still far from the current state of affairs. Students are not adequately encouraged to learn about the cultural backgrounds and identities of other students in their class, nor do they accept others as equals. Even though teacher trainees hold different political and pedagogical opinions, and even though they belong to different educational and ideological movements, it is important to stress that numerous colleges and schools of education show a change in curriculum, and support learning standards that focus on cultural groups and a variety of learning experiences. Thus, there is evidence of new pedagogical methods in special courses based on human nature and educational values. Progressive educational philosophers such as, Jean-Jacques Rousseau ([1762] 1979), John Dewey ([1916] 2009), Paulo Freire ([1970] 2007, 2014), Janusz Korczak ([1929] 2009) or Nel

Noddings (2013) have become an integral part of academic assignments and syllabuses in the didactic studies of professional teachers. Understanding their educational and social methods exposes students - both younger and older people, and future and senior teachers - to wide scope intellectual doctrines which familiarize them with social justice, ethics and cultural-theological sciences, prompting them to become aware of diverse global approaches. These recent provocative programs in the process of training excellent teachers – both theoretically and practically – require them to be sufficiently capable of assuming full responsibility for their educational calling. This ongoing change in the school/academy system climate may also prevent cultural and racial bias, and its distorted political and popular reverberations in their daily work, study, and research. At the university, college or school, and in their community activities, teachers must be free of cultural and social discrimination and any environment that may endanger the mind and soul of their students and their capability to make their own decisions and choose educational methods alongside the cultivation of critical thinking and broad horizons. Following several educational studies on these issues, such as those conducted by Rosemary Henze, Geneva Gay and Richard Milner, it appears that the majority supports the idea that preparing educators as teachers in constructive ways with relevancy to their actual multicultural surrounding is both inevitable and urgent. A consensus exists on the necessity of creating proactive approaches and fruitful relations among students and teachers based on inter-ethnic activities. This innovates and promotes positive and intensified motivation toward advanced studies, and enables them to establish an ethical code and ground rules which do not tolerate racism, humiliation or disrespect. (Henze, 2002; Milner, 2015). They recognize difficulties that arise among teachers and their mentors in focusing on cultural responsive teaching and ethical empathic understanding as the natural quality of their professional skills. It is essential that they know how this relates to their educational work and recognize their responsibility in constantly bridging gaps between theory and practice, between generic and general dictated principles and the sensitivity of different backgrounds, levels of competence and knowledge with unique characteristic expressions in any classroom (Gay, 2010). It is not only about being excellent teachers with a high standard curriculum, but also about blending their teaching and their inner soul and talents, in addition to the subject they teach at school. This is the art of teaching that also involves their personality. Gay continues to explain the teacher‟s potential power to design their students‟ minds, abilities, and personalities by removing the veil of threat and untouchability that often encompasses them. The objective is to help teachers encourage the development of dialogues with their students, capturing their thoughts and attention, and engaging both their students and their own feelings at the same time, inside and outside the classroom. These arguments are based on the belief that to be an educator in a state where cultural diversity reigns, means to strengthen humanistic norms and cultural differences due to their importance to humanity. As such, no teacher can ignore his or her role and its significance to human dignity. However, we should not forget the inevitable problems manifested by those who argue that assessing students of different cultures, with different

levels of language and knowledge abilities, may be unfavorable toward disadvantaged students, as it ignores their difficulties due to false expectations. Some of them are still not fluent in the local language and some interpret information differently – depending on their skills, stage of adjustment and cultural origins. The same is true of lecturers, teachers, and all those who represent policies of a country or a region that relate not only to educational considerations, but also to economic or urban aspects that exist in the environment of the students and teachers, their communal belonging, and the financial status of their families (Quiroz & Milam-Brooks, et. al, 2014). Taking the same tests and using the same evaluation scales in every country and cultural community creates dilemmas about fairness and ethical educational codes which often are not taken into proper account. Doubtlessly, educational systems, teachers and students and even their parents, must learn how to interact in a diverse environment and identify its positive aspects and common benefits, such as in the shared educational networks that were developed in Northern Ireland, for example, for several years, Catholic and Protestant children have been studying together in multi-community cooperative schools. It appears that this collaboration is not self-evident, and is accompanied by cultural and political complexities and difficulties relating to national belonging and identity, of teachers, students and their families. The findings of the researchers of multicultural education and pedagogical experts in Belfast show the extent of the impact of this collaboration on education, how the students have learned to accept the „other‟ and nurture the ability to contain and study together, and recognize the advantages of this type of multicultural integrative education. Acts of violence have diminished, and animosity and religious entrenchment have gradually blurred. The researchers argue that this model should be examined in other countries where multinational and diverse religions exists (such as the United States, France, Germany and Israel (Hughes, 2017). The problem is that a chasm always exists between research and academic theories and the quotidian reality in schools and in the teaching profession. After all that has been said and described above, as much as educational colleges invest in pedagogical training and professional development, most of the new teacher graduates, who regard the creation of a harmonious environment in school as their professional goal, admit that this is insufficient. More field experience and theoretical, didactic, and multicultural studies must be added to their studies and professional preparation. By developing a constructive approach to education as a link for implementing social and cultural behavior, teachers will be able to guarantee that their lessons and methods will remain relevant to and have an impact on the daily life of their students. This is the responsibility of teacher trainees and mentors: to create pedagogical platforms which will encourage future teachers to become involved as far as possible in the demands of their students‟ reality, despite their dissimilar cultural backgrounds, historical narratives, and values. One of the most significant aims of the professional preparation of teachers in colleges of education is to develop the future teachers‟ multicultural perspectives and understanding. These ideas should also be reflected in the theoretical and practical activities of educational and social systems in all schools, despite their

diverse identities (Veugelers, 2011). The next section of this article will introduce the source of several ideas related to the fact that at present becoming a teacher demands not only high-level academic skills and excellency, but also creativity, a sense of leadership, and a great deal of courage; It will introduce the Israeli case study as an example of methods and practical advice for teachers in a multicultural society, and attempt to uncover similar problems and points of departure, and the differences that make the situation of the Israeli teacher unique, unlike teachers in other Western countries.

Teaching in a multicultural-situational reality: The Israeli case study A strong correlation exists between liberal and democratic communities and the need to develop multicultural approaches and open-minded attitudes toward foreigners, immigrants, and ethnical-religious diversity. Thus, tolerance and empathy are important characteristic expressions in our daily life, not to mention their significance for teachers and students in different educational systems - kindergartens, schools and academic campuses. These arguments exist in most Western countries and societies, and often prompt political and educational changes with the objective of raising the racial and multicultural awareness of teachers. This is not limited to professional aspects and organizational factors. First and foremost, it is the teachers‟ obligation and responsibility to clarify their own cultural identity and personal views (Johnson, 2002). This matter evokes difficulties in developing appropriate curriculums and training programs which include diverse viewpoints and pedagogical tools which will encourage dialogues and open discussions, make room for all voices and social, ethnical, theological and political approaches. In her studies, Johnson shows how crucial it is for teacher trainees to understand the perspectives, thoughts and feelings of others, prior to all lessons and activities. She places emphasis on the development of a corresponding strong connection between inner life at school and social life outside it in most diverse communities and cultures. It is necessary to implement these educational insights and train teachers to become more constructive and more aware. Being enlightened human beings, who are oriented toward dynamic geo-political and social change, will turn them not only into excellent teachers, but also into positive activists (See: Hill-Jackson & Lewis, 2010). Recently, and particularly over the past ten years, we have witnessed several changes in the field of teacher training programs. Education departments in American universities and colleges began preparing and educating newly trained teachers in special programs which provided them with advanced skills and innovative methods (Berry; Darling, 2013). It is evident that teachers who adopted special psychological-sociological skills for teaching in multicultural communities, in addition to coping with other educational problems, decided to continue teaching for five to ten years after graduation, and continued their professional development more than others (Yogev& Michaeli, 2009; Arnett, 2015). Following this description of some of the world‟s acute problems regarding diversity, and the increase of multicultural issues related to education, let us focus on how this affects the relevant systems and teacher training programs in Israel, considering that the country‟s fragile political-social situation has additional effects on “regular” teachers as discussed above. As in other

countries, teachers in Israel are involved, particularly as of the beginning of this century, with the massive stream of migrants from the Middle-East and Africa (Clark-Oates et. al. & Robertson, 2016). These facts fall in line with European case studies and the issues dealing with integrative minorities in diverse communities that have developed over the years in the Unites States as well. Cultural diversity can be found in all stages of the students‟ studies and preparation. Like their counterparts in other Middle-Eastern countries, they are exposed to geo-political and military unresolved conflicts, compounded with problems related to different identities, religions, and historical narratives and backgrounds, all of which make it imperative to become more than “simply excellent teachers”. They must be loyal to their government‟s policies and educational doctrines and as far as possible, become progressive teachers with broad intellectual horizons, who pursue growth and modern thinking. In their attempt to act in this complexity, they must play a dual role, and adopt bridging methods to create optional platforms for their students as multidisciplinary mentors. As Carine Allaf (2014) explains in her research, there is no doubt that becoming a teacher in one of the Middle-Eastern countries at present, demands other “talents” as well; facing unacceptable and absurd daily scenes and moral dilemmas that often impel them to cope with cognitive dissonance, accompanied by urgent requirements to act or to become immediately involved, preferring local state principles instead of their personal ones, even if they often reject them ideologically. The Arab Spring generated chain reactions among the young intellectual elite, which evidently brought about an increase in the number of branches of international universities in all the Arab countries. As Allaf underscored in her study, most of these universities did not offer a full academic syllabus as offered on their home campuses in Europe and the US, and hence they did not offer International Studies, but rather adapted a kind of „deformed‟ and combined local-state political-educational program (Allaf, 2014: 95). Following this brief review, the time has come to describe how this affects Israel‟s educational policies and educational systems. The main argument which will be introduced here is that even though Israel is part of the Middle-East, Israeli teachers are confronted with different types of obstacles, and hence there are differences between them and teachers in the neighboring countries. We will introduce unfamiliar facts about teacher training programs in Israel from other points of view, which are essential when comparing them to other countries. These will illuminate the core of this case study and reinforce the main arguments regarding the teachers‟ special preparation. In most Arab countries, it would be highly unlikely to find JewishIsraeli students in universities or academic colleges of education, or teachers at schools. On the other hand, there are numerous Israeli Arabs and Palestinians in the State of Israel who are free to choose study medicine, technological research, education or industry, with no restrictions. Among them you may find professors, doctors, engineers, lawyers and teachers. Despite sociopolitical difficulties, they invest efforts in integrating into Israeli reality. Some of them are highly successful and have made impressive contributions not only to their Muslim-Christian-Druze-Bedouin communities, but also to the overall Jewish-Israeli society and the State of Israel.

