Class of 2021_SWART, J

A PASSAGE TO PURIFICATION Transition to a bio-energy facility at Kelvin Power Station, Johannesburg, South Africa By Bernard Jacobus Swart

Fig 0.1: Photo of Kelvin Power Station in 1965. (Atom DRISA, 2019)

Page

[3]

“Change is inevitable, but transformation is by conscious choice.”

- Heather Ash Amara (Lanza, 2020)

A PASSAGE TO PURIFICATION

Transition to a bio-energy facility at Kelvin Power Station, Johannesburg, South Africa

Author: Bernard Jacobus Swart 214619539 Supervisor: Prof Amira O.S. Osman Co-supervisor: Mr. Leon Pienaar Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Magister Technologiae Architecture Professional (Structured) at the Department of Architecture and Industrial Design in the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment at the Tshwane University of Technology Pretoria

25.7320° S, 28.1624° E

Page

[5]

DEPARTMENT of ARCHITECTURE & INDUSTRIAL DESIGN The Department of Architecture and industrial design emphasises integrity and ethical behavior with regard to the preparation of all assignments.

Although the lecturer/ study leader/ supervisor/ mentor will provide you with information regarding reference techniques and ways to avoid plagiarism, you also have a responsibility to fulfill in this regard. Should you at any time feel unsure about the requirements, you must consult the lecturer/ study leader/ supervisor/ mentor concerned before submitting an assignment. You are guilty of plagiarism when you extract information from a book, article, web page, or from any other source of information with out acknowledging the source and pretend that it is your own work. This doesn’t only apply to cases where you quote verbatim, but also when you present someone else’s work in a somewhat amended (paraphrased) format, or when you use someone else’s arguments or ideas without acknowledgment. You are also guilty of plagiarism if you copy and paste information directly from an electronic source (e.g., a web site, e-mail message, electronic journal article, or CD ROM), even if you acknowledge the source. You are not allowed to submit another student’s previous work as your own. You are furthermore not allowed to let anyone copy or use your work with the intention of presenting it as his/her own. Any student, who produce work that is alleged to be plagiarised, will be referred to the Academic Affairs Disciplinary Committee for a ruling. Plagiarism is considered a serious violation of the University’s regulations and may lead to your suspension from the University.

In accordance with Regulation 4.1.11.1(j) of Chapter 4 (Examination Rules and Regulations), and Regulations 15.1.16 and 15.1.17 of Chapter 15 (Student Discipline) of Part 1 of the 2021 Prospectus, I, Bernard Jacobus Swart Student number: 214619539 Declare the following: 1. I understand what plagiarism entails and I am aware of the University’s policy in this regard.

2. I declare that this assignment is my own, original work. Where someone else’s work was used, it was acknowledged, and reference was made according to departmental requirements.

3. I did not copy and paste any information directly from an electronic source (e.g., a web page, electronic journal article or CD ROM) into this document.

4. I did not make use of another student’s previous work and submitted it as my own.

5. I did not allow and will not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of presenting it as his/her own work.

I further declare that this dissertation is substantially my own work. Where reference is made to the works of others, the extent to which that work has been used is indicated and fully acknowledged in the text and list of references.

December 2021

[6] Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS_ This dissertation is dedicated to: The National Research Foundation (NRF) for the financial support over the last two years that allowed me to finish my Master of Architecture degree in 2021.

My head supervisor Professor Amira Osman for your guidance, involvement and contribution throughout this process.

My design supervisor Mr Leon Pienaar for your advice and direction under the circumstances during the authoring of this dissertation.

My friends for a trying but rewarding journey taken together.

Specifically to Kyle Coulson, thank you for your continuous inspiration and support at short notice and at any hour of the day.

My parents, Ilse and Bernard Swart, for all your encouragement, love and support during the last 7 years. I will be eternally grateful to you for letting me pursue my dreams.

My significant other, Annemi, thank you for your love, support, patience and constant words of encouragement throughout this year.

Your motivation helped me endure.

Our Heavenly Father for making this unimaginable journey possible.

I would like to give the utmost glory to Him for giving me the strength, guidance and wisdom throughout my life, my studies and this dissertation.

Page

PREFACE_ The intention behind this dissertation first arose from the idea that architecture could be used to bring forth solutions for a surging present-day dilemma.

Architecture embodies and presents strategies and methods that could be adopted to shed light on alternative solutions to the imbalance between structural, social and economic facets in the energy production sector.

The dilemma that this dissertation focuses on is the value that architecture could add to alleviate the immense pressure on the power industry through sustainable transformation.

The scale and atmosphere, the “genius loci”, that radiates from industrial buildings such as power stations are still

magnificent and powerful today and deserves to be admired. The revolutionary impact that the industrial era had was groundbreaking at the time. The rich cultural and social history should be preserved despite change and transformation, and architecture holds the tools.

On my daily commute I am greeted by the sight of skyscraping towers and the triumphing symmetry of the endless buildings of the power station on the horizon.

The ironic contrast between the bold and blatant hardness and the subtle, unrecognised beauty is striking. It would be the model site for the integration of architectural solutions and industrial infrastructure.

[7]

Page

ABSTRACT_ South Africa is facing significant problems with its National Public Energy Provider. The increasing number of power outages over the country is crippling the economy.

Furthermore, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is putting pressure on South Africa to reduce 80% of carbon emissions from coal-fired power stations by 2034 (Kotze, 2019).

Constantly expanding infrastructure and population growth are currently the leading causes of environmental degradation. Resources are under severe pressure to satisfy the demands of the ever-growing population to the detriment of the environment.

Several initiatives around the world have come together to introduce and set targets for countries’ energy industries to assist them in reaching the goal of producing zero carbon emissions. Countries face the reality that stricter legislation will force the coal-fired power

stations into extinction in the near future (UN, 2021). This creates opportunities for the development of new solutions and methods to overcome harmful and damaging environmental practices, especially during electricity production.

This dissertation investigates a way to phase out the old, traditional and environmentally unfriendly ways of producing coal-fired energy by introducing a renewable, natural and clean energy source. Secondly, it has the intention to explore a method with which the existing infrastructure of the coal-fired power plant can be reused and adapted to implement the production of this clean and sustainable energy.

The future could create a reality where the growing energy demand of an ever-increasing population can be met with a renewable energy source that resides in adapted and reused deteriorating buildings.

Keywords: Sustainability, renewable energy, adaptive reuse, rehabilitation, research energy facility

Fig 0.2: Water filtering facility at Kelvin Power Station. (Author, 2021)

[9]

[10] Page

TABLE OF CONTENTS_

00 Preliminaries

01 Introduction

- Declaration

5

1.1 Introduction

14

- Acknowledgement

6

1.2 Background

15

- Preface

7

1.3 Research methodology

17

- Abstract

9

1.4 Limitations

19

1.5 Delimitations

1.6 Problem statement

19 20

04 Renewable Energy

03 Context

02 Urban Vision 2.1 Reintegrating into the urban framework

24

3.1 Introduction

58

4.1 Ecological future vision

68

2.2 Site location

36

58

4.2 Ecological worldview

69

2.3 Context analysis

40

3.2 Influence of Department of Energy on power stations

70

2.4 Historical significance

48

3.3 Future vision of South African Energy

59

4.3 Future sustainability in South Africa 4.4 Climate change

71

3.4 Eskom overview

61

72

3.5 Kelvin Power Station overview

63

4.5 Renewable energy resources

75

3.6 Proposed client

64

4.6 Bio-energy as selected resource

3.7 Conclusion

65

Fig 0.3: Panoramic view of Kelvin Power Station. (Author, 2021)

Page [11]

05 Adaptive Reuse

06 Programme

07 Design Resolution

08 Technical Resolution

09 Conclusion

5.1 Introduction

78

6.1 Introduction

96

7.1 Introduction

108

8.1 Introduction

144

9.1 Conclusion

168

5.2 Architecture of the future

81

6.2 Programme intention

97

7.2 Design concept

109

8.2 Form exploration

145

170

5.3 What should the future reflect?

82

6.3 Micro-algae to biomass

98

7.3 Biophilic design

110

8.3 Facade system design

146

9.2 Appendix A - Final exhibition

84

99

7.4 Design development

112

8.4 Precedent study

150

5.5 Kelvin Power Station strategy

86

6.5 Ground rehabilitation

101

7.5 Proposed final design

126

8.5 System implementation

152

9.3 Appendix B - Examiners comments & amendments

175

5.4 Principles & methods

6.4 Cyanobacteria as a biofuel source

87

105

9.4 Appendix C - Research article

176

6.6 Accommodation schedule

154

5.6 Implementation

8.6 Specification - writing & development

180

88

155

9.5 List of figures

5.7 Precedent study

8.7 Detail drawings 8.8 Contract documentation drawings

157

9.6 References

185

01

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 01 [ INTRODUCTION_ ] _Introduction _Background _Research methodology _Limitations _Delimitations _Problem statement

Fig 1.1: Diagrammatic illustration of Kelvin Power Station (Author, 2021). Edited from: (Aspelling, 2013)

1.1 INTRODUCTION_ “You cannot affirm the power plant and condemn the smokestack or affirm the smoke and condemn the cough.” (Berry, 2005).

The world has arrived at a crossroad where the cough, the smokestack, and the consequences can no longer be ignored. Coal-fired power plants are the main energy source providing the largest part of South Africa’s electricity. The dependence on coal is crucial but the negative impact thereof is even more significant.

The inevitable shift away from coal creates the opportunity for the use of renewable and sustainable energy resources as a means of addressing these issues.

Renewable sources aim to provide a cleaner future and a lower cost of electricity, not only in terms of money but also in the quality of life.

Fig 1.2: Power station in a suburb. (Francisco, D, 2020)

Page [15]

1.2 BACKGROUND_ Imagine a world where rising energy problems and needs can efficiently and effortlessly be addressed in a sustainable way.

This project will provide a platform to investigate possible techniques for implementing renewable energy. South Africa’s electricity is 86% reliant on coal-fired electricity compared to the global average of 43% (Phillips, 2021).

This major dependence on coal-fired power stations in South Africa is causing severe environmental concern. With the rapid urban expansion, some neighbourhoods are completely surrounded by a coal power plant. The fact that these neighbourhoods are completely enclosed by such a polluting structure has severe ecological and public health implications. With power facilities already in place, the focus will be to adapt and keep existing infrastructure and steer away from fossil fuel releasing a dangerous amount of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere.

Eskom is driven to implement new, renewable energy technologies that comply with The National Energy Regulator of South Africa (NERSA) legislation. Eskom confirmed at the start of 2021 that they will be completing 12 new renewable projects by the end of the year as well as providing job opportunities for local communities (Magubane, 2021.a). This presents possibilities of developing new solutions to overcome damaging environmental practices.

The predicament of decommissioning a coal power plant is that it is a tedious process. The intensive process from the shutdown, decommissioning, remediation and redevelopment would have significant financial implications and will involve years of planning and development (Magubane, 2021.a). The ideal would be to use existing buildings through adaptive reuse architecture for renewable energy purposes and ground rehabilitation, creating a closed system to rehabilitate and produce zero carbon emission electricity.

Fig 1.3: Diagram illustrating the variety in renewable energy and organisations involved in the 2030 challenge. (Author, 2021)

Page [17]

1.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY_ A person’s worldview, or ontology, is concerned with “what kind of world we are investigating, with the nature of existence, with the structure of reality as such” (Crotty, 2003:10). The worldview of a pragmatist includes getting a better understanding of the problem at hand, analysing existing theories and considering the consequences thereof. The focus is less on the data collection method and more on the actual understanding of the research problem. Therefore, this worldview includes both quantitative and qualitative approaches.

The research for this dissertation is consistent with this worldview.

The main research problem is the necessity to find solutions for eliminating coal as a source of electricity production. Two sub-questions arose from the analysis of the main research problem, namely: which renewable resource would be the best alternative and how will this resource efficiently and effectively be incorporated into the existing power station structure?

Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used to approach the main and sub-questions.

This dissertation attempts to take into account some of the historical, social and political views in conjunction with facts and figures of the past and expectations for the future.

QUANTITATIVE The technical aspects of the research, specifically the essential evidence or justification, should be supported with quantitative data and analysis which improves the accuracy and standards of the research (Labaree, 2020). The quantitative analysis is based on statistical data on the energy produced

by Kelvin Power Station, Kempton Park, and the severe impact on surrounding neighbourhoods.

It includes a detailed study of the tectonics of the existing infrastructure in order to conserve the history and heritage of the site.

QUALITATIVE Qualitative research is conducted predominantly by self-documentation based on the visual analysis of the existing infrastructure. This includes a meticulous urban framework analysis of surrounding areas due to the vast size of the site. These self-documentations are validated by research found in published articles, case studies and official documents released to the public.

This systematic approach with a predominantly intuitive design process prepares a considered structure that takes all design aspects into account.

Both intuitive and systematic approaches should be incorporated into the design to deliver a wellrounded research proposal.

Ethnography relates to the qualitative method of research. It considers how a person’s beliefs and culture influence their thoughts and ideas. As a research architecture proposal, the research is

occasionally unable to define the full real-world situations when only focusing on the physical data collected in the quantitative method. Therefore, the ideology and ethnography of the environment and its culture should be taken into consideration when digging deeper into the exploration of the topic. This allows the researcher to engage with the research problem which assists in the understanding of the processes that led to specific outcomes.

This dissertation’s method of research also touches on the worldview of the Social Constructivists in the way that it attempts to understand the meaning or essence of a situation through views of relevant parties. The worldview of Social Constructivists “maintain that people make their own sense of social realities that emerge when consciousness interacts with objects“ (Crotty, 1998).

The proposal is inspired by the success of similar projects of transformation to renewable energy facilities and the rejuvenating of existing infrastructure.

Therefore, it can be seen that the research project would have a dynamic approach when it comes to the investigation of a power plant. Due to the complexity of such an environment, the research needs to delve deeper using diverse methods to understand the historical, social and political aspects related to the power plant and, ultimately, to reach a conclusion.

Page [19]

1.4 LIMITATIONS_ Since the country is in the midst of a world-wide pandemic, site visitation was very limited and the authorisation process for guided tours was stricter than under normal circumstances.

No plans of the existing building on the proposed site or any statistics regarding the power plant were available due to the sensitive nature of the information.

1.5 DELIMITATIONS_ This research project provides an in-depth understanding of the transitioning of coal-fired power to the production of renewable and sustainable energy.

This thesis will not solve the current concerns.

Plant B of Kelvin Power Station is currently still active and is producing electricity for the City Power grid network; therefore, the focus of this thesis will be on the decommissioned plant A and the surrounding infrastructure.

Due to the enormous scale of the power facilities, only a small part of the site will be used for the purpose of this project. The main factors of the site should however be considered.

1.6 PROBLEM STATEMENT_ The phrase “climate change” is not a new topic of discussion. It means endangering the sustainability of the earth’s ecosystems, with increasing burning of fossil fuels and deforestation causing a growing urgency to change and improve our actions.

This dissertation attempts to shed light on the criticality with which coal-fired power production needs to be phased out by renewable resources and the process with which these resources could be introduced into the existing energy framework.

Background: Global economic energy production is dependent on burning fossil fuels. Coal combustion produces more greenhouse gasses than burning any other fossil fuel, not to mention the severe amount of methane being released into the atmosphere during coal mining.

With the global economy growing at an average of 3.4% per year, the estimated global population could be more than nine billion in 2040 (GASVESSEL, 2021). Therefore, a significant effort has to be made to completely decarbonise the electricity industry.

Fig 1.4: Dramatic illustration portraying the ceasing of coal-fired power stations. (Author, 2021)

Page [21]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the United Nations’ body for analysing the science behind climate change.

They provide the governments and industries of 195 countries with scientific climate information to incorporate in developing climate policies. Their assessment also impacts existing policies that have already been implemented. It assesses the future risk and ways to reduce this risk by adapting and through mitigation procedures (IPPC, 2021).

The document “Global and Regional coal phase-out requirements of the Paris Agreement: Insights from the IPCC Special Report on 1.5°C IPCC” (Brecha, Parra & Ganti, 2019) released in September 2019, investigates the global energy transformation with the goal to gradually reduce the use of coal energy under the Paris Agreement.

Reflection on previous reports confirms that coal combustion for electricity generation peaked in 2020. This calls for a rapid global reduction of coal use and a coal phase-out to comply with the new estimated global level of carbon emissions by 2037 (Brecha, Parra & Ganti, 2019:1).

Currently, the world is not adhering to the Paris Agreement’s set targets. A crucial opportunity was introduced under the current revision cycle where all countries had to submit new and more forceful climate pledges by 2020. Strong adherence and commitment are needed by governments around the world to reduce the use of coal (Brecha, Parra & Ganti, 2019:6).

The Integrated Resource Plan of South Africa has set out programmes and guidelines but unfortunately little action has taken place in recent years. The Minister of Mineral Resources, Gwede Mantashe, has warned that South Africa is in dire need of transitioning away from coal-fired energy (Kotze, 2019).

President Cyril Ramaphosa is committed to pursue the renewable energy proposals presented by the Development Plan of the IRP. He referred to the energy industry as “a key enabler in South Africa’s direction towards socio-economic growth and development.” (Kotze, 2019).

02

URBAN VISION

CHAPTER 02 [ URBAN VISION_ ]

- Reintegrating into the urban framework - Site location - Context analysis

- Historical significance

Fig 2.1: View of Kelvin Power Station (Author, 2021)

2.1 REINTEGRATING INTO THE URBAN FRAMEWORK _ Introduction: In recent times, the notion towards the design and construction of smart cities has gradually increased. It is becoming an important aspect and decider in determining strategy for the future of our cities. For the most part, this development plan will be the key solution to resolve previous challenges and limitations in the cities’ urban fabric. The priority is to involve the current urban fabric as a characteristic for building a smart city.

The industrial revolution of 1914 caused rapid urbanisation to cities around the world.

It resulted in an economic and technological surge.

This caused concern that organic order and urban integrity in cities with high densities may be lost.

Modern cities suffer from fragmentation caused by years of isolated buildings and separated leftover spaces which in effect turn buildings into detached objects in the urban space. This resulted in an urban fabric crisis (Li et al. 2016:373-382).

Without an understanding of the severe impact of fragmented urban fabric in the urban space, rapid urbanisation can be extremely damaging.

Historical districts have lost their unique characteristics, which include losing valuable open green areas in the city’s urban spaces, as well as the loss of people’s sense of belonging in the community (Li et al. 2016:373-382).

It is important to delve deeper into the various environments that form urban spaces.

