TLOU, K - 219436025

DE-PARTITION AFRICA: MARKET PLACE PROPOSAL IN BEITBRIDGE

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DE-PARTITION AFRICA, MARKET PLACE PROPOSAL IN BEITBRIDGE An Investigation and analysis of market place Spaces – a design development to enhance African markets in Beitbridge

Kahiso Tlou

Pretoria 2021

Master of Architecture Department of Architecture and Industrial Design Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment

Supervisor: Prof. AOS Osman

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DECLARATION ON PLAGIARISM

I, Kahiso Tlou, hereby declare that the dissertation submitted for the degree Master of Architecture: Professional: (MArch) at the Tshwane University of Technology, is my own original work and has not previously been submitted to any other institution.

Reference is made to other works, to this extent it is fully acknowledged in the text and list of references.

Original images by means of sketch or original composition are by the author and are distinguishable as such through no referencing, only a caption. All sourced images are indicated and acknowledged by means of a comprehensive list of figures and references.

03/11/2021

Signature

Date

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Acknowledgements

I sincerely thank my family, friends, and peers for your love and support throughout my studies.

I wish to express my sincere appreciation for your support throughout my studies to my family, friends, and peers.

I greatly appreciate the Department of Architecture academic staff for your support, including Francine van Tonder, Prof J Laubscher and my supervisor Professor Osman Amira.

Thank you, Full Swing Consulting, for allowing me to further my studies and for your financial support.

I would want to acknowledge my wife, Sanelisiwe Ndlovu, for rendering the much-needed moral support and encouragement while doing this course.

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ABSTRACT This research project looks at the market-related problems within the African continent from an architectural perspective. The premise of the study is that obstacles to free trade between African countries, which happened as a consequence of the partitioning of the continent, may be addressed through geographical and spatial interventions; local and regional intra-trading has been affected negatively and maybe improved through strategic interventions. It is believed that the improvement of this situation and the encouragement of trade across African borders will ultimately have a positive socio-economic and cultural effect and heal wounds that are not always visible.

This dissertation develops spatial proposals and programmes that inspire intra-trading and boost the markets within the African continent at a specific site and through tracing the journey of an informal trader and the markets of small informal businesses – the concept of a drifter’s movements as a rhizome will be theoretically explored. Informal business traders are considered illegal by a system which is foreign to the African context. The socalled ‘3 C”, Civilization, Christianity, Commerce were the main strategies that were used by some western countries in their favour to colonize Africa (Matt, 2017). The objective was to make Africans believe that their culture and tradition are inferior and adopt the colonizer's systems and standards.

The aim is to challenge the mindset of the importance of borders and no man’s land by rethinking space definition, bringing a new kind of architecture that is created by the people who use it.

Key words De partition, Drifter, rhizome “3 C”, Mindset, Border, Intra trading, No man’s land,

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Table of Contents ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... V 1

2

3

4

5

•

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1

AIM ......................................................................................................................... 1

1.2

BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................... 2

1.3

ARGUMENT ........................................................................................................... 4

1.4

THE NEED ............................................................................................................. 5

1.5

STAKEHOLDERS................................................................................................... 5

1.6

THE PHILOSOPHY ................................................................................................ 7

ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED IN THE DESIGN .......................................................... 8 2.1

MARKET ANNALYSIS ............................................................................................ 8

2.2

DRIFTERS AND RHIZOME ANALYSIS ................................................................. 9

2.3

IDENTIFYING UNDERUTILISED OPPORTUNITIES ON LIMPOPO RIVER ....... 10

2.4

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSCIOUSNESS AND ENHANCEMENT ......................... 14

PRECEDENT STUDIES AND CASE STUDIES ......................................................... 17 3.1

FIFTH AVENUE MARKET IN BULAWAYO CBD.................................................. 17

3.2

BANG NAM PHEUNG MARKET IN BANGKOK ................................................ 22

3.3

CABLE CAR STATION IN CARACAS VENEZUELA ............................................ 25

ANALYSIS OF CONTEXT AND LOCALITY ............................................................... 26 4.1

THE HISTORY OF BEITBRIDGE ......................................................................... 26

4.2

LOCALITY AND PHYSICAL CONTEXT .............................................................. 29

4.3

TRADE AND SOCIAL CONTEXT ......................................................................... 30

BRIEF, PROGRAMME AND ACCOMODATION ........................................................ 34 5.1

THE BRIEF ........................................................................................................... 34

5.2

THE PROGRAMME.............................................................................................. 35

KIDS PLAY AREA, SITTING AREA, SOFT AND HARD LANDSCAPING .................. 35 5.3

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ACCOMODATION ................................................................................................ 36

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................... 37 6.1

THE CONCEPT .................................................................................................... 37

6.2

SITE EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT ....................................................... 39

6.3

MATERIAL AND STRUCTURAL EXPLORATION ............................................. 53

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DESIGN RESOLUTION .............................................................................................. 60

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CONSTRUTION TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN TECHNIQUE .................................. 77 8.1

SITE EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT ....................................................... 77 vi

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CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 92

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LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... 93

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LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. 93

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REFERENCES+ ...................................................................................................... 96

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INTRODUCTION

1.1 AIM

The objective is to investigate the trade issues as one of the activities that suffered consequences from the partition of Africa and propose an architectural programme that will help relink and boost the trading culture which suits its local community. The analysis and solutions address the problems associated with culture and economic activities within the local communities during Africa's partition by restoring the link.

The concept is based on linking points A and B, which are currently separated by the borderline along the Limpopo river. Beitbridge and Musina can be linked through the market proposal by sharing the opportunities that lie along the Limpopo River, which communities share rightfully from both sides of the Figure 1 Concept by Author

river. This place will attract customers locally, nationally, and internationally.

The business model is meant to benefit the ordinary local populace.

The spatial intervention concept has to present its community identity pompously through its function, space, form, and Technics.

