September | October 2011 - International Aquafeed magazine by Perendale Publishers Ltd

Vo l u m e 1 4 I s s u e 5 2 0 1 1

Broodstock feeds:

with added crude palm oil enhances tilapia egg and larva production

Energy efficiency improving and pellet uniformity control in the extrusion of aquafeed BIOMET Zn Aqua: A organic zinc source for aquaculture practices

Challenges associated with carrying out a meta-analysis of essential amino acid requirements of fish the international magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

AQUA

FEED

CONTENTS

An international magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

Aqua News Aquaculture centre welcomes CFP reforms Strong profile in the global feed business joins Hamlet Protein Commitment to deliver innovative solutions Borregaard LignoTech expands in the Middle East and India Animal nutrition company Gold Coin acquires SyAqua Shrimp Genetic New managing director at Inve Aquaculture Aquaculture technology deployed in Turkey to combat difficult weather conditions and biofouling issues

3 3 4 4 5 5 6

F: Broodstock feeds Broodstock feeds with added crude palm oil enhances tilapia egg and larva production

F: larval diets Partial replacement of artemia: Evaluation of formulated larval diets for giant freshwater prawn macrobrachium rosenbergii

F: Pellet uniformity Energy efficiency improving and pellet uniformity control in the extrusion of aquafeed

F: Zinc BIOMET Zn Aqua - A organic zinc source for aquaculture practices

F: Amino acid Challenges associated with carrying out a meta-analysis of essential amino acid requirements of fish

F: Formulation Feed formulation flexibility - Understanding the specific nutrient requirements of shrimp enables feed formulation flexibility in times of challenging commodity pricing

F: Aquate Shrimp Aquate Shrimp - helps provide economic benefit to shrimp farmers in Honduras

Feed Management Book review Fish Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment Catfishes as a case study Pathogens of Wild and Farmed Fish: sea lice

42 42 43

Classified Adverts

Events

International Aquafeed is published six times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom. All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies, the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis of information published. ©Copyright 2011 Perendale Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058

EDITOR’S DESK Professor Simon Davies Email: simond@aquafeed.co.uk

Associate Editor Professor Krishen Rana Email: krishenr@aquafeed.co.uk

Editorial Manager

Croeso and welcome again

his mid- summer edition finds us all very busy with meetings and visits to facilities and workshops around the world. Dr Daniel Merrifield, my colleague and editorial panel member, has recently returned from the very successful WAS 2011 meeting in Natal, Brazil having been a key-note speaker on his subject specialisation of probiotics in fish production. There he met with many students, technical personnel and management from international agencies and companies as well as our Spanish translation group.

Nicky Barnes Email: nickyb@aquafeed.co.uk

Here in Plymouth we had a delegation of city councillors and MPs from parliament interested in the business sector with innovation and enterprise being at the centre of a recovery package for the UK with marine sciences and bioscience particularly in focus.

Editorial Advisory Panel:

This too is going to be at the central agenda in the BioMarine Business Convention to be held in Nantes, France next month and I will be in attendance at this prestigious venue along with his Serene Highness, Prince Albert II of Monaco who takes a strong interest in this sector and we hope to hear his views in our next edition.

• Abdel-Fattah M. El-Sayed (Egypt) • Professor António Gouveia (Portugal) • Professor Charles Bai (Korea) • Colin Mair (UK) • Dr Daniel Merrifield (UK) • Dr Dominique Bureau (Canada) • Dr Elizabeth Sweetman (Greece) • Dr Kim Jauncey (UK) • Eric De Muylder (Belgium) • Dr Pedro Encarnação (Singapore)

Subscription & Circulation Tuti Tan Email: tutit@aquafeed.co.uk

Design & Page Layout James Taylor Email: jamest@aquafeed.co.uk

International Marketing Team Caroline Wearn Email: carolinew@aquafeed.co.uk Sabby Major Email: sabbym@aquafeed.co.uk Lee Bastin Email: leeb@aquafeed.co.uk

Latin American Office Ivàn Marquetti Email: ivanm@perendale.com

In this issue In this issue we have all our regular features with an excellent photo shoot of the new commercial laboratories of Astec Business and Science Centre in Northumberland who will embark on research and development concepts and innovations in aquaculture offering a specialised facility and range of equipment at their unique site near the shore with heated sea water. I am delighted to receive an article from Dr Guillaume Saltze and workers, on amino acid requirements of fish, based on a new approach (meta-analysis), which will provide a more refined allowance strategy prior to fish, feed formulations. This is of particular interest to me in my area of research assessing novel protein sources. Protein and essential amino acid requirements are fundamental to fish and crustacean nutrition and more information is always useful for maximising efficiency. We report on latest developments on tilapia brood stock feeds from Malaysia where palm oil supplementation seems to enhance egg quality for this species. From Bangladesh we have a feature on the In our next issue: replacement of artemia as live feed for giant prawn larval stages with November | December 2011 particulate formulated meals. Nutrition/ingredient focus: Enzymes, Probiotics Enjoy reading this edition along with Process focus: Cages & nets all our regular features, blogs and Industry focus: Tuna farming in the USA news reports.

What is this? This is a QR (Quick Reference) graphic that is unique and scannable using a free application on any smartphone or tablet. QRs - although around for some years - have come of age as portable hand-held devices have become increasingly popular. We are adding QRs to major features and will be supplying QRs to our advertisers to place in their advertisements if they wish. They can be pointed to any url or digital destination - and can be changed at any time in the future meaning related information can be kept up-to-date. Perendale generates and manages QRs for all it customers and authors free-of-charge! For more information visit www.aquafeed.co.uk/qr, or scan the qr above with your smart phone

More information: International Aquafeed 7 St George's Terrace, St James' Square Cheltenham, GL50 3PT United Kingdom Tel: +44 1242 267706 Website: www.aquafeed.co.uk

September-October 2011 2 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

WELCOME TO INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED MAGAZINE

Editor

Aqua News Aquaculture centre welcomes CFP reforms

he new Astec Aquaculture Business & Science Centre located on Nor th East England’s Northumberland coastline, is a purpose-built facility, which provides a unique and supportive environment for all types of aquaculture related business and research activities. It has a specific focus on helping fledgling enterprises to become established and grow, and as such, provides a unique combination of ‘plug-in and go’ facilities and specialist business suppor t services. Astec has a very unique offering that appeals to marine scientists and industry alike – a year round supply of near tropical temperature, flow-through seawater, enabling a wide range of aquatic plants and animals to be cultivated there. Further to the recent Common Fisheries Policy Reform, pre-

sented by Maria Damanaki, Commissioner for Maritime Affair s and Fisheries, Astec welcomes the EU’s recognition of the importance of developing ecologically viable aquaculture as

part of its proposals to manage fish stocks. Kevin Haddrick, chief executive of Astec says, “We have previ-

Strong profile in the global feed business joins Hamlet Protein

iels Otto Damholt joins Hamlet Protein in the position of sales director.

Niels Otto Damholt Based in Horsens, Denmark, Niels Otto Damholt will be responsible for Hamlet Protein´s sales and customer ser vice outside NAFTA and will be repor ting to chief commercial officer of Hamlet Protein, Søren Bank. Niels Otto Damholt, aged 47, joins Hamlet Protein from a position as regional director in Danisco Animal Nutrition, br inging 20 year s of back-

ground in international sales management in the animal nutrition sector to the company. The strengthening of Hamlet Protein’s commercial organisation comes as a result of the significant increase in the demand for H a m l e t P r o t e i n ’s products during 2010 and 2011, and to support the continued quest to deliver the company’s strategic goals in the high quality soya protein market. More

ously highlighted the need for a coordinated approach to support the development of this dynamic but fragmented industry, so we are par ticularly suppor tive of the EU’s plans to establish a new Aquaculture Advisor y Council to give advice and guidance on industry-related issues.” The repor t also states that “a better framework for aquaculture will increase production and supply of seafood in the EU, reduce dependence on imported fish and boost growth in coastal and rural areas.” By 2014, Member States will draft national strategic plans to remove administrative barriers and uphold environmental, social and economic standards for the farmed-fish industr y, adds the report. “As the UK’s first aquaculture business incubator, with a focus on supporting start-up businesses

in the sector, we ver y much welcome the EU’s intention to remove administrative and legislative barriers to trade.” Mr Haddrick adds, “Astec shares the views of Commissioner Damanaki that there is great potential within the aquaculture sector. “We look forward to seeing how the framework develops and strongly suggest the EU grasp this opportunity to ensure aquaculture plays an integral part in developing a more sustainable approach to fisheries management.” More

information:

Astec Lyne Sands, Woodhorn Northumberland NE63 9NW United Kingdom Tel: +44 1670 852771 Email: info@astecaquaculture.com Website: www.astecaquaculture.com

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AMANDUS KAHL GmbH & Co. KG Dieselstrasse 5-9, D-21465 Reinbek / Hamburg Phone: +49 40 727 71 0, Fax: +49 40 727 71 100 info@amandus-kahl-group.de

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September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 3

Aqua News Commitment to deliver innovative solutions Novartis Animal Health commitment to deliver innovative solutions to customers further demonstrated by support of recently established Sea Lice Research Centre (SLRC)

ovar tis Animal Health announces two-year US$2.8 million expansion program at Prince Edward Island aquaculture R&D site Novar tis Animal Health, Inc (NAH) announced an investment to significantly expand its Novartis Centre for Aqua Research & Development on Prince Edward Island (PEI), Canada. Construction has already begun on the US$2.8 million expansion, which will add state-of-the-art new laboratory and office space to support the continued rapid growth of the aquaculture R&D programs at the facility. This comes on top of recent multimillion dollar investments in the R&D centre by NAH. The expansion demonstrates the continued NAH commitment to ongoing aqua health R&D and specifically to the PEI facilities. “In the past five years, Novartis Animal Health has invested well over US$13 million in our presence on Prince Edward Island,” said George Gunn, BVMS, MRCVS and Division Head of Novartis Animal Health and Head, Novartis Corporate Responsibility. “We dedicated a new marine

R&D centre at the Victoria site in 2006, built an entirely new manufacturing facility in the West Royalty Business Park in Charlottetown that opened in 2007, and are currently in the process of developing a distribution centre in a building that was recently purchased near that plant.” The PEI facility is the global centre for NAH innovation for vaccines to prevent viral and bacterial diseases in farmed fish. NAH was the first company to develop and license vaccines for infectious salmon anemia virus and infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus, which are deadly to salmon and financially damaging to fish farmers. Today, NAH offers a broad range of salmonid vaccines as well as products to control sea lice. The expansion now underway will enhance its potential to maintain its advantage in innovation. The PEI site is one of six worldwide NAH Research & Development centres for animal health. The company’s other R&D centres focus on medicines for pets and livestock and are located in Australia, Switzerland and the US. The R&D expansion will add an

additional 670 square metres (7200 square feet) of highly efficient laboratories, as well as approximately 558 square metres (6000 square feet) of modern and interactive meeting space for scientists, and will be completed in two phases during the remainder of 2011 and into 2012. In addition, 511 square metres (5500 square feet) of new space adjacent to the existing aquarium in the building will allow future expansion of the existing marine centre. Approximately 30 scientists work in the R&D programs at the Victoria site. The recent hiring of 14 new R&D associates has added to the organisation’s capacity for developing innovative new technology platforms and has increased the potential for Novartis to improve their speed to market with new products. Further demonstrating the commitment of Novar tis Animal Health to deliver innovative solutions to customers is our decision to dedicate resources to support the recently established Sea Lice Research Centre (SLRC) in Bergen, Norway.

Novartis Animal Health is working together with industry partners including Marine Harvest, Lerøy Seafood Group, EWOS Innovation and Patogen Analyse AS in the ongoing battle against this devastating parasite. The establishment of the SLRC marks the beginning of a new era where, for the very first time, true critical mass is being brought to fight this enormous challenge facing the industry. “By continuing to invest in our R&D facilities and programs, Novartis Animal Health is well-positioned for discovering new health solutions for salmon producers and bringing those solutions to market expeditiously,” Gunn concludes. “This is an ongoing commitment that we feel will help us maintain a leadership position and support the growth of the salmon industry worldwide.” More information: Novartis Animal Health Media Relations Joseph Burkett Head of Communications Global Communications CH-4002 Basel Switzerland Tel: +41 61 6961661 Email: joseph.burkett@novartis.com Website: www.novartis.com

Borregaard LignoTech expands in the Middle East and India

orregaard LignoTech, a global leader in high performance additives and ingredients for the animal feed industry, is expanding its business in the Middle East and India. The company says it has set “ambitious growth targets” for its animal feed additives business and is currently seeking partners in these two areas, where it wishes to establish Borregaard LignoTech as a long-term supplier. It is looking for prospective partners, who already have a local presence in these markets with large networks of animal feed/feed additive customers, to represent and distribute its products. The company’s product port-

folio includes Lignosulphonatebased pellet binders and die lubricants, SoftAcid acidifiers and ByPass Protein Technology. “Our pelleting aids and SoftAcid products are well known and established in most European markets. Following recent success stories also in Asia, we now want to expand in the Middle East and India - growing markets where we have little presence today, and in which especially the poultry segment represents an interesting opportunity for our products,” Tom Stylo, Business Manager for Feed Europe and Asia, said. Borregaard LignoTech, headquartered in Norway, currently has 520 employees, 11 production units

globally and local sales representation on all continents. During HY1 this year, it set up a new global business area responsible for growing the animal feed additive business on all continents. The company has recently expanded its feed additive staff in Europe, North and South America and is currently in the process of hiring new people in Asia. In addition to the new recruits, in May Borregaard LignoTech also launched a new website to support the growth plan for its feed additives. The company is currently running an extensive advertising campaign for PellTech®, a pelleting lubricant particularly suitable for feed

4 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

formulations with DDGS, cassava and other hard to pellet ingredients. It says the product gives better productivity, fewer chokes and improved pellet quality. In Asia, PellTech® is also being introduced into aquafeed, specifically shrimp feed, as a tool to increase production capacity and/ or reduce production costs. More

information:

Stefan Omvik Marketing Manager Feed Borregaard LignoTech PO Box 162 1701 Sarpsborg Norway Tel: +47 69 118148 Email: stefan.omvik@borregaard.com Website: www.lignotechfeed.com

Aqua News Animal nutrition company Gold Coin acquires SyAqua Shrimp Genetic

nimal Nutr ition and Feedmilling Group Gold Coin has announced that earlier this year it acquired full control of Shrimp Genetic Company SyAqua. “The key objective of this strategic acquisition is first to offer an alternative to Asian shrimp farmers, combining technical and commercial synergies between Nutrition and Genetic to enhance shrimp production performances and therefore farmers profitability ,” says Gold Coin Group CEO, Mr JC Filippi. Mr Tycho Vos, the newlyappointed managing director to the SyAqua Group adds, “In the past 10 years, SyAqua has developed a unique and strong Genetic and Breeding programme targeting improvements in growth performance, robustness and resistance to diseases.