The current paradigm concept in city design is to accommodate green open spaces to function alongside the building environment.

But ultimately, these environments should be integrated into one functional unit. This will enhance the sustainability in the built environment and contribute to the city’s future urban fabric (Luis, 2016:8-16).

Page [25]

2.1.1 IDEOLOGY OF URBAN TECTONICS Urbanisation requires a detailed look into the urban challenges that the built environment faces. With economic and technical concepts as foundational blocks in our cities, the focus is on prospering areas whereas areas with fragile and decaying buildings are often overlooked. It is essential to apply principles that would recall the etymological essence of urban tectonics as a contextual joining of aesthetics and technology (Christiansen, Laursen & Hvejsel, 2021).

the importance of the cohesion between ontology and representation as this combination creates the sense of a place and contributes to the urban tectonics.

Karl Botticher, a German archaeologist, developed a similar concept on architectural tectonics.

Botticher introduced the contrast as well as the cohesion between ontology and representation.

Ontology, or “Kernform”, links to functional, structural and cultural purpose (Mahmood, 2021:12). Representation, or “Kunsform”, focuses on the general aesthetical and expressional purpose (Mahmood, 2021:1-2). Emphasis is placed on

Methodologically, the potential advantages of urban tectonics in a city’s built environment should increase the liveability and contribute to the urban ambience. The existing buildings, architecture and urban landscapes should merge into a fertile scenery that would lure passers-by and promote an even greater urban experience (Schwarzer, 1993:267).

Fig 2.2: Diagrammatic representation of Johannesburg aerial view. (Author, 2021)

The concept of tectonics ties in with the user experiencing emotional, psychological and aesthetical aspects. The perception of urban tectonics within a city’s environment should reflect cultural and aesthetic qualities.

Page [27]

2.1.2 THE IMPACT OF URBANISATION: Urbanisation occurs primarily by the migration of people from rural areas to dense cities. Urban areas have increased significantly due to this occurence. Although urbanisation is driven by multiple factors, including the history, economics and culture, these factors will eventually reflect in the physical environment. Cities have to adapt and find solutions to facilitate the growing population that is placing severe strain on the urban sprawl with negative economic, social and environmental consequences (Open edu, 2021).

Numerous cities have pockets of underused and underutilised land. These distressed and decaying urban areas decrease a city’s liveability, productivity and future growth (The World Bank, 2021). The deteriorating areas impact the urban form directly in the way that people perceive and interact with the urban fabric. The physical separation between people and their daily interactions and activities has a distinct relationship with how the built form of cities are shaped, sculpted and structured (Legeby, 2010:5).

A shift towards urban sustainability, which focuses more on the urgent issues in the context of urban form that contributes to people’s everyday lives, is key.

Fig 2.3: Map of Johannesburg illustrating urban voids. (Author, 2021)

It is crucial that the sustainable development of a city protects and builds on the existing integrity and authenticity of the city in order to keep its essence. The preservation of current characteristics is important in the way that people connect with their city. These inhabitants define the city. They contribute socially and economically and their participation makes them feel connected (van Diepen & Musterd, 2009).

A way for developers to preserve and enhance this connection is by in-depth research of the inner workings of the city and its current urban framework.

Developing a central area or district that attracts people, both for business and social interaction, creates a relationship between the people and their city and helps to prevent urban decay.

The risk of creating such central spaces is that the existing spaces are abandoned and their essence lost. It burdens the economy, becomes a safety hazard and the physical environment deteriorates.

It becomes an urban void (van Diepen & Musterd, 2009).

2.1.3 IMPORTANCE OF URBAN REGENERATION: Urban regeneration can be a vital lifeline that many large cities are seeking to utilise in order to eliminate problematic and fractured urban areas, which create social problems and inadequate living conditions. Urban regeneration is a crucial component because it ensures that our cities, living spaces and future urban forms will enable the citizens to live a sustainable lifestyle. Furthermore, the impact is not simply visible on a singular level, but integrates improving the economical, physical, social and environmental conditions of the urban fabric.

The negative impact of these urban voids in the city does provide opportunity for utilising potential resources for future development of the city.

According to Kevin Lynch’s book, ‘A theory of good city form’, urban voids have different characteristics which can be identified in and around metropolitan areas. These voids are captured between the dense city and future urban development. He describes these undefined spaces as urban voids which create negative and lost spaces with minimal human activity. He argues

that wasted spaces have potential to weave the city into valued urban form which can eliminate the undefined spaces (Lynch, 1981).

Despite the negative impacts caused by urban voids, it provides the possibility to explore potential resources which can contribute and improve the community’s quality of life. This value that regeneration brings to the urban void improves the city’s life in terms of liveability, health and sustainability (Ali Omar, 2019:585).

It is important to understand the different urban void-formation factors which can be used effectively to regenerate underutilised spaces (Ali Omar, 2019:585). (Fig 2.4) addresses the built layer based on urban elements and typologies.

The way that people interact with the urban system and the urban tectonic is essential. This activity distributes itself through all the different layers which shapes the urban form (Ali Omar, 2019:585). Therefore, any separation or urban void forming in the city fractures the urban system, creating a problematic chain of events.

Page [29]

Regenerating urban voids adds social value to the city which will reinforce social links and bind communities. Accommodating a variety of social functions and cultural activities in the urban voids has the potential of creating a network of connected spaces with different actions and uses in the urban fabric.

Ali Omar (2019:585) stresses that the environmental benefits of regenerating urban voids include improving the quality of urban life; these urban voids and underutilised spaces can be used as green infrastructures and ecological resources within the urban form of the city. He further explains that promoting the biodiversity and urban green spaces will preserve the natural habitat and eco-systems to support sustainable urban regeneration processes.

The design and implementation of urban regeneration strategies should complement the surrounding areas in the urban fabric, which would benefit both people and businesses. It doesn’t only create economic opportunity for commerce but promotes high levels of activity for a business.

This would create a neighbourhood with a sense of place.

Fig 2.4: Built layer based on urban elements. (By Author based on Legeby, 2010 diagram)

Fig 2.5: Johannesburg urban fabric indicating urban voids (By Author based on James Page, 2015)

Page [31]

2.1.4 REINTEGRATING KELVIN POWER STATION INTO THE URBAN FABRIC: The concerns caused by urban decay and deterioration of spaces in the city must be addressed, especially when considering future development. Regeneration can be used to analyse and address these spaces.

A relevant case study is the process of urban regeneration over several years in Johannesburg Inner City. This metropolitan area is the centre point of economic activity with approximately one million people passing through the CBD every day.

This region has benefited from regeneration efforts from the private sector to improve small businesses in deteriorating areas. The first regeneration plan for the Inner City was implemented in 2004. This Inner-City Regeneration Business Plan focused on intensive urban management, maintaining and improving infrastructure and, most importantly,

investing in the economic sector (The World Bank, 2021).

It is important to focus on certain voids in the urban fabric that are disengaged and underutilised since they play a part in the city’s potential for improving physical, geographical and social conditions. For this reason, purposeful intervention needs to be introduced in these damaged urban fabrics as it has a direct impact on the community.

The intention is to effectively regenerate deteriorated urban fabrics so that design areas provide potential to form desirable urban spaces, thereby restoring liveability, vitality and identity to these lost urban spaces (Habib & Peimani, 2013).

Page [33]

One example of an urban void where regeneration can be applied is Kelvin Power Station, situated in the Johannesburg-East district.

This urban void expands over an area of 1.85km² and is centred in densely populated neighbourhoods, as indicated on (Fig. 2.6). It is discouraging that the power station is only using one eighth of the site with the rest of the land left unutilised and neglected. With years of site degradation due to pollution from the power station, the site is left with environmental hazards and vast open areas in a densely populated urban form. This void unfortunately contributes to the negative connotation that the inhabitants of the neighbouring areas experience and it ultimately

Fig 2.6: Proposed site in relation to the adjacent neighbourhoods. (Author, 2021)

degrades the image of the city. This specific urban void provides the opportunity for private sector participation in its urban renewal and can assist to speed up the process of regeneration in the City of Johannesburg.

Looking deeper into the urban form of this void, it can be seen that the perimeter creates a clear threshold. This threshold forms a barrier which prevents any permeability of proposed urban integration into this space. The opportunity for the regeneration of this void will create a possible usable urban form that will eventually contribute to the regeneration of the city and inclusion of surrounding communities.

The intention of this dissertation is to integrate this urban void back into the city’s urban form. This will benefit the surrounding communities and the interaction with its people.

A possible solution is to transform the urban void into an open recreational space for adjacent neighbourhoods and provide accessible green spaces. By involving the private sector in the regeneration project, the economic opportunities will be enhanced and trade activities can increase.

Due to the harsh separation that this void causes to the urban form, there is currently minimal connectivity between the decaying space and the rest of the city.

The regeneration and integration of the two parts will be essential to the economic, physical and environmental aspects of transforming this urban fracture into one communal, accessible and positive space. Ultimately, the void will be diminished.

Conclusion: Urbanisation is an increasing reality in our world. The economical, historical, social and environmental factors that this continued urbanisation creates has a vast impact on the urban form of the city.

It is important to understand how to incorporate urban voids in the city’s urban form when strategies for urban regeneration is considered.

The urban voids created should be integrated into future urban developments. This will shape future urban forms.

Kelvin Power Station has become such a void, and urban regeneration developments can be applied to reintegrate this isolated space into the surrounding communities and eventually improve their quality of life.

Fig 2.7: Proposed site reintegration (Author, 2021)

2.2 SITE LOCATION _

Gauteng Province within context of South Africa

Ekurhuleni municipality within context of Gauteng Province

Kelvin Power Station within context of Ekurhuleni municipality

Fig 2.8: (above) Locality map of Kelvin Power Station. (Author, 2021) Fig 2.9: (left) Map of the perimeter of Kelvin Power Station. (Author, 2021)

Page [37]

2.2.1 SITE TOPOGRAPHY_ During the process of coal combustion, a byproduct consisting of very fine particles, called fly-ash, is produced. The fly-ash is pumped to designated areas on site. These are referred to as fly-ash dams. External contractors manage the flyash dams by removing this by-product from site and utilising it for alternative purposes.

Unfortunately, it is not enough to remove and rehabilitate the landfills. These ash dams raise environmental concerns. For example, wind scatters small particles of the fly-ash and as a result pollutes the surrounding areas.

Fig 2.10: Topography explaining the ash dams (Author, 2021)

2.2.2 SPATIAL STRUCTURE_ The site consists of three distinctive areas, namely, the power plant facility, the ash dams that enclose most of the site and a residential area within the perimeter of the power plant. Kelvin Power Station’s site area is 1.85km², with six adjacent neighbourhoods, which include industrial and residential areas.

Fig 2.11: Spatial structure showing the industrial and residential areas (Author, 2021)

Page [39]

2.2.3 PROPOSED SITE The proposed site for the dissertation is Plant A of the power generation plant, as indicated in red on (Fig. 2.12). Plant A largely consists of an existing building and three cooling towers.

The building has been left to decay since it was decommissioned eight years ago, with broken windows and cracks developing on the façade of the brick and concrete building. This deteriorating structure would form the basis of the implementation of adaptive reuse by regenerating the building into a renewable energy facility.

Fig 2.12: Proposed site area (Author, 2021)

2.3 CONTEXT ANALYSIS_

Fig 2.13: Diagram illustrating numerous site characteristics of Kelvin Power Station. (Author, 2021)

Page [41]

Fig 2.14: Map illustrating the power station and adjacent site context. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.15: Diagram illustrating the power transmission to surrounding neighbourhoods. (Author, 2021)

Page [43]

2.3.1 POWER DISTRIBUTION GRID As illustrated by (Fig 2.15), Kelvin Power Station is responsible for the power supply of various neighbouring communities. Kelvin currently supplies between 10% and 14% of the City of Johannesburg’s energy demand.

It provides to areas including Randburg, Lethabong, up to as far as Old Pennyville, Mooirivier. The energy supplied by Kelvin Power Station is vital since it eases the pressure of the growing demand on the main grid that provides for Johannesburg.

Kelvin is a privately owned power station meaning it is independent of the government. The advantage is that no large investments or maintenance is needed from the government as the capital is provided by the private sector (Kelvinsale, 2014).

Fig 2.16: Electricity pylon image. Edited from:(Malipoom, 2017)

The privately owned station could have the advantage of being able to afford regular maintenance of the infrastructure leading to less unplanned power outages. The independence of Kelvin also means that it could change from the use of coal to a renewable energy resource more easily as more funds become available.

When electricity has to travel a great distance through transmission lines to get to the grid from which it is distributed, some of the power is inevitably lost. The fact that Kelvin is so near to the areas that it provides energy to, limits the power wastage.

Page [45]

2.3.2 SITE SIGNIFICANCE Keeping in mind the vast proportions of the proposed site, key elements were identified to focus on in this dissertation.

The main focus area consists of the existing structures of decommissioned plant A and its corresponding cooling towers.

Plant B is still an active and working plant and hence should be taken into consideration when proposing a design to be implemented at plant A.

Fig 2.17: Sketch of key focus point on Kelvin Power Station site perimeter. (Author, 2021)

The rehabilitation aspect of this dissertation is mainly concerned with the two protruding flyash dams. It aims to find a viable solution for transforming these damaged landfills into an environmentally considerate space.

Since plant A will once again be producing power, the protocol for safety around the high voltage yard and transmission lines should be taken into account.

Fig 2.18: Climate study of Kelvin Power Station. (Author, 2021)

Page [47]

2.3.3 SITE CLIMATE

Average temperature ranges: Min temperature: 10 °C Max temperature: 22.6 °C Rainfall: 678mm average rainfall per year Lowest in July: 3mm Highest in December: 122mm Humidity: 53.2% average Wind: 10km/h average wind speed

After conducting a climate study, as illustrated in (Fig 2.18), it is clear that shading is little to none.

This is due to the vast exposure of the proposed site.

A concern that was raised by the wind study is that the 15kmph wind gusts, especially during August, lead to air pollution from the fly-ash dams over surrounding neighbourhoods.

Fig 2.19: Site model. (Author, 2021)

2.4 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE_ The heritage of a building is like its DNA. It hints at what it used to be and forms part of the cultural identity of the site and neighbourhood.

It is crucial to conserve historical architecture and allow a better understanding of the social and cultural values to guide future designs or influence the regeneration of existing heritage sites.

Fig 2.20: 1958 Annual Report.(Eskom, 1958:24)

Fig 2.21: 1970 Aerial view of Kelvin power station. (Publicity and Travel Department,SAR. 2019)

2.4.1 KELVIN POWER STATION TIMELINE

Page [51]

Fig 2.22: Kelvin Power Station timeline. (Author, 2021)

2.4.2 20th CENTURY POWER STATION ANALOGY

Fig 2.23: (above) Photo of Pretoria West Power Station.

(Author, 2015) Fig 2.24: Sketch illustrates the building profile.(Author, 2021)

Fig 2.25: (above) Umgeni Power Station. (Eskom Heritage, 2020) Fig 2.26: Sketch illustrates key elements. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.27: (above) Bloemfontein Power Station. (Eskom Heritage, 2020) Fig 2.28: Sketch illustrates building structure. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.29: (above) Athlone Power Station. (Eskom Heritage, 2020) Fig 2.30: Sketch illustrates distinct building materials. (Author, 2021)

Page [53]

Location: Kempton Park, Johannesburg, South Africa.

Architect: Merz & Mclellan Power generation capacity: 600MW Date commissioned: 1957 Decommissioned (Plant A): 2013 In 1932, a surge in the goldfields of Johannesburg resulted in a high demand for power stations to satisfy the growing electricity needs of the gold mines, which led to the building of new power stations between 1932 and 1964 in Johannesburg.

The power stations were so near to the Witbank coal-fields, it made the transport of coal efficient and economical. At the time, an agreement between Eskom and the Victoria Falls Power Company Limited (VFP) stipulated that Eskom owns and finances the power stations and VFP would construct and operate the power plant on behalf of Eskom. This led to similarities in the design of power stations for years to come (Eskom, 2021).

Fig 2.31: (right) North elevation of Kelvin Power Station. (Author, 2021)

2.4.5 KELVIN POWER STATION HERITAGE VALUE The historical significance of Kelvin Power Station contributes to the diverse histories and cultural identity of the city; the true influences being the machinery and the years of dedication by workers.

The continuous understatement of Johannesburg’s industrial architecture and heritage is leading to the rapid decay of iconic city landmarks, like power stations. The heritage also carries cultural and social factors that are not linked to the buildings themselves but to the daily commuters and surrounding communities. According to the National Heritage Resources Act (NHRA) of 1999, safeguarding the legacy is a moral responsibility for the future generation of South Africa. These values will inspire current education to place emphasis on the conservation of South Africa’s industrial heritage (Krige, 2010).

Kelvin Power Station was seen as an inspiration that gave several workers hope and opportunities, following the surge in the mining and financial industries that gave the City of Gold its name. On the premises of Kelvin Power Station there is an allocated area for housing. The accommodation for workers and managers improved the transition between day and night shifts at the plant.

The demand for nearby housing increased to neighbouring areas which continued expanding as the community grew. This urban development is crucial for integrating heritage conservation in urban and rural planning for the future of the city (Krige, 2010).

Fig 2.32: Aerial view sketch of Kelvin Power Station. (Author 2021)

Page [55] 2.4.6 ARCHITECTURAL VALUE Several power stations in South Africa were designed and commissioned between 1954 and 1964. Remarkably, quite a few of these power stations shared similar design characteristics.

These memorable buildings added value to early South African industrial functionalism, a style that was also introduced in industrial architecture.

Kelvin Power Station seems to have influenced the urban planning of the structure, function and aesthetics of the neighbourhood. This immense entity stands isolated in a new century, removed from the lives around it. But the architectural value that the power station brought to its surroundings is abundantly clear and should be protected.

2.4.7 TECHNOLOGICAL HERITAGE Plant A of the power station was operating on eleven 1950’s chain grate boilers and six 30MW steam turbine generators. It was decommissioned in 2013. Plant B is operating with seven pulverised coal fired boilers and seven 60MW steam turbine generators installed in the early 1960’s (Kelvin, 2014).

The newer method of using pulverised coal was trendsetting, leading to more effective and efficient use of coal in the industry. Several power plants adapted to the newer technology. This shows that there has been evolvement in the technology used for power production over the years and it opens doors for new, modern power production methods.

Kelvin Power Station portrays the significant heritage of Johannesburg’s industrial history.