Figure 2 Approach by Author

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The architectural space that accommodates the marketplace programmes for the stakeholders is customized to suit their potential investment opportunities. The marketplace, in the no man’s-land, has lucrative opportunities that can boost the economies. No man’s land has no rules which limit the trading opportunity. The construction method of using the rammed earth, sun-baked earth bricks, and rocks, the material that was dug on-site, minimises the construction costs and enhance community participation. As well as to resolve other specific issues listed below: •

To link split communities

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To create a drifter’s practical central realm

•

To fully develop underutilised programme opportunities within the context

•

To propose shelter with the economic programme that will inspire and efficiently empower the local ordinary people

1.2 BACKGROUND

There are historic African trade centres that existed in Africa before colonisation. These trade centres include the Egyptian Pyramids, Mapungubwe, and Great Zimbabwe, among other market centres. These trade centres’ architecture shows significant influences from its geographical locations' cultural patterns, beliefs, and physical features. People used to travel across the continent and traded freely without conditions and system hindrances. In 1884 the conference held in Berlin authorised the colonisation of Africa by western countries. The Berlin conference led to the introduction of goods and human border control systems.

The introduction of national boundaries without the consent of the African people negatively changed the livelihood of Africans. Ethnic groups were split by national boundaries, affecting culture and trading amongst various tribes. The mission of the Berlin conference was to ensure that each European country that claimed possession over a part of Africa must bring civilisation, in the form of Christianity, and trade to each region that it would occupy.

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Figure 3 Interrupted ethnic homelands (Michalopoulos and Papaioannou, 2017)

The partitioning of Africa came with systems that favoured the Settler' agendas in Africa only, and these were directly imposed on the natives forcefully and ignored their trading systems (Mensah, 2015). The specific ports of exit and entry are located on the national boundary with control procedures on these borders. Markets and trading patterns amongst these people changed with the control measures at the port of entry monitoring the movements of goods and people. The two-control system introduced is Customs to control the movement of goods and Immigration to control the movement of people. The customs duty fee is now paid at the borders to discourage markets from the other national boundaries and local markets ethnic homelands. Immigration introduced visas issued to people crossing the border at a fee that makes people pay to get permission to go across and work and the days allocated on the visa for the person to stay on the other side of the boundary per visit. They are an annually limited number of days a person can stay on the other side of the boundary. People crossing the Beitbridge have the number of visit days detected by the officials that is unfair to the travelers as this affects their plans. Some visa applications can take a maximum of 8 months to be approved, which is an inconvenience.

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1.3 ARGUMENT

There are unbalanced trade patterns between African countries with other countries outside the continent.

The current economic power of countries within the continent is unbalanced, unstable, and varies by a considerable margin. Zimbabwe and South Africa, which are separated by the river, have two different economic power.

Figure 4 economic analyis by Author

The economic power of countries within the continent is unbalanced and varies with a huge margin.

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Figure 5 economic analysis by Author

Figure 6 economic analysis by Author

The markets within the African continent itself are dormant and need to be rejuvenated.

The research will analyse the roots of these problems and how they developed into the current situation. Africa has diverse cultures need to be taken into consideration. The architectural design solution has to address all these problems.

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1.4 THE NEED There is a need to develop the Architectural spatial concept with programmes that boost the market within the African continent.

There is a need to fully utilise the beautiful physical geographical features, which are only limited to dividing the countries; hence an architectural concept is required to shelter the explored opportunities to empower the ordinary people economically.

The design of a market that reunites divided ethnicities and economically empowers the local ordinary people.

There is a need for essential accommodative spatial programmes customised to local people and its varied context.

1.5 STAKEHOLDERS

Figure 7 stakeholders structure by Author, (Tycoonstory, 2020)

The other potential internal stakeholders that are responsible for gathering the funding for the marketplace development, International Cross-Border Traders Association, The departments of Wildlife management, and the Tourism department. These Government and Non-governmental organizations stated above have a close interaction with their followers and understand the needs of their audience.

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By investing in this project, their followers will eventually become customers, suppliers and benefit small entrepreneurs within these groups. The rental money from occupying these premises will pay back the development money.

Financial impact Businesses are out to make a profit. The fiscal interest of stakeholders, partners, or owners is to create balance with responsibilities. Stakeholders’ involvement is high, balancing the responsible behaviors socially and environmentally.

Social impact The community has a task to develop and maintain as we advance. Community participation is vital in maintaining the community connection and building a sense of property ownership. Hence, they will not vandalise, but they will give it protection.

Operations impact Employees form the form of stakeholders. They expect employees who lead the projects and unskilled or local labor force from the local communities. It is vital to maintain a nondiscriminatory working environment to boost employee morale.

The impact of stakeholders on business is more on the primary stakeholders in a project.

They will be responsible for the project from the start to the end. The stakeholders' decision-making and inputs on the project will ensure the conclusion of a project.

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1.6 THE PHILOSOPHY

What is the effect or difference of gluing pieces together or further breaking more pieces to form one thing? If pieces are glued together, the traces of joins will still show, the memory of where they were borders will remain with the impression that Africa is still divided.

If I continue breaking it into smaller pieces, the boundaries will be removed, giving the impression that this is now one thing.

Figure 8 Removing the division philosophy by Author

This philosophy will strengthen the development of flowless market activities across Africa.

The accommodative Architectural programme will promote this flowless market that responds well to the social context and physical geographical features, which is influential in extending to the international market.

Issues to be addressed in the design development are referred to this philosophy to demonstrate the relevance.

This philosophy in this research is more evident in the programme that accommodates various activities that are explored in the border context, and they did not make use of it.

Through its diverse program, this proposed marketplace will accommodate different talents in one place. These various activities are opportunities that are fully utilised to make this marketplace beneficial to all classes of people in the society, locally and abroad, eventually erasing the division.

The immediate success of this philosophy will be notable in the involvement of the local communities from both countries to develop this proposal as it links them again and rediscover themselves before the marketplace is operational.

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2

ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED IN THE DESIGN

2.1 MARKET ANNALYSIS

The border operations structure is not directly benefiting the ordinary local community. The market issues listed below require sheltered or a spatial intervention that is more accommodative to the local market. Local markets development is significant because it empowers the local people.

The current local market within the Beitbridge border post is unbalanced, with the duty-free shop on the Zimbabwean side not being operational for several years, whereas the dutyfree shops on the South African side are operating.

The duty-free shop is ownership favouring established investors with no structures supporting the growing entrepreneurs.

The small informal entrepreneurs who sell small products like airtime, snacks, water, and other things are prohibited from doing business from both borders.

The local vendors find it difficult to operate an active duty-free shop, particularly on the South African side. Most informal vendors are seen illicitly operating on the Zimbabwean side because there is no competition since the Duty-free shop is closed.