“New technologies and resources are now being used within our facilities focusing on and addressing the new Industry challenges and market expectations.” Dr Thomas Gitterle, previously head of the genetic and breeding depar tment at CENIACUA (Colombia) and scientific advisor to AKVAFORSK Genetic Center (Norway), is now the new technical director of SyAqua in charge of genetic improvement and development. Dr Gitterle will also oversee a number of research initiatives and activities including a Nutrigenomics project in Singapore and a research prog r a m m e i n I n d o n e s i a fo r IMNV. SyAqua main Genetic Nuclei is located in Thailand as well as in Singapore.

SyAqua presently operates commercial hatcheries producing Post Lar vae and Nauplii both in Thailand and Indonesia and exports commercial broodstock in the region. Gold Coin is a pioneer in animal and shrimp nutrition with its first Aquamill built in Malaysia in the early 1990s. Gold Coin is today an undisputable specialist in livestock and aqua feed and a market leader with presence in eight Asian countries. More

information:

Mr Tycho Vos The Gold Coin Group Suite 9-6, 9th Floor, Wisma UOA Damansara II 6 Changkat Semantan, Damansara Heights, 50490 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Tel: +603 20921999 Fax: +603 20921919 Email: tycho.vos@goldcoin-group.com Website: www.goldcoin-group.com

New managing director at Inve Aquaculture

hilippe Léger, 57, has been appointed the new managing director of Inve Aquaculture, a global leader in the research, development, production and marketing of feed and health solutions. Mr Léger was the co-founder of Artemia Systems, the company that was established in 1983. In 1991,‘Inve Aquaculture’ became part of the Inve Group. Mr Léger says,“The

past years we have tweaked our portfolio of nutritional specialties with a successful range of health products for disease prevention. “This was achieved by strengthening our Innovation Department and enforcing our market presence and supply chain. “We are confident Inve Aquaculture will continue offering pioneering solutions to the ever evolving aquaculture industry.”

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September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 5

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Aqua News ©Photographs courtesy of Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey

New aquaculture technology deployed in Turkey to combat difficult weather conditions and biofouling issues

h i s s u m m e r, t h e Dardanelles Strait became the first European site to install innovative copper alloy aquaculture cages. Designed to eliminate common fish farming problems, such as biofouling, damage from storms

The Dardanelles Strait dates back to Helen of Troy’s day and empires have been always challenged by crossing the massive body of water ever since . Approximately 12 storms occur there each year, resulting in three to five metre-high waves.

trial carried out at Van Diemen Aquaculture in Tasmania, Australia, where 30 newly-installed cages proved that copper alloy meshes improved the sanitary conditions, productivity and sustainability of operations for fish farmers. As a result, a new trial site to stock sea bass has been deployed in 50 metres of water in a twoby-two grid system in Turkey. This project will investigate the growth performance of the fish and the feed ratio. Besides, durability tests and monitoring of biofouling of the copper net will be performed.

Specifications

and strong undercurrents, the cages selected by the scientists at Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University and University of New Hampshire have been deployed in 50 metres of water and are stocking 15,000 European sea bass (4.5 tonnes).

In addition, water flows in both directions along the strait, from the Sea of Marmara to the Aegean, forcing a surface current in one direction and an undercurrent in the other. This project studied the results of previous cases, such as the

The project’s designers have chosen to use copper alloy meshes for several reasons: they naturally inhibit biofouling and the growth of parasites and pathogens, improve water flow and circulation, and help maintain higher oxygen levels for healthier fish. In addition, copper alloy mesh cages maintain their shape against strong waves and currents. The Dardanelles also suffer predator attacks from sharks and seals.

6 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

A recent installation in Chile, where 60 copper alloy cages were installed for the salmon industr y, demonstr ated the copper alloy mesh can resist predator s and prevent the escape of fish. The Strait’s tough weather conditions required a durable material. Copper alloy meshes resist corrosion and last for five years or more, compared to traditional solutions that only last a few months before cleaning is required. In addition, the copper mesh is 100 percent recyclable. Recycled material is used in the initial production of copper products, further reducing CO2 emissions compared with the construction of traditional polymer nets.

The three challenges of aquaculture in the 21st Century: quality, health, environment The world’s annual consumption of fish and seafood has increased by 65 percent since the 1960s to reach 17kg per person in 2010*.

Aqua News significant aquaculture activities are Norway, Denmark, Faroe Island, Spain, UK, Por tugal, Ireland, Greece , Italy and Turkey, according t o U N FAO F i s h e r y Statistics 2009. More

information:

Irina Dumitrescu Communications Manager European Copper Institute Avenue de Tervueren, 168 - box 10 B-1150 Brussels Belgium Tel: +32 2 7777070 Fax: +32 2 7777079 Email: eci@eurocopper.org Website: www.eurocopper.org

In particular, salmon is about to replace chicken on our plates. Today, almost half of all seafood is issue of aquaculture. China is the world’s largest producer (at 33 million tonnes/year), while Europe produces 2.3 million tonnes year*. To meet the demand whilst maintaining high quality, the aquaculture sector has to face three challenges: increased volume (production has increased by 71 percent in the last 10 years and the trend continues), improving the sanitar y conditions at the production site, and lessening the environmental impact (preserving the marine environment, reducing waste and respecting biodiversity).

A solution for the future of aquaculture “Unlike other net materials such as nylon or coated nets, copper and its alloys are 100 percent recyclable without any loss of performance. Copper alloy nets perform well in difficult conditions and their lifespan is longer than other net materials,” explains Nigel Cotton, marketing manager at European Copper Institute. In future, copper cages could allow the industry to exploit new areas of production in Europe, far from the coasts, since their resistance to sea currents and waves would enable off-shore breeding. In Europe, the countries with

September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 7

F: Broodstock feeds

Broodstock feeds

with added crude palm oil enhances tilapia egg and larva production

by Wingâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Keong Ng, PhD, Yan Wang, MSc, Yunyun Qian, MSc, Fish Nutrition Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia Email: wkng@usm.my

he global production of tilapia exceeded three million tonnes in 2010 and is estimated by industryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s forecast to increase to about nine million tonnes by the year 2020. The increasing intensification of tilapia farming systems has led to a critical need for large quantities of fingerlings for stocking grow-out systems (see Figure 1). Furthermore, it is increasingly important to produce high quality tilapia fry due to the low fecundity of broodfish, the low degree of female spawning synchrony and reduction in spawning rigor with time. Broodstock nutrition is recognised as a major factor that can influence fish reproduction and subsequent larval quality of many fish species. The development of cost-effective and nutrient optimised broodstock feeds for tilapia is both pertinent and crucial.

as n-6 LC-PUFA such as arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n-6), are known to significantly influence reproductive performance in many farmed fish. Marine fish oils are rich in LC-PUFA and are traditionally used as the major lipid source in aquafeeds, including broodstock feeds. However, it is estimated that aquafeeds currently consume more than 90 percent

of the global supply of fish oil (FO) and the demand for FO from the expanding aquaculture industry will imminently out strip supply. Considering the high demand, impending short supply and rising costs of FO, much research is currently being conducted on finding suitable alternative lipid sources for use in aquafeeds. Vegetable oils are viable alternatives

Tilapia broodstock nutrition Lipids and fatty acids have been reported to play a major role in broodstock nutrition and greatly influence the quality of developing eggs and larvae. Omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA) such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), as well

Figure 1: Red hybrid Tilapia fingerlings in a commercial hatchery ready for stocking grow-out culture systems

8 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

F: Broodstock feeds

Rising feed cost

Escalating fish meal price

Tired of hearing only bad news?

Figure 2: Pre-spawning female Nile Tilapia individually tagged with colour-coded disc tags tied to vinyl thread Opportunistic diseases

as they are readily available, renewal and more cost-effective compared to FO. Many studies have reported that vegetable oils can partially or fully replace FO in fish diets without compromising growth performance as long as the essential fatty acid requirements of the fish are met. However, all the major vegetable oils produced do not contain LC-PUFA in their fatty acid profile. Considering the reported importance of this group of fatty acids in broodstock nutrition, finding suitable lipid alternatives will be more challenging and requires concerted research effort. There is currently very limited information on the effect of dietary vegetable oils and FO on the reproductive performance of tilapia.

Tilapia broodfish feeding trial We recently conducted a feeding trial to evaluate the potential use of linseed oil and crude palm oil in tilapia broodstock feeds. Linseed oil (LSO) was chosen due to its very high concentrations of linolenic acid (18:3n-3). Previous research in our laboratory has indicated that Nile tilapia is capable of elongating and desaturating 18:3n-3 present in LSO to n-3 LC-PUFA. We have also chosen to evaluate crude palm oil (CPO) as a potential lipid source. In a previous study from our laboratory, tilapia, when fed CPO-based diets from stocking to marketable size was observed to have significantly larger gonads compared to fish fed the FO-based diet. We therefore decided to conduct a comprehensive study to evaluate the effects of dietary lipid source (FO, LSO

and CPO) on the spawning performance, egg and larval quality, and the fatty acid composition of various reproductive products of Nile tilapia.

Environmental impact

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Feed is the main cost in most aquaculture operations … and the most difficult one to reduce when ingredient prices are rising …

Experimental protocol Pre-spawning female Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (GIFT strain), obtained from the same parental breeding pair was used. Before the start of the experiment, all female fish was individually color tagged (see Figure 2). All male tilapia had their upper lip bone clipped to prevent injury to the female fish during mating behavior. Two round one-tonne liter-breeding tanks were allocated for each group of fish fed their respective allocated diet. Each tank was stocked with six female (mean initial weight, 31.9 ± 0.4g)

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September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 9

F: Broodstock feeds

Figure 3: Tilapia eggs are oval-shaped and both the long and short axis lengths were used for biometric measurements and two male (mean weight 41.3 ± 0.8g) tilapia, respectively. Six rectangular plastic flower pots were placed on the tank bottom to provide breeding spaces for the spawning female tilapia. Fish were hand-fed to apparent satiation twice daily. Four isonitrogenous (35% protein) and isolipidic (10%) casein-based diets were formulated with added FO, FO+CPO (1:1), CPO or LSO as the lipid source, respectively. Each diet was fed to two tanks of broodfish and the reproductive performance of 12 individual female fish was monitored over 25 weeks. Whenever present, eggs were gently removed from the buccal cavity of brooding fish and counted (see Figure 3). Fish body weight and the date of spawning were recorded before returning the broodfish to their respective tank. Subsamples of eggs were randomly chosen and used either for egg biometric measurements, fatty acid analyses or hatched in modified plastic bottles in a temperature controlled (28 ± 0.5 °C) indoor hatching system.

Impact on reproductive performance During broodfish maturation and spawning, much of the supply of dietary nutrients is channeled into the developing gonads, eggs and ovulation processes. In the case of Nile tilapia, since they are

mouth brooders, spawning fish also do not eat when they are mouth-incubating their eggs. It is therefore not surprising that actively spawning female fish in the study showed lower growth performance. Broodfish fed the LSO diet which had the poorest reproductive performance showed the highest weight gain compared to fish fed the other three diets. In this study, tilapia fed the two CPO-based diets (CPO or FO+CPO) had larger gonads and less perivisceral fat, and combined with lower growth rates indicated that broodfish fed these two diets had increased reproductive potential and activity. The significantly lower perivisceral fat found in broodfish fed the two CPO-based diets indicated the important contribution of the adipose tissue in providing fat and energy reserves during active reproduction. Perivisceral adipose tissue was less mobilized in broodfish fed the FO or LSO diet. First spawning occurred earliest in broodfish fed the CPO diet at 30.8 ± 9.9 days compared to 44.1, 45.5 or 76.3 days for fish fed the FO+CPO, FO or LSO diet, respectively. The highest number of actively spawning tilapia was observed in fish fed the FO+CPO diet, followed by fish fed the CPO, FO or LSO diet, respectively. At the end of 25 weeks, tilapia fed the two CPO-based diets produced the highest total number of eggs per fish due to the shorter inter spawning interval, higher spawning frequency and and greater number of brooding females "(see Figure 5)". Mean diameter, volume and weight of eggs did not vary among dietary treatments. Egg hatchability was significantly higher in broodfish fed the CPO-based diets. It took three to four days for the incubated eggs to hatch, irrespective of diet. The

Figure 4: Tilapia fed 100% CPO diet spawned the earliest and had the shortest inter-spawning interval

10 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

F: Broodstock feeds gonad, egg and larvae of Nile tilapia was observed in this study. Vitamin E is known to be critical to the normal development of fish embryos and is therefore expected to have contributed to the enhanced reproductive performance of Nile tilapia fed CPObased diets in this study.

Conclusion

Figure 5: In 25 weeks, fish fed the CPO-based diets produced the most number of eggs per breeding tank and per fish

Fatty acids and fish reproduction The fatty acid composition of the muscle, gonad, egg and newly hatched larvae was influenced by dietary lipid source. However, evidence of preferential fatty acid conservation, conversion and utilisation was also observed in these tissues. The fatty acid composition of tilapia eggs did not vary over four consecutive spawns. The gonads and eggs of tilapia fed the CPO diet contained the highest relative concentration of saturates, monoenes, arachidonic acid and n-6/n-3 ratio which all played a role in enhancing reproductive performance. The addition of CPO at the 50 percent or 100 percent replacement of FO greatly increased the dietary content of 16:0, thereby supplying more than sufficient levels of saturated fatty acids for optimal structural and functional roles in cellular membrane formation in the gonad. The significantly increased monoene content provided the preferred substrates for mitochondrial β-oxidation for energy production in fish. High levels of monoenes are often accumulated in gonadal neutral lipids which are catabolised for energy after the eggs are hatched. Arachidonic acid is the preferred substrate for prostaglandins production in fish cells and prostaglandins are known to be involved in the reproductive processes such as steroidogenesis and ovulation.

The high total n-3 PUFA concentration observed in the gonads of fish fed the LSO diet, and to a lesser degree the FO diet, seemed to be detrimental to the reproductive performance of tilapia. One possible reason for the negative Authors’ note: effects of excess n-3 LC PUFA might The full report of this research be due to the increased oxidative stress was recently published in Aquaculture encountered by the gonadal tissues. (Ng and Wang, 2011. Aquaculture 314, Highly unsaturated fatty acids are 122-131). easily oxidized creating highly reactive lipid Are you sure p e ro x i d a t i o n I‘m not missing radicals that a key essential might be detrimental to nutrient? the developing egg or embryo. Replacing dietary FO with palm oil can improve oxidative stability in fish tissues due ® to the more saturated fatty acid profile of naturally supports… palm oil and … Per formance the presence … Health of endog… Stress management enous vitamin E which are potent antioxidants. A significant accumulation of tocopherols We have your per for mance in mind and tocotrienols in the Chemoforma Ltd. CH-4302 Augst Switzerland muscle, liver, Tel +41 61 811 33 55 Fax +41 61 811 28 03

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time taken for the yolk sac to be absorbed ranged from four to eight days. Larval morphology and survival after a stress test did not yield significantly different results among dietary treatments. However, there was a significant increase in larval deformities observed in larvae from fish fed the FO diet

In conclusion, the inclusion of CPO in tilapia broodstock diets can be a costeffective method to increase tilapia fry production. The beneficial impact of dietary CPO on female tilapia reproductive performance included larger gonad sizes, earlier first spawning activity, shorter inter-spawning interval, a longer period of broodfish fertility, higher overall total egg production, higher egg hatching rates and lower incidence of larval deformities as compared to broodfish fed a FO-based diet.

