CLASS OF 2021_Bicknekll, S

PERCEPTIONS OF DECAY Designed experiments to reframe surface changes used to preserve architectural materials

PERCEPTIONS OF DECAY Designed experiments to reframe surface changes used to preserve architectural materials Shevonne Bicknell Department of Architecture & Industrial Design Tshwane University of Technology Supervisors: Prof. J Laubscher Mr. S.P. Steyn 2021

DECLARATION OF PLAGIARISM In accordance with Chapter 8 of the 2021 Prospectus (Rules and Regulations for Post Graduate students), I, Shevonne Bicknell, declare that this dissertation, which I hereby submit for the degree, Master of Architecture (Architectural Technology Structured) Qualification code: MAAT18 at the Tshwane University of Technology, is my own work and has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other tertiary institution.

I further state that no part of my dissertation has already been, or is currently being, submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification.

I declare the following: 1. I understand what plagiarism entails and I am aware of the University’s policy in this regard.

2. I declare that this assignment is my own, original work. Where someone else’s work was used, it was acknowledged and refer ence was made according to departmental requirements.

3. I did not copy and paste any information directly from an electronic source (e.g., a web page, electronic journal article or CD ROM) into this document.

4. I did not make use of another student’s previous work and submitted it as my own.

5. I did not allow and will not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of presenting it as his/her own work.

I further declare that this dissertation is substantially my own work. Where references are made to the works of others, the extent to which the work has been used is indicated and fully acknowledged in the text and list

of references.

Figure 1: DECONSTRUCCIO, Font, 2019.

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DEDICATIONS First and formost to my Creator. This is all His.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For continued guidance, knowledge, and support throughout this process: Prof. J. Laubscher Mr. S.P. Steyn

To my community: Grant my husband, parents family and friends.

To my fellow like-minded people, for their endless encouragement and excitement for my avant-garde ideas

For additional knowledge and expertise: Mr. P. Swart Mr. G. Bester Mr. W. van der Schyff Edited by: Mr. W. Hendrikz Ms. T. Pretorius Cover design & image by author

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CONTENTS ABSTRACT

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Methodology Research questions

12 13 13

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Delimitations

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1 INTRODUCTION

6 EXPERIMENTS -

6.1

Material Proposals

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6.2

CO-BRICK

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6.3

BANANA PANE

48

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6.4

EGGSHELL PAINT

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2 BACKGROUND -

2.1 Problem statement 2.1.1 Monuments 2.1.2 Adjacent cities

3 Literature review -

3.1 Research question 3.2 Reviews: -

3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6

The aesthetics of decay Science, value & material decay We have never been modern Purity & danger Being & time Conclusion

4 CONTEXT -

4.1 4.2

Precedents Locality & context

16 18

20 21 21 22 22 23 23

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- 4.2.1 Theoretical context

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- 4.2.2 Material context

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6.2.1 Technical review 6.2.2 Design development 6.2.2.1 Corn cob + plaster 6.2.2.2 Grated cob + plaster 6.2.2.3 Loose chunks + dry clay 6.2.2.4 Loose chunks + wet clay 6.2.2.5 Loose chunks + terracotta clay 6.2.3 Conclusion

6.3.1 Technical review 6.3.2 Design development 6.3.2.1 Slab: Whole peels + resin 6.3.2.2 Pane: Dried fibres + resin 6.3.2.3 Pane: Assembled fibres + resin 6.3.2.4 Pane: Woven texture + resin 6.3.2.5 Slab: Peel & fibre + resin 6.3.3 Conclusion

6.4.1 Technical review 6.4.2 Design development 6.4.2.1 Broken shells + paint 6.4.2.2 Loose shells + plaster 6.4.2.3 Broken shells + glue 6.4.2.4 Eggshell patterns + plaster 6.4.2.5 Layers shells + glue 6.4.3 Conclusion

34 35 36 38 40 42 44 46

48 49 50 52 54 56 58 60

62 62 63 64 66 68 70 72 74

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6.5 -

BIO-FIBRE

6.5.1 Technical review 6.5.2 Design development 6.5.2.1 Moist fibres + bio plastic 6.5.2.2 Dried fibres + bio plastic 6.5.2.3 Arranged fibres + bio plastic 6.5.2.4 Layers fibres + bio plastic 6.5.2.5 Mixed fibres + bio plastic 6.5.3 Conclusion

6.6 -

METAL LEMON

6.6.1 Technical review 6.6.2 Design development 6.6.2.1 Raw lemon + copper 6.6.2.2 Painted lemon juice + copper 6.6.2.3 Painted – washed – washed 6.6.2.4 Copper submerged in lemon juice 6.6.2.4 Covered copper + submurged in lemon juice - 6.5.3 Conclusion

6.7 -

MIFTERIAL

6.7.1 Technical review 6.7.2 Design development 6.7.2.1 Gelatin + mif 6.7.2.2 Mif + material 6.7.2.3 Mif + material + anti-bacterial 6.7.2.4 Mif + material + anti-bacterial added after - 6.7.2.5 Material + ½ mif + ½ anti-bacterial

76 76 77 78 80 82 84 86 88

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90 91 92 94 96 98 100

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7 CONCLUSION: -

5.1.

5.2.

5.3.

5.4.

Design applications for controlled decay Theory Alternative Precedents Structure of knowledge

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5.5. Care for our creations

8 REFERENCES

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118 118 119 120 121

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ABSTRACT

METHODOLOGY

This study focuses on the changes of architectural surfaces through guided decay that would be read as preservation. This study explores the surface erosion of conventional and unconventional building materials, framing a catalogue of materials within two contexts. The first context accelerates the decay of natural materials to understand the processes and sequences involved in their decay. The second context combines the natural materials with a preserving material to see how the decaying process can be guided. A well-functioning building is typically occupied and maintained. However, this study critically reframes the occupation and maintenance to dissociate the buildings from ‘the new’ and from decay due to abandonment. This reframing forms the basis of a sustainability theory that argues understandings of sustainability in the built environment. This theory speculates how negative perceptions of decay influence approaches to the specification and development of materials for the architectural professions. This balance is discussed between control and neglect, and maintenance and abandonment. This balance determines the required intensity and circumstances for opposing variables when creating and sustaining the well-functioning buildings.

This study extends these opposing ideas to their extremes with a narrow selection of materials: co-brick, banana peel, eggshell paint, bioplastic, metal lemon, MIFterial.

A design research methodology will be employe to conduct this studyd. The study will start with an experimental investigation of materials and the timeline of decay in pre-determined contexts and combinations. This will be determined by the process of drying, staining, or chemically treating natural materials and accelerating decay, and then preserving the materials by combining the natural materials with synthetic materials to preserve their original properties from further decay, aging and rotting.

KEYWORDS: Adaptive reuse, architectural surfaces, decay, user perceptions

RESEARCH QUESTIONS What are some of the aesthetics of decay — both generally accepted, and emerging forms?

Can some interactions between technological and natural processes in decay be represented through experimentation and visualization?

How can the perception of decay be understood more clearly by broadening

DELIMITATIONS -

This study will not focus on the cause of decay insofar as it can be traced to injustice, ownership and illegal habitation of abandoned buildings.

It will focuson the abandonment itself and the material conditions created by a lack of maintenance.

This study will not focus on the decay of buildings due to poor quality buildings, regarding the materials used, workmanship or design.

This study will not focus on the restoration of existing buildings but will ratherfocus on the preservation of materials applied to existing builings by means of guided decay.

Figure 2: DECONSTRUCCIO, Font, 2019.

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1.1

INTRODUCTION The interdependence between the noun and verb forms decay. The decay points to the hybridity in its nature, where decay is both an action and changing character of a thing. Therefore, decay can be read as an event that fundamentally changes the essence of that which decays. The definitions also strongly refer to decay in buildings and social-political contexts.

The word decay affords proximity between building decay and socio-political decay that implies that political decay may lead to architectural decay and vice versa.

The fall of the Reich was the rise of an abandoned city (Hell, 2018). The Second World War left the city of Dresden in Germany in ruins (Figure 4). However, the cause of the city’s state was the overbearing exercise of control by the Third Reich, leading to its severe and abrupt decay. The implication is that the birth of an empire could lead to the death of an existing city. As such, the fall of a Reich could be the rise of an abandoned city (Hell, 2018).

As decay can set in with time and long-term neglect, it has the potential to be the product of destruction – of a population and its cities. In Deconstruccio (Figures 1-3), the author portrays decay as internal, psychological, and misinterpreted due to perception (Font, 2019).

A left view of a bust introduces the idea of a complete face. The view changes, and a partial face confront the viewer, revealing an incomplete work. When finally seeing the bust from the right-hand side, the internal structure of the artwork is on display. An internal architectural ruin occupies the Deconstruccio piece’s head, with decaying walls and crumbling floors. It provokes a message of internal decay, obscured by perspective. To empower the viewer to reconsider the effects of decay and its potential, a view on the source of decay should shift.

Figure 3: DECONSTRUCCIO, (Font, 2019.)

Decay

Figure 4: German city of Dresden AFP/GETTY IMAGES (The Gaurdian, 1952.)

(Oxford, 2010): noun: 1. The process or result of being destroyed by natural causes or by not being cared for.

2. The gradual destruction of society, an institution, or a system verb: 1. To be destroyed gradually by natural processes; or to destroy something in this way.

2. If a building of an area decays, its condition slowly becomes worse 3. To become less powerful and lose influence on people or society.

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2.1.1

MONUMENTS Figure: 5 Blue Mosque (Sultan Ahmet Mosque) Completed: 1616 Architect: Sedefhar Mehmet Aga (Bicknell, S. 2019.)

Humanity has an everlasting unanswered infatuation with mortality and agelessness. Individuals often attempt to outlive themselves and their surroundings by having the memory of their lives last longer through work, moments, artefacts, and particularly, buildings. This desire for legacy is evident in centuries of architecture, such as the Great Pyramids of Giza built in 2600BC (Cattermole, 2008, p. 24). Notre Dame is a symbol of great gothic architecture, was designed by Maurice de Sully and completed in 1235 during the medieval era (Cattermole, 2008, p. 76). The Blue Mosque remains a prominent monument to this day and was completed in 1616 (Figure 5) (Cattermole, 2008, p. 127). Farnsworth House was designed at the climax of Modernism by Mies van der Rohe and was completed in 1951 (Cattermole, 2008, p. 328). The Basílica de la Sagrada Família was designed by Gaudi to ensure that the construction outlasts the architect himself, and after ground was broken in 1882, the construction continued for 139 years (Cattermole, 2008, p. 507). As these examples demonstrate, the monument mindset has been repeated over centuries, crossing cultural borders and traditions. Monuments stand as manifestos to represent their makers in the future. This mindset regarding the future also addresses future uncertainties to bridge the mortal gap between the present designer and their absence in an everlasting future.

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As with the design of the Zagreb Cathedral in Croatia (completed in 1190 AD), architect Herman Bolle predicted how the future would look and imagined what the future might require. With a sense of self-importance, Bolle claims that it is possible to ‘know’ what would remain relevant to justify that a monument is not a mere manifestation of himself but that it would be necessary in the times to come.

Although projecting into the future is necessary for the functioning of the architectural profession, it has clear limitations since no one can truly know the future.

In 1190, the restoration of the Zagreb Cathedral (Figure 6) was led by Monsignor Ivan Hren (Rowlands, 2020) as Bolle was not able to predict the material decay of the building between the 1300’s and the 21st Centuary. This project is a form of material and memory preservation that addresses the maker’s need to maintain their eight-hundred-year-old vision. The cathedral restoration turned into a tedious process since the stone Bolle specified for the original construction is extremely brittle and porous. Scaffolding covered the towers for almost three decades and more than two-thirds of the city’s population has never seen the towers bare (Rowlands, 2020).

The absence of the original maker gives way to a new, present influence. The original architect made their choices within the geographic and socio-economic context of that time. Reasonably, the future will have a different context where the original maker will be absent. The substitute will make the decisions for the monument with their own projection in mind. In ‘The writer’s audience is always a fiction’, Walter Ong (1975) discusses an imaginary audience that argues with the writer. The writer’s perspectives and biases create a one-sided view of the audience. Therefore, the construct of the audience is personal and in architecture, the ‘fictional’ user is a bias construct of the designer’s imagination. Therefore, the monument is always personal.

Monuments are created to validate temporary existence and proclaim meaning through memento. Monuments materialise their maker’s project based on their experiences and future ideas.

Figure 6: Zagreb Cathedral Tallest building in Croatia Built: Mid 13th Century Architect: Herman Bolle (Bicknell, S. 2019)

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2.1.2

Figure 11: Refurbishment Project Pretoria West, (Pretoria News, 2017.)

ADJACENT CITIES

The idea that ‘new is better’ is a historically situated concept that gained popularity during the early stages of International Style, a modernist style in the first third of the twentieth century. This section will discuss how the notion of ‘new is better’ cultivated a ‘development’ mindset in architecture. Consequently, this mindset has made building new cities next to existing cities a general practice, especially in South Africa. Paradoxically, instead of refurbishing the buildings in existing cities, new cities are constructed adjacent to those allowed then to fall into disrepair.

During the 2019 State of the Nation Address, President Cyril Ramaphosa introduced a smart city initiative to build South Africa’s first new cities under a democratic dispensation (Mzekandaba, 2021). Within this vision, African cities can be pioneers compared to cities in first-world countries should they incorporate the refurbishment of existing cities. However, the programme implements the construction and development of new cities – of which the Lanseria smart city is the flagship project. This approach ignores the infrastructural and economic potential of existing cities like Johannesburg, favouring an eerily similar approach to the infamous tabula rasa (Lee, 2014).

Figure 08: Cosmopolitan, Johannesburg. ( Bicknell, 2016.)

Figure 09: Building A, Durban.

(Bicknell 2021)

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Figure 10: Building B Durban.

