March April 2011 - International Aquafeed by Perendale Publishers Ltd

Vo l u m e 1 4 I s s u e 2 2 0 1 1

Aquaculture: Producing aquafeed pellets

Krill: Feed makers need to look at krill

Feed Management: An assessment of aquaculture production with special reference to Asia and Europe

Pigmentation Effects of Corn Gluten Meal on Flesh Pigmentation of Rainbow Trout

the international magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

AQUA

FEED

CONTENTS

An international magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

Aqua News Feeding the Fish of the Future – The future is now for alternative feeds! Successful Anniversary Year 2010 Novartis Animal Health gains rights to develop innovative new vaccine for prevention of Pancreas Disease in farmed salmon AFIA’s largest annual event concludes in Atlanta IFFO appoints Andrew Mallison to succeed Jonathan Shepherd as director general GAA appoints MCS Aquaculture Officer Shellfish conference in Stirling, Scotland

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F: Feed pellets Aquaculture: Producing aqua feed pellets

F: Krill Feed makers need to look at krill

F: Bolt 'n' Go Bolt ‘n’ Go Chain and Flight System – explanation and case study –

THE AQUAFEED PHOTOSHOOT

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F: Elevator buckets How to select the proper plastic resin replacement elevator bucket

F: Herbal medicine Herbal medicine in aquaculture

F: Pigmentation Effects of Corn Gluten Meal on Flesh Pigmentation of Rainbow Trout

Feed Management An assessment of aquaculture production with special reference to Asia and Europe

Book review Tilapia Culture Handbook of Fish Biology and Fisheries - Part 1 Handbook of Fish Biology and Fisheries - Part 2

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Classified Adverts

Events

WEB LINKS

International Aquafeed is published six times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom. All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies, the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis of information published. ©Copyright 2011 Perendale Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058

EDITOR’S DESK

Editor Professor Simon Davies Email: simond@aquafeed.co.uk

Associate Editor Professor Krishen Rana Email: krishenr@aquafeed.co.uk

Editorial Manager Nicky Barnes Email: nickyb@aquafeed.co.uk

Editorial Advisory Panel: • Abdel-Fattah M. El-Sayed (Egypt) • Professor António Gouveia (Portugal) • Professor Charles Bai (Korea) • Colin Mair (UK) • Dr Daniel Merrifield (UK) • Dr Dominique Bureau (Canada) • Dr Elizabeth Sweetman (Greece) • Dr Kim Jauncey (UK) • Eric De Muylder (Belgium)

Subscription & Circulation Tuti Tan Email: tutit@aquafeed.co.uk

Design & Page Layout James Taylor Email: jamest@aquafeed.co.uk

International Marketing Team Caroline Wearn Email: carolinew@aquafeed.co.uk Sabby Major Email: sabbym@aquafeed.co.uk

More information: International Aquafeed 7 St George's Terrace, St James' Square Cheltenham, GL50 3PT United Kingdom

pring is in the air and the long dark nights are behind us with the clocks set to go forward. In the UK there is talk of a double summer time from 2012. We too go forward into 2011 with our spring issue of IAF with an exciting content reflecting the current news in the industry and the latest trends and developments in aquafeed technology and nutrition science. I have been spending a considerable time travelling through my native Wales and also seeing the expanding range of activities in England this month. I am fortunate to be part of a government advisory team to develop an aquaculture strategy for England that encompasses fish, shellfish and other potential organisms including aquatic invertebrates and plants. There is a growing realisation that England requires a platform to stimulate aquaculture in line with similar schemes supported by the Welsh assembly and Scottish executive within the UK. Watch out! St George is going to take on fish farming as well as any Dragon. Indeed aquaculture has been seen to be a vital part of European policy as reported in IAF in several previous issues. In this issue we complete our bios for the new editorial panel welcoming key new members and our established team who together provide additional input and variation to our themes. We report on developments in the engineering of suitable pellets for feed with emphasis on stability and nutritional quality. In my own area of specialisation it is very interesting to see how krill meal can be utilised as a novel feed ingredient in aquafeeds with a report from Aker BioMarine based in Norway. The attributes of krill and oil especially with its high omega 3 fatty acid and carotenoid levels are deemed important factors in health of juvenile fish and also as a speciality feed additive in starter feeds in the hatchery and possibly in brood-stock. Its excellent carotenoid content is also of value in formulated feeds to achieve natural pigmentation of flesh in salmonids and integument of certain species. With the costs of pigmentation and sources of carotenoids in feeds being a topical issue it is relevant to have an article on the interactive effects of corn gluten meal on salmonid flesh colour and considerations for production. We also include a feature on various herbal bioactive agents that can be added as natural diet therapeutic agents for combating fish diseases or as a general prophylactic measure based on their antibiotic properties and potential immune-stimulant capacity. We have reported many products with prebiotic and probiotic actions but there is an increased demand for pant (phyto-biotic) compounds from a vast array of sources for animal production with much interest for application in fish and shellfish culture. Finally, Krishen Rana concludes his feature on Asian and European aquaculture output with a review on the potential for this area to continue to expand on a regional and global level. The Martin Little page continues to update us on breaking news in the aquaculture at large with his blog. Please enjoy our latest issue and please remember that all external contributions are very welcome as we must reflect the contemporary trends, research findings and products serving the aquafeed sector from its multi-disciplinary perspectives.

erendale Publishers Ltd, producers of International Aquafeed magazine has launched a new media service in conjunction with leading global show, exhibition and conference organizers to preview and review all major feed and milling events around the world. These online documents will preview an event in the run up to it, and then switch to a review after the event has finished. To view the first of these documents for Victam International 2011, please visit: www.aquafeed.co.uk/victam2011

EVENT

Preview/R evi

INTERNATIONAL

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Online & accessible From: February 2011 - Until: January

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Tel: +44 1242 267706 Website: www.aquafeed.co.uk

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WELCOME TO INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED MAGAZINE

Croeso (welcome in Welsh)

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The 2011 Editorial Panel - part 2 See our next issue for information about the rest of the Editorial Panel. You can see the full list of panel members on the Editors page.

Colin Mair Trained in electronics, Colin Mair worked as a Bakery Engineer, took a bachelors degree in Biochemistry and Physiology and then worked 16 years in the food industry in technical and process areas. Mr Mair then worked for Extru-Tech Inc in Kansas as Technical Director and spent five years on product and process development in the 1990s. In the past 10 years he has worked on many process and product areas, including development and manufacturing work on petfoods, petfood teats, aquatic feeds, snack foods and breakfast cereals. The work has been round the world and included in-depth extended projects with several major companies. Colin has done a lot of work on measuring and improving energy footprint and process efficiencies of process plants making feed products on extruders and pelletmills. Aquatic feed work has including the incorporation of novel ingredients such as marine ragworms, micro-algae and macro-algae into specialist and mainline formulations for fish and shrimp. More recently he has worked on the development of complex seaweed blends as an ingredient in aquatic feeds, which has shown great success in farming KPI’s as well as significant improvements in health, lice resistance, and flavour and texture of finished product.

Dr Kim Jauncey BSc (Hons), Dr Kim Jauncey BSc (Hons), PhD Senior Lecturer, After a BSc in Applied Biology and Pure and Applied Chemistry from the University of Wales Institute of Science and Technology (UWIST), Cardiff and a PhD in fish nutrition from the University of Aston in Birminham, Dr Jauncey came to the ‘Unit of Aquatic Pathobiology’ at Stirling University (later to become the Institute of Aquaculture) as a short-term postdoctoral research fellow working on tilapia nutrition for the Overseas Development Administration (now the Department for International Development, DfID). His early work was principally concerned with protein:energy ratios and essential amino acid requirements of tilapias although this rapidly expanded to encompass many aspects of fish nutrition which centre on use of low-cost, locally available, ingredients that could be used in aquaculture feeds, especially for tropical freshwater food fish (tilapias, carps and catfishes). He has research students working on a range of fish (salmon, trout, wolffish, cod, carp, tilapia, catfish, gilthead seabream), crustacea (penaeid shrimp, macrobrachium) and even crocodilians and on nutritional topics ranging from larval rearing, through ascorbic acid nutrition, to use of in-feed enzymes and effects of feeding regime. Most recently my research interests are in the toxic and antinutritional factors present in plant feedstuffs (particularly those of tropical origin) and the environmental impacts of feeding in aquaculture. He is also a founding Editor of the Blackwell’s Journal Aquaculture Nutrition. In his ‘learning and teaching’ roles Dr Kim has been Vice Dean (Learning and Teaching) in the Faculty of Natural Sciences and is presently Departmental Director of Learning and Teaching as well as Chief Examiner and director of undergraduate programmes.

Prof Abdel-Fattah M El-Sayed Prof Abdel-Fattah M El-Sayed is currently the head of Oceanography Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt. He received an A BSc in Oceanography from Alexandria University, Egypt, MSc in Fisheries biology from Alexandria University, Egypt and a PhD in fish nutrition from Michigan State University, USA. Prof El-Sayed authored and/or co-authored over 100 pier reviewed papers in aquaculture and fisheries, in addition to four books. He also supervised over 20 MSc and PhD students from different countries. He has been a participant in many local and regional aquaculture projects. Prof El-Sayed has also participated in more than 40 local, regional and international conferences in aquaculture and fisheries sciences. He has also been visiting professor to scientific institutions in Japan, Spain, Malaysia, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Sultanate of Oman. He is a regional and international aquaculture consultant, and his clients include the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, The Regional Origination for protecting the Marine environment (ROPME) and The Arab Organization for Agricultural Development. He is also a member of the Editorial Board of "Aquaculture Research" journal and Research J of Fisheries and Hydrobiology. He is a referee for most of International aquaculture journals, particularly in the area of fish nutrition. He is also a member of the Egyptian National committee for University staff promotion. Email: afelsayed@sci.alex.edu.eg, afmelsayed@gmail.com Prof Abdel-Fattah M El-Sayed is currently the head of Oceanography Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt. He received an A BSc in Oceanography from Alexandria University, Egypt, MSc in Fisheries biology from Alexandria University, Egypt and a PhD in fish nutrition from Michigan State University, USA. Prof El-Sayed authored and/or co-authored over 100 pier reviewed papers in aquaculture and fisheries, in addition to four books. He also supervised over 20 MSc and PhD students from different countries. He has been a participant in many local and regional aquaculture projects. Prof El-Sayed has also participated in more than 40 local, regional and international conferences in aquaculture and fisheries sciences. He has also been visiting professor to scientific institutions in Japan, Spain, Malaysia, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Sultanate of Oman. He is a regional and international aquaculture consultant, and his clients include the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, The Regional Origination for protecting the Marine environment (ROPME) and The Arab Organization for Agricultural Development. He is also a member of the Editorial Board of "Aquaculture Research" journal and Research J of Fisheries and Hydrobiology. He is a referee for most of International aquaculture journals, particularly in the area of fish nutrition. He is also a member of the Egyptian National committee for University staff promotion. Email: afelsayed@sci.alex.edu.eg, afmelsayed@gmail.com

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Sungchul (Charles) Bai Sungchul (Charles) Bai is Professor/Director of the Department of Marine Bio-materials and Aquaculture/Feeds & Foods Nutrition Research Center (FFNRC - www.ffnrc.com), Pukyong National University (PKNU), Busan, Korea. Professor Bai has MS in Animal Sciences (Nutrition) from California State University - Freson (CSUF), and PhD in Nutrition /Physiological Chemistry from the School of Veterinarian Medicine at University of California Davis. He has also worked and lived in the United States since 1981 until 1993 as a graduate student at CSUF and UC Davis, as a research associate at Texas A&M and as visiting professor at Ohio State University and UC Davis. Charles joined as a faculty at PKNU in 1993, and has published over 150 research papers and 18 books or book chapters as well as over 400 abstracts and articles in international and domestic meetings, and has several patents in Korea. He contributed to make a successful 2008 World Aquaculture Society (WAS) Annual meeting in Busan, Korea as President (2007-08). He was Immediate Past-President (2008-09), President-elect (2006-07) of WAS, the President of Vision 21 Korean Aquaculture Forum (2003–08), Board of Director of WAS (2003–06), Member of the National Vision 2012 Committee of Ministry of Science and Technology (2002), Chairman, Department of Aquaculture, PKNU, Busan, Korea (1996–98). He had IBC Top 100 Scientists award (2008); The Best Teaching Award in 2008 by Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea (2008); Recognition Award by World Aquaculture Society (08); Special Invitation Lecture by Andres Bello University, Chile (2008); Special Invitation Lecture by Indonesian Aquaculture Society, Indonesia (08); Recognition Award by Kon-Kuk University, Seoul, Korea (2007); Guest Speaker and Visiting Professorship by Tianjin Agricultural University, China (2007); WAS-Latin American and Caribbean Chapter Plenary Session Speaker (2007).