Accordingly, being a lecturer or a teacher trainee in academic courses or pedagogical practice lessons in colleges of education demands a totally different attitude and personal-mental-psychological capacities. In times of war they are faced with unthinkable situations when students – sons and daughters, sisters and brothers of 'the enemy' on both sides, sit next to one another in the same classroom, and conduct an academic conversation about an article or other professional issues, while their relatives are fighting against one another in the battlefield. At times, lessons are held in air raid shelters during an attack – and teachers, mentors of the university or college, Arab and Jews, residents of the same country, but loyal to different nationalities and flags, who support opposing sides, share the same space. This example, one of many, shows the unique complexity of the multicultural and social situation in Israel which has a substantial impact on the methods and practices of teacher training, and on the developmental processes as excellent educators. In such unusual situations, as well as in routine life, teachers and students are required, mainly in mixed cities in which Jews and Arabs live near, such as Jaffa, Haifa, Acre, Nazareth and Ramleh, and of course Jerusalem, to present multi-national, and often, bilingual skills. They are confronted, often against their will, with reality tests that are beyond their pedagogical skills. They become the agents who connect diverse and often contradictory historical narratives, beliefs and worldviews, in an attempt to produce a common road which will facilitate the comprehension of reality and provide them with tools to choose a path and consolidate a standpoint and awareness in the future. In this sense, the Israeli teacher carries crucial responsibilities (Naveh, 2017: 275). The distribution of Israeli society shows that there are over six million Jews (75.6%), one million two hundred thousand Muslims (16.6%), one hundred fifty-two thousand Christians (2.1%), one hundred twenty thousand Druze (1.6%) and the remaining population belong to other religions or define themselves as atheists. It is important to underscore that half of the colleges of education in Israel train religious students – Jews and non-Jews alike. In addition, another fact complicates matters: over 65% of the Jewish population serves in the IDF (the Israeli Defense Forces) in which enlistment is compulsory for all Jewish citizens between the ages of eighteen and twenty (for women) and twenty-one (for men). They are called up for reserve duty once or twice a year, some for only a few days, while others for over four weeks, up to the age of forty-five, and some even later in life, depending on rank, army unit and role, and in the case of women, depending on their family status (unmarried, married officers, pregnant or mothers). In other words, approximately 65% of Israeli teachers served or are still serving in the army. This means that some of the students in universities and colleges of education, who are trainees in schools and aim to become teachers or permanent teachers, and teachers in fact, are absent several times a year (one week or a month), and in times of war for longer periods, and some - orthodox Jews, Israeli Arabs and Palestinians students - do not. When in training, these teachers are required to study and practice together in schools with Jewish, Arab, Christian, Bedouin, Druze populations or in special schools for immigrant children. These experiences, these mental, moral and physical obligations, inevitably require

them to ignore this part of their lives and to focus, objectively as far as possible, on their educational and pedagogical obligations as excellent teachers trained to encourage dialogue and enlightened democratic and humanistic activities, despite the diverse surroundings in which they live. These facts may illuminate and clarify other case studies in countries that cope with similar situations, particularly in Europe with its massive flow of immigrants, hostile activities, and the new social and political situations with their plethora of unresolved problems. Israel, a multicultural and democratic society, invests great efforts in becoming part of the Western world. Therefore, it is imperative to provide special pedagogical platforms with the objective of consolidating the next generation and conducting a dialogue between its Jewish and non-Jewish residents, which is largely the result of a unique political and social situation, and its problematic geo-political environment. It is important to understand that the only way to edify the minds of students, in all matters that pertain to their personalities and psychological and cultural needs, is through metaeducation, which means that as a student teacher you must separate your personal viewpoints from your professional obligations, and thus you are not the one who determines the means of achieving this end. Subsequently, training future teachers with notable awareness of the needs of the minorities by cultivating their knowledge and empathy, prepares them far better and boosts their self-confidence and responsibility to act as teachers with initiative, from kindergarten through high school. This is the main reason why special excellent teacher training programs are so essential, now more than ever. There are two main training programs for excellent teachers: Regev1 and Hotam.2 The Regev program has been operating in the Kibbutzim College of Education since1998. The essence of the fundamental idea which guides those involved in the program is the belief that investment in recruiting and training students with outstanding academic qualifications, and cultivating their social and cultural agendas, will raise the prestige of the teaching profession. It will also favorably raise their own prestige, and bring about a drastic change in the standard of teaching in Israel, with all its social and political difficulties (Libman & Zelikovicz; Yogev & Michaeli, 2009). Since 2011, and after more improvements were introduced to the excellent teacher's program, candidates were interviewed to ascertain their aptitude for different tracks, as well as their personality sorting tests administered by the programâ&#x20AC;&#x;s director to identify their intellectual capacity to express themselves, their orientation vis-Ă -vis current events in the cultural and intellectual world, and the extent of their commitment to education. The training program's new curriculum consists of an additional twelve hours of exclusive courses. Many of the courses relate to science and are conducted in seminars which include field experience, methodological analysis, and writing research papers. In return, the excellence program students are required to commit themselves to another fifty-six hours of teaching in schools in the periphery and other multicultural schools (in addition to their two hundred twenty-four hours of practical disciplinary and pedagogical work): ultra1 2

The initials of "Rosh Gadol Behoraa" - can-do attitude, "Open head in teaching", in Hebrew. 'Imprint', in Hebrew.

Orthodox schools (separate schools for girls and boys), Arab and Druze schools, and special international schools for illegal immigrants (their majority from Asia and Africa). Over and above their studies in the specific areas of expertise, students are required to devote another one hundred and twenty hours to a variety of activities in the community and on campus, tutoring students with special needs, and working as assistant teachers with new immigrants and students of the minorities. Moreover, they are required to study Arabic and the Islamic and Christian historical narratives. The second program for training outstanding teachers in Israel is Hotam, which has been operating since 2010. It is a new joint initiative of the Ministry of Education, Joint Israel, Haifa University and the Hakol Hinuch (education is everything) movement, which recruit excellent bachelor and master degree graduates, (mainly in the sciences) as school teachers. The program operates as part of the Teach for All Global Organization that combines innovative educational activity in several countries, headed by the US and the UK. In comparison with the Regev program, Hotam is condensed and intensive; it is conducted over five consecutive weeks during the summer semester. Studies take place during the day and the evening, and the students live in a dormitory. It has become clear that this intensive program does not fully train teachers and prepare them (as Regev does) to cope with the multicultural complex situation previously described. It failed to instill in them the overall pedagogical, sociological, and didactic basic concepts of necessary knowledge required of teachers in the field in such a tight timeframe, particularly in Israelâ&#x20AC;&#x;s complex social and political reality. Therefore, the percentage of those remaining is less than fifty percent, far lower than in other countries. This is one of the critical differences between the two programs, which sets apart the training program in Israel from other countries, and these are the differences between teacher training programs and methods in Israel and other Middle-Eastern countries. Nevertheless, the Regev program proves that despite the difficulties involved in becoming an excellent teacher in the State of Israel, it is now a national challenge and part of the inevitable ideology of bearing an impact and effecting political-cultural change which appear so vital.

Conclusions Teachers, educators, teacher professionalism and excellence are now standing at a crossroads. Moral purpose and change agents are implicit in what good teaching and effective change mean, but they are society's great untapped resource for radical and continuous improvement and revolutionary change. As we have seen in this article, there are programs in Israel for training excellent teachers, teachers who will enjoy a combined capacity, both academic and pedagogical, and who will be connected to the social political reality in which they themselves and the next generation will live. Teacher training programs in various academic universities and colleges (in Europe as well as in the US) frequently guarantee excellent teachers who will know how to perform their role â&#x20AC;&#x201C; excellently and professionally. Nonetheless, the results do not always fall in line with expectations and promise. The accelerated programs do not make it possible for student teachers to mature within the

pedagogical world, nor do they allow them to be sufficiently exposed to the corpus of knowledge and school experiences that derive from different avenues of culture, education and identity. A person, as talented and as wellqualified as he or she may be, cannot become a teacher and an excellent teacher, in accelerated and marathonic courses (such as those conducted in Hotam), just like it would be impossible to train a doctor or a pilot in a fiveweek crash course. Becoming a teacher, one who needs to fulfill several tasks simultaneously, involves inner personal growth and demands time. This is the difference between the Regev Program and other programs. Perhaps this is also the difference between innovative excellent teachers in Israel and other teachers in different societies as I have reviewed, where students are required to cover academic, didactic and cultural courses and practical internship work in six or seven years, in an intensive five, and often six-day schedule, including summer courses, with no shortcuts. We need to invest much more in proving why teaching development is crucial to the future of society, particularly now when in some communities and countries fundamental ideas prevail over the values of democracy: free thought, action and abilities, and the need for an ongoing dialogue between people. Above all, we require action that links initial teacher preparation and development, based on moral purpose and change agents, to the corresponding restructuring of universities and schools and their relationships. Systems will not change on their own accord. Rather, the actions of individuals and small groups working on new conceptions intersect to produce breakthroughs. New conceptions, once mobilized, become new paradigms. The teaching profession demands interaction with students who come from diverse backgrounds, under taxing conditions, working within a multicultural community. Most researchers believe that the quality of teaching cannot be ascertained only by indicators such as academic degrees, the number of years of study, experience, grades, and academic or pedagogic abilities. Intellectual teachers must express themselves verbally, and have a broad education which enables them to act as agents of culture and universal knowledge. As professionals, teachers must possess broad educational knowledge and must be well-versed in the educational processes regarding the subjects they teach. Merited teachers are caring, committed to their students, consider their emotional and intellectual abilities, and they themselves are dedicated to their calling. If we add to these qualities the ability to cultivate critical thinking and a dialogue that enables everyone to be heard, we may reach the definition of the excellent teacher, who has the capacity to make a valued impact on the future of his or her students, particularly in a multicultural and diverse society such as Israel. We should not forget: A multicultural liberal encouraging climate is not enough to cultivate a positive change in entrenched attitudes toward tolerance, multiculturalism and the professional abilities to cope with the complicated status of teachers. Neither is it possible to ignore the political, social and regional situation that encircles teachers and students. A change should be created in the perception of the role of the teacher in the existing reality; teachers cannot function merely as a source of knowledge and practice, as mentors and as pedagogical operators, but must be constantly

aware of what is evolving around them, and play a part in the consolidation of their students‟ characters, identities, and attitudes (Gipps, et al, 2016). One of the main targets of the teacher training program is to train teachers and convince them that this is their national, professional and predestined struggle. There is nothing more important for the sake of the next generation than to become educators and teachers, and assume responsibility for young peoples‟ minds, behavior and activities. Following this point of view, teachers become revolutionary leaders, intellectual activists, who, despite all the social, cultural and political difficulties, possess the power, eventually, to create the long-awaited change.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 67-90, April 2017

