Jacobs, X - A Digital Design Solution for Emergency Circulation Routes in Buildings

A Digital Design Solution for Emergency Circulation Routes in Buildings XANDER TRUTER JACOBS

“NEITHER A MAN NOR A CROWD NOR A NATION CAN BE TRUSTED TO ACT HUMANELY OR TO THINK SANELY UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF A GREAT FEAR” -BERTRAND RUSSELL-

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DECLARATION In accordance with Regulation 4.1.11.1(j) of Chapter 4 (Examination Rules and Regulations), and Regulations 15.1.16-17 of Chapter 15 (Student Discipline) of Part 1 of the 2021 Prospectus, I, Xander Truter Jacobs, declare that this dissertation, entitled: Forensics of circulation: a digital design solution for emergency circulation routes in buildings which I hereby submit for the degree, Masters of Architecture (Architectural Technology Structured) Qualification code: MAAT18 at the Tshwane University of Technology, is my own work and has not been previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other tertiary institution.

I further state that no part of my dissertation has already been , or is currently being, submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification.

I declare the following: 1. I understand what plagiarism entails and I am aware of the University’s policy in this regard.

2. I declare that this assignment is my own, original work. Where someone else’s work was used, it was acknowledged and reference was made according to departmental requirements.

3. I did not copy and paste any information directly from an electronic source (e.g. a web page, electronic journal article or CD ROM) into this document.

4. I did not make use of another student’s previous work and submitted it as my own.

5. I did not allow and will not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of presenting it as his/ her own work.

I further declare that this dissertation is substantially my own work. Where references are made to the works of others, the extent to which the work has been used is indicated and fully acknowledged in the text and list of references.

This dissertation is 15 112 words long, excluding tables, footnoted, bibliography, and appendices

_______________________ Xander Truter Jacobs

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT 01 ABBREVIATIONS 02 DEFINITION OF TERMS 03 INTRODUCTION 05 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................07 THE PROBLEM & ITS SETTING....................................................................................07 SUB-PROBLEM STATEMENT & HYPOTHESES...............................................................08 DELIMITATIONS.........................................................................................................08 METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................09 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY...........................................................................................09 OBJECTIVES..............................................................................................................09 RESEARCH CONTEXT.................................................................................................10 RESEARCH PARADIGM...............................................................................................10 LITERATURE REVIEW 13 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................15 SANS 10400 (PART T).................................................................................................15 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR DURING EMERGENCY SITUATIONS When disaster strikes: human behaviour in emergency situations..................................16 A study of herding behaviour in exit choice during emergencies....................................18 The role of herding behaviour in exit choice during evacuation....................................18 Exploratory research on reading cognition and escape route planning using building evacuation diagrams.........................................................................................................19 NAVIGATION Follow the evacuation signs or surrounding people during building evacuation..............20 A route guidance system for car finding in indoor parking garages...............................21 Are you gonna go my WAZE....................................................................................24 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................26 PILOT STUDY 27 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................29 METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................29 DATA........................................................................................................................29 The Grenfell Towers...............................................................................................30 The Bank of Lisbon................................................................................................30 INTERPRETATION.......................................................................................................31 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................31 USER INTERFACE 33 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................35 APPLICATION & OCCUPANCY...................................................................................36 REGISTRATION..........................................................................................................37 USER REGISTRATION.............................................................................................37 - ii -

ESTABLISHMENT REGISTRATION............................................................................39 BASIC INTERFACE.....................................................................................................40 PUSH NOTIFICATION................................................................................................44 SUBMIT..................................................................................................................44 RECEIVE (FOLLOW)...............................................................................................46 NAVIGATION.............................................................................................................48 SIMULATION 49 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................51 SIMULATION.........................................................................................56 SPATIAL DESIGN 79 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................81 PATHS....................................................................................................84 ACTIONS................................................................................................86 ARCHITECTURAL SPACE............................................................................................88 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................90 CONCLUSION 93 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH.........................................................................................95 CHAPTER 1...........................................................................................................95 CHAPTER 2...........................................................................................................95 CHAPTER 3...........................................................................................................95 CHAPTER 4...........................................................................................................95 CHAPTER 5...........................................................................................................96 CHAPTER 6...........................................................................................................96 DISCOVERIES, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......................................96 REFERENCES

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to acknowledge my supervisor, Prof. J Laubscher for his guidance and support throughout the year.

Thank you to my co-supervisors, Mr. M van Schoor and Mr. S Steyn who has consistently stood behind me and believed in my ability to succeed during a difficult year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Thank you for the extensive knowledge across many fields that you shared with me. I am ever so grateful for the countless hours of encouragement and sacrifice that lead up to the completion of this dissertation.

A special thanks you to Mr. P Crafford who was able to put my mind at ease about continuing with my master’s degree and being the first to point me in the direction of the theme for this dissertation.

To my fellow students who suffered through the stress and sleepless nights, I commend you.

To those who constantly offered support and willingly shared their knowledge, I thank you.

Thank you for making this experience one to be remembered. It was an honour to share this journey with you.

To my loving family and friends who always supported me during the good and the bad times, when things looked bleak and hopeless you were right behind me with encouraging words.

This journey would not have been possible without your love and support.

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DEDICATION I dedicate this work, first and foremost, to my God, whose word has kept me anchored.

Secondly, my mother & father, Helen and SJ Jacobs, who have made it their life’s work to help me, and my brother become the people we are today, for teaching me that knowledge is power and that no one can take that away from you. Your actions and contributions in my academic and personal life are priceless and no words can express my gratitude.

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 01:

Figure 02: Figure 03:

Figure 04:

Figure 05:

Figure 06: Figure 07: Figure 08: Figure 09: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15: Figure 16: Figure 17:

Figure 18: Figure 19: Figure 20:

Figure 21: Figure 22: Figure 23: Figure 24: Figure 25:

Figure 26: Figure 27: Figure 28: Figure 29: Figure 30: Figure 31: Figure 32: Figure 33: Figure 34: Figure 35: Figure 36: Figure 37:

Pie chart illustrating the response of passengers on the Costa Concordia by Author (2012) ........................................................................................16 A representation of interpretation by Tang, Lin & Hsu (2008) ....................19 Graphical representation of signage vs. people by Zhu, Chen, Ding, Chraibi & Fan (2020), Redrawn by Author ............................................21 Parking layout exemplified in this research by Lee & Wang (2016).

Redrawn by Author ..............................................................................23 Illustration of walk-straight-first strategy by Lee & Wang (2016).

Redrawn by Author ..............................................................................24 Waze Interface by Apple Inc. (2021) ....................................................25 Graphical representation of casualties in case studies by Author (2021) ....31 Typical herd behaviour by Author (2021) .............................................36 Registration of personal information by Author (2021) .........................37 Registration for next of kin information by Author (2021) ......................38 Establishment registration information by Author (2021) .......................39 Flowchart explaining the features of the Interface/ app by Author (2021) ..40 Main screen interface representation by Author (2021) ........................41 Drop-down menu interface by Author (2021) .......................................41 Personal information interface by Author (2021) ...............................42 QR code scan interface by Author (2021) .........................................42 Flow diagram of how GPS system operates by AIP Publishing & redrawn by Author (2017) ......................................................................................43 Push Notification Interface by Author (2021) ......................................44 Flow diagram illustrating physical actions by Author (2021) .................45 Flow diagram illustrating digital “behind the scenes” actions by Author (2021) ................................................................................................46 Notification message to Receiver (Follower) by Author (2021) .............47 Live tracking function from initial QR scan by Author (2021) ..............47 Emergency protocol notification by Author (2021) .............................47 Basic navigational interface by Author (2021) ..................................48 Building 11, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria west campus by Sustainable Design (2014) . Graphically enhanced by Author (2021) ...51 Building plans for building 11, Redrawn by Author (2021) .................52 3D Representation for Ground Floor by Author (2021) .......................53 3D representation for First Floor by Author (2021) ............................54 3D Representation for Second Floor by Author (2021) .....................55 Photograph of QR code scanning by Author (2021) .........................56 3D Location on Ground Floor (Scanning) by Author (2021) ............57 Location on Ground Floor Plan (Scanning) by Author (2021) .............57 Photograph of submission of the emergency by Author (2021) ..........58 3D Location on Ground Floor (Submission) by Author (2021) .............59 Location on Ground Floor Plan (Submission) by Author (2021) ..............59 Photograph with Navigational turn 01 by Author (2021) ..................60 3D Location on Ground Floor (Navigation 01) by Author (2021) .......61 - vi -

Figure 38: Figure 39: Figure 40: Figure 41: Figure 42: Figure 43: Figure 44: Figure 45: Figure 46: Figure 47: Figure 48: Figure 49: Figure 50: Figure 51: Figure 52: Figure 53: Figure 54: Figure 54: Figure 56: Figure 57: Figure 58: Figure 59: Figure 60: Figure 61: Figure 62: Figure 63:

Figure 64:

Figure 65:

Figure 66:

Figure 67:

Location on Ground Floor Plan (Navigation 01) by Author (2021) .....61 Photograph with Navigational turn 02 by Author (2021) ....................62 3D Location on Ground Floor (Navigation 02) by Author (2021) .........63 Location on Ground Floor Plan (Navigation 02) by Author (2021) ......63 Photograph of Destination by Author (2021) .....................................64 3D Location on Ground Floor to Destination by Author (2021) ..........65 Location on Ground Floor Plan to Destination by Author (2021) .........65 Photograph of Notification by Author (2021) ......................................66 3D Location on Second Floor of Notification by Author (2021) ............67 Location on Second Floor of Notification by Author (2021) .............67 Photograph Instruction 01 by Author (2021) .......................................68 3D Location on Second Floor (Instruction 01) by Author (2021) ..........69 Location on Second Floor (Instruction 01) by Author (2021) .................69 Photograph Instruction 02 by Author (2021) .......................................70 3D Location on Second Floor (Instruction 02) by Author (2021) ........71 Location on Second Floor (Instruction 02) by Author (2021) ...............71 Photograph with Instruction 03 by Author (2021) ...............................72 3D Location on Second Floor (Instruction 03) by Author (2021) ..............73 Location on Second Floor (Instruction 03) by Author (2021) ................73 Photograph with Instruction 04 by Author (2021) ................................74 3D Location on Second Floor (Instruction 04) by Author (2021) ...........75 Location on Second Floor (Instruction 04) by Author (2021) ................75 Photograph of Destination by Author (2021) ........................................76 3D Location on First Floor Plan to Destination by Author (2021) ..........77 Location on First Floor to Destination by Author (2021) ......................77 Base layout of each screen made available to all users from start to finish by Author (2021) ....................................................................................83 A 2 dimensional representation of paths/ layers navigating through the app

by Author (2021) ...............................................................................85 Visually representing step by step all actions from start to finish by Author (2021) ...............................................................................................87 Overlay of layers/ paths, actions and the culmination of a building format by Author (2021) ....................................................................................89 A visual representation of the Authors argument on the apps functionality by Author (2021) ...................................................................................91

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LIST OF TABLES Table 01:

The specific sub-problem and their hypotheses by Author (2021)

Table 02:

Differences between positivism and interpretivism as formulated by Badewi (2013) ....................................................................................10

Table 03:

The normative position of the researcher, using a scale of predisposition as formulated by Laubscher (2011:15) ...................................................11

Table 04:

Discoveries, conclusions & recommendations of sub-problem 1

........97

Table 05:

Discoveries, conclusions & recommendations of sub-problem 2

........97

Table 06:

Discoveries, conclusions & recommendations of sub-problem 3a

........98

Table 07:

Discoveries, conclusions & recommendations of sub-problem 3b

........99

Table 08:

Discoveries, conclusions & recommendations of sub-problem 4

.........99

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Full title: A DIGITAL DESIGN SOLUTION FOR EMERGENCY CIRCULATION ROUTES IN BUILDINGS Submitted by:

Xander Truter Jacobs

The Researcher:

Xander Truter Jacobs

Supervisor:

Prof. J Laubscher

Co-Supervisors: Mr. S Steyn Mr. M van Schoor For the degree of:

Master of Architecture in Architectural Technology (Structured)

Department:

Department of Architecture and Industrial Design

Faculty:

Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

University:

Tshwane University of Technology

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ABSTRACT The primary role of an escape plan is to provide a safe evacuation route to prevent the loss of life during emergencies. While fire, gun violence, natural disasters, etc. are the major emergencies that cause the loss of life, the common denominator in all of these emergencies is determining the immediate outcome of an escape plan. The design and planning of possible escape routes are vital for users of the premises to survive.