F: Larval diets

Partial replacement of artemia: Evaluation of formulated larval diets for giant freshwater prawn macrobrachium rosenbergii

by M Shah Nawaz Chowdhury, Institute of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4000, Bangladesh Email: snawaz11@yahoo.com

he giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii, de Man), locally known as ‘Golda’, plays an important role in the economy of Bangladesh by earning valuable foreign exchange, generating employment and raising protein food production (Chowdhury et al., 2010). Being a protein diet food and also for its big size, it is increasingly attracting the attention of the culturists as well as consumers. Freshwater prawn farming is environmentally sustainable, since it is practiced at lower grow-out density (New, 1995). Adults breed very readily during summer wet season and in captivity, however, the larvae develop through 11 stages, requiring a moderate level of hatchery technology and considerable husbandry skill for rearing (New and Singholka, 1982). The success of this system depends on its proper operation and management. Good feeding regime is important for the optimum production in hatchery condition. Quality feed plays an important role in larvae rearing of freshwater prawn. It affects Table 1: The composition of the test diets

Test diets T1 (EC)

T2 (EFC)

T3 (FESC)

Eggs Skim milk powder Shrimp muscle Fish meat Corn Flower Cod liver oil

50.00 49.00 -

50.00 30.00 19.00 -

31.00 29.50 26.50 08.50 02.00

Agar powder Vitamin C Other multivitamins Yeast Mannan-oligosaccharide (MOS) Betaglucan

01.00

01.00 00.20 00.50 00.60

00.10 00.10

Ingredients (%)

survival, growth, disease and larval quality as well. Under or over feeding regime causes economic losses. Proper feeding with optimum ration size is key factor in larval rearing of Macrobrachium rosenbergii. It helps to create maximum economic efficiency, healthy and disease resistant post larvae (PL) and finally excellent aquaculture products. So, the selection of best larval feeding regime of cultured Macrobrachium rosenbergii in the larval rearing tanks should be considered more carefully for the supreme success of the hatchery. Imported Artemia cysts are predominantly used in the hatcheries of Bangladesh, which are expensive and uncertain in availability. Dependence entirely on Artemia as feed not only makes hatchery operations expensive, but also unsustainable. Hence, there is a need to look for alternative acceptable diets to replace Artemia and reduce the cost of larval prawn rearing. Accordingly, an attempt was made in the present study to find out the growth, survival rate and disease stress of Macrobrachium larvae under different feeding regimes to replace Artemia partially in freshwater prawn hatchery.

Methodology Three larval diets were formulated using different feed ingredients (see Table 1). Feed ingredients were added and blended thoroughly in a kitchen mixer. The diets were cooked on a water bath for 30 minutes, cooled and stored at 4°C. Six cemented rectangular tanks having 3m3 capacity (1.5mX2mX1m) were used for the experiment. Three treatments (T1, T2 and T3) were arranged with one replicate for each treatment. 150‰ brine were collected from the near by sea salt extraction pen and stored. To get 12‰ saline water, required quantities of brine was mixed with freshwater. The larvae were stocked 100inds/L with 45cm UV treated 12ppt saline water at first maintaining all physicochemical parameters

12 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

following the FAO manual (New, 2002) and then, increased the water level up to 90cm as the larvae grew (see Figure 1a). The larval feeding regime used was as described in Table 2. Diets were offered to the prawn larvae three times daily (09:30, 01.30 and 03:30 hours) at a rate of 5-20g/tonne (see Figure 1b). Three larval diets were formulated and evaluated in partial replacement for Artemia in the larval rearing of Macrobrachium rosenbergii. The research work was conducted using six cemented rectangular tanks having 3m3 capacity (1.5mX2mX1m) each. 100 larvae per liter were stocked in three experimental setups as the treatments T1, T2 and T3 respectively with one replicate each. The test diets were prepared by using egg custard (T1), egg-shrimp custard (T2), and formulated egg-shrimp custard (T3). Diets were offered to the prawn larvae three times daily (09:30, 01.30 and 03:30 hrs) at a rate of 5-20g/tonne. Formulated egg-shrimp custard (T3) showed significantly higher survival than those fed egg custard (T1) and eggshrimp custard (T2). The larvae fed formulated egg-shrimp custard (T3) was more efficient in larval metamorphosis, larvae took less time to reach the next stage compared to those fed egg custard (T1) and egg-shrimp custard (T2). Length and weight measurements were higher for the larvae fed formulated egg-shrimp custard (T3) and the formulated egg-shrimp custard provided the necessary nutrition to reduce the risk of larval exuvia entrapment disease. Water quality viz., temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), salinity, alkalinity, nitrite- nitrogen (NO2- N) and ammonia (NH3) were not affected by the test diets and the values recorded were in acceptable range for freshwater prawn larval rearing.

F: Larval diets Before feeding, the diets were passed through desired mesh size sieves (2501000Îź), so that the particle size of the food was acceptable to the prawn larvae. Live Artemia nauplii were fed twice daily at 07:30 hours and 6:30 at a rate of 1-5 individuals/ml of tank water. Biochemical analysis of newly hatched Artemia and formulated diets was carried out (see Table 3) following standard methods of AOAC (1995). Siphoning has been done daily afternoon for removal of waste particles. To maintain an optimum environment for larval growth, 20-30 percent volume water exchange has been done every day. The water removed has been replaced by ready mix, aerated, 12ppt salinity of water at the same temperature as that of the larval tank. Water quality was monitored by observing the physicochemical parameters viz. water temperature, water pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Salinity, and Alkalinity, Nitrite- nitrogen (NO2- N) and Ammonia (NH3) (see Figure 1c). Survival rate was measured by the volumetric estimation of stocked larvae in each tank (see Figure 1d). The larval behavior

was visually checked twice a day after feeding and early morning to determine the larval conditions that is, swimming pattern, pigmentation, and accumulation in the tank bottom after stopped aeration. Besides, significant number of larvae were sampled daily from each treatment tank for microscopic observation to determine the mean larval stage and diagnose the disease and following symptoms described by FAO manual (New, 2002). The growth was measured with centimeter scale for length (from tip of the rostrum to the end of the telson) and weighing by electrical balance. Efficiency of experimental diets was evaluated on the basis of postlarval growth, time required for metamorphosis and related percentage survival. The larvae were observed daily to record the progression of metamorphosis namely, mean larval stage (MLS) and relative percentage survival (see Figure 1e, and 1f). Larvae from each tank were collected and studied for morphological characters following the descriptions given by Uno and Soo (1969). Development of larvae was determined by calculating the MLS formulas described by Lovett

Fig. 1 a. Larvae stocking in the larval rearing tank (LRT); b. Larval feeding of formulated diets in LRT; c. Water quality monitoring in the experimental LRTs; d. Larvae sampling for survival rate estimation; e. Microscopic observation of larvae (early stage); f. Microscopic observation of larvae (later stage); g. Harvested post larvae (PL) during this trial

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Table 2: Feeding regimes used for the treatments T1, T2, and T3 in larval rearing Treatments

Feed Items

T1, T2, Artemia T3 nauplii T1

EFC

FESC

Larval stages

Feeding times 07.30 18.30

III

4-5 nauplii/ml

09.30 01.30 03.30 09.30 01.30 03.30 09.30 01.30 03.30

VII

2-3 nauplii/ml

5-10 g/ton

VIII

1-2 nauplii/ml

10-20 g/ton

Fig. 4 Larval development (days) in three different treatments

Figure 4 shows Formulated feed had (T3) enhanced the rate of metamorphosis. The mean larval stages were dissimilar among T1, T2 and T3. The first postlarvae were observed after 26, 24, and 22 days of rearing in T1, T2 and T3 respectively. When the postlarval stage appeared, it was easier to identify by the change of swimming to crawling on the bottom or the wall of the tank. However, 100 percent larvae (survived) were metamorphosed at the 41st, 38th and 35th day for treatment T1, T2 and T3 respectively. At the end of rearing cycle the survival rate of larvae were found 22.8 percent, 31.6 percent and 38.7 percent in treatments T1, T2 and T3 respectively. So, the survival rate was comparatively higher in T3 than T2 and T1.

10-20 g/ton

phosed to post larvae, the experiment was terminated. All the post larvae were harvested from each tank and counted (see Figure 1g). Two-way analysis of Variance and Duncan’s multiple range tests were used to test the significant difference among the treatments (Snedecor and Cochren 1968, Duncan 1955).

During the study period, water temperature in different larval rearing tanks were ranged from 28.5-30.5°C in the morning and 29.0-31.5°C in the afternoon. The mean water temperatures were recorded as 30.1°C, 30.2°C, and 30.1°C in T1, T2 and T3 respectively. Water pH values were ranged (7.5-8.2) in the morning and (7.8-8.2) in the evening. The mean DO values were recorded 5.8 mg/L, 5.8 mg/L, and 5.9 mg/L in different treatments T1, T2 and T3 respectively. The mean values of NO2-N concentration were found 0.19 mg/L, 0.18 mg/L, and 0.15 mg/L in treatments T1, T2 and T3 respectively. The mean values of NH3 concentration were found 0.29 mg/L, 0.26 mg/L, and 0.23 mg/ in treatments T1, T2 and T3 respectively. The mean values of alkalinity were recorded 145 mg/L, 147 mg/L, and 145 mg/L in T1, T2 and T3 respectively.

Growth rate Fig. 3 Larval growth (weight) in 3 different treatments

The overall growth rate of larvae in treatment T3 was faster than T1, and T2. Similar result was observed in the rates of metamorphosis.

Survival rate

5-10 g/ton

Water quality

Fig. 2 Larval growth (length) in 3 different treatments

PL1

5-10 g/ton

and Felder (1988): MLS = ∑(Si*Ps), where, Si is the larval stage number (i=1,2,3,…11) and Ps is the proportion of larvae at that stage. All materials used for each experimental unit were separated and disinfected by using iodine solution to avoid any cross contamination. When more than 95 percent of the larvae in all the tanks had metamor-

Growth rate in terms of body length was 0.127mm/day, 0.135mm/day, and 0.168mm/ day in T1, T2 and T3 respectively whereas growth rate in terms of body weight was observed 0.000115g/day, 0.000180g/day, and 0.000240g/day in T1, T2 and T3 respectively (see Figure 2 and Figure 3). From the beginning of rearing (stage I) until the stage VI there was no significant difference in the growth rate of larvae (0.3mm/day) in each treatment. In stage VII and VIII faster (1.017mm/day) growth was observed whereas in stage IX to XI moderate (0.367mm/day) growth was recorded. 14 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

Disease Severe Zoothanium infestation was observed in all treatments, which colonized in the culture media and exoskeleton of larvae causing mortality in these trials (see Figure 5a, and 5b). Then to improve the water quality 30 percent water has been changed. EED was observed in late stage (X-PL1) larvae and early post larvae in the T1 where the highest number larvae were initially stocked (see Figure 5c). The cause of EED is unknown but it is thought that nutritional deficiency may be the limiting factor. The tanks in which larvae were offered formulated egg-shrimp custard (T3) with Artemia had higher survival rate (38.7%) than larvae offered egg custard (T1) (22.8%) and egg prawn custard (T2) (31.6%). The larvae fed formulated egg-shrimp custard (T3) took less time to reach the next stage than that egg custard (T1) and egg shrimp custard (T2) diets, which indicates efficiency of formulated egg custard diet. Higher survival, MLS, growth and metamorphosis were recorded in the T3, probably attributed to the diet which contained different ingredients which are known

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F: Larval diets to contain higher HUFAs and necessary vitamins. Cod liver oil contains ω3 HUFA’s, which are important for prawn larval growth and survival (Murthy, 1998). Formulated diet that contained varying levels of chicken egg, milk powder and shrimp muscle in combination with Artemia yielded better growth and survival of prawn larvae (Rao, 1997). Artemia nauplii are the predominant live food used for larval rearing in prawn hatcheries. Though supplementation of Artemia with prepared feed in prawn larval rearing have been reported (Sick and Beaty 1975, Corbin et al. 1983), no standard substitute for Artemia has been developed in freshwater prawn hatcheries. In view of the high cost of cysts and their occasional scarcity, too much dependence on Artemia is a major constraint Table 3: Proximate composition of the two test diets and Artemia nauplii (% dry weight ± SD)

Diets

Protein

Lipid

Ash

T1 (EC) 44.03±0.80 7.83±0.35 1.96±0.03 T2 (ESC) 47.11±0.89 8.21±0.27 2.79±0.05 T3 (FESC) 51.03±0.80 9.01±0.21 2.92±0.01 Artemia

48.42±1.36 19.20±0.26 7.46±0.21

in the expansion of Macrobrachium rosenbergii hatcheries (New 1990). These are some of demerits of Artemia in addition to its cost and availability factors. Bacterial degradation of larval exuvia and empty shells of Artemia foul the water, accumulated debris entangles larvae and leads to mortality. The cysts which are ingested by the larvae cannot be digested and may cause blockage of the gut and have other deleterious effects (Stults, 1974). There is considerable variation in nutritive quality (Particularly HUFAs) of Artemia cysts among different geographical strains, (Murthy 1998). During this study, the water temperature were ranged from 28.5°C to 31.5°C. New and Singholka (1985) reported the optimal temperature in prawn larval rearing water which could range from 26-31°C. The research was designed to maintain the standard salinity 12‰ for larval rearing in all treatments until complete metamorphosis, which was strongly recommended (New and Singholka, 1985; Ling, 1969; Fijimura, 1974). In the present study, the pH was ranged from 7.5 to 8.2 where the various authors suggested 7.0 to 8.5 for prawn larval rearing (Ling 1969, Aquacop 1983, and New, 1990). The average dissolved oxygen level varied from 5.8 to 5.9mg/l. Prawn larvae

requires more than 4mg/l of dissolved oxygen (Reddy, 1997). NH3 is the principal excretory metabolic of prawns and is generally considered a major cause of death in hatchery condition. In a conditioned system, a bacterial nitrification process converts NH3 to relative non-toxic NO3 where as the intermediate product NO2 is highly toxic to aquatic vertebrates. Observed NO2- N concentration was ranged from 0.1-0.3mg/l where the Macrobrachium larvae can tolerate 1.8mg/l concentration (Amstrong et al., 1976). Malecha (1980) reported that survival was nearly 50 percent in hatcheries, but less than one percent in the wild. In the present trial, 21.9 percent, 31.0 percent and 43.0 percent survival rate was achieved in treatments T1, T2 and T3 respectively under different feed regimes. During late larval stages, mortality can occur due to cannibalism (Suharto et al., 1980). Similar to that report, in the present trail cannibalism was observed when the larvae metamorphosed into post larvae immediately after larval molting. The mortality caused by cannibalism was high when the larval population was well dispersion or was insufficient nutrition or both. Mortality of larvae was also observed as larvae jumped and got stranded on tank wall above the water surface. Larvae were seen to start jumping after stage VIII, especially after feeding with prepared feed. To reduce this mortality, aeration was adjusted and the stranded larvae on the tank wall were more frequently rinsed. In addition, the mortality caused by disease was the most serious case. Though, different diseases viz., protozoan infestation, EED were diagnosed in this trail, but the Zoothanium had the severe effects on larvae than other occurred diseases and their presence was observed in the water and exoskeleton of larvae causing mortality in the all treatments, Zoothanium was found all stage of the larval development. T1 resulted in mass mortality due to the Zoothanium, EED diseases. By this investigation, it was observed that EED affects late stage larvae and early post larvae where the affected larvae were unable to free appendages, eyes or rostrum from the exuvia in which they became entrapped. Other larvae, which shed the exuvia, have malformed appendages and die shortly after molting. This observation was completely coincided with Brock (1983, 1988). Another important finding was that EED occurred in T1, T2 and there was no presence of EED in T3, which reveals that by providing well formulated larval feed (for-

16 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

Fig. 5 a. Excessive protozoan (Zoothamnium sp) infestation on larval body of prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii); b. Protozoan growth on empty shells of Artemia; c. Exuvia Entrapment diseases of prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) larvae

mulated egg-shrimp custard) with optimum water quality management in larval rearing, EED could prevent.