The Impact of Demographic Influences on Academic Performance and Student Satisfaction with Learning as Related to Self-Esteem, SelfEfficacy and Cultural Adaptability within the Context of the Military Deborah Schreiber University of La Verne, La Verne, California USA Jean-Claude Agomate U.S. Army, Retired Tysons Corner, Virginia USA Brian Oddi California University of Pennsylvania California, PA USA

Abstract. This study examines the impact of age, gender, education, rank and years of service on academic performance and student satisfaction with learning, as related to self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability within the context of the military. The study population includes individuals stationed at a joint military command unit overseas participating in nonmilitary-related continuing education. The results illustrate relationships exist between student age and years of service, and satisfaction with learning, as well as, between student age, gender and level of education, and academic performance. Rank shows no significant relationship with either outcome; and self-esteem relates only to student satisfaction with learning. This study concludes that generational differences and diverse educational backgrounds, as well as, individual (personal) and group (military) goals, all impact success of military students participating in nonmilitary-related continuing education. Keywords: continuing education; military; contextual reference; higher education

Introduction The United States military supports continuing education for its personnel across all branches of service (Department of Defense, 2016). Minimal research is

available however that examines individuals stationed overseas participating in non-military-related courses while in their host nation. Also, literature is limited that investigates characteristics impacting academic success of these individuals, some of whom are members of joint military command units located Outside of the Continental United States. Research is available that does describe general student populations studying abroad. For example, Lowinger, He, Lin and Chang (2014), and Ling (2009), report that a direct relationship exists between self-esteem, self-efficacy and cross-cultural adaptability, and academic performance and satisfaction with learning for traditional international students. Studies by Yora (2014) and Ling (2009), respectively, also note that demographic factors such as age, gender and previous education impact these students’ self-esteem and self-efficacy, as well as, cultural adaptability. Missing from the literature however is examination of these factors’ influence on non-civilian populations, such as military personnel, participating in continuing education courses while overseas. (Continuing education in this study includes college courses and programs selected by the individual and which are not specifically required by the military.) This study hypothesizes that military personnel, participating in continuing education while stationed overseas, experience studying abroad differently than civilian populations. This hypothesis is based on the belief that self-esteem, selfefficacy and cross-cultural adaptability, as context-based constructs, are impacted differently by demographic factors (such as age, gender, education, rank and years of service) depending on the environment in which the experience occurs (Vaz, Parsons, Falkmer, Passmore, & Falkmer, 2014). Considering the sample population of this study, two primary environments exert influence: host nation (as described by Mak, Bodycott and Remburuth (2015)), and military organization (as described by Hsu (2010) and Greene, Buckman, Dandeker and Greenberg (2010)). The purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to describe quantitative research that examines the impact of age, gender, education, rank and years of service on military student satisfaction with learning and academic performance as related to context-based constructs of self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability. Second, this paper provides a narrative literature review to help interpret the implications of this study’s findings. Utilizing the theoretical framework of social situational learning, this article identifies a number of related phenomena that shed light on military personnel participation in continuing education while overseas, including contextual competition (due to membership in multiple communities), and reciprocal determinism (a dynamic interaction between environment and individual).

Background Current research describes a number of challenges facing individuals studying abroad and the role that self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability play in overcoming these challenges. Described in the literature also are a number of

significant personal and professional traits (i.e., demographic factors) that influence these context-based constructs. As guided by the sample population in this study – military personnel participating in non-military-related continuing education while stationed overseas – the demographic factors under investigation in this study include individual age, gender, rank, level of education and year of service. Demographic Influences: Age, Gender, Education, Rank and Years of Service Studies examining relationships between constructs shaped by cultural context (such as self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability) and academic achievement and satisfaction with learning, must consider the impact of demographic characteristics of the sample population. Research by Yorra (2014) and Berry (2008), respectively, note that demographic traits relate significantly to development of one’s self-esteem and self-efficacy, as well as, cultural adaptability. Research by Schwartz (2013) goes further, illustrating that specific factors of age, gender and previous educational experiences influence student performance and satisfaction in school. Within a military community, MacLean (2010) suggests also that demographic factors directly associated with military life and military culture, such as rank and years of service, also may impact outcomes. (Note: Research on the construct of ethnicity is limited, as related to acculturation and orientation of students studying abroad (Tan & Liu, 2014), and worthy of further study. As for this current research, the sample population represents an array of diverse ethnic backgrounds, however, the numbers are small. For this reason, the construct of ethnicity, although shown as part of the demographic make-up of the sample population, is not part of this study of personnel participating in non-military continuing education while overseas.) Regarding the demographic traits considered, the first, age, half of the current military personnel, of which nearly 90% falls within the range of 18-40 years, identify themselves as members of the Millennial generation (those born after approximately 1980), and over one-third identify as being of Generation X (those born after Baby Boomers, yet earlier than the Millennials) (Department of Defense, 2016; Pew, 2014). The significance of this distribution is that differences between age often occur within groups, with each generation maintaining distinct attitudes and behaviors about life (Donatone, 2013). For example, Gen-Xers prefer to face a challenge with minimal assistance from others (Scheef & Thielfoldt, 2014). Millennials, on the other hand, generally welcome oversight and guidance (Donatone, 2013). Gender becomes an item of interest in a study of military personnel because military communities continue as male-dominant environments, and this has been shown to have an effect on organizational culture (Rhode & Kellerman, 2006). Research by Preston (2011) acknowledges that gender role in the military is still a “thorny problem” (para. 1). Males and females often see things differently. For example, a young woman may attribute failure in the training classroom to not being smart enough (Halvorson, 2011). A young man in a © 2017 The authors and IJLTER ORG. All rights reserved.

similar situation may interpret perceived lack of support as the culprit, and it is viewed as the supervisorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fault (Seeman, 2008). An individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s level of education, another demographic factor in this study, is considered because of the nature of this trait relative to the context of the military environment. For example, education and training represent discriminating factors for military promotion boards. College courses and training programs completed by military personnel are often reviewed for combat and field application that support increased rank and pay (Lipscomb, 2015; Wong, Bliese, & McGurk, 2003). Also, students look to their past educational experiences to better understand current situations (Russell, 2006). It is unclear, however, whether military personnel see participation in continuing education as simply a means to an end (i.e., for military rank and promotion), or as a specific academic or cognitive growth experience. The last two demographic factors of interest in this study include military rank and years of service. Both of these constructs are aligned directly to the military, and are examined due to their capacity to influence military personnel. Rank is concept defined only in terms of the military, and represents similarities to a caste system (i.e., hierarchical structure of officers and enlisted) (Goodale et al., 2012). Within military culture, rank is tied closely to combat-based actions and missions, and counts more toward promotion than any other military or non-military activity (Hsu, 2015). Regarding years of service, some troop members believe that it is advantageous to stay in the military (rather than not reenlist) despite recent changes in the promotion process. More often, promotion criteria now highlight merit and performance over time in service (Tilghman, 2015). Many active military personnel acknowledge the advantages of staying in the military, which include ample access to continuing education, healthcare benefits, and diverse retirement options, all factors which outweigh the disadvantages of strict military culture, combat duty, and separation from family (Nielson, 2015). Research by Shoukat, Haider, Munir, Khan and Ahmed (2013) recognizes that demographic factors (such as age, gender, level of education, rank and years of service) act as influences on attitude and behavior. This study examines selfesteem, self-efficacy and cross-cultural adaptability, three concepts based on attitude and behavior, and the relationship to student academic achievement and satisfaction with learning while overseas. Consequently, studying the specific impact of age, gender, level of education, rank and years of service, as related to self-esteem, self-efficacy, and cross-cultural adaptability, is necessary to provide insight into the process of continuing education of military personnel while stationed overseas.

Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy and Cultural Adaptability, and its Role in Academic Performance and Satisfaction with Learning Individuals studying or working abroad do not fail or succeed on technical or operational expertise alone. Research suggests that individual capability for cultural adaptability and intercultural sensitivity contributes significantly to one’s success in a foreign environment (Abbe, Gulick, & Herman, 2007; Bhawuk & Brislin, 1992; Gardner, 2007). This relationship exists for leaders of crosscultural and global military operations, as well as, civilian populations participating in the role of international student (Oblilisteanu (2011), and Miranda (2012, respectively). Individual readiness and ability to interact with people who are different from oneself or one’s culture define cultural adaptability (Kelly & Meyers, 1995; Lowinger et al., 2014; Sam & Berry, 2010). The related process of acculturation is triggered by a person’s sense of similarities and differences, and results in a dynamic struggle by the individual for internal (psychological) comfort and balance (Church, 1982; Kim, 2001; Vygovsky, 1978). The culmination of acculturation is the integration of an individual or group of individuals into a larger and different cultural community, resulting is some individual characteristics being altered (Bhattacharya, 2011). Researchers recognize that this process may extend to one’s individual identity, attitudes, and behaviors, and exist within professional, as well as, personal environments (Gardner, 2007; Smokowski, Bacallao, & Buchanan, 2009). Closely related to cultural adaptability, and the overall process of acculturation, are the concepts of self-esteem and self-efficacy. Self-esteem is belief in one’s competence to cope with challenges; self-efficacy is the confidence to act, or execute behaviors, which master these challenges (Bandura, 1993; Reasoner, 2010). Individuals derive self-esteem and self-efficacy from self-identity (Ling, 2009). Self-identity exists most often as one of two perspectives: individual (personal) or collective (social). The individual self is achieved by “differentiating from others” (Sedikides & Brewer, n.d., para. 1). The collective self is achieved by membership in a group and experiencing social interactions which define that group’s accepted behaviors (McLeod, 2008). It is this interaction and membership in community that “bring the individual and social together in a coherent theoretical perspective” (Wilson & Myers, 2000, p. 57). Each community or environment, however, presents context-specific attitudes and behaviors. These attitudes and behaviors may vary from location to location, and impact differently new members of the community (Leite & de Souza, 2012). It is recognized that self-esteem, self-efficacy, and cultural adaptability represent context-based constructs, and this context-specificity provides a frame-of-reference that defines an experience relative to the specific group or environment in which it occurs (Pajares & Schunk, 2001). Persons who progress successfully through the acculturation process participate in cross-cultural activities within the group or environment that strengthen one’s self-esteem and self-efficacy (and vice-versa). These individuals demonstrate © 2017 The authors and IJLTER ORG. All rights reserved.

adaptive and flexible behaviors which result in a strong sense of self. This in turn leads to higher aspirations for personal and professional success (Chasten, 2014; Rubie, Townsend, & Moore, 2004). Such aspirations appear to relate to occupational expectations, as well as, academic performance and satisfaction with learning (Kiche, 2010; Schwartz, 2013). Several scholars agree that a strong relationship exists between an individual’s level of cultural adaptability, self-esteem and self-efficacy, and academic achievement and student satisfaction with learning. For example, Mustaffa and Ilias (2013) and Zhao (2010) suggest that these three traits often act in tandem when relating to international students’ academic performance and satisfaction with learning. Gebka (2014) agrees, illustrating that self-esteem and self-efficacy are directly related to cultural adaptability, and all three may serve as predictors of academic success and satisfaction while studying abroad. Current studies related to self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability, and academic performance, unfortunately, focus primarily on civilian student populations. Questions remain regarding military personnel, the relationships between these context-based constructs and academic performance and satisfaction with learning, and the impact of demographic factors of age, gender, level of education, rank and years of service. One benefit of gaining insight into this phenomenon is to inform practice in the field, as leadership works to support continuing education of military personnel overseas studying in areas not directly related to military or combat issues.

Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework for this study is based on the constructs of social situational learning, which provides the underpinning for the hypothesis that self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability relate to academic performance of OCONUS personnel while participating in continuing education overseas. As seminal works by Bandura (1978) and Vygotsky (1978) describe, learning occurs through observation of one’s surroundings, and human thought adapts to the environment. Social interaction and membership in community occurs, and both play key roles in cognitive development and relationshipbuilding. Lave and Wegner (1991) agree, stating that learning is “situated within authentic activity, context and culture.” (Reprinted from Learning-Theories.com, 2014, para 2). Social situational learning occurs when individuals engage in didactic interaction (Belpaeme & Morse, 2012). Research by Evensen and Hmelo (2000) further explains that social situational learning is not merely a vehicle for acquisition of information, but rather an actual transformation of an individual as he or she interacts with others and moves toward membership in the community. Wilson and Myers (2000) agree, stating that situated learning “…is positioned to bring the individual and the social together in a coherent theoretical perspective” (p. 57).

As related to joint military command units located overseas, it is important to recognize that at least two primary communities exist for these personnel: the military community, and the host-nation community. Both of these environments collectively present many attitudes and behaviors which impact new members. Individual traits such as age, gender, marital status, education and job situation, as well as, the music, food and religious preferences of the individual and the community, all influence the context of the group or environment in different ways (Leite & de Souza, 2012). Finally, in addition to contextual differences across communities, Bandura (1978) recognizes a related phenomenon known as reciprocal determinism, which explains how an environment influences individual attitudes and behaviors, and how one’s individual attitudes and behaviors in turn influence the environment. The underlying principle here is that “intrapersonal development, interpersonal transactions, and interactive functioning…” all occur within the context of the organization or environment (Bandura, 1978, para. 1). Consequently, studies examining personnel studying overseas while assigned to joint military command units, must consider the complexity of the situation with regards to learning, to fully understand the implications of the study outcomes.

Methodology This paper presents a two-prong strategy for study methodology. First, a nonexperimental quantitative research design was used to collect and analyze data; second, a narrative literature review was completed to provide insight and further understanding into the implications of the findings. Surveys collected the quantitative data from a convenience sample. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. The focus of this study included two dependent variables (academic performance and satisfaction with learning), three independent variables (selfesteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability), and five covariates (age, gender, rank, level of education, and years of service. The covariates were controlled for and individually tested against the respective dependent variables for significance. Sample Population The sample population for this study included 83 individuals assigned to United States joint military command unit, with military bases located in England and the unit headquarters located in Stuttgart, Germany. Sample size was determined by utilizing power analysis, with alpha error probability set at .05 and an a priori effect size of 0.15 (f2 = .15 - medium). The study participant group consisted of both males and females, and represented military personnel, as well as, Department of Defense civilians and contractors assigned to the joint military command unit. Available individuals ranged in age from 18 to over 60 years. Participant represented an array of ethnicities, including African American, Caucasian and Hispanic groups. © 2017 The authors and IJLTER ORG. All rights reserved.

Quantitative Data Collection and Statistical Analysis Data were collected for independent variables via multi-tiered survey instruments which were composed of validated measures for self-esteem (i.e., the Self-Esteem Scale by Rosenberg (1968)), self-efficacy (i.e., the Generalized SelfEfficacy Scale by Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995)), and cultural adaptability (i.e., the Weiss-Lyon Scale by Weissenburger and Lyon (2001)). Grade point average (GPA), measuring student performance, was obtained from archival data, and student satisfaction was measured via individually piloted survey questions. Data on predictor variables were obtained through self-reporting by study participants. Bivariate analysis was conducted to determine the relationship over time between the three independent variables of self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability, and the dependent variables of academic performance and satisfaction with learning. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine possible relationships of the independent variables as predictors of the dependent variables, as well as, to control for covariates of age, gender, level of education, rank, and years of service. Multiple regression was also use to test the relationships of the covariates as predictors of the dependent variables. Pearsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s product-moment correlation coefficient (r) measured the statistical strength of these relationships. Narrative Review of the Findings Upon completion of statistical data analysis, the researchers developed a narrative review of the literature to provide insight into the meaning of the findings. (The narrative review is presented in the Discussion section of this paper.) The goal was to identify and reflect upon any contradictions or inconsistencies between the findings of this study involving military personnel and previously investigated civilian populations who studied overseas. The theory of social situational learning was used to provide a framework within which to identify and discuss the insights generated.

Results This study provides quantitative analysis of the impact of age, gender, education, rank and years of service on military student satisfaction with learning and academic performance as related to context-based constructs of self-esteem, self-efficacy and cross-cultural adaptability. The sample population included personnel stationed at a joint military command unit outside of the continental United States. Continuing education in this study is defined as academic courses and programs not specifically required by the military. Figure 1 illustrates a summary of the findings. Empirical evidence supports a significant relationship between self-esteem and student satisfaction with learning. Statistically significant relationships also exist between age and years

of service, and student satisfaction with learning, as well as, age, gender and level of education, and student academic performance. No statistically significant relationships exist for the covariate of rank, nor the variables selfesteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability, when considering academic performance.

Figure 1. Summary of statistically significant relationships between independent and dependent variables.

The following data tables provide empirical results related to each significant relationship shown in Figure 1. The statistical tests represented include the following: bivariate correlation between student satisfaction with learning and primary independent variables of self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability; multiple regression analysis of student satisfaction with learning, using primary independent variables as predictor variables; multiple regression analysis of student satisfaction with learning, using covariates as predictor variables; and multiple regression analysis of student academic performance, using covariates as predictor variables. Table 1 illustrates results of bivariate correlation analysis conducted to determine the relationship between the independent variables of individual selfesteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability, and the dependent variable satisfaction with learning of military personnel pursuing continuing education while overseas. Findings identify statistical significance for only one of the three independent variables â&#x20AC;&#x201C; self-esteem â&#x20AC;&#x201C; when moderating variables of age, gender, level of education, rank, and years of service are controlled.

Table 1. Bivariate Correlation between Student Satisfaction with Learning and Cultural Adaptability, Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy, with Moderating Variables Controlled.

Satisfaction with Learning

Self-Esteem (Rosenberg)

SelfEfficacy (Schwarzer and Jerusalem)

Cultural Adaptability (Weiss-Lyon)

.240*

-.109

-.107

.044

.368

.380

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2tailed) N

* Significance defined p ≤ .05

Table 2 presents results of multiple regression, utilizing student satisfaction with learning as the outcome variable and self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability as predictor variables. The regression model indicated no statistical significance when considering all three independent variables, wherein F (3, 60) = 1.748, and p = .167, with an overall model fit of R2 = .034. However, upon closer scrutiny of the independent variables in this model, one of the three – selfesteem – when considered individually, was found to be a significant predictor of military student satisfaction with learning while overseas. This finding is consistent with results from bivariate analysis described earlier for the independent variable of self-esteem. (Note: The phenomenon of semi-partial and partial correlations, as related to regression models and the results in Table 2, are attributed to multicollinearity.) Table 2. Multiple Regression of Primary Independent Variables and Student Satisfaction with Learning. Unstandardized Coefficients

95% Confidence Interval for B

Sig.

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

.558

.579

-1.643

2.914

.349*

2.207

.031

.048

.972

.223

.211

1.328

.189

-.150

.743

.169

-.057

-.455

.650

-.416

.262

Std. Error

(Constant)

.635

1.139

Self-Esteem

.510

.231

Self-Efficacy

.296

Cultural Adaptability

-.077

Model

Standardized Coefficient

Beta

* Significance defined p ≤ .05

Table 3 presents results of multiple regression again for the outcome variable of student satisfaction with learning, however, this time utilizing age, gender, level of education, rank, and years of service as predictor variables. The regression model here initially indicated no statistical significance, wherein F (5, 68) = 1.977, and p = .093, with an overall model fit of R2 = .063. Again however, closer scrutiny and individual examination of each variable, two of the five covariates were found to be significant predictors of student satisfaction with learning: age and years of service. Covariates of gender, level of education, and rank were found not to be significant predictors of student satisfaction with learning in this study. (Note: The phenomenon of semi-partial and partial correlations, as related to regression models and the results in Table 3, are attributed to multicollinearity.) Table 3. Multiple Regression of Covariates and Student Satisfaction with Learning. Unstandardized Coefficients

Std. Error

(Constant)

1.663

.484

Age

.460

.189

Gender

.149

Level of Education

Model 1

Standardized Coefficient

Beta

Collinearity Statistics

Sig.

Tolerance

VIF

3.439

.001

.573*

2.435

.018

.232

4.307

.176

.103

.846

.400

.859

1.164

-.122

.080

-.208

-1.530

.131

.694

1.442

Rank

.115

.067

.233

1.728

.089

.703

1.422

Years of Service

-.043

.020

-.513*

-2.194

.032

.235

4.253

* Significance defined p â&#x2030;¤ .05

The final table, Table 4, presents results of multiple regression for the outcome variable of student academic performance (GPA), and the covariates of age, gender, level of education, rank, and years of service were utilized as predictor variables. The regression model here proved that there is statistical significance, wherein F (5, 75) = 6.329, and p = .001, with an overall model fit of R2 = .250. Specifically, this model found three of the five covariates to be significant predictors of military student academic performance: age, gender and level of education. Covariates of rank and years of service were found not to be significant predictors of student performance in continuing education in this study.

Table 4. Multiple Regression of Covariates and Academic Performance. Unstandardized Coefficients

Std. Error

(Constant)

4.324

.625

Age

.543

.209

Gender

-.475

Level of Education

Model 1

Standardized Coefficient

Beta

Collinearity Statistics

Sig.