The design proposal is a transformed market complex at the Beitbridge Border that accommodates local and ordinary people instead of big established commercial businesses.

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2.2 DRIFTERS AND RHIZOME ANALYSIS The proposal translates the drifter’s journey into an architectural spatial space. I am mapping the journey of the drifter when he works, going the get different stocks, selling the stock, and back home to rest.

The concept of a rhizome is translated into an architectural intervention suggesting new ways of linking the divisions caused by the border created by the partition of Africa.

Sleepover to bypass duty fees

Border control

Market 1

customers

customers

customers

Home ?

customers

Market 2

customers customers

customers Market 3 customers

customers

Figure 9 Drifter analysis by Author

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2.3 IDENTIFYING UNDERUTILISED OPPORTUNITIES ON LIMPOPO RIVER

Most of the National borders in Africa are mapped along with geographical, physical landmarks such as Mountains, rivers, and lakes. These physical features are limited to a function of offering the division between countries. Many economic opportunities programmes can be explored and sheltered in a spatial form in these places to improve the standard of living for the immediate communities and Africa as a whole. Beitbridge border post has Limpopo river used to separate Zimbabwe and South Africa, and it became no-man’s land. Other opportunities that can be explored to earn a living from the river are listed on table 1 below. The identified contextual things can inspire the programmes that can inform the design of the marketplace.

Table 1 Market place opportunities by Author

Description

Opportunities

Fish

Fishing for food security income and job creation

Wildlife

Tourism income and job creation

water

Tourism – income and job creation

No-man land- unoccupied territory

No rules – market for illicit products

between two countries Dam

Fresh water body catchment area For – Agriculture Landscaping for recreation parks

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Figure 10 wildlife near the site by Author

The Limpopo river is a habitant of the Hippopotamus. The Hippopotamus is amongst the favorite animal that many tourists like to see. As one of the main attractions to the tourist, it justifies the development of the Tourism market opportunity on the river Limpopo.

Figure 11 wildlife near the site by Author

The crocodile is also very common in the inhabitants resident of the Limpopo river.

These animals also attract many visitors. A Market designed around them can also generate much income for the communities.

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However, since Human beings will benefit from these animals' presence by creating a market, The Architecture design around them should acknowledge their presence. The prominent acknowledgment is by rewarding this wildlife by enhancing their environment by afforestation and limiting water, land, and noise pollution as this entices their nature.

Beitbridge is the Host of the unique variety of cuisine prepared from the local grow natural from unique local plants. These are the Baobab fruits and the Mopani worms.

These products are pretty popular when solving some health care problems. Hence a market created on them will thrive.

Figure 12 by Author

The Baobab fruits harvested from the Baobab fruit in the background

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Figure 13 by Author

The baobab fruits products vary from juice, skincare, skincare, powder. The products are highly recommended for fertility, blood pressure, skin, and digestive health care.

Figure 14 Mopani worms by Author

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Mopani worms are seasonal and common in Beitbridge and areas around provinces in both countries. They picked in these areas towards the end and beginning of every year.

The Mopani worms are dried up, which makes them be easily stored and available the entire year

2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSCIOUSNESS AND ENHANCEMENT

Cross ventilation Adequate natural ventilation serves energy and money local air quality is well surrounded by natural vegetation and a water body it improves the comfort of occupants as it removes stale air and replaces it with fresh air Help moderate internal temperatures It reduced the accumulation of moisture, odors, and other gases that can build up during occupied periods.

Rainwater harvesting Beitbridge is in a dry region that receives less rain. Water flowing from roof surfaces from the Markets, Hotels, and cable car station buildings is collected and stored in tanks.

The water collected will be supplementary used in the reforestation project and soft landscaping.

Reforestation planting new trees to expand an existing forest comes with many benefits and improves the environment in the dry region as follows: Reforestation will help raise the water table as vegetation slows down the rainwater runoff, forcing it to drain.

It grows wildlife habitation Carbon sequestration Forested recreated opportunities It enhances the noise buffer

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Building orientation

To make the most of solar heat gain during winter and to protect the building from harsh east and west sun, the building is orientated facing north (within a limit of 22,5° on either side of true north.

The long axis runs as near to east/ west as possible (SANS 204, 2011:7).

Figure 15 orientation by Author

The north direction-oriented building comes with many advantages.

During the summer season, the sun is too hot. The path moves on top of the rooftops.

Figure 16 Sun path by Author

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During the winter season, the sun is low.

North-facing buildings will receive more heat penetrating the building.

Figure 17 Sun path by Author

The north-facing roof is best for solar panels with 100percent of solar input.

Figure 18 Solar panel positioning by Author

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3

PRECEDENT STUDIES AND CASE STUDIES

3.1 FIFTH AVENUE MARKET IN BULAWAYO CBD

Fifth Avenue market is the popular open-air fresh produce, cheap imported used clothes, and footwear market in the Bulawayo city centre with more than 600 vendors. Most vendor businesses here are classified as survivalist-oriented entrepreneurs. (Thebe and Ncube, 2015) Fifth Avenue is permanently closed to vehicular traffic, with only three intersecting streets open for traffic.

Existing market shop For bulk stocks Figure 19 Market place map by Author

Fifth Avenue is dominated by shops that sell fresh produce in bulk and a few other shops that sell a variety of wares. The vendors buy their stock from the shop and display them on the marked open stands on the streets. The pushcarts are the primary transport source that delivers the supplies to the vendors who have stands from the shops. The pushcarts are effective to through the pedestrian routes to take stock to the secondary transport 17

vehicular for vendors who sell in the fur suburbs. The vendors who sell cheap imported used clothes and footwear dominate the spaces during the weekend because the fresh produce markets Shops are closed on weekends.

The building situated along the fifth Avenue occupied by wholesalers and shops that sell a variety of products is postcolonial architecture. Most of the building is improvised to accommodate services or programs influenced by the demand and activities happening along Fifth avenue.

Figure 20 by Author

The traders buy in bulk from the nearby big market shops and sell the products in smaller quantities to their customers. The most common products sold here are agricultural like vegetables and grains.

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.

Figure 21 by Author

Other traders buy stock from these big market stores and transport them to their market stands close to where they stay. Pushcarts are a valuable secondary source of transport to connect them to the public transport station. The carts can be manipulated to help people with disabilities to move.

faster.