(Bicknell, 2015)

When looking at major South African cities, such as Johannesburg (Figure 8), Durban (Figures 9 and 10), and City of Tswhane (also known as Pretoria) (Figures 11 and 12), a trend emerges where building decay translates through to the perception of the area around it. The perception of decay grows and can cover entire city regions that are eventually abandoned. To indicate the extent of the issue faced, in 2017, the number of abandoned buildings suffering from decay increased from 430 to 500 in Pretoria Figure 12: West (Ndlazi, 2017). Pretoria West is a reSocial housing project Bordeaux, France gion within the City of Tshwane with a complex (Ruault, history of political interference and negligence.

2019) Decayed buildings provide temporary settings for the homeless people and hold the prospects of dwellings for millions on a more permanent scale. These buildings can be refurbished from landmarks of avoidance into sources of shared value, such as the apartment buildings (Figure 11) under renovation at the western edge of the Pretoria CBD (Property360, 2017).

The 2021 Pritzker Prize laureates Anne Lacaton and Jean-Philippe Vassal developed an effective approach to the existing architecture. The French architectural duo refused to demolish existing buildings on a project site (Valencia, 2021). Their approach highlights the opportunities that lie in working with existing structures. They have a comfortable relationship with decay where the existing building surfaces contain a seductive potential. Their cultivation of this potential is key to their projects’ inviting and curious natures. Lacaton and Vassal’s philosophy incorporates the existing buildings as an economic measure and a way of creating healthier environments. Their social housing project (Figure 12) in Bordeaux, France (Pintos, 2019) provides occupants with larger, well-thought-out apartments within the same budget as a new construction. The duo achieves this with smart design decisions and meticulous crafting of the spaces with material selection and application. The result of their work is to provide larger, more creative, and higher quality spaces than a newly built project could achieve.

There is a misperception that refurbishment projects are more costly and labour-intensive than newly built projects. However, the construction industry is an intricate process, and the professional team determines the fragility of ease through their experience and choice of approach. The responsibility lies with the professional team taking ownership of their projects and deciding how to approach the process. If it is possible to have a cost-effective renovation project, it cannot be justified to abandon such a course due to an ‘effort’ prejudice. Creative opportunity underlies a refurbishment project that is lost in a start-from-scratch approach. The financial burden and decisions lie with the developers and investors; however, the process remains in the hands of the design and construction team.

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3.1.

3.2.

RESEARCH QUESTION

LITERATURE REVIEW

The prevailing perceptions around decay and decaying material have to be addressed. A perspective shift is necessary. In order to do so, it is necessary to understand how the current perspective of decay developed. Conventions are accumulated through experience and lessons and added to an acquired knowledge inventory. Ironically, the more information added to this catalogue, the less frequently the information is audited, amended, or rewritten. This auditing neglect is especially the case with decay, where its perspectives are formed over centuries of negative experience to solidify into traditions, rituals, and conventions that exist today. This study aims to rewrite perceptions and conventions around decay.

A perception of psychological cleanliness hinders the approachability of processes associated with decay. The development of health standards in the late nineteenth century, specifically in the medical field of nursing, reinforced these negative perceptions around decay. Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) based her holistic nursing model on nursing knowledge, critical theories, and research that discovered the link between health, healing, and cleanliness (Riegel et al., 2021).

The approach to surfaces and their cleanliness dramatically changed with the sterilisation of medical instruments in the nineteenth century after the French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) wrote extensively on how germs cause disease (Rubin, 2016). This shift in focus changed the perspective of everyday cleanliness and cultivated the avoidance of ‘unclean’ surfaces. Decay now has links with danger, leading to the taboos of unclean surfaces.

The study aims to realign the focus, perspective, and distance regarding viewing and accepting decay. This realignment towards decay will be done by connecting the existing and accepted practices of guided decay in architectural materials (such as COR-TEN steel and yakisugi [charred wood]) and food (such as cheeses and pickling) with less commonly accepted forms of material decay.

This study researches material combinations by creating two categories, one per material, and finding an average experimental material between them. For example, one can categorise a banana peel on a side compared to a synthetic resin on the other. Advantages can be found by combining a banana peel with fibreglass resin. After that, ratios can then be altered with varying predictions. This study embraces the possibility of guided decay by investigating the requirement for the resin to guide the banana peel to advantageous decay.

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3.2.1 The Aesthetics of Decay In Zach Fein’ master’s thesis, he explored how buildings develop an aesthetic as they cease being used. He notes that in the absence of routine human interventions, the aesthetic of decay occurs (Fein, 2009). Fein states that there is a potential for decay, and if guided with the intent to transform the material in a specific way, decay can enhance appearance.

Fein also explores the design of the English garden during the eighteenth century’s Age of Enlightenment. During the English garden movement, the word ‘ruin’ was transformed from negative to suggest beauty.

This study aims to investigate the aesthetics of decay through its proposed experiments by building on the research of Zach Fein.

3.2.2 Science, Value & Material Decay Most historic buildings that still exist in their original condition were constructed from stone, brick, and mortar. Although these materials embody long-lasting structural capabilities, they remain natural materials that suffer the effects of decay (Douglas-Jones et al., 2016, p.

823). This study highlights that material transformation is inevitable, yet that scientific intervention is also possible. The outcomes of this study support the notion that decay can be a guided process with intent. All materials possess the potential to be multi-faceted in terms of decay. Among the natural materials that naturally decay and combine with other materials to guide the natural materials’ transformation are banana peels (as mentioned), corncobs, oat fibres, lemon juice, and gelatine. which will all naturally decay – will be combined with materials to guide the transformation of these natural materials.

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3.2.3. We Have Never Been Modern Critics have developed three distinct approaches to the world: naturalisation, socialisation, and deconstruction (Latour, 1993, pp. 5–8). This distinction creates three categories in which to allocate and separate things. Something is (or belongs to) the natural world; forms part of (or is derived from) social norms; and is ideas, concepts, and processes deconstructed by analysis that directs them further. According to Latour, professional architects did not invent these categories. The categories emerge from language and are common in the general population. When concepts and things are separated into one of these categories, they are emancipated. The one concept can be promoted based on an apparent weakness of the remaining two categories. This privileged approach to separate establishes boundaries. When boundaries are drawn between ‘thought’ and ‘being’, it creates elevated reasoning that is a route to sacrificing the one to advance the other.

Progress is short-lived when technology advances to escape nature, as it is necessary to develop nature with technology, not against it (Latour, 2014). People cannot emancipate themselves from nature as they are natural beings themselves. Nature is an inspiration for technology, and technology could guide nature. However, the link between nature and its processes has become a part of the motivation for emancipation. To be free of these processes seems like progress and power.

This study’s investigation will combine nature with technology, such as a banana peel combined with synthetic resin. This study will investigate the advantages of natural materials guiding decay with another material, therefore using technology with nature to guide decay.

This study questions respectful cleanliness as a concept through a theoretical investigation of material decay. This study will combine natural materials with preserving materials in experiments guided by natural anti-bacterial materials, such as curating mould with gelatine.

3.2.5.

Being and Time

In Being & time, the influential twentieth-century philosopher Martin Heidegger (1962, pp.

72–77) analyses ‘dasein’. According to the Oxford Dictionary, dasein is the existence or determinate being (in existentialism) of human existence. Heidegger distinguishes between the ‘being within oneself’ (which he calls the essence) or ‘to be’, and the ‘existentia’ the ‘experience as oneself’ (referring to be within a context in time and space). The line is drawn between an inward existence, refereeing to the ‘issue’ of being as ‘mine’, opposed to the existentia as being present-at-hand. This distinction implies the contextual existence of objects being an extension of one another within the context of one another. This notion provides being with the worth to be and the responsibility to choose to be. Without accepting the responsibility, being forfeits the privilege of dasein. Being is first an acceptance within and translates to the present-at-hand to be within the functioning structure of existentia.

This study leans on the notion ‘to be’, employing materials for their natural decaying properties. At the same time these materials are combined with other materias to create a the ‘experience as oneself’ as the the present-at-hand context to be an extension of one another.

3.2.6. Conclusion 3.2.4.

Purity & Danger

In Purity & danger: An analysis of the concepts of pollution and taboo, Mary Douglas (1966) investigates the social and cultural taboos of various populations. According to Douglas, cultural and religious fears enforce most of these social rules. When confronted with this fear, a sense of safety is created by avoiding the situations. From this understanding, decay is avoided because of its association with impurity and danger that the medical sciences established over a century ago. Abandonment is frequently the root of decay in buildings. However, once this decay is perceived, it creates a vicious cycle where avoidance propagates this same abandonment. Douglas (1966) further states that one constructs the idea of dirt comprising two things, care for hygiene and respect for conventions. When unpacking the idea of ritual uncleanliness, the author distinguishes the ‘dangers’ of uncleanliness between hygiene (as the need to avoid dirt for survival) and respect for a social rule (for cultural and social survival).

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With these theories re-introducing decay, expanding the possible aesthetics and in conjunction with the value embedded in the scientific properties of materials, a baseline is drawn for the research approach. This baseline introduces the theories of the modernist movement and the movement of needing to be emancipated from decay by reviewing historical approaches to cleanliness and the cultural lines drawn around decay. This ripple effect of categories spirals towards perceptions formed with regards and more often than not against decay. In order to have a lasting and changing effect on the effects of decay, perceptions and thoughts regarding decay have to be questioned and adjusted.

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4.1

PRECEDENT STUDIES 4.1.1 Current Precedents As Fein illustrates, there is an aesthetic in decay. When one guides decay, it can enhance the appearance of a material (Fein, 2009). Accelerated decay as a preservation method is not alien to the building industry. For more than fifty years, architects have specified the use of materials such as weathering steel, charred wood, and self-healing concrete in building projects (de la Fuente, 2021). The industry promotes these materials as ‘self-sustaining’ due to their ‘low (to no) maintenance’ qualities. Their connotation with sustainable architecture glorifies these expensive products to an elite tier in material catalogues.

Figure 14: Villa Meijendel, (Van der Kooy. 2021.)

A critique of existing precedents is done to find new alternatives. These older precedents are aestheticised to make them understandable. This study investigated these methods as a guide to demonstrate new examples of material decay as guided transformation processes for material surfaces.

4.1.2 Charred Wood To create charred wood, manufacturers torch the outer surface of the timber to create a charred layer. This layer then preserves the internal raw timber that then does not require further maintenance (Collins, 2018). This preservation method is achieved through the accelerated method of decay, where the torched layer is an abrupt process to form the protective barrier. The effect is an aesthetic finish, with depth created by the char. The method can be used as inspiration for alternative surface materials where accelerated decay is employed with intent.

4.1.3 COR-TEN

Fig 13: Manchester Jewish Museum, (Payne, 2021.)

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Creating COR-TEN steel involves combining steel with a mixture of alloys that create the easy-rusting properties of this strong, self-maintaining material (John Steel, 2019). This material combination is a predetermined application to promote decay over an extended timeline. The material transforms due to the alloys reacting to the exposure to outdoor elements such as rain and oxygen. The material transformation is an aesthetic finish, and the specified decay becomes the material’s protective layer. The layer of rust sets in on the surface of the material, creating a barrier between the elements that initially instigated the rust transformation and the metal layer below. This transformation method of decay over a longer period extends the spectrum of possible alternative precedents and material combinations to guide material surfaces over time.

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4.1

PRECEDENT STUDIES 4.1.4 Self-healing Concrete

4.1.5 Conclusion:

The manufacturing of self-healing concrete involves mixing additives into the concrete mix.

When cracks occur in the set concrete, the additive fibres or capsules break, releasing an adhesive liquid that heals the crack (Han, Yu and Ou, 2014, pp. 361–376). The material combination of the concrete, which is expected to crack, and the additives, are specified as a future precaution. This material opens the category of materials used for their specific attributes having well-known maintenance consequences. With this in mind, the material combination is implemented to guide the natural decay of the concrete and work with the progress of the material’s life cycle, not to abandon the material after the construction process. Similar precedents are found to work with a material planning for the material’s future performance, with a material combination that works with the decay of such material.

As seen in the precedents above, many professionals are comfortable specifying materials with guided decay. Some architects want to simulate decay to achieve its aesthetic, and at the same time, avoid the responsibility of confronting real decay. They apply these precedents to projects specifically to eliminate continuous intervention. Therefore, one relies on the ‘self’-healing and ‘self’-sustaining advertised in construction media. High gloss magazine covers lure designers in all trades, where these materials have become an industry obsession. The buildings are the models, and the material specifications are their haute couture.

Figure 15; SELF-HEALING CONCRETE, (CNN, 2015.)

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4.2

CONTEXT

4.2.2 Material context

4.2.1 Theoretical context Natural materials rot as they are touched, penetrated, or contaminated. However, buildings decay without use and maintenance. In A zed and two noughts, director Peter Greenaway’s (1985) film, the story follows Siamese twins who lose their wives in a car crash caused by a white swan. The twins are zoologists who become obsessed with death and decay after losing their wives. At the beginning of the film, Greenaway presents a time-lapse of a rotting, half-eaten apple that a character discards. He discards the apple due to a distraction, and at the same time, deals with his own decay caused by grief for his wife. This analogy initiates the thought that people associate decay with abandonment and therefore cause their own fear of rejection.

The idea of material is simple. Wood is a mass material with a grainy, warm appearance; plastic is mouldable and versatile. Banana peels are fibrous and have a leathery texture. Yet, when materials combine, a new level of complexity emerges, such as wood treated with a sealant, plastic aggregates added to asphalt (Macrebur, n.d.), or a banana peel combined with fibreglass resin. The materials delve into another, deeper dimension where the material properties are manipulated with heat, chemicals, and other substances.

Materials are cast into categories to determine their best applications, such as resinous, polymerous, and fibrous, among others. As these applications are transformed, the materials develop further and mostly remain in the same category. In Being & time, twentieth-century philosopher Martin Heidegger (1962) suggests that entities can only gain significance from their full context. A knife is not viewed in the same way in a kitchen as it would be perceived in the hand of a thief (Harman, 2009). The same is plausible with materials. A banana peel takes months to decompose if discarded, where a few weeks is enough to break down the material in a compost heap or landfill. If one guides the decay of discarded materials with their context, one can guide surface materials by the context one creates with a combining material.