Tolerance

VIF

6.913

.000

.448*

2.598

.011

.315

3.176

.229

-.216*

-2.069

.042

.860

1.162

-.490

.103

-.539*

-4.761

.001

.732

1.365

Rank

.065

.089

.083

.728

.469

.727

1.376

Years of Service

-.007

.023

-.057

-.324

.747

.308

3.244

* Significance defined p ≤ .05

Discussion This study hypothesized that military personnel, participating in continuing education while stationed overseas, experience studying abroad differently than civilian populations. This hypothesis is based on the belief that self-esteem, selfefficacy and cultural adaptability, as related to academic performance and satisfaction with learning, are context-based constructs and impacted in multiple ways by demographic factors (such as age, gender, education, rank and years of service), depending on the environment in which the learning experience occurs. In this study, two environments – the host nation and the military organization – exert influence on student learning. A narrative review of the findings follows. This discussion provides insight into the meaning behind the statistical results and ultimately the implications for the field of practice. Age and Generational Differences This study found that age of military personnel significantly impacts both academic success and satisfaction with learning of individuals participating in continuing education while overseas. Age, as a trait, however, was measured by group in this study. Approximately half of the individuals in this study selfidentified as members of the Millennial generation (those born after 1980), and over one-third self-identified as being of Generation X (those born after Baby Boomers, yet earlier than the Millennials). These numbers are consistent with Department of Defense reports (2016).

The significance of this age distribution is that each generation maintains distinct attitudes and behaviors about life (Donatone, 2013). To successfully support military personnel in continuing education, institutional help and resources must work with, not against, generational differences that are present in the troop populations. For example, one of the behaviors associated with success in academic programs is persistence, or staying-the-course (Shoukat, Haider, Munir, Khan & Ahmed, 2013). The best approach by the military to hep personnel of Generation X to stay-the-course in their studies is to leave them alone. Generation X individuals prefer, when presented with a challenge, that supervisors be hands-off. Gen-X individuals are comfortable with input, however, only when constructive (in their minds) and when it results in pragmatic outcomes (Scheef & Thielfoldt, 2014). Military students of the Millennial generation, in contrast, may react quite negatively to a hands-off approach when it comes to supporting their continuing education endeavors. These individuals desire attention. Although similar to Generation X individuals in welcoming a challenge, Millennials prefer structured oversight. Millennials are not only more comfortable with authority, they feel entitled to its support and benefits (NBC News, 2013). Another example of age-related difference in military personnel participating in continuing education involves individual management of time and stress. Success of adult learners depends on the ability to juggle multiple responsibilities from diverse arenas, including family, work, military, personal and education (Fairchild, 2003). Also, freeing up the time needed to focus on academic studies requires an individual to let go of less important yet competing tasks (Shoukat et al., 2013; Wetzel, 2010). The problem is that some Millennial students may initially possess minimal skills for thinking for themselves, making independent decisions, or resolving conflict when presented with competing demands (Donatone, 2013). The challenge for military leadership is to develop support for military students that is aligned to the generational needs of the individual. (This is particularly important when the individual is enrolled in continuing education that is not related specifically to combat.) Possible strategies which military joint command units may pursue include mentors, group training sessions, and online resources. This help should address life areas that may cause stress due to time management issues and other demands, such as childcare, tuition reimbursement, and housing within proximity to classes. It is important to remember however that each resource must be aligned specifically to generational attitudes and behaviors of the student. Gender Perspectives Similar to the construct of age, this study found gender of military personnel to impact individualsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; satisfaction with learning while participating in continuing education overseas. This is consistent with the literature, and utilizing individual mentors, as discussed earlier for age and generational differences, ÂŠ 2017 The authors and IJLTER ORG. All rights reserved.

works here as well. For example, a young woman may feel less confident than her male counterpart to express her views or request help in a male dominant environment such as the military (Andrews, 2006). The mentor’s task involves more than simply instructing the girl to speak-up in class or contact her joint command unit supervisor for assistance. To ensure effective support, the mentor must work to enhance the young woman’s self-assertiveness and help her to build self-confidence within the military environment (Andrews, 2006). Leadership within joint military commands may also encourage identified mentors to incorporate role-modeling and networking strategies when support personnel in continuing education. Role models exhibit desired behaviors that can be emulated (Sowders, 2015). Networks result from mentors and mentees formalizing processes that establish relationships which bring benefits to the participants (Rhodes & Kellerman, 2006). Role-modeling and networking provide access to mentors, help to dispel stereotypes, and aid in strengthening behaviors in mentees and subordinates (Sowders, 2015). Utilizing mentors and role-models to support military personnel in continuing education while overseas is likely to facilitate friendly and open environments conducive to respecting gender differences. This may ultimately increase academic performance of both males and females assigned to joint command units abroad. Level of Education Another factor related to satisfaction with learning of military personnel studying abroad (in non-military-related courses) is an individual’s current level of education. As participation in academic programs constitutes a very individual endeavor, military personnel benefit from the ability to look into his or her own past educational experiences and use this to inform the learning process. For this reason, mentors and role models may help military students not only identify past positive and negative academic incidents, but also to recognize opportunities for remediating outcomes. In this regard, mentors and role models may help military students identify incremental improvement and progress through interventions such as teachable moments. Spiegler (2012) advocates the use of teachable moments (unplanned opportunities for learning), whereby a mentor facilitates student self-reflection to learn from past positive and negative educational experiences. The rationale behind the use of role models and mentors to facilitate teachable moments, is the belief that these individuals possess wisdom and experience to communicate across diverse lines, and with a significant commitment to the future, and also are able to facilitate alignment of individual and organizational goals and objectives (Hain, 2013). It continues to be unclear, however, whether military personnel see participation in continuing education simply as a means to an end (i.e., for military rank and promotion), or as a specific academic experience and part of lifelong learning.

Rank and Years of Service This study found that the factors of rank and years of service impact military personnel differently with regards to participation in non-military continuing education while overseas. Rank registered no significant relationship with academic achievement and satisfaction with learning; years of service marked a direct impact on military student satisfaction with learning. This result is puzzling in that rank and years of service are both defined by the military, and as such, it is expected that both constructs would behave similarly (that is, have limited or no relationship with a non-military continuing education activity). The fact that this is not the case suggests that the contextual reference for military rank may differ from the contextual reference for years of service in the military. Military rank, as discussed earlier in review of the literature, represents one of the last remaining caste systems (i.e., officers and enlisted) in the United States and other countries, existing as an organizational hierarchy that sustains authoritative oversight, and a slow, measured advancement through the system (Goodale et al., 2012). Rank is defined primarily in terms of the military environment, via combat-based actions and accomplished field missions. Within this context, military personnel participating in this study may conceptualize the construct of rank only as related to garrison life and combat-readiness. Consequently, the influence of military rank on academic performance and satisfaction with learning becomes less notable for personnel, particularly when outside the context of the military environment (i.e., participating in nonmilitary continuing education while overseas). Research by Lipscomb (2015) supports this contextual reference, or organizational-specificity, when it comes to investigating rank and promotion in the military. For example, education within the context of a military organization is often viewed as a means to an end, rather than a specific outcome itself. Education and training represent discriminating factors for promotion boards. College courses and training programs completed by an applicant are reviewed for combat and field application that support increased military rank and pay. Participation in non-combat related studies that are not required by the military for promotion, sets a different context â&#x20AC;&#x201C; one with minimal military significance (Wong, Bliese, & McGurk, 2003). Finally, regarding the trait of years of service, the direct relationship of this demographic factor with student satisfaction with learning in non-military continuing education while overseas suggests one of two phenomena. First, military personnel may view service time from an individual (or personal) perspective, and not from a collective perspective defined by membership in the military. Or, these individuals do in fact view time in service from a military (i.e., collective) perspective, yet this view is not inconsistent (psychologically) with individual or personal goals. One explanation for this is that the longer an individual is in the service, the more likely he or she is to experience a positive

impact on career from both combat-related and non-combat-related educational pursuits.

Implications As is evident through the narrative discussion, not all demographic factors studied in this research impact military personnel educational experiences in the same way. Considering the context-based construct of self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability, two primary environments exert influence on these traits – the host nation and the military organization. Research by Hsu (2010) suggests that military culture generally impacts only issues and characteristics related to combat. Studies by Greene, Buckman, Dandeker and Greenberg (2010), however, recognize that the impact of military culture may extend to attitudes and behaviors related to family, education and race. Following is a discussion of the implications of this study. These implications are aligned to the contextual influence that multiple environments may exert on military personnel participating in continuing education while overseas. Considered in the discussion are the significant results of this study, including the positive relationship between self-esteem and academic performance and student satisfaction with learning, and the significant impact of age, gender, level of education and years of service on military student learning experiences. Can-do Attitude within Military Environment The first implication derived from this study focuses on the significant relationship between self-esteem of military personnel participating in nonmilitary-related continuing education while overseas and academic performance and student satisfaction with learning. Empirical evidence in this study supports a positive relationship between an individual’s self-esteem and satisfaction with learning of OCONUS personnel participating in non-military-related continuing education while overseas. This finding implies that troops believe they can cope with challenges related to studying overseas, and are generally satisfied with the learning experience during the process. Differences among military personnel exists, however, and may impact individual learning experiences. Consequently, leadership must align support for continuing education in non-military-related courses and programs to specific generational needs, diverse gender perspectives, previous education and years of service of participating military personnel. Another benefit of knowing this information is that it informs military leadership and practice in the field. Supervisors become aware of the importance of fostering these can-do attitudes for non-military-related academic pursuits (just as they do for activities related to combat and war-readiness), and support members’ “dreams of higher education as an attainable outcome” (Watson, 2016, para. 1). A note of caution, however. Leadership behavior which artificially inflates self-esteem of military personnel, as related to continuing education,

must be avoided. Promoting unrealistic expectations often results in overextended commitment and unexpected failure (Sack, 2012). Capabilities May Not Transfer from the Battlefield The second implication of this study is that this can-do attitude toward continuing education does not appear to transfer to increased academic performance in non-military-related courses while stationed overseas. This is curious, in that it is expected that military personnel who believe they are able to cope with the challenge (i.e., self-esteem) of non-combat behaviors such as continuing education, would then also possess the confidence to act (i.e., selfefficacy) and execute successfully associated academic performance. However, this is not the case. Why? The answer may be the perspective with which continuing education in non-military courses is viewed by military personnel, and the misalignment of this view with military culture. The evolution of self-efficacy of a soldier appears to evolve somewhat differently than self-esteem. Initial participation in the military often lowers the trait of selfesteem in new recruits, with feelings of inadequacy and inability (Owens, 1992). However, over time, individuals begin to articulate new role clarification and role demands within the context of the military, and an increase in feelings of control reoccur and mastery of related tasks takes place (MacKenzie & Armstrong, 2004). Unfortunately, the belief and confidence to effectively execute the new military position does not appear to transfer to non-military activities. Troop confidence and related behaviors are often solely tied to military capability (i.e., social self-efficacy), thus manifesting itself selflessly on the battlefield, yet not transferring to non-military activities (NBC News, 2013). Rawat (2011) recognizes the potential psychological conflict here when military personnel participate in non-military continuing education while overseas. A disconnect may develop between individual (i.e., personal) and group (i.e., military) goals and objectives. Rawat (2011) advocates strengthening simultaneously “… a commitment to [self] awareness, independent thinking, integrity [and] independent responsibility” (p.131). Research by Rawat (2011) also supports [military] leaders as “role-models”, providing appropriate strategies for aligning individual and group goals (p. 126). The intended outcome is to promote successful academic experiences for personnel in continuing education, regardless of the focus of the content (i.e., military or nonmilitary). Multiple Communities yet Limited Cross-Cultural Experiences Members of joint military command units, participating in continuing education overseas, maintain membership in two primary social groups – the host nation, and the military community. New surroundings and unfamiliar cultures within both environments can present social barriers, as well as, unique professional and academic demands. Challenges may include foreign language acquisition, intercultural communication, and diverse cultural beliefs (Gao, 2008; Lesenciuc & Draghici, 2011). © 2017 The authors and IJLTER ORG. All rights reserved.

