Vol 16 no 6 june 2017 by ijlter.org

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching And Educational Research

Vol.16 No.6

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research is an open-access journal which has been established for the disChief Editor Dr. Antonio Silva Sprock, Universidad Central de semination of state-of-the-art knowledge in the Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER welcomes research articles from academics, edEditorial Board ucators, teachers, trainers and other practitionProf. Cecilia Junio Sabio ers on all aspects of education to publish high Prof. Judith Serah K. Achoka quality peer-reviewed papers. Papers for publiProf. Mojeed Kolawole Akinsola Dr Jonathan Glazzard cation in the International Journal of Learning, Dr Marius Costel Esi Teaching and Educational Research are selected Dr Katarzyna Peoples through precise peer-review to ensure quality, Dr Christopher David Thompson originality, appropriateness, significance and Dr Arif Sikander readability. Authors are solicited to contribute Dr Jelena Zascerinska to this journal by submitting articles that illusDr Gabor Kiss trate research results, projects, original surveys Dr Trish Julie Rooney Dr Esteban Vázquez-Cano and case studies that describe significant adDr Barry Chametzky vances in the fields of education, training, eDr Giorgio Poletti learning, etc. Authors are invited to submit paDr Chi Man Tsui pers to this journal through the ONLINE submisDr Alexander Franco sion system. Submissions must be original and Dr Habil Beata Stachowiak should not have been published previously or Dr Afsaneh Sharif be under consideration for publication while Dr Ronel Callaghan Dr Haim Shaked being evaluated by IJLTER. Dr Edith Uzoma Umeh Dr Amel Thafer Alshehry Dr Gail Dianna Caruth Dr Menelaos Emmanouel Sarris Dr Anabelie Villa Valdez Dr Özcan Özyurt Assistant Professor Dr Selma Kara Associate Professor Dr Habila Elisha Zuya

VOLUME 16

NUMBER 6

June 2017

Table of Contents The Discourse of School Dropout: Re-centering the Perceptions of School-based Service Providers ......................... 1 Deborah Ribera. Is the Norwegian Army´s View of Physical Education and Training Relevant for Modern Military Operations? 18 Ole Boe and John H. Nergård The Framework of an International MBA Blended Course for Learning About Business Through the Cinema .... 37 Alexander Franco Learning Through Play in Speed School, an International Accelerated Learning Program ....................................... 52 Susan Rauchwerk A Development of Students’ Worksheet Based on Contextual Teaching and Learning ............................................. 64 Zulyadaini Identifying EFL Learners Essay Writing Difficulties and Sources: A Move towards Solution The Case of Second Year EFL Learners at Tlemcen University ......................................................................................................................... 80 Asma BELKHIR and Radia BENYELLES

Conquering Worrisome Word Problems – Algebra Success .......................................................................................... 89 Vicki-Lynn Holmes, Karla Spence, Jane Finn, Shelia McGee Ingram, and Libbey Horton Saudi Arabian International Graduate Students' Lived Experiences Studying for the First Time in a MixedGender, Non-Segregated U.S University ............................................................................................................. 101 Barbara N. Young, Ed. D., Donald Snead, Ed. D.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 1-17, June 2017

The Discourse of School Dropout: Re-centering the Perceptions of School-based Service Providers Deborah Ribera California State University, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, United States

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to qualitatively re-center the perceptions of school-based service providers in the discourse of school dropout. Interviews were conducted with a teacher, a dropout prevention counselor, an assistant principal, and a district dropout prevention counselor, all of who work or have worked with one urban middle school in California (pseudonym: UMS). Through a case study design, I analyze how Foucauldian ideas of power and truth emerge from the experiences of these service providers. Results show that although their answers reflected the dominant discourse of school dropout, the actions of the school-based service providers resisted that narrative. They did this by constructing counterstories within and outside the classroom, by valuing and putting effort into qualitative modes of education like relationships and student voice, by attempting to diversify a culturally irrelevant curriculum, and by accepting personal responsibility for their students. Keywords: education; school dropout; critical race theory; Foucault

Introduction The US Department of Education‘s National Center for Education Statistics tells us every year in the United States our public school system produces over 1 million dropouts (2012). A disproportionate amount of these dropouts are students of color (UCLA, 2007). According to the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, which analyzed cohort data for high schools across the nation, the graduation rate for white students is 75% while students of color (Black, Latino, and Native American) have only about a 50% chance of graduating with regular diplomas in four years (Orfield, 2004). One in four African American and one in six Hispanic students attend a high school ―dropout factory‖ while only one in 20 white students attend such a school (Balfanz et. al., 2013, p. 18). In the urban area I will be studying, the current dropout rate is about 26% according to the California Department of Education. The middle school at

which my subjects work, UMS, feeds into a high school which has historically had one of the city's highest dropout rates, averaging around 40%. Based on grades, test scores, and behavioral patterns, the assistant principal at the middle school estimates that 30-40% of the students currently enrolled at UMS are atrisk for school dropout. This school had a student population of over 2,000 at the time of this study and was 99% Latino. Michel Foucault's ideas have been used to examine how knowledge, truth, and power construct our discourses in education (Jardine, 2005). Foucault believes that knowledge is not based on fact, but rather is a constructed truth that varies based on historical and political contexts. It is key for those in power to continuously legitimate their version of truth by maintaining control over the discourse of various social constructions within education, politics, religion, sex, and the economy. Maintaining control of the narratives that underlie the tenets of American culture allow for social control. The apparatus of schooling is one way that the discourse of education is sustained. Law and politics, by way of educational policy, are other ways that the regime of truth is maintained and regulated (Foucault, 2001; Jardine 2005). Conceiving of education as a contested space of knowledge forces us to examine the dominant discourse of dropout as failure. In my own experience as a dropout prevention counselor, I found many of my students demonstrated high levels of critical thinking, insight, and conceptual knowledge during our one-on-one and group interactions; however, they consistently tested poorly and received failing grades. From a Foucauldian point of view, the quantitative assessment of students is not neutral, rather it reflects a space in which ―any socalled fact would point to a coherent regime of knowledge in which it counts as a fact,‖ (Jardine, 2005, p. 86). Critical race theorists take this a step further, arguing that education's invalidation of qualitative data in favor of a numbers only approach has perpetually marginalized minority students (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005). Critical race theorists believe that researchers should ―look to the bottom‖ in order to re-center counterstories that expose the racial privilege inherent in the educational system (Matsuda, 1995, p. 63). The purpose of this case study is to qualitatively re-center the perceptions of four minority school personnel in the discourse of dropout. In their experiences working at UMS and other urban, minority schools, how do issues of power and truth influence their service provision to and experiences with students? What, if anything, do they believe needs to change in education in order for it to adequately address the needs of urban, minority students at-risk for school dropout? This study intends to re-center the individual participants as the subjects of educational policy development. It aims to recognize the agency of the service providers and give them a platform on which they can voice their opinions about how national policy affects them and the students in their high-need school. Ultimately, this study demonstrates how the frustrations expressed by school-based staff can be interpreted as a reaction to the institutional racism inherent in the US educational system.

Literature Review Foucault argued that knowledge is created ―to serve the interests and circumstances of the human beings in each era‖ (Jardine, 2005, p. 81). We see this demonstrated in the Progressive Era, a period of time from the late 19th to early 20th century that institutionalized many tenets of the public school system that we currently accept as true or necessary to schooling in the discourse of education. During the Progessive Era, increased industrialization, urbanization, and immigration caused leaders to reassess the cultural practices of the United States. Reformers took Horace Mann's idea of the common school and expanded it to create an institution that would assimilate incoming immigrants and train them to participate in society. Reforms such as the professionalization of school boards, compulsory attendance, standardization, and the cultural role of schools as places of social assistance are all examples of educational policy implemented during the Progressive Era that continues sustain the foundation of urban public education today (Mattson, 1998; Jeynes, 2007). The hierarchical approach of the US public education system has largely worked for students who have the same cultural background as those in power, white middle and upper class children. However it has consistently failed to provide adequate services to urban, poor, minority students. Various works of educational history have documented this failure (Katz, 1968, Cuban, 1990; Ravitch, 2001; Apple, 2001; Kozol, 1992, 2006; Reese, 2005). David Tyack‘s The One Best System: A History of Urban Education (1974) argues that by relinquishing control of school districts from community boards to ―expert‖ boards, schools gave up control to state regulators. This shift from rural to urban, community controlled to state controlled, took away the plurality of education. He maintained that ―the search for the one best system has ill-served the pluralistic character of American society‖ and that if there is to be true change, Americans needs to admit that the universal public school system has systemically failed in its attempt to teach the urban poor (p. 11). Using the historical context of the Progressive Era to illuminate the current issue of urban minority school dropout helps to clarify how Foucault's ideas can be useful in articulating the root cause of the dropout epidemic. It is clear from the historiography that the discursive formation of education was shaped by Progressive Era reformers. This discourse has been maintained by the regime of truth through schooling, educational policy, and cultural beliefs and norms. Foucault believed that ―the achievement of ‗true‘ discourses is one of the fundamental problems of the West‖ (1990, p. 112) because, as educational historians have argued, it establishes one point of view as the norm and mandates all others to conform to that view. If others do not conform, they are disciplined, punished, and/or marginalized. Foucault's ideas then—that knowledge is subjective, constructed, sustained, and enforced by those in power —force us to consider how the constructions of power and truth in the educational system may be affecting urban minority students. The field of critical race theory in education offers ways to further analyze Foucault's concepts by looking at how the construct of race and resulting racism have and continue to shape the educational system. Studies have shown that state-approved education textbooks are written mainly from a

traditional White male perspective that tacitly perpetuates a heterosexist, patriarchal point of view (Applebee, 1993; Sleeter, 2007). These textbooks ―are likely to oversimplify the interplay of race, culture, and social class‖ (Johnson, 1999, p. 258). The presence of racism in textbooks is quite easily identifiable, though, compared to the racism that is institutionalized through educational policy laws. Legal scholar Cheryl Harris describes how ―the legal legitimation of expectations of power and control that enshrine the status quo as a neutral baseline‖ has masked the white privilege and domination that oppresses alternate truths, values, and cultural norms held by minorities (Harris, 1993, p. 1715). One example of this legal legitimation of white privilege is the legislation of No Child Left Behind (NCLB), which mandated evaluating and categorizing students based on testing goals. Schools that did not achieve test score benchmarks that officials deemed as ―Adequate Yearly Progress‖ were financially penalized under NCLB. Historically, the performance of English Language Learners (ELLs), a majority non-white group of students, on these tests is low and ―usually shows little improvement across many years‖ (Abedi & Dietel, 2004, p.782). Therefore, schools which have a higher percentage of ELL students (read: students of color/minority students) had an increased chance that they would be denied funding compared to a majority white school, simply based on their higher population of ELL students. The effect that subgroup underperformance has on minority students and their schools is cited in scholarship: ―Although well-intentioned, NCLB‘s subgroup accountability policies have the unintended effect of unfairly and disproportionately sanctioning schools serving the most disadvantaged minority students‖ (Kim & Sunderman, 2004, p. 39). However critical race scholars would argue that statements like this succumb to the rhetoric of the regime of truth. The policy is not ―well-intentioned‖ at all, but actually legislated white privilege. By assuming that the policy is well-intentioned, racism goes unexamined in determining solutions to the problem. ELL students' failure is looked at as a quantitative fact based on test scores. Blame for their test scores is placed on teachers and individual students as evidenced by the innumerable strategies which are provided to help improve classroom instruction and student learning (Abedi & Dietel, 2004). Though the field is relatively young and still emerging, critical race theory (CRT) uses several different constructs to examine racism in education. One is voice. ―Critical race theory insists on recognition of the experiential knowledge of people of color‖ using personal narratives to counterbalance the narrative of the dominant discourse (Dixson & Rosseau, 2005, p. 9). CRT also problematizes commonly accepted truths such as ―neutrality, objectivity, colorblindness, and meritocracy‖ asserting that these ideas were constructed by white people in power and are maintained through dominant discourses of truth and power (Dixson & Rosseau, 2005, p. 9). By creating the assumption that these constructs are somehow ―great equalizers‖ laws and policy (such as the aforementioned NCLB) are not interrogated through race. This results in the establishment of cultural norms and a status quo that denies its ability to marginalize.

CRT examines whiteness as property. It argues that ―US society is based on property rights‖ and that white identity is the apex of property, possessing inherent value and privilege even if one has no money or land (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995, p. 48). The idea of individual rights is largely a ruse, as evidenced in school desegregation efforts. Though Brown vs. Board of Education ruled that separate was not equal when it came to black and white schools, whites' resistance to school integration and bussing and the resulting phenomenon of white flight from urban areas demonstrated that the law guaranteeing equality was merely symbolic. Whiteness then, awards one with special citizenship status which allows them ―rights to use and enjoyment‖ (e.g., of their suburban schools without minorities bussed into them) and ―the absolute right to exclude‖ (e.g., from schools or Advanced Placement classes based on rules of meritocracy) (Ladson-Billings, 1998, p. 15). The historiography of education is rife with Foucault's conceptions of power and truth, however many authors shy away from explicitly calling the US educational system racist. Institutional racism is a term that has historically existed to describe overtly prejudiced acts such as redlining and segregation, however as times have changed, so have manifestations of this form of racism. Beverly Tatum argues that a person or an institution need not be intentionally prejudiced in order to perpetuate racism, stating that racism is ―not only a personal ideology based on racial prejudice, but a system involving cultural messages and institutional policies and practices...In the context of the United States this system clearly operates to the advantage of Whites and to the disadvantage of people of color‖ (1997, p. 7). Tatum additionally specifies the difference between active racism, in which prejudice and power are intentionally wielded in order to oppress someone, and passive racism, which, as Tatum describes, is ―more subtle‖ (p. 11). It is seen when we avoid ―difficult racerelated issues‖ and attempt to pass off these problems as ―business as usual‖ (p. 11). The aforementioned example regarding No Child Left Behind and others such as the continued practice of out-of-school suspension (Losen & Martinez, 2013) are evidence of that these "business as usual" policies disproportionately affect students of color. By using a Foucauldian framework and employing critical race theory as an interpretive lens to my data, I hope to shed light on how power, truth, and race still matter and are leaving our most high-needs students suffering.

Methodology Type of Qualitative Inquiry, Justification, and Research Procedure In this case study, I conducted individual in-person interviews with each participant, which lasted approximately one hour each in length. According to Creswell, case studies allow for ―a wide array of procedures as the researcher builds an in-depth picture of the case‖ (Creswell, p. 132). In order to stay true to the ―bottom up‖ approach that critical race theory advocates, the flexibility of a case study worked for this project. Interview questions were developed with the conceptual lens of Foucault in mind, however to ensure that the focus was placed on eliciting authentic narratives from the participants, a semi-structured interview format was

followed. According to Maxwell (2005), structured approaches ―help to ensure the comparability of data‖ while unstructured approaches allow for flexibility and emergent insight (p. 80). This semi-structured approach, then, gave me the structure to examine the hierarchical relationships between the participants, yet it also allowed them space to voice their perceptions, tell stories, and relate experiences. To select my specific participants, I used stratified purposeful sampling because this method ―illustrates subgroups and facilitates comparisons‖ (Creswell, p. 127). In order to get a more comprehensive picture of the issues of power and truth that play into the discourse of dropout, I felt it would be important to interview staff members who served students in different capacities. I was able to interview a teacher, a school-based counselor, a schoolbased administrator, and a district-based counselor. The diversity of positions within this group of service providers allowed me to compare and contrast their views of the dropout discourse. I also used elements of convenience sampling since in selecting participants I first thought about who I already knew and who I thought would be interested in being interviewed: ―individuals who are not hesitant to speak and share ideas‖ (Creswell, p. 133). Because this was a brief project, I felt it would be best to have pre-established rapport with all of my interviewees. The first people I identified were Kay, Selena, Joe, and Javier (pseudonyms). I gave them each an outline of the project along with a consent form. Throughout the informed consent process, I let them know that this was completely voluntary and that they were under no expectation to participate. After establishing consent, I went to their place of work and asked for their verbal consent to audio-record the interview. I did three interviews in one day (Kay, Selena, Joe) and one interview two days later (Javier). Participants were asked to participate in an interview inquiring about their general perceptions and specific perceptions about the dropout epidemic, dropout prevention strategies, and students at-risk of dropout. Participants My first interview was with Kay, a 33 year old Asian-American female. She worked as a Dropout Prevention Counselor (DPC) at UMS for two years. Her position was cut due to a change in funding allocation at the district level. She was subsequently transferred and is now a DPC at a high school. I selected her because she is the only counselor who worked directly with students at-risk of dropout at UMS. She is also one of the few DPCs who stayed in the unit after they reorganized, despite political pressure to reclassify to an attendance counselor or academic counselor. Her decision to stay with the unit has made her one of the most experienced DPCs in the district. I worked in the same unit as Kay for three years, so I have built a rapport with her as a colleague. My next interview was with Selena, a 36 year old Latina. Selena works as a Dropout Prevention Counselor at the district level. She helps to oversee the work that the Office of Pupil Services (which recently merged with the Office of Dropout Prevention and Recovery) does with students at risk of dropping out. She is responsible for developing district-level programming in order to help these students. I selected Selena because she is the only district-level counselor

who was formerly a DPC at a middle school. I felt that her experience at the middle school level as well as the district level would give her unique insight into the discourse surrounding our at- risk students. I worked in the same unit as Selena for three years, so I have built a rapport with her as a colleague. My third interview was with Joe, a 37 year old Latino. Joe is an 8th grade English, Journalism, and AVID teacher at UMS. AVID is a program designed to specifically target students who are towing the line between success and failure in school. The goal of the program is to put them on a college-going track. I selected Joe because he is a teacher who is involved in his students' lives and is an advocate for their needs. Also, it is important to my study to interview a teacher. Teachers are with students for over 6 hours a day and they are the only ones (other than the students) who know the complete story of what is happening in the classrooms. I have worked in Joe's classroom several times over the past year. I have been able to establish rapport with him as a colleague. My last interview was with Javier. Javier is in his fourth year as the Assistant Principal over Counseling at UMS. I selected Javier because he has a unique perspective—he has been a teacher, a counselor, and now an administrator. I knew his comprehensive understanding of student needs from multiple perspectives would help shed light on the discourse surrounding youth at-risk of dropout. Javier also has worked for another district as a teacher. I felt that this experience would also enrich his perspective in terms of how different districts address students' needs. I attended graduate school with Javier and have worked with him though UMS at least once a year for the past four years, so we have established a good rapport as colleagues. Personal Subjectivities and Validity I believe that my pre-established rapport with my participants as well as my own experience as a service-provider to youth at-risk of dropping out of school has allowed me to go deeper into this topic and extrapolate more complex themes from the data. However I can also see how this could compromise the study's validity. As Creswell states, I certainly have a particular ―stance‖ in the dropout discourse, which may keep me ―from acknowledging all dimensions and experiences‖ (p. 139). The fact that I have a ―vested interest‖ in the site at which I am performing this research may also limit my ability to ―develop diverse perspectives on coding data or developing themes‖ (p. 139). For instance, though I sensed a tension between Joe, the teacher, and the administration, I did not explore that theme too explicitly. One reason is of course because personality issues are not the focus of my study—if there is tension with a superior, I am more interested in examining it as a structural issue perpetuated by hierarchical roles in the educational system. However there are additional issues at play. I work at the school and have established rapport with the administration. I would not want to publish something that disrespected them in any way, even if I am using pseudonyms. I honestly coded what was said, but did not use any incendiary quotes. In that way, I was able to maintain the integrity of the data while avoiding any harm that could be caused.

Coding System and Data Analysis After conducting the interviews, I filled out a variation of Miles and Huberman's Case Analysis Meeting Form. This served as my memo of the interview experience and was my first step to discovering themes. After conducting the interviews, I transcribed the interviews I had completed. Foucault's ideas of discourse, power, knowledge, and truth served as my theoretical lens. Defining ―power‖ as ―what enforces knowledge‖ I used Foucault's theory to identify all of the things used in the educational system to enforce knowledge: grades, standardized tests, attendance laws, hierarchical relationships, discipline, and dissemination of information to parents through meetings or mailings identification. Defining ―truth‖ as ―what constructs knowledge‖ I identified things like standards, curriculum, cultural views of education, and research/expert data as being used to construct knowledge in the educational system (Foucault, 1995). I coded my data using Nvivo9, a qualitative analysis software program. ―Power‖ and ―Truth‖ became what Nvivo refers to as ―Parent Nodes‖ and the subcategories of each became ―Child Nodes.‖ In order to preserve the semistructured balance, I also identified and coded additional emergent themes as I read through the interviews. After reviewing the interviews and coding the data, I performed word frequency queries and relationship queries in Nvivo to construct themes. Because of the patterns I saw, I decided to use Critical Race Theory to shape my analysis and themes. As themes and key quotes emerged, I conducted member checks in order to ensure that my participants understood and agreed with how I used their data.

Results The participants' perceptions of the dropout discourse resulted in several themes. First, they placed great importance on student voice. Second, they described a constant struggle to balance quantitative educational approaches with qualitative ones and saw quantitative mandates as contested cultural spaces. Third, they all attempted to establish counternarratives to the dominant quantitative educational approach in their work with their students. Lastly, they value relationships above all else when assessing the success and effectiveness of their own work with students. These themes greatly overlap. In order to convey the totality of the participants' messages, I will not overtly demarcate different themes. Participants repeatedly discussed how student voice is essential to the learning process. They felt that the current state-mandated curriculum and standards needed enriching to make up for their cultural irrelevancy because although the ―truth‖ that students are being taught may be factually accurate, it does not represent the totality of minority student experience. Participants echoed the tenets of Critical Race Theory, discussing how the curriculum should be more inclusive of their students' own narratives. Here, Joe, the 8th grade teacher, describes how using the student voice in the curriculum can motivate students and contribute to positive relationships between the student and

teacher. He finds just as much validity in students' qualitative experiences than he does in ―commonly known‖ literature. Joe: We have not fully made a conscious effort to really change or tie in more of that cultural environment into our curriculum. I think we‘re so set on sometimes teaching literature that is so commonly known but we don‘t really look at ―Is there anything else we can teach now?‖ Why not use their own stories to teach you know? I think sharing personal experiences, it‘s one of the greatest ways to really motivate these kids. You know that‘s one thing I like to do is that I always like to share personal experience where I came from and where I am and hopefully, eventually they start opening up, which I think they do. They eventually start opening up and that becomes our discussion, that becomes our literature and then we write our own pieces from there. Selena, who currently works in the district's administrative offices as a dropout prevention counselor, is attempting to bring the student voice into her macro-level dropout prevention interventions. Selena: I‘m currently working on a program called A Student‘s Life where we get students' stories...students that have struggles...I feel like if you would only know their stories and if you would only know the barriers that they faced, if you would only know the shoes they have to walk in every single day maybe you would just have a slighter ounce of compassion. Maybe you would give that student a second chance if you knew what they are up against. And so this documentary series really does that. Its goal is to create awareness. It‘s to create awareness for teachers. It‘s to create awareness for administrators, for parents, for community members, everybody to help them understand some of the struggles that these young kids are going through and despite these struggles they continue to maintain...If we can create an awareness about that I think that it‘s just the beginning to have a culture shift of the way that we perceive these students that they are not all gang bangers. That they‘re not all drug dealers but that the student actually has a voice and has a story and that's a story he brings it to school every day. The approach that Joe and Selena are detailing, centering the minority student voice in education, is constructing what critical race theorists call a counternarrative, or counterstory, that is ―a means to counteract or challenge the dominant story‖ (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005, p. 11). In Joe's case, the students' voices present a counterstory to the narrative represented in ―commonly known‖ literature—the literature authored by majority white writers who are labeled in the curriculum as important, classic contributors to American literary culture. Selena's documentary project is constructing a counterstory to the dominant dropout discourse that dropouts are individually responsible for their inability to succeed in school. Selena points out that we need a cultural shift away from categorizing dropouts as "drug dealers" or "gang bangers" towards a narrative of compassion, insight, and understanding. Interestingly, when asked about what their perceptions of the root causes of school dropout were, none of the participants mentioned institutional racism. Their answers reflected the dominant discourse of school dropout being caused by factors outside of the school's control, such as poverty and parent support.