Figure 22 vendors with pushcarts by Author

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The pushcarts are also traders who want to sell their products in various places because they can move around to reach out to their customers away from the big market place.

Figure 23 used clothes vendors by Author

The vendors sell imported used clothes and footwear dominate the spaces during the weekend when the fresh produce markets are closed.

Figure 24 by Author

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The vendor selling the tobacco and grains products at a market in Bulawayo.

Figure 25 by Author

They are traders who buys the stock of electrical products and car parts from Musina in South Africa.

The principle applied • Well-thought-out pedestrians and drifters have significant priority over vehicles. The pace of the people's movement gives them a chance to notice many products to buy, which enhances the relevance of the market and more profitable.

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The planning order linear layout of shops along the street pavements and vendors stands in the middle of the street.

•

The flow of program from buying bulk stock from the wholesaler, the transition of stock from the primary or secondary source of transport until it arrives in the vendor's point of sale.

•

The spatial relationship of interior spaces and outside spaces

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A self-contained mixed-use atmosphere formed a variety of enterprises that strengthened the insight of markets development in the space.

•

Huge volumes in the interior of the structure and high windows give a properly ventilated space.

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3.2 BANG NAM PHEUNG MARKET IN BANGKOK

Bang Nam Phueng Floating Market

Figure 26 (Thuan, 2021)

This market is a tourist destination. Guests can rent a canoe by the side of the market to explore the more significant parts of the canal. Tourists and families can enjoy the sights of local traditional houses, rain forests, art and music activities.

Bang Nam Pheung Market is approximately 15 km southeast of central Bangkok. The best way to get there is by renting a motorbike.

The place is protected from overdevelopment, so its modest size and local atmosphere are likely to remain uninterrupted. Local foods, sweets, and fruits are sold in the market.(Thuan, 2021)

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Figure 27 Floating market by Author

Figure 28 Foot bridge by Author

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The principle applied

Environment consciousness. The area is protected from overdevelopment to preserve nature and minimise pollutions.

The shades are made from timber and the local vegetation material that is more responsible for the environment. the Market shops are linear positioned linear along the river An assorted activity offered in the precinct to cater for different interests for visitors which enhances the relevance of the market

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3.3 CABLE CAR STATION IN CARACAS VENEZUELA

In most cases, the lower-income groups of the population are most affected by lack of accessibility, therefore, providing accessibility is a matter of equity.(Venter, 2019)

Figure 29 Cable car by Author

The unique advantage of cable cars Minimal tempering with the environment when it is being constructed.

Their slow travelling speed gives an opportunity to explore more an Ariel view.

Electrical Cable cars have no carbon emission They are also often faster to implement than building new roads, which can appeal to decision-makers looking to show results quickly.

However cable cars are not capable to carry heavy cargo

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4

ANALYSIS OF CONTEXT AND LOCALITY

4.1 THE HISTORY OF BEITBRIDGE

Beitbridge is known as a border post located along the borderline separating Zimbabwe and South Africa. The place was developed to be one of the ports of entry and exit between the two countries after the infamous partition of Africa conference in Berlin 1884 that the European leaders held without the consent of African leaders. Beitbridge is known as a border post located along the borderline separating Zimbabwe and South Africa. The place was developed to be one of the ports of entry and exit between the two countries after the infamous partition of Africa conference in Berlin 1884 that the European leaders held without the consent of African leaders. Beitbridge is known as a border post located along the borderline separating Zimbabwe and South Africa. The place was developed to be one of the ports of entry and exit between the two countries after the infamous partition of Africa conference in Berlin 1884 that the European leaders held without the consent of African leaders. (Matt, 2017).

Both sides of the border give clear evidence of the divided Venda ethnicity. The local people from both countries share similar cultures and the language even after being split for more than 13 decades. The similarities are evident through performing ritual activities, dance, cuisine, and traditional attires, amongst other things which are unique in many aspects.

The African map in Figure 2 shows uninterrupted ethnic homelands before the Partition of Africa at the Berlin Conference. Figures 30 show these interrupted homelands after the partitioning of the continent (Michalopoulos and Papaioannou, 2017). Ethnic connections were split by national boundaries, which also affected culture and trading amongst various tribes. The task of the Berlin conference was to ensure that each European country that claimed possession over a part of Africa must bring civilisation, in the form of Christianity, to undermine the African culture and trade to each region that it would occupy.

The partitioning of Africa came with systems that favoured the Settler’s agendas in Africa only, and these were directly imposed on the natives forcefully and ignored their trading systems (Mensah, 2015). The specific Port of exit and entry was introduced on the national boundary with control measures on these borders. The markets and measures at the Port of entry were introduced to monitor the movements of goods and people..

Both sides of the border give clear evidence of the divided Venda ethnicity. The local people from both countries share similar cultures and the language even after being split for more than 13 decades. The similarities are evident through performing ritual activities, 26

dance, cuisine, and traditional attires, amongst other things which are unique in many aspects.

The African map in Figure 2 shows uninterrupted ethnic homelands before the Partition of Africa at the Berlin Conference. Figures 31 show these interrupted homelands after the partitioning of the continent (Michalopoulos and Papaioannou, 2017). Ethnic connections were split by national boundaries, which also affected culture and trading amongst various tribes. The task of the Berlin conference was to ensure that each European country that claimed possession over a part of Africa must bring civilisation, in the form of Christianity, to undermine the African culture and trade to each region that it would occupy.

The partitioning of Africa came with systems that favoured the Settler’s agendas in Africa only, and these were directly imposed on the natives forcefully and ignored their trading systems (Mensah, 2015) . The specific Port of exit and entry was introduced on the national boundary with control measures on these borders. The markets and measures at the Port of entry were introduced to monitor the movements of goods and people.

Both sides of the border give clear evidence of the divided Venda ethnicity. The local people from both countries share similar cultures and the language even after being split for more than 13 decades. The similarities are evident through performing ritual activities, dance, cuisine, and traditional attires, amongst other things which are unique in many aspects.