This study looks at alternative applications of well-known materials outside their usual categories to explore new possibilities for everyday materials. This exploration led to the investigation of materials such as leather made from cactus leaves, and compostable clothing and shoe sole rubber made from corn. The idea of using natural materials as an alternative to synthetic materials ignites their use in unconventional applications to counteract the natural cycle of decomposition. This study suggests that there are applicable materials that have been overlooked.

Figure 16: The white swan, (Greenaway, 1985.)

Through Greenaway’s filmic portrayal of decay, the concept turns into an obsession in which the brothers to hold on to the idea of their deceased wives. One of the twins states that it is unthinkable for him that his wife is rotting at that moment. As their obsession grows and they can no longer satisfy their infatuation by documenting the decay of dead animals, the twins stage their own death. They are determined to guide and control their own death and document their own decay as a final experiment. They overlook the effect of death, as suicide removes their ability to present it in a controlled way. They become so obsessed with controlling decay that they forget that by removing their ability to intervene, they forfeit their ability to control the situation.

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Figure 17: Banana peel (Bicknell, 2020.)

Figure 18: Corn cob (Bicknell, 2020.)

BANANA PEEL

CORN COB

Decomposition:

Decomposition:

Compost heap 3 weeks Landfill 4 months

Compost heap 2 months Landfill 18 years 29

5.1

A LABORIOUS MACHINE Almost every person is familiar with domestic work, and when living in a home, it is presumably the building one knows best. Household life requires domestic work, whether the tenant performs the tasks between life events or the work is an outsourced activity done by a professional when an owner is not in the space. A room would be cleaned using a simple broom and dustpan to clean the floors or a time-consuming machine that requires much effort to operate. In this case, A laborious machine gulps up the dust and small objects are left like paper trails of lives lived in the room. Notably, this machine must be cleaned of the accumulated dust and dirt after every use.

Simple technology might be preferred to the complicated machine because it seems closer at hand. The dustpan method is straightforward as the broom and dustpan drive the movement; whereas the laborious machine has a much greater complexity with its various components and the infrastructure required to drive it. It seems farther at hand since the laborious machine steps in as an abstracting filter between the dust and the user. The answer as to which method is most appropriate depends on who the user is and their goal, leaning once again on Heidegger’s (Heidegger, 1962, pp. 71–77) suggestion in Being & time that an entity only gains significance when taken in its full context.

The goal is to clean the room of dust and dirt by someone who does this as often as they can or by a professional. Both cleaners aspire to achieve the goal, should that mean removing the majority of dust and dirt from the floor and then opening and cleaning a machine, instead of sweeping dust clouds around and attempting to capture as much as possible with a dustpan.

This broom and dustpan method is strictly forbidden for exhibitions, as the dust would settle on the artefacts, and a vacuum cleaner is the prescribed cleaning method. However, a broom and dustpan system replaces a vacuum cleaner in a place of healing, as the noise would be counterproductive to health. The context of the room overrules the user’s preference in specific situations.

Technology is discredited when it is inappropriate for the given context. If all the technology options are placed on the table for this context, the most appropriate option might not always be the least laborious.

The stated objective of technology is to make life easier. However, when technology is combined with the culture of instant gratification shaping mass culture in the twenty-first century (Takami, 2014), instant solutions are hastily mass-produced that have long-term consequences. When the term ‘single use’ is heard, it leads to conversations about plastic, a material developed during the 1860s. Some plastics have a lifespan of almost five centuries (Bio-Tec Environmental, 2019). This 160-year-old technological advancement has become so ubiquitous that doctors find micro-plastics in human embryos (Carrington, 2020). Phrases such as ‘non-stick’ and ‘waterproofing’ [technologies developed decades ago) are used in the same sentences as ‘cancer’ and ‘defects’ (Horton, 2021). The generation that used ‘non-stick’ is filled with disease and defects because the long-lasting consequences were overlooked. Design should be approached more carefully to understand that every detail specified could outlive designers by five centuries.

30

5.2

OUT OF SIGHT OUT OF MIND (You are only aware of your liver when it stops working.)

In Being and time, Graham Harman (2009, p. 21) reviews Heidegger’s famous tool analysis and suggests that tools are used with a purpose, such as hammers, screwdrivers, cutlery, brush, and pen. However, no tool can be completely self-sufficient and always forms part of a system. A hammer by itself is of limited use if it is not within a system that includes nails.

A notable phenomenon occurs when the system operates where some tools go unnoticed.

The hammer disappears from consciousness because it is now an extension of unconscious work. The focus is on the nail about to be hit with the hammer, not the hammer extending from the arm. This withdrawal of the hammer continues until a problem arises or until the hammer breaks.

In another analogy, Harman explains that one is only aware of one’s liver when it stops working. Previously, a person would have a simple life without noticing the inner workings of their bodily system. However, as soon as the liver stops performing as it should, one becomes painfully aware of its existence and that it is not doing what it is supposed to do.

An application of this concept in architectural terms would be that a user would rarely walk into a building and immediately pace across the room to inspect the walls for cracks or to feel their surface texture. The walls withdraw as part of a system one inhabits. If the wall texture were replaced with a render of cracking eggshells, a user would be more aware of the wall. This lack of awareness seems to be failing. This awareness is different from simply changing the colour of the wall, where the startling effect is short-lived because the wall still seems to function, disappearing again. The seemingly crumbling wall would radiate a physical barrier where its fragility begs for tenderness. Washing this wall of shells would seem too abrasive. Although the technical soundness of the wall is unchanged, a render like this alters the care required to approach it.

For centuries, architecture avoided attributes such as vulnerability and fragility since the main objective is to provide shelter, protection, and safety. The eggshell wall illustrates how adding fragility and vulnerability can shift the perception of decay.

31

6.

MATERIAL PROPOSALS

The following section of the study is an experimental investigation into how materials decay in pre-determined processes. These processes include drying; staining; chemically treating natural materials; accelerating their decay; and then preserving them by combining the natural materials with synthetic materials to preserve their emerging properties from further decay.

The study focuses on the following six material combinations where each combination has five variations to produce thirty alternative material combinations. The analysis will first introduce the materials in their own right before elaborating on their combinations and outcomes. The knowledge learnt from the first experiment applies to the next so that the experiments have an iterative relationship

6.1.CO-BRICK [Fig. 19]

6.5.METAL LEMON [Fig. 23]

6.6.MIFTERIAL [Fig. 24]

32

Figure: 22 bio-fibre (Bicknell, 2021.)

[Fig. 22]

04.

02.

05.

Figure: 21, Eggshell paint, (Bicknell, 2021.)

6.4.BIO-FIBER

01.

Figure: 24 Mifterial (Bicknell, 2021.)

[Fig. 21]

Figure: 23 Metal lemon (Bicknell, 2021.)

6.3.EGG SHELL PAINT

Figure: 19, Co-brick, (Bicknell, 2021.)

[Fig. 20]

Figure: 20, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.)

6.2.BANANA PANE

03.

06.

33

6.1.1

6.1.2

TECHNICAL REVIEW

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

CORN COB + PLASTER OF PARIS

6.1 CO-BRICK

Corncobs are the centre part of corn that one usually discard after removing the corn kernels for food. It has a cylindrical shape that tapers slightly at one end and consists of a solid core with a fibrous exterior layer. Due to the texture of corncobs, the material could have useful thermal and acoustic properties. Corncobs gathered as food waste would typically be collected in a domestic compost bin. After investigation, it was noted that the corncobs dry naturally within a week or accelerate the process by drying the corncobs in an oven at 200°C for 20 min.

Plaster of Paris was a common building material for many centuries. However, today’s more common use is as a casting material (Szostakowski, Smitham and Khan, 2017). Plaster of Paris is a mixture of calcium sulphate and water (2CaSO4.H2O). Manufacturers heat gypsum to 120°C for partial dehydration. When mixed with water, gypsum gives off heat and sets into a hard, porous mass within five to 15 minutes. As the mixture sets, it expands slightly in volume before hardening.

01.

02.

+ 34

Figure: 25, corn cob, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+ Figure: 26, Plaster, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

6.1.2.1 Corn corncob + plaster of Paris 6.1.2.2 Grated corncob + plaster of Paris 6.1.2.3 Loose chunks + dry clay

Dried Corn Cob

6.1.2.4 Loose chunks + wet clay

Plaster of Paris

6.1.2.5 Loose chunks + terracotta

Co-Brick

35

6.1.2.1

1.CORN COB + PLASTER OF PARIS

A flat tool is used to smooth the plaster material and mould and into intricate voids. These voids occur between the pores of the when arranged with multiple pieces of various corncob chunks next the plaster acts as a standout binding material that reaches these separate corncobs to each other in a controlled way.

The plaster paste acts as an intrusive paste to the material, finding every gap to fill it. These filled fibrous voids engage as minuscule claws holding the plaster paste in place to dry as an incorporated part of the corncob that forms an extension of the exterior surface. As the fibre claws hold on the one side of the plaster paste, the fibres of the chunk adjacent also cling onto the plaster and hold it to dry in place. The corncob pieces create miniature moulds in the shape of corncob fibres for the plaster to have a place on which to dry.

Now that the technical aspects of the corncobs are understood, they can be conceptualised as a brick that is used to build a wall. In this first attempt, chunks of corncob [Fig.27] will be used in combination with the plaster of Paris [Fig. 28] to make the Co-brick [Fig. 29]. The conceptual design for this brick is that the plaster is used to preserve the corncob in its semi-decayed state. In terms of composing the material combination for the brick for a typical wall construction, plaster adheres bricks together. In this case, the corncobs imitate the bricks, and the plaster keeps them together. The plaster halts the decay of the concealed corncobs, as exposed corncobs may still decay. Thus, the plaster guide the decay of the corncob.

01.

02.

+ Figure: 27, corn cob, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Dried Corn Cob

Plaster of Paris

Once the plaster sets in its organic moulds, the roles exchange. As soon as the plaster is bone dry, the plaster holds the bricks in place and maintains the shape of the Co-brick [Fig. 30].

Figure: 30, Co-brick, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

=

+ Figure: 28, Plaster, (Bicknell, 2021.)

manipulate the plaster paste corncob fibres and increase to one another. In this case, fibrous voids and mends the

Figure: 29, Co-brick, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Two corncobs were air-dried for seven days and cut into three pieces each. Twenty grams of plaster was mixed with 10ml of purified water. The corncob pieces were assembled in a soldier bond using the plaster between the corncob to keep them in place. A painting knife was used to coat the brick with excess plaster, and the Co-brick was left to set for 24 hours.

Co-Brick

36

37

6.1.2.2

2.GRATED COB + PLASTER OF PARIS

Grating the fibres and removing them from the corncob core maximises the pores for the plaster to penetrate. The loose fibres are also free to mix with the plaster instead of the plaster only reaching the available surface of the fibres attached to the corncob core. The fibres form an integral aggregate of the plaster paste mixture that transforms it into a moulding material with a rough, fibrous texture. [Fig. 33]

In the previous experiment, it was noted that the fibres of the corncob play a significant role because of the voids they create. The potential of the fibres as a material, separate from the corncob, leads to the design of the second Co-brick experiment. A sufficient amount of the fibres can be removed from the corncob using a kitchen grater. The corncob maintains its integrity during grating as its core is too hard for the grater and results in the fibre between the corncob and the corn pips being the only loose material.

01.

02.

+ Figure: 31, grated corn cob, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Grated Corn Cob

Plaster of Paris

The new detached form of the fibres changes the function of the fibre in relation to the plaster.

In the previous experiment, the fibres linked the plaster with the corncobs. Now, the individual fibres reinforce and strengthen the performance of the plaster, becoming the primary material.

The fibres transform from a surface agent between the plaster and the corncob into an internal, strengthening material that creates a fibrous texture throughout the plaster. The plaster is a joining material for the fibre to another surface, and as the fibre supports the plaster. The plaster also glues the texture to a secondary surface. [Fig. 34] Figure: 34, Cob texture, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

=

+ Figure: 32, Plaster, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 33, Corn texture, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Two corncobs were grated using a domestic kitchen grater to remove the fibres from the corncob cores.

This grating produced half a cup of fibres [Fig. 31].

Plaster (20g) [Fig. 32] was mixed with purified water (10ml). The grated corncob was added to the plaster mixture.

Grated cob-texture

38

39

6.1.2.3

3.LOOSE CHUNKS + DRY CLAY

The texture of the fibres is fragile and without a distinct surface when combined with the plaster.

These qualities make the fibre plaster a plausible additional coating material to the first experiment’s Co-brick. The fibre plaster would add texture, and the additional fibres would increase the strength with which the plaster sticks a corncob as a Velcro effect. This experiment now introduces a traditional brickmaking material to the Co-brick investigation to cover the corncobs better. Modelling clay [Fig. 36] was used as it is a workable and easily mouldable material. It also allows an air-drying method on the brick to keep the corncobs intact. Corn leaves are added to the material compound as a tensile aid. These leaves come from the natural state of the corn that acts as an exterior layer to cocoon the corn within the corncob.

01.

02.

03.

The clay acts as the combining material similar to how the corn connected the corncob to the exterior layer of leaves. The chunks of corncobs give the brick volume and create voids within the brick. Voids are filled with insulated cores. The hairy leaves interwoven between these functioning voids are less rigid and can flow with the clay as the kneaded method weaves a path. As the clay dries and tries to pull away from the voided corncobs, the leaves wrap a band around the clay to translate the tension from the clay to the strap of the leaf, keeping the clay in place around the loose piece of corncob.

As time lapses, the modelling clay dries inconsistently as the exterior of the 100x200mm brick interacts with more air than its interior. The differential drying results in hairline cracks that act as air vent lines to reach deeper into the brick. These cracks expand as the vents increase and create an internal ventilation system to dry the brick interior. These drying ducts cause movement that the corncob pieces brace against, and the leaves suspend by acting as cables across the expanding vents. The re-enforcement of the corncob works with the fibres of the leaves to allow the clay to contract in solid areas and expand away from itself to form cliffs [Fig. 38]

Figure: 38, Co-brick, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+ Figure: 35, corn cob, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Grated Corn Cob

Modeling clay

Clay drick

40

+ Figure: 36, caly, (Bicknell, 2021.)