Conclusion By incorporating meat of shrimp, chicken eggs, skimmed milk powder, corn flowers, agar powder, cod liver oil and other necessary vitamins in formulated diets, enhanced growth, faster metamorphosis and survival of prawn larvae when fed in combination with Artemia than other common diets, which were widely used in prawn hatcheries in Bangladesh. This formulated diet could effectively use to replace the use of Artemia partially in the larval rearing of prawn, which can provide all nutrition for prawn larval growth and reduce the production cost.

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F: Pellet uniformity

Energy efficiency improving and pellet uniformity control in the extrusion of aquafeed To substantially improve extruder performance in aquafeed production, in recent years Muyang Group made extensive research efforts into five aspects of extrusion and gained some key achievements: to increase energy efficiency of the extruder, to enhance pellet uniformity, to lengthen the service life of wear parts, to increase production rate for sinking aquafeeds as well as that of micro-aquafeed, among which, the energy efficiency improving technology and its application as well as the development on pellet uniformity control will be introduced in this article.

by Ma Liang, Zhang Kuiyang, Mi Changyu, Zhang Wenliang, Muyang R&D Center, China

ow did Muyang increase energy efficiency of the extruder system?... ...With the development of extrusion technology, one of the development trends in aquafeed milling is that the extruder is taking the place of pellet mill and becoming the most popular and most efficient milling machine because of its flexible production adaptability, high product quality and high sanitation assurance.

that is, to increase production capacity while decrease the power consumption. They are: 1) Improve the utilization efficiency of SME 2) Improve the utilization efficiency of STE 3) Try to input and utilize most STE from the relatively cheaper source steam to substitute some SME input

segment (including conveying, shearing and mixing abilities) and testing the effects of different screw combinations, Muyang’s extruder research team found out the optimal screw configuration that can achieve proper SEM input for a given aquafeed production task. Based on above mentioned studies and a perceptual as well as rational knowledge of extrusion technology, Muyang’s extrusion team worked out a new concept - “stabilised shearing”. Method to maximise Usually, the whole extrusion process SME utilisation that material undergoes, from being fed However, the obstacle impeding extrudFirst of all, the approach was studied to into the extruding chamber up to being er popularisation is energy input, which match the SEM input with that required for extruded out of the die plate, is a ‘hasty must be decreased. material ripening. shearing’ process accompanied by high As we all know, sufficient energy is If lower than that required, the input pressure, high power consumption and required to put into the extrusion system SME could not ripen the material sufhigh wearing of working parts, and also to sustain the whole extrusion process, ficiently even though it would result in unconstant discharge of extrudates. from material conditioning to kneading, higher production capacity, and vice versa. The stabilised shearing technology shearing, cooking, extruding, forming and Therefore, only proper SME input can brought by Muyang Group can largely stafinally obtaining qualified aquafeed. guarantee high quality extruded aquafeed bilise the shearing efficiency in the whole Essentially, the input energy is normally while maximising production capacity. extrusion process (see Figure 1). The defined in two forms: the specific mechaniBy quantifying the abilities of each screw optimal screw configuration cal energy (SME) and the Table 1: SPTZ Complex Conditioner vs SCTZ DDC Conditioner can not only impart to the specific thermal energy extrusion process a proper (STE). SPTZ series Complex SCTZ series DDC Conditioner Conditioner SME input but also ensure the Analyzing the energy product gelatinisation not less inputs that are required than that of the ‘hasty shearing for cooking raw recipe Filling degree 55~60% 30~35% technology’. components, there are Conditioning time (s) 180~200 40~45 It has been proven that, three possible ways to Gelatinization 50~55% 35~40% when producing aquafeed with improve energy efficiency Remarks With the same effective volume and capacity stabilised shearing technology, of an extrusion system, 18 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

F: Pellet uniformity

Figure 1: Stabilised shearing vs hasty shearing

an extruder can increase the capacity by 15 percent with an energy savage of 12 percent per tonne of feed.

Method to maximise STE utilisation Aquafeed mash needs to be pre-cooked in the conditioner with hot steam before entering into the extruder chamber for extrusion. How to maximise the utilisation of thermal energy from a given amount of steam, to improve the gelatinization of aquafeed mash in the conditioner, has been

Figure 2: SPTZ Complex Conditioner vs SCTZ DDC Conditioner

the focus of Muyang’s research efforts over many years. The moisture and heat of steam is hard to penetrate into the core of feed mash particles and ‘cook’ them just by the simple physical mixing function of a conventional conditioner, especially for the oil-rich aquafeed mash. That means more steam and longer conditioning time has to be given in order to achieve high mash gelatinisation. Targeting the goal of improving steam utilisation and enhancing feed gelatinisation,

Muyang has invented the ‘reinforced conditioning technology’, which can improve the mass and heat transfer efficiency and uniformity of steam effectively. In addition, Muyang has innovated the SPTZ series Complex Conditioner by combining the reinforced conditioning technology with a Muyang SCTZ DDC Conditioner, which achieves excellent conditioning performance (see Table 1 and Figure 2). Besides, the production capacity of an extrusion system equipped with a SPTZ

September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 19

F: Pellet uniformity Figure 3: The causes of non-uniform feed mash during extruding

Nonuniform shearing force

Nonuniform ripeness

Nonuniform gelatinization

Nonuniform expansion character

Nonuniform extruded pellets

Different flow rate

Different ripening time

Nonuniform gelatinization

Nonuniform expansion character

Nonuniform extruded pellets

Complex Conditioner is able to increase by 10-15 percent compared to that with a common DDC conditioner, because of the thorough pre-cooking function in the conditioning process. Furthermore, the enhanced pre-cooking could bring in more stable running of the machine and less wear of the working parts such as the segmented screws and extruding chamber liner, which alternatively is saving maintenance cost.

feed mash is determined by conditioner pressure. For instance, conditioned by saturated steam, the highest conditioning temperature that feed mash can achieve is 100℃ under 0.1MPa while can reach 164.19℃ under 0.6MPa. Therefore, on one hand, to make full use of steam thermal energy under ambient condition and on the other hand to optimise the conditioning pressure and maximise the steam energy utilisation.The more the steam

Figure 4: Non uniform flow rate vs uniform flow rate

Substitute SME with steam thermal energy As we all know, the same energy in steam thermal form is far cheaper than that in electric power form. And the SME input to a running extruder always comes from electric power supply. What if some part of the required electric power is substituted with steam thermal energy? The production cost of aquafeed will be decreased significantly! During cooking, the amount of steam thermal energy utilised by

energy being utilised by feed mash, the less the SME required for extrusion. The ‘substituting SME with steam thermal energy’ technology is widely used in Muyang extruders and has been proven to be an effective and economic way.

How did Muyang control pellet uniformity in aquafeed extrusion? Good pellet uniformity and pleasing appearance are the important and attractive characters for high quality aquafeed. H o w e v e r , the relationship between good pellet uniformity and high production capacity is hard to balance, just like you can’t have your cake and eat it too, especially for the singlescrew extruder. As the production capacity increases, the pellet uniformity declines.

20 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

Usually, good pellet uniformity can be gained when the extruder is running at 70~80 percent of its rated load. Essentially, the non-uniform extruded pellets are generated by materials lacking homogeneity in the whole feed milling process. From grinding to mixing, conditioning, extruding and forming, material’s lack of proper homogeneity in any of these processes will finally cause nonuniform extruded pellets. Fortunately, material homogeneity in the grinding, mixing and conditioning processes is easy to be controlled with available techniques. The most challenge is to control feed mash homogeneity during extruding. What are the causes of nonuniform feed mash during extruding (see Figure 3)? 1) Nonuniform shearing force: The more difference of shearing force brought by extruding screw stressing on feed mash, the more nonuniform gelatinisation and the more non-uniform pellet finally achieved. 2) Different flow rate: Flow rate of feed mash during extruding could be different in two zones - the screw zone

Figure 5: Uniform extruded aquafeed pellets

F: Pellet uniformity Table 2: Test result of MY120×2 Ⅰ twin-screw extruder

No.

Feed

Die hole (mm)

Main motor power (kW)

Load factor (%)

Capacity (t/h)

Floating / Sinking rate (%)

Floating fish feed

5.0

200

7.689

100

Floating fish feed

1.0

200

65.55

3.479

100

Sinking fish feed

3.0

200

31.28

3.714

99.65

Note: The capacity was calculated on the basis of that the aquafeed pellets were dried to a moisture content of 10 percent

It is applied to well distribute the shearing force in the screw zone and to unify the flow rate in both the screw zone and the non-screw zone (between end of screw and die plate) in an extruder chamber. The turbulent flow extruding technology can help extruder (especially the single-screw extruder) perform outstandingly in aquafeed production.

and the non-screw zone (between the end of screw and the die plate). The different flow rate of feed mash in the extruder will cause different ripening time, and different gelatinisation as well as different pellets quality accordingly. For a normal extruder, the difference of shearing force and that of flow rate are related to production capacity. The larger the actual capacity that is close to the rated value, the bigger the difference of shearing force and that of flow rate. In view of above impacting factors, Muyang has developed the so called ‘turbulent flow extruding technology’ to control pellet uniformity in aquafeed extrusion (see Figure 4). Wenger_AQ_210x147mm

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Multiply extrusion capacities for small diameter aquatic feeds with patented new Wenger technology. Wenger’s innovation of diverging cone screw and oblique die technologies brings all the benefits of extrusion to high capacity micro aquatic feed production. These new designs result in floating and sinking small diameter aquatic feeds that are: • produced at rates 3 to 5 times greater than previous technology. • uniform in size and shape. • on target for density and water stability. Request details now on high capacity, profitable production of small diameter feeds at info@wenger.com.

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F: Zinc

BIOMET Zn Aqua

A organic zinc source for aquaculture practices by Waldo G. Nuez-OrtĂn, DVM, MSc. Aquaculture Technical Manager, NOREL SA, Spain. Email: wnuez@norel.es. Website: www.norel.es

ne of the challenges faced by aquaculture today is the feeding of diets containing a high proportion of vegetable ingredients. These new diets result in lower efficiencies and growth due to reduced digestibility as well as lower availability of minerals. Zinc is a trace mineral involved in essential life processes such as growth, reproduction, vision and immunity. Zinc bioavailability within the animal decreases due to the formation of insoluble complexes with dietary components; this leads to a deficiency. When confronting this situation the inclusion of Biomet Zn Aqua in both fish and shrimp diets stands out as a solution to achieve adequate health and performance.

the profitability of the farm as result of Zinc is a specific cofactor of several growth retardation, poor immune response, enzymes as well as an integral part of and reduced reproductive performance. about 20 metalloenzymes, some of them Fish and shrimp can obtain zinc from two involved with the digestion of proteins and different sources; water and diet. Seawater carbohydrates. and freshwater zinc concentrations range In addition, zinc is associated with prostaglandin metabolism Table 2: Treatments and conBasal diet 1 (0.7% Ca - normal) - Treatments 1-4 sequently i m m u n e T2-Zinc T3-BIOMET T4-Zinc g/ton feed T1-Control sulfate Zn Aqua* proteinate response and reproduction ( Wa t a n a b e Zn sulfate 80 et al. 1997). BIOMET Zn 200 Therefore , Zn proteinate 133.3 zinc deficiency will negaBasal diet 2 (1.4% Ca - normal) - Treatments 1-4 tively affect T6-Zinc T7-BIOMET T8-Zinc g/ton feed

T5-Control

Zn sulfate

sulfate

Zn Aqua*

proteinate

Table 1: Zinc fish requirements for different aquatic species. Species

mg Zn/ kg diet

Reference

BIOMET Zn

200

Zn proteinate

133.3

Rainbow trout

15-30

Ogino and Yang (1987)

Supplemented Zn (ppm)

Common carp

15-30

Ogino and Yang (1987)

Total Zn (ppm)

Channel catfish

Gatlin and Wilson (1983)

Total methionine (%DM)

0.6

Blue tilapia

McClain and Gatlin (1988)

*BIOMET Zn Aqua: 10% zinc/27.2% methionine Diets contained 36% soybean meal (44%), 18.5% yellow corn, 17% wheat flour, 14% fishmeal, herring (72%CP), 5.4% corn oil, 4% corn gluten meal (60% CP), 2% carboxymethyl cellulose, 0.15% vitamin premix, 0.05 % zincfree micro minerals premix, 0.8% (Basal diet 1) and 2.9% (Basal diet 2) limestone, and 2.1% sand (only for Basal diet 1)

Red drum

20-25

Gatlin et al. (1991)

Atlantic salmon

> 67

Maage and Julshamn (1993)

Shrimp Abalone

15 32-35

Davis et al. (1993) Tan and Mai (2001)