03

CONTEXT

CHAPTER 03 [ CONTEXT_ ] _Introduction

_Influence of Department of Energy on power stations _Future vision for South African Energy _Eskom overview _Kelvin Power Station overview

_ Proposed Client _Conclusion

Fig 3.1: View of Kelvin Power Station from the ash dams (Author, 2021)

3.1 INTRODUCTION_ The energy crisis and need for sustainable power is not indigenous to South Africa. All the major countries of the world are joining forces to find strategies that would lead to a more renewable environment. Every decision they make and every regulation they impose guides the aims and designs of the local power sector.

3.2 INFLUENCE OF DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY ON POWER STATIONS_ One of the main roles of the government and the Department of Energy specifically, is to deliver an energy supply that meets and satisfies the demand of the country. This entails developing and enforcing both short and long-term plans for the provision of electricity. These plans include maintenance and funding of the power station facilities and research into alternative energy production resources.

The regulations and plans enforced by this department influences the inner workings and plans of the country’s power stations. It determines the resource for the electricity that should be produced,

the maximum capacity that should be delivered and, in more recent times, sets limits on the effect of the energy production on the environment.

The Zero Carbon Emissions Strategy is a most influential set of regulations that was set up by the country’s Energy Department to which the South African power stations must adhere. This influences the way they plan for future power production, especially if they use an exhaustible resource like coal, and regulates strategies for new power stations as well as plans to adapt old and outdated facilities.

Fig 3.2: Dramatic illustration showing how human activities are damaging the environment. (Author, 2021) Image edited from (Eduardo R, 2020)

Page [59]

3.3 FUTURE VISION FOR SOUTH AFRICAN ENERGY_ It is undeniable that the future vision for the energy production sector of this country needs to be substantially different from that of the past.

The population being left in the dark has become the norm and the devastating effects on the environment are stressed by environmentalists and naturalists day after day.

It is the belief of South Africa’s renewable energy committee that the country has the potential and is on the verge of a boom in the renewable energy industry that could lead to an increase in both environmental and economic welfare (SAREC, 2013).

The Paris Agreement is a treaty between all major countries to substantially reduce carbon emissions in an attempt to decelerate climate change.

According to the Paris Agreement, the countries must lower their net carbon emissions to as close to zero as possible by 2030 (NRDC, 2018).

At present, South Africa’s renewable energy plans are not nearly substantial enough, compared to international standards. They do not allow for a total coal-fired power production transformation by the set date of 2030. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), South Africa

should double the capacity of renewable energy production that they are planning. This could then allow up to 19% of the country’s power demands to be delivered by renewable resources (Schafer, 2014).

The impediment to achieving this 19% is the country’s current economic growth. If it continues to be as low as it is with very little international demand for the Rand, renewable energy will only be able to cover 6% of the electricity demand by 2030 (Schafer, 2014).

The renewable energy future vision of the WWF would mean that no new coal-fired and nuclear power stations would be commissioned. The idea is to have a mix of renewable and sustainable energy resources that is beneficial to the environment and the people of the country.

To bridge the gap in supply that would exist while developing new, renewable energy power stations, the WWF plans to make use of energy storage and gas-fired electricity production (Sager, 2014).

Developers are encouraged to build these renewable energy plants, providing some spare energy capacity. This would add a surplus to the energy network. In the longer term, new infrastructure

will have to be constructed in the most optimal places. This could mean plants near wind-power generating areas or using the infrastructure of existing power plants, seeing that much of the facilities can be reused while implementing the renewable resources. All these future plans have the crucial benefit that it could lower the country’s unemployment rate since these projects would be labour-intensive (Schafer, 2014).

A suggestion by the South African government is to implement carbon budgets. A limit would be set for the maximum amount of greenhouse gas allowed to be produced and based on this restriction, it will be determined which companies must administer a carbon budget (de Wet, 2021).

According to the document, companies would be compelled to adhere to these budgets and failure to do so would lead to monetary penalties. The objective is to inspire companies to invest in renewable and sustainable projects in the longer term.

The cost of transitioning away from carbon producing methods could cost trillions of dollars.

This makes the use of the carbon budgets efficient in the short term considering it would lower carbon emissions at a reduced cost (Magubane, 2021.b).

Fig 3.3: Eskom diagram. (Author, 2021) Image edited from (Morake, P. 2020)

Page [61] 3.4 ESKOM OVERVIEW_ In an article released on 06 October 2021, Eskom was named the “world’s most polluting power company” by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air. The power sectors of the European Union, America and China combined, emits less Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) than Eskom. The effect of SO2 is that, when it reacts with water and air, it becomes sulfuric acid. When sulfuric acid is released into the environment through acid rain, it leads to deforestation and turns the oceans and rivers acidic (Marshall, 2021).

According to another article released on 18 August 2021, Eskom emits the most greenhouse gases in South Africa due to the use of coal, making South Africa the 12th highest greenhouse gas emitting country in the world (Mashego, 2021).

The struggle to keep up with the ever-increasing demand and large shortage of power in the country is leading to Eskom neglecting the maintenance of infrastructure and postponing the implementation of pollution restricting technologies. The delay in maintenance and operating equipment past their capacity means that it fails unexpectedly and the downtime for eventual maintenance is much longer than it would have been if done timeously.

(Wadlow, 2019:2-4).

Due to Eskom being so heavily reliant on coal and coal becoming more expensive due to high demand and non-renewability, energy prices are

increasing to levels that are unaffordable to the general population (Wadlow, 2019:6-8).

Unfortunately, Eskom’s economic situation would only allow it to reach the Paris Agreement’s goal of nett zero carbon emissions by 2050 and would only comply with 57% of the air quality standards set by Africa’s Minimum Emission Standards by 2025.

Together with that, the cost of implementing the technology and infrastructure to limit the emissions would be billions of Rands (Mashego, 2021).

According to Sikonathi Mantshantsha, the spokesperson for Eskom, they are aware of the regulations and they plan to curb the emissions.

A programme has been set in place to transition to renewable energy resources. He confirms Eskom is in fact working on reducing the emissions to an acceptable level (Marshall, 2021).

In the meantime, Eskom would have to build new infrastructure in the areas with the highest demand for power, making use of solar- and wind-energy plants. If they could create supply closer to the high-demand areas, it would reduce the pressure on the main system. They would also have to store some of this generated energy at these points (Schafer, 2014).

Fig 3.4: Photo of Plant B of Kelvin Power Station. (Author, 2021)

Page [63]

3.5 KELVIN POWER STATION OVERVIEW_ The significance and importance of Kelvin Power Station is that it is the only privately owned power station of its size and capacity in South Africa, providing a stable 11% – 15% of Johannesburg’s electricity. The power station is currently owned

by Aldwych International Ltd. a power company that supports the development of the economies of African countries. Initially, the power station had the responsibility to provide energy to the mines in the area and thereafter, as mining became more economical, the electricity was used to power the City of Johannesburg.

One of these methods is through battery storage.

The electricity is stored in a group of batteries, normally close to other active or decommissioned power stations, with the goal of making use of the grid and thereby lowering costs. This method could not be used in isolation as it provides stable electrical output but only for a short period of time, for example, during peak time demand.

Kelvin Power Station provides energy to City Power Johannesburg in accordance with a 20year Power Purchase Agreement. City Power then redistributes the electricity as needed.

The more recent method assessed is the use of gas to generate power. A feasibility study of this resource was done in August 2018 and became a seriously considered solution. The gas-power station would have the capacity to provide 450 to 600MW of power, compared to the 220 to 240MW average that the only operational plant B is currently providing.

Since Johannesburg is so reliant on the power that Kelvin provides, it acts as minor but crucial competition to the monopolised market that Eskom belongs to.

Even though this is a more environmentally friendly method, gas remains an exhaustible resource and the process still emits large amounts of SO2 and CO2.

Kelvin has been conducting technical studies on methods of generating power through alternative resources, especially power that could be generated off the main grid line. The reason for this is that it could be commissioned in a relatively short time.

Collier states, “The Kelvin site and infrastructure around it are key to the development of a new power generation plant” (Wadlow, 2019:6-8).

3.6 PROPOSED CLIENT_ South African Department of Energy: The Department of Energy’s vision is to promote economic growth and sustainable development in South Africa’s energy providing sectors. Their strategy is fully focused on the transitioning from the use of fossil fuels to renewable energy resources through national investment and public involvement (Mineral Resources & Energy, 2021). The South African Department of Energy is a suitable candidate for this dissertation that focusses on finding alternative solutions for the Energy sector of South Africa.

Eskom: As a state-owned entity, Eskom’s mission is to develop the economy and improve the quality of South African’s lives by providing sustainable energy solutions. Eskom is a suitable client for implementing renewable projects and moving away from damaging power generation methods (Eskom, 2019).

Kelvin Power: As a coal-fired power plant, Kelvin Power is continuously under pressure to consider the environmental impact of its energy production, for example, complying with the increasing regulations on air quality set by the Atmospheric Emissions License (AEL) (Kelvinpower, 2021). A transition to renewable energy is imminent. Kelvin is a suitable candidate for incorporating an existing power plant with the transition to renewable energy.

Sustainable Energy Africa (SEA): SEA promotes equitable, low carbon producing and clean energy development in urban South Africa and Africa. They promote the transition to more efficient uses of conventional energy. SAE is a suitable client for this dissertation for the move to cleaner and more efficient energy production methods (Africa, 2021).

Page [65]

Fig 3.5: Department of Mineral Resources and Energy logo.

(Energy,gov.

2021)

Fig 3.6: Eskom logo. (Eskom, 2021)

3.7 CONCLUSION_ The complexity of the workings of the proposed site is due to larger and more influential circles enclosing it.

Fig 3.7: Kelvin Power logo.

(Kelvinpower, 2021)

Fig 3.8: Sustainable Energy Africa logo.

(Sustainable SA, 2021)

Kelvin Power Station as a proposed site is ideal for incorporating these renewable energy and Zero Carbon Emission strategies in order to achieve the universal goal.

04

RENEWABLE ENERGY

CHAPTER 04 [ RENEWABLE ENERGY_ ] _Ecological future vision _Ecological worldview _Future sustainability in South Africa _Climate change _Renewable energy resources _Bio-energy as selected resource

Fig 4.1: Vegetation growing on the ash dams (Author, 2021)

4.1 ECOLOGICAL FUTURE VISION_ The vision is improving the quality of life for people, ensuring their social, economic and personal well-being and allowing them to live in a healthy and sustainable environment.

The future constitutes unpredictable changes to the human habitat, resulting in conflict between globalisation and natural resources being depleted.

As of now, the increasing urgency of this problem escalates. Future challenges, visions and strategies are significant to all researchers and professionals that must make decisions and predictions.

Currently, world leaders and organisations are

researching and considering various proposals on bettering the environment in the near and longterm future (Mehta et a, 2021).

If society does not change the old, traditional and destructive methods, the damage to the environment and depletion of its resources may be a road too far taken to turn around. Stricter regulations for carbon emissions as well as the damage done to the ecology calls for a healthier way of providing energy. Future generations are directly impacted by the actions taken today.

Fig 4.2: Renewable energy line sketch. (Author, 2021) Image from (FLN, 2021)

Page [69]

4.2 ECOLOGICAL WORLDVIEW_ Sustainability and the end of hazardous practices are the future for all development sectors. A primary solution for the future is a complete shift towards a sustainability paradigm. A shift in worldview from the current attitude towards the environment to a fully integrated ecological system is essential (Du Plessis & Brandon, 2015:53).

According to the IPCC document, the total global potential for renewable energy production is significantly higher than the global demand for energy. Current climate change impacts this global potential since the renewable resources depend on the environment. However, research does not suggest that the impact would be substantial.

As indicated by (Fig 4.3), renewable energy resources are currently responsible for 12.9% of the global energy production, with bio-energy contributing up to 38% of the total renewable energy segment (Global bioenergy statistics 2020:10).

Every society needs energy in some form to meet the basic rights of its people and every country needs power for its social and economic development. The world has become dependent on a sustainable supply of electricity to exist.

Fig 4.3: Primary energy supply. (Global Bio-energy Statistics, 2020)

4.3 FUTURE SUSTAINABILITY IN SOUTH AFRICA_ South Africa has assembled the National Framework for Sustainable Development (NFSD), which solely focuses on the vision for South Africa’s future development in a sustainable manner. With the increase in environmental strain and the depleting of natural resources, a change must be implemented and a long-term programme would have to be introduced to benefit South Africa’s future development.

The NFSD initiates a national vision and sets measures to guide the country on reaching this vision through investment, research and development and a strategy for government intervention. They believe sustainable development should entail “an integration of governance, multiple voices, processes and action indecision-making towards a common goal”. Their vision encourages a South Africa that strives to be thriving economically, sustainably, environmentally considerate and managing resources efficiently for generations to come (Sustainability-SA, 2021:7-8). .

Page [71]

4.4 CLIMATE CHANGE_ Human activity is to blame for the surge in the production in greenhouse gasses. The continuous burning of fossil fuels releases more greenhouse gasses into the Earth’s atmosphere with no end in sight. The concern with these gasses being released into the atmosphere is that it is radiated when the sun’s rays hit the earth, trapping the heat. The radiated heat is trapped by the greenhouse gasses which results in 90% of the energy being absorbed and an increase in the Earth’s temperature (NASA, 2021).

In the mid-20th century scientists started recording and observing the change in temperatures in certain regions. As they continued recording data, a clear trend of constantly rising temperatures started raising awareness of global warming. The increase in greenhouse gasses in recent years led to alarming changes in temperatures and unpredictable weather patterns.

During the last century, the quantity of greenhouse gasses, specifically the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2), in the atmosphere have spiked drastically due to the high demand for burning fossil fuels. Other human activity such as deforestation and urbanisation are causing a decrease in areas for essential vegetation.

Fig 4.4: (right) Reflection sketch of a sustainable future. (Author, 2021), Image edited from (Sustainabilityweek, 2021)

Modern civilisation relies on industrial activities to keep up with the demand of urbanisation in the cities. This causes concern with the IPCC, who indicated the carbon dioxide level has increased from 280 parts per million to 417 parts per million in the last 150 years. More than 95% of the total greenhouse gasses released is caused by human activity. Evidence shows that the planet’s average temperature has risen with 1.18°C in the last 40 years. The ocean absorbs and stores most of the radiated heat and, since 1969, has increased by 0.69°C, as is sadly visible in the shrinking polar ice caps (NASA, 2021).

COP (Conference of the Parties) is the assembling of all major countries by the UN for an international convention. COP26 is the 26th annual convention, addresses the urgency of climate change solutions and is directed by the UK. The aim of the 26th convention is to limit carbon emissions, reduce the use of coal, raise investment and keep global warming from raising the earth’s temperature by more than 1.5 degrees Celsius – or as the UK called it: “coal. cars, cash and trees”. There is an urgency in all countries involved, to produce cleaner energy, end the use of fossil fuels and attempts at deforestation. COP is also urging unfinalised issues of the Paris Agreement to be attended to urgently (Krukowska, 2021).

4.5 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES_ Renewable energy, also known as green energy, is energy that is generated by natural, selfreplenishing and non-exhaustible resources.

Using renewable resources as opposed to fossil fuels to generate energy is significantly more environmentally friendly.

WIND ENERGY Wind energy is generated through the use of turbines on wind farms that convert wind into electricity. The faster the wind, the more energy is created to produce electricity.

Wind energy is beneficial due to the fact that it is a completely clean source of energy production.

It does not pollute the environment or have any negative effects on the well-being of humans (Just Energy, 2021).

Wind farms are normally built in outlying areas, meaning the electricity must still be transported to the areas of electricity demand, raising additional costs. Another drawback of wind-powered energy is that the turbines generate a lot of noise and might not offer a particularly aesthetic view.

The use of wind in production is nothing new.

Farmers have been using windmills to pump water for their crops and personal use for ages. Of course, wind farms are only a viable option in South Africa in areas where there is enough wind, for example, the Eastern and Western Cape. In June 2000 the South African Wind Energy Programme (SAWEP) was initiated to assist with a wind farm project in Darling, Cape Town (Mineral Resources & Energy, 2021).

SOLAR ENERGY Solar energy involves converting the energy from the sun into electricity through solar panels.

The solar panels, or photovoltaic systems, use the solar cells in sunlight and electrons in the semiconducting material of the panel to generate electricity and send it to the grid.

The obvious benefit that solar energy has over all other sources is that it is essentially infinite.

Solar energy is not detrimental to human health or the environment and is more affordable than purchasing fossil-fuelled electricity. Some governments offer tax relief or rebates on the use of solar energy.

The amount of initial capital required to set up solar energy is its most significant disadvantage.

It is unrealistic for households to spend that much on solar systems or have an area to place enough panels to produce a reasonable amount of electricity (Just Energy, 2021).

The use of solar energy has increased in South Africa over the last decade, with items like watches and lights as well as water-pumping and sanitation in rural areas being powered by sunlight. South Africa is a viable option for the use of solar energy as replacement for fossil fuels since the country has sunshine throughout the year. Most areas in South Africa get enough sun-exposure in a year to make the country one of the highest solar resources in the world (Mineral Resources & Energy, 2021).

Fig 4.5: Wind & Solar image. (Author, 2021), Image edited from (Paget, J. 2020).

BIOMASS ENERGY

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

One method of generating bio-energy is by burning plant matter called biomass. The conversion from organic matter to thermal energy is what is used to generate the electricity. Biomass can be divided into two categories; traditional sources like wood and manure for small-scale production such as cooking or light; and modern large-scale sources for the production of electricity (Just Energy, 2021).

Geothermal energy entails using the natural heat trapped under the layers of the earth due to radioactive decay, to produce electricity. The heat is encapsulated and the steam is then used to power a turbine.

Burning of plant matter releases carbon dioxide (CO2), which could seem like a disadvantage and exactly what renewable energy production is trying to limit. The difference is that the new plants that would later be used for burning, now consume that same CO2 for growth, making this an enclosed and balanced cycle. With the implementation of BECCS (Bio-Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage), the carbon emissions are kept in underground storage wherefrom it is conducted to the new flora (NERSA, 2021).

The main concern with biomass-generated energy is that new plants take time to grow, meaning it could not be as readily available as fossil fuels are.

Biomass as a resource is a realistic option to assist with the demand for energy in South Africa. There is no need for large new infrastructure and in the long term a biomass-powered plant will be much more cost efficient than a coal-powered power plant. With South Africa’s high unemployment rates, a change to biomass energy production will also greatly benefit the economy (Zafar, 2021).

The method of geothermally generated energy is much less heard of than others but should not be overlooked. This is a source that will naturally replenish, making it non-exhaustible, and it is stored underground meaning the process will take up limited space on any area of land where the energy is generated (Just Energy, 2021).