Despite established escape procedures which have been set in place by the South African National Standards, loss of life is still present. The possibility exists that the problem does not lie with the escape route procedures themselves but that it rather ties in with human behaviour during emergencies. Human beings, have a primal instinct to survive by any means necessary. During emergency scenarios human beings often display a like-minded behaviour known as “herd behaviour”. This concept refers to a group of people that follows individual members more or less blindly with a disregard for the rules that have been set out by management/health and safety. The fight, flight or freeze response in every person can overpower cognitive thinking during emergency situations and can contribute to casualties. With external, objective guidance, the number of casualties could be lowered significantly. Specific instructions guiding users to the nearest escape routes in the fastest time possible can reduce injuries and fatalities.

This study investigates the possibility of a mobile application providing real-time navigation during emergency situations. The mobile app is based on different emergency situations with a focus on fire escape routes. The virtual platform will provide users with the most efficient escape route based on their current location. Using a GPS signal to pinpoint the exact position in the building, the mobile app will use artificial intelligence to calculate an appropriate route and navigate the users to safety.

The proposed mobile application should reduce the error margins significantly by providing the user clear and concise instructions to follow in case of emergency. The type of emergency, will determine the user instructions.

Keywords: escape route design and planning; herd behaviour; emergency scenarios; guidance; mobile app; human factor

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ABBREVIATIONS APP

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(Mobile) Application

COB

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Close of Business

ES

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Emergency situation/ scenario

GPS

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Global Positioning System

HB - Herd behaviour NBR

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National Building Regulations

QR - Quick Response SANS

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South African National Standards

UI - User Interface

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DEFINITION OF TERMS Architecture:

A sequence of spacial experiences that communicate with one another (not limited to only a physical plane).

Company:

A commercial business i.e. a financial company.

Design: Derived from the Latin word designare, meaning to plan or outline, form a scheme.

Establishment:

Owners of an organization/ public institution (building owner).

Herd behaviour:

An instinctive behaviour where people follow the actions of others rather than relying on their own intuition.

Part T: Part T is a section of SANS 10400 that provides deemed-to-

satisfy requirements for compliance with “Fire Protection” of the National Building Regulations.

Schema: A representation of a plan or theory in the form of an outline or model.

Socio- economic: Relating to or concerned with the interaction of social and economic factors.

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INTRODUCTION

01

INTRODUCTION THE PROBLEM & ITS SETTING SUB-PROBLEM STATEMENT & HYPOTHESES DELIMITATIONS METHODOLOGY PURPOSE OF THE STUDY OBJECTIVES RESEARCH CONTEXT RESEARCH PARADIGM

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INTRODUCTION The main concern in this study is how “herd behaviour” contributes to loss of life during emergency situations. This study takes place against the backdrop of escape route design and planning, and will include an investigation of the following: • • • •

The minimum requirements for escape route planning and design.

The impact of herd behaviour in relation to the current escape route regulations.

The ability of a mobile application (app) as a digital platform to convey information.

Mapping practices for digital and virtual interfaces.

This study aims to assist in preventing loss of life through a digital platform by fulfilling the need of an efficient emergency escape plan that is readily accessible.

According to Hammer (2016) there are two basic rules for circulation planning are: 1. Movement routes to be clear and unobstructed 2. Follow the shortest distance between two points.

Hamer states that “[t]he word efficiency often goes hand in hand with circulation” (2016, 1).

This study calls attention to the importance of circulation through a digital visual platform.

The interface for a mobile app is designed and represented in order to suggest a navigational system for users to indicate the nearest emergency exit.

The research draws inspiration from existing related technologies such as Google Maps, which is branched from Google Earth to create a digital navigational system for users to follow a calculated route. The ultimate aim of for the mobile app is to create a virtual library of various buildings that allows the user access to emergency escape routes.

This study explores the representation of a virtual library with emergency escape route use in a mobile app. Future functions could include fault reporting and feedback systems for building management. As building management has been stratified into layers (separate operators for cleaning and security systems, for example), such tools can act as consolidation of management structures. While not the primary aim of the study, the representation of such management structures forms part of the background.

THE PROBLEM & ITS SETTING Prolonging life during emergency situations is possible. Building standards have been amended to provide for escape routes. These standards help assist each person that occupies the building with a plan for when emergencies occur. Escape route plans are placed at emergency exits for the occupancies to plan their escape in advance.

Through a method of stimulated measurement conducted by Tang, Lin & Hsu (2008), they proved that it takes the general public two times longer to plan an escape route than to read it. With this information in mind, this proposal will aim to provide enough evidence for a mobile app, that provides a real time escape route for users. This could in time be a benefit to society during an ever developing digital era.

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With every person having access to technology the concept for a mobile app has become apparent. By introducing a real-time interface, users are able to communicate and share vital information. The navigational system allows for real-time positioning that provides a calculated escape route for each user.

SUB-PROBLEM STATEMENTS & HYPOTHESES SUB-PROBLEM QUESTIONS

HYPOTHESIS

1

Is rational behaviour possible during It is hypothesised that human instinct takes emergency situations? over during emergencies, which can be counter productive and irrational.

2

How do printed escape plans influence Compared to a digital guidance system, it is human behaviour and their decision mak- hypothesised that it takes a reasonable person ing process? longer to understand and plan their escape when they need to follow an escape route plan that it is in a printed format. Their decision -making process will be delayed if their preplanned escape route does not work out.

3a

Is there evidence to suggest that a digital It is hypothesised that in a digital age of techplatform is irrelevant? nology, a digital platform is the next logical step and will be relevant to society.

3b

Would a digital navigational platform im- Compared to printed escape routes that reprove the efficiency of escape routes? quire pre-planning routes from each individual that may cause confusion during emergency situations, it is hypothesised that a digital navigational system in the form of a mobile application would increase the efficiency of use of escape routes.

4

Will the use of architectural representa- It is hypothesised that with the use of spatial tion assist with spatial design sequences design sequences a virtual platform will presfor a virtual platform? ent an architectural element which can be seen throughout a mobile app.

Table 01: The specific sub-problem and their hypotheses.(Author, 2021)

DELIMITATIONS The following delimitations applies to the study: • The study will use architectural representations (models and drawings) to represent interfaces, virtual structures and organizational structures of the proposed system, which will not be represented through the development of a working mobile application.

• The study will make use of case studies of past emergency events, as they have been documented and reported. The study will therefore not include data and reports from current emergency events.

• All data about human behaviour during emergencies will be inferred and extracted from secondary literature and no direct experiments, studies or simulations will be performed.

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METHODS This study took place within the context of design research. Feedback loops were established between literature on the topic, and design decisions in conventional architectural media.

This study also included a substantial comparative desk study to determine the relationship between current escape routes plans and the loss of life. It will be imperative to understand the general public opinion on escape routes and the amount of time it takes the public to read and plan for their escape. “A desk study is not only about collecting data but also to review previous research findings to gain a broad understanding of the field” (Travis, 2019:1).

This method is a pragmatic approach to this research project. The role of desk research is to use the collected data as a basis when analysing findings. The analysis will be performed through the design products such as diagrams, interfaces and spatial layouts, among others.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study is to propose a digital solution to emergency evacuation routes that can reduce the casualties caused by herd behaviour during an emergency situation. Also determining the relevance of a mobile application to act in conjunction with current evacuation route plans.

OBJECTIVES The main objective of this study is to design a visual and tactile user interface system in the context of the interior of buildings during emergency situations or evacuation. With human behaviour playing a major role in efficiency during emergency situations, the usefulness for a mobile app acting as a navigational system to remove the possibility of herd behaviour is plausible. Ideally, each user will be able to follow a pre-determined escape route, updated with live-feed information as the current emergency situation develops. The calculated route is from the user’s location and the origin of the disaster to the nearest escape route.

A contributing factor to the study is to use the witness accounts from previous disasters and recreate a visual escape plan using design principles. The mobile app could prevent a number of lives being lost during emergency situations, reducing the herd behaviour that is often displayed during emergency situations. By focusing on the planning/design of circulation routes, the knowledge gained will assist in the understanding and implementation of such escape routes in these instances to form recommendations and the basis of the mobile app.

The objectives of this study are as follows: • To identify and categorise reasonable human responses to the current escape plans.

• To propose a visual/ digital approach to the current regulations to aid in legibility for a variety of audiences.

• To compare current escape routes to human behaviour during emergencies.

• To represent the application and its architectural conventions.

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RESEARCH CONTEXT The focus will be on the researcher’s paradigm to provide insight into the context of the study.

To investigate evacuation routes of Building 11, and implementing a simulation of the mobile app to reduce casualties that may be caused by herd behaviour during emergency situations.

RESEARCH PARADIGM The research paradigm allows for the reader to get insight in the decision making process of the researcher throughout this study. A model based on the normative position of the researcher, on how the researcher either accepts the positivist or interpretivist statement. This is explained in Table 2 below, a comparative table from Badewi (2013); which allows the reader to comprehend positivism and interpretivism.

Beliefs & assumptions

Positivist approach

Interpretive approach

Goal of the research

Filling knowledge gaps or finding universal laws.

Solving problems, how do situational and cultural variations shape the reality?

Reality

Single reality in the mind of people.

No single reality – reality differs from context to context

Ontology “what Realist/Objectivist. is the reality”

Constructionist.

Epistemology “how can we get the reality”

Empiricist.

Interpretivist.

Research approach

Deductive (test the theory or test the explanation).

Inductive (develop the theory).

Research methods

Questionnaires.

Focus group, observation, and interviews.

Research design

Fixed design.

Flexible design.

Thesis, paper structure, or conference paper

Abstract, Introduction, Literature Review, Theoretical Framework, Research Methodology, Data Collection, Analysis and Validation.

Abstract, Introduction, Aims &Objectives, Research Questions, Literature Review, Research Methodology, Data Collection, Analysis and Validation.

Voice

Impersonal voice.

Personal voice.

Validity

Validated using statistics.

Validating using interviews

Generalisation

The researcher may be able to generalise.

The researcher cannot generalise the idea.

Comparability

The researcher can compare results from different studies since there are standardised statistical tools.

The researcher cannot compare easily since the observers are different.

Names

Quantitative, Objectivism.

Qualitative, Subjectivism.

Scope

Problems are understood better as a whole if the elements of the problem are reduced into the simple elements.

Problems are understood better as a whole if the totality of the situation is looked at.