22 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

F: Zinc zinc supplementaCalcium aggravates phytate blocking of zinc tion negatively absorption by forming insoluble phytateaffects the water calcium-zinc complexes (Xu Chien et al. Basal diet 1 (0.7% Ca - normal) - Treatments 1-4 environment, as it 2006), thus two dietary calcium levels were T2-Zinc T3-BIOMET T4-Zinc results in greater fed; normal (0.7% Ca) and high (1.4 % Ca) T1-Control sulfate Zn Aqua proteinate zinc excretion. (see Table 2). Biomet Zn As zinc bioavailability differs between Serum zinc (µg/dl) 17.5 c 19.4 b 28.3 a 15.4 d Aqua is a soluble organic and inorganic zinc sources, one ALP Activity (U/L) 16.4 de 18.5 b 20.2 a 17.1 c zinc salt chelated inorganic source (zinc sulphate) and two to an organic ligorganic sources (Biomet Zn Aqua and zinc Basal diet 2 (1.4% Ca - normal) - Treatments 1-4 and, methionine, proteinate) were supplementT6-Zinc T7-BIOMET T8-Zinc T5-Control which allows for ed (see Table 2). The overall sulfate Zn Aqua proteinate the formation number of treatments was of a biologically eight, and the total amount Serum zinc (µg/dl) 10.2 f 12.7 e 16.8 c 11.7 e stable ring strucof zinc and methionine was ALP* activity (U/L) 12.3 f 16.9 cd 19.0 b 15.8 e ture containing similar for all zinc supplemented treatments. Means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly zinc. The whole Groups of 15 fish (average weight 3.36g) (P<0.05). Analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). structure does per treatment were stocked into aquarinot break apart in ums during twenty-nine weeks. This period stomach, avoiding the formation of insoluble included a two-week acclimatization procfrom 0.6-5 and 5-10µg/L, respectively; howzinc complexes, and reaches the uptake ess, a twenty-four-week growth assessment ever, even fish maintained in water containsurfaces in intestine. trial and a three-week digestibility trial. ing higher concentrations (10-25µg/L) were Besides being easily absorbed across Results from this trial indicated that zinc not able to achieve optimal growth. the epithelial surface, this chelate allows bioavailability was enhanced with Biomet Dietary zinc concentration depends on for an easy release of zinc within body Zn Aqua supplementation (see Table 3). ingredient composition. While zinc content tissues (Glover and Hongstrand 2001). When compared to zinc sulphate, is high in fishmeal (80-100mg/kg), it is low Consequently, the supplementation with Biomet Zn Aqua increased (P<0.05) serum in cereal grains (15-30mg/kg) or protein BIOMET Zn Aqua results in increased zinc zinc by 46 percent and 32 percent in normal concentrates (40-80mg/kg) (Watanabe et bioavailability, preventing deficiency and proand high calcium diets, respectively. al. 1997). moting a beneIn spite of the low zinc content in some ficial effect on feedstuffs, the low bioavailability resulting growth, health when feeding practical diets is mainly attriband reproducuted to the presence of phytate contained tion besides is most vegetable ingredients as well as reducing water tri-calcium phosphate contained in fish meal pollution. or animal by-products (Alpines et al. 2001, Satoh et al. 1993). These dietary components form insoluTrial Providing proficient tools to achieve cost-effective ble complexes with divalent cations of zinc proven and sustainable aquaculture practices in stomach, reducing intestinal absorption effects in while increasing zinc excretion. As shown tilapia in Table 1, zinc requirements have been A study condetermined for different aquatic species. ducted at Tanta However, some of these requirements, University such as those reported for channel (Egypt) has catfish, were determined when feeding demonstrated purified diets. In a later study using a the positive practical diet containing phytate (Gatlin effect of Biomet and Wilson 1984), zinc requirements for Zn Aqua when catfish were established at 150 mg/kg supplemented a highly effective single strain probiotic instead of 20 mg/kg. Thus, both phytate in the diet of and tri-calcium phosphate must be conNile tilapia. sidered by nutritionists when meeting The objeca natural growth promoter zinc requirements. tive of this trial In order to avoid deficiencies, it is a comwas to evaluate an organic mineral source mon practice to supplement inorganic salts the dietary calof zinc, such as zinc sulphates or zinc oxides. cium content However, the formation of insoluble and effect of l zinc complexes persists and consequently zinc source on Natunrautrition a high amount of these salts have to be performance NOREL,S.A. • Jesús Aprendiz, 19, 1º A y B • 28007 Madrid (SPAIN) Tel. +34 91 501 40 41 • Fax +34 91 501 46 44 • www.norel.es added in the ration in order to meet parameters animal requirements. In addition, inorganic of Nile tilapia. Table 3: Serum zinc concentration and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity after zinc supplementation in tilapia diets

ECOBIOL Aqua GUSTOR Aqua BIOMET Aqua

September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 23 AN. REV. 90X132.indd 1

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THE AQUAFEED PHOTOSHOOT

24 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

ropical temperature seawater is not something you usually expect to find on the UK’s North East coast, but at the Astec Aquaculture Business & Science Centre in Northumberland, they can provide a constant supply of warm flow-through seawater, enabling a wide range of marine plants and animals to be cultivated there all year round. This purpose-built facility is the ideal location for all kinds of aquaculture research and businesses, with its unique combination of ‘plug in and go’ facilities, specialist support and year round warm seawater. Astec’s specialist wet labs are equipped to support a broad range of commercial and research activities. In addition, they have over 5,300m2 of outdoor production space and test beds, with the potential to expand to accommodate more large scale production. As the UK’s first aquaculture business incubator Astec has a specific focus on supporting start-up enterprises. As such they can offer on-site advice in areas like marketing, business development, networking and funding, and access to a technical advisory group of industry peers, who can provide guidance on more industry related matters and act as a valuable knowledge pool for their tenants. Astec’s links with higher education and the wider science community mean they can help tenants tap into the support needed to develop a project or commercialise an idea. To find out more visit www.astecaquaculture.com, call +44 1670 852771 or email info@astecaquaculture.com

September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 25

F: Zinc

Figure 1: Bi-weekly body weight gain in zinc supplemented tilapia diets When compared to zinc proteinate, improvements were even higher (P<0.05). This was corroborated by increased (P<0.05) activity of alkaline phosphatase, which is a zinc dependent enzyme involved in protein synthesis. As zinc is required for the synthesis and activity of enzymes related to digestion of nutrients the digestibility of dry matter, crude protein and fat

Conclusion

Gatlin, D. M., III, Wilson, R. P. (1984). Zinc supplementation of practical channel catfish diets. Aquaculture, 41: 31-36.

The formulation of sustainable diets being composed of plant ingredients in high amounts and animal by-products can lead to lower zinc availability which results in deficiency.

Glover, C. N., Hogstrand, C. (2001). Amino acid modulation of in vivo intestinal zinc absorption in freshwater rainbow trout. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 205: 151-158.

Table 4: Apparent digestibility coefficient of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP) and ether extract (EE) in zinc supplemented tilapia diets

Table 5: Economic efficiency of zinc supplemented tilapia diets Basal diet 1 (0.7% Ca - normal) - Treatments 1-4

Basal diet 1 (0.7% Ca - normal) - Treatments 1-4 T1-Control

T2-Zinc sulfate

T3-BIOMET Zn Aqua

T4-Zinc proteinate

72.1 cd

77.0 b

82.0 a

75.6 b

Feed cost (€/kg)

79.9 b

86.8 a

89.1 a

80.7 b

72.0 e

80.2 c

85.4 a

77.2 d

T1-Control

T3-BIOMET Zn Aqua

T4-Zinc proteinate

1.160

1.163

FCR

1.91

1.92

1.49

1.95

Cost/kg fish (€/kg)

2.21

2.23

1.73

2.27

Basal diet 2 (1.4% Ca - normal) - Treatments 1-4

T5-Control

T6-Zinc sulfate

T7-BIOMET Zn Aqua

T8-Zinc proteinate

69.5 e

73.0 c

77.0 b

70.1 dc

72.4 d

77.0 c

81.5 b

75.7 c

Feed cost (€/kg)

69.8 f

80.2 c

82.8 b

76.2 d

Means within a row with different superscripts differ significantly (P<0.05). Analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

were significantly higher in the Biomet Zn Aqua supplemented groups (see Table 4). The better zinc bioavailability along with the consequent improved nutrient utilization led to better animal performance. As shown by Figure 1, body weight gain in both normal and high calcium diets was higher for Biomet Zn Aqua, particularly after 10 weeks. In terms of economic efficiency (see Table 5), the cost of the diet including Biomet Zn Aqua was slightly more expensive; however, the lower conversion rates achieved resulted in reduced cost of production. Therefore, the use of Biomet Zn Aqua at a dose of 200g/tonne feed in tilapia fed normal

T2-Zinc sulfate

1.158

Basal diet 2 (1.4% Ca - normal) - Treatments 1-4 %

trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, fingerlings. Aquaculture Nutrition, 7: 221-228.

and high calcium diets results in better performance and is economically more feasible than zinc sulphate and zinc proteinate.

T5-Control

T6-Zinc sulfate

T7-BIOMET Zn Aqua

T8-Zinc proteinate

1.160

1.162

1.165

FCR

2.12

2.01

1.77

2.21

Cost/kg fish (€/kg)

2.46

2.34

2.06

2.57

Nutritionists must therefore be cautious when formulating these practical diets, as zinc supplementation is likely required. While different zinc supplements are available in the market, Biomet Zn Aqua has demonstrated to be a nutritionally functional chelate, which provides a cost-effective solution to improve performance parameters, ensure adequate health status, and reduce water pollution.

References Alpines, M. J., Satoh, S., Kiron, V., Watanabe, T., Nasu, N., Fujita, S. (2001). Bioavailability of aminoacids chelated and glass embedded zinc to rainbow

26 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

Hongstrand, C., Webb, N., Wood, C.M. (1998). Covariation in regulation of affinity for branchial zinc and calcium uptake in freshwater rainbow trout during adaptation to waterborne zinc. Journal of Experimental Biology, 186:55-73 Satoh, S., Porn-Ngam, N., Takeuchi, T., Watanabe, T. (1993). Effect of various types of phosphates on zinc availability to rainbow trout. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 59: 1395-1400. Watanabe, T., Kiron, V., Satoh, S. (1997). Trace minerals in fish nutrition. Aquaculture, 151: 185-207. Xu Chien, X., Zafra-Stone, S., Bagchi, M., Bagchi, D. (2006). Bioavailability, antioxidant and immune enhancing proper ties of zinc methionine. Biofactor s, 27: 231-244.

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F: Amino acid

Challenges associated with carrying out a meta-analysis of essential amino acid requirements of fish by Guillaume Salze*, Margaret Quinton and Dominique P. Bureau, UG/OMNR Fish Nutrition Research Laboratory, Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1 Email: gsalze@uoguelph.ca

igh cost of fishmeal, the volatility in the price of agricultural commodities and the stagnant price of aquaculture products are constraining aquafeed manufacturers to pay very close attention to the cost-effectiveness of their feeds.

fish and penaeid shrimp over the past 50 years and the body of knowledge on EAA requirements of aquaculture species is continuously expanding. One of the problems resides in keeping up with progress and developing a wholesome understanding of the ‘state-of-the-art’. The great diversity of methodological approaches used and animal species and ingredients studied as well as the multitude Nutritionists are required to formulate of opinions with regards to optimal levels to lower or narrower essential nutrient and modes of expression of EAA requirespecifications in order to minimise feed ments limits the ability of manufacturers to cost. At the same time, these feeds must meaningfully improve the cost-effectiveness sustain high growth, feed efficiency, health of feeds and/or adapt formulations to an and product quality of the animals at the ever changing commodities market. farm. A number of scientific reviews and Nutritionists also are relying on an publications have attempted to summarise increasingly diverse portfolio of ‘economithe body of knowledge on EAA nutrition cal’ protein sources, with different amino and requirements of aquaculture species acid profiles. (Wilson, 1989; NRC, 1993; Cowey, 1994; Lall Thus, formulating cost-effective aquaand Anderson, 2005; Bureau and Encarnação, feeds requires increasingly precise infor2006; Hernandez-Llamas, 2009; NRC, 2011), mation on essential amino acid (EAA) and some concluded that the state-of-therequirements of aquaculture species. art on EAA nutrition of aquaculture species is still quite shallow. Dynamic field of research The choice of the mode of expression Aquaculture nutrition is a very dynamic (percent dry diet, percent crude protein, field of research. A very large g/kJ digestible energy, ideal protein, etc.) number of studof EAA requirement is a matter of much ies have been debate, and reflects the conflicting assumpconducted tions authors make when considering what on EAA affects the requirements or not (Bureau and nutriEncarnação, 2006; Bureau, 2008). tion of Together with methodological issues teleost (notably limitations of the Figure 1: Diagram illustrating the screening of studies, from experimental the total number found to the design used), number of suitable studies that the variability in constituted our working data set achieved growth

28 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

and feed efficiency, as well as differences in the mathematical and statistical approaches used to analyse data, these result in high variability in estimates of EAA requirements. Understanding the reasons underpinning this great inconsistency is important for developing more reliable and practical estimates of EAA requirement of aquaculture species. All these issues point toward a need for the systematic integration and analysis of information from the large number of studies that have been published so far on EAA requirements of aquaculture species. Statistical meta-analysis offers a mean to realize by integrating and standardizing information and allowing meaningful comparisons. The goal of this project was to carry out a meta-analysis of EAA requirement of fish through the construction of a dataset gathering all available data on EAA requirements of teleost fish.

Figure 2: representation of EAA across the dataset

Amino Acids

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F: Amino acid the accuracy of the non-linear regress i o n s analyses. Studies had to report information on w a t e r t e m perature , Figure 3: representation of species across the datase experiment duration, diet composition (dry-matter basis), initial The main objectives of this effort were and final individual body weight, and feed identifying factors that may affect estimates intake. Screening of the studies with of requirement, highlighting the shortcomthese selection criteria yielded a final ings in the existing body of knowledge, and dataset comprised 109 studies, which providing guidelines for future research. covered all 10 EAA in 28 teleost species (see Figure 1). Building a working dataset A comprehensive search of papers on EAA nutrition of commercially relevant A fragmented & diluted teleost species (for example, salmonidae, body of knowledge cychlidae, cyprinidae) published in peerIt is striking that less than half of the 249 reviewed journals and other technical puboriginal studies could be considered for the lications was carried out. working dataset. This search yielded 286 papers of which This highlights the limited scope of many 249 were original research studies focusing studies and/or scientific manuscripts and on EAA requirement of teleosts. the uneven quality of the research effort. As expected, a great variety of objecAn important cause of rejection of studies tives, experimental designs, and analytical was simply a lack of reported information, methodologies were employed in these which precluded us from calculating the studies. Selection criteria were therefore various variables. applied to the original dataset to identify Simple parameters, such as feed intake studies suitable for a meta-analysis. (feed served) and the dry matter content Amongst selection criteria, studies had of the diets, were frequently not reported to have at least five or more experimental by authors. Other major motives for diets with graded levels of an EAA. This rejecting studies included the use of too criterion was established in order to ensure few graded levels of nutrient studied or

(a)

(b)

(95%)

poor growth performance achieved during the trial. The large number of species studied and the large number of EAA resulted in a very fragmented dataset (see Figures 2 and 3). For example, the dataset only includes four studies on phenylalanine requirements, which were all conducted on different species. Great differences in the body weight of fish used (<1g to more than 600g) introduce some challenges for standardisation of data. Almost half of the studies did not report information on carcass composition. Protein gain (retention), an important response variable for EAA requirements, could only be computed for a limited number of studies. Finally, only 16 percent of the studies in the working data set included some evaluation of protein digestibility. Consideration of digestibility would greatly strengthen and refine our understanding of EAA requirements in fish by taking account of some of the variability due to bioavailability of EAA in different ingredients. In order to standardise the data onto a common ground, two different modes of expression (percentage of EAA of interest in the dry diet, amount of EAA per MJ of digestible energy) were computed and two different growth response variables (weight gain per kg of metabolic body weight and thermal-unit growth coefficient). Therefore, for each study we obtained four pairs of variables, each of which was analysed using four mathematical models: the broken-line model (BLM), the quadratic model (QM), the broken-quadratic model (BQM) and the saturation kinetic model (SKM) (see Figure 4) in each study to allow estimation of EAA requirements.