Kay: I think with the schools that I‘ve been at, low-income schools, I think first and foremost it has to do with parent participation. I think more parents that are involved in their student‘s lives not just in school but in their personal lives probably can minimize their at-risk situation. However upon further inquiry, it was clear that Kay's reasoning went deeper. Kay: Parents have to work. I mean you have parents that have multiple jobs and I can‘t tell the parents, you know what you have to quit your job so can come to school and meet with me. You know that‘s the hardest thing, it's like they know they have to come but they can‘t...I think there are very few parents who just don‘t care...The district, the state, the federal government, everybody wants to increase the graduation level rate and they see the data. They see ―Well if you do X, Y and Z less with this program and with these resources then why not, why wouldn‘t it work?‖ But they don‘t look deeper into the issue because at the school level we‘re dealing with more than just ―Well I have laptop for you if you just go to school.‖ You know, why can‘t you come to school? Why aren‘t you coming to school? What‘s preventing you from coming to school? They don‘t see anything like that or even if they do they ignore it. They think that it can be fixed, if we put more personnel in that school or we give them more stuff or we give them more money to buy more stuff, you know. So I think that‘s a huge disconnect and I don‘t know if that‘ll ever be fixed. So although initially Kay states that schools are not responsible for student dropout, her actual beliefs show a far more complex set of factors at play in the educational system: a system that does not accommodate the needs of the working poor, a hierarchical power structure out of touch with the challenges their urban, poor, minority students face, and a stubborn commitment to the interventions developed by the dominant population. The belief is that if these interventions are quantitatively proven, evidence-based strategies, then they should work with urban, poor, minority students. Critical race theorists would say that the hierarchical power structure that Kay is describing is exemplifying a ―restrictive understanding of the nature of equity‖ (Dixson & Rousseau, 2005, 14). This understanding fails to identify the distinction between the equality of process versus the equality of outcome. Selena further illustrates this idea of equality of process versus equality of outcome. Selena: I believe the student attendance goal is at 96% so they really want the kids to understand and parents and families to know the goal is less than seven days a year. I know that they based that goal based on the research that has come out in the recent years...and basically shows that students with less than seven days attendance do better— that attendance is linked to student achievement. Here, Selena reiterates the dominant discourse: that dropout is an individual and family matter and that if students simply attended school they would not dropout. However later in the interview, Selena strays from the party line as she reflects on her own experiences with students. Selena: In my experience in working with dropout prevention there is that one type of student...when you see a student that‘s having

attendance problems you‘re going to see lots of other things that are going on and barriers to that student getting their education. But there‘s another type of dropout which is one of the ones that really bothers me and it‘s kids that come to school every day, but they‘re failing all their classes. And how can you have a student that comes to school that has perfect attendance, that is failing six classes? That student will be a dropout. Because they won‘t be able to accumulate credits, they won‘t be able to continue through the grades. How is it that schools are not picking up on those students? How is it that they are being allowed to just continue semester after semester after semester failing everything and nothing is being done? ...I mean what can we do as a school, as a district to, to figure out why, why is it that they‘re failing through and figure out what are the causes? If it‘s not attendance then what is it? It has to be something. When Selena reflects on her qualitative experience as a service provider to describe the needs of students at risk of dropping out, as opposed to reflecting on the quantitative measure of attendance, she paints a picture of a system that is not paying attention to the needs of its students. One that does not always educate the students, whether they attend everyday or not. She also points out though, that admitting that the system has and is failing its students would create a public relations problem for those in power. Interveiwer: Why do you think that it is acceptable to have a district wide campaign for attendance but maybe not a district wide campaign for push outs (dropouts who are pushed out not because they choose not to attend school, but because they have too many fails or are not wanted at school due to poor behavior)? Selena: Well I think because that‘s not something that, it‘s not something that I‘m sure that they want to advertise. It‘s not something that they want to bring to the limelight. It‘s something I‘m sure that would be better to be addressed in the top down approach. It‘s not like they want to have an immediate campaign saying ―Hey this is what we‘ve been doing all this years and let‘s fix it.‖ I think that there‘s a lot of political things going on there. And I‘m not sure that that would be the approach or the solution to it anyways. I feel like that through attendance it [is addressed], because it is a form of attendance because when most kids are pushed out they‘re not attending. So it does in a way address that issue without explicitly, you know, advertising it. But I think that the educating and creating awareness and then having the support from the top down and creating accountability I think that will be, that‘s the best. The idea that major tenets of education such as school curriculum, policy, and law (specifically attendance laws) are color-blind instruments that are enacted through an equitable process is fundamentally flawed according to critical race theorists. They maintain that these constructs are culturally specific ways of enforcing white privilege. The number of dropouts in the United States proves that these tenets of education do not result in an equal outcome for students of color. However those in power refuse to stray from the dominant discourse. Here, we see that the dominant discourse has infiltrated the schema of minority

teachers and counselors as well, despite the fact that their experiences reinforce a counterstory to this narrative. Javier, the assistant principal at UMS, describes how the inflexibility of the educational power structure trickles down from law to student/teacher relationships. In this case, we see how good administrators can use laws (such as the compulsory education law) to mitigate power struggles that emerge between students and teachers. Javier: There‘s a sense of entitlement from the teachers that they can demand certain things and expect certain things that they wouldn‘t expect of themselves. Or their children you know? Like I had a teacher who was saying, ―Oh I don‘t want this kid back to my classroom because she hasn‘t written me a letter of apology and I want a letter of apology because she was rude to me.‖ Where‘s her right to that? Discipline policy? Where is that in the ed code, that you can deny a kid his public education because you want a letter of apology? ―Oh he called me a fat bitch.‖ I was like ―Whoa, sorry.‖ How many times have I been called a bitch, have I been called an asshole? And if I demanded a letter of apology do you think that that‘s gonna happen? And then I said ―Do you think a police officer demands a letter of apology from a suspect? That he‘s entitled to have a letter of apology? He‘s not." (laughs) He‘s not. In this example, Javier has created a counterstory to the dominant narrative where compulsory attendance laws are used to simply ensure an equitable process: that all students are expected to come to school. By re-centering the student above the teacher in this power struggle, he used the law to ensure not just an equitable process, but an equitable outcome. Using his own power and agency, he set his own standard that we cannot create the pushouts Selena referred to. According to the law, we must educate them, even when it's hard. Javier further demonstrates his method for turning racist practices that hide under the guise of equitable access into counterstories that demand equitable outcome: Javier: Each classroom is different. You don‘t teach them the exact same thing, each class is going to have a different group dynamic...you have to adjust and I think that that‘s what a lot of teachers don‘t like—that they have to change. They think they are doing it all right all the time and the reality is they are not doing it right all the time or half the time. Or you may be doing it right if you‘re teaching college students. But you‘re not teaching college students, you‘re teaching 11, 12, 13 year olds...And there is that pressure—we do have to teach, there is certain amount of stuff that you have to teach. There is that pressure of yeah I have my standards, I have this and there is that expectation but you do have that opportunity to adjust, you do have that opportunity to make it work...but you have to adjust and you can‘t just be fixed in your way of like..you know ―These kids can‘t learn.‖ Like the rest of the participants, Javier states here and throughout his interview that urban minority students at-risk for dropout are indeed capable of learning. Javier in particular believes that students can learn the dominant curriculum. However it takes a creative teacher and administration to create an environment

that supports this cultural pluralism. Like Joe, he believes that it is the responsibility of the teachers and administrators to adapt the dominant methodology to the lived cultural experiences of their students. Every participant agreed that when it came down to measuring effectiveness, quantitative measures count for very little—it is the relationship that matters. Javier: Apart from teaching them how to be good citizens and good adults, I mean it all stems from just the relationships we have with the kids...I‘ve worked really hard to try to create positive relationship with kids and model and really work at talking to them and saying ―Hi‖ and ―Good morning‖ and doing those sort of things and trying to bring people here to school who are going to help our kids and try bring resources and and try bring other leaders on the campus to help our kids be successful and try to help try to build capacity and try to just do things differently because I know that it wasn‘t working before. Kay: I don‘t even look at them [quantitative assessments of her students] because they don‘t even mean anything. Because at the end of the day you can‘t control whether or not the child is gonna do their homework or pass his class. You do your best [as a counselor] right? And then with all the different formulas they use and all of the different things like I don't know what‘s what. But I think people know, or a lot of people know, that it is just bogus. Like, it means more to me if a child reaches out to me or a parent. Yesterday a parent says ―I‘m really glad I came tonight. I learned something new,‖ and that‘s what you‘re there for. That‘s why you want to do that more...the reality is you can‘t always depend on the numbers because they‘re not always accurate. Selena: It‘s all about relationships and I go back to that like this whole [process of] disengagement from school. I really do think that it has to do with not having relationships at the school site. Not having positive relationships, not having someone to say ―I know you came to school today, good job.‖ You know sometimes just having students knowing that they have somewhere that they can go to when they‘re having a bad day. Having students know that someone knows their name. There‘re so many little things that can happen, that you can do that can make a difference in how that student feels about school. And I think it all boils down to relationships and us knowing our kids. Knowing that they‘re gonna make mistakes but believing in them that they can do better, and that they will do better. Joe: I mean numbers can be forged, numbers can lie you know And I think reaching my kids and really establishing that relationship with them is much more important...If they walked away from my class better than what they were when they walked in, that would be a step forward regardless of what level they were at when they walked in or what level they end up; as long as they can produce more. If my kids can walk away from this level of education being able to get along socially and be

respectful to others? That‘s good education. If a child comes to me not really wanting to learn or not really caring about learning, but at least walks away with some curiosity? I think that‘s a good education. If my kids walk away feeling proud of who they are and where they came from? That‘s good education. I wouldn‘t care what the numbers say if they walked away with some confidence in who they are...They can learn to read, they can learn to write, but if they don‘t have the motivation, if they don‘t have that self-worth they‘re not going to do anything about that. Because even now I have kids that are so bright but because nobody has ever told them that they can do it, or that it‘s worth something, they still don‘t care for it. So I think those things would be great education. Each participant placed much greater value on their qualitative relationships with students and parents than they did the quantitative performance standards. Interestingly, many of them regarded quantitative assessments and curriculum as culturally-contested constructs (―bogus‖ ―numbers can lie‖ ―don't mean anything‖). They did not dismiss the academic necessity of standards, though. Rather, they maintained that qualitative educational approaches and assessments were necessary counterparts or precursors to quantitative success. But balancing the quantitative and qualitative approaches in an educational system so focused on the ―numbers game‖ can be a defeating experience for both student and teacher, as Joe articulates: Joe: I would like to believe that I am effective but in terms of feeling that way, sometimes I feel good about this, sometimes I feel like a failure. A lot of times, especially when it comes to giving grades, sometimes I feel like, you know, when I see so many Fs and...It‘s simple if I could give a child a grade based on the way we have discussion in class, but if I don‘t have anything concrete to show that they're producing, I can‘t give them that grade. So there‘s times when I‘m feeling that I‘m failing kids because I wish I could reach every single one of them. Show every single one of them that they can succeed, that there is opportunity. In examining these interviews from a Foucauldian perspecitive, four major, overlapping themes emerged that tell us how these service providers negotiated issues of power and truth in their work. These themes demonstrated a resistance to the dominant discourse of school dropout, which centers the failure of the individual and family. First, the service providers placed great importance on student voice. Second, they described a constant struggle to balance quantitative educational approaches with qualitative ones and saw quantitative mandates as contested cultural spaces. Third, they all attempted to establish counternarratives to the dominant quantitative educational approach in their work with their students. Lastly, they valued relationships above all else when assessing the success and effectiveness of their own work with students. These results show that although participants' verbal answers often reflected the dominant discourse of school dropout, the actions they described taking with their students resisted that narrative.

Conclusion Throughout this study, we can see the challenges that service providers face in adapting the dominant curriculum to urban students of color at-risk of school dropout. In critical race theory, their struggles with curriculum, equality of outcome, and quantitative modes of education and assessment serve as examples of how white privilege and therefore institutional racism are encoded into the U.S. public educational system. It was surprising to me that none of the participants explicitly recognized these constructs as inherently racist. Critical race scholars may say that by ignoring racism, they are missing the root cause of the issues they struggle with and perhaps even complicit in it. However it is clear that each participant demonstrated that they are fighting institutional racism every day, whether they acknowledge it or not. By constructing counterstories within and outside the classroom, by valuing and putting effort into qualitative modes of education like relationships and student voice, by attempting to diversify a culturally irrelevant curriculum, and by accepting personal responsibility for their students, they act against the social injustices of racism every day. They do not do this because they have to, in fact, the dominant discourse does not reward them for these efforts (unless they result in higher test scores). Their courageous actions, unbridled creativity, and commitment to educating ALL of their students is, within this climate of education, nothing short of heroic. Though Michel Foucault's ideas of power and truth guided my study and critical race theory helped me to analyze it, both theories, to some extent, believe that true progress is difficult, if not impossible, while caught in Foucault's panopticon or CRT's institutional racism. These service providers, though, demonstrate that resistance to oppression does not have to be a premeditated, politically motivated act. Rather, it can be motivated by emotions. Each participant conveyed that they genuinely love children and that they are willing to try anything to help them be the best people they can possibly be. Certainly this does not mean that their work is easy. As John Dewey stated: â&#x20AC;&#x2022;The path of least resistance and least trouble is a mental rut already made. It requires troublesome work to undertake the alternation of old beliefsâ&#x20AC;&#x2013; (1986, p. 136). It is no wonder then that the teaching profession has such a high rate of burnout, especially in high need urban areas. For this reason, intentional action in student organizing and teacher and administrator training will be essential elements to bringing about lasting systemic change in our educational system. There is much hope for such systemic change. Grassroots and studentled organizations have recently been leading efforts for more culturally relevant curriculum, advocating for access to ethnic studies classes (Nelson, 2015; Szymanski, 2016). The pushback against such efforts by many in power only draws more attention to the need for such organizing. Administrators, counselors, teachers, and teacher preparation programs have been and can continue to support these efforts by seeking out professional development in critical, anti-racist pedagogy. Incorporating an interdisciplinary approach into school-based work will allow them to understand the impact historical context and societal factors have on the public school system, school dropout, individual schools, and communities. Teachers can also work from the bottom up by

advocating for more qualitative measures of formative assessment throughout their courses in order to construct more holistic summative assessments of their students. If we understand our educational institutions as socially constructed spaces, it is a very real possibility that we could have another era that (re)shapes our public school system as much as modernity and specifically the Progressive Era have. As we observe the various educational reform debates of today (charter schools, vouchers, privatization, de-centralization, unions, Common Core), it is important to reflect on issues of power and truth. Where are the urban, minority student voices and the family voices in these debates? Where are the voices of service providers in these debates? Who is representing the interests all of these parties? The academy must continue to help urban, minority students at-risk of dropout by ―going to the bottom" and conducting more qualitative studies that center the perceptions of service providers, students, and parents. Such scholarship will give us insight into the discourse of dropout, but tough questions regarding systemic issues such as power, poverty, race, and equality in the United States must be asked. Everyday heroes such as the participants of this study deserve to have their voices heard. And their students deserve an educational system that is equal not only in process, but also in results.

Acknowledgements This research was conducted under the author's previous affiliation at Bowling Green State University. The author wishes to thank the university and the Human Subjects Review Board for their support.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 18-36, June 2017

Is the Norwegian Army´s View of Physical Education and Training Relevant for Modern Military Operations? Ole Boe Department of Military Leadership and Management, Norwegian Defence Staff and Command College, Norwegian Defence University College, Oslo, Norway John H. Nergård Norwegian Military Academy Oslo, Norway

Abstract. The demands of war consist of several dimensions that has to be considered during a military officer´s education and training. Considering the nature of modern military operations, physical training is an important dimension. Participating in modern military operations and wars is definitely a physically demanding task. The present study was conducted in order to answer the question whether the Norwegian Army´s view of physical education and training is relevant for modern military operations. In order to answer the research question in the present study, we used a qualitative method that included document analysis. The results of the document analyses yielded three interesting findings. First, we found that the Norwegian Army seems to learn to slow from its experiences from participating in military operations. Our second finding was that the physical demands in modern military operations seem to have increased. Our third finding was that individuals entering into military service in Norway seemed to be less robust than before. We therefore draw a conclusion that the Norwegian Army seem to be facing some challenges with physical education and training in relation to modern military operations. Keywords: Demands of war; physical education; physical training; military operations

Introduction Within the military profession, many soldiers and officers do not reflect upon the soldier's true role in society. Even less reflected upon are all the aspects of the demands a soldier must fulfil. In Norway, this is normal not an issue until young Norwegian Army officers meet the Norwegian Military Academy´s

curriculum and education. An example is the concept of war. War can have multiple meanings depending on, for example, who is experiencing it. Today Norwegian Armed Forces are talking mostly about combat or fighting when conducting military operations abroad. The Norwegian Armed Forces Joint Operational Doctrine (NAFJOD) states that this is a synonym for war, just put into a different context than the conventional war itself (Forsvarsstaben, 2007). To be able to survive in conflict zones as a soldier there are a number of “measurable” requirements that must be achieved. These requirements are referred to in the military as “the demands of war” and are seen as the existential features a soldier must possess to survive in combat. The demands of war are related to the requirements of hardiness in a soldier so that he or she will cope with combat (Säfvenbom, 2008; Säfvenbom, & McD Sookermany, 2008). This is dependent upon good leadership. The U.S. Army´s field manual 622 on army leadership emphasises presence as one of the requirement for military leadership. Within the requirement of presence, one finds both professional and military bearing, meaning how to conduct oneself. Also included is an emphasis on confidence, resilience, and fitness. Fitness is in FM 622 further seen as strength and endurance that supports emotional health and conceptual abilities under prolonged stress (U.S. Department of the Army, 2015). The core of the military professions is about mastering the domain of war. Educating soldiers and officers who are able to master this domain is thus the most essential task of military training and education. We therefore consider the theme certainly relevant for any soldier, officer and officer in the Norwegian Army, as the Norwegian Army is becoming increasingly more professional. “The rigors in combat can be extreme. In our profession, the will to succeed and to strive towards results that exceed the expected, is the difference between success and failure” (Forsvarsstaben, 2007, p. 160, authors translation). This quotation from the NAFJOD give a good picture of why soldiers and officers need a strong physical base while conducting their professional practice. In addition, aggressiveness training is also important in order to face the rigors in combat. A previous study of how to train aggression and aggression control in professional soldiers has shown this type of training to be very effective (Boe & Ingdahl, 2017). The willingness to exercise kill can also be increased, and the role of the group and the aggressive predisposition of the individual soldier has been found to be important factors in order to train aggression and aggression control (Boe & Johannessen, 2015). Aggression is related to the ability to exercise physical effort. Physical exercise is a thus an important dimension within the demands of war. With physical exercise, we mean “a systematic influence of the athlete over time with a view to improving or maintaining the physical, mental, technical and tactical assumptions underlying the performer's performance” (NIH/F, 2005, p. 6, authors translation). By constantly exposing the soldiers to more challenging tasks, it is possible to increase the individual soldier´s physical fitness skills. This will increase the possibility to respond effectively when facing a dangerous situation (Matthews, 2014). In 2008, the Norwegian Armed Forces introduced a new curriculum for physical training, referred to as body, movement and energy (BME). This curriculum replaced the curriculum for physical education from 1992. BME builds on what the conscripts previously have learned in the Norwegian school

system (Säfvenbom & McD Sookermany, 2008). At the same time, we see that the youth of today's society are less physically active than previously, and that their physical shape has become worse (Dyrstad, 2006). A question then arises, is BME the correct way to go regarding physical education for the Norwegian Armed Forces? The basis for the curriculum for BME is the Norwegian Armed Forces doctrines and education plans, in addition to the report Project BASIC (GIH, 2005; 2006). Project BASIC provides guidance and views on how to train before and during operations. Project BASIC was written by several officers with extensive experience within the field of military profession. Other nations that perhaps we ought to look at, because of their similarities with our concepts, are also making changes in their physical training. The Danish military forces has as an example has established a Military Physical Training Team (MPTT) that looks at all aspects within physical exercise. Against this background, one may wonder if the Norwegian Armed Forces take into account the physical demands placed on the individual soldier in current operations. In other words, do the Norwegian Armed Forces take into account the demands of war in its education and training?

The research question The research question in this article was the following: Is the current understanding of physical training in the Norwegian Army relevant for the demands of war in contemporary military operations abroad? In this article, we restricted ourselves to just look at military forces in Norway, Denmark, and the USA. The military forces in Denmark is very similar to the Norwegian Armed Forces in most cultural aspects. In addition, all four nations are members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) with relatively similar operational patterns and similar materials and equipment. We will however investigate only the domain of physical training, and especially the basic view of how one should conduct physical training. In order to answer our research question, we will discuss three factors: 1. Has the physical demands of the soldier changed when one looks at the demands of war of modern military operations? 2. Is the Norwegian Army's viewpoint on physical training relevant compared to what other nations have experienced? 3. Is the physical training in the Norwegian Army relevant, compared to the demands from participating in modern military operations?

Method To answer our research question, we decided to use a qualitative study of existing military governing documents (Johannessen, Tufte, & Christoffersen, 2010). We could have chosen to interview different officers and ask them if they felt that the physical education and training they had received in the Norwegian Army had been relevant for participating in modern military operations. However, we decided not to do this. The reason for this was that we were interested in the Norwegian Army´s view as an organization on physical education and training for modern military operations, and not the individual officers view regarding the same themes. In addition, by using interviews we could encounter several methodological problems with finding officers that had

participated in modern military operations. We would also face some difficulties in defining what participation in a modern military operation meant, thus rendering our informants answers less valid. Choosing interviews as our method, we would probably have ended up with only a limited number of informants, indicating that very little could be said about the generalizability of the results. Another possibility would have been to use a more quantitative approach, for instance by using a questionnaire. This approach would probably have substantiated our assertions and arguments in a more quantitative way. However, possible challenges with using for instance a 5 point Likert-scale could be that there exists a social desirability bias where the respondents do not want to give a socially unacceptable answer: The result of this can be that respondents often answer with the mid-point instead of what they actually thought (Garland, 1991). Silvera and Seger (2004) have also discovered that Norwegians in particular tend to shy away from the extremes of rating scales. Also, according to Elstad (2010), if respondents are left to themselves they will risk losing focus. Continuing this line of thinking, Vaitl et al. (2005) argue that general cognitive impairment may affect the ability to focus. Considering these challenges and that our research question dealt with an organizational view (as in the Norwegian Armed Forces), we decided to use document analysis as our data collection method in order to answer our research question. Data collection method and literature search During our literature search, we used several sources. Using the Norwegian library service (BIBSYS) we found relevant literature. In addition, we used the Internet to find websites of other nations military forces. We also used the Norwegian systems Doculive and FOBID to find relevant military documents. The basis for this literature search was the following questions: Does the development of the world and its conflicts lead to a change in the demands of war for the individual soldier in a combat situation? What are the demands of war in current military operations? What governs the physical training in the Norwegian Army? How do other relevant NATO nations conduct their physical training? Data analysis method When analyzing the documents, we used a method based upon the grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Starrin, Dahlgren, Larsson, & Styrborn, 1997). The aim with our approach was to look for similar statements in the documents found in the literature search. The method was based upon that when we had found enough similar statements, we would then continue to other documents to look for contradictory statements. The idea behind this was to discover differences in the approaches towards physical education and training and the demands of war. Criticism of selected literature and theory Since much of the assessed literature and theory is discussed in general terms, the question of how one should train for operations had to be interpreted. Much of the theory indirectly answer questions related to the physical demands of war. The sports science theory we found was largely specific and had to be

analysed and simplified based on the questions we wanted to answer. Much of the professional military literature in this field is based upon personal observations of officers who have been in conflict or war. Therefore, we consider this literature to be more experience-based and thus less objectively. This experienced-based literature also contains generally little that directly relates to the demands of war and the associated physical requirements. However, much is transferable. The sports science literature relies increasingly on the use of quantitative research in the form of statistics, tests, measurements and surveys. The sports science is thus largely credible from a scientific point of view. The challenges of this literature are that it is not to the same extent based on recent experiences from the operational environment. Instead, it is based on general training principles and relates this to the doctrines and regulations of the Norwegian Armed Forces. When it comes to BME (Säfvenbom & McD Sookermany, 2008), it is too early to say anything about the effect this will give in relation to the physical training of soldiers. The more specific literature on demands of war (Bratland, 1954; Marshall, 1947) was written over 60 years ago, and was based on observations made during WWII. A challenge related to most documents from the Norwegian Armed Forces is that they do not provide references and sources. The Norwegian Armed Forces has also a general challenge of making what they write in their documents credible considering the lack of use of quantitative data. For example, quantitative data is in general lacking when it comes to describe physical damage of soldiers in operations and physical performance of the soldiers participating in operations.

Theoretical perspectives on military education and physical training Physical exercise is a systematic influence of an athlete conducted over time. This with the aim of improving or maintaining the characteristics that underlie the athlete's performance (NIH/F, 2005). The training may be general to improve the capacity in areas that are important no matter the sport, or the training can be specific and targeted at a particular sport or exercise (Gjerset, Haugen, Holmstad, & Giske, 2006). In the Norwegian Armed Forces, physical education is synonymous with physical exercise. Physical education can be described as the following from the Norwegian Army's educational and training regulations; "With physical education means all activity during the daily service and in time helps to elevate or maintain the physical performance" (GIH, 2007b, authors translation). Endurance training A definition of endurance training is the ability to work with relatively high intensity for a long time (Gjerset, Haugen, Holmstad, & Giske, 2006). Furthermore, endurance is divided into two types, aerobic and anaerobic. These are defined as respectively; “Aerobic stands for the organism's ability to work with relatively high intensity for a long time” and “anaerobic endurance i.e. the organism's ability to work with very high intensity in a relatively short time” (Gjerset, Haugen, Holmstad, & Giske, 2006, p. 48, authors translation).