Antonio Gouveia Antonio Gouveia is Associate Professor at the Department of Biology at the Faculty of Science of the University of Porto, Portugal. He got his PhD in 1987 at the Institute of Aquaculture of the University of Stirling (Scotland) after completion of the first part of the MSc in Aquaculture and Fisheries Management (1981-1982). He is involved in teaching Aquaculture to the Biology course and Sustainable Aquaculture to the MSC in Biological Aquatic Resources of the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Porto. His main research area is the evaluation of vegetable and animal products and by-products in diets for various freshwater (rainbow trout, common carp and catfishes) and marine fish species (gilthead sea bream European sea bass, and turbot).

www.aquatic-asia.net 9 -11 March, BITEC Bangkok, Thailand

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Aqua News

Feeding the Fish of the Future

– The future is now for alternative feeds!

he reliance on fish oil by the UK aquaculture industry and its supply chain – from feed production through to retailers – is being questioned by the Marine Conservation Society (MCS). The MCS is requestion greater co-operation from stakeholders in reducing the sectors heavy reliance on fish oil. Fishupdate reports that global availability of fish oil is limited and the continued growth in the farming of carnivorous fish such as salmon will be dependent on increased levels of replacement of fish oil with plant oil in diets. At a recently hosted MCS event

in Edinburgh, Scotland, sponsored by the three main feed manufacturers – EWOS, Biomar and Skretting - highlighted issues in the supply of marine ingredients, the regulatory position in relation to use of animal by products as well as looking at advances that have been made in reducing fishmeal usage. A recent report from Norway predicts a serious shortage of fish oil possibly within the next two to three years. Fish oil inclusion will have to be reduced considerably if Scottish salmon farmers want to get certified by the Aquaculture Stewardship Council, as limits on

wild fish in the diet is a key component of the salmon standard, says Fishupdate. Meanwhile Dawn Purchase, a newly appointed MCS Aquaculture Officer says: "In the UK we have still have significant use of fish oil only diets for farmed salmon and the industry can no longer continue to use this valuable resource in this way. “It is time to move to a strategic use of our precious and valuable wild capture fisheries. This can only be achieved through a greater level of substitution with alternatives in the diets of farmed fish.

“There is a wealth of knowledge and research carried out on alternative feed ingredients, both proteins and oils from vegetable sources, algae oil, ragworm and bloodmeal. “The UK industry have to be bold and introduce these ingredients into farmed salmon diets, it is the responsible thing to do in a world of limited resources.”

Middle East (+96%).Thus, business is now spread evenly across the four main regions – Europe, Middle East/Africa, Asia, and North and South America. A perceptible improvement was also achieved in sales growing 11 percent to CHF 1907 million (+13% on a currency adjusted basis). The operating result (EBIT) was exceeding sales growth. Buhler is a global leader in the field of process engineering, in par ticular for production tech-

nologies and services for making foods and advanced materials. Buhler operates in over 140 countries and has a total payroll of about 7800 worldwide.

information:

Marine Conservation Society 3 Coates Place Edinburgh EH3 7AA United Kingdom Tel: +44 131 226 3113 Website: www.mcsuk.org

Successful Anniversary Year 2010

he Buhler Technology Group can look back on an encouraging business year 2010. For the first time in the Group’s 150-year history, order intake exceeded the mark of two billion Swiss francs. Also sales and operating result (EBIT) continued to grow. The anniversar y year will be known as one of the best in Buhler’s history. With CHF 2160 million or 21percent more than a year ago, the order intake passed

the mark of two billion Swiss francs, although the first quarter was still characterized by the turmoil in the global economy. All three divisions contributed to the growth. Advanced Materials, followed by Food, achieved the greatest leap of 48 percent. Processing (+27%) and Grain Processing (+15%). This pronounced increase in order intake was especially due to the emerging markets in Asia (+39%), North and South America (+19%), and the

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information:

Corina Atzli Head Corporate Communications Bühler AG CH - 9240 Uzwil Switzerland Tel: +41 71 9553399 Fax +41 71 9553851 Email: corina.atzli@buhlergroup.com

Aqua News Novartis Animal Health gains rights to develop innovative new vaccine for prevention of Pancreas Disease in farmed salmon

icense deal with Intervet/ Schering-Plough paves way for potential commercialization of innovative Pancreas Disease vaccine Initial Novar tis Animal Health study data shows high degree of efficacy and favorable levels of protection against the PD virus Would allow for broader fish health management programs upon the potential commercialization of the new vaccine Novar tis Animal Health, Inc has entered into an agreement with Inter vet/Schering-Plough that grants exclusive rights to Novartis to potentially commercialise a new Pancreas Disease (PD) vaccine for use in farmed salmon. The license deal allows Novartis Animal Health to continue development of its new PD vaccine, which uses the same innovative technology as the Novartis Apex IHN vaccine currently on the market in Canada. Early studies have demonstrated high levels of efficacy and favorable levels of protection from the PD virus. The Novar tis vaccine candidate has the potential to offer salmon producers in Norway, UK and Ireland a unique alternative for managing this costly disease, which is prevalent in these salmon producing areas. Additionally, the Novar tis vaccine would support a broader approach to fish health and successful management of the disease , complementing the Norvax® Compact PD vaccine introduced by Intervet/ScheringPlough in 2008. “The aquaculture business is a priority at Novar tis Animal Health and it is a business that we will continue to invest in,” said George Gunn, Global Head of Novartis Animal Health. “We are pleased to have reached an agreement that

allows Novar tis to develop a vaccine based on new, innovative technology and that potentially will enable salmon producers in Norway, UK and Ireland to better manage Pancreas Disease.” Novartis Animal Health originally presented information on the new PD vaccine candidate in September 2009 at the European Association of Fish Pathologists meeting held in Prague. More development work

has followed, and Novartis is committed to working through the regulatory processes and requirements in its efforts to commercialize the vaccine. “Our primary goal is to help fish farmers around the world improve the health and quality of their fish stocks by investing in the research programs that bring new and innovative solutions to the market,” said Gunn.

AQuA NOr

“ N ov a r t i s s c i e n t i s t s w i l l continue to present data on the vaccine and we also will continue to educate customers on the benefits the vaccine is expected to bring to the market.” More information: Novartis International AG Novartis Global Communications CH-4002 Basel Switzerland Website: www.novartis.com

2011

International exhibition 16 - 19 August 2011 • Trondheim • Nor way

Meet the future! Follow the latest development of aquaculture research, technology, feed, fish health, education, financing, environmental protection etc. Visitors from more than 50 nations will be present. International conferences and seminars in connection with Aqua Nor will focus on research and challenges of the aquaculture industry. Exhibitor, visitor or conference participant? For more information: www.nor-fishing.no

AQuA NOr – the most important international venue for the aquaculture industry.

Organiser: The Nor-Fishing Foundation Klostergata 90, NO-7030 Trondheim, Tel +47 73 56 86 40, Fax +47 73 56 86 41, mailbox@nor-fishing.no

March-April 2011 | International AquaFeed | 7

Aqua News AFIA’s largest annual event concludes in Atlanta

he 2011 International Feed Expo (Expo), organized by the American Feed Industry Association in conjunction with the US Poultry & Egg Association’s International Poultry Expo, concluded today. This year’s event featured a series of speakers and educational programs, and more than 900 exhibitors displayed the latest in products and technologies that are beneficial to the feed, pet food and poultry industries. The Expo and related events were attended by both US and international feed and poultr y industry stakeholders. More than 20,000 visitors from over 100 different countries attended this years Expo. AFIA’s booth this year emphasized the Safe Feed/Safe Food Certification Program, the

Institute for Feed Education & Research and AFIA’s representation of the pet food industry. "This year's Expo offered attendees a range of substantive programming and events to make their time in Atlanta as compelling as possible, on top of the hundreds of exhibits on the show floor," said Joel G Newman, AFIA president and CEO. Conference attendees received regulatory and legislative updates from industr y leaders and key federal decision-makers as well as gained knowledge and insight during the Expo and related educational programs. AFIA’s Pet Food Committee and USPOULTRY’s Poultr y Protein & Fat Council organized and sponsored the 4th Annual Pet Food Conference, and AFIA

also hosted the International Education Forum during the week-long event. These offerings complemented the additional educational opportunities offered by USPOULTRY. T h e t w o - d a y Pe t F o o d Conference included a variety of expert speakers. Dr Gary Egrie of the National Center gave the international regulatory update for Impor t and Expor t, USDA/ APHIS, while Svetlana Udislivaia of Euromonitor International addressed the international pet food market supply and demand. Dr Daniel McChesney provided an update on the FDA and the recently passed Food Safety Modernization Act. The conference concluded with a pet food manufacturing panel, which featured exper ts from The

Nutro Company, P&G Pet Care and Snacks, WellPet LLC and Midwestern Pet Foods, Inc. The International Education Forum addressed topics imperative to feed manufacturers and related industries. Ryan Hanson of MAC Equipment and Dr Leland McKinney of Kansas State University ser ved as featured speakers; while regulator y and legislative updates were provided by AFIA’s vice presidents Keith Epperson and Richard Sellers. In addition to the educational programming, AFIA played a key role in arranging the fourth annual International Feed Regulators Meeting sponsored by the International Feed Industry Federation (IFIF). The meeting was held prior to International Feed Expo/International Poultry Expo. More

information:

Website: www.ife11.org

IFFO appoints Andrew Mallison to succeed Jonathan Shepherd as director general

ndrew Mallison has been appointed to succeed Jonathan Shepherd as director general of the International Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organisation, IFFO. Mr Mallison joins IFFO from the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) where he has been director of Standards & Licensing since 2009. Before that he spent 13 years with leading food retailer, Marks & Spencer Plc, as technical manager with responsibility for procurement and sustainability strategy for all seafood sourced globally.

mercial awareness. His Mr Mallison will join work in engaging with IFFO on May 9 this fishermen, processors, year and will direct the NGOs, media, opinion global trade organisation formers, Government jointly with Shepherd and consumers on until the latter retires environmental seafood on December 31, 2011 issues is well known; as after seven years in the is his track record in post. Andrew Mallison defining and delivering “Andrew Mallison was the unanimous choice of the Board’s strategic progress.” In response Mr Mallison added: Appointment Committee headed by IFFO President, Humberto Speziani,” “I intend to use my experience of the whole seafood supply chain to said Jonathan Shepherd. “He combines technical knowledge build on the progress achieved by of wild and farmed seafood with com- Jonathan Shepherd.

GAA appoints MCS Aquaculture Officer

awn Purchase, an MCS Aquaculture Officer, says she is ‘delighted’ to accept the invitation to join the Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) Standards Oversight Committee. The Alliance promotes responsible practices and best practices (under the Best Aquaculture Practices –

BAPs - certification standards for aquaculture facilities) throughout the aquaculture industry. “I am delighted to accept the invitation to join the Standards Oversight Committee. It reflects the high regard that MCS is held in with regard to driving the aquaculture industry towards better environmental practice,” says Dawn Purchase.

“Being part of the GAA will allow MCS to influence developing standards for a range of species to comprehensively address issues of environmental concern. We are keen to make sure that such standard development compliments our other work areas including responsible feed supply through both the International Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organisation Responsible Supply Standard and our advocacy work on alternative feed ingredients.”

