CLIMATE CHANGE, BIODIVERSITY AND FOOD SECURITY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW

e-ISSN: 2582-5208 International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science Volume:02/Issue:09/September -2020

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CLIMATE CHANGE, BIODIVERSITY AND FOOD SECURITY: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW *Godfrey C. Onuwa1, Victoria I. Joshua1, Christy O. Nwosueke2 1Federal 2Institute

College of Forestry, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.

of Archaeology and Museum Studies, National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT This paper reviews the threats posed by climate change to food security and biodiversity. Climate change affects food security and can be very severe on food production. Climate change affects agricultural farming systems in Nigeria. Extreme weather events such as; heavy winds and floods devastate farmlands and can lead to crop failure. Pests and crop disease migrate due to climate variability and potentially pose a threat to livestock. Climate change reduces food availability because it negatively affects the basic elements of food production. Rural communities face increasing risks such as; repeated crop failures, livestock losses and a decline of fishery and forest products. Furthermore, several elements of climate change are estimated to affect all levels of biodiversity. Biodiversity loss due to climate change affects the structure and functions of ecological systems. A comprehensive adaptation and mitigation measure that reduces exposure to adverse climate risks and threats with regards to household food security and biodiversity loss should be adopted. Several adaptation strategies have been recommended for adoption in addressing food security challenges and biodiversity loss attributable to climate variability.

KEYWORDS: climate-adaptive plans, climate change, food security, biodiversity.

I.

INTRODUCTION

Climate change is defined as several years of persistent pattern of revolving changes in weather characteristics. These are in relation to temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, cloud cover and precipitation. The patterned changes define periods of persistent specific weather element as seasons.

Climate change directly affects food security and nutrition. It undermines current efforts to protect the lives and livelihoods of various households. The evidence indicating significant changes in global climate over the past century has been presented in the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [I].The reports indicated that variability and the risk of extreme events and abrupt changes in climate patterns may increase throughout the 21st century. It is paradoxical that Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from Africa are the least, however, the effects of climate change on crops, livestock, forest, biodiversity, land and water sources are adverse [II]. Climate change poses a significant threat to Nigerian agricultural system and food security [III]. Agriculture is very sensitive to global warming and climate change [IV]. Agricultural productivity in general could decline between 10% 25% by 2050[III]. Rain –fed agriculture could reduce by 50%. Such trends clearly portend serious threats to Nigeria’s quest to improve her food security level and attain her millennium goals and visions [V]. The dominant role of agriculture makes it obvious that even minor climate deteriorations can cause devastating socioeconomic consequences. Despite understanding the multidimensional nature of food insecurity, it remains a key concern affecting the livelihoods of marginal groups. Therefore, understanding the effects of climate change, as well as its impact on food security and biodiversity loss is critical to making improvements [VI]. These adverse effects are very severe on biodiversity loss and food security [VII]. Biodiversity loss due to climate change significantly affects ecosystem service [VIII].

Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity Evidence of an increasing trend of biodiversity decline abounds [VIII]. Climate change poses a significant threat to biodiversity and ecosystem services in the region [IX]. Recent studies also have shown the impacts of climate change on biodiversity in Africa. Increase in global warming results to significant changes in the ecosystem that affects biodiversity through either loss of species or changes in species

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composition [VIII]. Similarly, several literatures have posited that climate change significantly affects biodiversity in Africa [VIII]. Direct effects include those arising from increased temperature and increased CO2 levels associated with global climate change [X; XI]. These adverse effects of climate change may include; changes in hydrologic cycles (evaporation and precipitation), an increasing magnitude and extent of extreme weather events such as; flood, extreme temperatures, etc. that destroy the ecosystem [VIII].

Climate change affects biodiversity by altering lifecycles, shifting habitat ranges and species distribution, population change, wavering migration patterns, changes in frequency and severity of pest and disease outbreaks and a decline in suitable habitats and species diversity [VIII]. A loss of species from an ecosystem not only affects the species that is lost but also the interactions with other species in addition to the general ecological functions, which are expected from these interactions [XII]. There’s a strong correlation between biodiversity dynamics and climate variability. Consequently, studies on the impact of climate change on biodiversity re very germane [VIII].

Impact of Climate change on livelihoods and agricultural farming systems Climate change affects livelihoods and agricultural farming systems in Nigeria [XII]. Immoderate weather occurrence such as thunderstorms, heavy winds and floods destroy farmlands resulting to crop failures [XII]. Pests and crop diseases migrate in response to climate variations and potentially pose a threat to livestock. Food security is vulnerable to immoderate weather occurrence such as; drought, floods, etc.