Strength training Muscle strength is defined as “a muscle's ability to develop power under different conditions, or that muscle even to develop maximum power” (NIH/F, 2005, p. 18, authors translation). Muscle strength can be divided into three different categories. These are maximum, explosive and endurance strength (Haugen, 2002). Explosive strength is the muscles ability to develop power while they contract. Maximum strength is the muscles ability to develop sufficient power to perform an exercise one time with the greatest possible load. Persistent muscle strength is the muscles ability to develop power several times in succession (Gjerset, Haugen, Holmstad, & Giske, 2006). The work your muscles can do is further divided into two types of work, which is static and dynamic muscle work. The static muscle work revolves around keeping the same position over time, meaning that muscle is a “holder” for the position. Dynamic muscular work refers to the muscles used to carry out an exercise. This is divided into concentric (towards the centre of the body) and eccentric (from the centre of the body) movements. An example would be using a weight in which one performs two dynamic movements when one raises and lowers the weight (Gjerset, Haugen, Holmstad, & Giske, 2006). The demands of war before and now War can have different meanings depending on who uses the term and what the term is to be used for. The most common use of the term is that it portrays the use of violent aggression between states or groups who want to follow up their interests by force (Matthews, 2014). War is therefore essentially a matter of human behaviour. In human terms, the concept of war is used to reflect the intense physical and psychological experiences in terms of cruelty and chaos. War is a part of the spectrum of armed conflict. Within this, we also find combat situations (Forsvarsstaben, 2007). In recent decades, the conflicts that the Norwegian Armed Forces have participated in, has evolved from regular combat operations through stabilization operations to complex peace operations (Forsvarsstaben, 2014). Still, the demands of war will be evident even in complex peace operations with different fractions or actors inside a fallen state fights for supremacy and power. Several of the situations facing soldiers in the future will be volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (known as VUCA) (Matthews, 2014). In the report Project BASIC, Borkhus (2006) writes about the war's character as something that changes our society. This change of society affects how the military train; organize themselves, and how military operations are conducted. With this, he argues that the war's character is possible to change over time. He describes the current conflicts as more complex to deal with than the former, but he points out, however, that the profession as soldiers is to master the most complex; War in the form of combat operations. For instance, being in good physical shape and being intelligent is important for passing the selection to Special Forces units (Boe, 2011; Boe, Woolley, & Durkin, 2011). This in order to cope with complex combat operations. The Norwegian general Sverre Bratland (1954) concluded his treatise in military psychology with the following: “The psychological impact a platoon commander is exposed to in the conflict area is extensive and impair his efficiency greatly. This means that the tactical possibilities available to beat the

enemy are not fully being utilized because of the troop commander's reduced working capacity. Our current officer training should therefore be radically changed so it is based upon the mental demands on the squad leader from the beginning and thus trains the aspirants' mental resilience under circumstances that most resembles the combat situation” (Boe, Kjørstad, & Werner-Hagen, 2012, p. 49, authors translation). Bratland also wrote a lot about the vision he had as an officer in training after having participated in World War II (WWII) as a platoon leader. Bratland wrote in his treatise about physical endurance and why this was important in the military profession. Bratland who at the time was platoon leader in a British military unit described his own physical condition as satisfactory in a self-assessment before he entered into the war. He later claimed that the physical rigors he was subjected to on the European continent never came up against the physical hardships of training. Furthermore, Bratland wrote that even the most fine-tuned soldiers were psychologically affected and tired during the war. He pointed out the relevance to train with noise, friction and external influences to make the training as realistic as possible (Bratland, 1954). After reading Bratland´s considerations one can ask the question whether the physical demands of the soldiers and officers actually have changed since WWII. Rekkedal (2001) wrote that in conventional warfare soldiers' physical capacity and performance is seen as an operational constraint for any armed forces. Moreover, he further states that in today's high-tech and motorized armed forces, physical capacity is equally important. This is justified in that it can seem less important in today's doctrines and thus the concept of physical fitness is given different meanings in different military environments. To consider this further, a look at this quote; “There is reason to believe that the requirements for robustness of today's soldiers are at least as large as before. Flexibility and unpredictability characterize today's military operations, and this requires that soldiers possess a set of various integrated skills” (Aandstad & McD Sookermany, 2008, p. 229, authors translation). This tells us a lot about the basic idea behind the physical education in the military, where the military seems aware that the demands are largely as before, but that greater demands are imposed in other arenas. The modern soldier is no longer only evaluated solely on the basis of military matters, but also in relation to ethical and moral standards in society (GIH, 2005). In the book “Men against fire” (Marshall, 1947) the soldier's body is a theme. Having a healthy and trained body is essential in the face of modern war, in line with the soldier's weapon. A soldier's hardness and resilience is something that can be trained. Marshall further noted that all physical exercise helps to boost morale in the military units. Willpower and physical strength is something that goes hand in hand and if is not present the unit will experience major challenges in combat. Physical demands of modern soldiers A soldier's performance is determined by several different factors. It is in many ways similarities between soldier and an athlete since there are similarities with what is found in the various forms of sport. Today's the soldier education must meet a number of requirements that meets the Norwegian Armed Forces requirements in peace, crisis and war. The main elements of such demands, or

work requirements, consists of physical and mental performance and military technical and tactical skills (Hjellset, 2003). In today's high-tech army trained for efforts worldwide the human factor is more important than ever. This is also in line with the revised Norwegian Armed Forces Joint Operational Doctrine (Forsvarsstaben, 2014) that aims to develop robust soldiers who are physically and mentally robust and can handle all types of operations and operational environments worldwide. The soldiers of the Norwegian Army will have to be able to act in a fast pace with demanding environments and challenges. This means that a solid physical fitness and good health is required (GIH, 2007b). To this, Lt. Col. Gundersen describes how the British Army makes itself adaptable to a wide range of challenges and areas of operation. The reason for this is soldier training. In a world of constant improvements in the soldier’s equipment, a more complex situation picture and a greater degree of flexibility is also required and this reflects the training for operations (Gundersen, 2006). A new challenge for today's soldiers relates to the weight of the equipment. A soldier carries a lot of equipment on or with him when he goes to battle. Knapik, Reynolds, and Harman (2004) states that the overall weight of soldier equipment has increased steadily if one look at developments from the 1800s to the present day. This is something that affects the demands we need to ask of the soldiers we send out to operations. One of the five initiatives the U.S. military have set out to do is to prepare special training programs. Furthermore, the context of the demands of war in terms of marching and marching speed must be analysed against the soldier and the weight of the equipment the soldier carries (Knapik, Reynolds, and Harman, 2004). The Norwegian Armed Forces need robust and active people who are in a good physical and mental condition. It is crucial that the individual soldier and the unit is developed and given the necessary physical basis and skills that will enable them to make the right decisions. This will give the capacity to solve both mandatory and unforeseen tasks (NIH/F, 2006). This gives a clear indication of what is required, although the specific requirements are not yet established, these phrases say a lot about what is expected. Just as elite athletes live in a continuous cycle from championship to championship, future professional soldiers will spend much time out in the real operational area (NIH/F, 2006). Experiences from other nations “Sweat saves blood” argues the Danish lieutenant colonel Kim Kristensen (personal communication, February 24, 2009). The Danish military has been involved in fighting in Helmand province in southern Afghanistan since 2007. By participating in south Afghanistan, the Danes have gained several experiences that have influenced their views on physical training of their soldiers. These lessons are just as relevant for us in Norway as for the Danes, since Norway and Denmark are culturally quite similar. K. Kristensen (personal communication, February 24, 2009) claims that physical exercise traditionally is something soldiers have been doing less conscious of what they would encounter in the operational area. The focus has mainly been on building stamina, something that is not wrong, but strength training has been given too little focus and been conducted too sporadic. Experiences from Helmand in

Afghanistan have shown that the Danes need robust soldiers with great physical strength and explosiveness. The Danish Armed Forces (DAF) conducted surveys on its personnel in Afghanistan over two contingents (ISAF 6 and 7). The DAF found that six months of deployment in Afghanistan led to several health problems. The primary health problems were related to muscles and joints in the form of back, knee and shoulder problems. The DAF´s conclusion was that more focus should be on these muscle groups during training and that one should look at measures to prevent muscle loss under the duration of a contingent (K. G. Sørensen, personal communication, October 10, 2009). This has led to a greater focus on both diet and which exercises the military units should use. In addition, the DAF now look at their soldiers as top athletes. These are the most significant changes the DAF have made is in the revision of the military training regime. To accomplish this, they created the MPTT composed of specialists in all fields that affect a soldier's physical performance capacity (K. Kristensen, personal communication, February 24, 2009). In the field manual FM 21-10 (U.S. Department of the Army, 1998) it is stated that there are many benefits of a good physical exercise program. This can for example lead to less sickness among the personnel, increased efficiency and better mental health, in addition to a greater team spirit and combat persistence in the unit. The field manual further states that the physical shape of the individual soldier is related to how well he will do when facing combat. It has also been proven that good physics help to increase the soldiers' mobility. Training that includes aerobic conditioning; strength training targeted at the specific muscle groups, and regular marching exercises will achieve the best results. This means that if one is to be good at carry heavy equipment one must train with strain or load that corresponds to the weight of the heavy equipment. In other words, "train as you fight". The field manual also highlights the following five physical features as important for a soldier. 1. Oxygen uptake - the body's ability to transport and use oxygen. 2. Explosive strength - the ability to carry out lifts that requires great strength. 3. Muscle endurance - the ability to perform activities that require maximum power for a limited time. 4. Mobility - the body to be agile enough to move around with heavy equipment. 5. Body Mass Index (BMI) - that this is consistent with body size and goals. The entire field manual FM 21-20 (U.S. Department of the Army, 1998) is devoted to how to train soldiers within these parameters. This is done by training in different phases throughout the entire service period, so that one gets a steady progression towards being able to withstand the maximum load when using all the equipment in harsh environments. The American colonel Brian P. McCoy talks about six principles of how to train a unit to go into combat. The first of these is: “You should always use 100% of your combat gear (helmet, vest, ammunition, water and other equipment” (McCoy, 2007, p. 26) This underscores McCoy’s fundamental idea of that he believes that one should train as close to the realistic war environment as possible, also in terms of physical strain. He elaborates this further on this in mentioning several habits that units should take into consideration in their physical exercise routines. One of these is “combat conditioning”. By this,

McCoy means physical exercise that does not involve training with regular training clothes and sneakers, but training with the equipment one will use in combat in line with the aforementioned principle of physical exercise. This allows the soldiers to build physical strength, based upon the muscles that are important for the soldier in order to function well in combat situations. As a bonus, this will also increase the psychological strength of the individual soldier. McCoy (2007) argues that physical strength and mental strength relates closely to each other. The later development of the Norwegian Army The Norwegian Armed Forces have the last 20 years changed from being a large, static defense force against invasion, where the aim was to defend Norwegian territory. Now, the Norwegian Armed Forces is a smaller and more flexible military force being able to participate in multinational operations and solve complex conflicts, both in Norway and abroad (Säfvenbom & McD Sookermany, 2008). As a member of NATO, Norway will have to fulfil certain obligations that has to be met by each member country. This might for instance be to participate in multinational operations abroad in a NATO coalition. Whether it is ethical for the Norwegian Armed Forces to participate in multinational operations abroad is a question reserved for the Norwegian politicians, and will not be discussed in this article. The big change in the current situation in Norway is that military units are no longer produced for the mobilization defense. Today's units will deliver its efforts immediately after their education is accomplished. The efforts will be delivered in the form of single men and women and units in operations abroad (Skuggedal, 2006). The basic idea in the Norwegian Army today is that; “The army should educate and train individual soldiers in the conflict environment Army operate in - both nationally and internationally. It is a measure for the Army to encompass personnel and units that can cope with large amounts of stress and simultaneously solve the missions” (GIH 2007a, p. 4, authors translation). The operational training of the Norwegian Army The basic idea for all the training in the Norwegian Army's project BASIC (GIH, 2005) is defined as "bottom-up". The principle outline is the vision that one should begin with the education of single men and women, and then continue to building systems of single men, such as squads, platoons and companies. For this to work, the basic modules, i.e. the single soldier must be so robust that he or she can withstand further supplementary training and external influences. Furthermore, the principle “train as you fight” must always underlie the training conducted in the Norwegian Army. This is a recognition of war as a psychological phenomenon and that if one trains differently, the soldiers will not be able to cope with the domain of war. As a consequence of this, the Norwegian Army will always conduct realistic training and the demands of war will be governing all training. It is further underlined that the main priority is to master combat operations (GIH, 2005). In the Project BASIC (GIH, 2005; 2006) focus is on how the Norwegian Army should train towards operations and draw lessons from it. This should be done through analyzing and evaluating all phases of the training. Also, pointed

out is that everything the Norwegian Army do is training, and therefore all training must be of high quality and be effective (GIH, 2005). Asak (2006) writes about the handling of military experiences. The models outlined by Asak will link experiences to the knowledge and further towards the preparations and conduct of operations. Asak points out that this is something that is not satisfactory in the Norwegian Army today. Physical training in the Norwegian Army “The demands for physical capacity or ability to care for themselves or others in demanding conditions are not visible in the daily service. We see in part the result of this in operations abroad, where some staff officers have a very limited level of soldier- and basic skills” (Eide, 2006, p. 117, authors translation). Skjetne (2006) argues that there are structural similarities between developing achievements in the Norwegian Army and engaging in elite sports. The reason for this is that both soldiers and athletes spend almost all their time in training. Dyrstad (2006) argues that the personnel in the Norwegian Armed Forces are less active than before and therefore the personnel gain weight and are in a poorer physical shape. In conclusion, Dyrstad concludes that the poorer physical shape found among young people in 2002 compared with 1980 lead to that the young people have become fatter. According to Dyrstad, the mean average of weight gain has been 5 kg (approximately 2,3 lbs) over these 22 years. Documents governing physical training in the Norwegian Army The governing document of how the Norwegian Army educates and trains its soldiers and officers is the Norwegian Army's educational and training regulations. The aim of education and training in the Norwegian Army is to have; “Professionally skilled personnel with high physical and mental endurance that effectively exploits its weapons and its materials” (GIH, 2007a, p. 4, authors translation). This document state that a targeted systematic training is one of the Norwegian Army's premier cultural traits. A systematic training is a hallmark of professionalism and a common feature of winners (GIH, 2007b). The BME concept was introduced in the Norwegian Armed Forces in 2008. The reason for this was the Norwegian Armed Forces faced new challenges related to work and competence. These new challenges were taken into account when introducing the BME concept and its new curriculum of intentions and objectives. The development was a consequence of the changes in the Norwegian society and the Norwegian Armed Forces increased emphasis upon independence, consciousness and initiative of the individual soldier (Säfvenbom & McD Sookermany, 2008). Physical requirements in the Norwegian Army Today the Norwegian Armed Forces and thus, The Norwegian Army, employs a test endurance (3000 meter running test for time) and a variety of dynamic muscle strengthening exercises (number of repetitions in sit-ups, pushups, squats and chins) with a defined minimum number of repetitions for soldiers' physical fitness (Hjellset, 2003). That the exercises are general and involves several major muscle groups that are appropriate for military activity could give indications of how muscle characteristics should be improved (Dyrstad 2006). When one tests maximum dynamic muscle strength in

standardized tests with a measuring device, such as one does in the Norwegian Armed Forces, these tests put great demands on technical performance. However, it is also possible to perform strength tests in various technical ways, which undermines the validity of the tests (Bahr, Hallen, & Medbo, 1991). The 3000-meter running test was introduced in the Norwegian Armed Forces in 1980 as the main measuring tool on aerobic endurance and fitness. Similarly running tests have been used in most other NATO countries. The intention was that during a soldier's mandatory conscript military service the individual soldier should complete the 3000-meter running test three times. This would provide answers to whether the soldiers achieved the desired running persistence during their service period. Previously a bicycle ergometer test was used to measure endurance, but this test was too resource-intensive and contained too many errors. The 3000-meter running test is viewed today as an indirect assessment of a soldier’s physical form, although one does not have sufficient research to substantiate this. There is also doubt that this test provides an accurate picture of maximal oxygen uptake (Bahr, Hallen, & Medbo, 1991; Dale et al., 1979).

Discussion If we compare the before mentioned physical tests with the thinking that physical requirements are easier because of available assistive technology, we can state that the demands of war for the modern soldier has been reduced. Sverre Bratland (Boe, Kjørstad, & Werner-Hagen, 2012) who during WWII was a platoon leader in a British military unit wrote that even the most “welleducated” soldiers also became affected psychologically and tired during the war. Bratland (1954) also stated that the physical condition was crucial as to whether you broke down or not. On the other side, McD Sookermany (2008) claims that there is reason to assume that the demands of today's soldiers are at least as large as before. He speaks here about the demands of robustness, i.e. a physical hardiness (Aandstad & McD Sookermany, 2008). When one reads that; “The Norwegian Army should educate and train individual soldiers in the conflict environment it operates in - both nationally and internationally. It is a goal for the Norwegian Army to be equipped with personnel and units that can cope with major stresses and simultaneously solve missions” (GIH, 2007a, p. 4, authors translation). When seen against the statement that it is essential to give the individual soldier and unit the necessary basic physical skills that will enable them to make the right decisions and solve both mandatory and unforeseen military tasks, one start to grasp the importance of physical training (NIH/F, 2006). A change in the demands of war in modern operations Something that underlines the increased complexity of the modern battlefield it is that the modern soldier is no longer evaluated only on defined military matters, but also on the ethical and moral standards found in society. Success for Norwegian soldiers is no longer seen as only what is obtained in combat, but also in accordance with the ethical and moral standards in the Norwegian civil society (GIH, 2005). This is supported by Borkhus (2006) in what he writes about the character of war. He argues that when society changed, the Norwegian Armed Forces organization, equipment, and not least how the

conduct of operations also changed. This also changed the military profession, since the core is to master the most complex operations, i.e. combat. Borkhus further describes today's conflicts as more complex, and confirms that the character of war and thus the demand of war have changed. As an example of this change, in maneuver warfare with a complex situation picture, one is dependent upon speed to win. Speed relates to situational awareness and the physical and psychological available resources. We can say that this indirectly impose greater demands on the individual to perform in this type of operations. This also changes the demands of war, i.e. the requirements to cope with combat. A new challenge for soldiers in current operations is the weight of the equipment that soldiers use in operations and in combat. To train soldiers to carry this extra weight is a crucial factor for how well they will cope (Knapik, Reynolds, & Harman, 2004). This affects the physical demands placed on soldiers in the direction that it has become more difficult to be a soldier today. If one only looks at the physical requirements, they have become harder for the soldier. To return to the demands of war, Hjellset (2003) writes that in conventional warfare the soldiers' physical capacity and performance is seen as an operational constraint in any military organization. Hjellset shows that previously physical capacity was decisive for operational capability. McD Sookermany (2008) argues that sport is part of the military legacy, since it is logical that the soldier depends on their body to perform. Throughout history, physical form has been regarded as a prerequisite for a good army and thus also for a good soldier (GIH, 2007b). Marshall (1947) supports this when he argues that it is essential to maintain a healthy body as a soldier faces the demands of war. Moreover, Marshall argues that willpower and physical strength is something that goes hand in hand. Without a sufficient physical capacity, one will not have an equally strong willpower, and both of these will have to be present to survive in combat. If a soldier does not function in combat, the unit will lose the battle. Although MarshallÂ´s book is from WWII, it shows us that soldiers of all times will have to have a trained body to survive in combat. It also shows that the basic principles of the demands of war are the same, since a satisfying physique must be present. Experiences form WWII was that training and education had to be realistic, and the content of the training had to be in line with the demands of war. This means that the education of the single soldier and physical robustness is part of this. The introduction of the reformed Norwegian Armed Forces with its focus on international operations has probably changed the ideal of what it means to be a good or skilled soldier. The Norwegian Armed Forces have gone from a focus where the task was to create power in a battle, to the ability to create tempo as the main focus. This change is also supported in that the BME (SĂ¤fvenbom & McD Sookermany, 2008) is desired to anchor the training in the Norwegian Armed Forces in a more scientific perspective in the wake of this shift of focus. In today's soldiers, a greater range of skills is demanded and the individual has become more independent (GIH, 2005, Skaret, 2006).

Is the physical training in the Norwegian Army relevant when compared to the demands of war in modern operations? Dyrstad (2006) points out that all activity that involved some form of physical activity in the Norwegian Armed Forces was only nine hours a week during basic training and five hours a week during the remaining part of the initial service. This says a lot about the low priority of physical exercise in the military. This means that one has to more aware of other arenas where one can train the soldier’s physical capacity and this is highlighted in the BME concept (Säfvenbom & McD Sookermany, 2008). In addition, the soldiers want to influence what they do with their time while serving in a unit (Skuggedal, 2006). This can be said to be one of the biggest challenges. The consequence of educating soldiers to master a wide range of tasks and to fulfil a number of demands is that this affects the quality within the whole spectrum, leaving you with less time to do each thing well. An important part of being able to measure a soldier’s physical robustness are the physical tests. The Norwegian Armed Forces uses several different tests such as strength exercises measuring dynamic muscular strength and all tests that have a defined minimum (Hjellset, 2003). This is something that does not corresponded to other nations' experiences of what is important in strength. Both the Americans (U.S. Department of the Army, 1998) and the Danish (K. Kristensen, personal communication, February 24, 2009) highlights explosive strength and endurance strength as important. The purpose of the tests used by the Norwegian Armed Forces is to measure physical fitness and progress in the soldiers. Considering that the tests do not reflect the demands of war as tests in other nations do, is the thinking wrong? Dyrstad (2006) argues that even if the exercises are general and involve multiple muscle groups, where each is appropriate for military activity, they are good tools to provide indications of how muscle properties are improved. Hjellset (2003) partly agrees, but argues further that when one tests the maximum dynamic muscle strength in standardized tests as measuring devices, such as one does in Norway, these tests set high demands on technical performance. A technical execution must be practiced specifically and thus performance is dependent upon technique training. A further critical point is that the Norwegian Armed Forces tests are exercises that can be performed in different ways, which undermines the validity of the tests (Hjellset, 2003). Today's 3000-meter running test is seen as the indirect goal of physical fitness, although one does not have sufficient research to substantiate this. One may wonder if this test gives the Norwegian Army what it need. In addition, for the individual soldier it takes time to be able to perform well during the tests. Therefore, if the tests are not relevant to the physical characteristics and the skills one would want in a soldier, then the training is a waste of time. As a sign of change in Norway, the Telemark Battalion in the Norwegian Army has adopted training programs from the Danish military. The reason for this adoption was that the training introduced in the Norwegian Army is not aimed at the physical rigors soldiers expose themselves to during operations. This can be seen as a sign that the most professional unit in the Norwegian Army is in the process of learning and adapting their training to the demands of war. This shift in focus the Telemark Battalion regarding physical training also corroborates

well with the finding that aggressiveness training is important in order to face the rigors in combat (Boe & Ingdahl, 2017; Boe & Johannessen, 2015). The reason for this is that there exists a clear link between aggression and the ability to exercise physical effort.

Conclusion The research question in this article was the following: Is the current understanding of physical training in the Norwegian Army relevant for the demands of war in contemporary military operations abroad? In an attempt to answer our research question, we have discussed three factors: 1. Has the physical demands of the soldier changed when one looks at the demands of war of modern military operations? 2. Is the Norwegian Army's viewpoint on physical training relevant compared to what other nations have experienced? 3. Is the physical training in the Norwegian Army relevant, compared to the demands arising from participating in modern military operations? The first challenge is that that the Norwegian Army does not seem to learn fast enough. Other nations have made their experiences from operations, operations that are physically demanding, have made changes in their views on training and thus also their specific training and their physical requirements. Their experiences are just as relevant for the Norwegian Army. Especially the Danish military experiences we think are relevant for the Norwegian Army. This since we are culturally similar and our armed forces are relatively equal, in both capacities and sizes. The two principles of “bottom up” and “train as you fight” is appropriate in relation to how other nations also look at their training. However, the challenge in Norway is that this is not enough reflected in how the Norwegian Army conducts physical training. Both these principles highlight the robustness and realism as important, and here we think the Norwegian Army still has more work to do. At the same time the demands of today's operations has become harder physically for the individual soldier. An example of this is Knapik, Reynolds, and Harman´s (2004) issue around equipment weight. Another factor in this is the requirement for physical and mental capacity in order to cope with combat. The speed of operations is higher today and therefore one is dependent on more capacity to be faster and to make the best decisions in order to win. Since the physical and mental are so closely associated as Marshall (1947) and McCoy (2007) claims, preparing a soldier physically is even more important today. Today in Norway we also have a disadvantage with the soldiers entering into compulsory service compared to before. The Norwegian Armed Forces tests skills that are questionable in terms of the values and gains that are provided from the tests. This goes for both strength and endurance. In addition, when measurements show that the time spent on physical training does not lead to the desired results as stated by the Norwegian Army, a conclusion is that the Norwegian Army probably does not achieve what they want with their physical training. The complexity of the role of the soldier and the Norwegian Armed Forces understanding of the physical demands is hampering the effort to educate Norwegian Army soldiers to be able to cope in domain of war in the

current operations. Whether this is due to a change in priorities or lack of experiences one can only speculate. However, one can see that the Norwegian Army´s view of physical training is changing in a positive direction. Nevertheless, the Norwegian Army is falling behind compared to other nations. This is especially apparent in the physical tests, where the Norwegian selects other skills than other nations say is relevant. The basic idea around physical training in the Norwegian Army does not match how the physical training should be carried out, especially if one looks at other nations' experiences and the BME concept (Säfvenbom & McD Sookermany, 2008). Therefore, we conclude that the Norwegian Army does not train in a relevant way towards meeting the demands of war in modern military operations. A notable exception to this is the Telemark battalion in the Norwegian Army. Potential practical implications of our findings may include physical education and training of Norwegian Army officers according to the principles used in the Danish military, the U.S. Army, and in the Telemark battalion. On the other hand, we recognize that the validity and reliability of our findings are limited, since we only have investigated what has been found in the different documents. More research into this topic is needed, as the consequences of not educating and training officers to physically cope with the demands of modern military operations could have fatal implications.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Senior Lecturer Merete Ruud at the Norwegian Military Academy for valuable help with the language of this work. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not represent any official position held by the Norwegian Armed Forces.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 37-51, June 2017

The Framework of an International MBA Blended Course for Learning About Business Through the Cinema Alexander Franco Stamford International University, Graduate School of Business Bangkok, Thailand

Abstract. The primary goal of this study was to construct a business course that allows for the learning of business lessons by watching selected films. A self-administered questionnaire was utilized to obtain empirical verification on the reading and film watching habits of a sample of MBA students at an international university. The results indicated preference for audio-visual products over reading in order to obtain information on business. A course was then designed for the timeframe of a “blended” course where approximately half of the time invested by students consists of self-learning at home while the other half consists of traditional, face-to-face class sessions. A literature review revealed that the following business topics have been extensively addressed in the studying of cinema: cross-cultural management, ethics, entrepreneurship, managerial leadership and lifestyle choices within the business world. The framework of a course syllabus is presented based on these five subject areas.