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“Sustainably sourced marine ingredients have a huge contribution to make to the provision of food security for the growing global population. I am looking forward to supporting some of the largest and most productive fisheries in the world to add value to their catch and make best use of a natural and renewable resource.” More

information:

Anne Chamberlain External Affairs, Consultant to IFFO Tel: +44 1780 470455 Email: anne@chamberlainfarming.co.uk

BAPs are developed by specific technical committees that deal with individual species under the guidance of the Oversight Committee and are made up of members drawn from a wide spectrum of stakeholder representatives. More

information:

Marine Conservation Society 3 Coates Place, Edinburgh, EH3 7AA United Kingdom Website: www.mcsuk.org

Aqua News

Rising feed cost

Escalating fish meal price

Shellfish conference in Stirling, Scotland

he University of Stirling, in Scotland, is to host a major international shellfish conference ‘Shellfish - Our undervalued resource’ in August this year. This is the 14th International Conference on Shellfish Restoration, and it is being held in the United Kingdom for the first time with scientists from around the world expected to attend. Dr Janet Brown, Head of the Shellfish Unit at the Institute of Aquaculture at Stirling, says: “In the UK the perception of shellfish is that it is something we eat, possibly in upmarket restaurants. “However, shellfish reefs form an environment that can provide a myriad of ecological and economic benefits but they have been under such over fishing pressure that these benefits have largely been lost. “On a world stage shellfish reefs are considered among the most threatened habitats. This conference hopes to change perceptions, bringing scientists from all over the world to discuss how we can benefit from the experience elsewhere, particularly from the USA where there has been considerable investment and

community work in shellfish restoration.” Holding the conference in Stirling is appropriate, as the city is on the River Forth, once the most productive oyster fishery in Scotland where recently there was significant news coverage when Dr Liz Ashton found two live oysters where they had been, till then, considered extinct. As a conference base the University offers both comfor table hotel-type accommodation plus student-style more economic choices, and also the possibility for family-style chalet accommodation for scientists who may take the opportunity to bring their families and enjoy a Scottish holiday. The conference will run from the evening of Tuesday August 23 to Saturday August 27, 2011 with a gala ‘ceilidh’ on August 26. Please note the dates and further details will be available shortly on the University website. More

information:

Andy Mitchell / Lesley Wilkinson Head of Communications & Media University of Stirling Stirling FK9 4LA Scotland, UK Tel: +44 1786 467058 Email: mediarelations@stir.ac.uk Website: www.stir.ac.uk

Opportunistic diseases

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March-April 2011 | International AquaFeed | 9

F: Feed pellets

Aquaculture: Producing aqua feed pellets by R V Malik, CEO, Malik Engineers, Mumbai, India

s more of worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s natural fisheries are depleted and demand of fish continues to rise, aquaculture will continue to grow, thus raising demand for healthy, commercially prepared fish Mostly, aquaculture relies upon extrusion cooking to produce feeds that are good mix and nutritionally available, but also in a form that is capable of moving through water column very slowly (floating) to be ingested. Thus, the big dependency in aquaculture is selecting ingredients that when extruded will possess just right buoyancy, not migrate nutrients into water, with high palatability for specific fish species. Fishfeed pellets are prepared either by pressed cut sheets or by Extrusion methods. This article will discuss about Ingredients and Extrusion process for producing the pellets. Main ingredients include: 1) Fish & Bone Meal 2) Soy protein (though it is not preferred by farmers being not easily digestible by many fish species) 3) Wheat 4) Starch 5) Blood Meal Other ingredients like Vitamins, Minerals and Lipids (Fat Oil) are also added in producing pellets.

Fishmeal Fishmeal is a well-known source of

proteins which is strongly demanded by the animal feeds industry. This is due to its balanced amino acid content, which makes it an ideal feed for many domestic animals. Moreover, its use to adjust (improve) the amino acid content of other dietary protein sources also contributes to increase demand for fishmeal. As its name points out, fishmeal is derived from captured fish, including whole fish, fish scraps from fillets, and preserves of industries. Most of the main capture fishery producers devote the main part of this activity to fish meal production. The raw materials used in fish meal manufacture come almost entirely from species which are not often used for human consumption (either due their size, or because they are very abundant). The fishmeal processing system consists of preserving initial fish proteins by means of a controlled dehydration, which extracts around 80 percent of the water and oils contained when fresh from fish. This leads to the production of a dry product, easy to preserve and easier to transport than the initial product. Fresh fish entering the manufacturing plant is first ground and

10 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

then cooked in a continuous heating oven at 90-95 percent, which in-turn coagulates proteins and lose their water-holding capacity. The hot mash is then transported to an

F: Feed pellets endless screw or oil expeller that presses it and squeezes out most of the remaining water and oils. Pressed fish coming out of the press (press cakes) then cut into smaller portions and placed into a dryer on a steam heated surface. During the drying period, the mash is in constant motion and subject to an air jet that removes all the steam emitted. The dried mash obtained is now called 'fish meal' and contains from 8 to 10 percent of water. However, if the moisture level is more than 11 -12 percent, there is a risk of the fish meal developing moulds. Generally, antioxidants are added when fish meal is introduced and taken out of the dryer, and by so doing ensuring the stability of the oils remaining within the fish meal.

Soy protein Not all fish species have easy digestibility of soy protein, primarily due to increased carbohydrate content fraction. It is usually used as supportive additive with other easily digestible protein like fish meal which is rich in fish proteins. Bean processing consists essentially of extracting the oil so as to concentrate the proteins. This process provides a very important by-product, namely soya oil, which is widely used as a raw material and oil for human consumption. This process also contributes to the elimination of certain anti-nutritional factors present in the raw bean. The first step in processing involves the removal of the shell (cellulose) from the grain. The ‘bare’ beans are then heated, on the one hand to reduce the activity of certain enzymes, and on the other to break the cellulose strands and facilitate the following steps. The heated beans are then mashed to form thin paste-like slices, which further facilitates the destruction of the cellulose structure and oil extraction. The product, now termed ‘whole soya cake’, still contains its oil and has around 40 percent protein, and as such is sold directly for animal feeding. Next, the oil can be extracted from the whole cake by means of a solvent (such as hexane). After total evaporation of the solvent, there remains the solvent extracted soya cake, which in turn is widely used for animal feeding, and contains 45 - 50 percent protein.

Bloodmeal Abattoirs or slaughterhouses produce many important by-products, such as

blood and bones, etc which are often difficult to commercialize. Nowadays, however, these byproducts constitute the basic raw material of the bone and blood meals widely used in industry for animal feeding. Considerable amounts of blood are produced by abattoirs, and this product is usually transported to drying ovens and converted into blood meal. Blood from different origins such as, sheep, goat, and poultry are usually stored and processed separately. However, so as to comply with basic sanitary measures, it is generally compulsory to store blood within cooling chambers and to ensure that the level of bacteria is kept within prescribed maximum limits.

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The manufacture of bloodmeal Fresh blood is kept cool at the factory, and sizeable particles filtered and the blood mass stirred so as to separate the fibrillar phase from the liquid mass. The fibrin is then heated up to coagulation and the coagulated mass divided and dried through a hot air stream (that is by spray drying). This method is particu-

Quality control and testing of raw materials Product development and recipe optimization Small-scale production Quick change of test conditions

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F: Feed pellets larly gentle (spraying a product in a hot airstream) and does not denature the proteins because the water evaporation cools down the hot air very quickly, thereby preventing overheating.

Wheat flour Wheat is one of the most important cereals worldwide, and is used for making bread and for many other produces. It is also an essential raw material for livestock feeding, including fish.

Wheat in fish feeding Starch products, especially wheat, are frequently used as binders for the manufacture of pellets; the gelatinizing property of starch when water-heated being useful for this purpose as the starch absorbs water and forms a gel.

Moreover, when starch is gelatinized its digestibility improves considerably. Various starch types (wheat, barley, rice, maize or potatoes) can gelatinize but each one will have its own characteristics. In addition, all three starch types generally have the capacity to form a stable structure when subjected from high to low pressure during the extrusion process. It is this property that is used for feeds that must have a high lipid content, during the extrusion process the starch forms a cell structure with alveoli that can then be filled with oil instead of air and/or steam. For carnivorous fish feeding purposes the starch must be considered as a supporting structure that gives the pellets their texture and together with the other dietary ingredients allows the formation of a binded diet. However, since the natural feeding habits and foods of seabass and/or seabream usually contain very small proportions of carbohydrates (ca. three percent glycogen, animal starch - glucose polymer). If excessive quantities of digestible starch are provided in the feed this may result in the accumulation of excess liver glycogen, which in turn may trigger a liver dysfunction.

Lipids

Formulation of fishfeed

Fish oils are co-products of the fishmeal industry. Their nutritional characteristics regarding fatty acids make them indispensable for fish feed manufacture, and in particular their characteristic high content of n-3 unsaturated fatty acids (first double bond linkage in position 3), which are essential for a well balanced food formula for carnivorous fish species. A large amount of fish oil arising from fish meal manufactures is re-processed in specialized facilities for diverse purposes; part of it being hydrogenated and mixed with other lipids, and transformed into margarine, mayonnaise and bakery compounds, and the other part used directly by the feed industry.

As we have seen, feed formulators can resort to a wide assortment of raw materials to make up a food mixture so as to meet the nutritional requirements of the fish for energy, amino acids, fatty acids, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. These raw materials are generally used in flour or liquid form, and will have to undergo binding by means of a technological process to obtain a food mixture in the form of dry pellets, which are easy to use and preserve. As a guide, salt water marine aquaculture is dependant upon high levels of proteins with high digestibility. The fresh water aquaculture relies upon more carbohydrates, that is high levels of grains coupled with modest to high quality proteins, minerals, vitamins with little or no fiber. The first factor to be considered for feed formulation is the total energy and protein/energy ratio of the final product. After this, the protein content must be calculated according to the amino acid balance desired, and the lipids included to satisfy the best fatty acid profile for the species concerned and the energy level desired. All this must be considered taking into account the vitamin and mineral requirements of the cultured species. This formulation is not easily reached and so computerised linear programming techniques must be used. Furthermore, it is also necessary, after covering all the nutritional requirements of the species within the formula to also produce a range of tasty feeds of different pellet sizes for the different age classes.

Minerals Minerals are measured as ash in the recipe. Though they serve no functionality in extrusion (on the contrary their abrasive nature will accelerate wear and tear of working parts in extruder), these are usually added in proportions < 5 percent. They include phosphorous, calcium (from calcium carbonate or ground lime stone), sodium chloride (salt), magnesium, potassium, etc.

Vitamins: They can be water soluble or soil soluble. Vitamin B and C are water soluble, A, D, E, and K are fat soluble. They are added in proportions < 0.5-0.6 percent in diet, but due to harsh processing conditions inside the extruder, these get destroyed, hence they are added well in excess of minimum requirements. Apart from above, the feed may contain, flavors/aromas, antioxidant (preservative) and antimicrobials, dyes & pigments (for human appeal and distinction, rather than for fish itself), etc. It is important to use certified ingredients that does not affect health of fish. Pigments are usually added as a coating step, to minimize losses during harsh extrusion processing conditions. 12 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

Manufacturing stages - Storage The raw materials coming into the feed manufacturing plant are generally stored in silos with an ideal height calculated so as to allow the raw material flow to be conveyed downwards, during the manufacturing process, until the final product is produced. This is in order to avoid having to pull the products up by vertical conveyors that usually cause breaks and dust in the final product.

- Grinding Grinding raw materials reduces particle size and increases ingredient surface area, thus facilitating mixing, pelleting and digestibility. The most commonly used grinders are hammer-mills, for fish feed manufacture, as plate-grinders do not generally produce fine enough ground materials. The Extrusion cooking process utilizes

F: Feed pellets force, position themselves forming a star on the rotor and split the incoming feedstuff apar t, which is then forced by depression through a metal grid composed of appropriately sized meshes.

- Mixing

wide variety of ingredients that can have varying particle sizes. It is desirable, but not necessary that all ingredients be of uniform particle sizes, to prevent segregation during mixing and transport prior to extrusion. Uniform particle size of ingredients promotes better mixing and uniform moisture uptake by all particles during the preconditioning step. If the particle size of raw ingredients is too large, the final product may contain particles which are improperly cooked, which degrade product appearance and palatability. Also, if particle size is larger than die orifice used at extruder discharge, it may cause plugging of some orifices affecting capacity and appearance. As rule of thumb, it is necessary to maintain size of raw ingredients one third of the die opening die. Hence the need of size reduction equipment and sifting. In hammer-mills, the grinding chamber consists of a series of mobile hammers on a rotor. The hammers, by centrifugal

The ground ingredients must be mixed according to the desired proportions to obtain a homogeneous mixture. If the grinding process is correctly developed, the particles are homogeneous in size and the mixture produces pellets which statistically have the same formulation. Generally, the dry ingredients (flours) are first mixed, followed by the liquid components. Continuous mixers are designed so that the feedstuff moves along the mixer as it mixes. There are many different types of mixers, including horizontal band-mixers, vertical mixers, conical screw-mixers, and turbine mixers, etc. During this mixing process, the vitamin ‘premix’, the binding agents and other additives are added; they must in turn contribute to one or other particular desired quality of the pellets during the pelleting process.