As with solar energy, geothermal energy production’s most significant limitation is the cost involved in constructing the infrastructure to capture the heat and generate the electricity. Also, this method could increase the risk of earthquakes in the areas where the heat is being pumped from the earth.

Geothermal energy production is not the most viable renewable resource for South Africa. There are not many locations ideal for pumping heat from the earth’s layers and the equipment to do so is very rare, not to mention the costs involved (Harms, 2017).

Fig 4.6: Biomass & Geothermal image. (Author, 2021), Image edited from (Petrus, A. 2014)

Fig 4.7: Diagram comparing of various types renewable energy suitable for the site. (Author, 2021)

Page [75]

4.6 BIO-ENERGY AS SELECTED RESOURCE_ Bio-energy is a renewable energy source obtained from biomass.

The small-scale production of energy through biomass is a part of daily life in developing countries.

For this to become a large-scale production as the world hopes to achieve, there is a need for a clear understanding of the complex relationship between the social, environmental and energy components and how they associate with the production of bioenergy (Edenhofer, 2021:46-50).

Converting biomass to energy on a large scale might be in the early stages in South Africa due to technological improvements and costs but it provides great potential for future sustainable projects, especially in the energy production sector.

Unfortunately, there is little to no government legislation to guide and improve waste by the energy sector and, for now, there is only individual involvement.

The reason for the limited government involvement in biomass energy could be the large initial cost to construct facilities. However, these costs have reduced by up to 90% since 2000 because of improving technologies and increased competition (Energy Resource Guide, 2021). Also, the private sector was never allowed to sell surplus electricity back to the national power grid. This limitation was removed in 2021. Any surplus or self-generated energy may now be sold back to the national grid, according to the Independent Power Producer (IPP). This could promote renewable energy production in the private sector and the transition to green energy. Initiatives incorporating small scale renewable energy production will promote sustainable living in communities and lift the pressure that the high demand and shortage of electricity is placing on the national power grid.

Biomass promises to be a viable solution for renewable energy production in South Africa and, compared to the coal-fired power station, will cost

Fig 4.8: Diagram showing the advantages of biomass as a renewable energy source. (Author, 2021)

significantly less, not only in monetary terms, in the long run (Daniel, 2021).

One example of a successful transition to a renewable energy facility is Drax Power Station in Yorkshire, England. They converted their 50-year-old coal-fired power station into a bioenergy station with carbon capture and storage.

This project became the largest renewable power station as well as the biggest decarbonisation project in Europe. With similar projects to follow, the UK government aims to reach “net-zero” carbon emissions in 2025 (Hausch Energy, 2021).

Biomass was chosen as the renewable energy resource for this dissertation because of the clear advantage it has above other resources. Due to the existing infrastructure such as turbines and furnaces, the proposed site would easily and costeffectively adapt to the transformation from coal to biomass produced energy.

05

ADAPTIVE

REUSE

CHAPTER 05 [ADAPTIVE REUSE_ ] _Introduction _Architecture of the future

_What should the future reflect?

_Principles & methods _Kelvin Power Station strategy

_Implementation _Precedent study

Fig 5.1: Inside decommissioned Plant A. (Author, 2021)

5.1 ADAPTIVE REUSE _ Introduction: Adaptive reuse entails the reuse and renovation of existing infrastructure for a new purpose. This strategy allows new life to be given to abandoned or historic structures while preserving the historic value of the city and its landmarks as well as keep the city’s assets valuable (MasterClass, 2020) Initially, old structures were reused because it was too expensive to develop new buildings from scratch; building materials were scarce and transportation was limited and expensive. It was more feasible to simply use an existing building for this new purpose.

However, the industrial revolution transpired and transportation networks were developed so more affordable building materials could be sourced. It became a trend to demolish existing infrastructure and build a new building for a new purpose (Chester Commission, 2021).

Today, the view has changed and adaptive reuse has yet again become attractive. Cities prefer to keep their historic buildings as they retain the character of the era it was built in. Giving new vitality to an old building could increase its economic value, rather than letting it decay and become neglected.

It could once again become a functional and valuable landmark in the community (Chester Commission, 2021).

Many historic buildings have an ideal location since they are in the main part of the city where

there is a lot of movement. Adapting such buildings that have lost their use, instead of constructing new buildings outside of a city, has clear value (Compton Construction, 2016).

This also means that new investment will be brought into the community and members would most likely be employed to renovate the building.

Some governments even provide tax relief on the repurposing of such historic sites.

Repurposing the existing infrastructure would be more economically efficient than constructing a building from scratch. Material can be reused, saving on cost and transportation. This also means saving time. The building can be used for its new functionality much sooner than if new infrastructure has to be built. There is an urgent need for renewable energy to replace fossil-fuelled power stations and by using existing infrastructure, it would become functional much sooner.

Adaptive reuse is a benefit to the environment.

Firstly, less construction means fewer negative effects on the environment, like pollution and disruption of land. Secondly, decaying buildings might have caused contamination of the environment around them. By reusing the building, these materials would be removed and more environmentally friendly materials could be used (Chester Commission, 2021).

Fig 5.2: (above) Battersea Power Station. (Digitalvision, 2020) Fig 5.3: (left) Adaptive reuse implementation sketches.

Limitations: As with most things, there are some limitations to adaptive reuse that have to be considered.

constantly moving around the structure (Chester Commission, 2021).

One significant concern with the repurposing of an existing structure is safety. Materials in buildings that have been left to deteriorate could be a physical and health hazard to those who attempt to renovate it. Precautions would have to be taken when tampering with the structure.

Applying adaptive reuse to the proposed site of this dissertation seemed to be a very feasible solution for the current infrastructure.

This also means that sufficient ways would have to be found to dispose of these hazardous materials.

Electrical wiring would have to be thoroughly inspected or replaced entirely.

As with any construction there would be regulatory constraints when working on an existing structure.

Building permits would be necessary and, in case of the proposed site, one of the plants is still in working which means there are employees

The suggested plant was decommissioned but the infrastructure is still sound and the existing building and equipment, such as turbines and furnaces, can be reused directly when implementing renewable energy resources. There is an urgency with which the world has to move away from coal-fired power production and this plant could not be used for its initial purpose any longer. It would be a time and cost-effective way of introducing renewable energy production into the neighbourhood, together with repurposing the infrastructure instead of leaving it to deteriorate.

Fig 5.4: Elements of adaptive reuse limitations. (Author, 2021)

Page [81]

5.2 ARCHITECTURE OF THE FUTURE_ There is a loss of meaning when the relationship between past, present and future is not established.

Different styles of architecture delivered achievements in the past. A combination of visual satisfaction and geometrical relationships of form and space produced innovative examples that are highly prescribed in the present time (Kanvinde, 1959:171-172).

Urban development directly ties in with the physical changes to the environment. Rapidly increasing urban expansion in Johannesburg is placing strain on the city’s infrastructure as well as urban green spaces. Designers need to focus on altering and adapting existing urban fabric when designing for the future.

Buildings were designed to exemplify the specific values of that time and it is important to keep the essence of what was achieved. If new functions can be given to past buildings, the heritage of these buildings can be conserved when adapting to these new functions. These are the characteristics of adaptive reuse.

Society needs to start considering how a new, selfsustaining world can be created with healthier and less harmful practices. This goal can be achieved by finding substitutes for wasteful actions, adapting and re-using what exists and consequently conserving what is left of the natural environment.

5.3 WHAT SHOULD THE FUTURE REFLECT?_ A century ago people had a vision for the future, a set idea or goal that they were aiming to reach.

However, at that time, those ideas were only a perception of reality that originated in someone’s mind rather than from observable evidence.

To envision such goals, the mind is pushed towards a person’s needs and desires and those thoughts need to be adapted to consider the environment and the design thereof in future.

(Fig 5.5) is a drawing done in 1957 that depicts both a future vision of Johannesburg and being a

commemoration for the opening of a new power station.

The drawing illustrates high-rise buildings in the back and emphasises power plants to come. This resembles the large-scale industries, powered by technology, feeding the economic empire.

Today, people reflect on the vision they had and can make better choices because of it. Practices a century ago did not focus on the ecological aspect of the environment but solely on the growth and expansion of the technological industry.

Fig 5.5: Kelvin Power Station future vision drawing 1957. (Author, 2021)

5.4 PRICNCIPLES & METHODS_ Francoise Bollack divides adaptive reuse into five different but not isolated categories. From insertion to a parasite-like approach, these methods of applying adaptive reuse all have one common goal: rejuvenating old buildings into something aesthetically pleasing and functional (Bollack, 2013:114-116).

INSERTION Insertion entails the renovation of interior spaces of a structure while keeping the heritage and look of the exterior as is. This allows for the preservation of the heritage of the building while introducing new technologies and a new use of the inside.

WRAP This method involves the wrapping of a structure with a new exterior layer, either completely or partially. A unique example of this technique is adding a roof to cover an open existing space like a sport stadium or park.

Fig 5.6: Diagram illustrating insertion & wrap principles. (Author, 2021)

Page [85]

JUXTAPOSITION The juxtaposition technique is applied when a new structure is built next to, but is not conjoined with, the old building. The old and new infrastructure could share a facade wall or could be linked with a walkway.

PARASITE This method receives its name from its characteristic of latching on to an existing building and benefiting from this relationship through shared infrastructure. The old and historical part of the building can be easily distinguished from its new and modern addition.

Fig 5.7: Diagram illustrating juxtaposition & parasite principles. (Author, 2021)

5.5 KELVIN POWER STATION STRATEGY_ EXISTING MATERIALS

Fig 5.8: (above) Diagram explaining the existing materials. (Author, 2021) Fig 5.9: (right) Axonometric view of the existing building structure. (Author, 2021)

EXISTING BUILDING ENVELOPE

5.6 IMPLEMENTATION_

Fig 5.10: Axonometric view of the implementation of the changes to the existing building structure.

(Author, 2021)

01_

5.7 PRECEDENT STUDY_ 5.7.1 Enka Power Station Headquaters Location: Adapazarı / Turkey Date: 2017 Architect: Gokhan Avcioglu & GAD Typology: Power station The Enka Power Station was opened in Adapazan in 2002. New administrative offices were constructed near a green-energy production power plant in a rural community. This will be used by administrative staff and an operational team. Conferences for groups of people from the community are organised in conjunction with international experts to manage the technically advanced power station (GAD, 2021).

The design is contemporary and functional, with transparent/semi-transparent glass cladding combined with an exposed steel structure. Yet, it still provides a healthy working environment highlighting the natural light and surrounding courtyards (GAD, 2021).

Fig 5.11:(top) View of Enka Power Station. (Drahsan, E. 2017) Fig 5.12: (bottom left) Lightweight structure.

(Drahsan, E. 2017) Fig 5.13: (bottom right) Comparison between new and existing. (Drahsan, E. 2017)

Page [89]

The relationship between the power facility and administration building represents the mechanical as part of the aesthetic design narrative. The functionality of the power station is being displayed and this is what gives Enka Power Station its unique characteristics. The power station uses natural gas to generate electricity which ties in with the green design building, providing a healthy environment throughout the neighbourhood.

Enka Power Station differs in some ways to the project this dissertation intends to propose but is the largely same. Both Enka and this project focus on urban regeneration and sustainability.

02_

5.7.2 Acciona Ombú Historic Industrial Building Location: Madrid / Spain Date: 2021 Architect: Foster + Partners Typology: Industrial Building This is an adaptive reuse project where Foster and Partners refurbished and rejuvenated a historical industrial building in Madrid to sustainable office space. It is a perfect example of building reuse and breathing new life into a space. Acciona Ombú is an office building with over 10,000 square meters of new office space and green landscapes surrounding the heritage building (Partners, 2021).

Once a natural gas plant that generated electricity for Madrid, it was decommissioned and left to decay.

Fig 5.14: (top)Perspective of Acciona Ombú. (Harrouk, C. 2021) Fig 5.15: (bottom left) Existing industrial structure.

(Harrouk, C. 2021) Fig 5.16: (bottom right) New proposed sustainable design.

(Harrouk, C. 2021)

Page [91]

The proposal was to reuse the heritage building by adapting the building to new office space. New sections were added to the existing envelope, using timber as primary material due to its low carbon footprint and recyclability.

Acciona Ombú is a perfect example of adaptive reuse where the connection between the old and new structures provides new life to a decaying building.

The importance of preserving heritage buildings is not just in the conservation but in providing economic, social and cultural assets to urban communities. Heritage buildings can successfully be conserved and redeveloped through adaptive reuse and, in this way, contribute to a sustainable urban environment.

03_

5.7.3 The Brewery Yard Location: Sydney / Australia Date: 2015 Architect: Tzannes Typology: Industrial factory This project demonstrates an innovative method of re-incorporating an original power station decommissioned in 1980 into a tri-generation plant. The site is a combination of historical buildings located on the edge of the Sydney CBD. It is also known as Central Park (Tzannes, 2015).

The essence of this project was to provide a unique design in the urban context by incorporating new additions to the existing building envelope. The newly integrated elements retain and emphasise the heritage of this historic brewery.

A creative solution was introduced by merging an organic form in the roofline of the existing buildings to accommodate the tri-generation structure. This created a distinct analogy between the old and the new. The materials used included permeable mesh to wrap around the cooling towers and steel for structural elements.

Fig 5.17: The Brewery Yard.

(Wilson, S. 2019) Fig 5.18: Connection between existing and new materials. (Mairs, J. 2015.)

Fig 5.19: Encapsulate the structural elements in the design. (Mairs, J. 2015.)

Page [93]

The community plays a vital role in the neighbourhood by forming a connection with the precinct. The precinct provides recreational facilities to enhance social interaction and engagement and offers the benefits of the trigeneration plant that supplies electricity and hot water to surrounding communities. The recreational areas around the building have developed into a space for entertainment and events while illuminating lights and images on the facade form an engagement with the building (Tzannes, 2015).

The tri-generation plant is a perfect example of adaptive reuse that transitions an existing structure into a newly developed building. This is reintroduced into the urban context while keeping the essence of the building. The newly integrated elements are designed to distinguish between the past and present, with both elements existing in harmony. The tri-generation plant encouraged surrounding communities to engage and enhance social interaction in the precinct.

The project is similar to this dissertation because it aims to integrate the old and new infrastructure into one harmonious piece while still keeping the essence of both sections.

06

PROGRAMME

CHAPTER 06 [ PROGRAMME_ ] _Introduction _Programme intention _Microalgae to biomass _Cyanobacteria as a biofuel source _Ground rehabilitation _Accommodation schedule

Fig 6.1: Inside the existing cooling tower (Author, 2021)

6.1 PROGRAMME _ Introduction:

The running of a coal-fired power station for 64 years bears harsh consequences for the infrastructure, environment and neighbouring communities. The balance connecting nature and man-made became skewed with the upsurge of urban expansion.

power station with the surrounding communities and their education.

By raising awareness and informing the residents about renewable energy, it empowers them to become self-sufficient, able to contribute to the economy and inform others.

The aim of the proposed programme is to reintroduce the decommissioned plant as a clean energy producer by utilising renewable energy resources while conducting ground rehabilitation to return vitality to the environment.

The site has the opportunity to ease the energy demand in surrounding areas with renewable energy production while reintegrating existing infrastructure and contributing to the economy.

It would restore harmony between the abandoned power plant, the overworked environment and the communities that would benefit from its rejuvenation.

The new layout of the existing infrastructure would include classrooms, workshops and research laboratories with the intention of integrating the

Page [97]

6.2 PROGRAMME INTENTIONS_

Fig 6.2: (above) Perspective sketch of Plant A and cooling towers (Author, 2021)

Fig 6.3: (above) Renewable energy implementation. (Author, 2021)

Fig 6.4: (above) Sketches of proposed design. (Author, 2021)

Fig 6.5: (above) Sketches empowering the community. (Author, 2021)

6.3 MICROALGAE TO BIOMASS_ The use of microalgae as a source for large-scale biomass production has become increasingly popular in the last decade, especially when considering an alternative resource to fossil fuel.

Microalgae is especially useful when dealing with polluted water sources as it thrives under such conditions. Since more than half of the earth is enveloped by water, the use of microalgae as a supply for the increasing energy demand could be ideal.

Fig 6.6: (above) Sketch of Microalgae cell structure. (Author, 2021)

Fig 6.7: Image of filamentous algae (Author, 2021). Image edited from (Loeschen, 2019)

Page [99]

6.4 CYANOBACTERIA AS A BIOFUEL SOURCE_ Cyanobacteria, also referred as blue-green algae, belongs to a group of 2000 ancient photosynthetic microbes. It is commonly found in wetlands and inland waters and plays a key role in the water quality and functioning of aquatic ecosystems.

Two of the most beneficial aspects of cyanobacteria is its extensive availability and multi-functionality.

These applications include agricultural uses, such as nutritional supplements, fertiliser for plants and biofuel as well as food supplements and the treatment of polluted water.

Interest in cyanobacteria and microalgae as alternative sources of energy has grown rapidly in

recent years. The reason for using these instead of land plants is due to its approximately 10% higher efficiency in photosynthesis.

This alternative source of energy will be more cost effective and will benefit the environment due to less sulphur emissions and a higher oxygen content, compared to the use of coal (Singh, 2020: 269-297).

Cyanobacteria, as a promising method for heavymetals removal: Heavy metals are toxic to the environment and can remain in an eco-system for years, polluting the

water, fauna and flora. Cyanobacteria has proved very efficient in removing toxins and heavy metals like mercury, lead and zinc from the terrain (Singh, 2020: 269-297).

The cyanobacteria is a new and different approach to biofuel, compared to the more ‘traditional’ methods. The above excerpts suggest that this is a viable way of producing energy but also for cleaning the environment.

This can be applied specifically to the proposed site of this dissertation due to its large areas of polluted ground.

MICROALGAE ENERGY PRODUCTION

Fig 6.8: Microalgae energy production programme. (Author, 2021)

Page [101]

6.5 GROUND REHABILITATION_ Due to the vast number of coal-fired power stations in South Africa, there are increased quantities of fly-ash produced. This by-product is devastating to the environment if not regulated and reused in concrete or road construction.

Many of the coal power stations have ash dams where the discarded fly ash is stored in landfills.

This causes fine-particle dust pollution in the area as well as leaching of heavy metals into the groundwater. This hazardous environment does not only affect people’s health but also the ecology of the area.

The need for ground rehabilitation of a coal power station is very important to restore the area and

the biodiversity. There are different methods and programs to implement according to the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report (EPA, 2021). In some countries the use of Algae (Algal Biochar) to enhance the re-vegetation of damaged and polluted soil is an effective way to accelerate ground rehabilitation.