Keywords: Blended course, cinema, cross-cultural management, ethics, entrepreneurship, managerial leadership, pedagogy, teaching with movies

Introduction The incorporation of media technology into the traditional classroom and into blended courses has allowed for the use of films to teach lessons regarding business. This is in addition to the reality that new generations entering higher education have increasingly come to obtain their knowledge by audio-visual means as much, if not more so, then through the printed word (Addams, Fan, & Morgan, 2013; Bates & Poole, 2003; Ballera, Lukandu, & Radwan, 2014; Butler, Zaromb, Lyle, & Rosediger, 2009; Callender & McDaniel, 2009; Champoux, 1999; Dunphy & Meyer, 2012; Huczynski & Buchanan, 2004; Jones, 2004; Parker, 2009).

This study is divided into three parts. The first is an empirical analysis of reading and film watching patterns of a sample of MBA students. The second part provides a literature review that explores the subject areas being studied by those who use or advocate movies to teach lessons about business. The third part presents the framework for a blended course since such a course structure is highly conducive to the watching and analysis of films.

Literature Review Exploring the possibility of using film for educational purposes has occurred almost since the creation of cinema itself (Hansen, 1933; Sumstine, 1918; Wood & Freeman, 1929). The body of literature addressing the use or analysis of films to study particular subjects is large and expanding. Subjects include communications (Kavan & Burne, 2009; criminology (Rafter & Brown, 2011), culture (Belton, 2013; Bodnar, 2003), economics (Bookman & Bookman, 2009; Macy & Terry, 2008; Valentine, Mujumdar, & Elkhal, 2012; Whaples, 2014), ethics/morality, (Downing & Saxton, 2010; Gillett, 2012; Good, 2008; Kowalski, 2012; Norden, 2007; Shaw, 2012), history (Carnes, Mico, & Miller-Monzon, 1996; Hughes-Warrington, 2007; Marcus, 2007; Marcus, Metzger, Paxton, & Stoddard, 2010; Oâ&#x20AC;&#x17E;Connor, 1987; Smyth, 2006; Toplin, 1996), human development (Harper & Rogers, 1999), international relations (Engert & Spencer, 2009), journalism (Ehrlich, 2004; Good, 2008); law (Bergman & Asimow, 1996; Greenfield, Osborn, & Robson, 2001; Huang, 2008), mathematics (Borko & Pittman, 2008; Polster & Ross, 2012), philosophy (Cox & Levine, 2012; Falzon, 2002; Gilmore, 2005; Livingston & Plantinga, 2009), psychology (Anderson, 1992; Bolt, 1976; Hyler & Moore, 1996; Nissim-Sabat, 1979; Young, 2012), religion (Marsh, 2007; Marsh & Ortiz, 1998; Watkins, 2008), social issues (Benshoff & Griffin, 2009; Russell, 2009), and strategy (Huczynski, 1994). A more direct body of literature focuses specifically on the use of cinema to teach lessons regarding business. A review found five major subject areas in the literature: 1. Cross-cultural managerial issues (Briam, 2010; Cardon, 2010; Filby, 2010; Mallinger & Rossy, 2003; Pandey, 2012; Roell, 2010; Summerfield, 1993; Verluyten, 2008). 2. Business ethics (Arsenault, 1998; Belden, 1992; Berger & Pratt, 1998; Chan, Weber, & Johnson, 1995; Dunphy, 2011, 2013; Dyl, 1991; Higgins & Striegel, 2003; Kester, 2013; Kester, Cooper, Dean, Gianiodis & Goldsby, 2012; Teays, 2015). 3. Entrepreneurship (Eikhof, Summers, & Carter, 2013; Hang & van Weezel, 2015; Higgins & Striegel, 2003; Llander, 2010; van Gelderen & Verduyn, 2003; Zampetakis, Lerakis, Kafetsios, & Moutakis, 2015). 4. Managerial leadership (Ambrosini, Billsberry, & Collier, 2008; Bumpus, 2005; Carringer, 1985; Champoux, 2000; Clements & Wolff, 1999; Coupe & Sansolo, 2010; DiSibio, 2006; Dunphy, 2007; Dunphy, Meyer, & Linton, 2008; Serey, 1992).

5. Lifestyle choices within the business world (Coupe & Sansolo, 2010; Frymer, Kashani, Nocella, & Heertum, 2010; Levinson, 2012; Naremore, 2004; Shugan, 2006; Theberge, 1981; Thomas & LeShay, 1992; Younkins, 2014). Based on this information, a determination was made to create a course that chose films that addressed the topics listed above. The construction of the course is presented after the section on the research design and findings.

Research Design and Findings A self-administered questionnaire (closed-ended questions with a Likert scale construct) was utilized to determine the frequency of book reading and film watching by MBA students as well as their preference for using audio-visual products (in this case, films) over reading in order to understand principles and practices of business. Cronbach‟s alpha reliability scores ranged from .80 to .91, thus indicating sufficient reliability (DeVellis, 1991; Tavakol & Dennick, 2011) As per Krejcie & Morgan‟s (1970) table for determining sample size, 212 students were chosen from a population of 470 students in an MBA program at an international university. 97 of the sample were male (46%) and 115 were female (54%). All the respondents were students in MBA classes taught in English and their English proficiency levels were sufficient to answer the questionnaire.

Table 1: Frequency of reading books* (What was the last time you finished reading a complete book?) _____________________________________________________________________________________________

Period of Time Male (#) Male (%) Female (#) Female (%) _____________________________________________________________________________________ A week ago 1 1 0 0 A month ago

3 months ago

Greater than 3 months 80 83 103 90 _____________________________________________________________________________________ Total 97 100% 115 100% _____________________________________________________________________________________ *“Books” are defined as non-comic or graphic novel and would include a textbook if the entire contents (i.e., all chapters) were read.

Table 2: Frequency of watching films* (What was the last time you finished watching a complete film?) _____________________________________________________________________________________ Period of Time Male (#) Male (%) Female (#) Female (%) _____________________________________________________________________________________ A week ago 28 29 21 18 A month ago

3 months ago

Greater than 3 months 0 0 0 0 _____________________________________________________________________________________ Total 97 100% 115 100% _____________________________________________________________________________________ *“Films” are defined as a full-length film, excluding documentaries or television programs.

A comparison of Table 1 with Table 2 indicates dramatic differences in terms of frequencies in behavior. Though the implications of this comparison are valid for this study and for an argument in favor of using films to teach business lessons, the comparison is limited in terms of the time commitment between watching a film (which is usually between 1 ½ to 2 hours) and reading an average length book (which takes much longer with more concentration). Table 3 shows a majority preferring an audio-visual product over a book with about one-quarter expressing uncertainty due to lack of exposure to a blended course. All three tables indicate no significant differences based on gender. No generational gap existed within the respondents since the ages ranged from 22 to 31, with 25.5 as the calculated mean age. Table 3: Preference of Films Over Books (Would you prefer watching a film over reading a book in order to learn lessons about the business world?) _____________________________________________________________________________________ Preference Male (#) Male (%) Female (#) Female (%) _____________________________________________________________________________________ Yes 63 65 66 57 No

Not sure

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Total 97 100% 115 100% _____________________________________________________________________________________

Construction of the Course This study chose the timeframe of a blended (or hybrid) course. Blended courses, which are growing in popularity around the world, are designed wherein an equal portion of the face-to-face time spent in the traditional classroom between the teacher and the student is allocated with web-based, online resources, and other technologies for learning at home and preparing for face-to-face sessions (Arbaugh 2010; Bicen, Ozdamli, & Uzunboylu, 2012; Bleed, 2001; Carre, 2015; Garrison & Kanuka, 2004; Garrison & Vaughan, 2008; Hew & Cheung, 2014; Keengwe & Agamba, 2014; McGee & Reis, 2012; Tseng & Walsh,

2016). The goal is to provide for more effective and efficient learning by providing for more adaptive and personalized instruction that is customized to suit the learning style, speed, and capabilities of the learner and to encourage greater interactive participation so that the learner encounters a more meaningful learning experience (Bonk & Graham, 2006; Cho & Cho, 2014; Lim & Morris, 2009; Tseng & Walsh, 2016; Woo & Reeves, 2007). The construct of a blended course poses a significant pedagogical challenge since a blended format is neither exclusively distance learning nor traditional in its approach (Carre, 2015; Dziuban, Hartman, & Moskal, 2004). The ultimate goal is in creating a hybridization that improves student success and learning over a non-blended approach while addressing the challenges of time management through non-classroom study, the mistaken expectation that less class time means less work, and the possibility that students may disengage within the blended structure (Fairchild, 2015). A blended course within the timeframe of five weeks (six hours on five different Saturday, face-to-face classes) was used for the development of this course. This is based on the blended course structure in the international university whose MBA population was surveyed in this study. (Note, however, that flexibility exists for a similar blended course that is not as concentrated in time, say, for example, eight weeks.) Two films would be assigned for each week: one to be viewed and analyzed at home (with a discussion in the morning session of the Saturday class) and a second to be viewed and analyzed in the afternoon session of the face-to-face Saturday class. A paper, answering specific questions germane for each specific film, would be required. Grading would consist of these papers (totaling ten) as well as class participation in the face-to-face discussions. This ensures that students will learn from the cinema world while also improving their writing and speaking communication skills. Each film is linked to specific scholarly articles that are to be read and referred to in the respective papers. Selection of the films chosen was based on the following criteria: •

Only feature films were selected and not documentaries since both have distinct differences as to style and approach. Films convey ideas subtlety through fictional story lines and characters that provide escape; documentaries are direct and formal.

•

Three films would be available for each of the following five subject areas chosen as result of the literature review: cross-cultural managerial issues, business ethics, entrepreneurship, managerial leadership, and lifestyle choices within the business world.

•

The instructor would choose the movie, in each subject area, that will be shown in the face-to-face portion of the weekly session; students would be allowed to choose from one of the two other movies to view and analyze at home.



•

The films chosen are limited to about two hours each to make them more manageable as to viewing and analyzing at home and to allow for sufficient discussion time during the Saturday afternoon, face-to-face sessions.

•

Films that minimize profanity and adult content were chosen to conform to school standards and to student sensitivities. Using this criterion, for example, the film Wall Street (1987) was chosen over The Wolf of Wall Street (2013) – which re-defined the word gratuitous. Moral considerations over learning from organized crime personalities exempted the Godfather movie trilogy (1972, 1974 and 1990) and films such as Scarface (1983) and American Gangster (2007), to cite a few examples.

•

Films were chosen from the rich span of cinematic history despite the perception by many contemporary students that black-and-white films belong in a museum.

•

Films were chosen, as much as possible, with a storyline directly relating to the world of business. However, two exceptions exist in this list: Twelve Angry Men (1957) and Thirteen Days (2000) because of their exceptional examples of leadership that can be applied in the business world.



The researcher‟s viewing and examination of forty-five films resulted in the following movies being chosen for the course: Cross-cultural managerial issues: 1. Gung Ho (1986) 2. Lost in Translation (2003) 3. Outsourced (2006) Gung Ho (1986) involves the clash of two corporate cultures when a Japanese corporation purchases an auto manufacturing plant in Pennsylvania. Lost in Translation (2003) portrays an aging actor from the United States who goes to promote a whisky brand in Japan and becomes a stranger in a foreign land. Outsourced (2006) deals with an American novelty products salesman who goes to India to manage an office after his department is outsourced to that country. Business ethics: 1. Wall Street (1987) 2. The Insider (1999) 3. Margin Call (2011) In Wall Street (1987), an ambitious stockbroker falls under the influence of an unscrupulous corporate raider. The Insider (1999) portrays the struggles of a whistleblower against Big Tobacco and a CBS news producer‟s attempt to reveal the whistleblower‟s exposé on the 60 Minutes news

show. Margin Call (2011) focuses on the desperate actions of a group of employees in a Wall Street investment bank as the bank faces economic collapse during the sub-prime mortgage crisis of 2008. Entrepreneurship: 1. Glengarry Glen Ross (1992) 2. Tucker: The Man and His Dream (1988) 3. The Founder (2016) Glengarry Glen Ross (1992) depicts the behavior of four real estate salesmen who are pressured by their corporate office to meet their sales quota at all costs. Tucker: The Man and His Dream (1988) portrays the struggles of entrepreneur Preston Tucker to create and market the 1948 Tucker Sedan. The Founder (2016) presents the story of how Ray Kroc, founder of McDonaldâ&#x20AC;&#x;s, built the company into a multinational, billion-dollar franchise empire through creativity, ambition, persistence, and a degree of ruthlessness. Managerial leadership: 1. Executive Suite (1954) 2. Twelve Angry Men (original 1957 version) 3. Thirteen Days (2000) Executive Suite (1954) depicts the inner struggle for executive control of a furniture company after the president unexpectedly dies. Twelve Angry Men (1957) deals with twelve jurors deciding on a case. The film demonstrates skills of leadership, communication and consensus building. Thirteen Days (2000) recalls the leadership and decision-making challenges of the Kennedy brothers as they explored and analyzed different recommendations to deal with the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Lifestyle choices within the business world: 1. The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (1956) 2. The Devil Wears Prada (2006) 3. Up in the Air (2009) In The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (1956), a businessman in post-World War II America struggles to find a balance between his career and his family. The Devil Wear Prada (2006) depicts a recent college graduate whose life is consumed in working for the demanding editor of a fashion magazine. Up in the Air (2009) focuses on a corporate downsizer who re-examines his philosophy of isolation and non-commitment.

Samples of Analytical Questions Each movie would have questions that are specific to the context of that particular film. Students would be required to answer the questions, in writing, while also referring to specific scholarly material related to the subject matter.

For example, questions and references for the film The Insider (1999) would include: •

Executives at Brown & Williamson could have made an argument to themselves and others that nondisclosure of information was in the best interest of the company and its shareholders. Can an ethical argument be made that they were protecting company jobs and assets?

•

Jeffrey Wigand did become a whistleblower, but he only became one after he was fired. In your opinion, does this make any difference? Is he a hero to you? Why or why not?

•

You have a nice job with very good compensation and you have a future in your company. However, you are convinced that company activities are harming people in some significant way (e.g., exposing the environment to some toxicity). Would you whistle blow if no one in the company responded to your concerns? Why or why not?

•

There are two other major characters in the movie beside Jeffrey Wigand: Lowell Bergman and Mike Wallace, both within CBS. What is your opinion about these two characters? Do you think that CBS acted in an ethical matter when they decided to edit out Wigand’s interview from the original 60 Minutes’ broadcast?

•

Did this film affect you emotionally in any significant way? If yes, how so and why?

•

What did you learn from this film? How could you apply the new knowledge from this film to your life and career?



 

The references for the film are below: 1. Lennane, J. (2012). What happens to whistleblowers, and why? Social Medicine 6(4), 249- 258. 2. Near, J. P., & Miceli, M. (2016). After the wrongdoing: What managers should know about whistleblowing. Business Horizons 59(1), 105-114. 3. O‟Sullivan, P., & Ola, N. (2014). Whistleblowing: A critical philosophical analysis of the component moral decisions of the act and some new perspectives on its moral significance. Business Ethics – A European Review 23(4), 401-415. 4. Van Es, R. (2003). Inside and outside “The Insider”: A film workshop in practical ethics. Journal of Business Ethics 48(1), 89-97. 5. Whistleblowing: The inside story. A study of the experiences of 1000 whistleblowers. (2013). London: University of Greenwich & Public Concern at Work.

Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research Films can serve as a pedagogical tool to bring subjects alive and to provide for a rich context of analysis by way of well-written scripts with good characters, and good acting. The use of film, along with other media, is particularly useful for blended courses which are structured for significant commitment by the student as to self-study. While a student in another blended course may decide not to fulfill reading assignments, a student in the course developed for this study cannot forsake viewing and analyzing films at home or in class since this task affects the bulk of the course grade. Time management is structured and maintained by requiring a series of papers to be written (in this case, two per week). Discussion of films during the face-to-face sessions primarily would be in the form of elicitation of commentary rather than reliance on commentary that is made voluntarily. This provides for further incentive to carefully watch a film. Hybridization through the blended course format, as a progenitor of transformation, is seen as a significant pedagogical innovation of the 21st century (Bates & Sangra, 2011). However, it is also perceived as a â&#x20AC;&#x153;dangerous ideaâ&#x20AC;? (Moskal, Dziuban, & Hartman, 2013; Seife, 2000) in its potentially monumental challenge of the status quo and the consequential expectations of increased student performance and positive institutional transformation with its implementation. Because of the stakes involved, future research should monitor the gradual implementation of blending courses in order to assess the perceptions and experience of students and the level of learning motivation as well as learning outcomes and achievement (Owston, York, & Murtha, 2013; Tseng & Walsh, 2016). In addition, purposive designs of blended courses should be based on a learning partnership built on an iterative process of reflective practice and postintervention, leading to continuous improvement (Aycock, Garnham, & Kaleta, 2000; McDonald, Straker, Schlumpf, & Plack, 2014; Owston, York, & Murtha, 2013; Tseng & Walsh, 2016; Vaughn, Cleveland-Innes, & Garrison, 2013). Following the implementation of the blended course proposed in this study, its impact should be empirically assessed as to factors such as student perception, experience, and overall academic outcomes. A meta-analysis of over one million students by Moskal, Dzuban and Hartman (2013) indicated that improved student satisfaction and learning success were vital for the continued adoption and implementation of blended courses. Empirical verification of enacted hybrid courses, by way of an iterative framework, can allow instructors to facilitate learning and improve their communication skills.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 52-63, June 2017

Learning Through Play in Speed School, an International Accelerated Learning Program Susan Rauchwerk Lesley University Cambridge, Mssachusetts, USA Abstract. This paper documents how play serves as a foundation for learning in Speed School, an accelerated learning program initiative of the Luminos fund. Speed school provides three years of primary education, grades 1-3, through an intensive ten-month program for outof- school children between the ages of eight and fourteen who have never attended or who have dropped out of school, living in rural or remote areas of Ethiopia and Liberia. Literature was reviewed using a narrative review of Speed School program evaluations conducted by the University of Sussex, and literature on play pedagogy to identify search terms. Key strengths of the Speed School pedagogy implemented through play—group work, questioning, hands-on materials, demonstration and explanation, use of native tongue, and flexible planning—support social constructivism. Speed School facilitators and learning environments that promote constructivist play pedagogy are discussed. Knowledge acquisition, relationships, social engagement, testing out ideas, and skills building are identified as outcomes from the incorporation of play pedagogy in speed school. The paper concludes by highlighting how play pedagogy in Speed School contributes to the development of life-long learning. Keywords: accelerated learning, speed school, play pedagogy, activitybased learning, Ethiopia education

Introduction Kkalama helps the other children in her group draw the hop-scotch spaces using only multiples of three as the teacher instructed. She hums the counting song she learned yesterday and tosses her rock which lands on the number 12. She hops while her group excitedly shouts 3, 6, 9, 12! Firew, the student recorder, asks how many spaces it took to get to 12. Together they count 4, and Firew scratches 3x4=12 in the dirt. Simhal is next, it lands on 21, and they start the process over. In the distance Kkalama‟s hears her brother Abush count 5, 10, 15, 20 as he jumps rope with another group across the yard. She helped him practice at home last night, will he make it to 100? Kkalama and her classmates are participating in Ethiopia Speed School, an accelerated learning program for out-of- school children between the ages of eight and fourteen, living in rural or remote areas of Ethiopia, who have never attended or who have dropped out of school. Students cover the first three years

of the national curriculum in just ten months, and prepare to rejoin government schools at the third or fourth grade level. In this model, students spend a good portion of each day moving through the curriculum independent of the teacher, playing games designed to encourage collaboration and stimulate learning through both the mind and the body. Speed School leverages successes from other accelerated learning models (Longden, 2013, Stansbury, 2001, Westbrook, et al., 2013) and supplements the academic module with parent and community engagement groups that catalyze long term support for their children‟s education. Speed School refers to an accelerated learning program funded by the Liminos fund which is Managed by Geneva Global. Faculty in the Center for International Education at the University of Sussex serve as the evaluators for this project. At the time of this review, University of Sussex reports focused only on Ethiopia Speed Schools where 85% of the more than 100,000 Speed School children have transitioned to, and remained in Ethiopia government schools. (Legatum Foundation, 2006-2017). This paper provides background on schooling in Ethiopia, a brief overview of Speed School success, and closely considers the impacts of play and play pedagogy within the Speed School curriculum.

Ethiopian Government Schools Public education in Ethiopia is free, but education is not compensatory. Families must pay about $10/year for uniforms, books, pencils and paper, which can be prohibitive for impoverished families. Print material is limited, and many teachers and students work without any texts. Text books are now available for download from the Ethiopian Ministry of Education (MOE) website, but only 1.5% of the population currently use the internet. Student workbooks and readers have not been translated into mother tongue. School proximity, access to fresh water and sanitary facilities, teacher quality and parental support vary greatly in government run schools. Primary school is taught in two phases: functional literacy in grades 1-4 and general education in grades 5-8. Children ages 6-14 are expected to attend primary school and generally enter school between the ages of 6 and 9. There is a national curriculum with established minimum learning competencies (MLC‟s) for grades 1-4 in literacy skills, Amharic, English, environmental science, and mathematics that all public, private and alternative schools in Ethiopia must follow. Primary school is taught in the mother tongue (local native language). Children begin to learn English in first grade and Amharic in third. English is the medium of instruction for grade 9 and above. Official class size in Ethiopia is 50, but average class size is closer to 70, and 100 is not unusual. In many regions, school is taught for 3-4 hours a day in two shifts. Government policy recommends a longer school day, but teacher shortages, teacher absenteeism, and a lack of structure and accountability result in large classes and academics for less than 6 hours a day in most schools. Enrollment in school at age 7 is as high as 100%, but 8th grade completion rates are as low as 41%. Corruption, corporal punishment, discrimination by gender, ability, minority and financial status, are not unusual. Corporal punishment is prohibited, but is still widespread due to cultural beliefs and lack

of systems for documentation or enforcement. Child labor, particularly in rural agrarian communities, contributes to school drop-out at all ages. Retention rates are lower overall for girls, and lower in rural schools. In Ethiopia over 3 million children do not attend school, or have had to drop out of school. Instructional delivery in Ethiopian government schools is traditional, where teachers talk and children listen, write and recite. Every year children take a promotion exam. In addition to the government issued MLC‟s, children are assessed in mother tongue literacy, visual arts and/or physical education. There is a national exam given in grade 8 to determine whether children may pass on to secondary school. If they do not pass after their first attempt, they repeat year 8. Failure after their second attempt means they can no longer attend a government school. 80% of students who take the 8th grade exam pass on to secondary school (Gebreselassie, 2012; All Our Children, n.d.; Ethiopia Speed School Fund, 2015. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Education, 2016.; Legatum Foundation, 2006-2017; National Association of Foreign Student Advisors, 2012; Roots Ethiopia, 2012; Save the Children Sweden Ethiopia Program, 2011). USAID, AIR, TELL, 2012). .

Speed School Success Concluding statements in the University of Sussex report entitled Research into the Speed School Curriculum and Pedagogy in Ethiopia noted that The whole experience over the ten months appears to create learners who are not only reflexive but autonomous and resilient, having learnt how to learn over the ten months of their immersion in the Speed School. In knowing how to process and make creative and intellectual use of new concepts learnt, and how to problem- solve and work collaboratively in groups, graduates are well set up to succeed in the contrasting classrooms and social environment of the Link School when they integrate. (University of Sussex, 2016a, p.25). This powerful statement is supported by data that includes reviewer observations of Speed School classrooms. The Ethiopian Speed School model of small class size, student engagement and collaboration sits in stark contrast to more traditional classrooms where large class sizes, teacher absenteeism, and “chalk and talk” pedagogy lead to many children dropping out of school. Speed School children come from impoverished, often illiterate families, and their education may have been disrupted or absent due to family needs and values. Because of the persistent, pernicious belief that without basics early on in life, the rest of the curriculum is inaccessible, Speed School children are considered among the least educable by local teachers and school administrators (Pritchett & Beatty, 2012). This model re-conceptualizes who can learn and why. Facilitators accept the premise that ALL children can learn. Training utilizes current pedagogies that encourage students to interact in small groups. Teaching and learning are fluid, allowing students to learn from the teacher, local experts, community members and peers. Rather than focusing on memorization and recitation, Speed School teaches skills that encourage the development of thinking, and acquisition of new knowledge and skills. (University of Sussex, 2016a). It is because of what I learned in Speed School that I can read better and know how to study. It helps me to have confidence in my academic performance, which I did not have previously. (University of Sussex, 2016b, p.77.).