Preliminary results and perspective for future studies (c)

(95%)

(d)

(95%)

Figure 4: Diagrams illustrating the typical shape of the four models: (a) brokenline model (BLM), (b) quadratic model (QM), (c) broken-quadratic model (BQM), and (d) saturation kinetic model (SKM). Dashed line indicates the determination of the requirement for each model

30 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

Figure 5 presents the computed arginine requirement for rainbow trout using six studies for which models fitted correctly, depending on the three modes of expression. It illustrates that even after selecting suitable studies and standardising data, very large discrepancies in estimates between the studies remain. Variations around estimates based on ingested EAA remain high (coefficient of variation between 20 and 35 percent overall,

F: Amino acid Simple steps can Nutrición Acuícola, Universidad Autónoma de be taken to improve Nuevo León, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico, pp. 29-54. the quality and relevance of future Bureau, D.P., 2008. Toward a better definition studies and allow of essential amino acid requirements of fish, us to develop more International Aquafeed. Perendale Publishers Ltd, precise estimate pp. 14-17. of EAA requireCowey, C.B., 1994. Amino acid requirements ments. Experiments of fish: a critical appraisal of present values. should not ideally Aquaculture 124, 1-11. use fewer than six experimental diets, Lall, S.P., Anderson, S., 2005. Amino acid nutrition of salmonids: Dietary requirements and and report sufFigure 5: Estimated arginine requirements for bioavailability. Cahiers Options Méditerranéennes ficient information rainbow trout according to the mode of expression 63, 73-90. on diet composition, growth perHernandez-Llamas, A., 2009. Conventional and formances and husbandry information. 14 and 23 percent for arginine requirement alternative dose-response models to estimate The BLM has now been clearly demof rainbow trout). nutrient requirements of aquaculture species. onstrated to underestimates requireThis shows that much remains to be Aquaculture 292, 207-213. ments, and thus should be avoided. done to reconcile the existing data and NRC, 1993. Nutrient Requirements of Fish. Instead, the QM or BQM offer a determine factors underpinning variability. National Acad. Press, Washington, DC. better balance between accuracy and Nevertheless, several valuable points NRC, 2011. Nutrient requirements of fish practicality (that is, parsimony and ease arose from the data standardisation. and shrimp. The National Academies Press, of fit). The accuracy of the models was impactWashington, D.C., 360 pp. Most importantly, studies should be ed by the shape of the curve they are meant designed so results fit a clear ‘diminishto fit. Since all of these models are based on Wilson, R.P., 1989. Protein and amino acid ing return’ pattern. The graded dietary the law of diminishing returns, they attempt requirements of fishes. Progress in fish nutrition. In: levels of the test EAA should include to fit curves shaped as those illustrated in Shiau, S.-Y. (Ed.), Proceedings of the fish nutrition clearly adequate levels so an obvious Figure 4. symposium, pp. 51-77. plateau can be Therefore experiments should be observed. designed to produce such result curves. Concomitantly, For example, data points of a given study equally clearly will approach the horizontal line if there is deficient levels little difference between treatments, which Good Agricultural should also be will cause the model to fail. Practice included to Our meta-analysis shows that if the final New Delhi I Mexico City I Cape Town I Sao Paulo I Cairo I Warsaw I Atlanta I Bangkok ensure sufficient body weight of the slowest-growing group differences is higher than 70 percent of the fastest between treatgrowing group, then the probability of ments receiving obtaining a good fit decreases significantly. suboptimal levels. When using the SKM, this number is closer to 50 percent. Additionally, if the curve only References increases but does not plateau, then Bureau, D.P., models can only guess where the curves Encarnação, P., plateaus or peaks. Since the require2006. Adequately ment is estimated by the EAA level defining the amino where the curve plateaus or peaks, such acid requirements Everything you need to know about of fish: The case an estimation should not be considered Good Agricultural Practice Certification example of lysine. reliable. at a place near you! In: Cruz Suárez, Studies which simultaneously incorpoL.E., Ricque Marie, rated very deficient and obviously adequate D., Tapia Salazar, M., levels of EAA produced a clear ‘diminishing Register now on www.tour2011.org Nieto López, M.G., return’ pattern and consequently had vastly Meet us in one of the following cities: Villarreal Cavazos, improved chances of estimating the requireWould you like to know more about the D.A., Puello Cruz  New Delhi – India, 1/2 March 2011 GLOBALG.A.P TOUR 2011? ment accurately.  Mexico City – Mexico, 11/12 April 2011 y Armando Garcia

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Conclusions and recommendations In this study we highlighted important variations in requirement estimates despite an attempt to standardise our working dataset.

Or tega, A.C. (Eds.), Advances en Nutrición Acuícola VIII VIII Simposium Internacional de

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September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 31

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F: Formulation

Feed formulation flexibility Understanding the specific nutrient requirements of shrimp enables feed formulation flexibility in times of challenging commodity pricing Compilation by Dr Elizabeth Sweetman

hrimp is one of the most important internationallytraded commodities, in terms of value and according to the latest figures available, from the FAO (2009), world shrimp production from aquaculture represents 3.7 million tonnes per year.

and utilise nutrients from these sources, for metabolic and physiological processes. Fishmeal has traditionally been one of the primary protein sources in shrimp diets and in addition to providing protein and essential amino acid it also serves as an attractant and provides a rich source of essential fatty acids, fat soluble nutrients and minerals. The requirement for sustainable diets demands a reduction in fishmeal usage It is the most valuable fishery export in and its replacement by vegetable sources. many tropical developing countries providA number of studies have investigated this ing significant employment in these regions. (Forster et al. 2003, Tan et al. 2005). Feed represents more than 50 percent However, a major concern is the incomof the production costs of intensive shrimp plete nutrient composition of these alternaproduction (Tan et al. 2005) with protein tive ingredients, which may not only reduce sources accounting for at least 30 percent growth, but also increases the complexity of of the compounds found in commercial feed formulation as more ingredients must diets. be utilised to satisfy nutrient requirement. Volatility in the availability and pricing This shift in formulation raises numerous of fishmeal, fish oil and vegetable protein concerns, such as an increase in indigestible sources, such as soymeal and grains etc, has components (fibre and non-starch polysacencouraged flexibility in the formulation of charides), an increase in phytic acid (with its diets to minimise cost. negative interaction on mineral availability), This flexibility requires an in-depth available phosphorous, phospholipids and understanding of the nutritional requiregeneral digestibility of the protein content. ment of the species and its ability to digest As a result, current research is now focused on the effect of phytochemical components, present in these diets, on the metabolic and physiological response in shrimp. In addition, the identification of genes responsible for such changes, at the molecular level, is also being investigated and is an area of growing imporFigure 1: A comparison of the essential amino acid requirements for four shrimp species tance. Information

32 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

from these studies are providing further knowledge on the nutritional requirements of shrimp and enabling rapid advances in shrimp nutrition (Gillies & Faha 2003, Match et al.2005).

Proteins Shrimp, like other fish and animals, have a requirement for a well-balanced mixture of essential and non-essential amino acids from which to construct their own protein tissues and therefore the balance of essential amino acids in the diet is crucial. The amino acid requirements of four commercially important shrimp species are shown in Figure 1 The figure indicates that the amino acid requirements of carnivorous species like P. japonicus are higher than the amino acid requirements of herbivorous species like P. vannamei. Some authors thought that their protein utilization was less effective than in the other species and therefore additional dietary protein supplementation was required. However it has been proven that the source and nature of the protein its self is important in determining the protein levels required by each species. The assimilation of amino acids by shrimps is most effective when they are bonded; as opposed to pure free essential amino acids and in this form they have performed better under the same experimental conditions.

Fatty Acids Crustaceans have long been recognized as having a limited ability to synthesize highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) de novo and having no ability to synthesize sterols de novo. Shrimp, therefore, do not have a definitive dietary lipid requirement but rather require sufficient lipid to meet

F: Formulation However, in intensive culture dietary vitamin supplementation is essential. Vitamin deficiency can impact on shrimp in many ways: vitamin B2 deficiency in P vannamei results in poor colouration, irritability Figure 2: A comparison of the vitamin requirements and decreased size. for 4 shrimp species Vitamin B6 deficiency can result in damage to epithelial cells and reduced growth and their requirement for specific nutrients, muscular activity while vitamin C deficiency such as HUFA, phospholipids, sterols, is characterized by poor growth, low moultand energy. ing frequency, decreased wound healing and Lipids, such as phospholipids, triglycerhigh mortality. ides and cholesterol, are a major source of energy in shrimp diets as well as being involved in several essential processes for their growth, moulting and reproduction. Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Abramo 1998 reported that changes in the temperature of shrimp culture pools may require a change in the amount of fatty acid supplementation in order to achieve established growth rates, with cold water species having a higher requirement for HUFA than the warm water species. Cholesterol is an essential dietary component of all animal tissues, and it plays a major role in cell membrane structure and it is a precursor for sex hormones, for bile acids and for vitamin D. In crustaceans cholesterol is known to be the most essential dietary source of sterols as it is used for development, growth, reproduction, and survival. It is a precursor for many hormones, including ecdysteroids, which are critical for the initiation of metamorphosis and the moulting process (Teshima 1997). As shrimps are not capable of synthetizing cholesterol supplementing sterols in shrimp feed is essential. The optimum cholesterol content of shrimp feeds will vary depending on the stage, the species and the diet composition.

Vitamin studies have shown that the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E have been found to be essential in supporting shrimp growth (He et al. 1992). Dietary levels of thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), vitamin B5, vitamin B6, choline, inositol and ascorbic acid have also been recommended for optimising growth performance in several shrimp species (Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Abramo & Conklin 1992). A comparison of the vitamin requirements of four shrimp species are given in Figure 2.

Minerals Minerals have many essential functions in shrimp: they are components of the exoskeleton and other hard-soft tissues and act as activators in several enzymes

Vitamins It is known that shrimps can satisfy their vitamin requirements in natural, healthy environments from abundant micro organic life.

September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 33

F: Formulation pathways such as zinc activation of alkaline phosphatase. Mineral supplementation is considered even more important for the freshwater prawns, like M. Rosenbergii since their environment contains less available minerals (Muir & Roberts 1982). The macro minerals calcium (Ca), phosphorous (P), sodium (Na) and potassium (K) have a special role to play in osmoregulation, mineral and water equilibrium, and the maintenance of the acid-base balance. Davis et al. (1993) demonstrated that Ca and P are essential components of hard tissues such as the exoskeleton of the shrimp and that calcium is necessary for impulse transmission, osmoregulation and muscle functions. A dietary requirement for Na has not been demonstrated for marine shrimps, but in the case of pond grown shrimps, supplementation with salt (NaCl) has resulted in increased growth. Both freshwater and seawater probably contain sufficient concentrations of Na and P to satisfy the requirements of shrimp, however Kanazawa et al. (1984) reported that diets with 0.9 percent of P improved growth in P. japonicus. Trace minerals such as manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and selenium (Se) have important roles to play in

shrimp biochemistry and physiology. The determination of mineral dietary requirements is very difficult for aquatic animals because of their ability to absorb minerals directly from their environment. Copper is important in the oxygen transfer agent in crustaceans, hemocyanin, and it is has been estimated that around 40 percent of the total Cu weight found in shrimps is contained within hemocyanin. Copper is also required to achieve maximum growth and tissue mineralization, deficiency of Cu in P. vannamei has been characterized by poor growth and reduced concentrations of Cu in the carapace. Excess Fe can produce toxic effects in shrimps, which can lead to decreasing growth in P. japonicas and zinc has been shown to have an important role in normal tissue mineralization in P. vannamei (Davis et al. 1993). A comparison of the macro and trace mineral requirements of 4 shrimp species is given in Figures 3 and 4.

Conclusion

Current feeding methods are taking advantage of shrimp omnivorous habits by incorporating plant-based ingredients in their diet. Alternative sources of protein require supplementation of some essential amino acids, lipids and minerals in order to meet the nutritional requirements of the shrimp species being cultured. By using the new research area of nutrigenomics it is possible to develop a more detailed understanding of how different components of the diet , e.g. cholesterol, can influence molecFigure 3: A comparison of the macro mineral ular mechanisms requirements for four shrimp species which in turn will help in understanding their role in shrimp physiology and metabolism. These future studies will enable strategies to be developed that will help us to better understand Figure 4: A comparison of the trace element requirements shrimp nutrition, for four shrimp species optimise nutrient

34 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

use and increase the quality of the final product.

References FAO (2009). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2008. Rome, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Rome. 176pp D’Abramo LR (1998) Nutritional requirements of the freshwater Prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii: Comparisons with species of penaied shrimp. Reviews in Fisheries Science 6: 153-163. D’Abramo LR, Conklin DE (1992) New developments in the understanding of the nutrition of penaeid and caridean species of shrimp. In: Browdy CL, Hopkins SJ Eds, Swimming Through Troubled Water. Proceedings of the Special Session on Shrimp Farming, Aquaculture ’95, World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, LA, USA, pp. 95–107. Davis DA, Lawrence AL et al. (1993) Evaluation of the dietary zinc requirement of Penaeus vannamei and effects of phytic acid on zinc and phosphorous bioavailability. J of the World Aquaculture Society 24: 40-47. Forster I, Dominy W et al. (2003). Rendered meat and bone meals as ingredients of diets for shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone, 1931). Aquaculture 219: 655–670. Gillies JP, Faha PD (2003) Nutrigenomics: the Rubicon of molecular nutrition. J American Dietetic Association 103: s50–s55. He H, Lawrence AL et al. (1992) Evaluation of dietary essentiality of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K for penaeid shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) Aquaculture 103: 177-185. Kanazawa A, Teshima S, Sasaki M (1984) Requirements of the juvenile prawn for calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, copper, manganese, and iron. Mem Fac Fish Kagoshima Univ 33:63–71. Match MD, Wahli W, Williamson G (2005) Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics: the emerging faces of nutrition. The Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology publishes The FASEB Journal 19: 1602–1614. Muir JF, Roberts RJ (1982) Recent advances in aquaculture. London, Croom Helm. Tan B, Mai K et al. (2005) Replacement of fish meal by meat and bone meal in practical diets for the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone). Aquac Res 36: 439–444. Teshima S I (1997). Phospholipids and sterols. In D’Abramo LR, Conklin DE and Akiyama DM (Eds) Crustacean nutrition, advances in world aquaculture. World Aquaculture Society, pp 85-107.