The Algae removes toxic and heavy metals from the ground or from the ash dams of the coal power stations (Zierold & Odoh, 2020). This clean-up process is beneficial for ground rehabilitation as well as for producing a biofuel from the algae used to generate electricity.

Fig 6.9: Proposed ground rehabilitation map of Kelvin Power Station. (Author, 2021)

Fig 6.10: View of existing site conditions. (Author, 2021)

C1

6.5.1 SITE BOUNDARY ANALYSIS

A1

Fig 6.11: Map illustrating the site edge conditions. (Author, 2021)

Kelvin Power Station’s vast site perimeter features different site edge conditions, ranging from altered typography with high landfills to infertile soil due to mining activities. The edge of the site forms a barrier to adjacent neighbourhoods allowing no interaction between them.

(Fig 6.12) illustrates how these irregular conditions can be altered and the ground rehabilitated to promote interaction with surrounding neighbourhoods through the implementation of a recreational park.

B1 Fig 6.12: Sketches of proposed site edge treatment and rehabilitation.

(Author, 2021)

Fig 6.13: Perspective of proposed site regeneration of the fly-ash dams. (Author, 2021)

Fig 6.14: Perspective of proposed site regeneration of the fly-ash dams. (Author, 2021)

Page[105]

6.6 ACCOMMODATION SCHEDULE_

Bio-energy & testing laboratories:

Educational facility:

Power generation facility:

+

Reception

+

Algae bio-remediation laboratory

+

Staff induction rooms

+

Engineer offices

+

Algae research laboratory

+

Training facility

+

Principle researcher

+

Algae bio-chemistry laboratory

+

Security offices

+

Staff quarters

+

Chemical engineer office

+

Control room

+

Kitchenette

+

Laboratory technician office

+

Storage room

+

Kiosk

+

Equipment room

+

Workshops

+

Boardroom

+

Research library

+

Pump room

+

Sample room

+

Boardroom

+

Electrical room

+

Chemical safe

+

CAD lab

+

Generator

+

Algae harvesting laboratory

+

Server room

+

Fire hydrant room

+

Algae testing laboratory

+

Study area

+

Turbine condenser

+

Algae open Photobioreactor systems

+

Workshops

+

Furnace / Boilers

+

Algae pump room

+

Supply room

+

30MW turbine units

+

Microalgae biomass conversion tanks

+

Lecture rooms

+

Bio-fuel storage tanks

+

Administration offices

+

Maintenance access doors

+

Media room

+

Staff ablutions

+

Ablutions

+

Medical room

+

Changing rooms

+

Offices

+

Restaurant

+

Coffee shop

07

DESIGN RESOLUTION

CHAPTER 07 [ DESIGN RESOLUTION_ ] _Introduction

_Design concept

_Biophilic design

_Design development

_Preliminary proposed design

Fig 7.1: View of Plant A of the power station. (Author, 2021)

7.1 INTRODUCTION_ Future vision entails reflecting on the old to empower us to take the best action today while creating an improved version of the future.

(Fig 7.3) embodies the concept that led to this dissertation. The intention is to eliminate the separation that exists between the mechanical and natural elements and transition them into one balanced concept through a biophilic design.

The combination of the mechanical and natural entities will be an integral part of the design process.

Fig 7.2: Diagram explaining the future vision concept. (Author, 2021)

Page[109]

7.2 DESIGN CONCEPT_

Fig 7.3: Concept parti diagram and approach to transition elements of the site (Author, 2021)

7.3 BIOPHILIC DESIGN_ Biophilia was introduced by biologist Edward O. Wilson who believes that humans have an ingrained attraction to living things. This attraction induces a subconscious connection and love for nature (‘Biophilia’ devised from the Latin ‘bio’ and ‘philia’, translating to “love of life”). This connection is exhibited by the way in which the natural environment is incorporated in the design of spaces. The fundamental approach of biophilia is connecting people with nature to improve their quality of life and to promote their well-being (Duduch, 2021).

Biophilic design is integrated with biophilia in a more direct way by incorporating this theory of elements and practices into the built environment

more effectively. The focus is placed on elements such as light, textures and natural shapes to combine hints of nature flowing through the building. The mimicking of nature shows respect and innate attraction towards the surrounding ecosystem (Smith, 2020).

The notion is applied in this dissertation by adapting the existing power facility and improving the urban landscape from the imposing steel and concrete structures, to a greener and more sustainable environment. Bringing natural elements into a space or structure enhances the experience and creates the opportunity to reflect on the nature itself.

Fig 7.4: Biophilic design diagram. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.5: Dramatic illustration introducing nature as a passage into the building. (Author, 2021)

7.4 DESIGN DEVELOPMENT_

Page [113]

Fig 7.6: Site section. (Author, 2021)

7.4.1 SPATIAL INTENTION The spatial intention for the proposed site is to integrate the renewable design into the power plant and cooling towers in order to respect and form a connection with the existing industrial fabric.

The continuous form of the existing power plant building provides the opportunity to dissect the outer shell and create a breathable space. These voids determine the placement of the public and private spaces and guide the observer throughout the building.

Fig 7.7: (left) Spatial layout sketches. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.8: (right) Site plan showing existing structures. (Author, 2021)

Page [115]

7.4.2 SPATIAL STRUCTURING

Fig 7.9.1

Fig 7.9.2

There is a clear connection between the large space enveloping a smaller contained space which results in visual and spatial continuity.

The importance of articulating an entrance on a long continuous facade distinguishes the approach to a building.

The size of the contained space impacts the spaces between the two entities. The form of the contained space can affect how the space is perceived and the functional importance (Ching, 2014:198).

An intersecting perpendicular plane to the walkway into the building envelope establishes a spatial continuity between outside and inside spaces (Ching, 2014:218).

Fig 7.9.1-7.9.3: Spatial principles diagram leading to design resolution. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.9.3

The form and scale of the interior spaces form the circulation spaces within the building envelope.

The passage is an integral part of the design process.

This will guide the public to interact with the facility which promotes a restorative environment of the existing envelope (Ching, 2014:294).

Fig 7.10: Building transformation sketches. (Author, 2021)

Page [117]

Fig 7.11.1

Fig 7.11.2

Fig 7.12.1

Fig 7.11.1-7.11.3: Spatial diagram sketch plans. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.11.3

Fig 7.12.2

Fig 7.12.3

Fig 7.12.1-7.12.3: Sections exploring spatial structuring. (Author, 2021)

7.4.3 FACADE EXPLORATION

Fig 7.13.1

Fig 7.13.2

Fig 7.13.3

Fig 7.13.4 Fig 7.13.1-7.13.4: (above) Facade exploration sketches. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.14: (left)Entrance configuration sketches. (Author, 2021)

Page [119]

Fig 7.15: Proposed section exploration sketch. (Author, 2021)

During the exploration of the maquette model focus was placed on the existing structure to form the base for the design intention. A central hierarchy was explored through two circulation towers, placing emphasis on the the entrance as well as the different phases of the building.

Fig 7.16: (left) Maquette exploration. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.17: (right) Building form analysis. (Author, 2021)

Page [121]

Fig 7.18: (left) Building facade exploration. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.19: (right) Maquette exploration. (Author, 2021)

Segregating the northen side of the building into the observatory towers highlights the transition from building to landscape. The eastern side of the building will contain the bio-fuel production on the facade. As per the programme, a facade system will be implemented to break-up the long, continuous existing facade and create a sense of depth.

TRANSITION SPACE

Fig 7.21: (above) Building transition development. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.20: Building layout development. (Author, 2021)

Page[123]

Fig 7.22: Site plan development. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.23: Proposed design plan of the cooling towers. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.24: Proposed design section of the cooling towers. (Author, 2021)

Page [125]

Fig 7.25: Building section development. (Author, 2021)

7.5 PROPOSED FINAL DESIGN_ Site Plan of Proposed Design_ Key:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Visitor Access Staff Access Gatehouse Existing Offices Existing Staff Covered Parking Existing Security Access Existing Lab/Testing Facilities Existing Power Station Administration Buildings 8. Entrance Road 9. Visitor Parking 10. Walkway 11. Attenuation Pond 12. Entrance 13. Connecting Bridge 14. Kelvin Power Control Room 15. Plant A Bio-energy Facility 16. Plant B Power Station 17. Existing Workshops 18. Existing Training Offices 19. Courtyard 20. Biofuel Observatory 21. Existing Cooling Towers 22. Biofuel Extraction 23. Biomass Harvesting 24. Biomass Cultivating 25. High Voltage Yard 26. Gautrain Railway

Fig 7.26: Proposed site plan. (Author, 2021)

Key:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

Fig 7.27: Proposed ground floor plan. (Author, 2021)

44.

45.

Attenuation Pond Walkway Vestibule Visitor Entrance Staff Entrance Security Offices Staff Induction Storage Atrium Training Facility Passage Control Panel Workshop Pump Room Electrical Room Turbine Condenser Fire Hydrant Room Furnace Service Entry Biofuel Storage Tanks Lobby Lift Staff Ablutions Male Bathroom Female Bathroom Courtyard Kiosk Kitchen Induction Room Offices Office Reception Medical Room Cleaning Room Staff Quarters Coffee Shop Restaurant Auditorium Micro-algae Biomass Conversion Tanks Supply Room Algae Harvesting Laboratory Algae Testing Laboratory Pump Room Algae Open Photobioreactor System Algae Biofuel Observatory Existing Smoke Stack

Key:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

Fig 7.28: Proposed First Floor Plan. (Author, 2021)

44.

45.

Kelvin Control Tower Kelvin Power Control Bridge Turbine 1 Turbine 2 Turbine 3 Furnace Service Duct Lift Lobby Atrium Walkway Biofuel Storage Tanks Algae Filtration Room Electrical Control Room Power Generation Control Room Pump Room Male Bathroom Female Bathroom Micro-algae Biomass Conversion Tanks Admin Office Media Room Café Balcony Lecture Room Passage Office Storage Workshop Supply Room WC Study Area CAD Lab Server Room Store Room Lounge Boardroom Research Library Equipment Room Sample Room Micro-algae Biomass Conversion Tanks Algae Research Laboratory Algae Bio-Remediation Laboratory Algae Bio-Chemistry Laboratory Engineer Office Existing Smoke Stack

Key:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Kelvin Control Tower Kelvin Power Control Bridge Turbine 1 Turbine 2 Turbine 3 Turbine Condenser

7. Atrium 8. Staff Storage Locker 9. Walkway 10. Exhibition Studio 11. Staff Entrance 12. Visitor Entrance

13.

14.

15.

16.

Passage Research Library Algae Testing Exhibition Auditorium

Fig 7.29: Proposed Section B-B. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.30: Proposed North Elevation. (Author, 2021)

Key:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Admin Office Atrium Lobby Stairwell Lecture Room Office Walkway Exhibition Studio Micro-algae Biomass Conversion Tanks 10. Operational Station 11. Technical Room 12. Observation Bridge

Fig 7.31: Proposed Section A-A. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.32: Proposed East Elevation. (Author, 2021)

Edge Detail_

Fig 7.33: Proposed design edge detail. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.34: Final design view 01 - Towards entrace and attenuation pond. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.35: Final design view 02 - Showing interior passage. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.36: Final design view 03 - View towards biofuel testing facility. (Author, 2021)

08

TECHNICAL RESOLUTION

Fig 1.1: Diagram illustrating defined perimeter of Kelvin Power Station. (Author, 2021)

CHAPTER 08 [ TECHNICAL RESOLUTION_ ] _Introduction

_Form exploration _Facade system design _Precedent study

_System implementation

_Specification - writing & development _Detail drawings _Contract documentation drawings

Fig 8.1: Locality map of Kelvin Power Station. (Author, 2021)

8.1 INTRODUCTION_ Integrating the bio-energy production into the building envelope.

The idea is to introduce a design that will be considerate of the ecology in the way that it optimises the use of the local eco-system and is efficient with its use of resources.

If the design biomass is integrated into the shell of the building, which provides a large enough footprint to reach the capacity of biomass necessary without occupying additional surface space, it provides both functionality and aesthetic value.

Fig 8.2: Early conceptual sketch of proposed intervention. (Author, 2021)

Page[145]

8.2 FORM EXPLORATION_

Fig 8.3.1

Fig 8.3.2

Fig 8.4.1

Fig 8.3.3

Fig 8.4.2

Fig 8.4.3

Fig 8.3.1-8.3.3: Tectonic frame design models (Author, 2021) Fig 8.4.1-8.4.3: Tectonic frame sketches exploration (Author, 2021)

8.3 FACADE SYSTEM DESIGN_

Fig 8.5.1

Fig 8.5.2

Fig 8.5.3

Fig 8.5.1-8.5.3: Air circulation model (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.6: Air circulation model (Author, 2021)

Page[147]

Fig 8.8: Section model diagram (Author, 2021) Fig 8.7: Section model showing facade panel (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.9: Facade panel design model (Author, 2021)

Page[149]

Fig 8.10: Algae facade concept technical diagram. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.11.1

Fig 8.11.2 Fig 8.11.1-8.11.3: Algae facade concept model. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.11.3

8.4 PRECEDENT STUDY_ BIQ – DAS ALGENHAUS, SPLITTERWERK, HAMBURG, GERMANY The BIQ – Das Algenhaus project was introduced as the first biochemical façade that generated renewable and sustainable energy through the use of algae.

The façade acts as a closed-loop system. This means a controlled and easily adaptable environment since the algae is grown in tubes or panels. This offers much higher quality and productivity to the alternative open-loop system. The algae between the water-filled panels absorb carbon dioxide during the process of photosynthesises. Through centrifugation of the algae, a mass of algae forms at the bottom of the façade from where it can be extracted (Wurm, 2013).

The façade acts as heat and sound insulation and a shield from the sun while the algae biomass and the biogas produced can be used as a source for renewable energy. The system operates all throughout the year and there is a 10% efficiency of the conversion from light to algae biomass (Wurm, 2013).

Fig 8.12.1

Fig 8.12.2

The unconventional use of the facades acts as a multi-purpose system, implemented as sustainable production of renewable energy and solar heat.

The system can be applied to this thesis with the aim of integrating the algae energy production system and the building.

Fig 8.12.3

Fig 8.12.1-8.12.3: Algae facade system implementation in Germany. (Wurm, J., 2013)

Page[151] BIOKINETICS, UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE This project used a kinetic energy approach to improve the growth of algae in a façade, which acts as a photobiotic system, with the aim of the algae being used as a biofuel.

Through the use of this system, the algae biomass can double over a period of 48 hours and use a significantly larger amount of carbon dioxide (Karami & Kauffman, 2020:49).

The system consists of renewable materials and multiple layers, each with its own contribution to the effectiveness of the algae growth. The façade does not consist of only one panel but rather of

Fig 8.13.1

Fig 8.13.2

multiple, interlinking modules. This improves the circulation of air and the system can be made smaller or larger, based on the size of the infrastructure it is applied to (Karami & Kauffman, 2020:93).

A modular system can be applied to this thesis due to its benefits of easier control and more effective growth of the algae, as investigated by the Biokinetics project. It also requires less effort to maintain the modules as each can be removed individually while the rest of the system continues.

Fig 8.13.3

Fig 8.13.1-8.13.3: Biokinetics of algae facade system. (Karami, M. and Kauffman, D., 2020)

8.5 SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION_ Some of the limitations of industrial-scale production of cyanobacteria-based biofuel include the large initial input of resources, area for cultivation, water and nutrients. Cyanobacteria easily adapts to harsh environmental condition.

This characteristic of being able to tolerate extreme conditions add value to the large biomass implementation (Singh, 2020:281).

The large quantity of cyanobacteria needed for the biofuel is cultivated from photobioreactors inside the three existing cooling towers as well as the algae façade system. Both are closed cultivation systems which in result enhance biomass productivity while minimising bacterial and fungal contamination.

The immense quantity of water needed for the cultivation of cyanobacteria will be controlled with the closed system. With little to zero evaporation and spillage, the water filtrates through the whole system providing the necessary nutrients.

The additional nutrients will be supplied by the carbon capture of the power plant. The CO2 will be transported to the photobioreactors and algae façade system through inlet valves, aerating the cyanobacteria. The sunlight captured by the cyanobacteria provides the necessary growth components for the system (Singh, 2020:282).

Fig 8.14: Algae facade system implementation diagram. (Author, 2021)

8.6 SPECIFICATION – WRITING & DEVELOPMENT_

Fig 8.15: Isometric algae facade panel assembly. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.16: Algae facade system elevation. (Author, 2021)

Page[155]

8.7 DETAIL DRAWINGS_ Edge Detail:

Water Channel Detail:

Fig 8.17: (above) Water channel detail illustrating the biophilic design incorporated throughout the building. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.18: (left) Edge detail showing the connection between the algae facade system and the building. (Author, 2021)

Facade System Detail:

Fig 8.19: Exploded axonometric detail showing the algae facade system. (Author, 2021)

8.8 CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION DRAWINGS_

Fig 8.20: Locality & site plan. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.21: Ground floor plan. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.22: First floor plan. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.23: Roof Plan. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.24: Section A-A. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.25: Section B-B. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.26: Edge detail. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.27: Details. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.28: Algae facade assembly details. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.29: Facade elevation. (Author, 2021)

CHAPTER 09 [ CONCLUSION_ ] _Conclusion

_Appendix A - Final exhibition

_Appendix B - Examiners comments & amendments

_Appendix C - Research article

_List of figures _References

Fig 9.1: Diagram of filamentous microalgae in water. (Author, 2021)

9.1 CONCLUSION_

Page[169]

The energy catastrophe currently weighing on South Africa is two-fold. The immense pressure of an ever-growing demand for power together with a limited supply; and a dire need of a transformation away from exhaustible and harmful resources, like coal, to renewable and environmentally considerate resources. This dissertation suggests a possible solution for some of the demand for energy in the areas neighbouring the power station while introducing a renewable resource that would not contribute to the greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere.

Another balance that this dissertation sought to address is one between the benefits that urbanisation has brought, and a sustainable future that confronts the drawbacks of this urbanisation.

As cities have expanded, pockets of underused land have been left abandoned. There needs to be a shift in focus towards the urban form that contributes to the way society interacts with the urban fabric.

Keeping the integrity and authenticity of a city is important as it is what the inhabitants of the city connects with.