Within the host nation, researchers describe the need to build intellectual awareness and intercultural sensitivity to facilitate social interaction, understanding and learning (Sam & Berry, 2010). Military environments, on the other hand, including that of the joint command units overseas, represent unique organizational cultures that are quite different from academic, personal or other professional groups (Greene, Buckman, Dandeker, & Greenberg, 2010; United States Department of Veterans Affairs, 2016). Traditional military culture stems from a need for combat-readiness, and emphasizes discipline and hierarchy, as well as, prioritization of the group over individuals (Hsu, 2010). The final implication derived from this study focuses on this exact point – the phenomenon of military personnel existing simultaneously in multiple communities. Cross-cultural adaptability in this study appears to require communication and interaction across military and non-military environments, rather than across multiple diverse ethnic and religious communities (i.e., the sample population is from the United States and stationed in England, an English-speaking western European country). Consequently, the reason cultural adaptability does not illustrate significant relationships with academic performance and satisfaction with learning may be because these military personnel maintain only a collective identity for cultural adaptation, which is directly aligned only to the military community. In contrast, the military student’s individual identity fosters a personal perspective, and it is with this perspective that the student appears to participate in continuing education not related to combat or other military topics. A key learning here is that leadership must be informed regarding troop disposition toward military and nonmilitary environments; and as implied previously, strive to align and integrate collective and personal goals to facilitate growth and success of military personnel across both military and nonmilitary environments.

Conclusions This study concludes that military personnel, participating in non-military continuing education while overseas, sustain multiple self-identifies driven by the specific environment or community within which they are engaged, as well as, the activity itself. The perceived alignment (or misalignment) of militarymember community and the continuing education community, impacts perceptions regarding self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability, and the relationship with academic performance and satisfaction with learning. The importance of this study relies on understanding the nature of competing contexts by the multiple communities in which military personnel operate overseas. As these military personnel seek help and support from within the joint command unit for non-military-related continuing education, the source of this support may be perceived as incompatible with the individual’s need. For example, the source of the support is military (i.e., the joint military command

unit, with collective perspective), yet the recipient (i.e., troop member) is operating from a personal or individual perspective within a nonmilitary continuing education environment. To provide support needed by military personnel for academic success and satisfaction with learning while participating in non-military continuing education, this study concludes that military leadership must take the initiative to develop strategies that help troop members align personal (individual) and group (military) goals. This may be accomplished through role modelling and the use of mentors. As role models, commanders may exhibit desired attitudes and behaviors for self-awareness and independent thinking, while simultaneously aligning multiple goals for the benefit of both the individual and organization. Utilizing professional and/or peer mentors as personal advisors, ensures that support takes into account differences among troops, and embraces diverse perspectives related to age, gender, level of education and years of experience in the military. Finally, this study concludes that mentors and role models, engaged by leadership, must recognize the phenomena of both collectiveness and exclusivity of current military culture, and not overlook its contextual reference. Those providing support to military personnel enrolled in nonmilitary-related continuing education must understand the impact of context-specificity on many personal characteristics, including self-esteem, self-efficacy and cross-cultural adaptability, as well as, an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rank. Support for military personnel must acknowledge and respect the phenomena of these traits within military environments, and recognize that at times, they manifest themselves in a military-specific manner that does not necessarily translate to non-military activities such as continuing education in non-combat related academic courses and programs.

Limitations The primary limitation of this study is a lack of a control group (i.e., international students or other civilian group) to test the impact of contextual reference on the constructs of self-esteem, self-efficacy and cultural adaptability, and the corresponding impact of age, gender, education, rank and years of service on military personnel participating in nonmilitary continuing education while overseas. The strong context set by military organizations and host nations, demands a truly experimental research design to evaluate constructs from both an individual (personal) and collective (social and/or military) perspective. This type of study is needed to provide comparative data necessary to fully understand military personnel performance and satisfaction in nonmilitary-related continuing education while stationed overseas. Another limitation of this study is sample size of the current study population. Power analysis determined the recommended number of participants based on three primary independent variables. Analyzing the demographic factors as predictor variables, requires increasing the number of study participants. Future

research of military personnel participating in nonmilitary-related continuing education must take this information into account when calculating sample size. The third and final limitation of this study relates to the limited examination of the phenomenon of competing contexts from multiple environments in which troops operate. In addition to the host nation and the joint military command unit, military personnel may maintain strong ties to an original branch of service, as well as, personal communities which include one’s home, church and institution of higher education being attended.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 91-103, April 2017

Effects of Warm-Up Testing on Student Learning Kimberly M. Levere and Matthew Demers University of Guelph 50 Stone Rd. East, Guelph, Canada, N1G 2W1

Abstract. The assessment of student preparedness for entry-level university calculus has been of interest in recent years. Many institutions have adopted diagnostic tests as a means to assess foundational skills. We introduce a new testing-style, the Warm-Up Test, which occurs very early in the semester and only tests concepts from prerequisite courses that will be used to develop the new concepts in the course to come. Despite the large size of the course, Warm-Up Tests are not of a multiple choice format in order that rich feedback may be given by graders. Warm-Up Tests may also make up part of a student's grade, shifting weight from a high-stakes final exam. We analyze the predictive ability of this new form of assessment upon student performance on later assessments throughout the course, and we discuss this analysis as well as potential biases and possible future avenues of research. Keywords: assessment; diagnostic testing; undergraduate mathematics; warm-up test.

1. Introduction Recent curriculum changes at the secondary level in Ontario have resulted in a challenging environment for teaching and learning at the post-secondary level. The addition, removal, or change in the way that various mathematics concepts are introduced and reinforced in high schools have resulted in a difference in the alignment of these foundational curricula. This is not a new phenomenon; dealing with curriculum and curriculum-delivery changes has been an ongoing challenge for decades (Cooney, Bell, & Fisher-Cauble, Sanchez, 1996). There has been much interest in ensuring that students entering university continue to be as well-prepared as possible for their first university mathematics courses. One strategy that has been well-explored in the literature is that of a diagnostic test. A number of studies have been conducted in the area of diagnostic testing, outlining and evaluating the structure, rationale, and efficacy of diagnostic tests administered upon enrolment in a post-secondary mathematics course. For example, online learning resources have been used for this purpose (Beevers,

Bishop, & Quinney, 1998), but these resources were not mandatory and may not have been utilized fully by all students. A novel approach has been utilized involving paired questions in an attempt to measure the sorts of questions that students may be liable to make a slip on despite having a solid understanding of the material (Lee & Robinson, 2005). Another approach has utilized a mandatory diagnostic test (Carr et al. 2013), requiring a 90 percent score to pass but allowing multiple attempts. A variety of styles of diagnostic tests have been used, each perhaps with its own benefits or specific purposes. A recent study showed that students largely believed diagnostic testing to be a positive and beneficial idea, but students stressed the need for improved communication (NĂ Fhloinn, Macan Bhaird & Nolan, 2014). Examining the literature, however, reveals that multiple choice questions are almost always used exclusively within diagnostic tests and so written feedback to students is necessarily limited or altogether absent. This is significant, as research suggests that feedback may have a powerful influence upon student learning as well as having indirect effects such as an increase in the development of interest via a variety of means (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Rakoczy et al., 2013). Kearney et al. (2013) agreed that student engagement is increased by the presence of feedback and pointed out that prior research shows "students who are more fully engaged in their own learning perform better academically than their non-engaged peers." (Kerney et al., 2013) Motivated and influenced by these previous findings, our aim is to introduce a new form of assessment, called a "Warm-Up Test,'' that captures the spirit of a diagnostic test, but with a few important differences. Our Warm-Up Test occurs within the first two weeks of class and constitutes part of a student's overall grade. Warm-Up Tests are structured identically to "actual'' term tests and do not contain multiple choice questions. The content appearing on the test is not limited to basic arithmetic and simple mathematics, but includes ideas from prerequisite courses that will squarely be used later within the course to build or prove new concepts; this strategy is one that has been explored in a study finding that interim testing of prior material facilitates learning of subsequent new material (Wissman, Rawson & Pyc, 2011). Finally, the Warm-Up Tests are graded quickly and returned to students with detailed, written, and personalized feedback so that they have the opportunity to fill in any perceived holes in their background knowledge so that they might be prepared for the rest of the course. We wish to analyze whether changing the structure of our firstyear calculus course to include this type of assessment has an impact upon student learning and/or performance throughout the rest of the course. This paper is laid out as follows: In Section 2, we discuss the history and background of first-year calculus at the University of Guelph. In Section 3, we discuss in greater detail the differences between a Warm-Up Test and a typical diagnostic test. In Section 4, we outline our study, summarizing some of our interesting results in Section 5. We provide a brief discussion of these results and subsequently potential biases in Sections 6 and 7. Final future endeavours as a result of this work are discussed in Section 8.