= Figure: 37, Co-brick, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Air-dried corncobs dried completely over a month were cut into smaller irregular chunks [Fig. 35]. The corncobs were cut into four to six pieces each. Eight 250g packets of air-drying modelling clay were used with the pieces of five corncobs (of various sizes) to mould a 2kg air-dried brick. The clay was layered with the corncob pieces and corn leaves at 09:32 on 19 August and left to set at 10:03. The next morning at 08:43, the brick was manageable and could be removed from the brickmaker. The brick was air-dried further outside the brickmaker on 21 August between 16:36 and 19:23. The brick shrank as the air-drying process dehydrated the clay. The size reduction caused cavities to appear in the brick (especially where the clay was not kneaded enough)[Fig. 37].

41

6.1.2.4

4.LOOSE CHUNKS + WET CLAY AIR DRIED

The researcher used the same materials, adding water and using an alternative method to combine the materials and causing various effects. Water extends an elasticity to the clay to enhance its tensile quality. This clinging material glues itself to the cob pieces as one add them into the mixture. Because the mixture is not merely attaching itself but fusing with the cobs’ dry, rough, and porous texture, the clay is much less forgiving in terms of its own expansion.

Adding water and combining and kneading the materials as one large ball of clay creates a vastly firmer piece of material. The water acts as a catalyst to the clay and turns it into a smooth, coherent texture with no air cracks. The additional water lengthens the drying stage of the brick as the airtight outer barrier locks the moisture into the interior.

In the third Co-brick experiment, kneading the modelling clay [Fig. 40] eliminated unnecessary cracks. In the fourth Co-brick investigation, the researcher adds water before the moulding process. Adding water to the clay improves its workability and makes the clay easier to knead.

The increased moisture content removed the cracks present in the previous experiment.

01.

02.

With the moisture locked inside, the core of this brick does not interact with to contract. The brick edges stick to the side of the mould, and the brick out. The corncobs do not adhere to the clay, and the clay adheres to the brick loosens at the corncobs. Some of the clay sticks to the mould, and when opening the mould [Fig. 42]

air and is unable has to be forced mould. Thus, the some tears away

03.

Figure: 42, Co-brick, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+ Figure: 39, corn cob, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Grated Corn Cob

Modeling clay

Clay drick

42

+ Figure: 40, caly, (Bicknell, 2021.)

= Figure: 41, Co-brick, (Bicknell, 2021.)

A second clay brick was set using 10x250g packets of air-drying modelling clay. The clay was kneaded together, adding one packet of clay at a time until a large lump of clay was formed as one. During this process, corncob chunks [Fig. 39] were added, one at a time like the clay lumps, to be kneaded into the large lump to fuse the clay and the chunks thoroughly into one large lump. Small amounts of water (100ml in total) were added in increments to enhance the mixing of the separate clay lumps and make an elastic mixture that would cover and mend the corncob chunks more effectively. The wet clay brick [Fig. 41] was left in the brickmaker mould to air dry for three days at 15:23 on 20 August.

43

6.1.2.5

5.LOOSE CHUNKS + TERRACOTTA

The terracotta clay requires moisture to make the clay workable and shape it into a mould. The moisture acts as a lubricant in the brickmaker to help remove the brick smoothly immediately after casting its shape. The corncobs reinforce the brick and hold its shape when removing the soft brick so soon after its shaping process. The brick surfaces do not cling so completely to the mould since the airtight barriers have not formed yet. The corncobs adhere to the clay across their surface to ensure the brick does not separate as in the fourth experiment.

Air-drying clay complicated the use of the brick mould in the previous experiment. The final Co-brick experiment bears this in mind by removing the brick from the mould immediately after forming it. This experiment uses terracotta to avoid the cracks that result from modelling clay. Terracotta uses a different drying process that changes the Co-brick from an air-dried brick into a fired brick.

01.

02.

+ Figure: 43, corn cob, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Grated Corn Cob

Modeling clay

Clay drick

44

03.

+ Figure: 44, caly, (Bicknell, 2021.)

=

The heat from the fire dries the outside of the brick first to create a barrier that keeps the shape as the interior dries out. The heat penetrates the brick to create a new internal barrier, and the heat intensifies as it rebounds between the exterior and interior barriers. The heat continues to penetrate deeper into the core of the brick until it reaches a chunk of a corncob.

Although the terracotta clay protects the corncob pieces from the fire, the corncob pieces dry out rapidly in the heat. In the same way, as the clay shrinks from losing moisture, the corncobs also shrink. The shrinking corncobs create small voids into which the terracotta expands.

This synchronised contraction and expansion of the materials allow for a less abrupt change in material and fewer cracks to form. This controlled change keeps the brick intact, with the corncob chunks assisting the terracotta in adjusting to its slightly decreased size. In this experiment, the corncobs act in three ways to improve the clay. Firstly, the corncobs reinforce the structure of the clay. Secondly, the voids improve the brick’s thermal performance and decrease its weight. Thirdly, how the corncobs dry assists in stabilising the physical movement of the material [Fig. 46].

Figure: 46, Co-brick, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 45, Co-brick, (Bicknell, 2021.)

At 13:09 on 13 September, 2500g of terracotta clay [Fig. 44] was used to form a clump. This clump of clay was kneaded, and 30mm long chunks of corncobs [Fig. 43] were added periodically (and kneaded into the clump of clay). This process was repeated with the corncobs of seven corncobs until they were thoroughly mixed and bound with the terracotta clay. The entire clump was formed into a rough shape of a brick and placed in the brick mould.

After seeing gaps in the corners, 100g of clay was added to fill these vacant spaces. The brick mould was closed and pressed down to compact the brick as tightly as possible. The formed brick was removed from the brick mould at 13:41, immediately after the shape was set. The brick was taken to a Weber barbeque grill where a wood fire was made on two sides, and the brick was placed between the fires at 14:16. The fire was kept burning by adding stumps as required, with the lid of the Weber being removed every 20 min for inspection. The brick was removed from the fire at 16:07 [Fig. 45].

45

6.1 CO-BRICK

Figure: 47 -53, Co-brick, (Bicknell, 2021.)

46

47

6.2

6.2.2

TECHNICAL REVIEW

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

6.2.1 BANANA PEEL + FIBREGLASS RESIN Banana peels have flexible skin with a fibrous interior layer [Fig. 54]. Their intricate porous structure could add to the thermal and insulation attributes of the material. The peels are readily available as a by-product to collect from a domestic compost bin. A solid peel is thick and bulky yet remains flexible, providing the material with strength and movability. To naturally dry the peel takes about two weeks. Roughly 60 min in the oven at 200°C can accelerate the drying process. These dried peels have a flaking texture and can be crumbled and broken easily into smaller fibres. Therefore, the desired mixture can be attained by manipulating the fibres. The fibres of the peels lead to the material combination with fibreglass resin, where the peels would replace the fibreglass.

1 2

Banana peel

6.2.2 BANANA PANE

Fiber glass resin

6.2.2.1 Slab: Whole peels + resin

01.

6.2.2.2

+

Figure: 54, Banana peel, (Bicknell, 2021.)

The earliest accounted use of resin dates back to ancient Greece (Gannon, 1986). Synthetic epoxy resins became commercially available in 1946, and now a wide variety of industries use them. Resin is a substance that sets and eventually dries into a plastic material that one generally uses as fibreglass [Fig. 55].

Due to the material being in liquid form, it can be poured into a mould and set in the desired shape. In order to accelerate the setting period, add a catalyst to the liquid beforehand (East Coast Fibreglass, n.d.). Synthetic resin is used as a combining material to coat the natural banana peels. It can act as a guide to delay the natural decay of the peel. The peel would replace the glass fibres in fibreglass resin as a material combination.

48

02.

Pane: Dried fibres + resin

6.2.2.3 Pane: assembled fibres + resin 6.2.2.4 Pane: Woven texture 6.2.2.5 Slab Combo: Peel & fibres + resin

+

Figure: 55, Banana peel, (Bicknell, 2021.)

49

6.2.2.1

1.SLAB: WHOLE PEELS + RESIN

Maintaining the banana peels’ moisture and shape provides additional and well-distributed support to the resin, creating the opportunity to set the resin as a slab instead of a pane. The thick yet hollow nature of the peels allows the resin to coat it freely. In addition, the slab thickness provides an area for the peels to curl and twist in all directions into organic shapes to fill the resinous space.

The curls of peels set in these organic movements as the resin begin to dry [Fig. 59]. Under a magnifying glass, the peels seem to act as larger pieces of fibre in a thicker large-scale part of the resin slab. The peels add elasticity to the rigid resin by extending its internal support and reinforcement by acting as fibre. The resin borrows this extended movement from the peels and preserves the natural, undried material. This material combination output is tension between the materials.

The first experiment sets whole, wet banana peels into a slab of resin to guide the decay of natural banana peels. The resin should be thick enough to coat the banana peels and trap the natural moisture of the banana peels so that they cannot decay

02.

01.

Figure: 56, Banana peel, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Banana peel

Fiber glass resin

Banana Resin slab

50

03.

+

+

Figure: 57, resin, (Bicknell. 2021.)

Figure: 59, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.)

= Figure: 58, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Whole banana peels of three bananas [Fig. 56] were set in 350ml of fibreglass resin [Fig. 57]. The peels were wet and used after 24h of being removed from the bananas.

The peels were kept whole, and none of the wet flesh was removed. The large peels and large peel gaps made a thick slab of resin. The slab was set on 11 July 2020 at 11:25 and was manageable on 13 July at 14:33 [Fig. 58].

51

6.2.2.2

2.PANE: DRIED FIBRES + RESIN

Dehydrating the peels reduces their material volume and opens a thinner resin pane potential.

In addition, dehydration changes the texture of the peels into dried leaf-like fibres for breaking down and refining into smaller flakes. The dry flakes relax when mixed into the synthetic resin, but the fibres curl slightly for the resin to envelop it as the resin sets.

In the previous experiment, using whole banana peels required a thicker slab of resin to encase the peels entirely. To create a thinner pane of resin would depend on smaller and thinner fibres similar to the glass fibres used in commercial fibreglass resin production. The need for smaller particles of banana peel dehydrates the peels. The internal flesh is removed from the peel to improve the dried fibres. Then the peels are dried in a domestic oven to accelerate the drying process.

02.

01.

+ Figure: 60, Dried peels, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Dried Banana peel

Fibre glass resin

Banana resin pane

52

The relaxation of the leaf-like fibres is temporary, after which they act as the tension holders for the resin during solidification. Once the resin sets, the fibres rely on the strength and solidity of their once-liquid resting place [Fig. 63].

Figure: 63, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

+ Figure: 61, Resin, (Bicknell, 2021.)

= Figure: 62, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Banana peels of three bananas were scraped clean of wet flesh to leave only the outer parts of the peels. These ‘cleaned’ peels were oven-dried at 200 °C for 60 min.

The peels were completely dehydrated and blackened [Fig. 60]. These flaky fibres were set on 15 July with 150ml of resin [Fig. 61] to create a glass-like fibre resin pane [Fig.62].

53

6.2.2.3

3.PANE:ASSEMBLED FIBRES + RESIN Visibility is an issue that surfaces when studying the loose banana pieces in the resin pane. The previous experiment introduced the idea that viewers’ visibility can be manipulated with the fibres in the pane. The fibres must be assembled to be effective, placing more in one area and fewer in another. Dried banana peel fibres are difficult to assemble. Therefore, the banana tree trunk replaces the peels. The trunk consists of large leaf-like layers with long strands easily torn from the trunk.

The third investigation assembles tree trunk fibres into a resin pane to guide viewers’ gazes.

01.

02.

1 2 3 4

Dried Banana tree fibres

Fibre string art

+

Figure: 63, Dried trunk, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 64, Assembled peels, (Bicknell, 2021.) ,

03.

+

54

+

Figure: 65, Resin, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Fibre glass resin

04.

= Figure: 66, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.)

The wet and flexible string was tied around a starting nail and woven as many times as possible around the arrangement of nails [Fig. 64]. This process was repeated from 11:33 to 11:56. Three litres of resin [Fig. 65] were added to the mould. However, the mould broke, and the resin only covered the assembled fibres and was not set in a pane. After the excess resin was drained and the fibres dried, the fibres were cut loose from the nails.

The set assembled fibre-web was placed in a 30x45mm plastic box, and one litre of resin was poured over the trunk fibres kept in place by the previous coat of resin. The assembled fibres were left to set at 17:10 on 23 August [Fig. 66].

The frame and nails initially keep the fibres in place until the resin covers them and sets enough to keep the fibres in place. The resin acts as a controlling agent against the further decay of the rapidly drying tree trunk fibres and thereby suspends the strings not only in space and time.

The resin was not set as one large pane to create separate fragments of resin panes. The strings run through multiple pieces of fibreglass resin, connecting the system as one. As the resin suspends the strings, the strings counter-suspend the loose resin pane pieces to connect them into one, larger pane.

Initially, the resin acts as the anchor to the fibre strings and establishes the position they will fill within the pane. As the resin sets, it relies on the fibre strings for enforcement. In this overlapping moment, the fibres still depend on the resin, using the strings as its guide.

As the resin dries, the strings are both suspended and are the suspension for the pane.

Figure: 67, Banana pane, Figure: 68, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.) (Bicknell, 2021.)

Banana resin pane

A chipboard frame of 600mmx300mmx50mm was assembled with screws. Nails were added to the inside perimeter of the frame and bent inward to act as hooks. On 19 August, the outer leaf of a banana tree trunk was removed. The wet fibre of the trunk was split at the edge to create a string-like fibre and pulled loose to create a tree string [Fig. 63].

55

6.2.2.4

4.PANE: WOVEN TEXTURE

a knot and crisscrossed [Fig. 70] over the parallel edge of the frame. This process was repeated to fill the length of the frame with crisscrossed fibres. The frame was placed in a plastic mould, and one litre of resin [Fig.71] with 20ml of catalyst was pre-mixed and poured over the suspended fibres and into the mould [Fig. 72]. The frame was left to set in the resin mixture at 13:03.