Table 02: Differences between positivism and interpretivism as formulated by Badewi (2013).

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+

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Statement = Truth Objective Reality: Establishing a direct relationship between the research statements and reality

Certainty: The data truly measure reality: A direct relationship exists between measurements + phenomena.

Replicability: Research results can be reproduced by the researcher or other researchers to achieve a consistent result.

Theory of truth

Validity

Reliability

Separate: The research object has inherent qualities that exist independently of the researcher

Research object

Content analysis through statistics: Preferred research methods include laboratory experiments, field experiments, and surveys.

Objectivity: Objective reality exists beyond the human mind.

Epistemology

Research method

Detached experience: Person (researcher) and reality are separate

Ontology

Alternative terms: Include: quantitative, scientific, experimental, hard, reductionist, prescriptive, and psychometric.

POSITIVISM

Pre-disposition of researcher on a continuum scale INTERPRETIVISM

Table 03: The normative position of the researcher, using a scale of predisposition as formulated by Laubscher (2011:15)

Meta-theoretical assumptions

Interpretive awareness: Researchers recognise and address the implications of their subjectivity.

The knowledge (claim) is defensible: Evaluation criteria include credibility, transferability, dependability, and ability to confirm

Initial interpretation = Truth confirms a meaning: (from researcher’s experience) Truth as intentional fulfilment: interpretations of research object match lived experience of subject.

Content analysis through interpretation: Preferred research methods include case studies, ethnographic studies, phenomenon-graphic studies, and ethnomethodology studies.

Incorporated: The research object is interpreted in the light of the meaning structure of the person’s (researcher’s) lived experience.

Subjectivity: Knowledge of the world is intentionally constituted through a person’s lived experience

Integrated experience: Person (researcher) and reality are inseparable (life-world).

Alternative terms: Include: qualitative, soft, non-traditional, holistic, descriptive, phenomenological, anthropological, naturalistic, and illuminative.

~

Researcher’s Paradigm

The researcher believes that due to the nature of the study subjectivity will play a major role as human behaviour differs form person to person.

The researcher does accept that the information should be credible and dependable.

The researcher believes that the quantitative data gathered is subject to interpretation that confirms or deforms the research.

The researcher believes that case studies are vital to make final recommendations.

The research object is independent from the researcher and the interpretation will not be affected by the researcher.

The researcher believes subjectivity is key to research though lived experience does sway opinion.

The researcher believes that reality can’t be separated, but strongly agrees that real life can decisions.

Normative position of the researcher

Design research is neither purely positivist nor interpretive. Since validation occurs through the production of an artefact (‘a design’) to which knowledge is sometimes secondary and supportive, rather than forming the aim of the practice.

Strongly

Agree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly

Table 3 summarises the normative position of the researcher, using a scale of predispositions, as formulated by Laubscher (2011:15). Using the format and outline developed by Laubscher (2011:19), the different phases of the research design are communicated in Table 4.

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LITERATURE REVIEW

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INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND SANS 10400 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR DURING EMERGENCY SITUATIONS When disaster strikes: Human behaviour in emergency situations A study of herding behaviour in exit choice during emergencies The role of herding behaviour in exit choice during evacuation Exploratory research on reading cognition and escape route planning using building evacuation diagrams NAVIGATION Follow the evacuation signs or surrounding people during building evacuation A route guidance system for car finding in indoor parking garages Are you gonna go my WAZE CONCLUSION - 13 -

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INTRODUCTION The purpose of this chapter is: • to provide background/insight into current regulations pertaining to escape route planning as stated in the SANS 10400 Part T. • to explore the concept Herd Behaviour (HB) and what influences its occurrence.

• to establish the urgency for a mobile app to reduce the number of casualties during emergency situations.

• to look at the use of a navigational system to act as a reliable guidance system.

This literature review is focused on the impact that HB has when the fight, flight or freeze response overpowers rational thinking during emergency situations. The objective is to identify probable cause for the introduction of a mobile app to counter act the effect of HB as well as the addition of a navigational system to reduce or minimize casualties. The SANS 10400 is studied to provide insight/ determine the parameters or standards as to how escape routes are set out.

According to Banerjee (1992: 810), “the idea of herding has a long history in philosophy and crowd psychology. It is particularly relevant in the domain of finance, where it has been discussed in relation to the collective irrationality of investors, including stock market bubbles.”

Bikhchandi (1992:997) mentions that, “[i]n other areas of decision making, such as politics, science, and popular culture, herd behaviour is sometimes referred to as ‘information cascades’”. Herding behaviour can be increased by various factors, such as fear, uncertainty, or a shared identity of decision makers (Berger, Feldhaus & Ockenfels, 2018:67). “Humans are susceptible to herd mentality, where they conform to activities and direction of others who have shown to be trusted. This can be in the form of how we shop, invest, etc. and those who do not succumb to this behaviour can often feel distressed or fearful. This is quite evident when a crowd is moving in one direction an individual might feel wrong not to follow in the same direction” (Hayes, 2021:1).

SANS 10400 (Part T) The SANS 10400 is a guideline for architects to refer to during the conceptual/ designing stage. All buildings in South Africa have to adhere to these standards The SANS 10400 provides deemed-to-satisfy requirements for compliance with Part T of the National Building Regulations of South Africa in accordance with Act no. 103 of 1977 of the NBR and the Building Standards act (SABS, 2011:5).

Acting as a deem-to-satisfy guideline, most architectural professionals only adhere to the minimum standard which does not require further exploration on improvements that can be made to prevent tragedies in emergency situations (NBR and Building Standards Act 103 of 1977 | South African Government, 2008).

This study will be investigating the implementation of the requirements of the SANS 10400 among South African architects. According to Rhodes University, (2018:1),: “In order to expe- 15 -

dite the evacuation of a workplace in case of fire, every employer shall ensure that... [e]xit doors and exit routes should be clearly marked with the appropriate signage and kept clear at all times”. With the proposed study amendments will be made to ensure all protocols are implemented during the design of a building.

When disaster strikes: human behaviour in emergency situations In an article by Robinson (2012), it is mentioned that, during emergency situations, humans are expected to remain “cool, calm and collected which can undoubtedly improve chances for survival”. But they go on to state that, “[p]sychological research available suggest that people under threat can actually act in a way that puts themselves and others in further danger” (2012:32).

In the article Robinson (2012) refer to unhelpful behaviours that occurs during emergencies which are described as follows: Behaviour during a disaster Robinson makes reference to the Costa Concordia, a cruise ship that sank in 2012. Witnesses made remarks on how the passengers responded to the emergency. Figure 1 below gives an overview of the behaviour during the ships sinking.

Eyewitnesses account for the following data illustrated: • 10 - 25% of passengers acted in a decisive manner which led to constructive behaviour to construct ladders made out of sheets to reach the next deck, while others used applications on their phones to determine their location.

• 65 - 85% acted in an indecisive manner which led to a dazed and puzzled manner.

• The remaining 10 - 15% of the passengers displayed mass hysteria, crying, paralysis & confusion.

Figure 01: Pie chart illustrating the response of passengers on the Costa Concordia by Author (2012)

Denial In the article Robinson et al. (2012) continue to state that during the 1990 Ephrata, Pennsylvania chemical fire, 82% of workers refused to evacuate due to previous experiences that they thought the fire would not affect them directly. It was found that they had holes burned into their jackets as a result of their close proximity to the fire. Other instances show that people are less likely to trust the source of the warning and as a result do not evacuate. Robinson et al. (2012) suggest that people do not want to deviate from the herd. As they are social creatures, they take lead from others and would conform to their behaviour. Lastly, the article suggests that people are ill-informed and do not know what to do in such instances.

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Freezing As humans we have a fight or flight response that takes hold during an emergency situation, Robinson et al. (2012) suggest that there is a third response known as freezing; when the mind falls into a paralysis state. Chittaro (2012:18) in his article on, ‘Passengers’ safety in aircraft evacuations and employing serious games to educate and persuade explains that: “...[e]ducation and training are also important because stress has a negative effect in a real emergency, combined with lack of knowledge about suitable behaviours, produces in some passengers a “cognitive paralysis” phenomenon, where people do not take any action at all, leading to fatalities in otherwise survivable conditions“.

Leach (2004) uses the example of the Hillsborough football stadium disaster in 1989, one eye witness reported seeing a policeman failing to help a girl who was being crushed to death.

The eyewitness stated that “the copper in front of us was just looking. I shouted at him to do something, but he just sort of looked blank. (2004:541)” Stereotypical behaviours During emergency evacuation schema drills, people are inclined to follow the set out procedure which might lead to uncertainty during an emergency. This might lead them into the thick of things, as Robinson et al. (2012) suggest instead of heading to the nearest exit, for example, people might be more inclined to follow their practised routine.

Robinson et al. (2012) refer to another precedent where during September 11, 2001, the attack on the World Trade Centres, some employees took the time to switch off their computers before attempting to evacuate the building. This was directly linked to not having a preplanned schema and the employees implemented their everyday ”leaving” behaviour before leaving the office.

Inappropriate behaviours Inappropriate behaviour can be linked to stereotypical behaviour which suggests that in a life threatening situation people act with clouded judgement. In a time-sensitive event, mistakes are more likely to occur due to poor judgement and incomplete information. With emphasis on a life-saving judgement call the risk of making a poor decision is increased. BBC footage of an earthquake in Japan in March 2011, illustrated that employees of a local supermarket were more concerned about preventing the breakage of alcohol bottles than implementing the evacuation procedure set out for such an emergency.

Karsenty et al. (1991:606) refer to an incident where inappropriate behaviour led to increased casualties in Israel after Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990. After a missile explosion left 1059 people in the emergency room, only 22% of the casualties were directly caused by the explosion.

The remaining 78% was due to inappropriate behaviour. The incident report showed that 230 patients blindly injected atropine (a medication used to treat certain types of nerve agent, pesticide poisonings as well as treat symptoms of low heart rate without being exposed to any poisonous chemicals released by the explosion. 40 patients locked themselves in a sealed off room while 7 suffocated as a result of not opening the air filter of their gas masks.

Memory failures Memory is a fickle thing, for instance forgetting your home address when filling out a form

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can be frustrating under normal circumstances, forgetting your home address when calling the fire department for help as your house is burning down is a completely different situation.

People surviving an emergency confessed that they forgot emergency procedures, which left them helpless and in harm’s way. There is a possible explanation to this occurrence explains Robinson et al. (2008:119), “...the body releases high levels of the stress hormone cortisol which in turn can affect parts of the brain which are responsible for memory processing.“ There are more explanations for this occurrence in memory loss, but this might explain why people forget emergency procedures and do not remember how to use emergency equipment during such events.

Human behaviour is an inconsistent phenomenon that has unmeasurable variables to observe, as each person has a different personality, age, gender, past experience, education, etc. to name a few. The manner in which they respond are directly linked with these factors, but external factors also have an effect on how the experience is perceived. Human behaviour is not the only cause of casualties, but it does govern the actions in response to the situation.

A study of herding behaviour in exit choice during emergencies In a study by Lovreglio et al. (2016), there is a need to understand the occurrence of herd behaviour and why certain exit choices are more desired even though they may not be the best ones. The authors of the paper investigated theoretical explanations presented together with modelling approaches where herd behaviour is applicable. An experiment was conducted to determine the decision-making process of individuals displaying herd behaviour during emergency situations concerning exit choices during evacuation.