The Speed School curriculum uses the same Ethiopian government textbooks and Minimum Learning Competencies (MLC‟s) for grades 1-3 in literacy skills, Amharic, English, environmental science, and mathematics that are used in traditional government classrooms. Yet, Speed School graduates‟ comprehension and aptitude levels are much higher than peers in government schools. Speed School graduates exceed their government school peers on placement exams. Ethiopia woreda (district) and kebele (neighborhood) officials, school principals, and even the students themselves recognize this, highlighting greater motivation, better attendance, classroom participation, and good behavior as contributing to their success (University of Sussex, 2016b).

Method This paper uses a narrative literature review. Speed School evaluation reports written by the Centre for International Education at the University of Sussex, United Kingdom, and research on the role of play in learning were reviewed. Search criteria were developed based on a critical review of the documented teaching practices and learning outcomes articulated in Speed School program evaluations, as well as research about learning through play and primary research on play-based learning. Search criteria focused on play in an academic setting, including social/emotional and cognitive learning in relation to learning standards and expectations. Criteria such as play pedagogy, play-based learning, playful learning, play and learning, and learning through play formed the nexus. Play referring to recess, sports, athletics, fitness, and outdoor group games were excluded. Literature that provide a foundation for understanding the Speed School learning model were identified using the same narrative review process. Search criteria included accelerated learning, educational development programs. sub-Saharan Africa education, out-of-school children, Ethiopia education, indigenous learning, and youth at risk. Learning outcomes related to self-help and social capital were not examined. Qualitative analysis of evaluation reports, empirical research about play, and accelerated learning programs for at-risk youth resulted in the identification of four key topics that are discussed; what play looks like; talk, movement, and materials. The study is intended to provide a clear look at the structures and outcomes of Speed School that relate to play in the context of current research. The scope of the study is limited as it does not look at research that disputes the effectiveness of the model, or of play as a pedagogy.

Speed School Approach Analysis of Speed School classroom observations revealed that facilitators emphasize learning through group activities and processing skills. They develop lessons that use a wide range of learning resources and activities within and outside the classroom, keeping lessons lively and engaging. Classroom observations and interviews provide evidence that facilitators support students‟ sense of belonging to a learning community both in school and at home. Facilitators meet students where they are, relying upon social interactions and local resources that are both contextual and relevant. (University of Sussex, 2015, 2016a). Independent work and small group instruction rich in play and discourse sit in stark contrast to the current Ethiopian government classrooms

where 60-100 children learn through lecture and drills. Speed School facilitators serve as the primary teacher for small classes of 25 students, allowing for individual attention and follow up (University of Sussex, 2016b). In Speed School, communicative strategies are embedded within the interactive pedagogic practices that include group work, questioning, teaching resources, using a local language as medium of instruction, lesson planning, and sound explanations. Even in the hands of less experienced teachers, pupils engage with the content through a variety of activities that include social interactions, ensuring that learning far more likely to take place. An Ethiopian student who successfully transitioned from Speed School to the local government articulated how these multiple modalities supported her learning. The difference between Speed School classes and here [government school] is in the Speed School we learn and re-learn the points until all of us understand... the teacher explains but [in government schools] there are teachers who simply write notes and do not explain (University of Sussex, 2016b, p. 90). In addition to the 21day training prior to the start of the ten-month program, facilitators receive professional development, ongoing supervision, and evaluation, factors known to be critical supports in teacher preparation (Beare, Marshall, Torgerson, Tracz, & Chiero, 2012). This model translates directly to student success (University of Sussex, 2015).

Facilitator (Teacher) Training Research strongly suggests that a combination of intensive and principled teacher training and pedagogic structure enables Speed School students to access the curriculum and achieve high levels of attainment by the end of the ten months (University of Sussex, 2016a). Speed school facilitators are not government-certified teachers. They are tenth grade completers, recruited from each local community to attend an intensive, 21-day training equivalent to three college-level teaching courses. The content of the facilitator training focuses on language and literacy development and mathematics, critical elements of early learning (Ball & Forzani, 2010; Foorman & Torgesen, 2001). Inquiry, discussion, practice, and collaboration are emphasized as well. Facilitators review teaching strategies and curricula, ask questions, practice teach, and build content knowledge and skills (Pang & Ling, 2010) through activities and lessons that include flash cards, movement, singing, small group discussions, hands- on investigations, activity-based learning, community engagement, authentic materials, and indoor/outdoor play. In small groups, facilitators learn how to help students become active, independent learners and problem solvers, mirroring the pedagogical frameworks they are expected to apply in their classrooms (Dinsmore & Wenger, 2006). Westbrook et al., (2013) found that when teachers formed more positive attitudes towards their pupils and the pedagogy promoted in their training, they were more likely to use three important communicative strategies: paying inclusive attention and giving feedback; creating a safe learning environment; drawing on pupilsâ&#x20AC;&#x; backgrounds.

Play as Pedagogy A pedagogy of play is central to the Speed School curriculum, evolving in sophistication as children move through grade levels in months rather than years. For example, in a grade one lesson on numeracy, children learn how to follow directions and work with others while playing counting and sorting games with natural objects. By grade two, children engage in discourse and argumentation through ball-tossing games that teach multi-digit operations and probability. In grade three, students might construct tools and toys that illustrate fractions, multiples, or relative events over time. In the process of designing and building these objects, students learn to analyze reflect, and revise. Play is essential to the success of the Speed School model at all levels, providing a framework for cohesive learning experiences and inspiring creativity, risktaking, and initiative. With a focus on small group play, students not only catch up on their basic skills, they become proficient learners (University of Sussex, 2016a; Mardell et al., 2016). The power of this approach is illustrated through this student‟s comment; We were learning like playing and the things we learned as play have remained inside us like heritage. (University of Sussex, 2016b, p. 76). Play conjures up images of children using toys to create and tell stories, running, laughing, negotiating rules, etc. We see it as tactile and kinesthetic, and synonymous with exuberance and creativity. Play is usually associated with free time rather than school, however research shows that play paves the way for learning, leading to cognitive and social maturity. When there are other children to play with and adults who can encourage and guide children to play effectively with each other, play inspires and even drives learning (Bodrova & Leong, 2010; Smith, 2009). Play as a medium for learning promotes foundational skills, making it possible for children to achieve higher levels of mastery of specific academic content (Bodroba & Leong, 2010). Collaborative play builds cross-curricular knowledge and skills by making the most of students‟ backgrounds, promoting a safe learning environment and encouraging inclusiveness and constructive feedback. In Speed Schools, play is a platform for communication between teachers and students where teachers actively draw upon students‟ life experiences and promote an environment where students feel safe and supported, ultimately leading to positive student outcomes. Play provides a pedagogical framework (Baker, et al., 2016) that shapes both the social structure and content delivery within the Speed School classroom. Classrooms are interactive, and learning is a process rather than an outcome (Krug, 2011). In Speed Schools, the student/teacher paradigm shifts from authoritative to collaborative, from teacher- centered to student-focused. Speed School facilitators emphasize how learning happens and are shaped by their own experiences and understanding of the teaching and learning process. Communication with students is the priority, and play is at the center of that communication (University of Sussex, 2016a).

Pay in The Speed School Classroom What Play Looks Like Play takes many forms, and elements of play are most commonly integrated within and across an activity, stimulating physical, social, emotional, and

intellectual learning. Facilitators present the same concept through many different forms and activities, using a variety of real objects, body movement, and analogies. Students are encouraged to work together, and it is common for children to learn from one another. We work in a group … when there are points not clear for me I learn from my friends too … We show and compare what we do and these helped me to understand what we learn. (University of Sussex, 2016b, p. 76). Students process compelling questions through activities that employ flash cards, pictures, natural objects, toys, and music to illustrate concepts. Exposure to content through multiple modalities enables students to create multiple associations with familiar materials in their communities and the use of their own body. Play allows students to personalize content understandings (Bodrova & Leong, 2010; NAEYC, 2012; Smith, 2009; Thomas et al,.2011). The University of Sussex (2016a) cites a Speed School lesson on „Sources of Power‟ that illustrates the many forms of play in the classroom. The facilitator gave out group discussion questions, and allocated different content to each group by asking the „music group‟ to focus on natural sources of power, the „card group‟ on electricity, the „game group‟ on liquid fuels, and the „handcraft group‟ on solar power. Observations showed that students were very engaged with the group activity. The level of noise varied with the task in hand, and the facilitator understood that the boisterous talk, inspired by the manipulation of materials and social interactions, was productive and supported learning. While enhanced student cognition is key, changes in confidence, participation, values, and social indicators such as teacher-student interaction, inclusion, higher student attendance, and stakeholder satisfaction are also outcomes associated with play pedagogy. (Westbrook, et al., 2013). Talk, movement, materials and social engagement provide unique platforms for the incorporation of play within the curriculum. Talk In Speed School, using the learner‟s first language and familiar context provide cultural relevance and encourage questions and critical dialogue with peers and teachers. Talk is rich and deep when play is at the center of a balanced curriculum. Speaking or presenting in front of a group builds self-esteem and confidence (Heckman & Rubinstein, 2001). Structuring lessons around games and activities in small and large groups generate social interactions and helps students build communication skills. In the process of developing a skit, song, dance, or story, students learn to think, explain, and reflect. As differences of opinion arise, they negotiate, building interpersonal skills, and learn how to substantiate their claims with evidence. Sharing reflections, discussing ideas, asking questions, brainstorming, presenting, and responding are all ways in which facilitators generate student talk through play scenarios. Speed school teachers allow freedom of expression and tolerate levels of noise and movement, encouraging active participation of students in the teaching and learning process (University of Sussex, 2016a). Movement Physical play stimulates learning through multiple modalities which, in turn, helps to deepen and codify understanding (Cutter-Mackenzie & Edwards, 2013; Thomas, Warren & deVries, 2011). The Speed School program encourages

students to interact with and learn from people and the environment around their school. Working with tools or artifacts such as soil samples or stalks of corn; exploring a local farm, blacksmith, potter, or market; playing with toys they construct from found materials; and dancing and singing as they recite numbers or phrases are some of the ways Speed School incorporates movement. Even a simple activity such as flash cards require students to engage different cognitive pathways to express and process knowledge. Working with peers, community members, or text to verify the information that goes on each card; the physical act of writing and drawing on the card; learning to read the card and respond to the prompt; singing or acting out what is on the card; and taking turns to respond all stimulate physical and cognitive processes that use and generate memory in the mind and body (NAEYC, 2012). Materials While the government textbook is the sole reference point for the Speed School curriculum, facilitators adapt the content for play pedagogy; local materials— such as clay, stones, and trees—as well as chalk and paper are used regularly to augment learning and make it meaningful (Westbrook, et al., 2013). One Speed School facilitator links learning to many concrete real life examples in the local environment, taking students outside to use the open space and maize stems, and presenting the material in an alternative form for students with special educational needs (University of Sussex, 2016a). Children learn naturally from interacting with materials, and exploring and playing with everyday objects leads to flexible and sophisticated thinkers (Gopnick, 2012). Tactile and kinesthetic learning increases student understanding, and playing with these materials— whether through manipulation, interaction, or construction— increases learning opportunities (Klebanoff, 2009).

Discussion In Speed Schools, play serves as a foundation for learning. Ethiopian government teachers and school officials recognize that Speed School pedagogy is “better” at providing students with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed. (University of Sussex, 2016b, p. 76). Through classroom talk, physical movement, hands-on materials and social engagement with classroom facilitators/teacher, peers and community members, Speed School students acquire the skills and dispositions of life-long learners. Not only does this enable them to succeed within the Speed School model, but positions them to succeed and even excel in the more standardized learning environments of Ethiopian government schools. Practices described by the University of Sussex as the key strengths of the Speed School pedagogy—group work, questioning, hands-on materials, demonstration and explanation, use of native tongue, and flexible planning— illustrate how the pedagogy of play also supports social constructivism (University of Sussex, 2016a). The student- centered learning environment of Speed School encourages peer-to-peer learning. Speed School students learn in classrooms where facilitators/teachers take on more democratic and less authoritative role. Learning from facilitators who are from their own

communities, and who share the same language and culture make the culture of play more accessible to both facilitators and students. Constructivist play pedagogy encourages students to test out ideas and build skills that form and maintain quality relationships, resulting in a commitment to social engagement and learning (Burriss & Burriss, 2011). Despite the lack of more formalized teacher training, facilitators are able to establish opportunities for social interactions which, in turn, makes learning more accessible to students. (University of Sussex 2016a, p.3). Individual and group play focused on problem solving and project work stimulate more complex thinking and processing than listening to a lecture or reciting text (WISE Channel, 2015). As children interact—whether in agreement, discussion, or argumentation—children engage in social interactions that traditional approaches and settings rarely achieve (Westbrook, et al., 2013). Many forms of play require social interactions which, in turn, provide students both the opportunity and the time to engage, think, and rethink. Play enables children to make connections to units of study, encourages social nature of learning, and invites transfer of knowledge from life to classroom and vice versa (Mardell et al., 2016). Children are experts at play. Starting in infancy, they naturally interact with the world and others through play (Smith, 2009). Speed school takes advantage of this innate skill, helping students become active, independent learners and problem solvers through hands-on, interactive activities, games, and toys. Rather than passively sitting and receiving information, students develop games, toys, and activities that serve as both assessments for student understanding and as a resource for further learning. In the process, students transfer new knowledge into a different medium, enabling visualization, and relate meaningfully and creatively to abstract concepts through active participation. By incorporating play, Speed School facilitators help learners to engage in complex thinking and manipulate concepts on multiple levels. Play encourages students to construct knowledge rather than memorize facts (University of Sussex, 2016a). This report shows how play serves as an important pedagogical approach to learning in Speed School. The incorporation of play across the curriculum fosters the development of independent learning that can contribute to students‟ longterm academic success.

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http://ezproxyles.flo.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct =true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.2677749&site=eds-live&scope=site Klebanoff, A. (2009). Block Party: Legos in the Library. School Library Journal, 55(7), 24-26, http://ezproxyles.flo.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct =true&db=eric&AN=EJ859416&site=eds-live&scope=site Krug, K. (2011). Thinking outside the Blocks: Lego Day in a Pedagogy of Play. Collected Essays on Learning and Teaching, 4, 103-106. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22329/celt.v4i0.3280 Legatum Foundation. (2006-2017). Ethiopia Speed School initiative: Ensuring a bright future for all. Retrieved 11/15/16 from http://www.legatum.org/initiative/EthiopiaSpeed-School-Initiative Longden, K., (2013). United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2013/4. Teaching and learning: Achieving quality for all accelerated learning programmes: What can we learn from them about curriculum reform? Retrieved 7/15/16 from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002259/225950e.pdf Mardell, B., Wilson, D., Ryan, J. Ertel, K. Krechevsky, M. & Baker, M. (2016). Towards and Pedagogy of Play: A Project Zero working paper. Retrieved on 5/29/17 from Harvard Graduate School of Education Project Zero website http://pz.harvard.edu/resources/towards-a-pedagogy-of-play. NAEYC. (2012). References to Play in NAEYC Position Statements. Developmentally appropriate practice guidelines from principles of child development and learning that inform practice. Retrieved on 5/29/17 from https://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/files/Play%20references%20in%20NAEYC%20 position%20statements%2011-12.pdf National Association of Foreign Student Advisors. (2012). 2012 Colloquium on internationalizing teacher education. The Ethiopian educational system, retrieved 7/4/17 from http://www.nafsa.org/_/file/_/ac12/ac12_teachered_ethiopian_ed.pdf Pang, M. F., & Ling, L. M. (2012). Learning study: Helping teachers to use theory, develop professionally, and produce new knowledge to be shared. Instructional Science, 40(3), 589-606. Pritchett, L., & Beatty, A. (2012). The negative consequences of overambitious curricula in developing countries. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2102726. Roots Ethiopia. (2012). White paper on education, http://www.rootsethiopia.org/?s=white+paper&submit=Search

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University of Sussex. (2015). Sussex University Evaluation Report. Ethiopia Speed School Fund. Retrieved 5/29/17 from http://luminosfund.org/media/32511/20160127-sseth-sussexuniversityevaluationreport-v10.pdf University of Sussex. (2016a). Research into the Speed School curriculum and pedagogy in Ethiopia; Research monograph 1. Retrieved 5/29/17 from http://luminosfund.org/media/79729/pedagogicalreviewoctober2016.pdf University of Sussex. (2016b). Research into self-help groups and speed school graduatesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; experiences of schooling (draft). United States Agency International Development (USAID) and American Institute for Research (AIR), Ethiopia Teach English for Life Learning (TELL) Program. (2012). Ethiopia English early grade reading assessment: Data analytic report, retrieved 4/7/21 from http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnady822.pdf; Westbrook J., Durrani N., Brown R., Orr D., Pryor J., Boddy J., & Salvi F. (2013). Pedagogy, Curriculum, Teaching Practices and Teacher Education in Developing Countries. Final Report. Education Rigorous Literature Review. Department for International Development. University of Sussex. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/47345/ WISE Channel (2015). Reading, writing, math in 10 months? Visiting speed school in Ethiopia [Learning World: S5E24, 2/3]. Retrieved 5/29/17 from https:/www.youtube.com/watch?v=h8xZSuQoC-c&feature=youtu.be&t=59 .

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 64-79, June 2017

A Development of Students’ Worksheet Based on Contextual Teaching and Learning Zulyadaini Batanghari University, Indonesia

Abstract. This research is aimed at developing the students’ worksheet to determine the quality of validity and practicality aspects based on expert’s assessment of materials, expert’s design, media specialists, an individual assessment of students’ testing, a small group assessment of students trial, and a field trials assessment of students. This study is adapted from the development of ADDIE model which consists of 5 stages: 1) Analysis, 2) design, 3) Development, 4) Implementation, and 5) evaluation. The results showed that the quality of students' worksheet of mathematics on materials of factorization in algebra-based on Contextual Teaching and Learning basically on the assessment of: 1) the experts’ of subject materials is obtained a total average of 3.81 is included in the category of "Good" or scored 76.2 % which is included in the category of "Very Decent", 2) the experts’ design is obtained a total average of 3.62 which is included in the category of "Good" or scored 72.4% which is included in the category "Decent", 3) the experts’ of media is obtained scored 4:43 which is included in the category of "Good" or scored 88.6% which is in the category of "Very Decent". Whereas, the assessment by the students is done in three stages: 1) an individual assessment of students’ testing is obtained average total of 4.75 which is included in the category of "Very Good" or 95% which is included in the category of "Very Decent", 2) a small group assessment of students trial is obtained total average of 4:58 which is included in the category of "Very Good" or scored 91.6% thus it is included in the category of "Very Decent", 3) a field trials assessment of students is obtained a total average of 4:43 which is included in the category of "Very Good" or scored 88.6% thus it is included in the category of "Very Decent". Thus mathematics on materials of factorization in algebrabased on Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) is declared valid and practical so it can be used as the learning equipment of mathematics at the factorization material algebra. Keywords: Development, students’ worksheet, CTL, ADDIE

Introduction Mathematics is a subject that is learnt at all levels of education in Indonesia it is started from primary school level to university level. Through the study of mathematics, the students will learn how to give reason critically, creatively and actively. Because mathematics is abstract ideas that contain

symbols, so the mathematical concept must be understood first before manipulating symbols. But many students face some difficulties in learning mathematics. According to Wittgenstein (Hasratuddin, 2014: 30) mathematics is a way to find answers to the problems faced by humanity, such as a way to use the information, using the knowledge of propagating shape and size, using the knowledge of the counting and the most important thing is thinking about the inside-self of human being and using its connections. Mathematics is one of the disciplines that can improve the ability to think and argue, give a great contribution in solving everyday problems in workplace, as well as to provide support in the development of science and technology (Susanto, 2013: 185). The process of learning mathematics in every level of education is very important, therefore it is necessary to have fun to realize the role of teachers in the implementation of the learning process to realize the goal of learning mathematics. To have a fun learning process in the classroom, it is required an innovative teaching materials. One of the teaching materials used by teachers to support the learning process is students’ worksheet. Students’ worksheet is one of the printed materials (other than handouts, modules and books) that can be used in the teaching and learning process. Through the use of students’ worksheet, teachers have a chance to lure the students to actively engage with the material learnt in the classroom (Prastowo, 2015: 399). Students’ worksheet contains a set of basic activities that must be performed by students in an effort to maximize the understanding of the formation of basic capabilities of the students in corresponding indicators of achievement of learning outcomes that must be taken. Students’ worksheet is the efforts of teachers to guide students in a structured way, which the activities are giving an incentive for the students to learn mathematics. It has already known that the teachers are required to complete their duties and their roles are no longer as informants of the knowledge but their roles should be as a motivator in the process of teaching and learning so that students can construct their own knowledge through various activities in the learning activities. Through the use of the students’ worksheets in the learning process, the students are expected to learn a subject matter independently. One of the efforts to improve the students’ quality in learning mathematics, the students should improve the quality of learning. According to Fajar Sadiq (Setiawan, 2010: 1) one of a growing trend of mathematics education in the world today is the shift in mathematics education from formal shape to its application, processes of activities, and problem solving in a real situation. In other words it is a process from deductive to inductive. One of the models that can be applied to these demands is Contextual Teaching and Learning. Rusman (2014: 188) states that the core of CTL is the linkage of any content or subject of learning to real life. To relate CTL could be done in various ways, as it relates to the factual conditions or a real-life experience. Thus, Contextual Teaching and Learning will be more attractive in the classroom as the students perceive the benefits of teaching and learning through Contextual Teaching and Learning. With this concept, Contextual Teaching and Learning is a suitable model when applied in teaching materials of algebra factorization. This is because the rate of algebra factorization is the material that is associated with the factual

situation, although in teaching and learning process it is often used as symbols to represent the factual situation. Similarly, CTL model which is also a concept of study that links between what is taught in the classroom with the real-world situations, it is also involving seven major components of effective learning, they are constructivism, questioning, inquiry, learning community, modeling, reflection, and authentic assessment. Based on these problems, the researcher is interested in developing teaching materials in the form of Student Worksheet which is based on Contextual Teaching and Learning on the material algebra factorization. Students’ Worksheets based on CTL for the material of algebra factorization rate which corresponds to the characteristics of the students, the social environment of students, that could enable the students’ motivation in learning mathematics. The Students’ Worksheets which is meant in this study is the development of teaching materials that is oriented on the appearance of problems related to real life. Context issues raised must be in accordance with the concept of the material being studied in the classroom. Context is meant situations or events in accordance with the concept being studied. The students’ worksheets which is based on CTL for the materials of algebra factorization could help students understand the usefulness of the material of algebra factorization algebra in the real life.

Research Methodology This study is a Research and Development (R & D). Sugiyono (2014: 333) argues that, methods of research and development is the research methods used to produce a specific product and test the effectiveness of the product. In this study, the results of the product is in the form of teaching materials in the form of Students’ Worksheet (LKS) which is based on Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) on the material of Form Algebra Factoring for Junior High School students of Grade VIII. The Students’ Worksheet which is based on the development of Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) on the material of algebra factorization follows the ADDIE model. ADDIE Model consists of five steps, namely: (1) analysis, (2) design, (3) development, (4) implementation, (5) evaluation.

Data And Discussion 1. Data Collection The Students’ Worksheet was the result of early development which is then continues to the validation phase by the experts. The purpose of the validation phase is to look at the quality of the students’ worksheet based on the aspects of validity. At this stage, the students’ worksheet was validated by two experts which are expertise on design and one media. These two experts were provided on comments, suggestions, and assessment of the products. Comments, suggestions and assessment of subject matter experts, expert design and media experts were taken as the basis for revising the previous product of the students’ worksheet in order to get a better product. The following explanations and charts the results of the experts’ valuation and analysis.

a. The expert of Content Based on an expert assessment by the overall material the students’ worksheet gets a total score of 80 with an average of 3.81 which is included as “Good” category. While it is calculated by percentage the students’ worksheet gets 76.2% which is included as “Sufficient” category.

Figure 1: Percentage Rate by Expert of Content on Every Aspect Based on the chart above it can be seen that the percentage of eligibility of the students’ worksheet by the expert of materials there is a highest feasibility of its material which is percentage to 80% (first rank), the second rank is the aspect of the precision of the content by with its percentage of 78%, the third rank is the aspect of the completeness of the component with its percentage of 77.60%, the fourth rank is the aspect of language used in the students’ worksheet with its percentage of 75%, and the fifth rank is the aspect of coverage accuracy of the content by percentage of 70%. The experts’ results of the assessment on the materials in all aspects of the assessment are in the category of a “Decent” and “Very Decent”. Based on the results of these assessments, the quality of the students’ worksheet materials is declared as “Valid”.

b. The Expert of Design Based on the experts’ assessment the overall design of the students’ worksheet gets a total score of 47 with an average of 3.62 which is included as “Good” category. While it is calculated by percentage the students’ worksheet gets 72.4% which is included as “Eligible” category to be used as a teaching and learning material in the classroom.

Figure 2: Percentage Rate by the Experts of Design in Every Aspect Based on the above chart it can be seen that the percentage of eligibility of the students’ worksheet the highest rank is on the CTL approach aspects, the aspects of the layout, and the clarity of writing which are equal to 80% and the lowest rank are in the aspect of layout and the clarity of the text with a percentage of 70%. The results of the assessment have been done by the design experts on all aspects of the assessment are in the category of a “Decent” and “Very Decent”. Based on the results of these assessments, the design of the students’ worksheet quality is declared as “Valid”.

c. The Expert of Media Based on the experts’ assessment the overall design of the students’ worksheet gets a total score of 102 with an average of 4.43 which is included as “Good” category. While it is calculated by percentage the students’ worksheet gets 88.6% which is included as “Very Feasible” category to be used as a teaching and learning material in the classroom.