- Pelleting Two different types of pellets are generally prepared for aquafeeds, namely pressed and extruded pellets. A third type, designed

as ‘expanded feed’, is also marketed by some manufacturers. The main difference between a pressed and an extruded feed is the cooking of the feedstuff in the case of extrusion, with the added mechanical and biological advantages previously described, especially with regard to starch gelatinization

Extruded Feeds: The Extruder can be described as a Bio-Reactor with (mostly) a single, multipleflighted screw (rotor) rotating at high speed inside a stationery hollow tube (stator). The raw materials fall from top at one end on the rotating screw which has multiple flights and varying pitches along its length. The barrel (tube) is externally heated/cooled by steam and cold water externally around. Due to this arrangement, a high pressure of around 40-70 bars (Kg/cm2) is developed on the ingredients, temperature of ingredients varies from 110 C to 160 C, which ensures cooking of ingredients into plastic mass which is extruded out of multiple die openings/orifices and cut to produce porous pellets for fish feed. Pre-Extrusion: Dry ingredients after having been mixed & ground thoroughly in desired proportions, are usually transported to the Single screw Extruder (Cooker) provided with a Pre-conditioner at top. The Feed Delivery System: It consists of a “Live Hopper” or Bin with a horizontal conveying screw to convey dry ingredients to the Preconditioner from above. The Bin is provided with device which avoids bridging of material (since raw ingredients have low bulk density and poor flow through a normal Hopper) and ensures continuous flow of materials to the Preconditioner below, hence the name “live” bottom bin. It should hold adequate volume to support the extruder operation for minimum 5-8 minutes, as a buffer time for the operator and auto control network to respond

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CONDITIONING

PELLETING

EXTRUSION

COATING

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COOLING

F: Feed pellets

"As more of world’s natural fisheries are depleted and demand of fish continues to rise, aquaculture will continue to grow, thus raising demand for healthy, commercially prepared fish" and allow recharging the bin from top. The screw is provided with variable speed - Extrusion motor to properly adjust the flow as per Usually single screw Extruders with sinproduction capacity of the Extruder. gle barrel and screw is used for cooking the Preconditioning: This step ensures the preconditioned ingredients, but twin screw dry ingredients are constantly added with extruders are also used. The latter have moisture (water) in desired proportions limited use because of high initial capital (25-30%) and steam is also added, at 5-6 bar, costs compared to single screw extruder. for pre-cooking the wet ingredients. As the ingreTable 1: dients move forward FEED A FEED B towards the Extruder feed opening, they are held at temperature of (1) Growth 1 1.1 approximately 100 C 2) Conversion rate 2 2 and atmospheric pres(3) Feed price / kg 5 6 sure. Preconditioning (4) Selling price of fish 50 50 makes the ingredients (5) Feed expenditure for 1 kg of fish soft by precooking and it 10 12 produced (2) X (3) reduces energy requirement in the Extruder. If (6) Profit from fish sales (1) X (4) 50 55 Lipids are to be added, (7) Gross margin for feed item (6) - (5) 40 43 their proportion is limited from 5-7 percent in this stage. The action of the Extruder allows the Conventional Preconditioners had only free flowing ingredients to bond to each one tank and single agitator, but modern other and remain in pellet form after exiting preconditioners have special oval tanks with from shaping (pelleting) die. It does this two agitating shafts with adjustable beaters by the action of rotating screw or spiral to control residence time inside the tank. inside a stationery barrel by generating high Two agitators result in the better mixing of mechanical shear and raised temperature dry and liquid ingredients. Longer retention on feed materials. time approximately 2-2 ½ minutes are Extruders for Fish Feed production have desirable before feeding into the Extruder. Mechanical Energy Input levels between Usually lipids are added not more than 20-40 Kw-hr/ton of produce. Their screws 5-7 percent by weight here, since it leads run between 400-1000 RPM depending on to excessive slippages inside the Extruder sizes. Output capacities range between 1 t and poor mixing & expansion/texture of to 20 t per hour. final pellets. The Extruder usually employed is 14 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

“Wet Extruder” since feed materials contain around 25 to 30 percent moisture (water). Both screw and the barrel are made up as separate segments so that individual components could be replaced when worn. Multiple flighted, varying pitch screw elements are usually employed to provide cooking and forward conveying of feed materials. The Volumetric capacity of screw is highest at Difference Feed zone to account of low bulk density of ingredients. However, it 10% reduces (lower pitch) 0% towards the die, which +20% causes compression and 0% cooking of feed material. The final discharge +20% end of screw is usually Conical to generate +l 0% high pressure and attain +7.5% maximum expansion of pellet when emerging from die opening. The barrel heads are provided with Steam Heating and water cooling Jackets around, for heating or cooling, as per process demand. The process temperature is held from 110 C to 160 C gradient from Feeding Zone to Final Cooking Zone. Maximum conveyance & mechanical shear of material is ensured by action of multiple flighted screw elements and spirally grooved barrel segments. Water present inside the mixture is held as steam at high temperature and pressure. However, as soon as the cooked mass emerges out of die openings pressure drops to atmospheric

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F: Feed pellets and the product expands or “puffs”, being cut continuously by Rotating Die Knives working against the die Face, giving the pellet the specific rounded shape for extruded pellets. Retention time inside Extruder is from 100-180 seconds, which ensures 70-85 percent starch gelatinization and production of good shape and density. The above Extruder produces Floating Pellets with low bulk density, e.g 350-450g/l that are classified as “Floating” and sink very slowly into water column. Most Extruders have an arrangement, whereby the water vapour present in the mix is released by a vent opening on the barrel so that high density pellets or sinking pellets are produced for certain species of fish. The following parameters will control the final pellet density: 1. Initial moisture content (usually 25-30 percent on wet basis). 2. Process temperature. 3. Extruder back pressure. 4. Extruder RPM (residence time). 4. Drying conditions and temperature. 5. Quantity of Fats, vitamins & minerals applied post extrusion.

- Drying When added to Extruder, the ingredients contain around 25-30 percent moisture (wet basis). Extrusion process evaporates approx. 4-7 percent moisture thus still retaining considerable moisture inside the pellets. After the pelleting process, the pellets usually have a high moisture content (17 to 22%) that must be quickly reduced to avoid spoilage. This is usually achieved by using a hot-air drier, which lowers the moisture level to between 8 and 10 percent depending upon the manufacturing process. Continuous Belt Dryers are commonly employed that provide heated air to remove excess moisture from wet product, as it travels on multiple decks of perforated steel belting. Since the Drying process is critical and determines the quality of pellets, it needs to be carefully monitored and controlled. The Air Temperature, Humidity and Residence

time of products should be carefully adjusted to attain properly dried product that can absorb maximum fats and coatings in the Coating step.

- Sifting The mechanical manufacturing processes inevitably results in shocks and scorching that partially crumble the pellets at their surface and cause various breaks and dust that must be eliminated. This is achieved by sifting, a process that is generally applied at least twice before the final conditioning (sifting after drying and after coating/ cooling).

- Coating The pellets emerging from the pelleting presses or extruders do not generally contain more than 7 to 10 percent lipid. To achieve higher dietary lipid levels (20-27%), coating is necessary with the appropriate oils, generally using heat. In the same manner, certain heat sensitive vitamins and/or drugs that would not normally withstand the harsh extrusion processes (thermo labile products) can also be added later during the coating process. These ingredients are usually added through spray nozzles fed through dosing pumps which accurately control the weights deposited. They can be vacuum assisted for still more good results. The Expansion that occurs as a result of extrusion processing makes the product porous with low bulk density and air pockets, so that more oil is absorbed during the spray coating process. Fats could be added in the form of Animal fats, Fish Oil or Vegetable Oil.

- Cooling On completion of the coating process (generally undertaken with heated material) the pellets are then cooled and sieved before the final conditioning; cooling occurring in a cool-air flow generated by a cooling-machine. Again, this machine usually provides continuous flow of product on perforated steel belts, while cooling air is

applied through bed of pellets to lower the temperature. Cooling is important, since if packed in hot state, moisture will condense in the packing, wetting the outer surface of the pellets, allowing mold growth. It is desirable to cool down within 10 C of ambient air tempt. So that problem of condensation in packing doesn’t occur.

- Bagging Bagging usually produces different types of feed presentations within the same factory, namely either small bags (20 or 25 kg) on pallets covered with a plastic film, or big-bags (500 or 1000 kg) in bulk.

Viability of Extrusion process It follows from the higher temperatures and pressures used during extrusion processing that investment and energy costs will be higher than those of conventional pressed feeds. Despite this however, the use of extruded feeds may be more profitable. Following Table (illustration) summarizes the theoretical results obtained with fish fed a pressed (A) or extruded (B) feed. Table showing Justification for Extrusion Over Press Feed production method for Fish Feed. It is clear from the example given that despite the fact that the price of the extruded feed is 20 percent higher, the feed which provides 10 percent additional growth provides a 7.5 percent additional gross margin.

Note: The author is CEO Malik Engineers, Mumbai, which manufactures a wide range of extruders for food processing and aqua/ animal feed. He can be reached on info@ malikengg.com Tel: +919821676012, +91 22 28830751, +91 250 2390839

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F: Krill Feed makers need to look at

krill

Highly palatable feed ingredients such as krill have an important role to play, The increase in sustainable catch tonnage is largely due to krill fishing innovations by Norwegian-based Aker BioMarine, according to WWF Norway

ecent headlines from around the world are enough to keep any aquaculture feed producer up all night with worry! With increasing commodity prices, fishmeal inclusion is decreasing and vegetable material contents are increasing - highly palatable feed ingredients such as krill have an important role to play.

feedmill operators are already nervous as to what this year will bring. However, in all this glum reportage, there is one natural resource in which there is such abundance of biomass, it literally staggers the imagination. Depending on which source and methodology is used to estimate the amount, there is somewhere between 125 million to 1800 million tonnes (that’s 1.8 billion tonnes) of krill in the ocean, though most seem to agree on an amount of around 400–500 million tonnes. Still, no matter which figure you use, this still makes krill today the most successful single species organism in the world. Today, however, the catch capacity is marginal compared with the existing biomass, according to the CCAMLR (Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources). The Antarctic krill stocks are monitored and fishing is controlled by the CCAMLR.

Following a year of disastrous South Pacific jack mackerel catches; Chile has slashed its 2011 quotas for high seas and coastal fishing by 76 percent. Further up the South American coastline in mid-January the Peruvian government closed the anchovy fishery in the centre and north because of a high level of juveniles in the catch. China Fishery has shut down three of its fishmeal plants. The UK’s 2010 Seafish Annual Review of feed grade fish stocks reported that most of the stocks of the world’s top 10 species are fully exploited or overexploited and “therefore cannot be expected to produce major Krill 101 increase in catches”. Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, by bioBlazing summer temperatures last year mass is the main species of krill (there are in some parts of the world devastated grain about 85 species) and lives in the Antarctic production – enough so in Russia that it waters of the Southern Ocean, with the quit exporting grains. While elsewhere, largest concentrations found in the Scotia Sea. other major plant protein producers such as This is the region of water between South Australia and Brazil are now experiencing floods. The increase On the seafood producin sustainable tion side, aquaculture is catch overwhelmingly concentrated tonnage in one country – China – is largely due to krill which has the population, the fishing demand and now the financial innovations reserves to seemingly corner by the world’s production of Norwegianfishmeal. based Aker BioMarine, China’s buying spree drove according to up fishmeal prices for a time WWF Norway last year to US$2000 a tonne;

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America’s southern tip of Tierra del Fuego and the Antarctic Peninsula. Krill are shrimp-like zooplankton, growing to a length of about 6cm (2.4in). They live in large schools, called swarms, which can reach a density of 10,000 to 30,000 individual krill per cubic metre. Because of the krill’s efficient filtering action, it is the largest animal that can feed directly on minute phytoplankton cells – with world’s largest concentration to be found in the Southern Ocean. In turn, baleen whales, seals, penguins and other birds feed on krill. These animals eat an estimated 152–313 million tons of krill annually, making krill the keystone species of the Antarctica ecosystem. What makes krill so special to these animals is its high protein content – 40 percent or more of dry weight – with nearly 20 amino acids. Lipids make up about 20 percent of E. superba and this contains a high concentrate of omega-3 fatty acids and phospholipids. The size of the krill biomass, its nutritional value and its purity from persistent pollutants found in industrial fish species in the Northern Hemisphere has not escaped the attention of man as well. But with E. superba living in the isolated and stormy Southern Ocean, wanting it and catching it has proven to be two completely different things. Added to these problems are other huge ones to overcome in harvesting krill; it must be processed very quickly due to the rapid enzymatic breakdown and tainting of the meat by the intestines.