The result shows that personal and environmental factors both play a vital role in the decision-making process in choosing an exit. But the model showed that a personal tendency towards herd behaviour can have a key role in selecting an exit route.

The role of herd behaviour in exit choice during evacuation An important subject to investigate is the behavioural choices of human beings during emergency situations. This study was aimed at investigating the influences that imply the manifestation of herding behaviour among people during emergency situations. This study made use of an online survey to accumulate sufficient data that can provide evidence to prove that this behaviour originates from the environment and characteristics of the users infrastructure. The result showed that peoples taste for decision making was rooted in the number of people close to exits along with their socio-economic characteristics.

Herding behaviour occurs whenever people behave as a group by putting aside their ability to act as individuals (Saloma and Perez, 2005). In the exit choice context, herding behaviour means that the decision-maker chooses the most congested exit only because that is the most popular choice, rather than an exit with fewer people which may ensure a lower evacuation time. This behaviour is directly influenced by social influences that occur during evacuations (Pan, 2006).

Nilsson et al. (2009) explains that social influence theory splits the social interaction among users of an infrastructure into normative and informative social influence. According to Deutsch et al. (1955) normative social influences concern the “influence to conform to the positive expectations of another”

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and informative social influences deal with the “influence to accept information obtained from another as evidence about reality.” The normative can be interpreted as people being afraid to stand out from the crowd and thus conforming to the groups norm; while the informative is seen as a source of knowledge on how the group should respond during the uncertainty of events.

Lovreglio et al. (2014) explains that during evacuations other people may be seen as both a source to understand what is happening and an example of how to behave (Informative Social Influence). On the other hand, the social norms that emerge during emergencies may also force people to behave differently in order to avoid embarrassment (Normative Social Influence). According to Helbing et al.

(2002) the transition between the rational normal behaviour and the apparently irrational panic behaviour is directly related to the level of nervousness of a decision-maker, even if herding behaviour can be seen as the result of a rational process.

Exploratory research on reading cognition and escape route planning using building evacuation diagrams Escape route plans are exactly as the name suggests, a plan that indicates the nearest exits and gives an indication of what route to follow to reach an exit in the fastest possible time.

Researchers Tang, Lin & Hsu (2008:209) state... “evacuation plan diagrams are for readers to comprehend and then plan an evacuation route. However, comprehending such diagrams involves complex issues that have yet to be addressed by research.”

Referring to Figure 2 below, this statement specifically mentions the comprehension of an escape route diagram.

Figure 02: A representation of interpretation by Tang, Lin & Hsu (2008).

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The study was based on how people are able to interpret evacuation diagrams of buildings in the surrounding area. The experimental variables included the amount of time needed for a general member of society to interpret and plan an escape route. The researchers constant was a floor plan of a local department store that was used for the cognitive aspect of the experiment. This experiment was conducted online by researchers Tang, Lin & Hsu (2008) with the results supplied are as follows... “the time it takes to plan an escape route is about 1.1 to 2 times longer than its reading time” (2008:209).

This background provides the basis for this research by providing the necessary data that proves a significant time difference between the interpretation and planning of evacuation plans. This provides an argument that general members of society take longer to plan an evacuation route, which is a result of having difficulty interpreting/reading the diagram.

As architects, we have an obligation to provide a safe and easily accessible structure, which in turn, provides a space of comfort for the inhabitants. In contrast to this statement the research of Tang, Lin & Hsu, (2008) also shows that understanding the difference between interpretations by the general public versus those with an architectural background, an analysis showed that the general public takes 2 to 3 times longer than architectural professionals to read a diagram and plan an escape route.

To improve escape, diagrams may be a solution, although it does leave opportunity for error.

Implementation of an easy to use, legible and trustworthy method may be the solution to reducing casualties during emergencies.

In conclusion, this literature review has given good reason for the exploration of a mobile guidance application that should reduce the reading time and planning time significantly. The interpretation aspect will be reduced significantly as the application will provide the necessary information needed for an efficient escape.

Follow the evacuation signs or surrounding people during building evacuation Signage is a vital aspect when it comes to navigation. This is especially the case when it comes to navigation through a building. Room names/numbers, floor level, exit indicators, bathrooms, etc. are important to notice. During emergencies it’s of the utmost importance to have signage visible at all times indicating the exit, fire-hose, fire extinguisher, etc. although there are other external contributing factors that play a role during evacuations - one of which is people.

A research experiment has been conducted by researchers Zhu, Chen, Ding, Chraibi & Fan (2020:125), that aims to investigate the impact of surrounding pedestrians on sign guidance efficiency. Their research states that...

“In order to test the efficiency of evacuation signage, the traditional methods are video analysis and after-drill questionnaires, and the human factors are rarely considered.”

The researchers introduced three variables into this experiment namely no distributors, strangers and acquaintances. The researchers Zhu, Chen, Ding, Chraibi & Fan (2020:125)

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introduced these variables as follows: “(a) the subjective ignorance and objective ignorance of signs exist obviously and are affected by surrounding people number; (b) strangers and acquaintances have similar effect on the sign detection probability and direction choosing probability in the safe and quick evacuation experiments, contrary to general belief; (c) one surrounding person has an important influence on the sign guidance effect, especially on the following probability, while three surrounding people not.”

These three variables were tested on more than 500 people and the results are depicted in figure 3 below. This figure indicates two sets of experimentation on being only reliant on the signage provided and the other with the provided signage along with surrounding pedestrians. By studying this figure, it is evident that in the case of an emergency route, human instinct allows for herd behaviour to take control and lose sight of the provided signage.

Figure 03: Graphical representation of signage vs. people by Zhu, Chen, Ding, Chraibi & Fan (2020) Redrawn by Author

In conclusion, this literature review provides another argument that favours a mobile guidance application, as the provided navigational signage is easily overpowered by the effects of herd mentality. The study is inconclusive as to whether the herd has led the participants to safety or not, but nonetheless, the study does provide the researcher with probable cause.

A route guidance system for car finding in indoor parking garages

In this paper researchers, Lee & Wang (2016) proposed and designed a route guidance system for people’s cars parked in indoor parking garages. They explain... [t]he present system comprises a positioning- assisting subsystem and a car-finding mobile app. The positioning-assisting subsystem mainly uses iBeacon technology for indoor positioning. The car-finding mobile app guides car owners to their cars based on a non-map navigational strategy.

They further explain that the proposed positioning system is implemented on Arduino and

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Android platforms for the mobile app. The proposed system has been implemented on their campus for testing with experimental results that the system can efficiently direct people to their parking spaces.

This proposal was based on the reality that the number of cars are growing worldwide and that its common for people to forget where they’ve parked their car. It is mainly focused on indoor parking garages that have a number of floors that can make the mundane task of finding one’s car a truly strenuous task. They also mention that: “[t]he key factor to realize car finding services in the indoor environment are localization mechanisms and guidance information presentation. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) has become a widely used localization scheme for outdoor environments, but it is not applicable for indoor environments because of inaccurate positioning caused by environmental limitations. A more suitable indoor localization technology is the micro-location technique based on iBeacon technology. The iBeacon technology operates over Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) which is power saving and low-cost” (Lee & Wang, 2016:1715).

The mobile app adopts a “Turn-by-Turn” guidance strategy. The turn-by-turn guidance strategy that indicates the turning point instead of showing a map to follow. Researchers Lee & Wang (2016:1715) make mention of the following assumptions: • Users enter or exit the parking garage only via the pedestrian access.

• Users do not randomly walk but only walk alongside the aisles.

• Users smartphones have built-in Bluetooth modules and have already had our car finding app installed.

• Users follow the routing guidance advised by the proposed system, and • The users’ orientation always conforms to the routing guidance direction indicated by the proposed system.

Figure 4 is taken from the article written by Lee & Wang (2016), explaining the system model.

They explain that the concept is based on a rectangular garage, with 90 degree, perpendicular parking spaces. There is a pedestrian access in the bottom left corner with each parking space having a unique number. Along each aisle is an iBeacon device placed in the middle of each block of parking bays. The beacons assist with the localization of each user. They make use of a power control mechanism to adjust the transmission power of each iBeacon device, so that each smartphone only receives the iBeacon signal transmitted by the iBeacon device on the aisle in which the user’s car is located.

Their current system uses two strategies, namely the non-map and the walk straight first.

These two systems work on a similar principle.

• The non-map principle also known as the “Turn-by-Turn” strategy only provides the user with indications on where to turn.

• Only when the user reaches the lane in which their car is located a detailed map is displayed to guide them to the correct location. With this method, minimal attention is required from the user.

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Pedestrian access - iBeacon Device

- Parking Space

- Pillar

Figure 04: Parking layout exemplified in this research by Lee & Wang (2016). Redrawn by Author

Figure 5 displays the walk straight first option, which allows the user to reach their location with the least number of turns. As seen in Figure 5, there are 3 routes for the user to take marked A, B and C. Route A requires one turn whereas B and C require 3. This strategy is incorporated into the non-map principle and the user will only receive instruction on when to turn. Thus, providing the fastest route possible.

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A

B

C

Figure 05: Illustration of walk-straight first strategy by Lee & Wang (2016). Redrawn by Author

Are you gonna go my WAZE A navigational guidance system for road-users known as WAZE works on a crowd-sourced data (the data that is acquired from the general public) principle, where all data received concerning accidents are reported by the general public. Other principles like ITS (intelligent transport systems) exist, though expensive, the data is more reliable, whereas crowdsourcing is able to deliver the right type of information in a cost-effective manner. “WAZE offers agencies access to their crowd-sourced incident data in exchange for access to agency incident data, attribution, and co-marketing of the WAZE platform. It’s an impressive, forward-thinking program that is exciting many operations and planners alike” explains Pack (2017:29).

A contrasting opinion from TMC (Traffic Management Centre) staff has raised distrust in this system due to the fact that the general public does not need to adhere to strict rules and regulations thus allowing false incidents to be reported of locations of incidents are not reported precisely. Other short-lived incidents explained by Pack (2017) like flat tires, people taking a phone call or even police presence are worrisome factors for the TMC. Pack (2017) explains...

Agencies are scared of redis-

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tributing these incidents for fear that the public will start to distrust the agency and/or the agency will be accused of doing a bad job of managing incidents.

Turn-by-turn instructions

The main focus of this application was to design a navigational application for the people by the people to ensure safety on the roads, and to make the journey less worrisome. The application has a few key features that makes it an interactive and pleasurable experience Figure 06 provides a breakdown of the interface.

Incidents on the road

Speedometer Other Wazer’s Current location

An appealing feature to the app is that all the users are able to see other users of the app. The report function allows a user to report certain incidents on the road that provides other “Wazer’s” with information beforehand, to plan an alternative route. This function allows users to report the following incidents: • • • • • •

Report options Estimated time of arrival, distance, and time left to travel Figure 06: Waze Interface by Apple Inc.(2021).

Traffic Police Crash Hazards Map issues Closures

This application provides a service and allows for a safe journey for all “Wazer’s”.

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CONCLUSION The research indicates that a mobile guidance application could prove to be beneficial in the current digital era. The research suggests that due to herd behaviour influencing the decision-making process, the implementation of such a service could reduce casualties. As discussed in the review herd behaviour is not the only variable to consider as the human psyche is a complicated entity to comprehend, as each person’s experience is different. The possibility of introducing a crowd sourced data system into the app provides users with the ability to update incidents during the evacuation. This will allow for the navigation to be adjusted and calculate accordingly.