The Department of Energy is influenced by the world’s decisions regarding energy production; they in turn, influence the energy producers of South Africa accordingly. The Paris Agreement is an agreement between all major countries to substantially reduce their carbon emissions with the aim of decelerating climate change, and South Africa’s future vision for energy production must be in line with this agreement.

The world has been dependent on electricity to thrive, both in a personal and economic capacity.

The development of countries relies on a shift towards a sustainability paradigm. An endless supply of electricity will not be possible and the environment will not survive if power stations do not transform to renewable resources.

Various renewable resources were investigated before biomass was chosen as the proposed resource for this dissertation. Biomass is the burning of organic matter to produce bio-energy and the carbon emissions from the burning process is reused for the growth of the plant matter, making it an enclosed cycle.

Adaptive reuse involves the repurposing of existing infrastructure. In this way, new life can be given to historic or neglected buildings while preserving the significance of its past. It is more cost-effective and ideal when there is time pressure on the project.

The proposed site for this dissertation [Kelvin Power Station, Kempton Park] is ideal for the implementation of adaptive reuse. Much of the existing structures and equipment can be reused as this was initially also used to generate power; it is only a new resource that would be introduced.

The existing building won’t be left to decay, the renewable energy can be delivered more timeously and a new economic value could be brought to the neighbourhood.

It is the responsibility of the architect to construct a sustainable future where there is a balance between infrastructure, the environment, the economy and society. This dissertation visualises a means with which this balance could be achieved.

9.2 APPENDIX A: FINAL EXHIBITION_ 9.2.1 PROJECT EXHIBITION PHOTOGRAPHS

Fig 9.2: Visual presentation & final model. (Author, 2021)

Fig 9.3: Visual presentation of theory & Site. (Author, 2021) Fig 9.4: Visual presentation of concept & programme. (Author, 2021)

Fig 9.5: Visual presentation of final design. (Author, 2021) Fig 9.6: Visual presentation of final design. (Author, 2021)

Fig 9.7: Verbal presentation. (Author, 2021)

Fig 9.8: Exhibition space. (Author, 2021)

9.2.2 VERBAL PRESENTATION INTRO: The struggle that the South African Energy industry faces is something that we are confronted with daily. One of these concerns is the vast unmet energy demand but another, less considered but major, concern is the world renewable energy regulations and requirements that are not met.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, also known as the IPCC, is the United Nations’ body for analysing the science behind climate change. They have set the 2030 challenge which aims to reduce carbon emissions to net zero. This is a significant concern for SA since this country’s electricity is 86% reliant on coal compared to the global average of 43%. It was determined that SA would not be able to reach this goal and so the IPCC is pressuring the country to reduce 80% of its carbon emissions by 2034. It is clear that we urgently need to consider viable renewable energy resource options in order to meet this challenge.

Architecture can be used to find solutions to daily and future strains, specifically to the struggles of the power industry and South African’s being left in the dark.

SITE LOCALITY: The proposed site to adapt is Kelvin Power Station in Kempton Park, Johannesburg. Kelvin is the largest privately owned PS in South Africa, providing 11-15% of Johannesburg electricity and was SA’s first attempt in privatizing power generation in 2001.

Kelvin provides power to City Power Johannesburg through a 20-year pp agreement which ended in 2021. This creates an opportunity for change towards sustainable energy production.

URBAN FRAMEWORK: Urban areas have increased significantly due to the migrating of populations to cities. This urbanisation has caused cities to have to adapt and find solutions to this increasing population and the economic social and environmental strain it has caused on the urban sprawl.

Johannesburg, like many other cities, is left

with pockets of underutilised and decaying land. Kelvin has become a 1.85km 2 urban void in the center of densely populated neighbourhoods. With only one of its plants still active, the rest of the site has been left to decay and become an environmental hazard. Private sector participation in the urban renewal of this void will assist to speed up the urban regeneration back into the city.

SITE ANALYSIS: Kelvin Power Station includes two power plants and on-site accommodation.

The site topography is characterised by two protruding fly-ash dams.

The site is mainly surrounded by dense industrial and residential neighbourhoods that are affected by the site activity.

The proposed site is the decommissioned plant A of the power station together with its 3 cooling towers. This structure forms the basis to the implementation of adaptive reuse by regenerating the infrastructure into a renewable energy facility.

CONCEPT: The approach of this design is the intention to eliminate the separation that exists between the mechanical and natural elements and transition them into one balanced concept through biophilic design. The combination of the mechanical and natural entities was an integral part of the design process.

Biophilic design connects the urban landscape with the existing power facility, bringing the natural element into the structural spaces in order to enhance the user experience.

PROGRAMME: The aim of the proposed programme is to reintroduce the decommissioned power plant as a clean energy producer by utilising renewable energy resources while conducting ground rehabilitation in order to restore vitality in the environment. Educational facilities would serve to raise awareness about renewable energy.

RENEWABLE ENERGY: The ecological future vision is to improve the quality of life of people and their relationship with a healthy

environment. Stricter regulations for carbon emissions attempt to limit the environmental damage to lead to a sustainable future.

Various renewable resources, including wind, solar, geothermal and biomass, were considered for implementation in the power station.

STRATEGY: When considering the existing structure, there are certain elements like the iconic industrial red clay brick façade and vast structural components that would be incorporated into the proposed design. These elements bear a heritage value in order to respect the existing building.

GROUND FLOOR: The attenuation ponds act as threshold between the parking and building and hints to the ecological experience of the facility.

The passage leads the user through each space and stage of the power generating process and aims to serve as a learning experience.

Biomass, which leads to the generation of bio-energy, was selected as the resource for this design. There would be no need for large new infrastructure as this process can simply be implemented in the decommissioned power plant that already consists of infrastructure like furnaces and turbines.

IMPLEMENTATION: The existing structure was transformed to accommodate the bioenergy facility. Using the existing column structure as the base of the proposed design, a façade system would be implemented.

FIRST FLOOR: The first floor is allocated to the research component of the biofuel process with algae laboratories and testing facilities.

The atrium links with the ground floor passage and creates a more interactive and open space.

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT: When analysing the existing structure, one concern is the scale of the building itself. The building that stretches over an area of 180m with no permeable spaces becomes a shell that isolates the structure from its surroundings.

SECTION A: Section A illustrates the circulation towers with the bridge connection between the existing smokestack and the tower, with micro-algae conversion tanks visible shown in relation to the building.

Cyanobacteria, or microalgae, is cost effective and a much healthier alternative to the environment. The micro-algae would be cultivated from open and closed systems, harvested through centrifugation whereafter the extracted biomass goes through a combustion process in order to generate electricity.

GROUND REHABILITATION: During the process of burning coal fly-ash is produced.

The fly-ash is merely dumped on heaps, or fly-ash dams, which then contributes to wind pollution and toxic metals leaching into the groundwater.

This led to the need for ground rehabilitation to restore the biodiversity of the environment.

One of the methods to remove the toxic metals from the fly-ash dams is through the use of algae. The algae is not only beneficial for rehabilitating the ground but can thereafter be used as biofuel – a renewable energy resource.

ADAPTIVE REUSE: The continuous understatement of industrial architecture and heritage in Johannesburg is leading to the rapid decay of iconic and historical landmarks.

When analysing power stations that were commissioned in SA during 1932 and 1964, a distinct typology became clear in the building style and use of materials. Due to this, the proposed design aims to preserve Kelvin’s heritage and respect its architectural value when applying adaptive reuse.

SPATIAL STRUCTURE: Different options were considered regarding the spatial structure of the building in order to change its form. Voids, passages and open spaces were created to make the structure more breathable. The form of the contained space can affect how the space is perceived and the functional importance.

The importance of articulating an entrance on a long continuous facade is that it distinguishes the approach to a building.

On section, hierarchy is introduced by incorporating two circulation towers that link spaces throughout the building.

SECTION B: Section B is divided into different facility components, including the turbine power generation and biofuel research and testing facility.

EAST ELEVATION: The east elevation displays the implemented algae façade system that would be integrated with the exterior of the building.

TECHNICAL: The design intention was to incorporate micro-algae within the actual façade. This led to the design of an algae façade panel system that would be fixed to the east and west elevation of the structure.

The passage is an integral part of the design process. A vertical axis helped to form the passage by connecting different spaces within the building envelope.

From the facade, algae feeds through a transesterification process where it is transformed into biofuel with which bio-energy is generated from 3 30MW turbine generators.

FINAL DESIGN: The 3 existing cooling towers is linked by a passage that leads from the main building. Each of these towers was transformed to accommodate biomass cultivating and harvesting. The point where the path and the building connect acts as a transitioning space between the building and natural aspect of the design.

CONCLUSION: This dissertation visualises a means with which a balance between a sustainable future, infrastructure, the environment and society can be achieved.

9.3 APPENDIX B: EXAMINERS COMMENTS & AMENDMENTS_ TABLE OF CHANGES Summary of Amendments 1. Final Design: A preliminary final design was submitted on the 20th of December 2021. The final design was amended along with the final presentation for the exam on the 19th of January 2022.

2. Appendix A - Final exhibition - Photographs of exhibition - Verbal presentation 4. Appendix C - Research article - Reintegration into Urban Fabric

Relevant Pages Pages: 126 -141

Pages: 170 - 173 Page: 174

Pages: 176 - 179

Page[175]

Reason Final design alterations, including a focus on the visual representation for the exhibition.

Visual Presentation of exhibition held on the 19th of January 2022.

Research article was incorporated into the urban and site analysis of this dissertation.

9.4 APPENDIX C: RESEARCH ARTICLE_ TUT ARCHITECTURE 2021

REINTEGRATION INTO URBAN FABRIC Bernard Jacobus Swart, a 6th year architecture student at Tshwane University of Technology,

South Africa, swartjaco2@gmail.com 1 July 2021

INTRODUCTION: In recent times the notion towards the design and construction of smart cities has gradually increased and it is becoming an important aspect and decider in the strategy for the future of our cities. For the most part this development plan will be the key solution to resolve previous challenges and limitations in the city’s urban fabric. The priority is to involve the current urban fabric as a characteristic for building a smart city.

ABSTRACT Cities around the world are facing increasing urban development obstacles due to

The industrial revolution in 1914 brought a rapid urbanisation to cities around the world.

urbanisation. Urbanisation causes separation and disconnection in the urban form which in

It resulted in an economical and technological surge. This caused concern for losing organic

turn leads to the creation of urban voids. These voids or urban cracks put further strain on

order and urban integrity in cities with high densities. Modern cities suffer from

the city’s future urban form and infrastructure.

fragmentation caused by years of isolated buildings and separated leftover spaces which in

Voids in the urban fabric exert a direct influence in the economic, social and environmental

crisis (Li et al., 2016).

impact which in result portrays how people are interacting with and perceiving the city.

Deterioration in the urban fabric is the leading cause of imbalance, deformation and disproportionateness in the urban space (Ali Omar, 2019). This predicament causes further cultural and social problems for the citisens in the city.

A tool that can be used to address these concerns is regeneration. Regeneration of the urban voids will allow new life to be given to old spaces and neglected environments in order to create both social and economic attractions.

The aim of this research paper is to give a new perspective of the essence of a city urban fabric which becomes an inspirational source for design and future urban form (Ozaslan, 1995). This research paper will focus on various environmental conditions where areas of high urbanisation is found in the city. The basis of this research paper includes a qualitative approach examining the city in critical observation of separation and detachment of certain areas in the city form. This underlying inspiration leads to investigate the urban conditions that cause these disengagements in the urban fabric.

The research concludes that urban voids have to be considered and, more importantly, prioritised when adding to the urban form. Regeneration can be used to introduce these voids back into the urban framework.

Keywords: Disengagement, separation, urban voids, urbanisation, urban fabric, regeneration

effect turn buildings into detached objects in the urban space. This resulted in an urban fabric

Without an understanding of the severe effect of urban fabric in the urban space in a city, rapid urbanisation can be vastly damaging. Historical districts have lost their unique characteristics including the loss of valuable open green areas in the city’s urban spaces as well as the loss of the people’s sense of belonging in the communities (Li et al., 2016).

It is important to delve deeper into the various environments that form the urban spaces.

The current paradigm concept in the city is designed to accommodate the building environment with the open green spaces to function alongside it. But ultimately these environments should be integrated into one functional standard. This will enhance the sustainability in the built environment and contribute to the city’s future urban fabric (LUIS, 2016).

THE IMPACT OF URBANISATION Urban areas have increased significantly due to almost half of the world’s population residing in urban cities. Urbanisation occurs primarily from the migration of people from rural areas to dense cities. Although urbanisation is driven by multiple factors, including the history, economics, and culture, these factors will eventually reflect in the physical environment.

Cities have to adapt and find solutions to facilitate the growing population that is causing

Page[177] severe strain on the urban sprawl with negative economic, social and environmental

IMPORTANCE OF URBAN REGENERATION

consequences (Open edu., 2021).

Urban regeneration can be a vital lifeline that many large cities are seeking to utilise in order Numerous cities can relate to having pockets of underused and underutilised land. These

to eliminate problematic and fractured urban areas which cause multiple social problems and

distressed and decaying urban areas decrease a city’s liveability, productivity, and future

inadequate living conditions. Urban regeneration is a crucial component because it ensures

growth (WGB, Urban Regeneration, 2021). The deteriorating areas impact the urban form

that our cities, living spaces and future urban form will enable the citisens to live a

directly by how people perceive and interact with the urban fabric. The physical separation

sustainable lifestyle. Furthermore, the impact is not simply visible on a singular level, but it

between people and their daily interactions and activities has a distinct relationship with how

integrates in improving the economical, physical, social and environmental conditions of the

the built form of cities are shaped, sculpted, and structured (Legeby, 2010,5).

A shift towards urban sustainability which focuses more on the urgent issues in context of the urban form that contributes to people’s everyday lives, is key.

It is crucial that the sustainable development of a city protects and builds on the existing integrity and authenticity of the city in order to keep its essence. The preservation of current characteristics is important in the way that people connect to their city. These inhabitants are what makes the city. They contribute socially and economically, and their participation makes them feel connected (van Diepen and Musterd, 2009).

A way for developers to preserve and enhance this connection is by in-depth research about the inner workings of the city and its current urban framework.

By developing a central area or district that pulls people both for business and social interaction, it creates this relationship between the people and their city and helps to prevent urban decay.

The threat of creating such central spaces is that the existing spaces and their essence gets

urban fabric.

The negative impact of these urban voids in the city does provide opportunity for utilising potential resources for future development of the city (Ali Omar, 2019).

According to Kevin Lynch’s book, ‘A theory of good city form’, urban voids have different characteristics which can be identified as it is located in and around metropolitan areas, captured between the dense city and the future urban developments. He describes these undefined spaces as urban voids which creates negative and lost spaces with minimal human activity. He argues that wasted spaces have potential to weave the city into valued urban form which in result can eliminate the undefined spaces (Lynch, 1981).

Despite the negative impacts caused by urban voids in the city, it provides the opportunity to explore potential recourses which can contribute and improve the community’s quality of life. This value that regeneration brings to the urban void improves the city’s life in terms of liveability, health and sustainability (Ali Omar, 2019).

lost and abandoned. It weighs on the economy, becomes a safety hazard and the physical

It is important to understand the different urban void formation factors which can be used

environment deteriorates. It becomes an urban void (van Diepen and Musterd, 2009).

effectively to regenerate underutilised spaces (Ali Omar, 2019). This diagram below addresses the built layer based on urban elements and typologies:

REINTEGRATING KELVIN POWER STATION INTO THE URBAN FABRIC The concerns caused by urban decay and deterioration of spaces in the city must be addressed, especially when considering future development to these cities. Regeneration can be used to analyse and address these spaces.

One case study that has been in the process of urban regeneration for several years is Johannesburg Inner City. This metropolitan area is the centre point of economic activity with approximately one million people passing through the CBD every day. This region has gained regeneration effort from the private sector to improve small businesses in deteriorating areas. The first regeneration plan for the Inner City was implemented in 2004.

This Inner City Regeneration Business Plan focused on intensive urban management, Figure 1: Built layer based on urban elements (By author based on Legeby,2010 diagram)

The way that people interact with the urban system and the urban tectonic is essential. This

maintaining and improving infrastructure and most importantly investing in the economic sector (WGB, Urban Regeneration, 2021).

activity distributes itself through all the different layers which shapes the urban form (Ali Omar, 2019). Therefore, any separation or urban void forming in the city fractures the urban system creating a problematic chain of events. Regenerating urban voids adds social value to the city by achieving social benefits which will reinforce social links and bind communities.

Accommodating a variety of social functions and cultural activities in the urban voids has the potential of creating a network of connected spaces with different actions and types of uses in the urban fabric.

The environmental benefits of regeneration of urban voids include improving the quality of urban life, these urban voids and underutilize spaces can be used as green infrastructure and ecological resources within the urban form of the city. Promoting the biodiversity and urban green spaces will preserve the natural habitat and ecosystems to support sustainable urban regeneration process (Ali Omar, 2019).

Figure 2: Johannesburg Urban Fabric (By author based on James Page, 2015)

The design and implementation of urban regeneration strategies should work closely with the

It is important to focus on certain voids in the urban fabric that are disengaged and

surrounding areas in the urban fabric which will benefit both people and businesses. It

underutilised. These deteriorated and inefficient urban fabrics play a part in the city’s

doesn’t only create economic opportunity for commerce but promotes high levels of activity

potential for improving physical, geographical and social conditions. For this reason,

for a business. This will create a neighbourhood with a sense of place.

purposeful intervention needs to be introduced in these damaged urban fabrics because it has a direct impact to the inhabitants of the community.

Page[179] The intention is to effectively regenerate deteriorated urban fabrics so that design areas

the public separation into a possible usable urban form that will eventually contribute to the

provides potential to form desirable urban spaces, therefore restoring liveability, vitality and

regeneration of the city and inclusion of the surrounding communities and areas.

identity to the lost urban spaces (Habib and Peimani, 2013).

The intention of this research proposal is to integrate this urban void back into the city’s

One example of an urban void where regeneration can be applied is Kelvin Power Station,

urban form. This will benefit the surrounding communities and the interaction with its

situated in the Johannesburg-east district. The power station is completely isolated from its

people.

surroundings.

A possible solution or method is to transform the urban void into an open recreational space

This urban void expands over an area of 1.85km² is centred in densely populated

for adjacent neighbourhoods and provision of accessible green spaces to the area. By

neighbourhoods as indicated on figure 3 below. It is discouraging that the power station is

incorporating the private sector into the regeneration project, the economic opportunity will

only using one eighth of the site with the rest of the land left barren and neglected. With years

be enhanced, and trade activity can increase. Due to the harsh separation that this void causes

of site degradation due to pollution from the power station, the site is left with environmental

to the urban form, there is currently minimal connectivity between the decaying space and the

hazards and vast open areas in a densely populated urban form. This void unfortunately

rest of the city.

contributes to the negative connotation that the inhabitants of the neighbouring areas experience and ultimately degrades the geographical image of the city. This specific urban void provides the opportunity for the private sector’s participation in its urban renewal and can assist to speed up the process of regeneration in the city of Johannesburg.