Rough seas In the late 1960s the Soviet Union sent its specially designed Antarktidaclass vessels to the Southern Ocean to see if there was potential in fishing for the world’s largest biomass. Despite the Soviets finding major problems in

F: Krill trying to harvest the zooplankton, production rose from literally nothing to 528,000 tonnes by 1982. The industry, however, was beset by numerous problems, least of all being the huge amount of fuel required to undertake journeys to Antarctica and then remaining on site for catching and processing. It collapsed for the most part after the demise of the USSR, which had been able to bankroll its expensive operation without an eye towards profit. In the late 1990s, the controversial Reverend Sun Myung Moon stepped in, organising Alaskan-based Top Ocean to fish for krill with the idea that krill meal could feed the world’s population. Although Top Ocean’s factory trawler worked the Southern Ocean grounds from 2000 to 2004—and even won an award at the Boston Seafood Show with its krill products—Top Ocean’s owners decided not to pursue it. However, since then Antarctic krill industry has picked itself up and is expanding with catches around 200,000 tonnes, shared mainly between Norway, South Korea, Japan, and Poland. The increase in sustainable catch tonnage is largely due to krill fishing innovations by

Norwegian-based Aker BioMarine, which harvested 50 percent of the total caught in 2010 according to CCAMLR statistics. Much of the krill fishery depends on large trawl nets with very fine meshes, producing a very high drag that generates a bow wave, deflecting the krill to the side. In addition, fine mesh trawls tend to clog very fast, and perhaps worse, the tiny mesh size catches everything in its path, leading to a large by-catch. Once caught in the net, two problems occur. Krill caught early during the run will be compacted and

Krill Canada Sales Corp. North America’s largest supplier of krill products! Krill usage  Smoult sea water entry diets  Weaning and broodstock diets  Starter diets for marine and fresh water species  Fin ﬁsh growth: color, taste, stimulate eating and breeding  Crustaceans: growth and brood stock supplements  Tropical ﬁsh: whole feed and supplement feeds  Invertabrates: whole feed  Fish bait and attractants

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F: Krill crushed at the cod end of the trawl. If they die, their flesh starts self-destructing before they are brought onboard for processing. And, when a full net is hauled out of the sea, the krill compress against each other, resulting in a great loss of the krill’s liquids. As it looks today it seems that Aker BioMarine has come up with a way of harvesting krill which eliminates these problems.

A better way The company’s fishing system, so called Eco-Harvesting, allows the net to stay under water during the entire operation. According to the Aker BioMarine web site the krill is filtered at the end of the net and flows upwards in a flexible hose, with air injected to create the upward lift. The equipment stays underwater while a continuous stream of water flows through the hose, bringing the krill live and fresh directly into the factory vessel, allowing for the processing of fresh raw material with superior product quality. In addition, the company claims that EcoHarvesting results in minimal environm e n t a l impact due to a special selection mechanism w h i c h identifies unwanted Sigve Nordrum, Aker by-catch BioMarine vice president for release and Nina Jensen, Conservation Director in unharmed. WWF Norway Rapid and continuous onboard processing preserves all the key nutrients in both krill meal and krill oil. Processed krill products are collected by a second vessel and delivered to Montevideo, Uruguay, for onward distribution. Aker BioMarine’s krill fisheries are certified by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), an independent, global, non-profit organization that works to promote the best choices in sustainable seafood. “Since its inception, we have proactively adopted the highest standards in environmentally sustainable management of krill resources to ensure that we maintain the health of our ecosystem and krill populations,” says Hallvard Muri, Aker BioMarine CEO. The company is the first and currently only participant in the krill fishery to receive the MSC certification because of its commitment to environmental harvesting, managed catch levels, and responsible approach to fishing.

In addition, Aker BioMarine actively collaborates with environmental organizations like the WWF Norway to adopt and promote new standards for operations where the health of the environment is foremost. “We believe that it is important to work with the most proactive players to ensure the continued sustainability of this fishery,” says Nina Jensen, Conservation Director in WWF Norway. “Aker BioMarine is the only operator in the krill fishery doing all the right things: 100 percent observer coverage, VMS [vessel monitoring system], real-time reporting procedures, science and research contributions by allowing onboard scientists at no cost, and economic participation in establishing a science fund.”

Qrill™ offers feed benefits Aker BioMarine’s brand name Qrill™ has become recognised in the aquaculture industry for being a novel high quality feed ingredient. It is described as containing a pure package of healthy and nutritional ingredients. The protein quality is high – at least 56 percent – it is rich in marine phospholipids and omega-3 fatty acids and it contains significant levels of the antioxidant and pigment astaxanthin. The astaxanthin level in Qrill is 110–1200ppm. After an advanced extraction process, Qrill™ Phospholipid oil is ready to use and, says Aker BioMarine, it is an outstanding source of phospholipids, omega-3 fatty acids DHA and EPA, and astaxanthin. In shrimp feed trials undertaken in Brazil, it was found that Qrill™ Antarctic krill meal – which contains 25 percent krill oil – offered numerous advantages over conventional fishmeal-based feed. Economic advantages were revealed when growth performance was maintained with krill meal diets. Additionally, separate trials showed consumers preferred shrimp fed on krill. The trials were conducted by Alberto Nunes of the Laboratory of Shrimp Nutrition at the Instituto de Ciências do Mar (Labomar), in the Federal University of Ceará, Brazil. The objective was to evaluate the growth performance of juvenile shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, fed diets with krill meal and krill oil in replacement of fishmeal, fish oil, soya lecithin and cholesterol. The trials were conducted in indoor and outdoor rearing tanks over a period of 72 days. Trial diets with krill ingredients were formulated to provide a significant cost reduction in comparison with a standard 20 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

diet. Four experimental diets with Qrill™ Antarctic krill meal or Qrill™ oil, both from Aker BioMarine, were prepared with different percentages of krill oil ranging from one percent to 11 percent. Weighing samples each week showed the shrimp in all tanks grew continuously throughout the culture period. There were no statistically significant differences in the shrimp weight with any of the diets provided in the indoor tanks and there were significant cost savings when using krill ingredients in comparison with the base diet. “These data indicate that krill meal and krill oil are able to fully replace fishmeal, soya lecithin or cholesterol and meet the nutritional requirements of L. vannamei,” says Alberto Nunes. Aker BioMarine Vice President Sigve Nordrum explains that for commercial purposes the addition of Qrill™ Antarctic krill meal alone will provide krill oil as well as the nutrient input from krill meal. “Qrill™ Antarctic krill meal contains 25 percent krill oil, thus a feed with 10 percent krill meal will have 2.5 percent oil. Because of the refinement process, pure krill oil costs more and is best reserved for larval diets where the benefits justify the investment,” he says. In separate tasting trials run by Nunes and his team, consumers preferred shrimp raised on feed containing krill oil in contrast to fish oil or soya oil. Shrimp fed the krill diets had the top rating for colour, probably because of the astaxanthin in krill. While scores for texture were similar, krill diets again scored best for flavour. Feeding trials with gilthead sea bream larvae in Spain clearly demonstrated that krill phospholipids significantly improved larval growth in comparison with a control diet containing soya lecithin as the phospholipid source. Larval growth was assessed in terms of body weight, total length and specific growth rate (SGR). In addition, fatty acid composition was preferable and there were further indication that krill derived products confer important benefits. Trials were conducted at the Grupo de Investigación en Acuicultura (GIA) in Las Palmas, Gran Canaria (the Canary Isles) and the krill products were supplied by Aker BioMarine ASA of Norway. Sigve Nordrum, Aker BioMarine vice president, adds, “The results show some marine diets can certainly be improved. In general, Aker BioMarine recommends the oil product for starter diets with a change to Qrill™ Antarctic krill meal as the larvae progress to larger pellets.”

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F: Bolt 'n' Go

Bolt ‘n’ Go Chain and Flight System – explanation and case study –

link

he Bolt ’n’ Go chain and flight system is a revolutionary assembly method for drop forged and round conveyor chain systems.

The link and flight assembly is made easier by attaching the flight to the chain link using a standard bolt and nut, with a high case hardness and high tensile hollow pin. Traditional chain systems have used pins and circlips. The problem with this system is that during any maintenance repairs on the chain, the whole chain would have to be lifted out of the conveyor to conduct repairs. This results in large down time in production and high maintenance costs. With the Bolt ‘n’ Go system, to conduct repairs such as to change flights or pins can

be done inside the conveyor, without even taking the tension out of the chain. “Instead of welded flights, we are using bolt on flights, and again these can easily be changed without any fuss,” says the company. Another problem with traditional systems

22 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

using pins and circlips, is that circlips can come off in some circumstances, causing the chain to become disconnected, and again downtime. With the Bolt ‘n’ Go system, the pins, chain and flights are secured using a secured lock nut, which securely holds the system together in a consistent manner, but also facilitating easy and safe removal when required. One of the first installations to

F: Bolt 'n' Go

use this system was in November of 2006 at CHS, Superior, WI. The facility handles several commodities, which include wheat and soybeans at the rate of around 1.0 million tonnes per annum. They have several drag conveyors, which use drop-forged chain, with the traditional pin and circlip assembly. While this has proved a reliable assemble method for them, it has proved time consuming when changing out bent or broken chain flights. Bill Hoffer, head of maintenance said of the system: “We installed 4B’s new Bolt ‘n’ Go chain, and I am pleased with the results. “The Bolt ‘n’ Go chain is very easy and fast to install and maintain, as you eliminate the need to separate the chain each time while installing a new flight. Also there is no need to slacken of the chain or re-tension while changing flights. This alone will save untold hours on the routine maintenance of these conveyors.” He goes onto to say, “the Bolt ‘n’ Go system has been in service for well over 12 months, is running great and no problems.” The Bolt ‘n’ Go chain system is available for 102, 125, 142, 150, 160 and 200mm heavy metric link ranges. The system uses heavy-duty Nylon flights, which

bolt straight through the pins, with no need to bolt on or slide over existing steel flights. The Nylon flights also have excellent wear, strength and resistance capabilities. The Bolt ‘n’ Go pin / bolt assembly system can also be used with the traditional welded flight system, to replace the traditional pin and circlip arrangement. This system is very easy to change over to for the maintenance team on site. The Bolt ‘n’ Go system is also available for round link chain, whereby the system works under a similar system of nylon flights being bolted directly to the chain, in this case without pins. The Bolt ‘n’ Go system is all about making life easier for the end user, ease of use, inexpensive and above all low maintenance and down time.

March-April 2011 | International AquaFeed | 23

information:

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24 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

cean Farm Technologies (OFT) was formed in 2005 to develop and manufacture technology for open ocean aquaculture. The company’s flagship products are the Aquapod™ fish containment system and supporting technology. OFT works closely with customers to develop, manufacture, and market appropriate technology for open ocean aquaculture placing a high value on health and safety, environmental protection and fish husbandry. Key elements of OFT’s success is cooperation with customers including product support, technology development, and consultation. OFT has patents issued and pending in the US and in fourteen other jurisdictions. OFT has established a manufacturing facility in Maine, USA, from which it ships products worldwide. March-April 2011 | International AquaFeed | 25

F: Elevator buckets

How to select the proper plastic resin replacement elevator bucket

Style AA

by Carl Swisher, Tapco Inc.

very machine part will eventually wear out, needing replacement. Elevator buckets are no exception to this rule. Before selecting a replacement bucket, it is helpful to know several pieces of information... 1: Your elevator type: industrial or agricultural; 2: Bucket elevator manufacturer; 3: Material being handled; 4: Bucket dimensions; 5: Material of bucket construction. Selecting a replacement elevator bucket for your bucket elevator can be a challenge, especially when you consider how many different buckets are on the market. Properly selecting the correct elevator bucket can keep your operation running smoothly, cut maintenance costs and improve elevator efficiency. Regularly scheduled inspections are also an important factor to maximize productivity of your facility.