Figure 3: Percentage Rate by the Experts of Media in Every Aspect Based on the chart above it can be seen that the percentage of eligibility of the students’ worksheet gets the highest rank in the design aspects of the display which is equal to 94.2%, the second rank is the aspect of picture quality with a percentage of 93.4%, the third rank is the aspect of the appearance and the aspect of completeness of the component by a percentage by 90%, the next rank with a percentage of 86.67% is on the aspects of font usage, and the last rank are the aspects of the layout and the aspect of layout with a percentage of 80%. The results of the assessment have been done the experts of media in all aspects of the assessment are in the category of a “Decent” and “Very Decent”. Based on the results of these assessments, the quality of the students’ worksheet on its media is declared as “Valid”. Based on the results of recapitulation above, it is known that the individual testing gained an average of 4.75 so that the total is included in the criteria “Very Well”. Eligibility of the Students’ Worksheet is included in the category of “Very Decent” with a percentage of 95% was obtained. In addition to the analysis of overall score it can also be known the students’ worksheet assessment every aspect. The aspects questionnaire individual assessment testing includes aspects of design display, aspects of size and fond character, aspects of the layout, the aspect of clarity of learning objectives and instructions for using the students’ worksheets, the aspect of clarity, aspects of the suitability of the picture, the aspect of suitability image and exercise, as well as aspects systematically.

Figure 4: Percentage on Every Aspect of Individual Trial 1) Small group Trial Based on the results of recapitulation it is known that the small group trial consists of 6 students who have the ability category to high, medium, and low, it is obtained an average total score is 4:58 which is included in the criteria of “Very Well”. Eligibility of the Students’ Worksheet is included in the category of “Very Decent” with a percentage of 91.6%.

Figure 5: Percentage on Every Aspect of Small Group Trial

2) Field Trial Field trial was conducted on 23 students in one classroom students. Field trial was conducted to look at the quality of the students’ worksheet based on aspects of practicality. In this phase the students were given the worksheet which is designed by the researcher for the learning materials. After using this worksheet, the next phase was that the students were given questionnaire to assess the students’ worksheet. The questionnaire consists of 13 statements based no 1 to 5 scale. The scale category is (1) for "Less", (2) is "less", (3) is "enough", (4) is "good" and (5) was "excellent". The subject of field test was the eighth grade student was obtained an average total score is 4:43 which is included in the criteria “Very Well”. Eligibility of the Students’ Worksheet is included in the category of “Very Decent” with a percentage of 88.6%. In addition to the analysis of overall score it can also be known that the students’ worksheet assessment from every aspect. The field trials aspects of assessment in questionnaire consists of the presentation of the material aspect, aspects of relevance to everyday life, aspects of the concept of conformity with the purpose of learning, aspects of language use, CTL approach aspects, aspects of information and the students worksheet aspect of existence.

Figure 6: Percentage in Every Aspect of Field Trial Results of assessment of students on field trials of all aspects of assessment are in the category of a “Decent” and “Very Decent”. Based on the results of these assessments, the quality of the students’ worksheet is declared as “practical”.

d. Evaluation The last step is to evaluate the students' worksheet on the subjects of algebra factorization which have been developed based on the results of expert’s assessment sheets of material, the experts of design, the experts of media,

individual testing, small group trial and field trials. The results of the evaluation are as follows: 1) Expert of Content Based on the recapitulation of the students’ worksheet which was validated by the subject matter experts obtained an average score of 3.81 which is included in “Good” categories. While is calculated by percentage it is found 76.2% of the students’ worksheet which is included in the category of “Very Feasible” to be used in the classroom as a learning material. Based on the results of these assessments, the quality of the students’ worksheet is declared as “Valid”. The revisions of the students’ worksheet have been done based on based on the recommendations of the subject matter experts. The recommendations are (1) Eliminating of all the images in the answer box and the conclusion box in the students’ worksheet, (2) Adding the assessment criteria and the way of processing the score resulting from the appraisal process on the authentic assessment sheet. Then the revisions of the students’ worksheet based on the recommendation of the subject matter experts has been done with their recommendations are (1) Changing the item of number 3 which was previously "How is the length and width of Angga’s durian garden? Please answer the question in algebraic formulation. It is changed into "How is the length and the width of Budi’s rambutan garden? Please answer the question in algebraic formulation, (2) Adding the activity on the material of algebra multiplication into two activities. The first activity is related to multiplying a number by algebraic binomial form and the second activity is associated with the multiplication rate of two, (3) Changing the item of distribution on activities 5 into a division item which is simpler, (4) Changing the Question of number 4 on an individual exercise become more simpler division item. 2) The Expert of Design Based on the recapitulation of the students’ worksheet validation which was done by the expert of design obtained an average score of 3.62 that is included in “Good” category. While it is calculated by percentage 72.4% it is included in the category “Eligible” to be used as a learning material in the classroom. Based on the results of these assessments the quality of the students’ worksheet is declared as “Valid”. The revisions of the students’ worksheet was made based on the recommendation of the expert of subject matter as follows (1) Changing the picture junior high school students on the cover with a picture of formula, multiplication and factoring algebraic form, activity in the market, and people who are measuring the road, (2) Changing the phrase of "content-based Standard" to "Competence-based standard" and provide numbering using the letters on the table of contents, (3) Changing the overall instructions for using worksheets into a description of the image that is in worksheets and explanations concerning the application of seven components Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) which contained in the students’ worksheet, (4)

Adding the remarks of component in all parts of the students’ worksheet, (5) Replacing the column of "SCIENCE" becomes keywords which is listed in the beginning of section of the students’ worksheet, (6) Changing the color column becomes a white color to be simpler, (6) Making the boxes empty with blank spaces in order to make easy the students in answering the questions. 3) Expert Media Based on the recapitulation of the students’ worksheet validation which was done by the expert of media obtained an average score of 4:43 that is included in “Good” category. While it is calculated by percentage 88.6% it is included in the category “Eligible” to be used as a learning material in the classroom. Based on the results of these assessments the quality of the students’ worksheet is declared as “Valid”. 4) Individual Trial Based on the recapitulation of the evaluation worksheets on individual testing of three eighth grade students and it is found an average score of 4.75 which is included in the “Excellent” category. While it is calculated by percentage the students’ worksheet gets 95% thus included in the category of “Very Feasible” to be used as a learning material in the classroom. Based on the result of the individual trial there is no revision on the students’ worksheets. 5) Trial Small Group Based on the recapitulation of the evaluation worksheets in small group trial of six eighth grade students and it is found an average score of 4:58 which is included in the “Excellent” category. While it is calculated by percentage the students’ worksheet gets 91.6% which is included in the category of “Very Feasible” to be used as a learning material in the classroom. Based on the result of the small group trial there is no revision on the students’ worksheets. 6) Field Trial Based on the results of the evaluation recapitulation of the students’ worksheet in field trials of 23 students in one classroom of the eight it is obtained an average score of 4:43 which is included in the “Excellent” category. While it is calculated by percentage it is found 88.6% of the students’ worksheet which is included in the category of “Very Feasible” to be used as a learning material in the classroom. Based on the result of these assessments the quality of the students’ worksheet is claimed as “Practical”. Based on the result of the small group trial there is no revision on the students’ worksheets.

2. Discussion Development of Student Worksheet (LKS) based on Contextual Teaching and Learning on the material of algebra factorization which is developed by using ADDIE development model. ADDIE Stages include: 1) Analysis, 2) Design, 3) Development, 4) Implementation and 5) Evaluation. The development phase begins with the analysis which includes competency analysis, analysis of student characteristics, and analysis of the material. At this stage the researcher tries to find out the problems that causes of the low results of Mathematics subject at SMPN 9 Muaro. After conducting observation by interviewing one of the mathematics teachers in the eight grade and it is found that one of the causes of the problem lies in the students worksheets used in the classroom. The students’ worksheet used in the classroom by students is only contains the material and the questions that are still monotonous. The content of the students worksheet is presented briefly and using instruction of the language that is difficult to comprehend by the students. It is resulting to the students’ motivation in learning the material of algebra factorization. The examples and practices used in the students’ worksheet is only symbolic and there is no correlation between the material of algebra factorization to students' daily lives. The heavy use of mathematical symbols in the material of algebra factorization makes the students tend to memorizing all these symbols without deeper understanding on the actual concept of learning algebra factorization. Based on the case study above the researcher decided to develop a students' worksheet based on Contextual Teaching and Learning on the material algebra factorization. The next stage is designing of the product. In this step the researcher collected information related to the development the students’ worksheet such as collecting books and sources on the material of algebra factorization. Designing of the basic framework of the students’ worksheet and drawing up the assessment sheet of the products. The next stage is developing of the product. In this step the researcher developed the product through several measurements such as (1) arranging the students’ worksheets based on the Standard of Competency, the Basic Competency, the Learning Objectives and Learning Indicators on the material of algebra factorization, (2) arranging the materials, (3) determining the assessment tools, and (4) paying more attention on the structure of the students’ worksheet including the title, the standard of competency, the basic competence, learning indicators, learning objectives, maps conception, tasks and exercises, as well as assessment. After constructing of the students’ worksheet the next stage was conducting a product validation. The product validation was conducted by two experts of design and media. The purpose of validation is to see the quality of the students’ worksheets based on the aspect of validity. The first validation was done by a subject matter expert. In this process of validation the expert conducted assessment on the questionnaires. Questionnaire for subject matter experts composed of five aspects, namely the precision of the content, accuracy aspects of the scope, the content, aspect of understanding, the aspects of the use of language and the aspects of completeness of the component.

After being revised by the experts further assessment was made by the expert of design. In this validation process the experts assessed on the questionnaire that has been provided. Questionnaire for the expert of design consists of three aspects, namely the aspect of display design, layout and clarity of the writing aspect as well as the aspects of CTL component. After being revised by the experts further assessment was conducted by the experts of media. In this validation process the expert assessed on the assessment tools of the questionnaire that has been provided. Questionnaire for expert of media consists of six aspects, namely the aspect of display design, layout and layout, the aspects of font usage, the aspect of image quality aspects, the aspects of the appearance and the aspect of completeness of the component. The next stage is the implementation of the product. In this stage the revised students’ worksheets based on the assessment of the experts have to be tested. The trial was conducted to determine the quality of the students’ worksheet based on the aspects of practicality. The test was done in three stages, namely individual testing, small group trial and field trials (field try-out). The next stage is a small group trial. The object of this field trial was 6 students of the eight grades who have different learning ability of high, medium and low. The assessment was conducted on the mathematics classroom. Researcher asked students as respondents to provide an assessment of the students’ worksheet by filling out a questionnaire that has been provided. The questionnaire used consisted of 15 statements. The next stage is a field trial. This stage is the last stage in the assessment process of the students’ worksheet. The object of the field trial was 23 students form one class of the eight grades. At this stage the students’ worksheet has been completely revised and used in the learning process. Then the researcher asked the students to give an assessment of the students’ worksheet by filling out a questionnaire that has been provided. The questionnaire used consisted of 13 statements. The purpose of the field trial is to look at the quality of the students’ worksheet based on the aspects of practicality. The last stage of research and development is evaluation. The evaluation was conducted to collect data on the phases of the students’ worksheet. The data were obtained as follows: 1) The assessment was conducted by the expert of subject matter of the students’ worksheet get an average total of 3.81 which were included in the rating categories of "Good" and if it is presented 76.2% thus included in the category of "Very Decent". Thus the students’ worksheet d is declared “Eligible” based on an assessment in terms of material. Based on the result of this assessment the quality of the students’ worksheet is as “Valid”. 2) The assessment was conducted by the expert of design gets total score of 3.62 is included in the rating categories "Good" and if it is presented 72.4% that was included in the category of "Eligible". Thus the students’ worksheet is declared “Eligible” based on an assessment in terms of design. Based on the results of these assessments the quality of the students’ worksheet is declared as “Valid”. 3) The assessment was conducted by the expert of media gets an average total of 4:43 which is included in the assessment categories of "Good"

and if it is presented 8.6% that is included in the category of "Very Decent". Thus the students’ worksheet is “Very Worthy” to be applied in the classroom. Based on the results of these assessments the quality of the students’ worksheet is declared as “Valid”. 4) The results of individual testing obtained an average total of 4.75 which is included in the category ratings "Very Good" and if it is presented 95% that is included in the category of "Very Decent". 5) The results of the small group trial gets an average total of 4:58 which is included in the category ratings "Very Good" and if it is presented 91.6% thus it is included in the category of "Very Decent". 6) The results of field trials gets an average total of 4:43 which is included in the category ratings "Very Good" and if it is presented 88.6% thus it is included in the category of "Very Decent". Based on the results of these assessments the quality of the students’ worksheet is declared “Practical”. Based on the results of the assessment conducted by experts and the students, mathematics worksheets based on CTL of the material of algebra factorization is suitable for using in a teaching and learning tool of mathematics. The Limitations of the study: 1) The costs on research and development is expensive. 2) The Students’ Worksheet generated in this research is only a first level of development which consists of the material of algebra factorization. 3) Test implementation and evaluation of the students' worksheet is only performed on one state junior high school that is SMPN 9 in Muaro Jambi Regency. 4) The quality of the students’ worksheet of this research is only seen in the aspect of validity and practicality.

Conclusion And Recommendation 1. Conclusion Based on the results and discussions above the researcher can conclude the following conclusions: 1) Development of the Students’ Worksheet based on Contextual Teaching and Learning on the material of Algebra factorization using ADDIE model which includes five stages of development, namely: a. Analysis • Analytical of competency The results of the analytical competency relates to curriculum, standard competency, Basic Competency and indicators of learning as well as the time allocation of the material of algebra factorization to be published in the form of students’ worksheets learning device. • Analysis of the students’ characteristics The analytical of the students' characteristics is obtained from interviews to teachers of mathematics of the eight grades of SMPN 9 Muaro Jambi Regency. From the results of these interviews showed that the learning outcome of mathematics subject of the algebra material is still low. This is because students have difficulty

in understanding the material. The heavy use of mathematical symbols in the material of algebra factorization algebra makes the students tend to merely memorizing these symbols without deeper understanding the actual concept in learning the material of algebra factorization. • Analytical of the material The analytical of the material is obtained from interviews to teachers of mathematics of the eight grades of SMPN 9 Muaro Jambi Regency. From the interviews found that in providing the material on parts algebra factorization that the teacher explains more conventional materials. While in teaching the material of algebra factorization requires a special media in the teaching and learning process. This is because of there are many specific terminologies used in the materials of algebra factorization rate so that the learning process requires special media to make the students are more easily to understand the material. Under these conditions the researcher chose the material of algebra factorization in the development of the students’ worksheet based on the CTL. b. Design At this stage, the design of learning tools such as worksheets that includes the preparation of the product, the preparation of the framework of the students’ worksheet, and the preparation of assessment instruments. c. Development At this stage there are three activities were conducted: (1) the process of making the students’ worksheet, (2) the validation of the students’ worksheet by the expert of subject matter, the expert of design, and the expert of media, and (3) the revision of the students’ worksheets based on the opinions and recommendations getting from the experts. The result of the development is the assessment or expert validation, and revision of the students’ worksheets in order to get it easy to test in the teaching and learning activities. d. Implementation In the implementation stage includes the testing of individual, small group trial, and field trials are carried out in SMP N 9 Muaro Jambi Regency. The test was done 3 times meetings. The data is obtained by individual testing, small group trial evaluation, and evaluation of field trials. e. Evaluation In the evaluation stage the students’ worksheets was validated by the expert of subject matter experts, the expert of design, the expert of media, the results of the evaluation of individual testing, the results of the evaluation of small group trial, and the results of the evaluation of field trials. Based on the data analysis it is stated that the students’ worksheet is suitable for using as a teaching and learning tool. The quality of the students’ worksheet based on the aspect of validity and practicality aspects are as follows:

a. The quality of the students’ worksheet based on the aspect of validity according to the expert of subject matter experts, the expert of design, and the expert of media shows that the students’ worksheet gets a “Very Decent” category, Decent, and Very Decent with a percentage of 76.2%, 72.4% and 88.6%. b. The quality of the students’ worksheet based on the practicality aspects of field trials showed that the students’ worksheet has practical value with the percentage of 88.6% in the category of “Really Practical” for using it as a teaching and learning tool in the classroom.

2. Recommendation Based on the feasibility of the students’ worksheet, the weaknesses of the students’ worksheet and the limitations of the study the researcher provides some advices of the utilization of the students’ worksheet and for further development of the students’ worksheet as follows: 1. The students’ worksheet which is based on CTL needs to be developed more widely that is the materials presented not only discuss one subject matter, but also covers an expanded material. 2. The students’ worksheet needs to be developed further in terms of exercises items. Variations of exercises items could maximize the use of the students’ worksheet. 3. For the next researchers the field trials should be carried out more widely. Trials are not only carried out in one school and in one classroom, but also the field trial should be held in more than one school and more than one classroom. 4. For the researchers the students’ worksheet assessment should not only be seen from the aspect of validity and its practicality but also it should be seen from the aspect of the effectiveness of the students’ worksheet. 5. The students’ worksheets which have been developed is expected to be effectively used in Junior High Schools which has similarities characteristics of the field tested school.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 80-88, June 2017

Identifying EFL Learners Essay Writing Difficulties and Sources: A Move towards Solution The Case of Second Year EFL Learners at Tlemcen University

Asma BELKHIR and Radia BENYELLES Tlemcen University Larocade, Tlemcen

Abstract. It is commonly known that EFL learners need to be skillful enough at the four language skills namely: listening, speaking, reading and writing to have a good command in the target language. Typically, teaching/learning how to write in a foreign language is not an easy task for EFL teachers and learners alike. Though countless research and efforts have been done by researchers and teachers to develop the writing skill among these learners, many EFL students still face a number of serious difficulties that prohibit them from constructing satisfactory essay writing. Actually, the present article aims primarily to identify EFL learners essay writing difficulties together with the sources associated with their difficulties in an attempt to find out the possible remedies for the achievement of better productions. Data as regards the topic in question were collected by means of questionnaire, interviews and some students‟ finale essay writing drafts. The attained data reveal that students meet difficulties in both coherence and cohesion due to the lack of reading, first language transfer and low writing practice. In hope to decrease students‟ essay writing difficulties, attention to these sources is required. Keywords: coherence; cohesion; essay writing; difficulties; sources.

1. Introduction Countless of research works have been written about the teaching-learning process. It is commonly known that to master the language, EFL learners need to be skillful enough at the four language skills namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing. This latter appears to be the most difficult language skill to be acquired by EFL learners and even by native speakers since it requires much time and effort.. In this vein, teaching/ learning how to write plays a crucial role in language teaching/ learning classrooms. Though it is important, many EFL students face a serious number of difficulties that prohibit them from constructing satisfactory essay writing. In this respect, the following research questions are designed:

1- Which difficulties do EFL learners often encounter in essay writing? 2- What are the main sources behind their difficulties in essay writing? 3- How can EFL learners improve their essay writing? With these questions in mind, the following hypotheses must be considered: a) The difficulties that EFL learners often encounter in essay writing could be in coherence and cohesion. b) The lack of reading is perhaps the main source behind EFL learners essay writing. c) EFL learners may improve their essay writing by building their reading and writing habits. Therefore, the present paper attempts to account for which difficulties EFL learners encounter the most in essay writing, and to which sources are these difficulties related to, along with finding out possible solutions to unveil difficulties in essay writing. To inform these research questions, the investigator selects three research instruments; students‟ questionnaire, teachers‟ semi structured interview, and students‟ essay writing analysis to verify the research hypotheses.

2. The Writing Skill Defined The study of writing, along with the other modes of language, has received attention from various scholars. It is approached by Harmer (2007), as a process that should be undergone over different stages including, the drafting stage, the editing stage, the planning stage and the final draft. Similarly, Damiani et al. (2011) regards the writing skill as the process that calls planning, reflection and the organization of ideas, in addition to the required effort and attention that EFL students are invited to respect. Indeed, the definition that suites the objectives of this paper is the one put forward by Bell and Burnaby (1997,p. 148) .They regard the writing skill as a cognitive skill that writers are required to master with attention to sentence structure, appropriate selection of vocabulary items, a careful attention towards spelling and punctuation. They add that learners need to master the linguistic knowledge and also the ability to integrate information coherently and cohesively in a written discourse. With respect to the above mentioned, some EFL learners achieve low proficiency level in writing essays. Therefore the following section is intended to highlight the most prevalent essay writing difficulties that these learners encounter along with some potential sources of these difficulties.

3. Essay Writing Difficulties According to Koch (2004), coherence denotes the ability of the writer to combine the arrangement of sentences altogether in the text so that the reader decodes and understands it. Such a notion calls attention towards the consideration of coherence in any piece of writing as a cognitive process in which the writer is invited to mind the language they are using, the vocabulary they are selecting and the bound arrangement of sentences to form unity which enables the reader to appreciate the piece of writing ( Favero,2010; Lee 2002). Put simply, coherence

is the ability to produce meaningful correct sentences with the appropriate use of vocabulary items and obeying certain rules of words arrangement. In this light, an undertaken study done by Qaddumi (1995) shows that EFL students face difficulties in finding ways to employ the different types of sentences and the ill use of some cohesive devices. In the eyes of Halliday and Hasan (1976) “the concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text” (p. 4). Put simply, cohesion is the relation that exists between lexis and grammar, i.e., Endophoric relation, as well as how grammar and vocabulary facilitate the understanding of sentence sequences within a text, that is, Exospheric relation. It was emphasized by Bailey (2003) that text cohesion refers to the clarity and readability in which the writer needs to establish a link through the use of various cohesive devices including: reference, ellipsis, substitution, conjunctions and lexical cohesion. In this respect, Cox et.al (1990) found that good readers tend to use the aforesaid cohesive devices more wisely and appropriately than poor readers do. Such a result indicates that reading plays a significant role in acquiring the art of writing. Vocabulary serves a key the requirement for ideas to flow in the right ground. In this regard, many researchers in the field attempt to identify the reason behind such a difficulty. Hemmati (2002), interviewed thirty (30) Iranian EFL student writers concerning vocabulary difficulties in their writing. He finds that these learners have difficulties in both linguistic and performance. That is to say, these writers lack the linguistic knowledge of the target language along with the inability to perform this knowledge into appropriate contexts. He concludes that the lack reading and the writing practice into the English language are the main reasons behind such a difficulty. It is safe to add that EFL learners encounter various writing difficulties in terms of grammar, spelling and punctuation. The following section is devoted to discuss the sources that affect these learners from achieving appropriate essay writing.

4. Sources Affecting Poor EFL Writing This heading covers the sources behind EFL learners essay writing difficulties that are said to be the lack of motivation, lack of reading and the impact of students‟ first language into the target language writing.

4.1. Lack of Motivation Actually, motivation is essential in every needed success. As far as language learning is concerned, two (02) essential questions are raised; why do students show low motivation to write in the foreign language? And how to raise their motivation to write? .In hope to answer these two questions, Harmer (2006a) claims that there are various factors that prevent them from writing. First, fear of failure, that is, fear of not being able to achieve their goals especially in contexts where they are asked to reflect their knowledge about the language and their abilities in putting this knowledge in different frameworks. Second, the fear from committing mistakes is another factor that prohibits them from writing. In this sense, EFL students feel uncomfortable over the structure of the essay or any piece of writing that they are intended to follow. Therefore, failure comes to

play. Thirdly, there are some learners who are uncertain to show their productions; they shadow their weaknesses and convince themselves not to carry on writing as they feel a beforehand failure. In order to decrease this, EFL teachers are invited to bring relaxed topics to make their learners feel at ease to voice their thought, Dornyei (2005).Anxiety is another issues among these learners as it most of the time engenders to negative attitudes towards the writing into the target language. Hence, instructors need to establish what is called “writing habit” among these students.

4.2. Lack of Reading In fact, evidences has shown that better readers are better writers and better writers are more likely to language exposure than poorer readers. In this ground, Raimes (1994, p. 42) stresses the importance of reading into the foreign language by saying that “the more our students read, the more they become familiar with the vocabulary, idiom, sentence patterns, organizational flow, and cultural assumptions of native speakers of the language” . In the same vein, Kroll (1997) claims that “it is reading that gives the writer the feel for the look and texture of reader based prose” (p. 48). In addition to the efforts EFL teachers do to raise their competence to write, reading is approached to be the fruitful strategy that dictates implicitly the safe ground to be followed and it becomes the sample for students to appreciate. All in all, lack of reading is among the sources that can cause dissatisfaction in EFL essay writing.

4.3. Influence of the First Language on Target Language Writing In addition to the lack of reading among EFL students, they still encounter another obstacle that hinders them from writing. In this respect, almost all students mention in the construction phase, Arabic is activated in their minds instead of thinking in the target language. Such a fact has inspired some researchers to investigate this dilemma. Thought EFL teachers do insist the need for EFL students to think and write in English, their students sometimes deviate from such a call. In this regard, an investigation done by Frieddlander‟s (1997, p. 109) shows that “writers will transfer writing abilities and strategies, whether good or deficient, from their first language to their second, or third language”. Another view has been voiced by Carson, Carell, Silberstein, Kroll and Kuehan (1990) who point out that it is not necessary for EFL learners to be good in the first language to be so in the second or the foreign language. However, as mentioned by Blanchard and Root (2004, p. 204) “writing remains a difficult skill to acquire and each language has its own writing conventions that the writer needs to learn them without interfering with other language or languages”. The section that follows attempts to provide overtly the sample selected for the study, with the identification of the research instruments to see what results are to be obtained.