With the knowledge of the previous experiment, where the ability of the assembled fibres was noted to suspend the resin pieces, this investigation expands the support that the fibre strips provide. This experiment designs similar strips of banana tree trunk into a woven texture. The woven texture provides a calculated network of support to the resin. This network allows the resin to remain as one pane even if it cracks [Fig. 72].

The woven crisscross network of the tree trunk fibres creates a triangulated scaffolding for the resin as it sets. As the resin sets into the triangular shapes, it encapsulates the fibres and allows the tension to release into them. The triangulated network and the triangular shapes of the set resin enhance the individual materials’ structural integrity as the two materials work in structural harmony.

A 200mmx35mm wooden frame was used to suspend banana tree trunk fibres [Fig. 69] on 14 September. At 11:05, a wet banana-tree-trunk leaf was stripped into thin fibres.

These fibres ranged from 200mm to 400mm strips depending on how the fibres tore from the trunk.

These strips were tied on one end of the frame with

The dried resin replaces the tension to keep the woven fibres around the frame in place.

The resin embeds the frame as part of the pane. The pane must be intentionally broken to release the frame. The dismantling of the frame results in the pane cracking in weak areas and breaking in the vulnerable thin areas [Fig. 73].

02.

01.

+

Figure: 69, Dried trunk, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

+

The resin depends on the internal reinforcement to prevent the pane from cracking further and bridges the gaps between the now separate pane pieces. As the cracks split the dried resin, the crisscross fibres structure reconnects the materials to prevent further separation. As the resin holds the fibres in place, the fibres pull the resin pane pieces into one material. separation. As the resin holds the fibres in place, the fibres pull the resin pane pieces into one material [Fig. 74]

Figure: 70, Assembled peels, (Bicknell, 2021.)

04.

1 2 3 =4

Dried Banana tree fibres

Fibre string weave

+ Figure: 71, Resin, (Bicknell, 2021.)

56

Fibre glass resin

Banana resin pane

Figure: 72, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 73, Banana pane, Figure: 74, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.) (Bicknell, 2021.)

57

6.2.2.5

5.SLAB COMBO: PEEL & FIBRES + RESIN

In the previous experiment, the researcher noted the fibre size, shape, and placement impact on the woven texture. In this final investigation into the banana pane, a combination of wet peels and dried peel fibres set into a resin pane. With the pilot study as a reference, where whole banana peels were used, this experiment uses whole peels (air-dried for three days) to create a potentially thinner pane than the thick slab in the pilot study

02.

01.

+

Figure: 75, Banana peels, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

+

On 21 June, the banana peels of five bananas were scattered on a baking tray and oven-dried for 60mins at 200 °C. These dried fibres were left to air dry further until 22 August. Wet banana peels removed from the bananas between 17 August and 20 August were collected and air-dried until 22 August.

The oven-dried fibres [Fig. 76]

were mixed with the wet peels [Fig. 75] and set in 150ml of resin [Fig.77] at 17:31 on 22 August [Fig. 78] The combination of wet and dry fibres introduces variable reinforcement to the fibreglass replacement. As solid pieces, the wet peels provide elasticity and flexibility as in the first experiment, and the dried peel fibres provide tension reinforcement, as noted in the second experiment [Fig. 79] As the resin sets and transforms from liquid to a jelly-like material, the resin keeps the peels and fibres in place, as with the previous experiments. The advantage of using wet and dry peels come into play during the resin’s drying stage. With the final experiment, the dried fibres place the resin pane in tension, and the whole wet peels give it elasticity. An alternative balance is created within the pane with the alternative peel forms on either side of the resin balance. The pane is thinner, containing less-whole wet peels, and the tension is spread evenly with the help of the dried fibres between the wet peels [Fig. 80] Figure: 79, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 80, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 76, dried peels, (Bicknell, 2021)

04.

1 2 3 =4

Wet banana peels

Dried Banana peel fibres

+

Figure: 77, Resin,

58

(Bicknell, 2021.)

Fibre glass resin

Figure: 78, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Banana peel resin pane

59

6.3 BANANA PANE

Figure: 81-91, Banana pane, (Bicknell, 2021.)

60

61

6.3.1

6.3.2

TECHNICAL REVIEW

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

EGG SHELL + POLY URETHANE

An eggshell is made almost entirely of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) crystals. A semipermeable membrane allows air and moisture to pass through its pores (Exploratorium, n.d.).

The crystals have a nano-granular structure that afford their strength and brittleness to the eggshells. The shells are strong on the outside to protect the chick from the elements, yet from the inside, it is brittle enough for the chick to break through when hatching (Athanasiadou et al., 2018, p. 97).

Eggshells are a common biodegradable material in compost heaps, from where the researcher sourced the eggshells for the following experiments. Eggshells [Fig. 92] are used in these experiments due to their textural potential and balance between strength and the ability to crack the shells by hand into various sizes.

Polyurethanes (PU) are linear polymers that have a molecular backbone containing carbamate groups (-NHCO2) (Oertel, 1993). Manufacturers produce urethane groups through a chemical reaction between a diisocyanate and a polyol. First developed in the late 1930s, polyurethanes are some of the most versatile polymers. These linear polymers form similar synthetic nanocomposites to eggshells (Madaleno et al., 2013, pp. 1–7). The researcher selected polyurethane [Fig. 93] to combine to eggshells due to the similar nanostructure.

This combination of nanostructures creates a strong composite material where the PU acts as the glueing agent for the shell pieces. The PU would be the structural and formal guide to the shell’s decay and the overall material decay.

01.

02.

1 2

6.3 EGG SHELL PAINT 6.3.2.1 Broken shells + paint

6.3.2.2 Loose shells + plaster

6.3.2.3 Pre-broken shells & glue

6.3.2.4 Patterns &

plaster

Clean egg shells

+ Figure: 92, Eggshells, (Bicknell, 2021.)

62

+

Pollyethylene paint

6.3.2.5 Layers of shells + glue

Figure: 93, PU paint, (Bicknell, 2021.)

63

6.3.2.1 A base coat prepares the concrete surface for applying the textured paint, and the wet PU paint also acts as a temporary glue to the broken eggshells. The PU base coat temporarily holds the shells in place before more liquid can be poured over the shell texture. Without the base coat acting as an initial glue, the shells move when pouring another layer of PU paint over the pieces of shells. This movement results in an uneven spread of shells that complicates the control of the shells.

1. BROKEN SHELLS + (PU)PAINT From the technical review, the design of the first experiment can be done as a simple combination of the eggshells and PU in the form of a polyurethane-based paint. PU paint has effortless usability when applied to a surface and when mixed with pieces of broken eggshells.

The paint presents versatility as a base material for painting over a surface, pouring over a texture, or creating a premix with the shells. When the PU paint is wet, it effectively coats the surface of the shells. Once the paint dries, it creates a glove-like layer that adapts to the shell’s texture.

01.

02.

03.

The base coat of paint and the scattered shells create a temporary texture. Pour another layer of paint directly over the textured surface to create a more permanent finish. The PU structure already acts as a glue that helps to remove the thick liquid from the container to the textured surface below. The paint moves over and between the voided spaces left over from the cracked pieces of eggshells. Due to the plasticity of the paint, it moves into the voids to coat the shells all around and sets from below and from above without displacing the eggshells.

After the setting period, the PU paint dries, transitioning from liquid gel to a plastic base layer. The drying stage happens due to the paint’s exposure to dry air and without acceleration.

This process allows the paint to transform the material from liquid to plastic and become a protective barrier for the shelled texture. The paint takes on the texture of the shells and dries to the forms and shapes determined by the shell pieces. The paint layer creates the exterior nanostructure barrier for the internal nanostructure of strength, as investigated in the technical review of the eggshells [Fig. 97] This material combination output iselasticity & brittleness.

Figure: 97, Eggshell paint, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+

Figure: 94, Eggshells, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Clean egg shells

Pollyethylene paint

+

Figure: 95, PU paint, (Bicknell, 2021.)

=

Figure: 96, Eggshell paint, (Bicknell, 2021.)

A concrete square was painted with polyurethane paint on 22 June at 09:33. The eggshells of seven eggs [Fig. 94] were broken over the layer of paint [Fig. 95] and scattered over the entire surface of the block. A layer of paint was then distributed over the layer of eggshells and distributed with a paintbrush to cover all of the broken shells. The slab was left to dry until 08:52 on 23 June [Fig. 96]

Egg shell paint texture

64

65

6.3.2.2

2.LOOSE SHELLS + PLASTER

When water is mixed into the plaster of Paris, it creates a paste-like consistency that allows the eggshells to combine easily into the mix. The eggshells act simultaneously as aggregates for structural reinforcement and as a texture to enhance the aesthetics of the material. The porous surface structure of the shells allows the plaster to enter the embedded texture and form a strong fusion between the materials.

The curves of the shells cup the plaster as it sets. These curves create the visual texture that is an initial design goal, and the shards of shells improve the internal strength of the plaster. The shells act as a scaffold to position the plaster as it dries, after which the plaster encases the eggshells to keep them in place.

The notable texture that the eggshells created in the first experiment led to further investigations into eggshells’ textural possibilities. Typically, plaster is used to layer between a concrete-like surface and paint. In this experiment, the initial paint layer will be replaced with plaster as a glueing agent for the eggshells. The plaster of Paris is combined with pieces of eggshell to create a premixed material (eggshell plaster) that is applied to a concrete-like surface as one layer. This eggshell plaster embeds the eggshell texture into the material layer to create a one-coat application.

01.

02.

+

Figure: 101, Eggshelltexture, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

+

=

Figure: 98, Eggshells, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 99, Plaster, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

The shells of five eggs [Fig. 98] were washed, dried, and pre-broken on 27 July. The prepared shells were mixed with 50g of plaster of Paris [Fig. 99] and 100ml of water and mixed thoroughly before being poured into a rectangular container with a paint knife. The surface was smoothed using the painting knife, leaving the visible shells to form a texture already notable at 11:22. The plaster set and was removed from the container on 29 July at 13:37 [Fig. 100].

Clean egg shells

Plaster of Paris

Egg shell plaster texture

66

Plaster of Paris is a combination of materials where calcium is the primary ingredient, as discussed in the Co-brick technical review. Similarly to how the PU paint shares the nanostructure of the eggshells, plaster of Paris and eggshells share calcium as a mutual component.

Once again, the combination of plaster and shells calcium doubles the shared strengths of the individual materials. The eggshells reinforce the internal structure of the plaster as aggregates without a discernible surface, as seen in the image below [Fig. 101]. Although the plaster broke, the shells support the plaster pallet to keep it intact.

Figure: 100, Eggshell texture, (Bicknell, 2021.)

67

6.3.2.3

3.PRE-BROKEN SHELLS + GLUE

The wood glue and the eggshell mixture sets and dries as one component. The glue envelops the shells and fuses the shells. This enveloping allows the PU to create layers within itself, which is different from the pilot eggshell investigation, where the paint only moved around the pre-glued shells and not between the shells and PU [Figure 105].

As the glue dries, it becomes transparent and recovers the multiple visual layers of the broken eggshells, forming one cohesive material that is easy to remove from the mould. The polyurethane wraps the shells and protects their texture with an almost invisible layer, and in turn the shells protect and guide the shape of the glue.

In this third eggshell experiment, the fragility of the plaster is addressed. Cold wood glue replaces the plaster since it is more flexible when dry. As a PU-derivative material, it would have similar contributing properties to the texture of the eggshells. The glue would cover and protect the eggshells from further decay while providing flexibility to the composite material.

01.

02.

+

03.

+

=

Figure: 102, Eggshells, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 103, Glue, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Eggshells of five eggs [Fig. 102] were washed and dried on 18 August. These pre-broken shells were mixed with cold glue [Fig. 103] before being poured into a square mould, pressed flat with a paint knife, and left to set at 13:36 [Fig.106, far right]. The top layer set within 24h and after being turned upside-down, the bottom layer set after air-drying completely by 21 August [Fig. 104]

Clean egg shells

Cold glue

Figure: 105, Eggshelltexture, Figure: 106, Eggshelltexture, (Bicknell, 2021.) (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 104, Eggshell texture, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Egg shell glue texture

68

69

6.3.2.4 A rougher texture is created by mixing the plaster of Paris before adding the shells after some shells are left uncovered. The shells that incorporate into the mixture add to the plaster volume as the shells support more plaster layers. The plaster is thinner in places with no shells and has a smoother texture.

4.PATTERNS + PLASTER

The support of the shells deep in the plaster paste supports it as it sets and dries. The shells are easy to remove while the plaster is still in a paste form, but as the plaster dries, it binds the piece of shell inside it.

The workability of the shells in the slow-setting wood glue mixture of the previous experiment introduces the idea that patterns can be created with the shells. In this experiment, a firmer mixing material is used plaster of Paris to arrange the design of the eggshells within the plaster while it still has a paste-like consistency. The plaster is soft enough to move and arrange the shells yet is firm enough to hold the patterned pieces of shell in place.

01.

02.

+

Figure: 106, Eggshells, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 109, Eggshelltexture, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

+

Figure: 107, Plaster, (Bicknell, 2021.)

A higher concentration of shell pieces increases the volume of the plaster and maximises the texture. This intertwined mix of plaster and shell builds a hill when dragged together. The shape of the shells enhances this effect by cupping the plaster as it moves towards the concentrated shells [Fig. 109].

=

Figure: 108, Eggshell pattern, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

On 9 September, the eggshells of three eggs [Fig. 106] were washed and dried. The dried shells were crushed by Clean egg shells hand and set aside. Only 10ml of water mixed with 20g of plaster of Paris [Fig. 107] creates a paste-like mixture. The plaster paste was placed on a textured ceramic tile with a Plaster of Paris paint knife, and the dried shells were arranged into a pattern on the plaster paste. The shells were moved around to create areas with more shells and other areas with fewer shells.

Egg shell plaster texture This process created a texture with the shells guided in the plaster. The shell and plastered texture were left to set and were dry within 24 hours [Fig. 108].