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PILOT STUDY

INTRODUCTION METHODOLOGY DATA The Grenfell Towers The Bank of Lisbon INTERPRETATION CONCLUSION

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INTRODUCTION The pilot study aims to provide evidence that there is a demand for a mobile application that acts as a guidance system during emergency situations. The study is based on the conclusion drawn from the literature review, that herd behaviour influences peoples decision making process. A comparative study will be conducted to establish whether a mobile application has promise.

This portion is focused on sub problem 1 and its related hypothesis mentioned below: • Sub-Problem 1: Considering herd behaviour influences the decision making process, would a digital navigational platform improve the efficiency of escape routes?

• Hypothesis 1: Compared to posted escape routes that require pre-planned routes for each individual that may cause confusion during emergency situations, it is hypothesised that a digital navigational system in the form of a mobile application would increase the efficiency of escape routes.

METHOD The main approach to this pilot study is to conduct a qualitative desk study that focuses on the grounded theory, where the researcher will collect data on the topic of herd behaviour and develop a theory based on the findings. The researcher will focus on papers, articles, and dissertations related to herd behaviour to provide an informed opinion based on an inductive research approach. This study references information acquired during the literature review portion of the study.

DATA In an article written by S.J. Robinson & T.D. Higgins in 2012 titled: “When disaster strikes: Human behaviour in emergency exits“, they explain that human behaviour falls within six categories namely: • • • • • •

Behaviour during a disaster Denial Freezing Stereotypical behaviours Inappropriate behaviours Memory failures

There is a clear contrast described within the literature review that illustrates two groups of people, those who buckle under the threat of an emergency and those who take action. For example, Robinson et al. (2021) refers to the cruise ship named Costa Concordia that was sinking in 2012, where three typical behaviours were displayed. Constructive, Indecisive & Paralysis being the three main behaviours that took control of the people on the ship. With the constructive portion of people on the ship being the smallest and the rest displaying paralyzed - 29 -

and indecisive behaviour during the emergency situation. According to Pisa (2013) Captain Francesco Shettino failed to inform authorities of what had happened and abandoned ship while dozens of passengers were still on-board. There were 32 casualties while other sources suggest that the 32 casualties offered their life vests to others and cleared the decks to help save others hiding in cabins. Although these casualties are the result of a few heroes saving stragglers, their deaths are a direct cause of herd behaviour causing stragglers to wander off to remote parts of the ship and hide in their cabins.

The Grenfell Towers In June 2017, the Grenfell Towers’, a 23-storey building exterior skin that is owned by the West London Council of Kensington and Chelsea, caught fire (BBC News, 2019:1-3). The building burnt out in 24 hours, resulting in the loss of 72 lives. Though there are many speculations on how the loss of lives could have been averted, few refer to the issues regarding the impractical fire escape routes that were feeding into the elevator shaft (Cambridge, 2019).

The escape measures of the Grenfell Towers used the “stay put” strategy, requiring all building inhabitants to “stay put” until the fire brigade came to rescue each person (Zeiba, 2019). By the time the fire brigade arrived at the scene, approximately half of the building was evacuated. The remaining 72 people, already trapped, could not be rescued by the firefighters (BBC News, 2019:1-3).

The 72 casualties that were trapped inside the Grenfell Towers in, June 2017 was the result of a strategy that was implemented to avoid mass panic and allow the firefighters to assist people individually to evacuate the structure. This strategy placed people in a situation to either follow the laid out procedure or get stuck in the burning building.

The Bank of Lisbon In 2018, the 23rd floor of the Bank of Lisbon (BOL) building located at 37 Sauer Street in Johannesburg CBD, caught fire. The BOL building accommodated two government departments, namely the Gauteng Health Department and Human Settlements Department.

According to Tau (2018), firefighters struggled to reach and contain the blaze. Strong winds hampered helicopter assistance. The then Gauteng MEC for Infrastructure Development, Jacob Mamabolo, confirmed three firefighters’ deaths (Daniel, 2018).

The first firefighter lost his footing on a ledge of the 23rd floor and plummeted to his death on the street below.Two firefighters later succumbed to their injuries after being trapped in the burning building.

“The BOL building was only 21% compliant with fire regulations”, said Odendaal (2019).

Tau (2018) states that the Gauteng MEC flagged the BOL building early in 2018 as unsafe, saying: “[t]he building does not comply with occupational health and safety, [and] was not compliant with the basic regulations.”

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INTERPRETATION The pilot study identified problematic scenarios concerning herd behaviour where people had to risk their lives to save others and procedures set in place that caused people to follow the instructions blindly instead on evacuating the premises. These casualties could have been avoided, although these casualties are in some instances their own fault, but herd behaviour attributes had caused the loss of lives in most of these scenarios. The casualties due to herd behaviour obtained from the research data above can be summarised in Figure 7 below.

80 70

Key: CC GT BOL

CASUALTIES

60 50 40

- Costa Concordia - Grenfell Towers - Bank of Lisbon

30 20 10 0

CC GT BOL CASE STUDIES ABOVE

Figure 07: Graphical representation of casualties in case studies by Author (2021)

CONCLUSION It is evident through the pilot study and the research obtained in the literature review that HB, has a positive and negative effect on people during the decision-making process. The concept of a mobile application could greatly reduce the negatively affected populace and reduce casualties during emergency situations.

The proposed mobile application acts as a navigational system that guides the users to safety during an emergency situation. This application makes use of a crowd source-based system where the users inside the building help update the escape route for everyone to safely exit the building. The application should have a SOS signal to be sent to the nearest first responders when the emergency protocol has been initiated.

The app is to be used in buildings specifically to help reduce the loss of life and increase individuality among users instead of allowing for herd behaviour to take hold and create possible havoc during emergency situations.

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USER INTERFACE

04

INTRODUCTION APPLICATION & OCCUPANCY REGISTRATION USER ESTABLISHMENT BASIC INTERFACE PUSH NOTIFICATION SUBMIT RECEIVE (FOLLOW) NAVIGATION

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INTRODUCTION In this chapter the design and build of the mobile app interface will be discussed which give the user ease of use when it is needed most. During this chapter, an in depth look into the application and occupation of the mobile app will be discussed that will provide the foreground for the User Interface (UI).

To understand the core principle of the app we will look at the registration to the app. Like most applications, users are to be held accountable for any misuse of the application, to ensure its reliable, effective and trusted.

To improve the quality of the user interface design a few key principles need to be addressed namely: • • • • •

Structure Simplicity Visibility Feedback Reuse

“They remove a lot of the guesswork and make interfaces more predictable and, therefore, easier to use” (Bieller,2021:1). These five principles are explained by Bieler(2021) as follows:

Structure Principle: Organising a purposeful and practical manner that is clear and apparent for users, combining relatable features and discarding the unrelated.

Simplicity Principle: Make the familiar tasks easy in a relatable tone and ensure accessibility for long procedures.

Visibility Principle: What you see is what you get. Allowing the user to consume all relevant data without distractions. Good designs don’t overwhelm users with alternatives or confuse them with unnecessary information.

Feedback Principle: The design should keep users informed of actions or interpretations, changes of state or condition, and errors or exceptions that are relevant and of interest to the user through clear, concise, and unambiguous language familiar to users.

Reuse Principle: Maintaining a consistent behaviour with purpose will minimize the need for users to re-evaluate and remember.

The conceptualisation of the interface will be based on these principles and a basic design will emerge that will explore the design possibilities for the functions of the app.

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APPLICATION AND OCCUPANCY During emergency situations, three ambiguous terms come forth known as panic, irrationality and herding. These three terms are the classification of the human psyche during distress.

While mass panic and self-preservation are often assumed to be the natural response to physical danger and perceived entrapment, the literature indicates that expressions of mutual aid are common and often predominate, and collective flight may be so delayed that survival is threatened (Mawson, 2005).

Herd like mentality does exist, not always to an impending demise, but due to a familiarity aspect. Human beings are seen as creatures of habit that tend to seek and stay in familiar company and settings. Mawson (2005) further explains that the typical response to a variety of threats and disasters is not to flee, but to seek the proximity of familiar persons and places.

This argues that humans are likely to see a detachment from attachment figures as a larger threat than the physical imminent danger.

If this does seem to be the case in most situations, the application for the mobile app is rightfully directed to frequent and infrequent users of buildings. This can be justified by the assumption that these users are familiar with something or someone in the building, be it their home, family, friend or acquaintance. During an emergency, the user would either rescue or follow the familiar instead of losing sight of that what is deemed precious.

The application for this mobile app shall then from now on be associated with a commercial office block and like-minded institutions that consists of a large group/ staff that are familiar with their surroundings but allows for the frequent guest appearance e.g. clients, visitors, etc. With these parameters set out all participants are familiar with either the building or staff.

These parameters allows for panic, irrationality and herding during emergency situation.

Figure 08:Typical herd behaviour by Author (2021)

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REGISTRATION USER REGISTRATION Registration is a key feature of the app. This is mainly to make the user known. Simply put the information obtained from registering will act as a GPS marker while the app is actively in use. The user’s profile picture will act as a live tracker to pinpoint their location upon activation when entering the establishment.

During an emergency situation this will allow the first responders to assess the situation and determine the number of users that might still be trapped inside the premises. Upon assessment the evacuation teams can pinpoint the user still trapped and assist in a more efficient manner to reduce casualties.

Figure 09: Registration of personal information by Author (2021)

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Figure 9 gives indication to what information would be required from the user. In the event of injuries where the user needs medical attention the information can be used to access medical files using the identification number provided. The app acts as a digital information card that has the necessary information required for medical staff to assist.

In addition to the user providing their personal information for the registration process, the app stores details for a next of kin in the event of an emergency. The mobile app will be able to notify the next of kin about the occurrence.

Figure 10 represents the information required from the next of kin to enable the notification process in the event of an emergency. This function can be perceived as follows:

Figure 10: Registration for next of kin information by Author (2021)

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The user is admitted to a facility where their belongings are handed over, including their mobile device. The staff attending to the user can gain access to the digital identification card along with the option to notify the next of kin. This form of communication can be either via message or via call. After the notification has been completed, the mobile app will cease with any functionality that was required upon scanning the QR code at the previous location allowing for a new QR code to be scanned.

ESTABLISHMENT REGISTRATION For the mobile app to function, establishments need to register and provide the app with some details to be able to make use of their services. There are a few vital elements that will need to be provide by the establishment, for example: • Name • Location (GPS coordinates) • Floor plans These three categories will be divided between two parties, namely the establishment and the company. The reason for this is to define the parameters as the business that rents space in the office block/ establishment does not have access to the building plans that are required to set out a navigational system. The building plans are held by the owners of the building and are liable for any damage to be repaired to create a safe working environment.

The company is restricted to the use of their contractually agreed upon workspace with the establishment and are required to provide their layout in order to create an efficient navigational system. The company will be required to state their company name, location i.e. floors applicable to their contract, and GPS coordinates for the exact building location. With all these pre-requisites in place, an ample amount of information is obtained to create a sufficient navigational layout to be used for an emergency escape route.

Figure 11: Esbablishment registration information by Author (2021)

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BASIC INTERFACE The interface should be user-friendly, to make all the overwhelming tasks as simple as possible. By providing a simple and uncomplicated interface users won’t have to follow confusing and time- wasting steps to achieve their goal. In this case, the goal is to report an emergency, follow the navigational instructions to escape an emergency situation and to reach safety in the shortest time possible.

Figure 12 below gives an indication of the workings of the app and all the features that will be available to users who make use of this service.