[VI]. Unpredictable changes in the onset of rains due to climate variability, results in harvest failures in ecosystems that rely on rain-fed agriculture. The proliferation of pests and crop diseases (again originating with climate change) can hinder storage when the need arises because of temperature increases. The pests, in turn, attack crops and animals. The current global warming trend also affects livestock production [IV]. The growth systems of grain crops such as rice, maize, etc. and the storage of root crops and vegetables become cumbersome [IV]. Indicators of degraded land attributable to climate change are already apparent in Nigeria especially in the rural communities [IV]. Deforestation, characterized by the quickly disappearing forest cover, is one symptom made worse by human poor land use systems. Changes in temperature, rainfall and water cycle dynamics can induce other problems. [XIII].

Evidences of scorched and retreating forests, decline in soil productivity attributable to the removal of soil nutrients by erosion and flooding, farmlands destroyed by heavy rainfall, rainfall-induced soil erosion, etc. abound in several ecological zones [IV]. Climate variability in Nigeria alters tree development and expansion, thereby decreasing accessibility to non-timber forest products such as mushrooms, spices, herbs, etc. [IV]. . Climate change equally increases the prevalence of pests and diseases that attack and decimate forest trees [IV]. It has led to the extinction of some tree species in the various ecological zones in Nigeria, for example, the Iroko and oil bean in the southeast; various mahogany species in the southwest; the baobab and the locust bean in the northwest; gum arabic in the northeast, etc. [XIV]. This critically affects agriculture and farmers livelihood in Nigeria. The challenges that need to be addressed include increasing crop failure and loss of yields due to false start of rains, frequent intervening dry spells during the growing seasons, early cessation of growing season, crop damages by storms and flooding, rising temperatures as well as pest infestations. The south eastern zone to a large extent presents its own challenge regarding its vulnerability to climate change [IV]. Extreme climatic events and the region's large distribution of loose acidic soils, extensive gully erosion, few reservoirs to support irrigation and growing urbanization are critical vulnerability factors. For instance, many parts of Anambra and Enugu States are ravaged by sheet and gully erosion. Soil productivity in most parts of the region has been badly impacted with considerable reduction in food productivity [VI]. In the Sahel parts of the north, apart from experiencing delayed onset, early retreat of rains, unsteady growing season and invasion by sand are threats to agricultural activities. Farmlands and even houses are frequently submerged by sand, adding to the difficulties of producing food and sustaining other economic ventures in the region [XII].

II.

CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTIVE PLANS

Adaptation means different things to different schools of thought. It is defined as an adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates

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harm or exploits beneficial opportunities [XV]. It is the mechanism to manage risks, adjust economic activity to reduce vulnerability and improve business certainty, Agricultural adaptations to climate change aims at mitigating and developing appropriate strategies to address the adverse impacts of climate change [IV]. Building resilience entails creating, altering or implementing multiple adaptive actions overtime. Building resilience is a key component of climate adaptation; a resilient system can withstand shocks and rebuild itself when necessary [XVI]. Adaptation has been identified as a policy option of mitigating the negative effects of climate change on farm productivity [XII]. These is in line with the United Nations climate change frame work that all sectors including agriculture must formulate and implement national or regional programs containing measures to facilitate adequate adaptive plans to climate change; hence the sector was identified as one of the critical areas requiring immediate adaptive plan implementation [XVII; IV]. The climate change framework in Nigeria had in 2008 reported that the national adaptation framework will aid decision makers understand and incorporate climate change into policy and operational decisions across all vulnerable sectors particularly, agriculture [XVIII].Here we present a suit of adaptive action, specifying in some instances how the adaptive plans in the country can be fortified. Suggested adaptation strategies may be completely new to a community or simply a modification of an existing plan [XIX]. The attention here is mainly on the agricultural and forestry sectors. Some of these adaptive strategies include; Enhancing agricultural extension: Agricultural extension officers have significant roles to play in improving farm productivity. They are trained to link farmers with scientist working on how to improve farm operations. They also help farmers to deal with difficulties that they may have on the field. In adapting they would for instance be relevant in providing weather information based on aboriginal knowledge and information about adaptive efforts [V].

Expanding and optimizing existing irrigation infrastructures: Expansion and efficiency of irrigation facilities are important to reduce or completely eliminate crop failures due to drought and increased evaporation. Efficient irrigation also allows extended farming into the arid season, although it involves heavy financial input [IV].

Adoption of drought-tolerant and early maturing varieties of crops: This strategy is relevant in every part of the country as water stress may be limiting or soil productivity has declined. The adoption of cassava for example derived from a realization that it offered better returns on soils of lower fertility-than many other crops. Cassava is also tolerant to drought.