2. History and Background: First-Year Calculus at the University of Guelph There are currently three dedicated introductory calculus courses offered at the University of Guelph: Math*1030 (Business Mathematics), taken chiefly by students pursuing Business or Economics degrees; Math*1080 (Elements of Calculus I), taken mainly by students enrolled in the Biological Sciences; and Math*1200 (Calculus I), typically taken by Physical Science and Engineering students. The latter of these three, Math*1200, is the course that will be discussed exclusively for the remainder of this paper. Calculus I is a course that has experienced astonishing levels of growth, like many entry-level calculus courses in recent times; this is mainly due to recent expansion and vastly-increased student intake in the School of Engineering. For example, in the Fall 2009 semester, 537 students were enrolled at the end of the course, compared with 726 at the end of the Fall 2014 semester. This represents an increase of over 35 percent in just five years. Support from the University of Guelph for Teaching Assistantships has stayed roughly in-line with growth, and as of Fall 2014, 420 hours of Teaching Assistant support was granted over the semester. This is enough to allow for tests and the final exam to continue to be hand-graded with written feedback, despite these large numbers. Multiple choice is not used as a method for assessment in this course. Students taking this particular course are in degree programs that utilize mathematical skills such as those learned in Calculus I frequently throughout their degrees. As such, despite growing numbers, the feedback and learning that is afforded by hand-written tests is favourable to the potential for guessing on multiple choice assessments. In terms of content, Calculus I is designed as a course that reviews many topics from high school calculus while introducing a few new topics and additional rigour; it is a course whose purpose is often framed as "getting everybody on the same page and speaking the same language.'' Concepts include: a review of functions with an emphasis on trigonometric functions; transformations of these functions; the absolute value function; solving inequalities; solving limits; the formal Îľ-Î´ definition of the limit; continuity; the Intermediate and Extreme Value theorems; the definition of the derivative; derivative rules; higher-order derivatives; implicit differentiation including log differentiation; related-rates problems; differential approximation; Fermat's Theorem, Rolle's Theorem, and the Mean Value Theorem; curve-sketching; optimization problems; basic integration techniques including the method of substitution; Riemann sums; definite integrals and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus; and finally, applications of integrals including finding areas and solving word problems. Historically, two to four tests have been set during the semester. Since 2007, these tests have been accompanied by a set of weekly online quizzes, utilizing Maple TATM, that serve as enforced homework. (Maple TATM is an online learning environment that allows for testing of students in a wide variety of ways.) There is a final exam that has historically carried a weight of between 35 and 50 percent of the overall grade. In recent years, none of these assessments have included any multiple choice questions at all. Rather, they are divided into

two parts: Part A is a "Quick Questions'' section where students answer simple questions or problems by writing their answers in a box at the side of the page. Student work need not be shown, and partial marks for incorrect solutions are limited. Part B is a "Longer Written Answer'' section where full solutions are expected and partial marks are granted if sound mathematical steps are made. Tests are written using brand new questions each year primarily to minimize academic misconduct, which has the added benefit of allowing instructors to use past tests to provide practice resources for students. Students are aware that typically none of the questions on a practice resource will closely resemble problems on the "actual'' test, but this opportunity for extra practice has proved to be a popular idea among students. Dedicated "extension'' problems, intended to be challenging, are included on each assessment. Accounting for 10 to 20 percent of the marks on a test or exam, these questions tend to blend concepts or allow students to explore simple new concepts.

3. What is a Warm-Up Test and how does it compare to a Diagnostic test? Feedback after the Fall 2013 semester indicated that many students struggled with a few fundamental concepts from the very beginning of the course in September. These concepts (like basic arithemetic, functions, and trigonometry) provide a foundation for many of the topics covered in the course. Thus, it seems reasonable to infer that having weaknesses in the understanding of these fundamentals would make it more difficult to gain understanding of new concepts throughout the rest of the course that depend on this foundation. A student with these foundational weaknesses may be inclined to resort to surface learning rather than deep learning, as has been discussed by Prosser and Trigwell (1999). The idea of a "Warm-Up Test'' was conceived as the result of discussions between the instructors about this very issue. A Warm-Up Test is a test, held early in the semester, that only tests concepts that are assumed to have been learned in prerequisite courses. The tested concepts are chosen to be those topics that will certainly be used to develop the calculus techniques later in the course (functions, trigonometry, etc), and do not include any calculus concepts. Students are aware of the topics that they should be prepared for from the beginning of the semester. The onus is on them to prepare because with the exception of trigonometry, no lectures are dedicated to material covered on the test. (It was felt that, due to the exceptionally important nature of trigonometry in first-year courses, along with high student anxiety surrounding that topic, the instructors would spend lecture time to review this.) In terms of the logistics and specifics, Warm-Up Tests are held at the end of week 2 of a 12-week semester, outside of class time. They possess the same structure as a “regular test” (as outlined in section 2); all hand-written with no multiple choice. With respect to content, the Warm-up test contains only prerequisite material (no Calculus concepts), and only tests at a basic level with no extension questions. The Warm-up test carries a small, but significant (to encourage participation) proportion of a student’s final grade (currently 10

percent as compared to 20 percent for regular term tests). This weighting is fully transferrable to the Final Exam should the Final Exam result be higher. This is to take the pressure off of the Warm-up test so that students use it as tool for indicating their readiness, rather than a stressful event. Finally, the Warm-up test is hand-graded and returned to students with written feedback within a very short time (typically one or two days). Detailed solutions are available online to all students immediately following the Warm-Up Test so that students can immediately follow up and learn from their mistakes while the material is fresh in their heads. There were many motivations for introducing the Warm-Up Test. First, students lose some of their academic learning over a summer holiday. This learning loss has been shown to not only increase as students get older, but hurts mathematics learning more than other school subjects (Kerry, 1998). An early test forces students to hit the ground running and quickly reminds them of some topics that they might be rusty on after a summer vacation. Next, it has been shown that high-stakes testing may discourage active student learning and may even have negative effects upon the classroom discourse (Wideen et al., 1997). There is incentive for students to do well on the Warm-Up Test, because doing so will make it likely that the more difficult Final Exam is weighted less heavily. Most obviously, though, by holding this early test, student weaknesses can be identified and very early written feedback can be given by instructors and Teaching Assistants, which may have a significant impact upon student learning (Hattie & Timperley , 2007; Rakoczy, 2013). Since students are told that the Warm-Up Test topics are those that will certainly be used later in the course, students can come to an early realization of the important topics that they are weak in, and seek assistance or put in extra work ahead of the later, more heavily-weighted assessments. The very fast timeframe of grading and returning the Warm-Up Test is enforced to make sure that students have the opportunity to immediately start working on any weaknesses that have been identified. A Warm-Up Test is fundamentally different from the typical diagnostic tests that have been administered at various universities though the two concepts have similarities. A diagnostic test is typically given ahead of a semester or at the very beginning of a course in order to identify student strengths and weaknesses, but is not typically a test that is given for grades. Often, a diagnostic test does not possess a dedicated focus toward the course to come, instead concentrating on a more abstract and broad set of fundamental mathematical skills. Finally, nearly all diagnostic tests are given in a multiple choice format, precluding any personalized written feedback.

4. An Outline of the Study As a pilot of this novel assessment method, a Warm-up Test was created by the authors of this manuscript and administered to a first-year Calculus I class. Following the completion of the test, ten teaching assistants, with the help of solutions provided by the authors of this manuscript graded and returned the Warm-up Test. The analysis that follows was conducted after the entire semester was completed. To investigate the validity of this pilot effort, We wish to perform an analysis of grade data in order to help answer a few questions: 

Do students who perform well on the Warm-Up Test tend to perform well throughout the rest of the course?



Are poor grades on the Warm-Up Test associated with poor grades throughout the course or higher failure rates?



Does the inclusion of a Warm-Up Test promote student learning and better final exam results than if there was no early assessment given?

To measure this, we performed an analysis of Warm-Up Test grades as compared to Term Test and Final Exam grades, and followed each student in the class through the semester to evaluate their subsequent performance on later assessments. We first compared the Warm-Up Test grades to grades obtained for Test 1; then we compared the Warm-Up Test grades to grades obtained in the Final Exam. Finally, we evaluated performance throughout the course by comparing Warm-Up Test grades to final overall grades. For this final comparison, it is noted that this final overall grade may include and thus be influenced by the grade from the Warm-Up Test itself. To compare in all cases, assessment results were categorized by letter grade, and we recorded the number of students that moved from each grade category to each other between assessments. We used the following standard groupings: 

90-100 percent is an A+ grade;



80-89 percent is a A grade;



70-79 percent is a B grade;



60-69 percent is a C grade;



50-59 percent is a D grade;



49 percent and below is an F grade.

The study included a total of 690 students. Only students who were present for all assessments were used in the analysis (students may have missed an assessment for a variety of reasons, including illness, etc).

5. Methodology 5.1 Comparison: Warm-Up Test Grades and Test 1 Grades The average grade received on the Warm-Up Test was 79.6 percent while the average grade received on Test 1 was 63.0 percent. We wished to measure the significance of the difference in mean scores. As the data were dependent, paired data was constructed by subtracting each individual studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Test 1 grade from their Warm-up Test grade. A two-sided paired-t procedure was then administered on this paired data. A p-value of 1.319 x 10-146 was obtained, indicating that the student grades for the two assessments were significantly different. Further, a 95 percent confidence interval indicates that student grades were 15.6 - 17.5 percent higher on the Warm-Up Test than on Test 1. We found that despite the significant difference in grades for these two assessments, the Warm-Up Test results strongly predicted student performance on Test 1. Table 1 provides a detailed description of the data collected. The data describes the number of students to go from receiving any particular grade on the Warmup Test to grades received from future assessments. Percentages given are proportions of those who received the same letter grade on the Warmup Test. For example, from the table, 48 students who received an A the Warmup Test received a B on Test 1. This represents 23.3 percent of all students who received an A on the Warmup Test. Of the 690 students that were included in the study, 619 received a lower grade on Test 1 than on the Warm-Up Test. Few students (20 out of 690) failed the Warm-Up Test, receiving an F. Nevertheless, 75 percent of students who received an F on the Warm-Up Test also received an F on Test 1. Similarly, for students who received a D on the Warm-Up Test, 76.7 percent received a grade of D or F on Test 1 while students who received a C on the Warm-Up Test did not fare much better. It is interesting to note that not a single student who received a C or lower on the Warm-Up Test received anything higher than a B on Test 1. Meanwhile, a plurality of students who received a B on the Warm-Up Test received a D on Test 1; of students who received an A on the Warm-Up Test, the greatest number received a C on Test 1; while on Test 1, a B was the most common grade obtained for students who received an A+ on the Warm-Up Test. It is also noteworthy that of the 551 students who received a grade of B or better on the Warm-Up Test, only 8.2 percent went on to receive a grade of F on Test 1.

5.2 Comparison: Warm-Up Test Grades and Final Exam Grades The average grade received on the Warm-Up Test was 79.6 percent while the average grade received on Final Exam was 68.6 percent. As the data were dependent, paired data was constructed by subtracting each individual studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Final Exam grade from their Warm-up Test grade. A two-sided pairedt procedure was then administered on this paired data. A p-value of 5.48 x 10-69 indicates that again, the results of the two assessments were significantly different. Further, a 95 percent confidence interval indicates that student grades were 9.9- 12.1 percent higher on the Warm-Up Test than on the Final Exam.