Figure 12: Flowchart explaining the features of the Interface/ app by Author (2021)

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DROP DOWN MENU - Settings - Feedback - About

USER PROFILE - Personal Information - Next of Kin QR SCAN - New Visit - Push Notification - Exit Visit

Figure 13: Main screen interface representation by Author (2021)

As shown in Figure 13, there are three main actions that leads the user to sub actions. These actions are as follows: - Drop down menu - User profile - QR Scan Figure 14 represents the main/home screen of the app where the user can access any of the three actions above, which will each contain their own sub actions. As illustrated above, the user can access the drop down menu that: • will allow them to make changes to the settings.

• they will be able to give feedback to the design team, which in return can provide them with information that can assist in creating a smoother running app or improve on the interface.

• the about feature which will allow the user to see what version of the app is currently installed and provide them with a short synopsis on what the app was designed for.

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Figure 14: Drop-down menu interface by Author (2021)

In Figure 15 the user can access their profile where they can: • update their personal information.

• update their next of kin information.

• also, they will be able to update a profile picture that will be used as an avatar during the navigation portion of the app during an emergency.

Figure 15: Personal information interface by Author (2021)

Figure 16 explains how the user has to gain access to the guidance system incase an emergency occurs. This can be obtained through the QR code that is supplied by the building/ company the user intends to visit. With this feature the user will be able to: • create a new visit, this term refers to the user scanning the QR code to gain access to the guidance system.

• after scanning the QR code the user will gain access to the push notification feature which can be used when an emergency occurs.

• exit their latest visit, by scanning the exit QR code provided at the door. Access will also expire at COB of each day.

Figure 16: QR code scan interface by Author (2021)

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Scanning the QR code creates a new visit for the user and permits the activation of the GPS positioning needed to track the user through the building for a limited time. The access time is determined by the owners to limit the usage of the building plans for visitors making use of the facility. The QR code gives the user access to the basic layout of the building which is provided by the building owners. The plans are only required to show interior and exterior walls, entrances, exits and movement routes to provide a level of security for the building.

Sensitive information is excluded to add privacy and does not allow the public free access to complete building plans.

Through the scanning of the QR code, an immediate navigational course can be plotted to direct the user from their current position inside the building to the nearest emergency exit.

The navigational system process is explained in Figure 18 below:

Figure 17: Flow diagram of how GPS system operates by AIP Publishing & redrawn by Author (2017)

Figure 17 gives a graphical representation of the live tracking system that is activated with each new visit created by a user. This tracks the users location in the background while they carry on with business as usual.

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PUSH NOTIFICATION To ensure an easy and accessible manner for users to report an incident, a push notification element is introduced. This method of communication allows any user to report an incident anywhere within the building by means of a single action. There are two options for users to use as indicated by the flow diagram in Figure 12, namely an option to submit and an option to follow. They are explained as follows: SUBMIT This action allows for a user to submit an emergency. For the purpose of this explanation, the emergency that will be handled is the occurrence of a fire in a building. After a user has created a new visit a button will become visible for the user to press, this can be seen in Figure 18 below.

The illustration represents the emergency push notification button. This feature is automatically enabled for each user entering the building creating a new visit to the facility. Activation of this button requires the user to push and hold the button for five seconds. This is to prevent any accidental activation of the notification system.

Once the button has been activated, the following virtual processes are run in the background: • Notification - fellow users - first responders • Navigation - user location - nearest emergency exit - route calculation

Figure 18: Push Notification Interface by Author (2021)

These processes happen simultaneously to ensure efficiency and evacuate everyone inside the building in a safe and orderly fashion.

The application provides for a series of different emergency scenarios from which the users are able to choose from, including the following: - Fire - Flood - Terrorist attack - Earthquake - Chemical spill - Etc.

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To give the reader a more comprehensive idea of the push notification, a graphically illustrated flow diagram explains the actions in Figure 19.

These actions are as follows: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Emergency has occurred Submitter submits the emergency Push notification button has been activated Signal is broadcast First responders to arrive and assist.

4.

3.

5.

2.

1.

Figure 19: Flow diagram illustrating physical actions by Author (2021)

With the physical action being to interact with the interface (explained in Figure 19), there are digital actions taking place instantaneously after the action of submitting an emergency has been completed. These digital actions are illustrated graphically in Figure 20.

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1.

6.

5.

2.

4.

3.

Figure 20: Flow diagram illustrating digital (behind the scenes) actions by Author (2021)

The actions illustrated above are as follows: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Emergency is submitted.

Signal is transmitted to first responders.

Notification from the submitter is received at first responders HQ. Information from QR code created is received communicating the location and the current emergency that is ongoing.

5. Information is dispatched to the nearest relevant first responders in the vicinity.

6. First responders on route to emergency location.

RECEIVE (FOLLOW) After the submission of the emergency from a user, the push notification button becomes inoperable for all users in the same building (those who have scanned in with the same QR code) and enters the receive mode. A notification is broadcast to all users in the building simultaneously warning them about the emergency. See Figure 21.

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Each user making use of the app, that has entered and scanned the relevant QR code will receive a notification. This notification allows the user to open the app that will display the navigational guidance system, that has been tracking their location from the initial QR code scan in figure 22.

Figure 21: Notification message to Receiver (Follower) by Author(2021)

Figure 22: Live tracking function from initial QR scan by Author(2021)

With the physical action being to interact with the interface (explained in figure 21), there are digital actions taking place instantaneously after the action of opening the receiving (following) notification. These digital actions are illustrated graphically in figure 23.

1.

2.

6.

The actions illustrated above are as follows:

3.

5.

4.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Submission occurs.

Notification is broadcast.

Notification received.

Warning about emergency is viewed.

5. App is opened.

6. Location is being acquired via live tracking and evacuation route is being determined.

Figure 23: Emergency protocol notification by Author(2021)

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NAVIGATION This portion entails the Navigational portion of the mobile app. All the information discussed has led to the guidance system, the system that in the event of an emergency will guide all the users to the emergency exit in the shortest time. The navigational system adopts the Turn-byTurn strategy which indicates the users next step as they approach their next turn. This strategy will incorporate a detailed map so that the user can continuously see all the activity around them.

The guidance system will also adopt a crowd sourced approach to rely on information acquired during the navigational segment. Figure 24 displays the basic navigational interface along with the information that will be displayed during an evacuation scenario. There are 5 key features that are explained below.

1. The Turn-by-Turn strategy that indicates to the user the distance until they are required to turn.

2. An icon that illustrates other users of the app, this icon acts as a head count for all the users currently still inside the premises. The icon will be able to assist first responders on scene to indicate the number of people still inside the building during the evacuation.

3. This icon displays the current users location and indicates in which direction they are moving .

4. From this button, the crowd sourcing can be enabled, where users are able to pinpoint other instances of the current emergency.

5. A pinpoint marker of where the emergency has originated from. These markers can be placed anywhere users find other instances related to the current emergency. With these markers, the guidance system will be able to recalculate the users evacuation path.

Figure 24: Basic navigational interface by Author (2021)

The main purpose of the navigational system is to provide users with the fastest route possible to the nearest emergency exit. As a result, herd behaviour should be minimized as each user’s evacuation route will be in the palm of their hand.

• • • •

The assumptions are as follows: that all users have their mobile devices on their person that all users have a functioning network provider that all users comply with the navigation and do not follow their own routes to try get to an exit.

• that this app is for emergency use only and no false incident reports are made.

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SIMULATION

INTRODUCTION SIMULATION

05 - 49 -

- 50 -

INTRODUCTION In this chapter a simulation of the application is illustrated in the event of an emergency with the use of photographs depicting locations in the building and 3 dimensional and 2 dimensional graphical illustrations. The building that was chose for the simulation is Building 11 located on the Tshwane University of Technology Pretoria West campus. These photographs will be displayed in sequence with a plan showing the current location within the building.

Two sets of scenarios will be depicted, from the submitters point of view and the other from the receivers point of view.

The scenario is a follows: A fire has been started in building 11 on the ground floors meeting room’s kitchen that has consumed the meeting room area. From the point of origin it has spread from ground floor to the second floor by means of the elevator shaft. The submitter has activated the emergency push notification protocol and has been guided to safety. The receiver has opened the notification indicating the emergency protocol to follow. From the second floor library the receiver will be guided through the building to the nearest emergency exit.

To add to the emergency the second floor door leading to the roof and fire escape stairs has been chained up as a result of electronic malfunctions in the magnetic lock. As a result, this door can not be used as an emergency escape and an alternative exit has to be located.

The plans are illustrated in its basic form to provide an essence of privacy to the building owners/ companies. The navigational route is based on these plans displayed in figure 26.

The 3D models are displayed below in figures 27, 28, 29. Notice that with the initial 3D shows no detail and with the scan of the QR code the models are populated with the escape doors & stairs.

Figure 25: Building 11, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria west campus

by Sustainable Design (2014). Graphically enhanced by Author (2021)

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SECOND FLOOR SCALE: NTS

FIRST FLOOR SCALE: NTS

GROUND FLOOR SCALE: NTS Figure 26: Building plans for building 11 redrawn by Author (2021)

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Figure 27: 3D Representation for Ground Floor by Author (2021)

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Figure 28: 3D representation for First Floor by Author (2021)

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Figure 29: 3D Representation for Second Floor by Author (2021)

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Figure 30: Photgraph of QR code scanning by Author (2021)

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Figure 30, represents the entering of the building and the initial scanning of the QR code to gain access to the building plans and guidance system. Live location tracking is enabled from this point forward.

CURRENT LOCATION

Figure 31: 3D Location on Ground Floor (Scanning) by Author (2021)

CURRENT LOCATION

GROUND FLOOR

Figure 32: Location on Ground Floor Plan (Scanning) by Author (2021)

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SCALE: NTS

Figure 33: Photograph of submission of the emergency by Author (2021)

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Figure 33, represents the submission of an emergency and broadcasting the notification to all users using the mobile application. In the scenario a fire has originated in the meeting room kitchen.

CURRENT LOCATION

EMERGENCY ORIGIN

Figure 34: 3D Location on Ground Floor (Submission) by Author (2021)

CURRENT LOCATION

GROUND FLOOR

EMERGENCY ORIGIN Figure 35: Location on Ground Floor Plan (Submission) by Author (2021)

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SCALE: NTS

Figure 36: Photograph with Navigational turn 01 by Author (2021)

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Figure 36, represents the path from the origin of submission to the first turn-by-turn instruction that indicates a straight path until further notification.

CURRENT LOCATION

NAVIGATIONAL PATH

Figure 37: 3D Location on Ground Floor (Navigation 01) by Author (2021)

CURRENT LOCATION

SCALE: NTS

NAVIGATIONAL PATH

Figure 38: Location on Ground Floor Plan (Navigation 01) by Author (2021)

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GROUND FLOOR

Figure 39: Photograph with Navigational turn 02 by Author (2021)

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Figure 39, represents the path from the submission to current location. This also indicates the location of other users in the vicinity.

CURRENT LOCATION

NAVIGATIONAL PATH Figure 40: 3D Location on Ground Floor (Navigation 02) by Author (2021)

CURRENT LOCATION

SCALE: NTS

NAVIGATIONAL PATH

Figure 41: Location on Ground Floor Plan (Navigation 02) by Author (2021)

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GROUND FLOOR

Figure 42: Photograph of Desitination by Author (2021)

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Figure 42, indicates the final location of the evacuation route from the previous turn that was indicated by the navigational system. The final destination is only an indication of the extent of the building plans.