Figure 4: Proposed site reintegration (Author, 2021)

The regeneration and integration of the two parts will be essential to the economic, physical and environmental aspects to transform this urban fracture created in the city into one Figure 3: Proposed site in relation to the adjacent neighbourhoods (Author, 2021)

Looking deeper into the urban form of this void, it can be seen that the perimeter creates a clear threshold. This threshold forms a barrier which prevents any permeability of proposed urban integration into this space. The opportunity for regeneration in this void will enhance

communal, accessible and positive space. Ultimately, the void will be diminished.

9.2 LIST OF FIGURES_ Fig 0.1: Atom DRISA, 2019. Johannesburg, 1965. Kelvin Power Station. [image] Available at: <https://atom. drisa.co.za/index.php/johannesburg-1965-kelvinpower-station> [Accessed 11 December 2021]. Edited

by Author, 2021.

Fig 2.3: Map of Johannesburg illustrating urban voids [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 0.2: Water filtering facility at Kelvin Power Station [Photograph]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.4: Built layer based on urban elements [Sketch] (Author, 2021). Image based on (Legeby, 2010) diagram.

Fig 0.3: Panoramic view of Kelvin Power Station [Photograph].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 2.5: Johannesburg urban fabric indicating urban voids [Diagram] (Author, 2021). Image based on (James Page, 2015)

Fig 2.17: Sketch of key focus point on Kelvin Power Station site perimeter [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.6: Proposed site in relation to the adjacent neighbourhoods [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.18: Climate study of Kelvin Power Station [Diagram].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 2.7: Proposed site reintegration [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.19: Site model [Model]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.8: Locality map of Kelvin Power Station [Diagram].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 2.20: Eskom, 1958. 1958 Annual Report. [Image] pp.24 Available from:https://https://www.eskom-annualreport-of-the-general-manager-of-the-electricitydepartment-july-1958 [Accessed 11 December 2021].

(Edited by Author, 2021)

CHAPTER 1 - Introduction Fig 1.1: Aspelling, R., 2013. Kelvin Power Station Johannesburg electrical life line. [image] Available at:https://robbieaspeling.blogspot.com/2013/06/kelvinpower-station.html [Accessed 11 December 2021].

(Edited by Author, 2021) Fig 1.2: Francisco, D, 2020.[Image] Available from: https:// www.youpic.com/photographer/gundoc.

view (Author, 2021). Image edited from GCRO GIS viewer, October, 2021.

Fig 2.9: Map of the perimeter of Kelvin Power Station [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 1.3: Diagram illustrating the variety in renewable energy and organisation involved in the 2030 challenge [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.10: Topography explaining the ash dams [Diagram].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 1.4: Dramatic illustration portraying the ceasing of coalfired power stations [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.11: Spatial structure showing the industrial and residential areas [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

CHAPTER 2 – Urban vision

Fig 2.12: Proposed site area [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.1: View of Kelvin Power Station [Photograph]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.13: Diagram illustrating numerous site characteristics of Kelvin Power Station [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 2.2: Diagrammatic representation of Johannesburg aerial

Fig 2.14: Map illustrating the power station and adjacent site

context [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 2.15: Diagram illustrating the power transmission to surrounding neighbourhoods [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 2.16: Malipoom, S., 2017. Electricity pylon. [image] Available at: http://www.digitalvision.com/563473069 [Accessed 11 December 2021]. (Edited by Author, 2021)

Fig 2.21: Publicity and Travel Department,SAR.2019.

Johannesburg, 1970. Aerial view of Kelvin power station.[Image] Available from:https://atom.drisa.co.za/ index.php/johannesburg-1970-aerial-view-of-kelvinpower-station. (Edited by Author, 2021) Fig 2.22: Kelvin Power Station timeline [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 2.23: Photo of Pretoria West Power Station [Photograph].

(Author, 2015)

Page[181] Fig 2.24: Diagram illustrates the building profile [Sketch].

(Author, 2021) Fig 2.25: Eskom Heritage, 2020. Umgeni Power Station. [Image] Available from: https://www.eskom.co.za/sites/ heritage/Pages/Umgeni-Power-Station. (Edited by Author, 2021) Fig 2.26: Sketch illustrates key elements [Sketch]. (Author, 2021) Fig 2.27: Eskom Heritage, 2020. Bloemfontein Power Station.

[Image] Available from: https://www.eskom.co.za/ sites/heritage/Pages/Waaihoek-Power-Station. (Edited

by Author, 2021) Fig 2.28: Sketch illustrates building structure [Sketch]. (Author, 2021) Fig 2.29: Eskom Heritage, 2020. Athlone Power Station. [Image] Available from: https://www.eskom.co.za/sites/ heritage/Pages/Athlone-Power-Station. (Edited by Author, 2021) Fig 2.30: Sketch illustrates distinct building materials [Sketch].

(Author, 2021) Fig 2.31: North elevation of Kelvin Power Station [Photograph].

(Author, 2021) Fig 2.32: Aerial view sketch of Kelvin Power Station [Sketch].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 3.2: Dramatic illustration showing how human activities are damaging the environment. (Author, 2021), [Image] edited from Eduardo R, 2020. Available from: https:// www.chilango.com/noticias/reportajes/cambioclimatico-en-la-cdmx/ Fig 3.3: Eskom diagram. (Author, 2021), [Image] edited from Morake, P. 2020. Original available from: https:// www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-08-25/

[image] Available at: https://pl.123rf.com/ photo_91738065_sztandaru-projektaelementy-dla-podtrzymywalnego-energetycznegorozwoju-%C5%9Brodowiska-i-ekologiipoj%C4%99ci.html?vti=m1se2zt70lduqmmhkl-1-1 [Accessed 11 December 2021].

Fig 3.4: Photo of Plant B of Kelvin Power Station [Photograph].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 4.3: Global Bio-energy Statistics, 2020. Primary energy supply. (Author, 2021), [Image] pp.10 edited from Morake, P. 2020. Original available from: http:// www.worldbioenergy.org/uploads/201210%20 WBA%20GBS%202020.pdf. (Edited by Author, 2021)

Fig 3.5: Energy,gov. 2021. Department of Mineral Resources and Energy logo. [Image] Available from: https http:// www.energy.gov.za/. (Edited by Author, 2021)

Fig 4.4: Reflection sketch of a sustainable future. (Author, 2021), [Image] Original available from: http:// sustainabilityweek.co.za/PostEvent2021/

Fig 3.6: Eskom, 2021. Eskom logo. [Image] Available from: https http: //www.eskom.co.za/ (Edited by Author, 2021)

Fig 4.5: Wind & Solar image. (Author, 2021), Image edited from Paget, J. 2020. Original available from: https:// www.digitalvision.com

Fig 3.7: Kelvinpower, 2021. Kelvin Power logo. [Image] Available from: https://www.kelvinpower.com/ (Edited

by Author, 2021)

Fig 4.6: Biomass & Geothermal image. (Author, 2021), [Image] edited from Petrus, A. 2014. Original available from: https://www.digitalvision.com

Fig 3.8: Sustainable SA, 2021. Sustainable Energy Africa logo.

[Image] Available from: https://www.sustainable.org. za/ (Edited by Author, 2021)

Fig 4.7: Diagram comparing of various types renewable energy suitable for the site [Diagram]. (Author, 2021), IRENA, 2018. SA Energy Profile. [Image] Available from: https://www.https:irena.org/IRENADocuments/ Statistical_Profiles/Africa/South%20Africa_Africa_ RE_SP.pdf

CHAPTER 4 – Renewable energy

CHAPTER 3 – Context

Fig 4.1: Vegetation growing on the ash dams [Photograph].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 3.1: View of Kelvin Power Station from the ash dams [Photograph]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 4.2: Renewable energy line sketch. (Author, 2021), [Image] from FLN, 2021. sustainable energy development.

Fig 4.8: Diagram showing the advantages of biomass as a renewable energy source [Diagram]. (Author, 2021),

CHAPTER 5 – Adaptive reuse Fig 5.1: Inside decommissioned Plant A [Photograph]. (Author, 2021) Fig 5.2: Digitalvision, 2020. Battersea Power Station. [Image] edited from Ultraforma. 2020. Original available from: https://www.digitalvision.com/170453050. (Edited by Author, 2021) Fig 5.3: Adaptive reuse implementation sketches [Sketches].

(Author, 2021) Fig 5.4: Elements of adaptive reuse limitations [Diagram].

(Author, 2021) Fig 5.5: Kelvin Power Station future vision drawing 1957 [Photograph]. (Author, 2021) Fig 5.6:

Diagram illustrating insertion & wrap principles [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 5.7: Diagram illustrating juxtaposition & parasite principles [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 5.8: Diagram explaining the existing materials. [Diagram].

(Author, 2021) Fig 5.9: Axonometric view of the existing building structure [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

2021) Fig 5.12: Drahsan, E, 2017. Lightweight structure. [Image] Available from: https://www.gadarchitecture.com/en/ enka-power-station-hq--adapazari. (Edited by Author, 2021) Fig 5.13: Drahsan, E, 2017. Comparison between new and existing. [Image] Available from: https://www. gadarchitecture.com/en/enka-power-station-hq-adapazari. (Edited by Author, 2021)

yard-metal-clad-power-plant-mounted-roof-sydney/.

(Edited by Author, 2021) Fig 5.19: Mairs, J. 2015. Encapsulate the structural elements in the design. [Image] Available from: https://www. dezeen.com/2015/07/14/tzannes-associates-breweryyard-metal-clad-power-plant-mounted-roof-sydney/.

(Edited by Author, 2021)

CHAPTER 6 – Programme

Fig 5.14: Harrouk, C, 2021. Perspective of Acciona Ombú.

[Image] Available from: https://www.archdaily. com/957869/foster-plus-partners-transforms-historicindustrial-building-into-offices-for-acciona-in-madridspain. (Edited by Author, 2021)

Fig 6.1: Inside the existing cooling tower [Photograph]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 5.15: Harrouk, C, 2021. Existing industrial structure. [Image] Available from: https://www.archdaily.com/957869/ fostr-plus-partners-transforms-historic-industrialbuilding-into-offices-for-acciona-in-madrid-spain.

(Edited by Author, 2021)

Fig 6.3: Renewable energy implementation [Sketch]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 5.16: Harrouk, C, 2021. New proposed sustainable design.

[Image] Available from: https://www.archdaily. com/957869/foster-plus-partners-transforms-historicindustrial-building-into-offices-for-acciona-in-madridspain. (Edited by Author, 2021)

Fig 5.10: Axonometric view of the implementation of the changes to the existing building structure. (Author, 2021)

Fig 5.17: Wilson, S. 2019. The Brewery Yard. [Image] Available from:https:https://www.rightanglestudio.com.au/ portfolio/the-brewery-yard-leasing-collateral/. (Edited

by Author, 2021)

Fig 5.11: Drahsan, E, 2017. View of Enka Power Station. [Image] Available from: https://www.gadarchitecture.com/en/ enka-power-station-hq--adapazari. (Edited by Author,

Fig 5.18: Mairs, J. 2015. Connection between existing and new materials. [Image] Available from: https://www. dezeen.com/2015/07/14/tzannes-associates-brewery-

Fig 6.2: Perspective sketch of Plant A and cooling towers [Sketch]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 6.4: Sketches of proposed design [Sketch]. (Author, 2021) Fig 6.5: Sketches empowering the community [Sketch]. (Author, 2021) Fig 6.6: Sketch of Microalgae cell structure [Sketch]. (Author, 2021) Fig 6.7: Image of filamentous algae (Author, 2021). [Image] Available from: Loeschen, D., 2019. SURPRISING USES OF ALGAE. [image] Available at: https://www. mixerdirect.com/blogs/mixer-direct-blog/10surprising-uses-of-algae [Accessed 11 December 2021].

(Edited by Author, 2021) Fig 6.8: Microalgae energy production programme [Diagram].

(Author, 2021)

Page[183] Fig 6.9: Proposed ground rehabilitation map of Kelvin Power Station [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.8: Site plan showing existing structures [Diagram].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 6.10: View of existing site conditions [Photograph]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.9.1-7.9.3:

Spatial principles diagram leading to design resolution [Sketch]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 6.11: Map illustrating the site edge conditions [Diagram].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 7.10: Building transformation sketches [Sketch]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 6.12: Sketches of proposed site edge treatment and rehabilitation [Sketch]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.11.1-7.11.3: Spatial diagram sketch plans [Sketch].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 6.13: Perspective of proposed site regeneration of the fly-ash dams [Illustration]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.12.1-7.12.3: Sections exploring spatial structuring

[Sketch]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 6.14: Perspective of proposed site regeneration of the fly-ash dams. [Illustration]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.13.1-7.13.4: Facade exploration sketches [Sketch].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 7.22: Site plan development [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.23: Proposed design plan of the cooling towers [Diagram].

(Author, 2021) Fig 7.24: Proposed design section of the cooling towers [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.25: Building section development [Diagram].

(Author, 2021) Fig 7.26: Proposed site plan [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

CHAPTER 7 – Design resolution Fig 7.1: View of Plant A of the power station [Photograph].

(Author, 2021) Fig 7.2:

Diagram explaining the future vision concept [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.27: Proposed ground floor plan [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.28: Proposed First Floor Plan [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.29: Proposed Section B-B [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.14: Entrance configuration sketches [Sketch]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.15: Proposed section exploration sketch [Sketch]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.30: Proposed North Elevation [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.31: Proposed Section A-A [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.32: Proposed East Elevation [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.16: Maquette exploration [Model]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.33: Proposed design edge detail [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.3:

Concept parti diagram and approach to transition elements of the site [Sketch]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.17: Building form analysis [Sketch]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.18: Building facade exploration [Sketch]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.34: Final design view 01 - Towards entrace and attenuation pond [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.4: Biophilic design diagram [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.19: Maquette exploration [Model]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.5: Dramatic illustration introducing nature as a passage into the building [Illustration]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.20: Building layout development [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.6: Site section [Sketch]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.7: Spatial layout sketches [Sketch]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 7.21: Building transition development [Diagram].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 7.35: Final design view 02 - Showing interior passage [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 7.36: Final design view 03 - View towards biofuel testing facility [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

CHAPTER 8 – Technical resolution Fig 8.1: Locality map of Kelvin Power Station [Diagram].

(Author, 2021) Fig 8.2: Early conceptual sketch of proposed intervention [Sketch]. (Author, 2021) Fig 8.3.1-8.3.3: Tectonic frame design models [Model].

(Author, 2021) Fig 8.4.1-8.4.3: Tectonic frame sketches exploration [Sketch].

(Author, 2021) Fig 8.5.1-8.5.3: Air circulation model [Sketch]. (Author, 2021) Fig 8.6: Air circulation model [Model]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.13.1-8.13.3: Karami, M. and Kauffman, D., 2020.

Biokinetics. University of Florida School

of Architecture, [online] Available from:

https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/ AA/00/08/10/53/00001/Karami_Mani_ Biokinetics_Gainesville_2020.pdf. (Edited

by Author, 2021) Fig 8.14: Algae facade system implementation diagram [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 8.15: Isometric algae facade panel assembly [Diagram].

(Author, 2021) Fig 8.16: Algae facade system elevation [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.9: Facade panel design model [Model]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.17: Water channel detail illustrating the biophilic design incorporated throughout the building [Diagram].

(Author, 2021) Fig 8.18: Edge detail showing the connection between the algae facade system and the building [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.10: Algae facade concept technical diagram [Sketch].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 8.19: Exploded axonometric detail showing the algae facade system [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.11.1-8.11.3: Algae facade concept model [Model].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 8.20: Locality & site plan [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.7: Section model showing facade panel [Model]. (Author, 2021) Fig 8.8: Section model diagram [Sketch]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.12.1-8.12.3: Wurm, J., 2013. Worldwide first façade

system to cultivate micro-algae to generate

heat and biomass as renewable energy

sources. [online] Available from: https://

www.arup.com/projects/solar-leaf. (Edited by Author, 2021)

Fig 8.25: Section B-B [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 8.26: Edge detail [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 8.27: Details [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 8.28: Algae facade assembly detail [Diagram]. (Author, 2021) Fig 8.29: Facade elevation [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

CHAPTER 9 – Conclusion Fig 9.1: Diagram of filamentous microalgae in water [photograph]. (Author, 2021) Fig 9.2: Visual presentation & Final model [photograph].

(Author, 2021) Fig 9.3: Visual presentation of Theory & Site [photograph].

(Author, 2021) Fig 9.4: Visual presentation of Concept & Programme [photograph]. (Author, 2021) Fig 9.5: Visual presentation of Final design [photograph].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 8.21: Ground floor plan [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 9.6: Visual presentation of Final design [photograph].

(Author, 2021)

Fig 8.22: First floor Plan [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 9.7: Verbal presentation [photograph]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.23: Roof plan [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 9.8: Exhibition space [photograph]. (Author, 2021)

Fig 8.24: Section A-A [Diagram]. (Author, 2021)

Page[185]

9.3 REFERENCES_ AFRICA, S. E. 2021. Sustainable Energy Africa - about Sustainable Energy Africa [Online] . Available at: <https://www. sustainable.org.za/about.php> [Accessed 3 November 2021].

ALI OMAR, N. 2019. Urban voids as potential resources for the city development [online] Aun.edu.eg. Available at: <http:// www.aun.edu.eg/journal_files/652_J_662.pdf> [Accessed 22 June 2021].

ANDRONE, M. 2013. Notes on John Locke’s views on education [online]. Science Direct, pp.74-79. Available at: <https://researchgate.net/publication/275537602_Notes_on_ John_Locke’s_Views_on_Education.pdf> [Accessed 29 May 2021].

BERRY, W. 2005. Imagination in place. Washington, D. C: Shoemaker & Hoard.

BOLLACK, F., 2013. Old Buildings, New Forms: New Directions in Architectural Transformations. 1st ed. New York: Monacelli Press, pp.114-116.

BRECHA, R., PARRA, Y. AND GANTI, G. 2019. Global and regional coal phase-out requirements of the Paris Agreement: Insights from the IPCC Special Report on 1.5°C IPCC [online].