Figure 30 Uninterrupted ethnic homelands (Michalopoulos and Papaioannou, 2017)

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Figure 31 Interrupted ethnic homelands (Michalopoulos and Papaioannou, 2017)

The African map in Figure 2 shows uninterrupted ethnic homelands before the Partition of Africa at the Berlin Conference. Figures 3 show these interrupted homelands after the partitioning of the continent. Ethnic connections were split by national boundaries, which also affected culture and trading amongst various tribes. The task of the Berlin conference was to ensure that each European country that claimed possession over a part of Africa must bring civilisation, in the form of Christianity, to undermine the African culture and trade to each region that it would occupy.

The partitioning of Africa came with systems that favoured the Settler’s agendas in Africa only, and these were directly imposed on the natives forcefully and ignored their trading systems (Mensah, 2015). The specific Port of exit and entry was introduced on the national boundary with control measures on these borders. The markets and measures at the Port of entry were introduced to monitor the movements of goods and people.

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4.2 LOCALITY AND PHYSICAL CONTEXT

Figure 32 Site analysis by Author

Beitbridge Border Post is 2km away from Beitbridge town on the Zimbabwean side and 12km away from Musina Town on the South African side. The Architecture of the existing structure and programmes are customised to shelter the border control systems of Humans and goods crossing the border. There is little in which the border boost or benefits the ordinary local entrepreneurs as most of the goods cross here is not for the local traders.

Limpopo river is the physical geographical river merely used to divide these two nations.

The mighty Limpopo River is inhabited by the Hippopotamus, crocodiles, and various species of fish. Limpopo river poises much potential for tourism and Agricultural markets.

The Beitbridge has a hot desert climate region with less rainfall and high temperatures with a low record of – 1.1oC and a high record of 44.4 oC (World Meteorological Organization, 2016).

The surrounding areas have a unique type of trees that dominate the regions: Mopani and Baobab trees. The Mopani worm is a very nutritious and delicious food that grows from the

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Mopani trees. Baobab fruits are trendy as well in this region. The products of these inhabitants have a significant market within the region, nationally and internationally.

4.3 TRADE AND SOCIAL CONTEXT

The two-control system introduced is Customs to control the movement of goods and Immigration to control the movement of people. The customs duty fee is paid at the borders to discourage markets or prohibit products from the other sides of the national boundaries. Immigration introduced visas to be issued to people crossing the border at a fee which makes people pay to get permission to move around. Days allocated on the visa for the person to stay on the other side of the boundary and the limit number of days a person can stay on the other side of the boundary per annum. People crossing Beitbridge have the number of visit days detected by the officials that is unfair to the travellers as this affects their plans. The travellers get congested at the border post and sleep for days waiting to be cleared.

Figure 33 Travellers sleep over at the boarder waiting to be cleared, by Author=[

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Figure 34 by Author

Other traders smuggle the goods across the Limpopo river from the other country to avoid the duties.

Figure 35 Illegal border crossing

These are familiar scenes along the Beitbridge border with ordinary people illegally crossing to avoid the immigration processes, customs, and excise duties.

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Figure 1: by Author The locomotives trains and haulage trucks that are transporting goods for big commercial business players.

Most of these trucks are seen parked for a minimum of three days, waiting to be cleared at the Border post.

Figure 36 Systems at the Border post

The immigration processes, customs, and excise duties are the main activities that control the human and Goods movements at the border post.

Figure 37 Cross border minibus transporting goods and Passengers

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The minibusses and bakkies pulling huge trailers transporting groceries and various bulk products for resell in Zimbabwe are commonly used by a low-class group of

people.

Figure 38 Cross border bus transporting goods and Passengers

The buses pull huge trailers transporting passengers, groceries, and various bulk products for resell in Zimbabwe, commonly used by a low-class group of people.

There are existing Duty-free shops on both sides of the border. They are two on the South African side that is still operational. The one on the Zimbabwean side has been closed for several years. These retail businesses sell products that are exempted from the payments of duties and taxes.

The duty-free shop ownership favours the established investors with no structures that support the growing entrepreneurs. This structure gives competition between the duty-free shop and the vendors.

The small informal entrepreneurs (drifters) who sell small products like airtimes, snacks, bottled water, and other things are forbidden from doing business from both borders.

The small entrepreneurs who buy stock Musina for reselling have to sleep over and return the following day to skip the duty fees, which lapse the following day after the day of entry.

The existing border systems are designed without considering the development of local people. It is noted that there is employment created to support the system, but the system itself lacks the inclusive programme to benefit the ordinary people at a local level.

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5

BRIEF, PROGRAMME AND ACCOMODATION

5.1 THE BRIEF Architecture is a spatial artifact of the culture whose design is customised to represent it.

Moreover, architects, being inherent problem solvers, typically seek to design spaces for the times and the people who will use them. Culture reflected in architecture helps create or maintain identity in today's world of globalization and internationalism. It also helps maintain the integrity of society. The following brief need is required to address the challenges born after the partition of Africa.

There is a need to develop the architectural spatial concept with programmes that will enable an open market and boost the market within the African continent.

There is a need to fully capitalise on the beautiful physical geographical features in the context, which are only limited to dividing the countries; Hence an architectural concept is required to shelter the explored opportunities to empower the ordinary people economically.

The aim is to design a market that helps link or reunite the divided ethnicities and economically empowers the local ordinary people. There is a need for essential accommodative spatial programmes customised to local ordinary people and their varied contexts.

34

5.2 THE PROGRAMME The research project type is the proposal of a marketplace in Beitbridge.

The Architectural intervention is guided by the brief, mainly addressing the divided ethnicity by linking through a considerate programme. The following programme will be accommodating the activities or opportunities in the context which is not fully utilised.

Intervention is trying to balance the locals and people from other areas. The marketplace programme gives informal traders opportunities to do business within the premises. The Marketplace gives a platform and opportunity to sell and promote locally harvested and produced products like Baobab fruits and dried Mopani worms.

The presence of water bodies and wildlife is the main pulling factor into this intervention.

Hence, this proposal is looking into creating a lucrative environment to accommodate these animals and a continual programme to maintain this new environment. Afforestation and pollution control programme are amongst the main activities to be introduced.

Human presence near wildlife requires protective control strategies to co-exist in the same place, particularly for the animals not to be disturbed, leading them to migrate from the place.

The Marketplace should look attractive to bring more tourists to the area to generate income from other parts of the world.

The main programme is planned around proposing the Hotels, Market places, cable car stations, and tourism sightings.