Measuring the Existing Elevator Bucket The length of the bucket is measured across the back from outside wall to outside wall (dimension A).The projection is measured from the outside of the back wall to the tip of the front lip at a perpendicular (90 degree) angle off the back wall (dimension B). Often projection is incorrectly measured from the top of the back wall to the tip of the front lip. The depth of the bucket (dimension C) is measured from the

upper most point of the bucket to the bottom most point. Bolt hole spacing or centers are measured from the left edge of one hole to the left edge of the second hole.

Why is Plastic Resin Better Than Metal? Elevator buckets made from plastic resins are now the market norm of the bulk material handling industry. Plastic provides the following basic advantages over metal: • Lighter in weight; • Non-corrosive, rust-free and non-sparking; • Safe food grade material; • Impact strength; • Flexible yet strong. The major advantage of any plastic bucket is its physical ability to absorb an impact inside the elevator leg. More buckets tear up and break due to impacts and obstructions, than are worn out by abrasion from the product carried. Bent and torn buckets cause a myriad of problems in the elevator: not efficiently carrying product, dragging and scraping inside the casing and creating a potential sparking hazard. A well-designed plastic bucket has the built in ability to “give” or “yield” to bypass an obstruction in an elevator, return to its original shape and keep on working.This requires strong, consistent, uniform wall thickness and the proper grade of the selected resin.

The weight of the elevator bucket contributes significantly to the total cost of the elevator. By using lighter weight plastic resin buckets – approximately half the weight of metal buckets – elevator manufactures can use lighter gauge belts, smaller pulley shafts and bearings, and reduce their horsepower and mechanical transmission requirements. This also means less wear and tear on elevator drive components. Another important factor is the ease of installation of plastic buckets. Due to their lighter weight and lack of hazardous, sharp edges, they are much easier to handle when changing or retrofitting in an elevator. This makes the job easier and safer for those tasked with keeping the bucket elevators running at peak performance.

Switching to Plastic Resin In order to select the appropriate plastic bucket, one must consider the characteristics of the conveyed bulk material being handled. Important factors to take European style (Super Euro Bucket)

Xtreme Duty (CC-XD)

Heavy Duty (CC-HD) into account are the size, shape, bulk density, temperature, moisture content, flow-ability and abrasiveness of conveyed material. The three most common plastics are highdensity polyethylene (HDPE), nylon and urethane (thermo plastic urethane). Each plastic carries a number of different advantages when paired correctly with the corresponding bulk solid. 26 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

Bent and torn steel buckets

Bucket Choices for Centrifugal Discharge Style Elevators Proper identification of elevator type and style of existing bucket – and then matching it with a plastic replacement – is vital to ensuring the bucket elevator continues to operate efficiently. The correct bucket, when properly installed (with close bucket spacing) – assures the same or Increased elevator capacity. Plastic resin elevator buckets are commonly found in centrifugal discharge style elevators. In contrast, metal buckets are

Specifying the Bucket

(A) length, (B) projection, and (C) depth. (T) thickness, (WL) water level, (E) hole centers.

Back View

End View

F: Elevator buckets

still predominantly used in continuous discharge style bucket elevators. There are two categories of centrifugal discharge style bucket elevators: High speed (operates at speeds faster than 91 mpm) and slow speed (operates at speeds under than 107 mpm). High-speed elevator buckets come in many different shapes and sizes. The two most common bucket styles used in high-speed centrifugal discharge elevators are the North American CC (close center) style and European style. They handle materials such as grains, feed and feed pellets, salt, seeds, fertilizer, and dry chemicals. Slow-speed buckets are used to handle denser and larger materials, such as aggregates, foundry sand, coal, clay, sand, gravel, and crushed glass. Commonly used bucket styles for this elevator include Style A, AA and AARB, which has a reinforced back. Style AA buckets are readily available in polyethylene, nylon, urethane, ductile iron or steel. With the correct selection of plastic replacement buckets and good preventive maintenance, operators and maintenance managers can look forward to many years of proper and profitable operation.

About the Author Carl Swisher, Tapco Inc Sales Manager oversees domestic and international sales force. Swisher has 20 years of experience in industrial sales and international business. Prior to joining Tapco, Swisher was the Latin America Regional Sales Manager for a leading parts supplier in the sewn products industry. Proficient in Spanish, he is a graduate of Washington University in St. Louis and completed his graduate studies at the Stern School of New York University. Founded in 1974, Tapco Inc is a leading manufacturer of elevator buckets with 900,000 buckets in stock – available in polyethylene, polyurethane, nylon, aluminum, ductile iron and fabricated steel. Standard styles include AA, AC, Continuous, CCB, CC-HD, CC-XD and Super EuroBucket. Tapco also maintains a large inventory of elevator bolts, belt splices or joiners, abrasion-resistant sheeting, drag flights, and hanger bearings. Carl Swisher, Sales Manager TAPCO INC, St. Louis, Missouri USA Tel: +1 314 739 9191 ext. 1920, Website: www.tapcoinc.com

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F: Herbal medicine

Herbal medicine in aquaculture

ith the continued expansion of cultured fish and shellfish species, aquaculture has become a key component of the animal health industry. Aquaculture is the fastest growing industry around the world with around 80 million tones produced annually. “In the decade to 2015, world aquaculture production will at least double, an average annual growth rate of not less than 7.0 percent per annum, and potentially much more.” (as quoted by State One Stockbroking Ltd in June 2007).

Antibiotics in aquaculture Due to the intensification of rearing methods and systems, diseases and pathogens have been an integral part and formidable obstacle to the aquaculture industry worldwide. Moreover, antibiotic resistance has become a major issue affecting the aquaculture industry. As early as 1994 it was being reported by the American Society of Microbiology Task Force on Antibiotic Resistance (ASM) that, “the increasing problems associated with infectious diseases in fish, the limited number of drugs available for treatment and prevention of these diseases, and the rapid increase in resistance to these antibiotics represent major challenges for this source of food production worldwide.” Currently, almost every section in the aquaculture industry from fish, crustaceans and shellfish is using some sort of chemotherapeotic agents including antibiotics and many other chemicals. The ASM antibiotic resistance task force report targets aquaculture as representing “one of the biggest concerns.” Both the task force and the FAO (2005) made several points regarding the use of antibiotics: • Although aquaculture production is

growing rapidly, disease prevention and treatment practices are far from standardized or regulated • When antibiotics are used in aquaculture, the drugs typically remain in the open environment and may flow out of production facilities into open waterways or sewage systems, where they may also interact with other environmental contaminants • The antibiotics typically used are also important in treating human disease and infection Impacts of all these factors on the emergence of antibiotic resistance are unknown, however, we do know the following: • Studies demonstrate an increase in resistant bacteria in the intestines of fish receiving antibiotic drugs (ASM, 1994 citing Ervik, 1994; Frost and Thwaites, 1998; Threlfall et al., 2000; Tollefson, L. 2000) • Studies indicate the level of resistant bacteria in the gut of wild fish is affected during antibiotic treatment of farmed fish (ASM, 1994 citing Ervik, 1994) • A total of 74-100 percent of wild fish in close proximity to treated ponds contained quinolone residues – a group of antibiotics (for example, CIPRO) important in human health (ASM, 1994 citing Ervik, 1994; Hernández Serrano, 2005) • Prior to medication 0.6-1 percent of the fecal bacteria in wild fish were resistant to oxacillin and oxytetracycline, respectively (ASM, 1994 citing Ervik, 1994)

Significant progress European researchers have made significant progress in understanding the mechanisms through which antibiotic resistant bacteria that emerge on fish farms can move to humans. A team of British and Irish scientists documented the distinct movement of 28 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

resistant bacterial pieces of DNA from fish hatcheries into E. coli and Aeromonas species isolated from patients in hospitals (Rhodes et al. 2000). They concluded that, “Collectively, these findings provide evidence to support the hypothesis that the aquaculture and human compartments of the environment behave as a single interactive compartment.” (Rhodes et al. 2000) The FAO estimated that nearly 170kg of antibiotics are applied per hectare of salmon harvested in the USA and since cages are placed in natural seawaters, antibiotics and the resultant resistant bacteria are in contact with the environment. Some countries, such as Norway, utilise natural structures like fjords for salmon farming and for this reason there are concerns about the wastes that collect in fjord bottoms (FAO/NACA/WHO, 1997). All drugs legally used in aquaculture must be approved by the designated authorities (FDA’s Centre for Veterinary Medicine in the US, APMVA in Australia). The most common route of delivery of these legal antibiotics to fish occurs through mixing with specially formulated feed. However, fish do not effectively metabolise antibiotics and will pass them largely unused back into the environment in the faeces. It has been estimated that 75 percent of the antibiotics fed to fish are then put into the water through excretion (Goldburg and Triplett 1997). Since 2006, the EU has banned completely the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in aquaculture (as well as any other domestic animal). Banning and rejection of seafood imported to US and EU countries due to antibiotic and other chemotherapeutics residues are almost a daily occurrence and yet, currently, there is no alternative solution to antibiotics and other chemotherapeutics.

Diseases and aquaculture During the past decade, several outbreaks of diseases devastated the aquaculture industry around the world. The global

F: Herbal medicine shrimp industry suffered major outbreaks in South East Asia and South America due to poor management, as well as, uncontrolled use of antibiotics resulting in resistance developed by pathogens. Recently, the Chilean salmon industry suffered (and still does) a devastated outbreak of infectious salmon anaemia (ISA) virus that cause loss of hundred of millions of dollars. This outbreak followed another outbreak during 2008-09 of sea lice that again resulted in major losses to the industry. These outbreaks drove the authorities to review and revise the use of chamotherapeutics in this industry. In India, Marine Product Export Development Authority (MPEDA) has instructed the hatcheries operators and farmers not to use antibiotics such as chloramphenicol, nitrofurans and all their derivatives, as well as many other antibiotic groups. However, sulfadimethoxine, sulfabromomethazine and sulfaethoxyrpyiadine, floroquinolones and glycopeptides, which are presently used in hatcheries and farms, are still approved for use in aquaculture (Sanandakumar, 2002). Considering the overall misuse of antibiotics in all areas - human medicine, veterinary medicine, animal production and plant protection – FAO, in 2005, published ‘The responsible use of antibiotics in aquaculture’ to raise awareness of the antibiotic resistance problem in fish farming and related sectors. The document focuses on antibiotics misuse and the concomitant threat of resistance development, which is a seen as a public health concern affecting the population worldwide. In its opening statement the authors stated that, “Antibiotic resistance as a phenomenon is, in itself, not surprising. Nor is it new. It is however, newly worrying because it is accumulating and accelerating, while the

world’s tools for combating it decrease in power and number.” Diseases and pathogens are part of every intensive culture. In aquaculture ‘natural mortality’ of 10-25 percent is considered to be normal in grow-out systems. Marine finfish larvae (such as sea bream, sea bass, yellowtail kingfish, etc) survival in intensive hatcheries is 5-15 percent (Kolkovski, personal comment). These low survival rates are usually the result of combined factors such as, environmental conditions, non-specific pathogens, larvae susceptibility and low immune system development. In fact, this situation is true to most marine and fresh water organisms reared in intensive systems. In many cases, and although banned in most countries, to combat this problem, antibiotics are used as growth promoters and/or specifically against bacteria infection (Hernández Serrano, 2005). For example, in many hatcheries, fish juveniles are supplemented with antibiotics several days prior and few days after transferred to sea cages.