IPCC, p.1-6. Available at: <https://climateanalytics.org/media/ report_coal_phase_out_2019.pdf> [Accessed 25 May 2021].

CHESTER COMMISSION. 2021. Planning toolbox: adaptive reuse [online]. Chescoplanning.org. Available at: <https://www. chescoplanning.org/MuniCorner/Tools/AdaptiveReuse.cfm> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

CHING, F. 2014. Form, space & order. 4th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

CHRISTIANSEN, E., LAURSEN, L. AND HVEJSEL, M. 2021.

Tectonic perspectives for urban ambiance? Towards a tectonic approach to urban design.[online] . researchgate.net. Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320325315_Tectonic_ perspectives_for_urban_ambiance_Towards_a_tectonic_ approach_to_urban_design> [Accessed 20 May 2021].

CLIMATE ANALYTICS.org. 2021. Coal phase out [online].

Available at: <https://climateanalytics.org/briefings/coal-phaseout/> [Accessed 11 April 2021].

COMPTON CONSTRUCTION. 2016. What is adaptive reuse? [online]. Compton Construction . Available at: <http://comptonllc. com/a-guide-into-adaptive-reuse-construction/> [Accessed 25 October 2021] CREAMER, T. 2018. Study initiated to assess conversion of Kelvin Power Station from coal to gas [online]. Mining Weekly.

Available at: <https://www.miningweekly.com/article/studyinitiated-to-assess-conversion-of-kelvin-power-station-fromcoal-to-gas-2018-08-21> [Accessed 21 May 2021].

CRESWELL, J. 2021. Research design [online] .Sagepub.com.

Available at: <https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upmbinaries/22780_Chapter_1.pdf> [Accessed 20 May 2021].

CROTTY, M. 2003 The foundations of social research: meaning and perspectives in the research process. London: Sage Publications, 3rd edition.

CROTTY, M. 1998. The Foundations of Social Research. 1st ed.

2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications Ltd. DANIEL, L. 2021. You can sell excess solar power back to govt – but it may take around 7 years to break even [online]. Business Insider. Available at: <https://www.businessinsider.co.za/you-can-

sell-excess-solar-power-back-to-govt-but-it-can-take-around-7years-to-break-even-2021-1> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

DE WET, P. 2021. Gas gluttons face super carbon taxes under SA’s new draft for a climate change law [online]. Business Insider SA. Available at: <https://www.businessinsider.co.za/new-southafrican-climate-change-bill-floats-extra-tax-if-you-miss-yourcarbon-budget-2021-10> [Accessed 23 October 2021].

DEMIRBAS, A. and DEMIRBAS, I., 2007. Importance of rural bioenergy for developing countries. Energy Conversion and Management, 48(8), pp.2386-2398.

DU PLESSIS, C. & BRANDON, P. 2015. An ecological worldview as basis for a regenerative sustainability paradigm for the built environment [online]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 109, pp.53-61. Available at: <https://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/abs/pii/S0959652614010385> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

DUDUCH, T. 2021. Biophilia in architecture: nature indoors and outdoors [online]. ArchDaily. Available at: <https://www. archdaily.com/955940/biophilia-in-architecture-nature-indoorsand-outdoors> [Accessed 17 November 2021].

EDENHOFER, O. 2021. Renewable energy sources and climate change mitigation [online]. Archive.ipcc.ch. pp.46-50. Available at: <https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/special-reports/srren/SRREN_ FD_SPM_final.pdf> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

ENERGY RESOURCE GUIDE, S. 2021. Energy resource guide - South Africa - renewable energy [online]. International Trade Administration. Available at: <https://www.trade.gov/energyresource-guide-south-africa-renewable-energy> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

EPA.GOV. 2021. Plant Decommissioing, Remediation and Redevelopment [online] Available at: <https://www.epa. gov/sites/production/files/2016-06/documents/4783_plant_ decommissioning_remediation_and_redevelopment_508.pdf> [Accessed 11 April 2021].

ESKOM. 2021. ESCOM 1930 - 1939 - Roots were Established - “All that glitters is gold”. [online] Available at: <https://www. eskom.co.za/sites/heritage/Pages/1930.aspx> [Accessed 7 October 2021].

ESKOM. 2019. DPE [Online] Available at: https://dpe.gov.za/ state-owned-companies/eskom/ [Accessed 03 11 2021].

GAD. 2021. ENKA Power Station HQ. [online] GAD Architecture. Available at: <https://www.gadarchitecture.com/en/ enka-power-station-hq--adapazari> [Accessed 27 May 2021].

GASVESSEL. 2021. natural gas vs. coal – a positive impact on the environment | Gasvessel [online] Available at: <https:// www.gasvessel.eu/news/natural-gas-vs-coal-impact-on-theenvironment/#:~:text=Coal%2C%20unlike%20gas%20fuels%20 and,is%20released%20into%20the%20air.&text=Coal%20 combustion%20produces%20more%20greenhouse,of%20 any%20other%20fossil%20fuel.> [Accessed 25 May 2021].

GLOBAL-BIOENERGY-STATISTICS.org.

2021.

Global bioenergy statistics 2020 [online]. Available at: <http://www. worldbioenergy.org/uploads/201210%20WBA%20GBS%20 2020.pdf> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

GOV.ZA. 1999. National Heritage Resources Act [No. 25 of 1999] [online]. Available at: <https://www.gov.za/sites/default/ files/gcis_document/201409/a25-99.pdf> [Accessed 9 October 2021].

HABIB, F. AND PEIMANI, N. 2013. Urban deteriorated fabric regeneration according to public open space enhancement [online]. World Applied Sciences Journal, 1(1), p.1237. Available at: <http://www.idosi.org/wasj/wasj21(8)13/21.pdf> [Accessed 21 June 2021].

HARMS, A. 2017. Geothermal energy. [online] Sustainable.org. za. Available at: <http://sustainable.org.za/userfiles/geothermal. pdf> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

HAUSCH ENERGY. 2021. Drax goes from coal to bioenergy [online]. - Hausch Energy Available at: <https://hausch.energy/ drax-goes-from-coal-to-bioenergy> [Accessed 11 April 2021].

IPCC. 2021. About the IPCC [online] Available at: < https://www. ipcc.ch/about/> [Accessed 25 May 2021].

IPCC. 2021. About the IPCC [online] Available at: < https://www. ipcc.ch/about/> [Accessed 25 May 2021].

JUST ENERGY. 2021. 7 Types of renewable energy: the future of energy [online] Just Energy. Available at: <https://justenergy.com/ blog/7-types-renewable-energy-future-of-energy/> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

KANVINDE, A. 1959. Seminar on architecture, effect of visual art on architecture. 1st ed. New Delhi: Lalit Kla Akademi.

KARAMI, M. & KAUFFMAN, D. 2020. Biokinetics. University of Florida School of Architecture [online] pp.49,93. Available from: https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/AA/00/08/10/53/00001/ Karami_Mani_Biokinetics_Gainesville_2020.pdf KELVINSALE. 2014. Kelvin Information Summary [online] Available at: <https://www.kelvinsale.com/pdf/KelvinInformation-Summary.pdf> [Accessed 10 October 2021].

KOTZE. 2019. South Africa’s energy conundrum. Global Risk Insights [online] . Available at: <https://globalriskinsights. com/2019/04/south-africas-energy-conundrum/> [Accessed 11 April 2021].

KRIGE, S. 2010. ‘The power of power’: power stations as industrial heritage and their place in history and heritage education [online] Scielo.org.za. Available at: <http://www. scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S222303862010000100011#not05> [Accessed 9 October 2021].

KRUKOWSKA, E. 2021. What Is COP26? A guide to climate talks 2021. News24 [online] Available at: <https://www.news24. com/fin24/economy/world/what-is-cop26-a-guide-to-climatetalks-2021-20211024> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

LABAREE. R. V. 2020. Research Guides: Organising Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Qualitative Methods [online] Available at: <https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/qualitative> [Accessed 19 May 2021].

LANZA, R., 2020. Cultivate a Mindset of Continuous Transformation. [online] SQA Group. Available at: <https://sqagroup.com/cultivate-a-mindset-of-continuoustransformation/> [Accessed 7 December 2021].

LEGEBY, A. 2010. Urban segregation and urban form. Licentiate Thesis in Architecture Stockholm, Sweden 2010 [online] 1(1), pp.5-18. Available at: <https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/ diva2:362593/fulltext01.pdf> [Accessed 21 June 2021].

LI, X., LV, Z., HIJAZI, I., JIAO, H., LI, L. & LI, K. 2016.

Assessment of Urban Fabric for Smart Cities. IEEE Access [online] 4, pp.373-382. Available at: <https://www.researchgate. net/publication/290511357_Assessment_of_Urban_Fabric_for_ Smart_Cities> [Accessed 20 June 2021].

Page[187] LUIS, J. 2016. Weaving into the urban fabric: integrating natural applications into the city. Boston Architectural College [online] 1(1), pp.8-16. Available at: <https://issuu.com/joaquinluis/docs/ dst1102_degree-project-book> [Accessed 20 June 2021].

LYNCH, K. 1981. A Theory of Good City Form. Journal of the American Institute of Planners [online] 1(1), pp.259276.

Available at: <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ abs/10.1080/17549170903466095> [Accessed 22 June 2021].

MAGUBANE, K. 2021. (a) Eskom anticipates 12 renewable projects with over 1000 MW capacity by year-end [online] Fin24.

Available at: <https://www.news24.com/fin24/economy/eskom/ eskom-anticipates-12-renewable-projects-with-over-1000-mwcapacity-by-year-end-20210119> [Accessed 11 April 2021].

MAGUBANE, K. 2021. (b) National Treasury policy document warns new coal value may mostly be ‘short term’. fin24 [online] Available at: <https://www.news24.com/fin24/Economy/SouthAfrica/national-treasury-policy-document-warns-new-coalvalue-may-mostly-be-short-term-20211017> [Accessed 23 October 2021].

MAHMOOD, Y. 2021. The connotation of tectonics in architectural theory [online] Available at:<https://www. researchgate.net/publication/340085564_The_Connotation_of_ Tectonics_in_Architectural_Theory> pp 1-2. [Accessed 19 May 2021].

MARSHALL, L. 2021. Eskom world’s worst polluting power company, says study. Independent Online [online] Available at: <https://www.iol.co.za/news/environment/eskom-worlds-worstpolluting-power-company-says-study-d1ef4998-00cf-4e18-b6e76bd27149c1a1> [Accessed 12 October 2021].

MASHEGO, P. 2021. Eskom can only reduce its greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2050 owing to financial woes.

News24 [online] pp.1-3. Available at: <https://www.news24. com/fin24/economy/eskom-will-only-able-to-meet-global-airquality-standards-by-2050-owing-to-financial-woes-20210818> [Accessed 12 October 2021].

NASA, 2021. The causes of climate change [online] Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. Available at: <https://climate. nasa.gov/causes/> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

MASTERCLASS, 2020. What is adaptive reuse architecture and why it’s important [online] Design & Style. Available at: <https:// www.masterclass.com/articles/adaptive-reuse-architectureguide#what-is-adaptive-reuse-architecture> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

NRDC. 2 018. Paris Climate Agreement: Everything You Need to Know [online] Available at: <https://www.nrdc.org/stories/parisclimate-agreement-everything-you-need-know#sec-whatis> [Accessed 12 October 2021].

MEHTA, J., PATEL, S., RAJE, A., RAVINDRAN, K., SINGH, K. & STEIN, J. 2021. Analogues of Architecture. [online] Aζ South Asia. Available at: <https://architexturez.net/pst/azcf-179439-1467533153> [Accessed 19 May 2021].

MIKETA, A. AND SAYGIN, D., 2015. Africa 2030: Roadmap for a Renewable Energy Future. International Renewable Energy Agency, [online] p.3. Available at: <https://www.irena. org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2015/IRENA_ Africa_2030_REmap_2015_low-res.pdf> [Accessed 4 December 2021].

MINERAL RESOURCES & ENERGY, S., 2021. Energy Sources: Renewables | Department: Energy | REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA [online] Energy.gov.za. Available at: <http:// www.energy.gov.za/files/renewables_frame.html> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

MUPAMBWA, H., DUBE, E. & MNKENI, P. 2015. Fly ash composting to improve fertiliser value – A review. South African Journal of Science, 111(7/8).

NERSA. 2021. Home – NERSA [online] Available at: <https:// www.nersa.org.za/> [Accessed 11 April 2021].

OPEN.edu. 2021. Study Session 5 Urbanisation: Trends, Causes and Effects: View as single page [online] Available at: <https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/oucontent/view. php?id=79940&printable=1> [Accessed 21 June 2021].

OZASLAN, N. 1995. Historic urban fabric: source of inspiration for contemporary city form. University of York Institute of Advanced Architectural Studies [online] 1, pp.3-11. Available at: <https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/2457/1/DX194872.pdf> [Accessed 23 June 2021].

PARTNERS, F. 2021. Acciona Ombú | Foster + Partners [online] Fosterandpartners.com. Available at: <https://www. fosterandpartners.com/projects/acciona-ombu/> [Accessed 27 May 2021].

PHILLIPS, T. 2021. South Africa tops G20 coal-reliance list in 2020 [online]. The Mail & Guardian. Available at: <https:// mg.co.za/business/2021-03-31-south-africa-tops-g20-coalreliance-list-in-2020-report-finds/#:~:text=world%20last%20 year.-,In%202020%2C%2086%25%20of%20South%20 Africa’s%20electricity%20came%20from%20coal,of%20its%20 electricity%20from%20coal.> [Accessed 21 May 2021].

PISKUNOVA, L. AND YANKOV, I. 2018. The architecture of constructivism: the creative transformation of aesthetic codes and narratives. Creativity studies [online] 11(1), pp.56–69. Available at: <https://journals.vgtu.lt/index.php/CS/article/view/540.pdf> [Accessed 29 May 2021].

PRETORIUS, I. 2015. Impacts and control of coal-fired power station emissions in South Africa. PhD. North-West University pp1-14.

RETIEF, C. 2020. Balance of power: Joburg ponders how to bypass Eskom [online] Daily Maverick. Available at: <https:// www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-02-21-joburg-pondershow-to-bypass-eskom/> [Accessed 2 June 2021].

SAGER, M. 2014. Climate Change and Energy [online] Awsassets.wwf.org.za. Available at: <http://awsassets.wwf.org. za/downloads/a16369_wwf_reip_report_online.pdf> [Accessed 12 October 2021].

SAREC.org.za. 2013. Vision Statement [online] Available at: <http://sarec.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/SAREC-visionstatement_FINAL_2407131.pdf> [Accessed 12 October 2021].

SCHAFER, K. 2014. Renewable energy vision 2030 [online] Wwfafrica.awsassets.panda.org. Available at: <https://wwfafrica. awsassets.panda.org/downloads/re_vision_2030_sa_exec_ summary_final.pdf?12561/Renewable-Energy-Vision-2030--South-Africa> [Accessed 12 October 2021].

SCHWARZER, M. 1993. Ontology and representation in Karl Bötticher’s theory of tectonics. The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians [online] pp.52(3):267-280. Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271807802_ Ontology_and_Representation_in_Karl_Botticher’s_Theory_of_ Tectonics> [Accessed 15 July 2021].

SINGH, P. 2020. Advances in cyanobacterial biology. 1st ed.

London: Academic Press.

SLOSS, D., 2017. Emissions from coal-fired utilities in South Africa and neighbouring countries and potential for reduction. [online] IEA Clean Coal Centre, pp.10-12. Available at: <https://wedocs. unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/22223/Emissions%20 from%20coal-fired%20utilities%20in%20South%20Africa%20 and%20neighbouring%20countries%20and%20potential%20 for%20reduction.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y> [Accessed 4 December 2021].

SMITH, P. 2020. What’s the difference between biophilia and biophilic design? [online] Linkedin.com. Available at: <https:// www.linkedin.com/pulse/whats-difference-between-biophiliabiophilic-design-percy-smith> [Accessed 17 November 2021].

SQUAZZIN, A. 2021. Johannesburg’s first gas-fired power plants planned by Harith – Harith General Partners [online] Harith.co.za.

Available at: <https://www.harith.co.za/johannesburgs-first-gasfired-power-plants-planned-by-harith/> [Accessed 21 May 2021].

SUSTAINABILITY-SA. 2021. Sustainability in South Africa. pp 7-8 [online] Available at: <https://www.environment.gov.za/ sites/default/files/reports/environmentoutlook_chapter2.pdf> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

SUSTAINABILITY-SA. 2021. Sustainability in South Africa. pp 7-8 [online] Available at: <https://www.environment.gov.za/ sites/default/files/reports/environmentoutlook_chapter2.pdf> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

THE WORLD BANK. 2021. About Urban Regeneration [online] Available at: < https://urban-regeneration.worldbank.org/ Johannesburg > [Accessed 21 June 2021].

TZANNES. 2015. Irving Street Brewery [online]. Available at: <https://tzannes.com.au/projects/irving-st-brewery/> [Accessed

27 May 2021].

UNITED NATIONS. 2021. Net zero coalition [online]. Available at:<https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/net-zero-coalition> [Accessed 26 May 2021].

VAN DIEPEN, A. & MUSTERD, S. 2009. Lifestyles and the city: connecting daily life to urbanity. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, [online] 24(3), pp.331-345. Available at: <https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10901-009-9150-4> [Accessed 23 June 2021].

VAN RENSBURG, D. 2014. Grandiose plan of power privatisation keeps failing [online] City Press. Available at: <https://web.archive.org/web/20150402113929/http://www. citypress.co.za/business/grandiose-plan-power-privatisationkeeps-failing/> [Accessed 21 May 2021].

WADLOW, T. 2019. Kelvin Power. Company profiles [online] Africa Outlook Magazine, pp.2-4,6-8. Available at: <https:// www.africaoutlookmag.com/company-profiles/1205-kelvinpower> [Accessed 20 May 2021].

WURM, J. 2013. Worldwide first façade system to cultivate micro-algae to generate heat and biomass as renewable energy sources [online] Available from: <https://www.arup.com/projects/ solar-leaf/> [Accessed 23 October 2021].

ZAFAR, S. 2021. Could biomass be the answer to South Africa’s energy problem?. BioEnergy Consult [online]. Available at: <https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/biomass-south-africa/> [Accessed 25 October 2021].

ZIEROLD, K. & ODOH, C., 2020. A review on fly ash from coal-fired power plants: chemical composition, regulations, and health evidence. Reviews on Environmental Health, [online] 35(4), pp.401-418. Available at: <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/32324165/> [Accessed 4 December 2021].

THE END