5. Research Participants The selected participants taking part in this research work are second year LMD (Licence.Master. Doctorate) students with their C.W.E (Comprehension of Written Expression) teachers. The former are thirty (30) informants; 14 males

and 16 chosen at random and are enrolled in the academic year of 2015-2016. The latter are five teachers of C.W.E course; 3 males and 2 females, who have taught this course for at least four years period of time.

6. Research Instruments The investigator has used three research tools to cross check the research hypotheses that are the questionnaire; being administered to students, the semistructured interview for C.W.E. teachers and students essay writing analysis. The researcher has designed the questionnaire wisely in terms of form and content to make each enquiry clearly understood in students mind. For C.W.E. teachers, the researcher used the semi-structured interview to bring variety in terms of research instruments from one hand; and from the other hand to collect rapid answers and the researcher can ask for clarifications and further interpretations. The third research tool employed in this study is used to record evidences about students‟ drafts.

7. Data Analysis The current investigation, the questionnaire is employed purposefully to answer the first research question which reads „what are the difficulties that EFL learners often encounter when writing an essay?‟ The researcher has designed two questions; the first one was intended to account for which difficulties they encounter in essay writing. Students were given some suggested difficulties to select from them and they were free to choose whatever difficulty they meet. The gathered data reveals that (17), that is, 57% meet difficulties in cohesion and 43% face coherence difficulties. Similar results are also found by Pelcovà (2015) who notes that cohesion and coherence are other important issues that need to be mastered and attained by EFL students. During the second phase of research, students were given the same instruction but for this time they were asked to select only one difficulty the still meet after their remedial work. The findings show that 33% face difficulty in coherence, 27% in lexis and 23% in cohesion. Therefore the first research hypothesis is valid since students essay writing analysis and interviewing C.W.E teachers regarding the above question reflects the same findings. In hope to answer the second research hypothesis the investigator has interviewed C.W.E teachers who can provide valid data as they have acquired experience in the field of essay writing. When interviewing then about the source behind students coherence and cohesion difficulties, three, i.e., 60% regard the lack of reading as the main source while the remaining approach low writing practice 20%and the influence of the first language into the writing of the target language (English) 20%.Hence, it comes clear to record that the second research hypothesis is valid. As far as the third research hypothesis is concerned, the revealed data from teachers‟ semistructured interview shows that in order for these learners to achieve satisfaction and construct a sound essay writing they are urgently invited to build their reading and writing habits since reading and writing are seen interrelated and are two sides of the same coin. Teachers insist that reading is regarded as an

input for EFL learners in which this input is for one reason or another can be retrieved for fulfilling different purposes. The same instruction was asked to students in students‟ questionnaire and the same idea was said. All what have been discussed above is going to be summarized in table and bare graph. Table1. Students Essay Writing Difficulties Essay Writing Difficulties Absolute Relative Frequency

Essay Writing Difficulties Coherence Cohesion Lexis

Absolute Frequency

Relative Frequency

13 7 8

33% 23% 27%

Influence L1 into the writing of L2 20%

Lack of Reading 60%

Low Writing Practice 2O%

Pie-chart 1. Sources Affecting Essay Writing

It is wiser to mention that EFL learners and C.W.E teachers are called to combine their efforts to make the teaching and the learning process goes in the right way. In this light, the following section covers some practical suggestions and recommendation the remedy coherence and cohesion difficulties and to promote the teaching of C.W.E.

8. Suggestions and Recommendations The first thing need to be done is to create an environment that boosts learners to disclose thoughts, attitudes, of course, with the present of the instructor. The latter needs to control students‟ ideas and their relatedness regarding the topic discussed. Such an activity is best taught by engaging them in group and pair works in order to encourage them to work cooperatively. In this vein, Storch (2007) suggests that arranging students in pairs and groups permit them to combine the necessary linguistic resources to come up with new constructed knowledge. It is further important for the teacher to assign extension activities or homework assignments (Bishop & Verleger, 2013; Hughes, 2012) to promote

their students‟ autonomy and responsibility, especially when dealing with advanced students. In this learning environment, the teacher may use the Process Learning Approach (PLA, henceforth) which focuses on the way ideas are formulated and organized in writing regardless grammar and spelling mistakes that they commit. In order to achieve a sense of creativeness, relatedness and effectiveness of ideas, teachers need to bring topics that help students to generate sufficient ideas (Tribble, 1997). At this level, the instructor‟s role is to supply language support, if needed, so that the flow of ideas cannot be inhibited. When the task is finished, the teacher designs a spider map on the board and invites them to voice their thought. The next step is to open debate to calculate which ideas need to be expended and are relevant to the topic. Afterward, the construction of the essay is required and needs to be done within group members. Within the Process Approach, the teacher‟s emphasis is to make them express their ideas at the same time developing implicitly coherence in their writing. The continuous use of this approach in groups gives positive results in terms of clarity and unity. With respect to the above mentioned approach, it is wiser to call for Genre- Based Pedagogy. The latter is an approach to language teaching which aims to help learners understand the grammatical and the lexical features of different rhetoric contexts. In this concern, EFL students are subject to explore some principles about how meaningful passages are constructed. In this vein, Joyce & Feez,2012; Droga & Humphey,2003; Derewianka & Jones, 2012; Rose & Martin, 2012 put forward three basic principles. The first principle is that language is functional. That is to say, the purpose of the text dictates the genre and register that should be used. The second principle is covers the fact that learning is a social activity in which a sound collaboration needs to occur between the student and and the teacher (Joyce & Feez, 2012). Pedagogy makes knowledge visible is the last principle that explicit language teaching of how language works to make meaning, the text organization and linguistic forms need to be reflected clearly in students‟ mind. Therefore, the triangulation between the aforesaid principles in addition to the PLA appear to crucial to foster good quality in writing. When the teacher realizes that students are competent enough in making their essay writing coherent, he/she needs to integrate the Product Approach which focuses on grammar and spelling. Therefore, the execution of these two approaches to essay writing develop unity and lessen, intuitively, mistakes in grammar and spelling. The following activities are suggested to improve students‟ essay writing in terms of coherence. Teachers may design some activities where students are exposed to an essay in which some sentences are redundant and have nothing to do with the core of the essay. Such an activity builds on learners the sense of awareness and their critical thinking in terms of coherence. In hope to make these learners recognize the different types of cohesive ties, it is preferable to provide a lesson on then and invite then to read a particular paragraph or essays first to see whether they store them in their minds and second to let them know how they are used.

9. Conclusion To sum up, constructing essay writing in the target language is not a trouble-free task to do and an easy activity to handle. It requires much time and effort. EFL learners are subject to meet different essay writing difficulties that hinder them from building effective essays. In this concern, the researcher has conducted an empirical study which takes place at Tlemcen University with second year L.M.D students of the English Language Department. To collect data, the investigator has used the questionnaire, semi-structured interview and students essay writing analysis as research instruments that help the researcher to gather and record data both quantitatively and qualitatively. It was reflected that these learners meet difficulties in coherence and cohesion, and the source of such difficulties are due to the lack of reading. It was recommended that in hope to unveil and remedy these difficulties, EFL students are called to build their reading and writing habits and the above suggestions are of great importance for these learners to construct effective essays.

References

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Rose, D., & Martin, J. (2012). Learning to write, reading to learn: Genre, knowledge, and pedagogy in the sydney school. Sheffield: Equinox. Storch, N. (2007). Investigating the merits of pair work on a text editing in ESL classes. Language Teaching Research, 11 (2), 143-159. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1362168807074600 Tribble, C. (1997). Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 89-100, June 2017

Conquering Worrisome Word Problems â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Algebra Success Vicki-Lynn Holmes, Karla Spence, Jane Finn, Shelia McGee Ingram, and Libbey Horton Hope College Holland, Michigan

Abstract. High school students can struggle with word problems in upper level math classes. Causes for this struggle could include lower reading comprehension, limited mathematic vocabulary, and difficulty changing words to algebraic expressions. This article proposes three techniques to help teachers instruct these struggling students that include (a) organization by difficulty of comprehension and computation (b) scaffolding and (c) utilizing the Explain, Practice and Assess (EPA) strategy.

Keywords: math word problems; instruction; high school; struggling students

Introduction Word problems -- the bane of high school algebra students! Often word problems cause anxiety and confusion, leading to the fear and dislike of mathematics for many high school students (Chapman 2002; Haghverdi & Wiest, 2016; VanSciver, 2008) lasting throughout their mathematics careers. Word problem angst negatively influences how students perceive not only mathematics, but also science, technology, and engineering as well (Didis & Erbas, 2015; Kribbs & Rogsowsky, 2016; Sisco-Tayor, Fung & Swanson, 2014; VanSciver, 2008). Word problem success is important in terms of algebra because word problems show and model how our physical world can be interpreted and understood using algebra. When students see the practical application of topics used in word problems, they comprehend and become more invested in the mathematics (Chapman 2002; Lim, 2016; Wilburne, Marinak, & Strickland, 2011). This is especially true when dealing with at-risk populations whose understanding of word problems significantly increases when their content is made authentic and culturally relevant (Dominguez, 2016; Wilburne, Marinak & Strickland, 2011). Mastery of word problems is also linked to success on criterion referenced (standardized) tests (Bates & Wiest, 2004; Fuchs, Compton, Fuchs, Powell,

Schumacher, Hamlet, & Vukovic, 2012; Fuchs, Schumacher, Long, Namkung, Malone, Wang, & Changas, 2016; Hickendorff, 2013; Sisco-Tayor, Fung & Swanson, 2014; Jitendra, Sczesniak, & Deatline-Buchman, 2005; Powell, Fuchs, Cirino, Fuchs, Compton, & Changas, P. C. 2015) and is highly correlated (r =.37) with working memory (Peng, Namkung, Barnes, & Sun, 2016), resulting in increased quality of computational skills and algebraic reasoning (Jitendra, Griffin, Haria, Leh, Adams, & Kaduventtoor, 2007; Powell & Fuchs, 2014). These abilities are crucial in future mathematics and science classes as these fields require the skills essential to solving word problems. The word problem hurdle has not been conquered. While there is much literature on elementary (1-6th grade) strategies (Boonen, Van der Shoot, Van Wesel, De Vries & Jolles, 2013) Depaepe, DeCorte, & Verschaffel, 2010; Moreno, Ozogl, & Reisslein, 2011, Nortvedt, Gustafsson & Lehre, 2016), there is little research on secondary Algebra I (8-12th grade) strategies (Bush & Karp, 2013; Haas, 2005; Jitendra et al., 2013). Since students are still struggling with understanding word problems, it was imperative to find a solution. One answer to the word problem angst lies in changing our pedagogy – in summary, how word problems are introduced and taught. In secondary education, word problems should be approached as would any other algebraic skill; that is, in an organized unit, where word problems are categorized by content (type) and level of difficulty. After a review of current practices and multiyear classroom experience, three problem areas needed to be addressed in the unit: organization, scaffolding, and practice/assessment. Within the unit, word problems should be organized by decoding difficulty (conversions of words to algebraic expressions) and computational difficulty. Another essential component to the solution of word problems is scaffolding. This involves going from the simplest type of word problem to the more difficult in two arenas: variable-identification complexity (predefined to non-defined plus) and relationship complexity (development of the equation). Finally, the ExplainPractice-Assess or EPA strategy needs be utilized. This EPA strategy gives teachers the opportunity to take the class as a whole and make it progress to mastery of word problems; thus, bringing every student along with this learning so every student can succeed. After a review of current practices, three problem areas were found. These areas are identified below and are followed by a presentation of a viable solution.

Literature Review on Current Word Problem Pedagogy Many teachers feel ill equipped to handle word problems (Brown, 2012, Chapman, 2002; Depaepe, et al., 2010; Green, 2014; Wright, 2014) and either ignore them or tack a few problems to the end of a lesson (Snarks, 2014). They are often given an abbreviated explanation or algorithm with very little followup practice provided (Chapman, 2002; Powell, 2011; VanSciver, 2008). In secondary education, word problems are not approached as would any other algebraic skill — in an organized unit, categorized by word problem content (type) and level of difficulty (simple to complex). Instead, word problems are

treated as isolated add-ons to a different topical unit in an effort to show application of the algebraic material taught (Benson, 1994; Burger, 2007; Larson, 1996; McConnell, 1998). Textbook pedagogy mirrors what has been generally taught in the classroom. In a survey of the major Algebra I textbooks, including Addison-Wesley, McDougal Littell, Houfflin Mifflin, Hickory Grove, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, and ScottForeman, it was found that textbooks varied widely in the extent to which word problems were explained. The number of exercised examples that were practiced and assessed also varied in the major texts (not including supplemental material). On average, three word problems per content topic were addressed, and these were predominately add-ons at the ends of the lessons. A major problem with word problems involves reading comprehension, which is largely rooted in vocabulary knowledge. Vocabulary transference was emphasized where words were translated into algebraic expressions (e.g. “and” means add or “of” means multiply). However, students were not internalizing the vocabulary as it was presented (Didis & Erbas, 2015; Haghverdi & Wiest, 2016; Holmes, Spence, Finn & Ingram, 2017). Students were learning a broad range of vocabulary terms, which they, themselves, had to know and appropriately use in a variety of different word problems without sufficient guidance or practice. Because each word problem required its own specific set of words that the students had to identify, success required mastery of a moving target. Students did not have the opportunity to see and appreciate one approach or one set of vocabulary terms before having to apply another. This means that students were not realistically given the chance to achieve mastery. Consider the following three word problems that demonstrate the difficulties encountered in the current practice of teaching word problems (as explained above): Word Problem 1: Two more than three times a number is equal to thirty minus that number. Find the number. Word Problem 2: One complementary angle is ten more than the other. Find the measures of these two angles. Word Problem 3: Izzie has seven more dimes than nickels. Altogether she has $2.95. How many nickels and dimes does she have? In all these word problems there is the vocabulary component – changing words to algebraic expressions and equations. However, word problems should be grouped by considering the degree of transference and computational difficulty. In Word Problem 1, it is more or less simply a translation from words to an algebraic equation. In Word Problem 2, two things must be considered when writing the equation. One consideration is writing the expressions for the two angles involved (x and x + 10) and the second is showing how these two angle

expressions are related by using the definition of complementary [x + (x+10) = 90]. In Word Problem 3, when money is involved (coins), the expression has to take into account both the number of each coin type [x = # of nickels; x+7 = # of dimes] and the value of each coin type [5x = value of nickels; 5(x+7) = value of dimes]. The final step requires integrating the value of the coin, the number of the coin, and their sum (total value) into one equation [5x + 5(x+7) = 295; cents]. Additionally, students have to take into consideration unit value, recognizing that the equation must either be written in cents or dollars, and the appropriate conversions performed. In word problems that involve money, each quantity that adds up to the sum requires two considerations by the students. The solution of word problems needs to be treated as a distinct skill. Word problems are a unique blend of practical application, algebraic reading comprehension and computational skills. Traditionally, however, all of these individual skills (comprehension and computation) have usually been lumped together in the handling of word problems. The assumption is made that students can look at these three problems, assess the appropriate approach in each case, and appreciate the essential differences between them. Moreover, this assumption is made of students just beginning their study of algebraic word problems. In order to achieve success in additional word problems, the students would have had to make all of these assumptions correctly – in addition to mastering the computational skills of the lessons. Teachers unintentionally required more of students than they were able to achieve, simply because the complexity of even the simplest set of word problems was not recognized This resulted in a variety of disjointed word problems at the end of most lessons which supported a lesson’s content, but did not aide in students’ ability to master solving word problems. Once again, students did not have the opportunity to see and appreciate one approach before having to apply another. Nor were students giving the opportunity to practice and internalize one approach to mastery. By not categorizing word problems by content difficulty, students were presented with a challenge that was impossible for all but the brightest.

A Viable Solution In summation, after a careful analysis of current teaching practices, three areas in which the approach to word problems can be strengthened were identified: (a) organization by difficulty of comprehension and computation (including decoding), (b) scaffolding, and (c) the EPA strategy (Explain, Practice, and Assess) (Holmes et al., 2017). Organization. Organization is the key to a successful approach to introducing and teaching word problems (Holmes et al., 2017). The organization, which groups word problems by type, stresses similarities among the word problems. These similarities are based upon decoding difficulty (conversions of words to algebraic expressions) and computational difficulty as expressed earlier. This is the easiest way for students to internalize the strategies needed to attack a word problem. This approach guides the students in looking at word problems,

selecting appropriate approaches, and appreciating the essential differences among them. Having the student reword the problem using a vocabulary that he or she can fully understand may also help with organization as well as comprehension of the problem. Once an individual group of similar word problems is mastered, the strategy or method used to solve the problem can be applied to new, but similar, word problems. This should enable student success with word problems, reduce anxiety, and greatly diminish negative perceptions of mathematics in general. As reviewed earlier, most modern algebra texts deal with word problems as a totality, where a smattering of varied word problems appear at the end of an exercise set. Because similarities among these problems are not emphasized, students cannot easily determine/identify the solution method required. Word problems do not appear distinct, separate from one another, and have no common solution pattern (method of solving the problem). By classifying word problems by type, this lack of solution and strategy continuity is eliminated. Scaffolding. Word problems should start with the simplest type and gradually work up to more difficult problems. Scaffolding is not readily apparent in the traditional treatment of word problems; in most cases, an assortment of word problems of vastly different difficulty levels is attached to the end of a lesson. Within that smattering of word problems, the students are never given the chance to start at the beginning and take simple steps towards the understanding of how to do word problems. The students are taught how to approach the content lesson, but not how to approach the solving of word problems in general â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the skill that they lack and that needs to be developed. After extensive study of the word problems often encountered involving one equation and one unknown, one possible organization scheme (Holmes et al., 2017) begins with a variable that is predefined and scaffolds up to a variable that is not predefined and involves additional vocabulary or content knowledge. The following exemplify this progression: Word Problem 4 (Predefined): Genelle is five less than twice her daughter Rachelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s age. If Genelle is 45 years old, how old is her daughter? Word Problem 5 (Not Predefined): The length of a rectangle is twice the width. The perimeter is 48 inches. Find the length and the width of the rectangle. Word Problem 6 (Not Predefined-Plus): Aarika is selling raffle tickets: two-dollar tickets for a chance to win an iPad; five-dollar tickets for a chance to win a Dell desktop. Aarika sold twice as many two-dollar tickets as five-dollar tickets. Her total ticket sales amounted to $45.00. How many two-dollar and five-dollar tickets did she sell?

These three word problems exemplify one possible way to scaffold simple word problems involving one equation with one unknown. These word problems are scaffolded two ways: variable-identification complexity (predefined to nonpredefined plus) and relationship complexity (development of the equation). Variable-identification Complexity. Variable identification complexity (predefined to non-predefined plus) involves expressing one variable in terms of another and identifying the relationship between the two expressions. However, at the simplest, predefined level, the relationships are given (defined); all necessary information is stated in the problem. The relationship between the two variable expressions can be found within the problem. Example #4 involves the expressions x and 2x-5. These expressions were based only on information given in the problem; no other relationships needed to be used (predefined). These are the simplest word problems in this category. At the more complex non-predefined level, the equation is based upon additional information, most often a matter of algebraic vocabulary such as complementary/supplementary or geometric vocabulary such as perimeter. It can also involve the complex relationship between items of different monetary value. In order to solve these problems, students must make use of information not explicitly stated in the problem. Examples #5 and #6 are both non-predefined word problem types. In Example #5 the additional information required is the definition of perimeter, and it must be used to set up the equation: w=x, l=2x, p=2L + 2w; 48=2(x) + 2(2x). Example #6 requires an understanding of the relationship between items of different monetary value. x = number of $5 raffle tickets, 2x = number of $2 raffle tickets. So, students must understand how the monetary value of the tickets sold determines the final equation: 5x + 2(2x) = $45 In terms of scaffolding (difficulty level), problems involving money are more complex than problems requiring additional vocabulary. In this sequence of word problems, students moved from the simplest to a more difficult form. Relationship Complexity. Relationship complexity or development of the equation refers to the degree of complexity involved in the relationship between the two expressions for the quantities identified in the problem. In Example #4, the simplest word problem, the two quantities are given by the expressions: x=Rachel’s age, 2x-5 = Genelle’s age. The wording of the problem indicates that Genelle’s age is 45. Translating that, the equation becomes 2x-5 = 45. Example #5 is a slightly more complex word problem in that the definition of perimeter (2w + 2l = p) is required. Substituting x for the width and 2x for the length, the

final equation becomes 2x +2(2x) = 48. The final example is the most complex, requiring the monetary relationship between the total value of the two-dollar tickets and the five-dollar tickets: 5x equals the monetary value of the $5 tickets and 2(2x) equals the monetary value of the $2 tickets; their sum is $45, resulting in the equation 5x + 2(2x) = $45. In addition, care must be given to keep all monetary values in either dollars or cents, especially when introducing this level of complexity. Notice, that in this sequence of word problems computational vocabulary is kept simple. Twice (2x) was used in each level of word problem difficulty and calculations are kept simple. Hence, the increased difficulty results from the increased complexity involved in the relationship of the expressions for the quantities used in each problem. The challenge of word problems encountered by the students is not exacerbated by computational difficulties. Explain-Practice-Assess (EPA) Strategy. As each individual category of word problems is introduced, the approach should be explained in detail as the example problems are being solved. As evidenced-based practice dictates, a good explanation involves three steps: (a) the teacher explains one or two examples in detail as s/he models the solution; (b) the third and fourth examples are completed with teacher-prompted student involvement (guided instruction); (c) the fifth and sixth examples are student-led. The number of examples in each step is situationally determined. An advanced class may only need two examples; while an at-risk class may require more. In addition, student questions should be strongly encouraged at each level. At level c, the teacher should monitor each student with the goal of having the entire class reach a basic level of understanding (to the extent possible). This is done prior to allowing students to individually practice the material. This Explain-PracticeAssess (EPA) strategy gives teachers the opportunity to take the class as a whole and make it progress through the material, leaving no child behind. Multiple practice exercises should be provided, so that the students can practice what they are learning discretely, meaning the students are given the opportunity to master each level of word problem before proceeding to the next level. Three practices are suggested. With the first practice, students will make a variety of mistakes; this is to be expected. In the second practice, students have corrected the previous errors and perhaps make new ones. In the third practice, the hope is that students will have mastered this limited lesson â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the one type of word problem introduced. Should a fourth practice be required, the first practice can be re-used. In this way, students are very clearly given the opportunity to master the material at each step, leading to success and a positive attitude toward word problems. The final step involves assessment to determine level of mastery. The assessment should mirror the practices. The only real hurdle in the EPA strategy is to harness the involvement of the student. As long as the students are engaged in the process, mastery is assured. If students practice one thing, repeatedly, with teacher monitoring, they will succeed.

By classifying word problems based upon similar strategies and teaching each type in succession, students begin to recognize patterns which facilitate comprehension of the words; they see how each type of word problem can be written algebraically. When word problems are not categorized, but en masse, with every word problem being different, students have a harder time recognizing and then attacking the problems. The repetition and categorizing of the word problems assist the learning process. As always the numbers used in these word problems are kept manageable. This facilitates understanding rather than time spent on challenging arithmetic. Unfortunately this may lead some students to guess at the answer, bypassing the equation altogether. For each type of word problem, the variable must be identified; the equation must be stated; and the question must be answered. Insistence on these three steps prevents students from taking a shortcut that will harm them when presented with more complex word problems later. The following is a graphic organizer that summarizes this treatment of word problems involving one equation and one unknown. Word problems dealt with in this manner will have been broken down, categorized, scaffolded, explained and practiced so that student success is assured. Students will complete these graphic organizers where the last two columns will need to be filled out by the students (see Table 1). Please note that in each case, it is essential for each student to write the equation even if it is possible to guess the correct answer. Table 1: Word Problem Classification Graphic Organizer Relationship values pre-defined Number Equality

Example

If five less than 6 times a number is equal to 10 more than 3 times a number, what is the number? Consecutive Numbers consecutive The sum of 3 consecutive numbers is 54. What are the numbers? even The sum of consecutive three even numbers is 78. What are the numbers? odd consecutive The sum of three odd

Variable Identification

Pattern Attack

x = the number

6x â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 5 = 10 + 3x

x=5

x = the consecutive number

first

x + x+1 + x+2 = 54

x = 17 17, 18, 19

x = the first consecutive even number

x + x+2 + x+4 = 78

x = 24 24, 26, 28

x = the consecutive

x + x+2 + x+4 = 99

x = 31 31, 33, 35

first odd

Answer

numbers is 99. number What are the numbers? Note: Odds and evens work the same; this will have to be explained.

Relational Values not predefined Sums of numbers

Example One number is 12 more than another. Their sum is 32. What are the numbers?

Variable Identification, Pattern & Attack x = one number x + 12 = another number

Answer 10, 22

x + x + 12 = 32

Note: In word problems of this type, the first sentence often defines quantities, while the second sentence defines the relationship of the quantities. It is critical in setting up these word problems that the explanation includes defining the second quantity (e.g. x + 12) in terms of the first (e.g. x).