70

71

6.3.2.5

5.LAYERS OF SHELLS + GLUE

The glue is the first guide of the experiment as its spread pre-determines the shape.

The glue’s viscosity and PU attributes maintain its shape and pattern before scattering the eggshells over it. As the glue fixes itself to the surface of the eggshells, it becomes part of the eggshell pattern and texture.

The setting process of the glue permanently fixes the shells firmly in place. However, the initial layer of glue creates the pattern and combines the materials, similar to the first layer of PU paint in the pilot experiment. Their decay is yet to be guided.

In the fourth experiment, the focus is placed on patternmaking with the eggshells. This final experiment uses cold wood glue to mix and arrange the eggshells into a layered pattern. The glue is used as a glueing agent to position the eggshells and as a thick liquid to pour onto the surface in the desired shape. The resulting pattern comes from the shape of the poured glue and the texture and structure of the shells.

01.

02.

+

Figure: 110, Eggshells, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Clean egg shells

Cold glue

Egg shell glue texture

72

A final layer of glue is poured over the shells employing the same method as in the initial investigation. This layer covers the exposed pattern of eggshells, runs between the shell shards and meets the dried glue to form a final, protective layer of PU over the texture [Fig. 113] Figure: 113, Eggshelltexture, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

+

Figure: 111, Plaster, (Bicknell, 2021.)

=

Figure: 112, Eggshell pattern, (Bicknell, 2021.)

On 9 September, the eggshells of three eggs [Fig. 110] were washed, dried, and crushed by hand. Only 5ml of cold glue [Fig. 111] was spread onto a ceramic tile in a pattern determined by the tube opening of the glue bottle. The crushed shells were scattered over the glued pattern and shaken to ensure the shells would optimally stick to the glue layer. The tile was turned upside-down to remove the remaining loose shells, leaving the glue pattern layer covered with shells. The shell and glue layered texture was left to dry for 24 hours [Fig. 112]. The glue was poured directly from the bottle using the elongated tube as a guide.

73

6.3 EGG SHELL PAINT Figure: 114-120, Eggshell paint/texture/patterns, (Bicknell, 2021.)

74

75

6.4.1

6.4.2

TECHNICAL REVIEW

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

BIO PLASTIC + OAT FIBRES

1 2

A bioplastic [Fig. 121] is plastic made from plant starches, gelatines, or agars. Bioplastics pollute less since they do not derive from petroleum (WikiHow, 2018). In Material Pops, Meredith Miller (2018) creates temporary installations from bioplastics made and moulded on-site. This study’s series of experiments will use gelatine-based bioplastics made from gelatine and glycerol. This section makes a distinction between bioplastics as the ingredients and hyphenated bioplastics resulting from a combination with natural materials.

01.

02.

+ Figure: 121, Bioplastic, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+ bio plastic

+ bio plastic

+ Figure: 122, Oat fibres, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Oat fibres [Fig. 122] are used in the following experiments for their intriguing texture and the elastic residue from cooking or blending when making oat milk. After straining the oat milk, the oat fibres are collected instead of discarded as residue into a compost bin. The slimy coating on the fibres is used to strengthen the biodegradable plastic. The material combination enhances each individual material where the bioplastic gives form to the oat fibres. In turn, the oat fibres add a texture and tensile strength to the bioplastic.

76

6.4.2.1 Moist Oat Fibres

6.4.2.2 Dried Fibres

Bioplastic

Oat fibres

6.4 BIO-FIBER

6.4.2.3 Arranged Fibres + bio

plastic

6.4.2.4 Layered Fibres + bio plastic 6.4.2.5 Mixed dried Fibres + bio plastic

77

6.4.2.1

1.MOIST OAT FIBERS + BIOPLASTIC

The oat fibres mix effortlessly into the plastic batter since the bioplastic is still a viscous liquid.

This liquid plastic ensures that the plastic generously coats the fibres and allows the fibres to distribute gradually throughout the mixture.

As the whisk rotates the mixture, the plastic sets slowly and the mixture becomes sticky. The plastic now sticks to the fibres and is a bridging material between fibres to keep them intact.

After glueing itself and the oat fibres together, the plastic keeps the fibres in the shape of the mould. The plastic makes the fibres adaptable as it fills the voids between the mould and the solid pieces of oats.

The setting plastic dries and preserves the oat fibres as natural aggregates. The air-dried fibres still contain some moisture. Although the plastic encases this moisture, it will still develop a fungal mould. The plastic extends when it sets into the mould and will react in an opposite way when the internal, fungal mould grows. The fungal mould devours the bioplastic as soon as it escapes the bioplastic layer surrounding it [Fig. 127]. This material combination output is a shared brittleness and elasticity that work together.

The pilot study for the bioplastic investigates a material combination of gelatine-based and moist oat fibres, undried after straining the milk from oat fibres. The experiment first makes the plastic and then adds the fibres before setting the bioplastic.

01.

03.

02.

04.

Figure: 127, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+

=

Figure: 123, Glyc- Figure: 124, Gela- Figure: 125, erol, tine, Oat fibres, (Bicknell, 2021.) (Bicknell, 2021.) (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 126, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+ 1 2 3 4

+

Glycerine

Gelatin

Dried oat fibres

pane

78

The bioplastic was made using 120ml of hot water, 1tsp of glycerol [Fig. 123], 20g of gelatine powder [Fig. 124], and one drop of food colouring combined with a whisk. The researcher mixed 25g grams of fibre [Fig. 125] into the plastic as aggregates and left the mixture to set at 18:57 on 20 June. The material set and formed a rubber-like substance by 20:22. The bio-fibre was a hard, plastic material [Fig. 126] within two days.

Bio-Fibre plastic

79

6.4.2.2

2.OVEN DRIED FIBERS + BIO PLASTIC

The oven-dried fibres have a courser texture and are smaller due to their dehydration. The dry fibres lose their previously useful flexibility and softness. The course fibres are more intricate and allow the plastic liquid to fill the larger cavities better. Because the fi-bres do not have enough moisture to stick together in clumps, they rely on plastic to provide structure.

The fibres no longer contain the threat of fungal mould as the dehydration in the oven removes all moisture. However, the result is that the fibres accept a new, permanent shape. The plastic moves into the well-defined voids between the dehydrated fibres and is more elastic as it sets before it dries.

In the previous experiment, the researcher noted that the air-dried oat fibres still contained some moisture that jeopardised the longevity of the materials by encouraging fungal growth. The second experiment continues the bio-fibre investigation by substituting the moist oat fibres with oven-dried oat fibres. Oven drying is an accelerated and more intense method that dehydrates the oat fibres completely while remaining fibrous as a natural material. The designed experiment transforms the fibres as a material and thus alters its overall performance.

01.

03.

02.

+

+

The drying plastic slowly shrinks from the miniature caves it entered in liquid form. As the plastic transforms from a set jelly to a solid plastic, it pulls the rigid fibres inward as it shrinks. Therefore, the plastic supports the fibres to oblige this transitioning act [Fig. 132]

Figure: 132, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

04.

+

Figure: 128, Glycerol, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 129, Gelatine, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3 4

The bioplastic was made using the same amounts as in the previous experiment [Fig. 128-9]. This experiment was conducted with oat milk fibres [Fig. 130] that dried in the oven between 09:50 and 10:30 at 200°C on 11 August. The fibres created a connected web as they dried immediately after separating the fibres from the oat milk. The researcher assumed that the liquid and glue-like properties of the milk mixture results in the fibres sticking to one another and creating a coral-like structure. Fifty millilitres of bioplastic was poured over the oat-coral and coated the oats to strengthen the structure at 10:47. The bioplastic [Fig. 131] was dry and manageable by 13 August.

Glycerine

Gelatin

Dried oat fibres

Figure: 130, Oat fibres, (Bicknell, 2021.)

=

Figure: 131, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Oat fibre coral

80

81

6.4.2.3

3.ARRANGED FIRBERS + BIO PLASTIC The third hydrating assemble rigid and

With the experience gained from the banana peel investigation, individual fibres were added to the liquid plastic after pouring the plastic into a mould to control the positioning of the fibres.

After a minute, the plastic becomes gel-like in the mould, creating a base for the fibres to sink into and submerge vertically into the plastic layer.

As the plastic sets, its grip around each fibre increases, and it winds around them from below to support the assembled structure. Where the fibres concentrate, they form mounds and towers that submerge some oat fibres entirely below the layer of plastic. After this setting stage, the plastic dries to settle the fibres permanently in place.

This dried layer of plastic allows a final protective layer to be poured over the bioplastic without disrupting the exposed assembled fibres. The upper plastic layer is warm and fuses with the bottom layer using this heat to relax the dried plastic temporarily. The upper plastic layer fills the surface voids between the oat fibres and dried plastic to create an inverse grip that further secures the layers. The fused layers embed the fibres and protect them on both sides [Fig. 137].

bio-fibre experiment doubles the drying method by air-drying the oat fibres before dethem completely in an oven. This double drying method dries the fibres separately to the fibres individually in the first drying stage. The second drying stage makes the fibres course.

01.

03.

02.

04.

Figure: 137, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+

+

+

Figure: 133, Glycerol, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 134, Gelatine, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3 4

One cup of oat fibre [Fig. 135] was made with the milk strained from the fibres with cheesecloth on 16 August at 09:41. These moist fibres were spread out on a baking tray and left to air dry until 17 August.

Between 10:50 and 11:34, the air-dried fibres were oven-dried at 200 °C. These double-dried fibres were added to 120ml of bioplastic [Fig. 133-4] by arranging the fibres to be dense in some areas and completely absent in other areas. These arranged fibres were left to set until 12:43 on the same day. A top layer of 60ml of bioplastic was made and added over the set fibres to cover the exposed fibres at 20:11.

The entire bio-fibre mixture [Fig. 136] was set by 13:42 on 18 August and removed after drying completely on 23 August at 16:24.

Glycerine

Gelatin

2x Dried oat fibres

Figure: 135, Oat fibres, (Bicknell, 2021.)

= Figure: 136, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Dried oat fibres

82

83

6.4.2.4

4.LAYERED FIBERS + BIO PLASTIC + FIBERS

As with the previous experiment, the layers developed on top of one another and with one another to encase the fibre layers within. The first layer determines the shape by accepting the parameters of the mould and establishes how the fibres settle. As in the third experiment, the second layer coats the fibres and keeps the fibres in place [Fig. 142].

For the third layer, the process alters since the previous two layers shrank away from the mould to create a cliff-like cavity. The third layer spills over the edges of the double-layered plastic and seeps in below them to entomb them all around. The textured surface of the second layer’s fibres keeps some of the liquid on top.

The previous experiment introduced the possibility of layering the oat fibres and bioplastic. This experiment investigates assembling multiple layers of fibres and bioplastic. These layers act as parts in a system where each builds on the next. Various pigmentation is used to distinguish clearly between the layers for documentation purposes.

01.

+

+

Figure: 138, Glycerol, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 139, Gelatine, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3 4

Glycerine

Gelatin

Dried oat fibres

Dried oat fibres

84

03.

02.

04.

+ Figure: 140, Oat fibres, (Bicknell, 2021.)

The layers are now set from above and below, creating a wrap-around of the first two layers.

The layers build on top of and around each other into three-dimensional layers, where every new layer continues the previous and becomes part of the next [Fig. 143].

Figure: 142, Biofibre, Figure: 143, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.) (Bicknell, 2021.)

= Figure: 141, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

On 20 June at 20:22, 20g of oven-dried fibres [Fig. 140] were mixed with 60ml of bioplastic [Fig. 138-9] and red pigment and set by 22 June. By 17 August, the red bioplastic had shrunk by 15mm on all four edges. Then, 60ml of translucent bioplastic was poured over the red bioplastic at 12:40. The heat of the translucent plastic softened the red bioplastic. The researcher pressed the translucent plastic down with her fingers to flatten the red layer to stick to and fuse to the new translucent layer. On 18 August at 12:15, the translucent layer was set, and another translucent layer was poured over the previous layers, with 20g of oven-dried oats added. This layer was set by 13:41, and a last translucent layer was added on 18 August at 20:11. The layers were set in the mould’s shape and as one bioplastic piece with multiple internal layers. The researcher removed the bioplastic [Fig. 139] from the mould on 25 August.

85

6.4.2.5

5.MIXED FIBRES OVEN/AIR-DRIED + BIOPLASTIC

As in the pilot study, the gel-like plastic easily covers the soft, air-dried fibres and is similar to the second experiment. The liquid enters the voids between the rigid fibres to keep them in place as the plastic enters the setting stage of the process.

In the drying stage, the fibres assume alternate roles. The soft, air-dried fibres extend flexibility to the plastic as it shrinks, whereas the rigid, oven-dried fibres provide strength and form. These opposite attributes of the fibres enhance the material’s overall performance, equipping it with strength and flexibility [Fig. 148].

This final investigation combines the softer, air-dried fibres with the more rigid, oven-dried oats.

The air-dried oats are flexible due to the small moisture retained. The rigid oat fibres do not deform as easily as the air-dried fibres and have a more distinct texture. The combination of rigidity and flexibility improves the internal performance of the bioplastic.

Figure: 148, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

01.

+ Figure: 144, Glycerol, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3 4

03.

02.

+ Figure: 145, Gelatine, (Bicknell, 2021.)

04.

+ Figure: 146, Oat fibres, (Bicknell, 2021.)

= Figure: 147, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Glycerine

Gelatin

Mixed fibres

A double bioplastic mixture [Fig. 144-5] of 130ml of liquid was made at 14:52 on 19 September. After the mixture reached boiling point, the bioplastic was mixed with 25g of air-dried oat fibres [Fig. 146] and 25g of oven-dried fibres. The mixture was poured into a square ceramic container and left to set. At 09:23, the bioplastic [Fig. 147] was removed from the container and left to set further in the set shape it had adapted. By 23 September, the plastic was completely dry and set in the shape of the mould.