Market: Informal, Formal Transportation: Parking, Pedestrians, pushcarts, cable car, boats cable car station, Reception Administration, offices, meeting rooms Spectators Pause areas, Seating, Toilets, refreshments, unobstructed view Storage Administration, Equipment, personal Maintenance Workshop, refuse collection, river water maintenance, forest upkeeping, general building maintenance, Tourism Hotel rooms, restaurants.

Recreational park Kids play area, sitting area, soft and hard landscaping

35

5.3 ACCOMODATION

Table 2 Room sizes

Quantity Floor Area Market: 1800m2

Formal Informal

18

Transportation: Parking, Pedestrians, pushcarts, cable car, boats cable car station, Reception Administration, offices, meeting rooms Spectators Pause areas, Seating, Toilets, refreshments, unobstructed

80m2 348m2 100m2 80m2

view Storage Administration, Equipment, personal

100m2

Maintenance Workshop, refuse collection, river water maintenance,

200m2

forest upkeeping, general building maintenance, Tourism Hotel rooms, restaurants.

800m2

Recreational park Kids play area, sitting area, soft and hard landscaping

900m2

36

6

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

6.1 THE CONCEPT Limpopo river as the dividing line for two countries.

The concept is based on linking separated points A and B

Figure 39 Concept

This dissertation intends to create an open market within African countries with a link that currently deterred border system control. The border has created divided the ethnicity along with these areas, eventually affecting the market links at a local level. This is achieved by taking advantage of unutilised opportunities that seem to be commons in most African borders, that is, physical geographical features used to divide countries. These physical geographical features are unique places to develop around them, eventually bringing people to them and linking Africa again.

The research intends to develop a market that will accommodate ordinary people locally through its programmes. When this market is achieved, it will be an inclusive project that makes it possible for everyone, the poor and the well-established, to benefit.

The concept development is contextually driven by strategical making use of physical features by developing the architectural and spatial design with a programme that will create a link by attracting people to the place and erase the divisional line..

37

The development to create the link is that they are two market places from both countries divided by a river. These two places have to operate together.

Figure 40 by Author

They are workers, traders, and customers who will come to the marketplace and go back home without exploring the river.

Figure 41 by Author

The link in which research is trying to achieve is a cross-border trade across the river. The connection with the river. Taking advantage of existing wildlife to boost the Tourism market. People movement from either point.

Figure 42 by Author

38

Environmental consciousness.

Considering the existing animals and water bodies. They are environmental responsibility put in place limiting the gas emission, noise pollution, and minimised interferences.

Three circulation routes proposed are catering for Cable cars, boats, and foot with pushcarts.

Vehicle parking is provided before the Marketplace building.

Figure 43 Connections of various programmes

6.2 SITE EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT Site contextual response

Figure 44 By Author

39

Lenient, impartial, and inclusive.

The research investigates a possible solution to accommodate the small entrepreneurs.

Figure 45 By Author

The customised programme with the understating of the drifter must blend with the site context

Figure 46 By Author

The understanding of how the small cross-boarder entrepreneurs circulate as drifters in a rhizome pattern.

This intervention developed a simplified solution by proposing a large market structure where products can be stored and sold in bulk.

The open market space is for the small traders to occupy.

The eco-friendly open market stands are scattered amongst the less dense forest to give shade and enhance the noise buffer.

40

Figure 47 By Author

The intervention layout will be divided into three zones. These zones make the effective link between human beings and wildlife to co-exist. The Marketplace building is the outer zone further away from the river. Zone one less dense forest area with an open marketplace for the vendors. Zone 2 is a dense forest near the river to enhance the wildlife habitation Linking the split Ethnicity through a simplified programme that is inclusive to the ordinary local people from the construction, maintenance duties, and the operational duties of the marketplace.

Figure 48 By Author

Responsible, Safe, Functional The presence of wildlife around human beings is sensitive. It requires the local community to do the Afforestation to create a conducive environment for them and control noise pollution.

Figure 49 By Author

41

The viewing, Integrated, attractive, and active.

The research explores opportunities that link the Limpopo river with people by providing viewing decks from the top floors of all the Figure 50 By Author

buildings.

Figure 51 By Author

The established commercial businesses are the ones who are affording to do cross-border trading.

42

Figure 52 By Author

The intervention along the Limpopo river will help to improve the intra-market, particularly for the small entrepreneurs. The solutions help to remove the divisional gap between the rich and the poor that is noticeable through affordability. The proposed Marketplace will minimise the smuggling of goods across the Limpopo river.

43

Figure 53 By Author

The afforestation will gradually intensify towards the river banks for the Buildings to the conducive environment to the existing wildlife and invite more soothing wildlife habitation like birds in the area.

44

Figure 54 By Author

The forestry, water, and Wildlife control Zone have a thick forest with less human interference. Only experts and tourists under guard are allowed to access this zone.

The open market zone is less densely forested to allow human circulation by foot and pushcarts. The open market stands are scattered around separated by trees give fresh air to humans and buffering the noise to the nearby wildlife inhabitants.

Sheltered Marketplace includes the built structures like the Market places, Hotels, and Cable car stations. The two points in the site are linked through the cable cars which has less impact on the environment. The cable cars are used for transportation, Ariel viewing

Figure 55 By Author

The proposed site has a direct North and south orientation that will be utilised to give enough lighting and comfortability in the proposed buildings. The river will be the significant scenery view from the building on both sides. Footbridge, cable cars, and boats are used to access the other markets across the river.

45

Figure 56 by Author

The proposed site is located in a region with low rainfall, high temperature, and it also falls in a place with no infrastructure services. It has to be self-contained. The site is semidesert, has fewer trees, and is prone to winds.

The proposed building will have butterfly roofs to respond to some of the above issues.The butterfly roof effectively collect water in the huge gutter and stored in the tanks •

Increased natural light from larger windows shop front

•

Increased solar surface on the roof for easy fixing of solar panels utilise the presence of the sun on the more significant period of the year.

•

wind resistant due to the aerodynamic roof structure.

Figure 57 by Author

The section through site indicate the programmes •

The red part is the proposed Marketplace building.

•

The green part is the open market space for vendors with new trees planted.

•

The Blue part is the river. With the presence of wildlife, new trees are planted on the river bank to make a thick forest to enhance a habitable environment for wildlife.

The is place conducive for tourist attraction.