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F: Aquate Shrimp

Aquate Shrimp

helps provide economic benefit to shrimp farmers in Honduras By Mario Roman, Aquaculture Technical Manager for Latin America, Alltech Inc, Chile

ll significant commercial shrimp farming is based on the penaeid species with the Whiteleg or Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone) being the most important shrimp species farmed today. This native Latin American species was introduced to Asia in 1978 and has spread throughout SE Asia. According to FAO statistics total world aquaculture production in 2008 was 2.26 million tonnes with an approximate value of US$9 billion. Shrimp farming began in Honduras in 1973 and grew rapidly in the 1980s. Today Honduras has established itself as the leading producer of pond â&#x20AC;&#x201C;raised shrimp in Central America with the Pacific white shrimp being the preferred species. The artificial ponds are mainly located in the Gulf of Fonseca with approximately 18,000 hectares of water surface area under production by artisanal, small and medium sized companies as well as larger extension companies. Production in 2009 saw record increases of 40 percent, however the recent 2010 production season was affected by changes in the larvae sowing season and excessive rains affecting the cultivation areas. The goal for 2010 was, according to the executive director of the National Aquaculture Association of Honduras, to sell 45 million pounds of shrimp. The production units, as well as generating export income, provide 27,000 direct and indirect jobs of which 40 percent are female workforce benefiting about 170,000

people (Republic of Honduras, National Program for Investment Promotion 2010). The largest export volumes of shrimp go to the USA and Europe but the market in South America is increasing.

Protein levels of 28-30 percent are common in this secondary production period and may even go as low as 25 percent.

Health management Education in good management practices particularly with respect to health management and feeding of shrimp combined with a better understanding of the species requirements are essential for the farmer and for the further development of the industry. New concepts in feed formulation to improve gut structures provide essential nutrients and minerals offer the farmer tools enabling them to improve their production performance. By growing shrimp faster with higher survivals and with less feed loss and lower feed conversion rates will gives farmers an economic benefit. Alltech has been working closely with farmers producing shrimp in semi-intensive ponds in Honduras in Central America using an AquateTM shrimp formulation. A combination of yeast technologies, formulated under the name of AquateTM, have

Stabilisation of production

The Pacific white shrimp has proved itself to be a hardy species with a very good growth potential. Domestication, genetic selection and disease control of the stocks have been the main key criteria in the stabilisation of production and increasing survival rates. Further realization of the genetic potential of stocks will be possible in the future by culturing in controlled pond environments with improved biosecurity, good oxygen levels and exclusion of predators. Falling prices, which were a major feature in the shrimp markets from the mid-1990s to 2005, have changed the nature of shrimp farming in Central America. The farmers in Honduras, as elsewhere, are today very aware about their production costs, their efficiency of input utilization and their profitability. The uncertainties and risks assoTable 1: Average Results of 2010, comparing 1 hectare ciated with the industry Treatment have seen them re-evaluate their traditional management practises. In some regions there is still a belief that natural feed in the water can provide at least part of the nutritional requirements of the shrimp. However, most farmers are moving to provide the full feed requirement of the shrimp in semi-intensive ponds with a feeding frequency of 3-4 times per day. They are using a higher protein diet (30-35%) for the first 30 days of production and then moving to a lower protein diet for the rest of the production period.

Unit comparison Density seeded (Pls/M2) Quantity of Pls seeded

Control

Aquate shrimp

15.0

150,000

Harvest data 55%

65%

Weight at harvest (gms)

% survival

Average growth/week

1.05

Days in production Density at harvest (shrimps/M2)

127

8.3

9.8

Pounds biomass - whole shrimp

3,453

4,080

Lbs of feed

5,870

6,936

1.70

No weeks of production

36 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

Feed conversion rate

F: Aquate Shrimp provided benefit through the improvement of biomass production, feeding efficiency and boosting of natural defense mechanisms in aquaculture species. The Aquate shrimp formulation was designed to supply a source and balance of essential amino acids and improve gut health and the attractability and palatability of the diet. In 2010, ICASUR a 350-hectare farm located in San Lorenzo produced 95 percent of their production of 247,950lbs using the Aquate

alma

Shrimp formulation. The Aquate Shrimp was added to their normal commercial diet at an inclusion rate of one percent.The production results of the 2010 season were processed, by Mr Benito Gomez Financial Manager of ICASUR, to calculate the economic benefit of using Aquate Shrimp.

In order to take account of the different size ponds used during the production process the results were calculated per one hectare and these are shown in Table 1. The use of Aquate Shrimp resulted in a statistically significant increase in survival (P<0.05) in the treatment ponds over the controls ponds and this average out at a 10 percent increase over the production season. The total production per hectare was improved by 18 percent in the Aquate Shrimp ponds in comparison with the control ponds. When the economic benefit was calculated by ICASUR the net increment was calculated at US$0.30 per pound of shrimp produced. Other farms in the region have reported that the use of Aquate Shrimp has resulted in increased diet attractability, which in turn has increased growth rates, with average growth rates of 1.71g/week being reported by some farmers. By increasing the diet attractability less feed wastage occurs and the higher growth rates observed reduces the number of days to harvest. Similarly improvements in FCR of between 6-10 percent have been reported. The feeding regime and strategy of the farm will play a significant role in the results obtained by the farmer.

However, careful feed management and the use strategies such as the Aquate Shrimp concept have been proved to give the farmers an economic benefit resulting from improved feed intake, higher growth and lower feed conversion ratio.

About the author Mario Roman qualified in veterinary medicine specialising in poultry virology and monogastric nutrition. He has worked extensively within the animal feed industry in Chile. Currently he is working for Alltech Inc as Aquaculture Technical Manager for Latin America where he works with farmers and feed mills focusing on the practical use of Alltech’s products for fish and shrimp.

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September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 37

Feed Management

Impact of rising feed ingredient prices on aquafeeds and aquaculture production:

Rising aquafeed costs and price volatility impacts the health and productivity of fish by Krishen J Rana, Sunil Siriwardena and Mohammad R Hasan

The fifth article in a series, taken from a new aquaculture book

n most major aquafeed–based intensive aquaculture production systems there is a high reliance on nutritionally balanced complete aquafeeds. In situations where on–farm feeds are made, farmers attempt to produce a balanced feed using vitamin and mineral

"Under conditions of increasing feed ingredient prices, farmers and small feed producers may compromise standards and inadvertently acquire contaminated feed ingredients in order to lower costs and in doing so, compromise fish and human health"

premixes. In all regions of the world, the increase in the cost of raw ingredients for commercially manufactured or on–farm aquafeeds resulted in an increase in aquafeed prices from 20 to 40 percent, thus forcing farmers to adopt alternative strategies to secure feeds. In the light of such price increases, farm-

ers are increasingly looking for alternative sources of feeds such as trash fish, animal by–products and grain by–products, or are reverting to the use of single ingredient supplementary feeding regimes, reduced feeding frequency and ration. These types of interventions to mitigate against rising feed costs will compromise fish growth, health and welfare and could reduce fish productivity and production. As prices of raw ingredients increase, farmers have to travel farther distances to obtain cheaper and alternative feedstuffs, incurring longer transport times under suboptimal conditions of heat and humidity, and store greater than normal quantities of ingredients under suboptimal storage conditions, resulting in spoilage, and fungal and bacterial contamination. These contaminants are pathogenic to fish as well as humans. The subsequent use of such ingredients or contaminated diets could reduce growth and reduce survival. Aquafeeds can serve as a carrier for a range of microbial contaminants such as moulds, mycotoxins and bacteria (Maciorowski et al., 2007). Bacterial contamination of feed ingredients or diets with potential pathogens such as Salmonella, E. coli, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Pasteurella, Pseudomonas, and Clostridia will compromise fish and human health. Its impact may be relevant

38 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

across the whole aquaculture sector, because the route of such contamination can be through both plant and rendered animal protein sources (Barakat, 2004; PDV, 2007).

Implications of fungal contamination in aquafeeds The use of plant–based ingredients as substitutes for fish protein and oil in aquafeeds increases the risk of contamination by mycotoxins (fungal toxins produced by naturally occurring filamentous fungi or moulds). To date, several potent mycotoxins have been identified and those of serious concern, based on their toxicity and ubiquity, are aflatoxin, ochratoxin A, the trichothecenes (DON, T–2 toxin), zearalenone, fumonisin, and moniliformin (Bhatnagar et al., 2004). Mycotoxin producing moulds can infect agricultural crops, particularly cereals and oilseeds, during crop growth, harvest, storage, processing or during the storage of the manufactured compounded feed. Suitable conditions for fungal growth, in terms of warm temperature and moisture, promote mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin, aubiuitious mycotoxin, which is produced primarily by the fungus Aspergillus flavus is a major concern because of its carcinogenicity, especially in warm and humid climates.

Feed Management The production of aflatoxins increases at temperatures above 27°C, humidity levels above 62 percent and moisture levels above 14 percent in the feed. For the main aquaculture producing regions of the world, notably Asia, these climatic factors increase the risk of such contamination. The extent of contamination will further be affected by ingredient and feed storage practices and processing methods. Additionally, long duration of transport under poor conditions and improper storage are crucial factors favouring the growth of aflatoxin–producing moulds. Consequently, poorer aquafarmers in developing countries, where quality control of feeds may not be as high as in developed countries, are more likely to acquire contaminated feeds. Further, the recent increase in prices of feed ingredients is likely to drive poor farmers to look for cheaper sources and run the risk of purchasing rejected or contaminated ingredients and feeds. Mycotoxins pose a serious threat to fish health and well being. For example, aflatoxins are known to suppress the immune system and growth and increase mortality (Lim and Webster, 2001). Studies on Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed diets containing 1.8mg of aflatoxin/kg of feed for 75 days showed reduced growth rates (Tuan et al., 2002). Impaired immune function has been observed in Indian major carp (Labeo rohita) subjected to as low as 1.25mg of aflatoxin B1/kg body weight in the feed (Sahoo and Mukherjee, 2001). Aflatoxin B1 concentrations of 75ppb have been demonstrated to significantly reduce growth performance in pre–adult shrimp, Penaeus monodon (Bautista et al., 1994).

The condition, aflatoxicosis, caused by such contamination could be minimized by enforcing strict regulations for screening aquafeed ingredients, such as oilseeds, corn and other feed ingredients, for aflatoxins. As the principal route of such contamination is through ingredients of plant origin, the effects of such contamination on cultured warm–water fishes, such as tilapia, carps, milkfish and catfishes (Pangasius spp.), may be more significant because their diets contain more plant than animal ingredients. Effective methods of reducing the effects of mycotoxins using mycotoxin–adsorption agents such as Mycosorb® (Alltech, Inc.) are available, but such additives will increase feed costs further.

Implications of bacterial contamination in fish feeds Contrary to fungal contamination, bacterial contamination is frequently overlooked but can have serious implication for fish and human health. Feed contaminated with bacteria, pathogenic to humans, can contribute to food borne human illness through the feed–animal–food–human chain. Feed has been shown to be a major vector for transmission of Salmonella to farms and processing plants. Corry et al. (2002) compared the number of Salmonella serovars found in the feed mills of two integrated companies with those isolates found at their respective processing plants. The percentage of isolates found at the processing plants and feed mills were 56.3 and 54.5 percent, respectively. Hals et al. (2006) also found that out of 82 Salmonella serotypes found in both production animals and humans, 45 of these were isolated in feed.

Bacterial contamination of feed ingredients affects protein sources of both animal and plant origin. Recent studies have shown that vegetable protein sources e.g. grains and there by–products, have incidences of Salmonella similar to rendered animal proteins (Barakat, 2004; PDV, 2007). Many bacteria associated with environmental contamination of feed ingredients are of the family Enterobacteriacea and their abundance in ingredients such as unprocessed soybean can be as high as 106–108/g of ingredient (Veldman et al., 1995). Bacterial contamination of feed can affect animal performance especially through its impact on the form and functioning of the gastrointestinal tract and, hence, growth performance. Under conditions of increasing feed ingredient prices, farmers and small feed producers may compromise standards and inadvertently acquire contaminated feed ingredients in order to lower costs and in doing so, compromise fish and human health.

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Coming in the next issue of International Aquafeed magazine (November/ December issue) will be the final part of the book. The full publication can be found at: http://www.fao.org/ docrep/012/i1143e/i1143e00.htm

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September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 39

5th International

congress

The Aquaculturist A regular look inside the aquaculture industry

Hi my name is Martin Little. I am the Aquaculturists, with a background in Marine Zoology and eight years working in the field as a consultant fisheries observer in the North Atlantic, I am now part of International Aquafeed magazine, and as well as my column in the pages of the magazine I will be running an accompanying blog that can be found at http://theaquaculturists.blogspot.com/

n August we published over 90 news stories that reached our readers immediately after we wrote them through our distribution networks that includes Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn. Each month we are finding more and more to write about. News doesn't happen on days that suit our magazine's publishing dates, nor do they take account of our postal delivery times. That's why we put significant effort into our maintaining our blog on a daily basis so that you, the reader of IAF, can be kept up to the minute on developments and news that happens in and around our industry no matter where you are. Signing up to our news service is free. Why not let us deliver these short news items direct to your business or social website account? Just visit our blog and click the link to sign up. I'm here to keep you informed. I look forward to welcoming you to our service! You can find our blog at http:// theaquaculturists.blogspot.com/

Also on Twitter: http://twitter.com/Aquaculturists

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Fish Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment

ish disease is a major issue in aquaculture, as well as an issue for the marine and fresh water environment. Fish Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment (Second Edition), was published in 2010 and written by Edward J. Noga who is Professor of Aquatic Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences College of Veterinary Medicine North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina. This publication delivers concise descriptions of various diseases that occur within fish and their environment. It covers viral, bacterial, fungal, parasitic and non-infectious diseases. It also covers a large array of fish species; another aspect of this book is that it looks at the implementation of biosecurity and with it the increased emphasis on health management. This book is designed as a practical manual with all the elements laid out in a logical order..

Book review

This book is split in to three parts: Part one: Methods for diagnosing fish diseases Six chapters, covering the major cultured species, along with the types of cultured systems. Clinical workup and postmortem techniques, also the guidelines for interpreting clinical findings and health management. Part two: Problem list 15 chapters dealing with the various problems that arise as a result of fish disease, identification of the disease and possible kinds of treatment Part three: Methods for treating fish disease Dealing with general concepts in therapy and pharmacopoeia. This book is a comprehensive and concise book, well written with the assistants of many collaborator s. It follows a system-based approach to ensure a userfriendly and practical manual for identifying problems. This is a book that will be a valuable resource to fisher y biologist, student, teacher s and anyone wor king in the aquaculture environment a valuable asset in the right hands.

ISBN: 978-0-8138-0697-6

Catfishes as a case study

his publication Morphological Evolution, Aptations, Homoplasies, Constraints and Evolutionary Trend: Catfishes as a Case Study on General Phylogeny and Macroevolution was written and published in 2005 by Dr Rui Diogo who is an evolutionary biologist graduated in the University of Aveiro, Portugal. One of the key aims of this book is to analyse the higher-level interrelationships of catfish and to look at and discuss the general evolution of this species. The book cover morphology, catfish families, the phylogeny of catfish its evolution and macroevolution.