Bio fibre plastic

86

87

6.4 BIO-FIBER Figure: 149-158, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

88

89

6.5.1

6.5.2

TECHNICAL REVIEW

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

Copper (Cu) [Fig. 159] is a reddish metal with a face-cantered cubic crystalline structure (Lenntech, n.d.). Copper is used from off-cut pieces for its natural oxidising properties and its natural ability to react to acidic materials. Due to this ability, the copper requires no alteration to react to the acidic lemon juice. The copper plate requires less than 24 hours of exposure to the lemon’s interior to form its first oxidation pattern. The oxidation creates a similar flower-like pattern as the natural lemon profile.

01.

6.5.1 COPPER + LEMON JUICE

6.5.2.1 Raw lemon + copper

02.

1 2

Copper plate

+ Figure: 159, Oat fibres, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+ Figure: 160, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Lemon juice [Fig. 160] is acidic, with a pH of about two in its natural state. The acid in lemons is antibacterial and antiseptic and acts as a natural bleach (Aguirre, 2021). Like other abrasive chemicals, lemons are a common domestic fruit and not harmful. This investigation uses the natural acid of organic lemons to guide the decay of a metal surface.

90

6.5 METAL LEMON

Lemon

6.5.2.2 Painted lemon juice + copper 6.5.2.3 Painted – washed painted 6.5.2.4 Copper submerged in lemon juice 6.5.2.5 Covered pattern + submerged in lemon juice 91

6.5.2.1

1.RAW LEMON HALF + COPPER

The surface of copper dulls as it naturally accumulates dirt and corrodes. The half lemon placed on the surface of the copper plate counters the corrosion and accelerates its oxidation. This oxidation takes place due to the acid levels found within the lemon reacting to the chemical structure of copper. The acid reacts immediately with the surface of the copper plate [Fig. 165].

The acid tears away the outer layer of the copper and accelerates oxidation. By cutting the lemon, some of the lemon fibres rupture to release their juice, and others remain intact. This differential lemon fibre rupture creates intricate boundaries where the oxidation of the copper occurs at different rates, creating a flower-like pattern.

The first investigation develops on the technical review by documenting the oxidation of the copper when it is in contact with raw lemon. The investigation keeps the specified materials and the method as simple as possible. This investigation straightforwardly places the flat side of half a lemon directly onto the surface of a copper plate. The lemon is rotated daily to monitor the effects of oxidation as a once-off event and as a repetitive occurrence

01.

03.

02.

Slightly rotating the lemon creates new patterns. Where the juice encounters untouched copper, it oxidises, and where these patterns superimpose, the oxidation continues to concentrate. The boundaries in the lemon fibres determine the juice concentration, creating boundaries of concentrated oxidation on the copper [Fig. 166]. This material combination output is a complex form of dirt eating.

04.

Figure: 165, Metal lemon, Figure: 166, Metal lemon, (Bicknell, 2021.) (Bicknell, 2021.)

+

+

+

Figure: 161, Figure: 162, Figure: 163, Copper, Lemon, Lemon on copper, (Bicknell, 2021.) (Bicknell, 2021.) (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3 4

Copper plate

Cut lemon

Lemon to plate

= Figure: 164, Metal lemon, (Bicknell, 2021.)

A lemon [Fig. 162] was cut in half on 8 July at 12:50 and placed on a round copper plate [Fig. 161] slightly larger than the lemon in diameter. By 08:24 on 9 July, the lemon juice made a pattern on the surface of the copper plate due to the oxidation [Fig. 163]. The lemon was lifted once a day, rotated 15°, and replaced over the same position on the metal plate. This rotation process was repeated daily until 11 July at 16:16, leaving a flower-like pattern on the metal’s surface. The copper plate was washed and dried after the final set of rotation and oxidation [Fig. 164]. and oxidation.

Acid decay

92

93

6.5.2.2

2.PAINTED LEMON JUICE + COPPER

The painting method alters the oxidation pattern by applying a larger volume of natural acid onto the copper surface than the half-lemon method in the pilot experiment. The oxidation concentrates where there is more lemon juice. As the lemon juice evaporates over time, corrosive dirt mixes into it and accumulates at the edges of the miniature acid dams [Fig. 170].

In the first application of lemon juice, the oxidation of the single-painted spots is limited due to the relatively low concentration of lemon juice. This reduced lemon juice concentration also causes quick evaporation and allows less dirt into the mix. The dirt accumulates more in the overlapping areas. The second application of lemon juice mixes the already dirty area with new moisture and prolongs the evaporation process to allow more dirt to accumulate. The dirt and lemon juice mixture set inside the painted areas. However, the mixture does not dry completely and leaves the surface sticky [Fig. 171].

The previous experiment introduced the possibility that the copper plate’s surface oxidation could be controlled. In this experiment, the lemon juice is painted onto the copper plate’s surface to obtain more precise control. The lemon juice is free from the internal anatomy of the lemon half, and its spread can be determined using a fine art paintbrush. The second experiment ensures that there is control over the area, pattern, and amount of acid applied to the surface of the plate.

01.

02.

+

Figure: 167, Copper, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 170, Metal lemon, Figure: 171, Metal lemon, (Bicknell, 2021.) (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

+

Figure: 168, Lemon juice, (Bicknell, 2021.)

=

Figure: 169, Metal lemon, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

An 88g copper plate [Fig. 167] with natural corrosion was used as a palette and painted with organic lemon juice [Fig. Copper plate 168] on 17 August at 10:58. Small puddles of varying sizes were painted on the surface. At 11:19, a series of additional splotches were painted onto the metal plate. These splotches Lemon juice were made over painted areas and areas not painted in the first round. The plate had three areas: unchanged (no juice added); one layer of juice was painted to the surface; and Painted lemon metal plate with two or more layers of juice painted to the surface [Fig. 169].

94

95

6.5.2.3

3.PAINTED – WASHED – PAINTED

Painting a single layer of lemon juice onto the copper surface uses less lemon juice. The reduction in liquid reduces the concentration of oxidation as in the previous experiment. Less dirt accumulates in the lemon juice since the reduced amount of juice evaporates quickly. The sticky residue layer is thinner by the time the lemon juice exhausts the oxidation of the copper plate than in the previous experiment.

The purified water washes off the residue without interfering with the oxidation to leave a smooth, exposed oxidation pattern [Fig. 175].

In the previous study, the lemon juice-dirt mixture left a sticky residue on the copper surface as the lemon juice evaporated. For this investigation, the researcher washed the metal surface with purified water to remove this residue since it neutralised the lemon juice’s abrasive pH. Only one layer of lemon juice is applied to reduce the build-up experienced in the previous

01.

02.

+ Figure: 172, Copper, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

+ Figure: 173, Lemon, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 175, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

= Figure: 174, Metal lemon, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Copper plate

Lemon juice

One layer of lemon juice [Fig. 173 was painted in an organic pattern onto an 88g plate of copper [Fig. 172] at 11:22 on 17 August. The plate was left to dry until 22 August, when it was rinsed with purified water [Fig. 174].

96

Painted lemon metal plate

97

6.5.2.4

4.METAL SUBMERGED

The grime that covered the entire surface of the copper plate was only visible to the eye where it dulled the appearance of the copper. The acid in the lemon juice reached all the copper plate surfaces and even affected the microscopic dirt.

In the previous two experiments, the amount of lemon juice affected the oxidation of the copper.

The fourth oxidation decay investigation submerges the copper plate into a lemon juice bath to maximise the amount of lemon juice in contact with the copper.

01.

02.

03.

The submerged method for applying the lemon juice affects the whole copper plate. The acid works its way through the grime to remove all the dirt from the metal. The lemon juice inverses the process whereby the grime and dirt layers are built on the surface, as it penetrates the areas with the least build-up first and then gradually works through the thicker built-up layers.

After the acid deconstructs all the layers of grime and dirt from the copper’s surface, the grime separates in the lemon juice. This grime changes the lemon juice from bright yellow to yellow-green. If the clean copper plate remains in the liquid, the evaporation of the grimy lemon juice allows the grime to resettle on the surface. The submerged process compromises the acid in the juice and allows for a possible inverse reaction where the grime and dirt return to the copper surface [Fig 179].

Figure: 179, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+ Figure: 176, Copper, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Copper plate

Lemon juice

+ Figure: 177, Lemon, (Bicknell, 2021.)

= Figure: 178, Metal lemon, (Bicknell, 2021.)

On 17 August, the copper plate [Fig. 176] was submerged into 150ml of raw lemon juice [Fig. 177]. The plate was left in the submerged juice until 13:43 on 18 August. The copper plate was cleaned entirely of all the dirt and grime on the surface [Fig. 178]. The lemon juice colour changed from bright yellow to murky green-yellow when the submerged plate was removed.

Clean lemon metal plate

98

99

6.5.2.5

5.COVERED PATTERN + SUBMERGED IN JUICE

The acid in the lemon juice removes the dirt and grime and oxidises the area of copper surface the Prestik™ does not cover. The area underneath the Prestik™ contrasts with the oxidised copper to leave a clearly visible line on the copper surface.

The acid’s reaction with the copper surface yields predictable results based on the previous experiments. However, the lemon juice creates craters on the surface of the plastic, implying that the acid corrodes the Prestik™. This corrosion affected the surface of the metal plate. The corroded areas have a white lining and discolour from the orange-rose colour of the rest of the submerged surface. The Prestik™ causes another, unpredicted result. The experiment inverses how the lemon juice is applied, compared to the painting method, with a predicted inverse pattern [Fig. 184].

The final acid and metal investigation combined the controlled result of the second experiment and the effectiveness of submerging the plate in the juice of the fourth experiment. Instead of painting the lemon juice, Prestik™ was used to cover the copper surface. Prestik™ is an elastic and easily removable material that stops the lemon juice from coming into contact with the copper.

01.

02.

+

Figure: 180, Copper, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

+

Figure: 181, Lemon juice, (Bicknell, 2021.)

04.

+

Figure: 182, Covere Copper, (Bicknell, 2021.)

100

Figure: 179, Biofibre, (Bicknell, 2021.)

=

Figure: 183, Copper pattern, (Bicknell, 2021.)

A round copper plate of 88g [Fig. 180] was selected. On 6 September, 1.2g of Prestik™ was used to cover selected areas in a line art shape [Fig. 182]. After the Prestik™ was secured and pressed into place, the plate was placed in a ceramic container. At 10:41, 100ml of raw lemon juice [Fig. 181] was poured into the ceramic container, ensuring the liquid covered the plate. The plate was left in the juice and removed at 09:17 on 7 September. The juice and pulp were rinsed off with purified water. The 1.2g of Prestik™ was removed, and the plate was rinsed with purified water again [Fig. 183].

1 2 3 4

Copper plate

Lemon juice

Image covered plate

Image decay copper

101

6.5 METAL-LEMON Figure: 180 - 188, Metal lemon, (Bicknell, 2021.)

103

6.6.1

6.6.2

TECHNICAL REVIEW

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

Gelatine & Cloth

01.

Gelatine is a protein-based material that consists of chains of amino acids. When the gelatine is placed in a hot liquid, the chains separate as the molecules swell and dissolve. When the mixture cools, these molecules reform into tight chains (Encyclopedia, n.d.). The term ‘MIF’ is borrowed from Afrikaans to distinguish between the homonyms of mould as formwork and mould as fungal growth. This series of experiments used set gelatine as a growth medium for the MIF. MIF can be extremely dangerous, and the MIFterial investigation took the danger seriously. MIF is potentially lethal, so cultivation and storage were done in separate sealed containers [Fig. 190-3].

Cheesecloth [Fig. 189] is a pantry item to stretch and scrunch as required. The following experiments use cheesecloth to manipulate the area where the MIF grows and to transfer the MIF from the gelatine to the cloth.

Lemon juice is antibacterial and determines where the MIF cannot grow. Applying lemon juice to the cheesecloth allows pattern creation with the MIF.

1 2 3 4

02.

day

day

day

01.

104

+

6.6.2.1 Gelatine mould + cloth 6.6.2.2 Mif + cloth 4.7.2.3 Mif + cloth + anti-bacterial

day

04.

Figure: 189, Cheese cloth, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+

6.6 MIFTERIAL

+

6.6.2.4 Mif + cloth + anti-bacterial added after 6.6.2.5 Half mif + 1/2 anti-bacterial

+

Figure: 190-3, Mif timeline, (Bicknell, 2021.)

105

6.6.2.1

1.GELATINE + MIF

Gelatine is a moist material that makes it the perfect setting for MIF. The container remains closed to accelerate the MIF growth, trapping moisture inside. This moisture works with darkness to cultivate the MIF. The MIF derives from the gelatine. The miniature terrarium supports the MIF’s continued sprouting by recirculating the moisture.

The first ‘MIFterial’ (MIF + material cloth) experiment cultivated penicillin by making gelatine from household gelatine powder and leaving it in a dark place. As the gelatine cooled, it formed condensate ideal for the MIF to grow.

01.

02.

As soon as the first signs of MIF appear, it community. Each sprout encourages more to The natural MIF grows in a leaf-like form circular sprouts. As the MIF increases, so accelerating the growth process.

improves the environment for multiplication as a sprout exponentially across the gelatine surface. on the surface of the gelatine to create more does the moisture in the air of the container,

The MIF increases in quantity and in quality. Over time, the mould learns to feed on the gelatine as it cures itself. The MIF [Fig. 198] eventually overpowers and outnumbers the gelatine in volume, using the very substance that produces it. This material combination output is to work with bio-agency: allowing something to live in some places and prohibiting it to live in others.

03.

Figure: 197, Gelatine, Figure: 198, Gelatine mif, (Bicknell, 2021.) (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 194, Gelatine, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Gelatin

Gelatin

+

Figure: 195, Gelatine mif, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+

=

Figure: 196, cultivated mif, (Bicknell, 2021.)

The researcher set the gelatine [Fig. 194] on 20 June 2021 by mixing 10g powdered gelatine and 150ml of hot water [Fig. 197]. The first MIF [Fig. 195] appeared on 3 July, indicating a 13-day period (almost two weeks) passed for the MIF to form. The gelatine was stored to cultivate the MIF [Fig. 196] further until 12 July.