Table 1. WU = Warmup Test; FE = Final Exam; FG = Overall Final Grade

F to F F to D F to C F to B F to A F to A+

WU to T1 WU to FE Count Proportion (%) Count Proportion (%) 15 75 10 50 4 20 7 35 0 0 3 15 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

WU to FG Count Proportion (%) 13 65 6 30 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0

D to F D to D D to C D to B D to A D to A+

17 16 7 3 0 0

39.53 37.21 16.28 6.98 0 0

25 5 7 3 3 0

58.14 11.63 16.28 6.98 6.98 0

17 12 9 2 3 0

39.53 27.91 20.93 4.65 6.98 0

C to F C to D C to C C to B C to A C to A+

31 22 11 12 0 0

40.79 28.95 14.47 15.79 0 0

22 19 16 8 8 3

28.95 25 21.05 10.53 10.53 3.95

25 12 17 15 7 0

32.89 15.79 22.37 19.74 9.21 0

B to F B to D B to C B to B B to A B to A+

25 55 45 21 4 1

16.56 36.42 29.80 13.91 2.65 0.66

23 30 39 29 25 5

15.23 19.87 25.83 19.21 16.56 3.31

36 27 43 26 17 2

23.84 17.88 28.48 17.22 11.26 1.32

A to F A to D A to C A to B A to A A to A+

16 51 64 48 23 4

7.77 24.76 31.07 23.3 11.17 1.94

21 22 36 47 50 30

10.19 10.68 17.48 22.82 24.27 14.56

21 25 46 53 45 16

10.19 12.14 22.33 25.73 21.84 7.77

A+ to F A+ to D A+ to C A+ to B A+ to A A+ to A+

4 22 53 69 36 10

2.06 11.34 27.32 35.57 18.56 5.15

10 3 16 40 57 68

5.15 1.55 8.25 20.62 29.38 35.05

3 4 18 50 66 53

1.55 2.06 9.28 25.77 34.02 27.32

Despite that the Final Exam occurred three full months after the Warm-Up Test,

we nevertheless found that again, Warm-Up Test results provided a strong prediction of Final Examination results. Of the students who received an F on the Warm-Up Test, 50 percent also received an F on the Final Exam. A slightly greater proportion (58.1 percet) of students who received a D on the Warm-Up Test received an F on the Final Examination. It is a note of interest that a greater proportion of students who received a D on their Warm-Up Test were not successful on the Final Exam than those who received a grade of F on their Warm-Up Test. Students who received a C, B, or A on the Warm-Up Test were widely distributed throughout all of the categories for the Final Exam, with some students failing while others obtained grades as high as an A+, though Final Examination results did generally increase with greater Warm-Up Test results. Students who received an A+ on the WarmUp Test, however, provided quite a different picture, with over 85 percent of these students receiving a B or higher on the Final Exam; a plurality of such students (35.1 percent) received an A+ on the Final Examination.

5.3 Comparison: Warm-Up Test Grades and Overall Final Grades The average grade received on the Warm-Up Test was 79.6 percent while the average overall final grade was 71.0 percent. As the data were dependent, paired data was constructed by subtracting each individual studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Final grade from their Warm-up Test grade. A two-sided paired-t procedure was then administered on this paired data. A p-value of 1.5 x 10-73 indicates that once again, the results were significantly different. A 95 percent confidence interval indicates that their Warm-Up Test results were 7.7 - 9.3 percent higher than their final overall grades. We found that the Warm-Up Test was strongly predictive of overall final grade, to a remarkable extent. Of the 20 people who received an F on the Warm-Up Test, 65 percent of them went on to fail the course with an F. Generally speaking, the better that students did on the Warm-Up Test, the lower the failure rate for the overall course. This effect was by far most visible for those students who received an A+ on the Warm-Up Quiz; only 3 (1.5 percent) out of these 194 students received an overall grade of F in the course, while much higher failure rates were observed for other students. On the other hand, students who received high grades on the Warm-Up Test had much greater chances of receiving an A or A+ in the course. It is interesting, however, that several students who received a D or C on the Warm-Up Test managed to earn an overall grade of A despite their shaky start to the semester.

6. Discussion Most of the results seem to speak for themselves: The Warm-Up Test is a test of foundational skills, and so a student who struggles with these underlying fundamentals is easily identified with a poor performance on the Warm-Up Test. This weakness strongly predicts a weak performance not only on the first test, but throughout the entire course. We noticed that many students who performed at a C or B level tended to have a mixed range of performance

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throughout the course, but generally fared more poorly on future assessments. Students who improved their performance, while relatively few in number, may represent a group of students who recognized weaknesses that were identified on the Warm-Up Test and who subsequently worked to shore up their knowledge. By and large, however, students who did more poorly on future assessments likely did so because their fundamental mathematical skills were still not as solid as for many of their peers. The students who displayed the greatest resilience throughout the course were those who received an A+ on the Warm-Up Test, with a drastically smaller proportion experiencing a large drop in their performance throughout the semester. Perhaps it is the case that those students were "fully ready'' to move into university calculus, since it is these students who had already achieved mastery of fundamental concepts. High school grade point average and student attitude have been shown to have positive correlation with performance in a first-year university calculus course (Pyzdrowski et al. 2013) further study in future offerings of the course may reveal whether either or both of these factors could be correlated to Warmup Test scores, as one might expect. We believe that the Warm-Up Test can be viewed as an important measure that students may use to gauge their readiness to continue forward in Calculus I. Further, based on the results, we feel that instructors may be able to use this past data to help motivate students in future offerings of the course. For the case of those students who receive a B or C on the Warm-Up Test, it is especially evident that a high overall grade is still attainable, though perhaps some remedial work, support and encouragement would be necessary. Students who receive very low Warm-Up grades of D or F might take their result as a warning that they are not ready for some of the rigorous material that will be covered in the course until their foundational skills are improved, and as such urgently require immediate extra support or perhaps will face failure. The observation was made during this analysis that despite a weak performance on Test 1, the Final Exam (and ultimately, the final grades) represented a marked improvement. The material on the Final Exam was certainly not easier to grasp than the concepts appearing the first test, because the Final Exam was comprehensive and thus included all of the material from Test 1 along with many other topics from the rest of the course. Can this improvement be explained by the presence of the Warmup Test at the beginning of the course, or are there other factors at play? Perhaps this is a question that may be explored in future offerings of the course.

7. Biases We recognize that there are some potential biases in our results, many of which are unavoidable and inherent to a large first-year university course. These biases could have a significant effect upon comparisons or student performance. In the interest of full disclosure and completeness, we discuss some of these biases here. ď&#x201A;ˇ

Scheduling of tests and final examination alongside those of other

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courses. Students may not be able to prepare as adequately for a test if, by chance, they have another large assessment or due date for a different course very near the date of the assessment for their calculus class. 

Since the Warm-up test weight can be shifted to the final exam, some students may opt not to write the Warm-up Test. These students would therefore not have been included in our study and may have skewed the results that we observed.



With regards to the comparison between the Warm-Up Test results and the overall final grade, it is the case that for 76.5 percent of students (those who performed better on the Warm-Up Test than on the Final Examination), the overall final grade does incorporate the result from the Warm-Up Test itself, which is weighted at 10 percent of their final grade.



The results presented in this paper only include results from a single semester, representing the very first time that first-year calculus was presented with a Warm-Up Test as part of the assessment. These results should be considered alongside results from additional future semesters in order to corroborate our findings and present a stronger argument for the value and predictive power of this new kind of assessment.

8. Future Work Recognizing that the Warm-up Test results were a strong predictor of performance in Calculus I, perhaps greater efforts should be made to help students that are identified as “at risk” by the Warm-up test to bring their skill set up to an appropriate level to encourage their success in the course. A variety of initiatives may be helpful in this regard including: 

The Development of an Email Feedback Tool

Entry-level mathematics courses are among some of highest enrolment classes on campus. As a result, students can often feel “like a number” among their peers and classmates. In an effort to personalize student experience and promote individual recognition, we propose the development of an Email Feedback Tool that will allow instructors to generate personalized emails to students regarding their progress or performance. This tool would also allow instructors to provide the student with information about learning resources that they can take advantage of should they be struggling with course material. 

The Compilation of Feedback Regarding Student Opinions of Preparedness

With the approval of the Research Ethics Board, we conducted a survey in the Fall 2015 semester in our Calculus I class regarding student opinions. We asked for their opinions of their preparedness for University mathematics, their thoughts on Warm-up test, as well as methods and techniques that they use to study for mathematics tests. We would like to compile and investigate the resulting data from this survey so that it may be used to improve our

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understanding of the student perspective of our course (and University as a whole). This information can have a significant impact on the delivery of our course going forward and how we cope with preparedness challenges. 

The Development of a “Foundational Mathematics” Refresher Course

The Warm-up test results explored in this paper indicate that while a number of students perform very well on the Warm-up test, many other students perform far below an acceptable level. Beyond simply reviewing concepts on their own, students currently have no designated resource that they can use to catch up. In order to promote the success of our students, we propose the development of a “Foundational Mathematics” Refresher Course to assist students in filling in any gaps in their mathematical backgrounds (perhaps exposed by their Warm-up test). Since entry-level math courses are integral to so many other courses, this would provide a substantial resource for students to increase their skills up to an appropriate level, thus encouraging success in their further studies. Students performing below a designated level would be enrolled in this course on a mandatory basis in order to bring their foundational skills up to the necessary level for success in Calculus I. This course would run concurrently with Calculus I as a three or four-week session, to end in mid-semester. Mandatory testing to ensure mastery of foundational concepts would allow students to remain in their Calculus I course, while failure to pass such testing in this foundational course by its completion would indicate a lack of preparedness and thus would require withdrawal from the course and subsequent remedial work before reinstatement into Calculus I.

Acknowledgements This research has been approved by the Research and Ethics Board at the University of Guelph.

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Ní Fhloinn, E., Macan Bhaird, C., & Nolan, B. (2014). University students' perspectives on diagnostic testing in mathematics. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 45(1), 58-74.

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Kearney, W. S., Webb, M., Goldhorn, J., & Peters, M. L. (2013). Examining the impact of critical feedback on learner engagement in secondary Mathematics classrooms: a multi-level analysis. AASA Journal of Scholarship & Practice, 10(1), 23-49. Lee, S., & Robinson, C. L. (2005). Diagnostic testing in mathematics: paired questions. Teaching Mathematics and its Applications, 24(4), 154-166. Prosser, M., & Trigwell, K. (1999). Understanding Learning And Teaching: Experience in Higher Education. McGraw-Hill Education: United Kingdom.

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Pyzdrowski, L., Sun, Y., Curtis, R., Miller, D., Wynn, G., & Hensel, R. (2013). Readiness and attitudes as indicators for success in college calculus. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 11(3), 529-554. Rakoczy, K., Harks, B., Klieme, E., Blum, W., & Hochweber, J. (2013).Written feedback in mathematics: Mediated by students' perception, moderated by goal orientation. Learning and Instruction, 27, 63-73. Wideen, M. F., O'Shea, T., Pye, I., & Ivany, G. (1997). High-Stakes Testing and the Teaching of Science. Canadian Journal of Education, 22(4), 428-444. Wissman, K., Rawson, K., & Py, M. (2011). The interim test effect: Testing prior material can facilitate the learning of new material. Psychon Bull Rev, 18, 1140-1147.