Diversifying livelihoods to improve income: Diversity in livelihood affects the incidence and depth of poverty. Thus vulnerability can be reduced by enhancing diversifying livelihoods. In this respect, crop farmers can combine farming with livestock production in an integrated manner to enhance their income.

Increasing and upgrading crop storage facilities: Nigeria has poor storage facilities for harvests.

Consequently a lot of harvests particularly of vegetables and fruits are wasted. This cannot continue under a less favorable climatic regime. Indigenous storage strategies for various crops need to be identified and further developed for adoption. Also, identification of suitable and improved storage methods are strongly recommended [XIV].

Helping farmers to secure agricultural insurance: Although globally the insurance sector is becoming weary of taking up risks in climate-related ventures, the sector has a key role in the nation's effort to build climate change resilience [V].The sector should be strengthened and supported beyond the recent recapitalization to assist individuals particularly farmers to cope with the adverse effects of climate change such as crop failures, damages to farms and crops and loss of life [VII].

Increasing Agricultural Production and Sustainability: The techniques for climate change adaptation included sharing aboriginal knowledge on varieties, adopting improved farming systems and management technologies, breeding of varieties that are suitable and can tolerate climate variability, development of innovative and practical technologies such as; alternative cropping systems, conservation agriculture, sustainable forest management, technology application and use of improved agricultural inputs, e.g. fertilizer, agrochemicals, seeds, etc. [XX].

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Forest reserves: forests play a key role in climate change adaptation and mitigation [V]. They are major sources of wood fuels. Wood fuels are renewable and climate friendly energy source because they are considered carbon neutral if used and produced in a sustainable and efficient manner. Currently government agencies are working to mitigate this by ensuring proper management, utilization and creating Forest Reserves to avoid incessant exploitation [V].

Agroforestry, Adaptation and Mitigation Synergies: Adaptation to climate change and renewal of soil fertility is important for a sustainable future [V]. Agro-forestry, a combination of agriculture and forestry, is now recognized as having high potential for sequestering carbon as part of a short-to-medium term mitigation strategy. Trees have an important role in reducing vulnerability, increasing the stability of farming systems, and buffering households against climate-related risks. Trees grown on farms can help improve soil conditions and give shade to crops and livestock. Forest products produced on farm are important for income diversification and spreading risk in times of crop failure or livestock disease [XXI].

Improving disaster risk management: Planning appropriate risk reduction and response requires an understanding of risks and vulnerabilities. There is need for improved monitoring, information systems and efficient risk analysis. In order to achieve greater effectiveness, disaster risk management and adaptive capacity, integrated into development plans and strategies, which encompasses poverty reduction, food security and sustainable development strategies [V].

III.

CHALLENGES OF AGRICULTURAL ADAPTATION IN NIGERIA

There are lots of challenges facing agricultural adaptation especially in developing countries like Nigeria.

Poor awareness and knowledge of climate change is perhaps a critical constraint to effective agricultural adaptation [V]. Some major challenges to climate change adaptation include; hunger and poverty, inadequate funds for agricultural research, technology and agricultural practices development, others include trade liberalization and market development, policy formulation, poor access to information and human capital development [XXII]. Factors such as capital, land and labour are pertinent for coping strategies, also, poor choice of suitable adaptive measures constrain agricultural adaptation [XXIII]. In corroboration to these reports, lack of finance hinders farmers from getting the necessary resources and technologies that facilitate their adaptive capacity [XII]. This is consistent with [XXIII] who reported that climate change adaptation is capital and labour is intensive. Other barriers identified include; inappropriate adaptive plans and capacity, poor market access, etc. [XXIII].

IV

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Current trends in climate change suggest the need for a paradigm shift in climate risk management and adaptation strategies [XXIV]. Therefore, pro-activeness is needed to increase adaptive options and capacity; to mitigate climate uncertainties especially for the agricultural sector [XIV]. There are several challenges in adaptation of agricultural sector toward climate change [XXIII]. Extensive climate change data collection is very essential, so as to close data gaps in areas of climatic trends, demographic factors, vulnerable communities and climatic occurrences (drought, flooding, etc.) [XIV]. These data facilitate the establishment of a reliable baseline for formulating and evaluating adaptive options and plans [XIV].

There is the need to ensure a detailed assessment and scientifically valid solution of all adaptation options with their benefits. A synergy between stakeholders and government should be established to catalyse and coordinate decision-making and implementation of adaptive plans, by providing climate information, technical resources, and incentives for adaptation, so as to mitigate unintended consequences and inefficient outcomes, by continually evaluating additional risk management options [XIV]. Adaptive plan are implementation is multisectoral and occurs at different levels [XIV]. This simply means that there is a critical need for sector-specific and national adaptation plans in managing the challenges of climate variability [VI].

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