HOTEL

CC STATION

MARKET

N HOTEL

CC STATION

MARKET

Figure 58 by Author

46

The proposed buildings a separated into three structures from both sides.

•

To allow the wind flow to pass through.

•

The three-building house different programmes. Hence the buildings are separated to minimise the interference from each programme.

N

Figure 59 by Author

The two sites are proposed ten meters away from the 50-year flood line. Both sites have similar programmes.

47

N

Figure 60 by Author

The typical site plan layout above indicates the dense forest towards the river and less dense forest towards the building allows people circulation. The Buildings are separated because they have different functions and openings to allow wind to flow freely.

48

Figure 61 by Author

The typical section above indicates the solution to control the wind movement achieved by the butterfly roof. This prevents the roof from being blown away by a storm. The louver's position on the top near the roof allows air to escape effectively.

Figure 62 by Author

Cross ventilation of the building with more open space allowing air to move through the door, big window and the louvers openings, The louvers' position on the top near the roof allows air to escape effectively.

49

Figure 63 by Author

The region has low rainfall, and However water rain collection is very impotent to sustain functions. Drilling boreholes can also supplement this.

50

The hotel building has three floors, structurally supported by columns in a grid format.

•

The ground floor has public space which comprises a reception and meeting rooms

•

The first floor has rooms for booking

•

The top floor is dedicated to a restaurant and a balcony with a river view.

Figure 64 by Author

The opening double volume effectively allow air to move freely and allow alsohuge allowing morefacade naturaland lighting. more natural lighting.

Figure 65 by Author

51

The Marketplace building has two floors structurally supported by columns that span 7,5m cc apart in a grid format.

Figure 66 By Author •

The ground floor has public space that comprises offices and a market places for a variety of products.

•

The top floor is dedicated to the market space of crafts, a restaurant, and a balcony

•

with a river view.

Roof overhangs and Canopies

Different types of canopies were explored with respect to sun and wall protection protection for the ground and first floor shops. is a section through a typical shop that depicts the connection to the Figure 67 by Author

Cross ventilation of the building with more open space allowing air to move through the door, big window and the louvers openings, The louvers' position on the top near the roof allows air to escape effectively.

Figure 68 by Author

52

6.3 MATERIAL AND STRUCTURAL EXPLORATION ‘Makers Space’ component/ building system ‘concept’, ‘process and findings’, and ‘specification’.

Theme: One Africa Sun baked brick wall panels construction easily done by the unskilled local communities from both neighbouring countries divided for over a century by the imposed boarder to reunite again by building a Market place in the no-man’s land.

Sun-baked earth brick wall panel It is a non-load bearing wall To be built within the reinforced concrete walls and beam that will carry the dead load of the building

Figure 69 by Author

53

PRECEDENT

Figure 70 by Author

Figure 71 by Author

The Library in Munyinga in Burundi They used local materials and building techniques. components used : Sun- baked earth bricks Baked- clay tiles Timber trusses Reinforced concrete ring beam Figure 72 (Frearson, 2014)

54

PHYSICAL MODEL

Figure 73 by Author

The proposed site is on a sloppy terrain.

Cut and fill of the land on the site Part of the wall below the ground is reinforced concrete wall Sun baked brick wall will be built on top of the concrete wall

3D MODEL

55

Building system to be specified List of components: damp proof course Sun baked brick wall Mortar Brick force

Figure 74 by Author

Building system components Sun baked brick wall – the unskilled labour can manufacture the brick The material is available near the site to minimise the transport cost Mortar - the unskilled labour can manufacture The material is available near the site to minimise the transport cost Brick force – easily procured available in most hardware Damp proof Course – easily procured available in most hardware

56

DETAIL

Mortar mix : 4:1 : Clay and G2 aggregates.

Sun-Baked Brick Wall Size: 220mmX108mmX70mm.

Mixture 3:1 : Clay and G2 aggregates.

Bond: Stretcher bond

150mm wide brick force for 230mm walls Reinforcement: 3.15mm Ladder type brick force in e Polyethylene damp-proof course c) Surface finish: Embossed. d) Thickness: 0.375mm e) Size: 150mm.

Polyethylene damp-proof very 3course

course Size: 150mm.

Surface finish: Embossed.

Thickness: 0.375mm

Figure 75 by Author

57

SPECIFICATIONS

DAMP-PROOF COURSE Polyethylene damp-proofing course a) Substrate: Reinforce concrete wall. b) Material: Polyethylene damp-proof course c) Surface finish: Embossed. d) Thickness: 0.375mm e) Size: 150mm.

SUN-BAKED BRICK WALL Off shutter finish. a) Formwork description; i) portable mould designed for Sun-baked earth brick ii) 220mmX108mmX70mm timber. b) Oil / wet the face of formwork to avoid sticking on surface. c) Mixture 3:1 : Clay and G2 aggregates. d) Bond: Stretcher bond e) Efflorescence: Slight. f) Sun-Baked Brick Wall Size: 220mmX108mmX70mm. g) Comprehensive: Strength: 5.7Mpa. h) Mortar mix : 4:1 : Clay and G2 aggregates. j) Joints : 10mm square recessed joints. k) Manufacturer: semi-skilled labour from the local community. m) Additives: Cement.

BRICK JOINT REINFORCEMENT Brickforce welded wire a) Material: hard drawn mild steel light galvanising – main wires 3.15mm diameter, cross wires at 100mm centres. b) Width: 150mm for 230mm walls c) Reinforcement: 3.15mm Ladder type brick force in every 3course.

58

59

7

DESIGN RESOLUTION

Figure 76 by Author

60

THE MARKET PLACE

4

2

4

N

1

GROUND FLOOR LAYOUT Figure 77 by Author

61

3

1

1.

2.

3.

4.

Ablutions Kitchen Office Open plan Market 62

THE MARKET PLACE

5 6

N

FIRST FLOOR Figure 78 by Author

63

6

5. Ablutions 6. Open plan Market

64

THE HOTEL

N

GROUND FLOOR

Figure 79 by Author

65

66

THE HOTEL

N

FIRST FLOOR

Figure 80 by Author

67

68

THE HOTEL FIRST FLOOR

N

SECOND FLOOR

Figure 81 by Author

69

70

Figure 82 by Author

•

The ground floor has public space which comprises a reception and meeting rooms

•

The first floor has rooms for booking

•

The top floor is dedicated to a restaurant and a balcony with a river view.