Alternative therapy Low immune system and responses may result in very high mortalities due to specific pathogens that antibiotics are helpless against. For example, White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) is one of the most devastating viruses in the shrimp industry. It has caused the collapse of the shrimp industry in many countries both in South America and South East Asia (FAO, 2006). Phytotherapy such as the use of herbal extracts in herbal medicine for humans is known for thousands of years. In some countries such as China, India, SEA and some countries in South and Central America phytotherapy considered mainstream while in Western medicine,

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naturopathy and herbal medicine are more and more acknowledged. Different medicinal plants and herbs and/ or combinations of them known to have properties such as anti-bactria, anti-fungal, physiological systems (immune system, digestive system,) supporting, hormonal balancing and many other properties. Strategies for prophylaxis and control of WSSV include improvement of environmental conditions, stocking of specific pathogen free (SPF) shrimp post-larvae and enhancement of disease resistance by using immuno-stimulants. Immuno stimulants are substances, which enhance the non-specific defense mechanism and provide resistance against pathogenic organisms (Citarasu et al., 2006). There are many scientific publications looking at different mechanisms and ways to enhance the specific and non-specific immune systems in fish and crustaceans. Many plantderived compounds have been found to have non-specific immuno-stimulating effects in animals, of which more than a dozen have been evaluated in fish and shrimp (Citarasu et al. 2002, 2006, Sakai, 1999). Many herbs and plants have been used for millennia as home remedies in many cultures around the world for both human and animals. Some of these remedies have potent anti-viral as well as anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties. These natural plant products have been reported to have various properties such as anti-stress, growth promoters, appetisers, tonic and immuno-stimulants. Moreover, these substances also possess other valuable properties; they are nontoxic, biodegradable and biocompatible. No herbal-resistance immunity has been found by any pathogen to date. Although the properties of herbs and plants are well known, documented, and in use in human herbal medicine around the world, currently very few commercial remedy

Aq Me ua et cu us ltr a e, t W Na o ta rld lB ra zil

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March-April 2011 | International AquaFeed | 29

N t K

Th of

col

F: Herbal medicine Table 1: The use of herbal extracts in shrimp boodstock diets

Family

Distribution

Useful parts

Cinnamonum zeylanicum

Lauraceae

India, Sri Lanka

Bark

Endocrine system, Growth promoter

Punitha, 2003

Elettaria cardomomum

Scitaminaceae

India, Burma, Sri Lanka

Dried ripe seeds

Endocrine system, Growth promoter

Punitha, 2003

Eugenia caryophyllata

Myrtaceae

India, Sri Lanka

Fruits and dried flower buds

Endocrine system, Growth promoter

Punitha, 2003

Mesua ferrea

Guttiferae

India, Burma, Andaman, Nicobar Islands

Flowe buds, seeds and bark

Endocrine system, Growth promoter

Punitha, 2003

Asparagus racemous

Liliaceae

India

Leaves and Root

Endocrine system

Devi, 1995

Mucuna pruriens

Papilionaceae

Tropics

Seeds, roots and legumes

Endocrine system

Babu and Marian, 2001

India

Root and leaves

Endocrine system

Babu, 1999; Citrasu, 2008

Witania somnifera

exists for use in large-scale aquaculture in the world.

Medicinal plants in aquaculture It is well known and documented that medicinal plants have strong antibacterial effects. Phenolics, polysaccharides, proteoglycans and flavonoids known to play an important role in preventing and/or controlling bacterial infections. Herbs such as S. triblobatum, A. paniculata and P. corylifolia were found to reduce vibrio in P. monodon three time when supplied in enriched Artemia (Citrasu et al. 2002, 2009). Many other studies with different species and with different herbal extracts and medicinal plants were published. Several plant products found to have potent antiviral activity against fish and shrimp viruses. For example, Direkbusarakom et al. 1996 found that shrimp fed ethanol extract of Clinacanthus nutans had 95 percent survival rates when exposed to Yellow head virus (YHV) compared to only 25 percent survival in control group of black tiger shrimp. Antifungal properties were also found in many plants.

Biological effect in Reference aquaculture

Botanical name

Solanaceae

Adiguzel et al. somnifera, Mucuna pruita, Ferula asafoetida (2005) controland Piper longum extracts. led infection of Recently, commercial maturation semiAspergillus flavus moist diet (NutraFeed, Nutrakol) that and Fusarium included herbal extracts fed to p. vanamei oxyspoum with resulted in over 40percent increase in total extract of O. basilicum. Other herbal nauplii produced with 44percent reduce in extracts are very effective against gills mortality compared to the normal fresh feed and skin flukes such as Benedenia seriolae (Kolkovski, personal comment, Nutrakol Pty Ltd). Table 2: Herbs, plants and algae incorporated into diets Herbal compounds have the ability to inhibit the generation of Parts used for the Plant’s Name extraction oxygen anions and scavenge free radical, hence reducing stress effects. Withania somnifera Roots and leaves Herbal antioxident effect was demMucuna pruriens Seeds and roots onstrated by Citrasu et al. (2006) when P. kurroa (picrorhiza) was used Myristica malabarica Seeds as antis-tress compound for black Mimosa pudica Roots and leaves tiger shrimp. Ipomea digitata Tuberous root Other herbs such as,Astragalus memAsparagus racemosa Leaves, bark and juice branaceus, Portulaca oleracea, Flavescent Hygrophila spinosa` Whole herb ophora and A. paniculata and many other are know to have specific and none Phasedus roxburghii Seeds specific anti stress affects. Moringa tinctoria Inflorescence and gum Medicinal plants are also know to Hemidermus indicus Root have hormonal boosting affects with some herbs are been used in herbal Algae Parts used medicine as natural ‘viagra’ and in hormonal replacement therapy for Nannochloropsis occulata Whole cells menopause woman. Chlorella salina Whole cells Babu (1999) demonstrated sigDunaliella salina Whole cells nificant increase in fecundity, gonadal weight and reduced intermoult Skeletonema costatum Whole cells period in P. mondon when the shrimp Spirulina salina Whole cells fed maturation diet containing W.

30 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

F: Herbal medicine tions. Legislation regarding the addition of herbal extracts, as feed additives need to be reviewed and allowed.

and nutritional boosters used (Kolkovski et al., 2010).

Issues

Conclusion

Although herbal remedies have been in us for human therapy for millennia, there has been relatively little research into the use of medicinal plants in aquaculture. Standardisation is an issue when whole plant or herb is use during the extraction process. Moreover, in many countries including the EU, US and Australia, the same herbals extracts approved for use in human naturopathy and herbal medicine are treated as drugs when used in aquaculture, forcing the registration of herbal remedies, a process that cost hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars and can takes years. A review of this legislation should be carried out taking into account the benefits of herbal remedies over currently used chemotherapeutic agents. Herbals can be used not only as remedies but even more so, as growth promoters, stress resistance boosters and preventatives of infections. Therefore, the use of herbal extract as feed additives can significantly benefit any organism cultured under intensive condi-

The development of drug-resistant pathogens has been reported from all areas of aquaculture. Treating microbial infections in fish and crustaceans involves dissolving high quantities of broad-spectrum chemotherapeutic agents in the culture medium or supplying it in the food. Most of these antibiotics and drugs are

now banned for use in the EU, USA and many other countries. Natural plant products present a viable alternative to antibiotics and other banned drugs being safer for the reared organism and humans, as well as, the environment. Authorities should review the current legislation regarding the use of herbal and natural remedies in aquaculture taking the above issues into consideration and allowing more flexibility in the use of herbal medicine in aquaculture.

Authors

Company products

Dr Sagiv Kolkovski is the principal scientist, marine aquaculture, at the Department of Fisheries, western Australia. He is also the R&D director at Nutrakol Pty Ltd.

Nutrakol specialized in nutritional and health solutions for aquaculture.‘Tailor-made’ diets and additives for broodstock and enrichments for larvae. These products can be manufacture to specific requirements or species. Crustacean broodstock semi-moist diets for complete replacement of fresh/ frozen food. NutraGreen natural health solutions solely based on herbal extracts and specifically design to support gonadal development, immune system and digestive system.

Judith Kolkovski, ND is a nutritionist and herbalist and the general manager of Nutrakol Pty Ltd. Nutrakol Pty Ltd is specialized in developing and manufacturing nutritional and natural health solutions for aquaculture.

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March-April 2011 | International AquaFeed | 31

F: Pigmentation

Effects of Corn Gluten Meal on Flesh Pigmentation of Rainbow Trout by Patricio Saez1*, El-Sayed M. Abdel-Aal2 and Dominique P Bureau1 1UG/OMNR Fish Nutrition Research Laboratory, Dept. of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada. 2Guelph Food Research Centre, Guelph Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. *Corresponding author, email: psaez@uoguelph.ca

ish culture operations around the world are confronted to the significant challenges of managing their production costs and ensuring that the quality of their products meets the high standards that consumers demand. In response to high price of fishmeal and other feed ingredients, feeds for salmon and trout have been progressively formulated to contain increasing levels of economical protein sources. While the effect of various protein sources on growth performance and nutrient utilization of fish has been the focus of much research, relatively limited effort has been invested in assessing the effects of different feed ingredients on product quality. Flesh pigmentation is a crucial quality criterion of farmed salmon and trout. The expensive pink or red carotenoid pigments (astaxanthin, cantaxanthin) included in the diet represents between 10 to 20 percent of the costs of salmon and trout feeds. Given the very high cost of these pigments

and the importance of pigmentation on final product quality, the impacts of feed ingredients on flesh pigmentation of salmon and trout is an issue that deserves more attention. Corn gluten meal (CGM) is a by-product of the corn wet milling process with high protein and low phosphorus contents, high digestibility and consistent quality which makes it a valuable ingredient for fish feed formulations. Other corn products, such as corn distillers dry grains and soluble (DDGS), are also finding increase use in aquaculture feed formulations. Anecdotal evidence from feed manufacturers suggests that high dietary incorporation levels of CGM or other corn products may negatively affect flesh pigmentation in fish. CGM and other corn milling by-products contain relatively high levels (100-500 ppm) of yellow xanthophyll carotenoids, mainly lutein and zeaxanthin. Observations scattered in the scientific literature suggest that xanthophyll carotenoids may impair pigmentation on salmonid fish, either by

32 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

imparting an undesirable yellowish hue to the flesh and/or by reducing efficiency of utilization of the expensive carotenoid pigments incorporated in the diet. However, the results of most studies published so far have been equivocal. Skonberg et al. (1998) observed that fillets from rainbow trout fed a diet containing 22 percent CGM (and no supplemental synthetic pigments) had a higher â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;yellowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; colour value (measured by Tristimulus colorimeter) and received significantly lower preference scores than that fish fed a diet without CGM or a diet with 22 percent CGM supplemented with synthetic pigment (100 ppm canthaxanthin). Mundheim et al (2004) found a significant linear reduction in the colour (assessed using the Roche color fan) of fillets of Atlantic salmon fed diets (supplemented with 64ppm astaxanthin) with increasing replacement of fishmeal by a combination of CGM and soybean meal (2:1 ratio) in diets. A linear reduction in growth and feed efficiency of the fish fed the diets with

F: Pigmentation growth and feed efficiency, as well as flesh pigmentation and astaxanthin concentration of rainbow trout. Two isoproteic and isoenergetic (on a digestible basis) practical diets were formulated to meet all the known nutrient requirements of rainbow trout (see Table 1). A control diet (Diet 1) was formulated to contain no corn gluten meal while a test diet (Diet 2) contained 19 percent corn gluten meal (see Table 1). The diets were supplemented with 50 ppm of astaxanthin (Carophyll® Pink, DMS Nutritional Products) and steam pelleted to appropriate size using a laboratory pellet mill. Experimental design Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), A 12-week growth trial was recently weighing 132g/fish, were reared at 15°C in conducted at the UG/OMNR Fish Nutrition four 500L plastic tanks (25 fish/tank) part Research Laboratory to assess the effect of a freshwater recirculation aquatic system. of CGM incorporation in the diet on Each experiment diet was allocated to two Table 1: Formulation, analyzed chemical composition and tanks and the fish hand pigment content of experimental diets. fed to near-satiety two times a day for 12 weeks. Diets

after slaughter. Instrumental colorimetric analysis of fillets was performed with a tristimulus colorimeter. Measurements were processed at three points over and tree point below the lateral line: close to the head; midway between the head and the tail; and close to the tail. All measurements were performed in the colorimetric space L* (lightness, L*=0 for black, L*=100 for white) with a* scale represents the intensity in red, and b* scale represents the intensity in yellow. The hue is an angular measurement where 0° (H°ab= 0) denotes the red hue and 90° (H°ab= 90) denotes the yellow hue.The C* is an expression of saturation or intensity and clarity of the colour.

increasing levels of CGM + soybean meal was observed. Conversely, Olsen and Baker (2006) observed no effect of increasing dietary lutein levels (0, 11, 23ppm) on muscle astaxanthin concentration of Atlantic salmon fed a diet containing 55ppm astaxanthin. Absorption of lutein was very low compared to that astaxanthin in these fish. However, these authors identified a weak but non-significant tendency of lower flesh astaxanthin content in fish fed feed with 23ppm lutein.