Mould

106

107

6.6.2.2

2.MIF + CLOTH

After the MIF develops through its initial stages, as the previous experiment documents, it reaches a stage of aggressive expansion as it devours the gelatine. This rapid expansion is advantageous when transferring the MIF onto the cheesecloth. The cheesecloth is placed in direct contact with the MIF to accelerate the transfer process and ensure that the cheesecloth adequately captures the growth pattern. The MIF continues to expand on the cloth. Preserving processes protect the cloth from the aggressive intrusion of the MIF. After the MIF’s abrasive attack, the gelatine becomes a by-product of the process as a gel-like substance. The MIF continues to grow from the initial touchpoint to envelop the gelatine and grow into the pores of the material. The MIF stains the cheesecloth as it becomes a part of the material.

The blue-green appearance of MIF penetrates the material as the MIF continues to grow. The MIF’s pigmentation [Fig. 202] stains the cloth, leaving the same blue-green colour behind. The colour stain remains on the natural-coloured cheesecloth even after removing the MIF. The stain is a semi-permanent discolouration and an additional by-product of this investigation.

The first MIFterial investigation illustrates how easy it is to cultivate MIF. This experiment continued the previous and transferred the MIF onto a cheesecloth. The MIF first grew on the gelatine before relocation onto the cloth for growing further.

01.

02.

03.

Figure: 202, Mifterial, (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 199, Gelatine mif, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

+

Figure: 200, Cloth, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+

Figure: 201, Mifterial (Bicknell, 2021.)

=

Gelatin

Gelatin

On 12 July, the cloth [Fig. 200] was added to the gelatine-MIF [Fig. 199] container 22 days after the gelatine set. The material was kept in the gelatine-MIF container for 29 days and was removed on 10 August [Fig. 201].

Mould

108

109

6.6.2.3

3.MIF + CLOTH + ANTI-BACTERIAL

The anti-bacterial lemon juice guides the MIF growth, as the mould cannot grow where the juice is. As the MIF grows to cover the entire surface of the cloth, it bypasses the lemon juice areas. This berth creates a rim around the anti-bacterial areas.

The previous experiment demonstrates transferring MIF from the gelatine to the cheesecloth to expand the MIF growth further. The third experiment guided the MIF growth on the cheesecloth with lemon juice due to its anti-bacterial properties.

As in the previous experiment, the blue-green pigmentation of the MIF stains the cloth. The cloth retains its natural colour in the areas where the lemon juice guards the cloth. The anti-bacterial areas guide the MIF [Fig. 206] to develop its natural growing patterns over the cloth.

01.

02.

03.

Figure: 206, Mifterial, (Bicknell, 2021.)

+ Figure: 203, Mifterial, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Gelatin

Lemon Juice

Mifterial

110

+ Figure: 204, Lemon juice, (Bicknell, 2021.)

= Figure: 205, Mifterial (Bicknell, 2021.)

On 10 August, the MIF covered cloth [Fig. 203] was removed from the gelatine-MIF container. New cloth was selected, and the second set of experiments was started. Half a fresh lemon was juiced to produce 25ml of raw lemon juice [Fig. 204]. Three millilitres of lemon juice was taken using a syringe. The 3ml of raw lemon juice was distributed with the syringe into four unequal amounts and separate places on the cloth. Three smaller areas had only lemon juice applied, and lemon pulp was applied to one large area. The cloth was left to dry for 43 minutes. This drying ensured that the juice would be constrained to the applied areas and not spread when the cloth was introduced to the gelatine-MIF container. MIF was cultivated following the same process as in the pilot experiment 111

6.6.2.4

4. CLOTH + MIF + ANTI-BACTERIAL + ADDED AFTER

As in the first two experiments, the MIF is grown using gelatine and transferred to the cheesecloth. Without the lemon juice, the mould expands to cover the cloth freely. The mouldy cloth is then partially submerged into 35ml of lemon juice. The anti-bacterial properties of the lemon juice remove the MIF from this area. As in the previous experiments, the MIF stains remain, even after removing the mould.

The lemon juice removes the MIF from the cloth and prohibits the MIF from growing there again. The cloth above the liquid continues to host the MIF growth because the anti-bacterial lemon juice does not reach it [Fig. 210].

The fourth MIFterial experiment applies the anti-bacterial lemon juice after the MIF is transferred onto the cheesecloth. This transference swaps the order of the process by allowing the MIF to cover the entire surface of the cloth before adding the anti-bacterial material to guide the MIF.

01.

Figure: 207, Mifterial, (Bicknell, 2021.)

1 2 3

Gelatin

Lemon Jiuce

Mifterial

112

02.

+

Figure: 208, Lemon juice, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

+

Figure: 209, Mifterial (Bicknell, 2021.)

Figure: 210, Mifterial, (Bicknell, 2021.)

=

The mould-covered cloth removed from the gelatine-MIF container on 10 August was kept in a separate plastic bag. The MIF [Fig. 207] was cultivated further until placed in a clean container on 7 September. After placing the MIFterial in the new container, 35ml of raw lemon juice [Fig. 208] was poured into the base of the container. The added lemon juice sinks the cloth into 2cm of liquid, with the remaining cloth left above the liquid. The container was closed and left to cultivate in a dark place [Fig. 209].

113

6.6.2.5

5.1/2 MIF + 1/2 ANTI-BACTERIAL The MIF was simultaneously transferred for the fifth experiment, and the anti-bacterial lemon juice was applied to different ends of the same cloth. This design created the MIF covering half of the cloth, and the other half remains clean. The two opposing materials eventually meet in the middle and work against one another to gain more surface area.

1 2 3 4

Gelatin

Material

Lemon juice

Mifterial

01.

02.

+ Figure: 211, Gelatine, (Bicknell, 2021.)

03.

Figure: 212, Cloth, (Bicknell, 2021.)

04.

+

Figure: 213, Lemon juice, (Bicknell, 2021.)

114

+

=

Figure: 214, Half 1/2, (Bicknell, 2021.)

A new glass jar was filled with 35ml of water on 7 September. Four grams of gelatine powder were dissolved into the water and left to set in a dark place at 09:57.

This dark setting area allowed the gelatine to grow new MIF in a jar with a screw-on lid At 14:59 on 19 September, the set gelatine was retrieved, and the surface of the gelatine was covered in lotus-leaf-like MIF [Fig. 211] patches. The jar was opened and one end of a 17cm cheesecloth [Fig. 212] was inserted. The cloth was lowered into the jar until the end penetrated the MIF and sunk into the liquid gelatine. A screwon lid was added over the cloth and sealed the jar. In an adjacent jar, 50ml of raw lemon juice [Fig. 213] was added.

The other end of the cloth was inserted into the jar, deep enough to penetrate the juice. The jar lid was screwed onto the top over the material, sealing the second jar. Both jars were placed in the same dark cupboard in which the jar was placed to cultivate the MIF at 13:41 [Fig. 214].

As in all the previous experiments, the MIF takes to the cloth and grows from the point of exposure. The MIF uses the cloth as a structure to make its way out of the jar, even escaping the guard of the screw-on lid. The cloth soaks up the lemon juice vertically and through the lid of the jar.

Both materials climb and escape the jars to reach the clean cloth suspended between the jars. As the materials meet in the suspended section of cloth, an organic line forms where they are unable to work over or with each other. The MIF cannot grow where the anti-bacterial lemon juice is, and the lemon juice can only soak so far into the cloth since its supply is limited. The anti-bacterial material holds its accumulated material area, but cannot advance forward and extinguish the mif In front. As the cloth suspends the two materials by bridging the two jars, time also suspense them as they are unable to expand any further as was possible in the previous experiment [Fig 215].

Figure: 215, Mifterial, (Bicknell, 2021.)

115

4.7 MIFTERIAL

Figure: 216-230, Mifterial, (Bicknell, 2021.)

116

117

7

CONCLUSION 7.1.

7.2.

Design applications for controlled decay

As discussed in this study, perceptions are formed around various points of reference, specifically with regard to context. If Context holds such a strong drive behind the timeline of decay, and context is manipulated and shaped by people, the potential should be ceased. The 6 material combinations with their demonstrated outputs highlight the material insight that could be harvested.

These material investigations introduce the technological ventures less traveled but very much available to architecture. The demonstrated interdependence with supporting attributes in-between the material combinations advocate for the future of surface materials specified and used for architectural surfaces.

With a fresh perspective of decay, the approach towards but also with decay ought to be with a confidant stride. A broader catalogue with these precedents is shared with the aspiration that fellow designers would grab the prospect of applying decay with intent by the horns.

The switch + information pavilion design for the Münster Sculpture Projects [Fig. 231] relies on the voids punched into the metal for a textural pattern. This texture exists as a designed surface pattern with guided decay.

Theory

Ecology is defined as the relation of plants and living creatures to each other and their environment (Oxford Dictionary, n.d.). This definition highlights the double relation and interdependence of life between various living things and the necessity of optimal surroundings. In the article ‘Queer Ecology’, Timothy Morton (2010) defines ecology as lifeforms in an open-ended ‘mesh’ of interactions that blur boundaries between species, living and non-living organisms and the environment.

In the 2021 pop song, ‘Getting older’, Billie Eilish (2021) confronts listeners with a single line, “we only care, until we don’t”. Concern for the natural ecology of life has become selective. However, in ‘Earth, world, text: On the (im)possibility of ecopoiesis’, Kate Rigby (2004, p. 427) explains that nature is a process and not a product. If the design process is used as an analogy of an ecological system, it might become clear that the start and finish are undetermined and also almost irrelevant. The existence in-between is where the primary concern should lie. A material ecology should be the main objective of a design by specifying materials as a ‘mesh’. If the professional teams working on such buildings overlap their scopes of work, they increase the material interlinks even more so.

Materials and their use form an ecological ‘mesh’ oblivious to day-to-day life. In ‘Geologic life: prehistory, climate, futures in the Anthropocene’, Kathryn Yusoff (2013) alerts that the biofuel used to drive petroleum-based machines derives from fossil fuels. These fossil fuels contain materials from plants, animals, and human remains. Yusoff correctly points out that modern-day machines might be fueled with ancestral biofuel.

Figure 231: Skulptur Projekte Münster / modulorbeat, Richters. 2021

118

Matter is the foundation for all these lifeforms and their environment. The material matter forms its own ecologies that tend to be ignored. In these ecologies, the matter sustains life and gives way to death, contributing to the survival of others in the ecology. Imagine a forest. In this forest, an ecology exists irrespective of time. In this forest, the focus is on place. In this forest, organisms live, die, and transform in a mesh of relationships.

Similarly, materials form a link within the ‘mesh’ of ecology even when manipulated by technology. The mesh overlaps in some areas and links in others. When materials are viewed as an ecological system, design materials are applied in the ecology to overlap and provide additional open-ended links. The materials function as a design material forest.

119

7.3

7.4

Alternative Precedents

After this study, it is possible to find new precedents. Lizan Freisjen (Kang, 2021) is a contemporary artist who cultivates mould on surfaces to create abstract patterns for handmade rugs and wall frescos. Feisjen makes use of images and water stains as guiding patterns. She uses nature for inspiration and uses natural phenomena to transform a reprehensible material into an aesthetic [Fig. 232]. Through her work on transformation, she demonstrates that materials can be guided to mimic a desired pattern. With the aesthetic and the application given to the material, the perception of detestable transforms into an artistic sensibility.

The 2022 Tallinn Architecture Biennale winner is an installation made of mushrooms (Stouhi, 2021). Simulaa and Natalie Alima designed the installation to be located in front of the Museum of Estonia. A 3D printer will construct the design [as seen in Fig 234] that will open to the public in September 2022.

Diana Scherer (2012, p. 142) is an installation artist working in Amsterdam. She worked as a photographer for ten years and published Nature Studies, which documented the roots of plants. Fascinated by natural structures, she works with scientists to create a weaving system to create textiles from naturally interwoven roots. After the roots are interwoven, the plants are cut loose and the roots are dried to form the installation textile [Fig. 235] (Scherer, 2020).

Structure of knowledge

If it is possible to operate in a state of anti-oblivion to be overly aware of current and short-term surroundings, then some perspectives would change dramatically. It is possible to be in every moment, but the responsibility lies in shifting the weight from decades-to-come to here-and-now. Author JM Coetzee (2003, p. 20) highlights generational relationships to decay.

But of course, the British Library is not going to last forever. It too will crumble and decay and the books on its shelves turn to powder …. After which it will be as if they never existed …. There must be some limit to the burden of remembering, that one imposes on the children and grandchildren. They will have a world of their own, of which one should be less and less a part.

Built monuments give a lasting seal of approval and proclaim that there ought to be value in past lives and lived moments. Monuments afford the right to proclaim meaning through memento. However, the point is missed with an obsession to capture and preserve the moment rather than being in it. Buildings should be designed to transform intentionally with their ecology into a state of decay and ultimately disappear.

7.5

Care for our creations

The fascination with technology took a turn in Mary Shelley’s Frakenstein, as Bruno Latour (1993, 2014) points out in his analysis. In Love your monsters, Bruno Latour (2014) points out that Victor Frankenstein is a scientist who created an undead being. Ironically, the monster takes his name. In We have never been modern, Latour (1993) reminds readers of the ‘confusing’ juxtaposition of the monster and creator due to perceptions of what makes a monster.

People believed technology would emancipate humanity from nature and steady the results of future global events. An idealistic world was envisioned where technology would empower its creators to become the monuments. Instead, the focus has become to tend to present and at-hand creations.

Figure 232: Mushroom installation, (Simuula. 2021.)

120

Figure 234: Hyper Rhizome, (Diana Scherer. 2020.)

Figure 235: The living surface. (Freijsen. 2021.)

Monsters are made by creators who fear their own creations. These monsters are born out of abandonment and not as intentional monstrous creations because the creations are not made as monsters and rather turn into monsters. Control lies with scientists who tend to the creations with technology. By claiming ownership of the creations and the technology produced, the monsters would not have to emerge. Humanity can prevent its decay by not producing monsters through abandoned creations, as the monster is not a technology but what one does with technology.

121

8 REFERENCES

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