71

CABLE CAR STATION

7

8

10 N

9

GROUND FLOOR Figure 83 by Author

11

N

7. Cable car station 8. Waiting area 9. Office 10. Ablution 11. Viewing Deck

FIRST FLOOR Figure 84 by Author

72

11

7

8

10

SECTION THROUGH CABLA CAR STATION

Figure 85 by Author

73

74

Figure 86 by Author

75

76

8

CONSTRUTION TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN TECHNIQUE

8.1 SITE EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Figure 87 by Author

77

78

Figure 88 by Author

79

80

Figure 89 by Author

81

82

Figure 90 by Author

83

84

Figure 91 by Author

85

86

Figure 92 by Author

Figure 93 by Author

87

88

Figure 94 by Author

Figure 95 by Author

89

Figure 96 by Author

90

Figure 97 by Author

91

9

CONCLUSION This dissertation concludes that the divided Ethnicities can be re-linked. It provides the spatial architectural functional solution that helps boost the trade-affected market, particularly the less privileged ordinary group that forms the majority.

A building can create space, but the customised programmes and people make the atmosphere. Beitbridge has the potential to develop a market that can help alleviate poverty from the ordinary populace with its rich culture, unique climate, beautiful physical geographical futures, and wildlife. This is carefully catered for in the architectural intervention.

92

10 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Market place opportunities by Author ................................................................................................. 10 Table 2 Room sizes ......................................................................................................................................... 36

11 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Concept by Author .............................................................................................................................. 1 Figure 2 Approach by Author ............................................................................................................................. 1 Figure 3 Interrupted ethnic homelands (Michalopoulos and Papaioannou, 2017) ............................................ 3 Figure 4 economic analyis by Author ................................................................................................................ 4 Figure 5 economic analysis by Author .............................................................................................................. 4 Figure 6 economic analysis by Author .............................................................................................................. 4 Figure 7 stakeholders structure by Author, (Tycoonstory, 2020) ...................................................................... 5 Figure 8 Removing the division philosophy by Author ...................................................................................... 7 Figure 9 Drifter analysis by Author .................................................................................................................... 9 Figure 10 wildlife near the site by Author ........................................................................................................ 11 Figure 11 wildlife near the site by Author ........................................................................................................ 11 Figure 12 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 12 Figure 13 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 13 Figure 14 Mopani worms by Author ................................................................................................................. 13 Figure 15 orientation by Author ....................................................................................................................... 15 Figure 16 Sun path by Author .......................................................................................................................... 15 Figure 17 Sun path by Author .......................................................................................................................... 16 Figure 18 Solar panel positioning by Author ................................................................................................... 16 Figure 19 Market place map by Author ........................................................................................................... 17 Figure 20 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 18 Figure 21 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 19 Figure 22 vendors with pushcarts by Author ................................................................................................... 19 Figure 23 used clothes vendors by Author ...................................................................................................... 20 Figure 24 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 20 Figure 25 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 21 Figure 26 (Thuan, 2021) .................................................................................................................................. 22 Figure 27 Floating market by Author ............................................................................................................... 23 Figure 28 Foot bridge by Author ...................................................................................................................... 23 Figure 29 Cable car by Author ......................................................................................................................... 25 Figure 30 Uninterrupted ethnic homelands (Michalopoulos and Papaioannou, 2017) ................................. 27 Figure 31 Interrupted ethnic homelands (Michalopoulos and Papaioannou, 2017) ...................................... 28 Figure 32 Site analysis by Author .................................................................................................................... 29 Figure 33 Travellers sleep over at the boarder waiting to be cleared, by Author=[ ......................................... 30 Figure 34 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 31 Figure 35 Illegal border crossing ..................................................................................................................... 31 Figure 36 Systems at the Border post ............................................................................................................. 32

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Figure 37 Cross border minibus transporting goods and Passengers ............................................................ 32 Figure 38 Cross border bus transporting goods and Passengers ................................................................... 33 Figure 39 Concept ........................................................................................................................................... 37 Figure 40 by Author ........................................................................................................................................ 38 Figure 41 by Author ........................................................................................................................................ 38 Figure 42 by Author ........................................................................................................................................ 38 Figure 43 Connections of various programmes .............................................................................................. 39 Figure 44 By Author ......................................................................................................................................... 39 Figure 45 By Author ......................................................................................................................................... 40 Figure 46 By Author ........................................................................................................................................ 40 Figure 47 By Author ........................................................................................................................................ 41 Figure 48 By Author ......................................................................................................................................... 41 Figure 49 By Author ......................................................................................................................................... 41 Figure 50 By Author ......................................................................................................................................... 42 Figure 51 By Author ......................................................................................................................................... 42 Figure 52 By Author ......................................................................................................................................... 43 Figure 53 By Author ......................................................................................................................................... 44 Figure 54 By Author ......................................................................................................................................... 45 Figure 55 By Author ......................................................................................................................................... 45 Figure 56 by Author ........................................................................................................................................ 46 Figure 57 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 46 Figure 58 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 46 Figure 59 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 47 Figure 60 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 48 Figure 61 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 49 Figure 62 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 49 Figure 63 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 50 Figure 64 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 51 Figure 65 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 51 Figure 66 By Author ......................................................................................................................................... 52 Figure 67 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 52 Figure 68 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 52 Figure 69 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 53 Figure 70 by Author ........................................................................................................................................ 54 Figure 71 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 54 Figure 72 (Frearson, 2014) .............................................................................................................................. 54 Figure 73 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 55 Figure 74 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 56 Figure 75 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 57 Figure 76 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 60 Figure 77 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 61 Figure 78 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 63 Figure 79 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 65 Figure 80 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 67 Figure 81 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 69 Figure 82 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 71 Figure 83 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 72 Figure 84 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 72

94

Figure 85 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 73 Figure 86 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 75 Figure 87 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 77 Figure 88 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 79 Figure 89 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 81 Figure 90 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 83 Figure 91 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 85 Figure 92 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 87 Figure 93 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 87 Figure 94 by Author ......................................................................................................................................... 89 Figure 95 by Author ........................................................................................................................................ 89 Figure 96 by Author ........................................................................................................................................ 90 Figure 97 by Author ........................................................................................................................................ 91

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