CURRENT LOCATION

DESTINATION

NAVIGATIONAL PATH Figure 43: 3D Location on Ground Floor to Desitination by Author (2021)

DESTINATION

CURRENT LOCATION

NAVIGATIONAL PATH

SCALE: NTS

GROUND FLOOR

Figure 44: Location on Ground Floor Plan to Destination by Author (2021)

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Figure 45: Photograph of Notification by Author (2021)

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Figure 45, represents the receiving of the notification of an imminent emergency that has occurred. The user opens up the notification that calculates a navigational route for the user with the live tracking system implemented into the guidance system.

CURRENT LOCATION

Figure 46: 3D Location on Second Floor of Notification by Author (2021)

CURRENT LOCATION SCALE: NTS

SECOND FLOOR

Figure 47: Location on Second Floor of Notification by Author (2021)

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Figure 48: Photograph Instruction 01 by Author (2021)

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Figure 48, shows the calculated route for the receiver of the notification, along with the location of other users in the vicinity.

CURRENT LOCATION

NAVIGATIONAL PATH Figure 49: 3D Location on Second Floor (Instruction 01) by Author (2021)

CURRENT LOCATION

NAVIGATIONAL PATH

SCALE: NTS

SECOND FLOOR

Figure 50: Location on Second Floor (Instruction 01) by Author (2021)

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Figure 51: Photograph Instruction 02 by Author (2021)

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Figure 51, represents the user’s location with other users’ locations, with the navigation path and the origin of the emergency that has spread; those were reported by other users making use of the application.

NAVIGATIONAL PATH CURRENT LOCATION

EMERGENCY ORIGIN Figure 52: 3D Location on Second Floor (Instruction 02) by Author (2021)

EMERGENCY ORIGIN CURRENT LOCATION EMERGENCY ORIGIN

SCALE: NTS

NAVIGATIONAL PATH

Figure 53: Location on Second Floor (Instruction 02) by Author (2021)

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SECOND FLOOR

Figure 54: Photograph with Instruction 03 by Author (2021)

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Figure 54, shows the path that the user is taking due to the emergency that took place that rerouted the user to another route of safety. This allows the app to reroute the user from one emergency path to another. Ahead is an emergency exit but it has been locked and cannot be opened without a key. Thus the application has rerouted the user to take another path.

CURRENT LOCATION

NAVIGATIONAL PATH Figure 55: 3D Location on Second Floor (Instruction 03) by Author (2021)

CURRENT LOCATION

SCALE: NTS

SECOND FLOOR

NAVIGATIONAL PATH

Figure 56: Location on Second Floor (Instruction 03) by Author (2021)

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Figure 57: Photograph with Instruction 04 by Author (2021)

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Figure 57, indicates the route down the stairs from the second floor to the first floor. The application indicates other users making use of the application. This route has been rerouted due to the locked door being unusable.

CURRENT LOCATION

NAVIGATIONAL PATH

Figure 58: 3D Location on Second Floor (Instruction 04) by Author (2021)

NAVIGATIONAL PATH CURRENT LOCATION SCALE: NTS

SECOND FLOOR

Figure 59: Location on Second Floor (Instruction 04) by Author (2021)

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Figure 60: Photograph of Destination by Author (2021)

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Figure 60, shows the route determined by the application to the fastest alternative destination. The figure displays two additional emergency locations enroute to the destination, the user is able to make a judgement call to exit through the proposed exit destination or follow an alternative route. In this figure the user makes use of the proposed emergency exit that leads to the destination displayed.

EMERGENCY ORIGIN EMERGENCY ORIGIN DESTINATION

NAVIGATIONAL PATH

CURRENT LOCATION Figure 61: 3D Location on First Floor Plan to Destination by Author (2021)

EMERGENCY ORIGIN DESTINATION

SCALE: NTS

CURRENT LOCATION

Figure 62: Location on First Floor to Destination by Author (2021)

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FIRST FLOOR

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SPATIAL DESIGN

INTRODUCTION PATHS ACTIONS ARCHITECTURAL SPACE CONCLUSION

06 - 79 -

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INTRODUCTION This chapter concentrates on the development of the mobile app which particularizes each interaction discussed in Chapter 4. The interaction between each interface has a physical and virtual repercussion on the user for example, when an emergency has occurred and the submitter activates the emergency protocol, each user receives a notification to evacuate, the application calculates the appropriate route for each user according to their current position within the premises.

This scenario has either virtual and physical actions with repercussion that are explained as follows: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Emergency occurrence - Physical Submitter activates protocol - Physical Mobile app calculates route for submitter - Virtual Signal/notification to all users - Virtual Followers receiving notification - Physical Mobile app acquiring location of each user - Virtual Calculation of route to each user - Virtual Users following calculated routes - Physical Mobile app updating location of users and additional occurrences in real time - Virtual

Figure 63 represents the mobile app as an exploded version which illustrates the multiple windows the user is able to access. These windows are explained in depth in Chapter 4 with an overview below for the readers comfort.

• Registration: This is the interface for both the user and the company to gain access to the service provided by the mobile app. The information required by the user is their personal information along with details required for the next of kin in case of emergency. The data obtained from the companies registration allows for building plans to be made available once an emergency has occurred.

• Basic Interface: The basic interface or home screen allows the user to access their profile where they are able to update their personal information and that of their next of kin. The drop-down menu allows the user to access the settings, give feedback on how to improve the app and explore the infromation to learn more about the app.

• QR Scan: This screen can be accessed by tapping anywhere on the home screen and makes provision for users to scan the provided QR of each building they visit to enable live tracking within the building. Once the user has gained access to the building they are still able to access their profile and settings but the push notification function has been made available.

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• Push Notification: This function is available to all user who scan the QR code, which allows any user to report an emergency occurrence within the premises. When the push notification is activated, a signal is broadcast to all users within the facility, notifying them of the current emergency. Users are able to disable this function by scanning the exit QR code available at reception when exiting the building. The function will automatically be disabled at COB (Close of Business). This will require people working overtime or into the night to rescan the QR code to regain access to this fuction.

• Navigation: The guidance system will be activated when the push notification has been initiated. The navigation will split up between the submitter and the receivers/followers.

The submitter will receive a calculated navigation from the point of submitting the emergency which will guide the user to safety. The receivers will receive a notification of the emergency occurrence and will be prompted to follow where a route will be calculated for the receivers to the nearest exit.

All users can comment on additional occurrences along the way which will be received by all users. Their routes will be recalculated accordingly to avoid additional occurrences.

The navigational system will lead all users to safety outside the building, but users are responsible for gathering at the predetermined assembly points allocated by management.

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- 83 Figure 63: Base layout of each screen made available to all users from start to finish by Author (2021)

PATHS Within the application there are multiple paths/layers within a virtual space that guides the user between the screens, some of which intertwine with one another, but for the sake of simplicity there are 3 main paths/layers namely: 1. Linear 2. Vertical 3. Depth All of these have the same definition. As this is a digital platform the paths/ layers are represented in Figure 64 as two dimensional with the paths representing the layers of each screen.

The linear path explains the main route from start to finish, and these screens being: • Home • QR Scan • Push Notification • Navigation • Assembly Point These screens are the main link for all actions from which all subsequent actions originate that assists the user to navigate between the screens.

The vertical path being perpendicular to the linear plane can be explained as all the subsequent actions to follow, the main screens for this being: • Profile • Drop-down menu • Scanning of QR code • Submitter and follower navigation With the above mentioned main screens in mind the subsequent screens gives the user access to additional functions to help navigate extra settings, gaining access to the building, and navigation for both the follower and submitter.

The last path/layer depth has both a virtual and physical function and are as follows: • Updating of information • Additional information on the application • Live tracking • Comments and notifications This information assists the user with updating their personal information and next of kin details. A virtual action that tracks their current location throughout the building. Allows users to comment additional occurrences throughout their navigation, which updates and recalculates relevant user’s navigational paths.

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- 85 Figure 64: A 2 dimensional representation of paths/ layers navigating through the app by Author (2021)

ACTIONS In Figure 65 all the actions and reactions are illustrated to simplify the user experience from screen to screen, explaining how each action is connected, and the result of each action in diagrammatic form. To simplify further, an alpha-numerical system is introduced to assist the reader in following the explanation.

1. Home Screen: Consists of a profile button, drop-down button, and the screen allows the user to open the QR scan portion by tapping anywhere on the screen. a. Opens up the profile screen where the user/establishment are able to update their information. The option to choose between the establishment or user will be the result of the accounts registration. i. Allows for the establishment to update information. ii. Allows for the user to update personal information. iii. Allows user to update next-of-kin information. b. Opens up the drop down menu from which the user can give feedback, access their settings and read the about page to understand the functionality of the app.

2. QR Scan: This screen is made available when the user taps the screen. a. Indicates the scan of a QR code, which allows the user access to the building. i. Indicates the virtual function of live tracking that has been activated after the user has scanned the QR code provided.

3. Push Notification: A function that is made available to the user after scanning the QR code, which provides all users with the ability to submit an emergency once it has occurred.

4. Navigation: Once the Push Notification has been initiated, all users will gain access to the guidance system that will calculate a route for each and every user. a. Submitter: The user who has submitted the emergency will be navigated to safety from the emergency’s point of origin. i. The navigational system allows for the submitter to comment, this action allows users to submit additional occurrences along their route to aid in recalculating routes for all users. ii. Notification of occurrences are received. iii. Recalculation of the route to safety. b. Follower: The user who receives notification of the emergency will be navigated to safety from their point of origin. i. The navigational system allows for the follower to comment, this action allows users to submit additional occurrences along their route to aid in recalculating routes for all users. ii. Notification of occurrences are received. iii. Recalculation of the route to safety.

5. Gathering point: Location of safety to which all users are directed to through the mobile app.

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i.

1.

b.

a.

ii.

iii.

2.

a.

i.

3.

4.

a.

b.

i.

i.

ii.

ii.

iii.

5.

iii.

- 87 Figure 65: Visually representing step by step all actions from start to finish by Author (2021)

ARCHITECTURAL SPACE Figure 66 represents the combination of the above mentioned phases of spatial design, combining the various layouts/screens, the actions of each screen a user can follow and additionally a phase that binds these phases together. This phase is displayed as a definite border around the different screens, which serves to represent a building.

Each main screen serves as a foyer to an adjoining room with each subsequent screen representing another room. The linear path mentioned above forms a hallway that leads from the entrance to a definite exit. As displayed in Figure 66 certain rooms lead back to the hallway/ rooms. This serves to represent the intertwined connection of certain screens.

This analogy serves to simplify the sequence of spatial experiences that communicate with one another not limited to only a physical plane. In this case, the virtual plane is compared to the physical plane to simplify the connection between the actions of the user (physical) and the mobile application (virtual). The route through the screens/building is indicated with the use of arrows from the start to the finish.

By overlaying figures 63, 64, 65, a sense of completion in spatial design is achieved that combines all the phases handled in this chapter.

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- 89 Figure 66: Overlay of layers/ paths, actions and the culmination of a building format by Author (2021)

CONCLUSION The spatial design provides an explanation to the mobile application design, which emphasizes the user-friendly experience needed for an app dealing with life or death situations.

Ruling out any unnecessary functions that over complicates an emergency situation. Figure 67 illustrates the complexity of analysing all the functions needed to simplify the user experience.