Area and Perimeter

Angles complementary

supplementary

Relational Values not predefined plus Money Problems involving quantities which have different monetary values

The length of a rectangle is seven more than the width. The perimeter is 54. Find the length and width of the rectangle.

x = the width x + 7 = the length

width = 10 length = 17

Two angles are complementary. One angle is twenty more than the other. Find the measures of these two angles. Two angles are supplementary. One angle is twice the other. Find the measures of these two angles.

x = one angle x + 20 complement

Example

Variable Identification, Pattern & Attack x = the number of peppermint patties 15+x = the number of jaw breakers

2x +2(x+7) = 54

550 , 350 =

its

x + x+20 = 90 x = one angle 2x= its supplement

600 , 1200

x + 2x = 180

Answer

Peppermint patties 8 cost 25 cents each. jawbreakers Jaw breakers cost 35 7 peppermint cents each. Starving patties Adele wants to buy 15 pieces of candy for .25x +.35 (15+x) = $4.55 $4.55. How many peppermint patties and jawbreakers can she purchase? Note: It may be easier for students to work in cents whenever possible, thus avoiding decimals. This last equation would then become 25đ?&#x2018;Ľ + 35(15 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;Ľ) = 455.

Conclusion In support of this treatment of word problems, there is anecdotal evidence available. One of the authors has used this pedagogy for over eight years and has met with substantial success. Students have achieved significantly better mastery of word problems and no longer avoid them. Students no longer struggled or expressed frustration and dislike for the word problems. Classroom assistants, including one who worked with Algebra I students for many years, commented that this method of tackling word problems gave students an opportunity to experience success not otherwise found. This assistant saw that these students were understanding word problems, doing well on assessments, and displaying a much more positive attitude than in the past. This method has been explained in detail in the textbook, Now, I Can Understand Algebra, and is being piloted in several schools in western Michigan. While the success has been mostly anecdotal, this next step will provide empirical evidence. It is important to note that the strength of this method of teaching word problems is not in that the students memorize types of word problems, but that the students are given scaffolded word problems of differing types in order to be able to better classify and learn how to attack the word problems. The key in this particular method is teaching the students how to breakdown and analyze word problems -- a requisite skill needed in mathematics generally. While empirically, students grades have risen using this method, the true key to success is that students were understanding the process and using the process to attack other word problems such as two equation, two unknown types. In this article, examples were provided for one equation, one unknown word problem types, but this same treatment (categorizing, scaffolding, EPA) can be applied to many different kinds of word problems (e.g., functions including linear, quadratic, and cubic; two equations, two unknowns; and percentages). The word problem unit described here gives students the opportunity to develop word problem skills from the beginning and provides a good foundation for future word problem study. These skills can be transferred to more complex problems, which involve applying strategies to new concrete and abstract situations.

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mathematical problem solving. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 115-127. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.115 Jitendra, A. K., Sczesnink E., & Deatline-Buchman, A. (2005). An exploratory validation of curriculum-based mathematical word problem solving tasks as indicators of mathematics proficiency for third graders. School Psychology Review, 34, 358-371 Kribbs, E., & Rogowsky, B. A. (2015). A Review of the Effects of Visual-Spatial Representations and Heuristics on Word Problem Solving in Middle School Mathematics. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 2(1), 65. doi:10.21890/ijres.59172 Larson, R. (1996). Heath passport to algebra and geometry: an integrated approach. Evanston, Il.: McDougal Littell. Lim, K. H. (2016). Fostering Algebraic Understanding through Math Magic. The Mathematics Teacher, 110(2), 110. doi:10.5951/mathteacher.110.2.0110 McConnell, J. W. (1998). Algebra. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman/Addison Wesley. Moreno, R., Ozogul, G., and Reisslein, M. (2011). Teaching with concrete and abstract visual representations: effects on students’ problem solving, problem representations, and learning perceptions. J. Educ. Psychol. 103, 32–47. doi: 10.1037/a0021995 Nortvedt, G. A., Gustafsson, J., & Lehre, A. W. (2016). The Importance of Instructional Quality for the Relation Between Achievement in Reading and Mathematics. IEA Research for Education Teacher Quality, Instructional Quality and Student Outcomes, 97-113. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41252-8_5 Peng, P., Namkung, J., Barnes, M., & Sun, C. (2016). A meta-analysis of mathematics and working memory: moderating effects of working memory domain, type of mathematics skill, and sample characteristics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(4), 455-473. Powell, S. R. (2011). Solving Word Problems Using Schemas: A Review of the Literature. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice,26(2), 94-108. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2011.00329.x Powell, S. R., & Fuchs, L. S. (2014). Does Early Algebraic Reasoning Differ as a Function of Students’ Difficulty with Calculations versus Word Problems? Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 29(3), 106-116. doi:10.1111/ldrp.12037 Powell, S. R., Fuchs, L. S., Cirino, P. T., Fuchs, D., Compton, D. L., & Changas, P. C. (2015). Effects of a multitier support system on calculation, word problem, and prealgebraic performance among at-risk learners. Exceptional children, 81(4), 443470. Sisco-Taylor, D., Fung, W., & Swanson, H. L. (2014). Do Curriculum-Based Measures Predict Performance on Word-Problem-Solving Measures? Assessment for Effective Intervention, 40(3), 131-142. doi:10.1177/1534508414556504 Snarks, S.D. (2014). Word Problems Should Be Given at The Start of Lesson, Studies Say. Education Week. 34(13), 10-11. VanSciver, J. H. (2008). Working on Word Problems. Principal Leadership, 8, 6-7. Wilburne, J. M., Marinak, B. A., & Strickland, M. J. (2011). Addressing Cultural Bias. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 16(8), 461-465. Wright, J. E., (2014) An Investigation of Factors Affecting Student Performance in Algebraic Word Problem Solutions. Gardner-Webb University Digital Commons. Education Theses, Dissertations and Projects. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.gardnerwebb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context=education_etd

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 101-111, June 2017

Saudi Arabian International Graduate Students' Lived Experiences Studying for the First Time in a MixedGender, Non-Segregated U.S University Barbara N. Young, Ed. D., Donald Snead, Ed. D. Middle Tennessee State University Murfreesboro, Tennessee, U.S.A. Abstract. Enrollment of Saudi Arabian International studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; in United States institutions of higher learning has increased substantially over the years since King Abdullah initially launched the Saudi scholarship program in 2005 that was renewed in 2010 and funded an outward flow of Saudi student, including females, to universities worldwide. A commitment to education for women is evident in that the program also provides funding for an accompanying male relative for every Saudi female awarded a scholarship. As a result, a number of Saudi females are able to receive a similar cross-cultural experience along with their male counterparts. The majority of Saudi students are sent to English speaking countries, with the U.S. universities having the largest number of enrollees. Consequently, there is a social and cultural impact as well as an academic one results as these Saudi international male and female students move through the acculturation process that accompanies their studies in the U.S. Since Saudi women were not encouraged to study abroad prior to 2010 they have not been the focus of multiple research studies. Given that male students have been both scholars and participants in multiple research studies in the past decades, the inclusion of Saudi Women International Graduate Students in this study, along with their male counterparts, has presented a unique opportunity for findings to emerge regarding gender-related issues in society and academia between the U.S. and Saudi Arabia as these female SA students are studying for the first time in mixed-gender environment and male SA students are interacting for the first time along with SA females in a mixed-gender environment.

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Introduction The late 1970s saw a rapid increase in international students from Saudi Arabia (SA) entering universities in the United States (US). In the late 1970s, the number of international students from Saudi Arabia (SA) in the United States (US) increased rapidly 10,440 reaching a high of 10,440 in 1980/81. A period of student population fluctuation followed until 1993/94, which was followed by increases until 2001/02. In the 2002/03 academic year, enrollments dropped 25% and continued to decline, reaching a low of about 3,000 students in 2004/05. In 2005/06, when participants in the newly-formed King Abdullah Saudi Scholarship Program (KASP) began enrolling in US universities, the number of Saudi students rose by 14%. With the scholarship program in place, the number of students showed a dramatic rise in 2006/07 and SA appeared in the list of top 25 places of origin at #12. The years 2015/16 marked the first time since 2004/05 that Saudi students did not experience double-digit growth. In the 2015/16 academic year, 61,287 students from SA were studying in the US, up 2.2% from the previous year with 2014/15 at 59,945 students (International Institute of Education, 2016). Although studies about male Saudi students in higher education exist, there is a lack of studies about female Saudi students in higher education. As a result of the KASPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s focus on international education for both males and females, along with King Abdullahâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personal approval and support, and in spite of the male guardian accompaniment requirement, 19,000 Saudi females were studying at US universities and colleges in 2012 as compared to 800 in 2004 (Kono, 2013). Middle Tennessee State University (MTSU), an approved institution under the Saudi Arabia Cultural Mission (SACM), saw a significant increase in the number of Saudi male students in graduate programs in 2010/11 along with a comparable increase of Saudi females in 2013. Currently, more than 1,200 Saudi students are enrolled at MTSU. The Saudi government has reported that KASP will run until 2020 which raises the question as to how (and if) these globally mobile Saudi male and female international students will impact the social, economic, and cultural transformation of Saudi society after acculturation experiences in the non-segregated, mixed-gender society and academic contexts of the US (Ahmed, M. A., 2015; International Institute of Education, 2016). As a result, this study focused on the naturally-occurring experiences of Saudi male and female international students living in the US and studying for the first time at a US university.

Methodology Because of the nature of the inquiry, the investigators utilized the action research process and took a qualitative stance in examining and analyzing the responses of SA international graduate students regarding adjustment experiences that emerged during the acculturation (cross-cultural transition) process over the first semester at MTSU. The qualitative approach in the action research process necessitated that naturalistic inquirers employ various collection modes to gather data from and about individuals within given contexts. As a result, the qualitative approach taken in this study utilized

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multiple forms of data for triangulation and coding processes and analysis procedures in order to identify emerging themes and patterns of thought resulting from examination, analysis, and categorization. Lastly, findings are reported in a narrative that provides descriptive, interpretive accounts of the naturally-occurring acculturation experiences of the SA international students as they interacted in the non-segregated, mixed-gender society and academic contexts of the US (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Corbin & Strauss, 2015; Craig, 2009; Craig & Young, 2009; Young, 1994). Thirty SA graduate students enrolled in a Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s in Education Degree were invited to participate in the study by investigators (one male / one female). Eleven SA international graduate students (seven males / four females) out of a possible 30 agreed to take part in the study and signed a release form agreeing to be surveyed, participate in a focus group discussion, write personal reflections, and be interviewed. All participants completed a short demographic survey in writing (English) regarding gender, major, and country of origin. Next, participants took part in five open-ended interviews conducted orally and recorded in written form (English) by a research team member. A male researcher was paired with male SA students and a female investigator was paired with female SA students. Oral interview questions solicited information regarding: expectations prior to arrival and reality as compared to expectations, significant differences in cultural practices in the US versus SA, gender roles within the university classroom and society in general in the US as compared to SA, most / least enjoyable activities, challenging or surprising happenings, experiences with discrimination or stereotyping, communication with Americans, changes in self, and level of well-being at various time intervals. In addition, subjects participated in a focus group discussion and recorded reflections in personal journals describing their experiences as international graduate students living in the US for the first time and studying at MTSU. The personal journal format encourages depth of reflective discourse and is a form of personal reflection, thought, and reaction that differs from face-toface interaction and provides an opportunity for sharing personal thoughts and ideas in an authentic and non-threatening format (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). Investigators utilized coding for in-depth analysis of data sets. All data sets were transcribed, coded, and organized according to emerging themes and patterns (chunks of meaning) that revealed what participants thought and felt about their naturally-occurring lived experiences (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Corbin & Strauss, 2015; Craig, 2009; Young, 1994) in the mixed-gender social and academic contexts in the US as compared to society and academia in SA. These findings provided an authentic glimpse into the complex experiences of both male and female SA international graduate students studying and living in the US regarding first-time interactions within non-segregated, mixed-gender social and academic contexts with each other and also with other graduate students.

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Results and Discussion Analysis of data sets revealed that all 11 SA international graduate students participating in the study, regardless of gender, experienced a plethora of challenges and / or barriers to their success within the social and academic contexts during their acculturation process. All participants mentioned various cultural and social differences including: gender-related differences, dietary foods, socially acceptable dress for females, religious practices, behavior of youth, friendliness of Americans, variety of activities and academic programs of study available to students, social and academic language difficulties, academic progress difficulty, lack of resources in place for international students on university, community, and personal levels, especially in terms of English language supportive measures for non-native speakers of English. As a result, data analysis revealed specific emerging themes and categories of meaning which included (1) personal beliefs /expectations about the US culture and population versus the reality, (2) acculturative stress and adjustment, (3) cultural differences in general between the US and SA, (4) gender-related differences in society and academia between the US and SA, (5) experiences of discrimination and / or curiosity, (6) English language proficiency difficulties, (7) relationship issues, (8) lack of resources for support and help-seeking, and (8) freedom and decision-making opportunities. Further analysis allowed for “chunks of meaning” to be derived from the emerging themes and patterns of meaning. These “chunks of meaning” were grouped and labeled by the investigators under the following categories: (1) Challenges and / or Barriers to Success within the Biological Context, (2) Challenges and / or Barriers to Success within the Psychosocial Context, and (3) Challenges and / or Barriers to Success within the Academic Context. Furthermore, the participant’s level of English proficiency as well as issues surrounding gender norms and prejudices emerged as both Challenges and / or Barriers to Success impacting all three contexts: Biological, Psychosocial, and Academic.

Challenges and /or Barriers to Success within the Biological Context Data emerged indicating specific biological Challenges and / or Barriers to Success which included difficulties resulting from adaptation to a new time zone and its impact on the sleep / wake cycles as well as eating time preferences, drinks and foods which violated dietary cultural practices or caused gastrointestinal distress, and differences in climate resulting in skin care issues as well as dehydration requiring adaptation to seasonal weather changes and traditional clothing adaptation to fit climatic changes.

Challenges and /or Barriers to Success within the Psychosocial Context Data emerged indicating specific psychosocial Challenges and / or Barriers to Success which included social and emotional difficulties resulting from the pace and rhythm of American way of life, the constant fluctuation of emotions, experiences with discrimination and / or stereotyping, social adaptation problems involving difficulties with forming meaningful

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relationships with Americans, social isolation due to lack of meaningful communication within the social context due to unfamiliar language, homesickness, actual distance from family and friends, feelings of isolation regarding their own culture as well as feeling isolated from the new culture, frustration resulting from cultural differences involving political beliefs, social customs, religious practices, gender norms and prejudices, housing and transportation problems especially for females since typically females do not drive in SA, as well as traditional clothing and availability of shopping facilities to purchase traditional merchandise and foods, financial resources, unexpected expenses, or employment complications, and amount of time necessary for language translation within all areas of daily living experiences.

Challenges and / or Barriers to Success within the Academic Context Data emerged indicating specific Challenges and / or Barriers to Success within the academic context which included difficulty adjusting to the preferred type of US classroom interaction practices involving active rather than passive participation responses to instruction. Active participation and interaction with male professors and participating in discussion with male students within the US classrooms were especially difficult practices for the SA female students. Saudi female students explained to investigators that in SA all female students are taught in single-sex classrooms by female instructors. If a male instructor is necessary for female students, the instruction is conducted via remote delivery with no face to face interaction. Classes are not mixed but are separated by gender. As a result, females experienced discomfort within the mixed-gender classroom impacting communication with male professors and / or male classmates including oral presentations, seating assignments, and nonsegregated cooperative group activity. Participants also mentioned critical thinking skills, writing ability, note-taking, language difficulties involving usage and slang as well as difficulty with comprehension of lectures, readings, and testing material as being especially challenging.

Challenges and / or Barriers to Success within ALL Three Contexts Interestingly, data analysis revealed three most notable Challenges and / or Barriers to Success mentioned in detail by all 11 SA international graduate students as significant in their acculturation process. The participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of English proficiency, sense of isolation, as well as numerous issues surrounding cultural gender norms, prejudices, and traditional practices emerged as Challenges and / or Barriers to Success impacting all three contexts: biological, psychosocial, and academic.

Cultural Gender Norms and Traditional Practices / Prejudices Participants were most animated and decisive when interacting with inquirers during the oral interview process with regard to differences existing between Saudi and US gender-related norms and prejudices within society in

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general and the academia in particular. Participants willingly shared opinions with reference to US non-segregated society and mixed-gender university classrooms in contrast to their particular experiences in SA society and academia. Participants said SA academic settings are single-sex with males educating males and females educating females; each gender has a separate educational facility / university. For example, if a male professor were to teach a female student that professor must do it via remote delivery and vice versa for a female professor instructing male students. All participants said that females in particular were “forbidden” to teach members of the opposite sex. As a result, inquirers observed SA females with the US classroom setting to be hesitant about speaking up when male students were present within their classes. Interestingly enough, the females were observed in the classroom setting by the inquirers to be even more passive if a male SA student were in the same class. It was mentioned by two of the four participating SA females that they did not interact within the mixed-gender classroom setting if another SA female were present since the other SA female might mention their interaction to a male SA guardian. This issue was especially troubling to the females since active participation by class members is considered the norm in the US academic setting. Active classroom participation was not seen as problematic by the male SA students. Two of the male SA participants did voice that they did not “like” it if a SA female were part of a group that included American males and were required to work in that type of group setting. When asked by the inquirer as to why this was bothersome to them, both participants responded with an explanation that SA culture “protected and preserved the virtue and sanctity of women for marriage and home.” The “freedom” that the US women have was perceived in to be positive as well as negative in various instances. Two SA women said they felt more “protected” in SA and were pleased to their male guarding traveling with them as they were not allowed to drive in SA. On the other hand, two of the women said the gender roles in the US were very different from SA where genders in universities as well as society were kept “separate but equal” with no mixing.” One of the women went on to say women in the US are free and have their own rights and not like in SA where “boys are much preferred.” The wearing of the traditional burka or the hijab was mentioned as a major issue by all four SA women. The women themselves did not see their cultural dress in a negative way; however, they voiced the opinion that Americans reacted in a negative way to these traditional head or body coverings in social settings, not necessarily within the academic setting. All of them mentioned prejudicial comments made to them by strangers with regard to their traditional dress. On the other hand, SA males made negative comments regarding typical dress of US female students; the lack of any rules regarding dress of women was unacceptable. Women’s bodies should be covered and not exposed by wearing “short shorts” and “short dresses” and “clothes with their midriff showing.” The following quotes, recorded and transcribed by inquirers as closely as possible to the spoken word of participants, illustrate the significant impact of issues surrounding cultural gender-related norms and traditional

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practices / prejudices on the cross-cultural transition experience of SA international students, especially females. Data indicated this issue presented a significant Challenge and / or Barrier to Success within all three contexts: biological, psychosocial, and academic and, especially for SA females, was most crucial to having a successful acculturation experience for these international graduate students studying and living in the mixed-gender, non-segregated US society.

Oral Interview Quotations: Gender-related quotes by Saudi Women It was a great feeling that for the first time I studied in a different country and different people regardless of gender. They are equal. I think we are all equal at U.S. classrooms. We have to respect another gender. They are the same in rights and duties. They are very different. Boys are much preferred in S.A. For each gender we had separate university. Not different between genders. All of them has the same rights. It was so perfect and they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t care about gender. My impressions of the dress code and overall clothing style of U.S. university students girls is cool and make the student comfortable when they did not have formal dress. It is opposite what do in my country. I think they have nice style specially girls. However, there is something I donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t like for boys when their pants come down. Many times I see some students laugh when they see me because my cover sometimes when I have presentation. I feel shy and they put me on stress. Females do not teach males. Here women drive. Female students are forbidden to drive and we are driven to and from school. We do not have school with boys. No male teachers in classes except with remote delivery. Our virtue is protected. At home is tests and memory and different here with speaking much in class. Students do not like hijab and stare or ignore me. I can speak in class and sit with boys. I have no husband or S.A. males in classroom. My friend is with husband in her class and does not want to speak.

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Oral Interview Quotations: Gender-related quotes by Saudi Men It was the first time to travel out of home country for my wife. Honestly, she doesn’t like to stay here anymore and I’m facing some difficulties with her. I’m trying to convince her to stay for one more year to finish her degree. My kids like to stay and they have many activities. The gender roles are very different. I do not feel much gender roles. Genders are completely different in my country they are separate from whole levels and every place. In my home country the female’s university is decoupled from the University of Males. My country has a special culture and we have separate education. In my country there do not have mixing in education. Gender roles are nonexistent in U. S. and clothing is different with body exposure acceptable for women. I don’t like sometimes U.S. men sitting next to S.A. women. No dress code for woman. People wear whatever they want even if their stomachs show. I don’t like when women wear short shorts and short dresses and clothes with their midriff showing. A university should be a place to learn not to show your body off. Here everyone women too can dress up any style and they don’t care about specific style. It is opposite what do in my country - no rules at all for girls. It is more open and too liberal than our community. There (S.A.) the men and women are separate not equal and we have special universities for each gender. Genders are completely different in my country. They are separate from whole levels and every place. The following quotes, recorded and transcribed by inquirers as closely as possible to the spoken word, illustrate the significant role of level of language proficiency within all three contexts: biological, psychosocial, and academic and its impact on whether or not these international graduate students studying and living in the mixed-gender, non-segregated US society have a more positive cross-cultural transition experience. In addition, level of language proficiency contributed to the participants’ feelings of loneliness and sense of isolation as communication with Americans was difficult in social as well as academic settings.

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Oral Interview Quotations: Language Proficiency Always I did not find people which I practice with them to speak English. The challenge that I faced with English and overall communication is that speaking fluently. Before I came here I understand some word but I was surprised when I talked with some native language. I hope to overcome the problem of understanding the slang language. I always search the internet on how to improve my academic language. I listening to the radio and reading in English as much as we can and listening to the news and reading. I struggle with tasks that require proficiency with academic language such as reading, writing, speaking and listening. Some of the academic terms are words I do not know. For me, before coming here I had some of English language but I was shocked when I started learning academic. We started from the zero because our education was poor in English. Also, I have massive difficult to practice my English. The challenging that I faced with English and academic language is that using APA and every using artificial in writing. Academic language is difficult and it needs a lot of reading. Academic journals and reading is very very difficult. However, I translate them.

Oral Interview Quotations: Loneliness – Sense of Isolation I missed Arabic and traditional food. We have a challenge about pork. We can’t eat the pork. First week negative alone because a white male spit at my wife. Some people don’t like me because I wear hijab. I faced some bad situation with some people for this thing. My neighbor ignore me when I was sitting out my house and when I say hello. She ignore me and slam her door. Also, I understand how the mass media give them a bad picture about hijab and Muslims. On the other hand I have American friends who love me and respect me. People are different. It is a big challenge we faced with native people such as the way they look and same times they don’t understand our accent also the different interesting. The homesick and I found it is difficult to make a friendship with American people. I miss my friends and family. I miss my religion – religious celebrations.

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There is a lot of surprising things such as take how some people care of dogs more than their children. They love dogs and respect them.

Conclusions - Implications – Limitations Using qualitative research methods, this study explored 11 SA male and female international graduate students’ Challenges and / or Barriers to Success within the biological, psychosocial, and academic contexts that emerged over the course of the first semester of study at MTSU. The findings indicated that these international graduate students faced significant transitional difficulties during the first semester of graduate study in the US at MTSU in all three contexts. The students expressed feelings of frustration and experiencing a lack of support and / or resources provided by university personal and professors within the biological, psychosocial, and academic contexts in their reflective journal entries and oral interviews. Although students were able to develop new strategies to deal with these cross-cultural transitional challenges, a need for more support and additional resources provided by university personnel and professors was indicated by the students during this most crucial acculturation time. Since international students begin the cross-cultural transition process at the university, it makes sense that the university should focus on specific challenges faced by the international students and provide more adequate support for the international students at this most crucial time. In addition, data analysis revealed two most notable Challenges and / or Barriers to Success mentioned in detail by all 11 SA international graduate students as significant in their acculturation process and impacting all three contexts (biological, psychosocial, academic) as being (1) participant’s level of English proficiency and (2) issues surrounding gender norms and prejudices. Some may see findings of this qualitative study as limited since it focused on seven male and four female SA international graduate students at one university; however, due to the nature of the study and use of data based on human experience, sample size is not seen as a limitation by the inquirers. Although the data collected in this study from a small number of individuals cannot be generalized to a larger population, findings may however be transferable to similar settings (Cardona, B., Millan, M., Birnbaum, M., & Blount, I., 2013). Also, findings may be used in a positive manner to increase understanding and support for SA international students navigating through acculturation adjustment experiences in US academia, US society, and personal lives based on level of language proficiency and significant cultural differences surrounding immersion in the non-segregated, mixed-gender academic and social US environment for the first time. At present, the impact of SA international students’ cultural identity and its influence on the experience of being in a non-segregated, mixed-gender environment for the first time has not been the focus of many studies. Studies involving SA male and female international students and their acculturation experiences in the US are limited due to the fact that prior to 2005 very few Saudi females were educated in the US. Future such studies would provide insight and information into this complex topic that could be used to enrich and ensure a more positive cross-cultural transition experience for SA international

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graduate students studying and living in the US for the first time. Future studies might focus on the cross-cultural transition experiences of SA male and female students educated in the mixed-gender classrooms of the US and their potential impact on society and / or academia in SA upon return to the home country. Furthermore, due to the lack of studies focused on SA women international students in the US, and the significant gender-related cultural differences between SA and the US impacting the acculturation process of Saudi women in particular, future studies similar to this one focusing on the acculturation process (cross-cultural transition) of Saudi international students, especially female students, are warranted.

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