The book is split into five chapters with subsections 1. Catfishes: Introduction 2. Methodology and Material 3. Phylogenetic Analysis 4. Higher-level Phylogeny and Macroevolution of Catfishes: A Discussion 5. Catfishes, Case Study for General Discussions of Phylogenetic and Macroevolutionary Topics A well written and well presented book, dealing with the complexities of a species that until recently was not fully understood. Dr Diogo has achieved an understanding that is second to none in his chosen field of study. The catfish in the modern world is a key species in aquaculture, reared in many parts of the world as an important food source. With that in mind I believe this book is a very important book and would be a key resource for students, ichthyologists and biologists working in evolution, taxonomy and phylogeny. A must have book.

ISBN: 1-57808-291-9

Are you a Perendale bookworm? Perendale Publishers Ltd, the publishers of International Aquafeed, has set up an online Amazon-based â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Book Shopâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; that lets you browse a wide range of recently-published reports and books on aquaculture related topics. You can read an extended review before making your selection and purchasing directly from Amazon. We will undertake to put forward for your consideration the most recent publications and as a result become a reference point for your reading and research.

42 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

Pathogens of Wild and Farmed Fish: sea lice Book review

his publication is a key text in modern aquaculture today. It deals with the parasitic pest Sea Lice, which can be extremely dangerous to modern aquaculture. Pathogens of Wild and Farmed Fish: Sea Lice, was written and edited in 1993 by Geoffrey A Boxshall and Danielle Defaye. Sea Lice are a serious problem for commercial salmon farming throughout the world and also for the smaller scale coastal fish farms. Sea Lice are parasitic copepods that infest the external surface of marine and brackish water fish. They belong to the family Caligidae, to which there are over 400 species. With the ever-increasing growth of fish farming, controlling Sea Lice has become the key to the success or failure of fish farms, as an infestation can often destroy a farms future. This book is split into two parts: Part one deals with the biology of Sea Lice and has five sub sections each sub section deals with a specific area of the Sea Lice biology. Each sub section is divided into smaller sections. Part Ia - Life cycle stages

Part Ib - Developmental factors Part Ic - Anatomy Part Id - Behaviour Part Ie - Epidemiology Part two deals with the control of Sea Lice and has six sub sections, which are further split, in specific areas of control. Part IIa - Review Part IIb - Fallowing Part IIc - Chemotherapy Part IId - Vaccination Part IIe - Biological control Part IIf - Pathology This book arose from the international workshop that was organised by GA Boxshall and A Raibaut and was held in Paris on the September 3-4, 1992. Over 80 researchers and fish health experts interested in sea lice biology and control attended it. I believe this book to be a valuable resource that is still as important today as when it was written. Dealing with the biology and control of a highly destructive parasite this book covers a wide field of study that is of importance to scientist in the field of aquaculture and fish biology as well as students and the corporations that own and run aquatic fish farms and the organisations that develop the health care for the modern day fish farms. An important text that should be required reading.

ISBN: 0-13-015504-7

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44 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

Events EVENTS 2011 8th - 9th September 11

18th - 21st October 11

BioMarine Business Convention, Nantes – France Contact: Pierre Erwes, La Grave du Tour, 40430 Callen, France Tel: +33 678 078284 Email: contact@biomarine.org Web: http://convention.biomarine.org

14th September 11

UK Fishing and the Future of the Common Fisheries Policy, Central London, United Kingdom Contact: Simon Regan, 4 Bracknell Beeches, Old Bracknell Lane West, Bracknell, Berkshire, RG12 7BW, United Kingdom Tel: +44 1344 864796 Fax: +44 1344 420121 Email: info@ westminsterforumprojects.co.uk Web: www.westminsterforumprojects. co.uk/forums/event.php?eid=284

15th September 11

GLOBALG.A.P TOUR2011 – Warsaw (Poland), Le Royal Méridien Bristol, Poland Contact: Nina Kretschmer, c/o GLOBALGAP Foodplus GmbH, Spichernstr 55, D-50672 Cologne, Germany Tel: +49 221 57993693 Fax: +49 221 5799389 Email: kretschmer@globalgap.org Web: www.tour2011.org

25th - 30th September 11 *

Aquaculture Feed Extrusion, Nutrition and Feed Management Short Course, Texas A&M University College Station, Texas, USA Contact: Dr Mian N Riaz, Food Protein R&D Center, 2476 TAMU, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2476, USA Tel: +1 979 8452774 Fax: +1 979 8452744 Email: mnriaz@tamu.edu Web: http://foodprotein.tamu.edu/ extrusion/

28th - 29th September 11 * Protein Technology Innovation 2011 Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Contact: Marjolijn Cohen, Jan van Eijcklaan 2, 3723 BC Bilthoven, The Netherlands Tel: +31 30 2252060 Email: info@bridge2food.com Web: www.bridge2food.com

Events Key: * = See our magazine at this show • = More information available

Aquaculture Europe 2011, Rhodos, Greece Contact: EAS, Slijkensesteenweg 4, B8400 Ostend, Belgium Tel: +32 59 323859 Fax: +32 59 321005 Email: eas@aquaculture.cc Web: www.easonline.org

18th October 11

GLOBALG.A.P TOUR2011 – Atlanta, The Westin Peachtree Plaza, Atlanta, USA Contact: Nina Kretschmer, c/o GLOBALGAP Foodplus GmbH, Spichernstr 55, D-50672 Cologne, Germany Tel: +49 221 57993693 Fax: +49 221 5799389 Email: kretschmer@globalgap.org Web: www.tour2011.org

18th - 21st October

Aquaculture Europe 2011, Rhodos, Greece Contact: EAS, Slijkensesteenweg 4, B8400 Ostend, Belgium Tel: +32 59 323859 Fax: +32 59 321005 Email: eas@aquaculture.cc Web: www.easonline.org

26th - 28th October 11

Fisheries and Aquaculture Development Innovation and Technology, Expoforum, Hermosillo, Sonora, México Contact: Zoila López, Lluvia 225 Bis, Col. Jardines del Pedregal, C.P., 01900, México, D. F. Tel: +52 55 51356128 Ext. 113 Fax: +52 55 51356128 Email: zoila@aquamarinternacional.com Web: www.aquamarinternacional.com

10th - 12th November 11 * Expo Pesca & AcuiPeru, Jockey Convention Center, Peru Contact: JKUMAR ( J K), 674/6 UE, Karnal, India Tel: +91 9812 390009 Fax: +91 1844 030999 Email: jkumar@thaiscorp.in Web: www.thaiscorp.com

23rd November 11

GLOBALG.A.P TOUR2011 – Bangkok Contact: Nina Kretschmer, c/o GLOBALGAP Foodplus GmbH, Spichernstr 55, D-50672 Cologne, Germany Tel: +49 221 57993693 Fax: +49 221 5799389 Email: kretschmer@globalgap.org Web: www.tour2011.org

Aquarama 2011 enjoys ‘quality’ success In the words of Dr Alex Ploeg, Secretary General of Ornamental Fish International, “Participating in Aquarama every two years is like coming home to meet long-time friends and business partners.” Aquarama 2011 was a most successful meeting of the industry ... “good for business and good for contactss” says Dr Ploeg For Malaysian exhibitor, Bukit Merah Aquaculture, Aquarama 2011 (May 26-29, 2011 in Suntec Singapore) was “an excellent show”, while first-time exhibitor, Doshe Aquaristik, from Germany “was very impressed with this exhibition” and Philippine company, Animalia 2000 Ichiban Inc, felt it was “a fantastic show”. These sentiments were echoed by many of those who attended this year’s glittering event. The organisers were encouraged by the fact that, despite the stilldeep economic crisis affecting many countries and regions where substantial numbers of traditional attendees and exhibitors are based, Aquarama 2011 still pulled in the international trade from all corners of the globe. No fewer than 23 countries were represented among the exhibitors, while trade visitors came from an impressive total of 73 countries. Just as in 2009, there was a ‘good-feel’ factor among the exhibitors, who maintained that the quality of the visitors and their genuine interest in doing business, more than made up for the more modest attendance figures. In their words, quality is always worth more than quantity. Were this not to be the case, there’s no way that around 55 percent of this year’s exhibitors would have either already signed contracts for 2013, or taken options to do so. Equally, if the level of business had not matched expectations, no company in its right mind would reserve a larger booth for 2013, as some important exhibitors have already done. Aquarama is, of course, much more than just a wide-ranging display of virtually every aquatic product you can think of. It is this, of course (and impressively so), but it also includes an unparalleled International Fish Competition, which this year received a staggering 1355 entries, three brand new competitive elements, including a Freshwater nano Tank Competition, a free trade seminar programme consisting of three sessions and presented by top international speakers (deemed by many to be the best-ever staged at Aquarama), a fully subscribed Fish Farm visit ... and much more besides. In the end, the organisers were justifiably pleased with the results. As Michiel Kruse, Managing Director of UBM Asia Singapore commented, “Organising an event as complex and important for the industry as Aquarama, always presents a stiff challenge. We are therefore delighted that the efforts of our hardworking team and the invaluable and unflinching support of the industry, has made it possible for us to stage an event worthy of the name ‘Aquarama’, especially at such a difficult time in world economics.” To access further details of Aquarama 2011, and see a selection of this year’s photographs, visit the show’s website (www.aquarama. com.sg). For details and reservations relating to Aquarama 2013, please contact Jennifer Lee, Project Manager at Jennifer.lee@ubm.com, Doris Woo, Sales Manager Email: doris.woo@ubm.com or Adeline Chang, Project Executive Email: Adeline.chang@ubm.com

46 | International AquaFeed | September-October 2011

EVENTS 1st - 2nd December 11

5th International Algae Congress, Berlin, Germany Contact: Mrs Paulien Hoftijzer, Stationsplein Noord 4, 3554 AD Woerden, The Netherlands Tel: +31 348 484 004 Fax: +31 348 484 009 Email: paulien.hoftijzer@dlg-benelux.com Web: www.algaecongress.com

1st - 3rd December 11 IAI Expo, NDRI, Karnal, India Contact: Ms Shweta Baweja, 923, Sector-9, Urban estate, Karnal, India Tel: +91 9991705009 Fax: +91 1842231050 Email: iai@pixie.co.in Web: www.iaiexpo.co.in

EVENTS 2012 7th - 9th February 12 EuroKarma 2012, MTPolska Center Ul. Marsa 56 c, 04-242 Warszawa, Poland Contact: Agnieszka Niemczewska, PO BOX 73, 32-332 Bukowno, Poland Tel: +48 514 544048 Email: info@eurokarma.eu Web: www.eurokarma.eu

15th - 17th February 12

FIAAP, Victam & GRAPAS Asia 2012, BITEC, Bangkok, Thailand Contact: Andy West, Victam International, P O Box 411, Redhill, RH1 6WE, United Kingdom Tel: + 44 1737 763501 Email: Andrew.west733@ntlworld.com Web: www.victam.com

1st - 5th September 12

Aqua 2012, Prague, Czech Republic Contact: Mr Mario Stael, Marevent, Begijnengracht 40, 9000 Gent, Belgium Tel: +32 9 2334912 Fax: +32 9 2334912 Email: mario.stael@scarlet.be Web: www.marevent.com

13th - 16th November 12

EuroTier 2012, Hannover / Germany Contact: Dr Karl Schlösser, DLG, Eschborner Landstrasse 122, 60489 Frankfurt/Main, Germany Tel: +49 69 24788-259 Fax: +49 69 24788-113 Email: EuroTier@DLG.org Web: www.EuroTier.com

22nd - 24th February 12 VIV/ILDEX India 2012, BIEC centre, Bangalore, India Contact: Guus van Ham, PO Box 8800, 3503 RV Utrecht, The Netherland Tel: +31 30 2952302 Fax: +31 30 2952809 Email: viv.india@vnuexhibitions.com Web: www.viv.net

1st - 4th May 12

Is there an event that our readers need to know about! Events listings are free of charge and will appear in the printed magazine and online. To add your event to our listing, contact Tuti Tan Tutit@aquafeed.co.uk

Skretting Australasian Aquaculture 2012 International Conference and Trade Show, Melbourne Convention Centre, Australia Contact: Sarah-Jane Day, PO Box 370, Nelson Bay NSW 2315, Australia Tel: +61 437 152234 Fax: +61 2 49841142 Email: Sarah-jane.day@aquaculture.org,au Web: www.australian-aquacultureportal.com

VIV/ ILDEX India 2012 February 22 - 24, 2012 Visit our website n for more informatio

www.viv.net www.ildex.com Your portal to India’s Feed to Meat trade

Special themes

Eggs!

Feedtech Croptech

The dedicated event for the Indian Milling industries

Bangalore, India

September-October 2011 | International AquaFeed | 47 adv-ildex-india-2012-90x132-V2.indd 1

06-07-11 13:03

In every issue of International Aquafeed we will be providing a list of companies and web links related to key stories & topics within each specific issue. If you would like information on how your company can get involved, please contact our Marketing Team. Tel +44 1242 267706

Alltech European Bioscience Centre

Inve Aquaculture

= www.alltech.com

= www.inve.com

Amandus Kahl GmbH & Co

Lallemand Animal Nutrition

= www.amandus-kahl-group.de

= www.lallemandanimalnutrition.com

Andritz Feed & Biofuel

Muyang Group

= www.andritz.com

= www.muyang.com

Biomin Holding GmbH

Norel SA

= www.biomin.net

= www.norelnature.com

Borregaard

Novartis International AG

= www.borregaard.com

= www.novartis.com

Buhler AG

Nutri-Ad International nv

= www.buhlergroup.com

= www.nutriad.net

Chemoforma Ltd

Ottevanger Milling Engineers B.V.

= www.chemoforma.com

= www.ottevanger.com

Dinnissen BV

Shanghai ZhengChang International Machinery

= www.dinnissen.nl

and Engineering Co., Ltd = www.zhengchang.com

Dishman Netherlands B.V = www.dishman-netherlands.com

Tapco Inc = www.tapcoinc.com

European Copper Institute = www.eurocopper.org

The Gold Coin Group = www.goldcoin-group.com

Evonik Degussa GmbH = www.evonik.de

UBM Asia Trade Fairs Pte Ltd = www.aquarama.com.sg

Extru-Tech = www.extru-techinc.com

Wenger Manufacturing Inc. = www.wenger.com

Geelen Counterflow = www.geelencounterflow.com

Wynveen International B.V. = www.wynveen.com

HAMLET PROTEIN A/S = www.hamletprotein.com

Zhengchang Group (ZCME) = www.zhengchang.com

Fatten up your bottom line. B端hler high-performance animal and aqua feed production systems are used by leading companies around the world. These producers know they can rely not just on the technology itself, but also on the support that accompanies it. A service combining local presence with global expertise both lowers feed mill operating costs and increases capacity utilization. To find out more, visit www.buhlergroup.com

B端hler AG, Feed & Biomass, CH-9240 Uzwil, Switzerland, T +41 71 955 11 11, F +41 71 955 28 96 fu.buz@buhlergroup.com, www.buhlergroup.com

Innovations for a better world.