Making the assumption that the internal layout will remain the same within the premises, the app does not make provision for the reorganization of layouts. Furniture and other obstruction should be marked on the plan provided by the establishment. If changes do occur it is the responsibility of the establishment to update their floor layout and provide an updated layout for the mobile apps artificial intelligence to calculate an appropriate route to safety for all users.

Figure 67 additionally explains the actions required to navigate through the screens along with each screens function and an explanation on what each action contributes to the overall mobile application.

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Figure 67: A visual representation of the Authors argument on the apps functionality by Author (2021)

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CONCLUSION

07

SUMMARY OF RESEARCH CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS - 93 -

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SUMMARY OF RESEARCH The aim of the study was to determine if a possibility for a digital interface for the planning of escape route will eliminate herd behaviour. Each of the chapters are summarised below.

CHAPTER 1 Chapter 1 was an introduction to the study that discussed the main problem statement along with the sub-problems and hypotheses. The main problem and its setting is discussed, as well as the fast changing pace into the digital era, it creates the opportunity for a mobile application to be introduced into society. The areas of concern stated below, are addressed.

• Herd behaviour • The planning of an escape route and a possible solution The study’s delimitations act as guidelines to which the study is conducted. The assumptions made are reliant on the research obtained through the study method explained in the method portion of Chapter 1. The objectives are set out, reference is made to the researchers’ paradigm in the research context.

CHAPTER 2 Background to the SANS 10400 is provided in Chapter 2. It describes the importance of evacuation plans during emergency situations and provides a firm footing for the research obtained during the desk study.

The chapter is divided into two categories that focus intentionally on herd behaviour among people during emergency situations and a navigational aspect. Upon the completion of these two categories the researchers objectives, one and two were developed: • To identify and categorise reasonable human responses to the current escape plans.

• To propose a visual/ digital approach to the current regulations to aid in legibility for a variety of audiences.

Chapter 2 concludes with a confirmation after the assumption that a mobile application would aid in the evacuation of users during emergency situations and would reduce herd behaviour.

CHAPTER 3 The purpose of Chapter 3 was to validate the study. A pilot study is conducted by the researcher. A desk study is conducted to identify problematic areas where the focus is directed at the loss of life during emergency situations and possible problems caused by herd mentality. Two case studies were under review that emanated in objectives one and three: • To identify and categorise reasonable human responses to the current escape plans.

• To compare current escape routes to human behaviour during emergencies.

CHAPTER 4 Chapter 4 introduces the interface, along with five principles to follow that allows for improved quality and simplicity. The application and occupancy of the mobile app is discussed.

The interface is explained with the function of each interface accordingly. The several inter-

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faces include: • Registration • Basics • Push notification • Navigation A digital representation of each interface is included and concluded Chapter 4.

CHAPTER 5 A simulation was conducted on a scenario created by the researcher on Building 11 of the Pretoria West campus of TUT. The simulation is conducted using photographs to simulate user experience during an emergency situation. The mobile application guides the user to safety.

The user’s location can be monitored in this chapter by means of a locality plan and 3D representation of the building.

CHAPTER 6 Chapter 6 explores the spatial design for the virtual platform of the mobile app. The information discussed explains the relationship between each interface, the reaction of each interaction with the different screens displayed. The intertwined complexity of each action made by different users as they navigate through the application can be perceived as an individual moving through a building. The minimalistic screens illustrates the simplicity of navigating the mobile app.

DISCOVERIES, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The discoveries of this study are analysed and cross-referred to with the related main problem statement and the sub problem along with the resultant hypothesis.

The following main problem is stated in Chapter 1 is: Loss of life is unavoidable and every person succumbs to the inevitable but, prolonging life during emergency situations are possible. Escape route plans are placed at emergency exits toplan their escape in advance. A study showed that it takes the general public two times longer to plan an escape route than to read it.With this information in mind, this study aims to provide enough evidence to prove that a mobile app, that provides a real time escape route for users will be a benefit to society during an ever changing digital era.

From the main problem statement, sub problem statements were formulated and are as follows: 1. Is rational behaviour possible during emergency situations?

2. How do printed escape plans influence human behaviour and their decision-making process?

3a. Is there evidence to suggest that a digital platform is irrelevant?

3b. Would a digital navigational platform improve the efficiency of escape routes?

4. Will the use of architectural representation assist with spatial design sequences for a virtual format?

The discoveries, conclusions and recommendations were determined throughout the document and are explained in table format to highlight the importance of the study.

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1 SUB-PROBLEM NEGATIVE HYPOTHESIS RESEARCH RESULT Is rational behaviour It is hypothesised that human instinct possible during emer- takes over during emergencies, that NEGATIVE = NEGATIVE gency situations? can be counterproductive and irrational.

DISCOVERIES In Chapter 2 (Literature Review) a study showed that a limited rational behaviour is possible during emergencies which results in positive and constructive behaviour, however this was only applicable to 10-25% of individuals involved. The remainder of the individuals acted in an indecisive manner which led to a dazed and puzzled mannerisms with individuals displaying mass hysteria, crying, paralysis and confusion.

CONCLUSION With data proving positive constructive behaviour to a small percentage of the people involved, the majority of individuals reacted in a irrational and counterproductive manner.

This proves that herd behaviour does not always have such harmfull effects; it can be influential in peoples everyday simple decisions. Herding can be subtle in this way; it simply involves people’s tendency to follow a crowd rather than carve out an individual path in many situations.

RECOMMENDATIONS It is unclear what prompts a constructive or counter productive behaviour during emergencies. A recommendation that could prove usefully in future studies would be in line with a prototype of the application that is introduced into a simulation to monitor the effect emergencies have on individuals with the application and those who have access to it.

Table 04: Discoveries, conclusions & recommendations of sub-problem 1

2 SUB-PROBLEM How does printed escape plans influence human behaviour and their decision making process?

NEGATIVE HYPOTHESIS RESEARCH RESULT Compared to a digital guidance system it is hypothesised that using the printed form of escape route plans, it takes the average person longer to NEGATIVE = NEGATIVE understand and plan their escape.

Their decision-making process will be delayed if their pre-planned escape route does not succeed.

DISCOVERIES A discovery made during the desk study revealed that: ”the time it takes to plan an escape route is about 1.1 to 2 times longer than its reading time.” (Thang, Lin & Hsu, 2008). This research proves that planning an escape route takes up to 2 times longer. This is only applicable to a single situation and not to any additional occurrences enroute to safety.

CONCLUSION

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Emergencies are unpredictable and provide suitable conditions for additional chaos to erupt. With no back-up plan prepared for any additional emergencies chaos which influences productive thinking capabilities is inevitable. To eliminate the possibility of no contingency plan the mobile navigational app will be able to reroute individuals.

RECOMMENDATIONS A recommendation for future studies can be made to have a comparative evaluation simulation of both the printed pre-planned method paired against a prototype of the navigational system to prove which of the two methods are proven more effective during emergencies.

Table 05: Discoveries, conclusions & recommendations of sub-problem 2

3a SUB-PROBLEM POSITIVE HYPOTHESIS Is there evidence to sug- It is hypothesised that in a digital age gest that a digital plat- of technology, a digital platform is the form is irrelevant? next logical step and will be relevant to society.

RESEARCH RESULT

POSITIVE = POSITIVE

DISCOVERIES In Chapter 2 (Literature Review) the technology that has been developed to help people navigate their lives in an easy and controlled fashion. Anything from diving navigation to navigating people to locate their cars in parking garages has been developed.

Waze being the main denominator in this document relying on crowd sourcing data to assist other users in navigating their journeys. The interesting aspect of this application is that all the information is being transmitted in real time ensuring a safe/ faster trip for users than individuals not using the app.

CONCLUSION At the current trend in which technology is developing, from pasted paper plans (having to plan your route ahead of time) to a digital mobile navigational app (real time communication and re-routing the journey for the fastest route), the next logical step for evacuation plans are to adapt to a digital platform.

RECOMMENDATIONS To construct a prototype for testing and develop the application for real world implementation.

Table 06: Discoveries, conclusions & recommendations of sub-problem 3a

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3b SUB-PROBLEM Would a digital navigational platform improve the efficiency of escape routes?

POSITIVE HYPOTHESIS Compared to printed escape routes that require pre-planning routes from each individual that may cause confusion during emergency situations, it is hypothesised that a digital navigational system in the form of a mobile application would increase the efficiency of escape routes.

RESEARCH RESULT

POSITIVE = POSITIVE

DISCOVERIES Through a comparative desk study, it was proven that during emergencies people tend to react in a range of different ways with herd behaviour being the most common.

In Chapter 2 (Literature Review), it is evident that individuals react in any of these behaviours when faced with a crisis: Denial, Freezing, Stereotypical behaviour, Inappropriate behaviour and Memory failure.

CONCLUSION Even though herd behaviour is the most common denominator when emergencies occur, this behaviour is more often the correct choice to make. Herd behaviour has its advantages but only when each individual is able to make their own decisions while being influenced by it.

RECOMMENDATIONS It is recommended that although herd behaviour is not purely negative, that a mobile app that navigates each individuals course to safety will reduce the loss of life during emergency scenarios compared to printed escape plan layouts. Future studies may include a prototype of the application to prove this theory.

Table 07: Discoveries, conclusions & recommendations of sub-problem 3b

4 SUB-PROBLEM POSITIVE HYPOTHESIS RESEARCH RESULT Will the use of architec- It is hypothesised that with the use tural representation as- of spatial design sequences a virtual sist with spatial design platform will present an architectural POSITIVE = POSITIVE sequences for a virtual element which can be seen throughformat? out the mobile app.

DISCOVERIES None CONCLUSION Chapter 6 discusses the spatial arrangement of a virtual platform that explains the interaction between each interface. With the use of 2-dimentional representation, an insight to the 3-dimentional virtual plane can be interpreted.

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RECOMMENDATIONS None Table 08: Discoveries, conclusions & recommendations of sub-problem 4

With the possibility of creating a mobile application to assist with evacuation route planning which relies on a guidance system being within arms length, the researcher has come to the conclusion that such an application will be able to reduce herd behaviour drastically. Although this seems to eliminate human error, technology is still dependant on humans to grow.

Therefore a suggestion for future studies can be made.

By entrusting some of the mobile application functions to personnel to oversee certain tasks that might be otherwise over simplified when left to the cold heartedness of machines. This may include: • operators to be in contact with first responders • a call-centre to deliver news to next of kin in-case of casualties To conclude, herd behaviour may lead to an increase of casualties during emergency situations but, if not for herd behaviour society would stagnate, economies might crumble and the urge to over achieve would not exist. Herd behaviour is not the end of all but reducing the number of casualties may be the most important aspect to address when discussing the matter at hand. Thus the implementation of a guidance system to guide each individual to safety during an emergency situation where herd behaviour can be avoided is vital to contain unnecessary casualties.

The study has analysed and deduced that circulation is a vital aspect to keep in mind during emergencies. Thus, the title “FORENSICS OF CIRCULATION” suggests a analysis of movement; where as forensics is defined as scientific tests or techniques used in connection with the detection of crime, which takes place after the crime has been committed. This takes time to analyse and produce evidence to convict. In the context of this research, forensics is aimed at the analysis of the movement through a building.

This is a controversial statement that suggests that the forensics have to be done after an emergency has occurred in order to improve on circulation routes. But the study suggests that this action may be completed in real time with the help of crowd sourced data. Giving a new meaning to the term “Forensics” - an analysis with an alternative solution to a situation in real time.

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