Ingredients (g/100 g diet)

Fish meal, herring, 68% CP

Corn gluten meal, 60% CP

Poultry by-product meal, regular

11.5

Soybean meal, 48% CP

Feather meal, steam-hydrolyzed

Blood meal, whole, spray-dry

Brewer's dried yeast Wheat middlings, 17% CP

12.4 12

Vegetable oil

Vitamin premix

1.5

DL-Methionine, feed-grade

0.5

Mineral premix

0.5

Ca(H2PO4)2

1.5

Carophyl pink (8% astaxanthin)

0.0625

Analyzed composition (% dry matter)

Instrumental Colour Analysis Fish were manually skinned and filleted right

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Dry matter

94.0

93.9

Crude protein

50.9

50.6

Lipids

23.8

23.1

Digestible energy, MJ/kg (estimated)

20.1

20.6

Analyzed pigment concentration (mg·kg-1 dry matter) Astaxanthin

Carotenoids from the diets and muscle samples were extracted, separated and quantified by HPLC with short C30 column (YMC Carotenoid, Water, Mississauga, ON). The separated carotenoids were detected and measured at 450nm, and the identification of the carotenoids was based on the congruence of retention times and UV/ vis spectra with those of pure authentic standards.

8.9

Fish oil, herring

Biolys® (52% lysine)

Analysis of Carotenoids by HPLC

48.2

56.7

Lutein

Zeaxanthin

β-cryptoxanthin

β-carotene

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ND = not detected March-April 2011 | International AquaFeed | 33

F: Pigmentation Results

to that of the fish fed the control diet. This suggests an adverse effect of CGM inclusion on flesh astaxanthin deposition. No lutein and zeaxanthin were detected in the flesh of the fish fed the two diets (see Table 3). The absence of significant differences for any of the colour attributes measured by colorimetric analysis between muscles from fish fed Diet 1 and Diet 2, even though the former contained a significantly (p<0.05) lower astaxanthin concentration is perplexing. However, this phenomenon has been reported in the past for rainbow trout (Choubert et al, 2009). Numerous factors, such as muscle light scattering and absorption, can affect salmon flesh colour. Colour and pigment concentration are not always perfectly and linearly related.

CGM inclusion in the diet had no significant effect on growth and feed efficiency of the fish (see Table 2). On average, rainbow trout grew from 132g to 535g during the 12 weeks trial, representing an average thermal-unit growth coefficient (TGC) of 0.240, with a feed efficiency (gain:feed) of 0.89. Tristimulus colorimetric analysis did not show significant (P>0.05) differences for any of the colour attributes measured for the flesh of fish fed Diet 1 and Diet 2, suggesting that the incorporation of CGM had not effect on flesh pigmentation (see Table 3). However, analysis of carotenoid pigments by HPLC revealed significantly (p<0.05) lower astaxanthin concentration of the flesh of fish fed the diet containing 19 percent CGM (Diet 2) compared

Table 2: Growth performance and fed efficiency of rainbow trout (IBW=132 g/fish) fed experimental diets for 12 weeks. Diet 1

Parameter

Diet 2

Final body weight

540 ± 29

531 ± 5

Gain (g/fish)

402 ± 27

400 ± 4

Feed efficiency (gain:feed)1 0.91 ± 0.05 TGC2 0.239 ± 0.01

0.88 ± 0.05 0.243 ± 0.01

Data are mean ± Standard deviation, n=2 tanks. 1Feed efficiency (live weight gain:dry feed intake), 2TGC=thermal unit growth coefficient. No significant differences observed. Table 3: Fillet carotenoid concentration and retention, and colour of rainbow trout fed experimental diets for 12 weeks. Initial

Final

Fillet colour attributes

Diet 1

Diet 2

45.9 ± 1.8a

40.5 ± 0.6b

40.4 ± 1.4b

1.3 ± 1.1b

9.9 ± 1.3a

9.6 ± 0.7a

4.8 ± 1.4b

13.4 ± 0.5a

12.8 ± 1.0a

76.1 ± 11.5a

53.6 ± 2.6b

53.2 ± 0.1b

5.0 ± 1.6b

16.6 ± 1.2a

16.0 ± 1.2a

Astaxanthin

NDc

5.6 ± 0.5a

3.2 ± 0.5b

Lutein

Zeaxanthin

C* Fillet carotenoid concentration (mg·kg-1)

References Bjerkeng, B., Følling, M., Lagocki, S., Storebakken, T., Olli, J.J., Alsted, N., 1997. Bioavailability of all-E-astaxanthin and Z-isomers of astaxanthin in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 157, 63-82. Choubert, G., Cravedi, J., Laurentie, M., 2009. Effect of alternate distribution of astaxanthin on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) muscle pigmentation. Aquaculture 286, 100-104.

H°ab

The results of the present study support the anecdotal evidence that yellow xanthophyll pigment present in corn products may have the potential to negatively affect flesh pigmentation of salmonids. The results from the present and other studies suggest a possible interaction between xanthophyll pigments and astaxanthin. The potential mechanisms (e.g competitive inhibition during intestinal absorption, transport in lymphatic lipoproteins, or deposition in muscle fibre cells) have not been studied (Olsen and Baker, 2006). It is worth noting that the xanthophyll pigments concentration in CGM used in the present study was relatively low (142mg·kg-1). Much higher xanthophyll concentrations (224 to 550mg mg·kg-1) have been reported among different batches of CGM (Park et al., 1997). Discrepancies between studies may be related to differences in dietary xanthophyll carotenoid concentrations and types (e.g. lutein vs. zeaxanthin). The effects of yellow xanthophyll pigments on pigmentation of the flesh of salmonid fish remains very poorly characterized and more systematic work needs to be carried out on this issue.

β-cryptoxanthin

β-carotene

Data are mean ± standard deviation, n=2 tanks, means of 5 individuals per tank. ND = Not detected.

34 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

Mundheim, H., Aksnes, A., Hope, B., 2004. Growth, feed efficiency and digestibility in salmon (Salmo salar L.) fed different dietary proportions of vegetable protein sources in combination with two fish meal qualities. Aquaculture 237, 315-331. Olsen, R.E., Baker, R.T.M., 2006. Lutein does not influence flesh astaxanthin pigmentation in the atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Aquaculture 258, 558-564. Park, H., Flores, R.A., Johnson, L.A., 1997. Preparation of fish feed ingredients: Reduction of carotenoids in corn gluten meal. J. Agric. Food Chem. 45, 2088-2092. Skonberg, D.I., Hardy, R.W., Barrows, F.T., Dong, F.M., 1998. Color and flavor analyses of fillets from farm-raised rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed low-phosphorus feeds containing corn or wheat gluten. Aquaculture 166, 269-277.

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Feed Management

Impact of rising feed ingredient prices on aquafeeds and aquaculture production: An assessment of aquaculture production with special reference to Asia and Europe by Krishen J Rana, Sunil Siriwardena and Mohammad R Hasan

The second article in a series, taken from a new aquaculture book

his section presents an overall assessment of aquaculture products and their production with special reference to the two regions, Asia and Europe. Production volume, product quality and price, production patterns (species diversification) as well as consumption patterns are covered below. Approximately 220 species of aquatic animals and plants are currently cultured worldwide, in a vast range of production systems, ranging from low–input extensive systems to high–input intensive aquafarms in ponds, caged enclosures and tanks. In broad terms, aquaculture production systems used for producing these aquatic animals and plants can be divided into feed–dependant systems or fed aqua-

environment for food (e.g. aquatic plants and molluscs). In 2006, global aquaculture production reached 66.7 million tonnes, growing at an annual rate of nine percent, while increasing its proportional contribution to total fisheries output. Excluding aquatic plants, aquaculture output in 1970 accounted for 3.9 percent of total fisheries production, by 2001, that proportion had increased to 29 percent and by 2006 to 36 percent (FAO, 2008a). Thus, aquaculture continues to make a significant contribution to total fisheries production over the last few decades. This increasing contribution, however, is largely an Asian phenomenon because Asia accounted for 61.43 million tonnes or 92 percent of total world aquaculture production in 2006, while Europe contributed 2.17 million tonnes or 2.2 percent (see Figure 1). In terms of value, the Asian region’s share was US$68.61 million or 80 percent of total value of world aquaculture production. The Asian contribution is significantly influenced and skewed by China. When China is excluded, the Asian contribution to total world aquaculture production drops dramatically to 24.2 percent in terms of quantity and 29 percent in terms of value. As is evident, currently, aquaculture production is over-

"In 2006, global aquaculture production reached 66.7 million tonnes, growing at an annual rate of nine percent, while increasing its proportional contribution to total fisheries output" culture (e.g. finfish and crustaceans) or non–fed aquaculture systems where culture is predominately dependant on the natural

36 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

whelmingly concentrated in one country, China. Considering the geographic spread and potential economic contribution of aquaculture in relation to aquafeeds, a better assessment may be made by excluding Chinese fish and aquatic plants to understand the progress made by the other 105 countries that have reported aquaculture production of over 1000 tonnes in 2006. When aquatic plants are excluded from production estimates for the Asian region and Asia excluding China, aquaculture production contributes 90 percent and 23.2 percent, respectively, in terms of quantity and 78 percent and 29.2 percent in terms of value, respectively, to the world total aquaculture production. Aquatic plant production is dominated by China. Seventy–three percent of total aquatic plant production in Asia is in China. There is no noticeable change in terms of quantity or value of aquaculture in Europe, when plants are excluded.

Regional contribution to global production In Asia, fed aquaculture accounted for 54 percent of the region’s total aquaculture production, indicating that almost half of Asia’s aquaculture production comes from non–fed aquaculture. However, the non–fed aquaculture production within Asia is not evenly distributed and is mainly centred in China. Fifty percent of China’s total aquaculture production (including plants) is non–fed aquaculture production. Asia’s fed aquaculture, excluding China

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Feed Management In contrast, Europe contributed 4.5 percent of fish in terms of quantity to total world fed aquaculture production. More importantly, Asia, excluding China, contributed 26.5 percent of fish in terms of quantity and 30 percent in terms of value to total world fed aquaculture production, indicating that the demand for aquafeed ingredients is also heavily skewed towards China. In terms of crustaceans fed aquaculture production, Asia contributed 91.5 percent of total world production (see Figure 2). When China is excluded from the Asian equation, the contribution of the rest of Asia is 37.5 percent of total world crustacean production. Europe’s contribution to world farmed crustacean production is negligible. Therefore, the impact of commodity volatility will be felt to a greater degree in Asia than in Europe.

Implications for aquafeed supply

and including aquatic plants, amounts to 64.2 percent. If the recent trend in the slowing down of the annual growth of the non–fed aquaculture sector continues (see section below), while maintaining an increase in total aquaculture production, the demand for aquafeed in Asia will significantly increase. In contrast to the Asian situation, finfish and crustacean aquaculture production in Europe is 100 percent dependent on aquafeeds. Asia’s aquaculture production is also dominated by the use of aquafeeds. Asia is the largest global consumer of aquafeed ingredients. Aquaculture production, mainly of crustaceans and finfish, relies on farm–made or complete industrial diets. It is estimated that Asia contributed 88.5 percent of fish in terms of quantity and 71 percent in terms of value to total world fed aquaculture production (see Figure 2).

Future pressure on the demand for feed ingredients will depend on the changing proportions of fed and non–fed aquaculture to total aquaculture production, the demand and the types of species used to meet the demand of aquatic products. The demand for feed ingredients will also depend on whether the trend will be to increase mass production of low–value species using aquafeeds or to increase production in high–value species, which generally requires high quality performance diets. Either way, the demand for all aquafeed ingredients will increase. Production of high–value species will put upward pressure on fishmeal and fish oil demand and prices, while production of low–value species will increase the demand and price for feed ingredients such as grains and oils of plant origin. Coming in the next issue (May/June 2011) of International Aquafeed an excerpt of chapter two from Impact of rising feed ingredient prices on aquafeeds and aquaculture production.

38 | International AquaFeed | March-April 2011

Coming in the next issue of The International Aquafeed magazine (May/June issue) will be an excerpt of chapter two from Impact of rising feed ingredient prices on aquafeeds and aquaculture production. The full publication can be found at: http://www.fao.org/ docrep/012/i1143e/i1143e00.htm

More information: Krishen J. Rana & Sunil Siriwardena Institute of Aquaculture University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom Mohammad R. Hasan Aquaculture Management and Conservation Service, Fisheries and Aquaculture Management Division, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department Rome, Italy Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Website: www.fao.org