Is what is seen by the public as parametric architecture actually parametric is this the future

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Introduction Defining Parametricism Parametricism Within Architecture Is Schumacherism Parametric?

Revised Parametric Definition/Redefined Manifesto for Parametricism.

Why Parametricism Has Evolved Within Architecture What The Public See Criticism Of Schumacherism The Future Advantages Of Parametric Modelling -Industries Working Together Advantages Using Parametric Programs For Analysis Advantages Of Using Parametric Design For Manufacture And Fabrication Does Parametric Design Remove The Job Of An Architect Conclusion

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This investigation will analyse and define the definition for Parametricism. It will analyse and

compare multiple parametric theories. Then using case studies to endeavour how parametricism has been used in the design process. From this research definition of Parametricism will be assessed to discover whether what is being claimed as parametric architecture is actually parametric not not. This will allow for an avant-garde parametric manifesto to be defined, which will then be used to determine whether the use of this redefined parametricism is the future of architecture.

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Defining Parametricism

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The word parametric is derived from the word parameter which originates from the greek ‘para’ - beside and ‘metron’ - measure. Its technical definition, from the Oxford Dictionary states that it is ‘a numerical or other measurable factor forming one of a set that defines a system or sets the conditions of its operation'. The word parametric is defined as an adjective meaning ‘relating to or expressed in terms of a parameter or parameters’. This delineates parametricism to be a system which expresses a function in the form of its parameters, thus it is a process of parameters which collaborate resulting in a final product. If any of the initial parameters are altered or changed the resultant product would adapt to take into account these changes.

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The idea of parametric thinking can be seen though out the evolution of man. For example early settlers would assess a possible settlement by its initial parameters to analyse whether it would be a suitable area to develop. These parameters would be based upon their needs for a settlement such as its basic resources; vegetation, access to water, natural shelter etc.

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Parametric theory has been applied widely though mathematics where by changing an input parameter to a function in a formula, would result in a different answer to the formula.

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In very basic terms: 2 x 3 = 6. Here the initial parameters are 2 and 3 but if the 3 was changed to 4 the answer would change to 8 rather than 6. The images below show this example expressed in script format using parametric software Grasshopper (Fig 1).

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Fig 1.

Grasshopper script showing a slider value increased though a multiplication function resulting in

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a change to the result.

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Again in basic terms if a brief requested a geodesic sphere like Buckmister Fullers Bucky Ball, consisting of ‘x’ number of beams due to a budget of £’y’ (these would be within the initial parameters). If due to external reasons the x or y values were changed the digitally generated model could adapt to suit these changes. Below is shown the changes to the structure when ‘x’ is reduced.

The the radius and connections between beams etc would remain the same however the number of beams that make up the structure would reduce(Fig 2).

Fig 2.

Grasshopper generated Bucky Ball showing before and after the number of beams is reduced,

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with all other parameters remaining constant.

Design can be broken down into base parameters. Within architecture the initial parameters would be; site, size, budget, material etc. As architecture has become more numerically orientated designing though numerical parameters has become much more important within the design process.

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Luigi Moretti stated in one of his papers written in the late 1940’s ‘The functional parameters are meticulously listed and identified as the basis for the expressive game of an architect’. This was later brought to light in his exhibition of ‘Parametric Architecture and of Mathematical and Operational Research in Town-planning: 12th Triennial Exhibition, Milan, Arts' Palace, September-October 1960’.

This supports the idea that initial parameters are a necessity within architecture, as the ‘game of architecture’ is the architects response to a brief and the ‘functional parameters’ are the points/criteria that make up the brief that the architect must respond to for a successful design output.

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Moretti founded the IRMOU (National Institute for Mathematical and Operative Research for Urbanism) in 1958 where he worked on the theory of parametric architecture. The objective was to put an end to the subjectivity in planning by reducing functions to several parameters changing in

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quantities, joined with mathematical formulas. This allowed for a number of base parameters to be defined and the applied in different ratios to allow for multiple outputs. This proves that parametricism is not a new concept but is a concept that has developed over time. Though Moretti was one of the first to apply parametric theory in this manner.

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Supporting this definition of parametricism, Mark Burry in 2011 stated in his book ‘Scripting Cultures’ that ‘using a finite number of parameters, parametric design is based on a set of equations.

Parametric design software includes parametric data embedded within 3D objects, such as height, depth, thickness, weight and possibly specific attributes of materials’. This confirms the theory that parametricism applied through design involves an initial set of parameters. These can then be altered by the architect or applied in a different order within the equation to respond to a specified brief in order to produce the desired output. Parametric software such as Grasshopper can be used to explain this diagrammatically generating adaptable digital models of the designs. To express this process a simplified brief will be applied to a box. This will involve an increase in width, heigh and then to twist by 60 degrees through the form (Fig 3).

Fig 3.

Showing the Grasshopper script being altered and added to, to include the required changes.

Freeze frames of the instantly generated model are shown at each stage.

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Further more Michael Meredith wrote in his introduction to ‘From Control To Design’, published in 2008, parametric design is ‘a process based not on metric quantities but on consistent relationships between objects, allowing changes in a single element to propagate corresponding changes throughout the system’. This further consolidates the idea that parametricism is a theory based upon the use of parameters applied through a process by formulating an adaptable output. All four of these definitions from theory to design application relate back to the initial use of parameters.

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However in contrast to these definitions Patrik Schumacher wrote his manifesto of Parametricism in 2008. As this is the style of architecture which the pubic see and believe to be parametric it must be questioned and analysed. It must be determined whether this is parametric, a new style which has evolved through Parametricism or a style where the title Parametricism has been coined by Schumacher to express his own work. Schumacher defines parametricism in his manifesto as a programme/style that ‘consists of methodological rules’ these rules ‘tell us what paths of research to avoid (negative heuristics(laws/rules)), and others what paths to pursue (positive heuristics)’. This agrees with the previously stated definitions applying parameters in the form of rules. This process will allow the project to develop in the desired directions, down the desired ‘paths’, based upon the initial rules applied to the process. However Schumacher then proceeds to define these rules in a literal sense stating positive heuristics that offer guiding principles and negative heuristics that should be avoided. He believes the negative heuristics are to: ‘avoid familiar typologies, avoid platonic/ hermetic objects, avoid clear-cut zones/territories, avoid repetition, avoid straight lines, avoid right angles, avoid corners, …, and most importantly: do not add or subtract without elaborate interarticulations’. He then adds the positive heuristics that should be followed are to: ‘interarticulate, hyberdize, morph, deterritorialize, deform, iterate, use splines, nurbs, generative components, script rather than model’. This does support the idea that parametricism is based upon applying a formula to an initial set of parameters to develop a design. However within architecture these parameters are extracted when analysing the specified brief of a project and not predetermined by an existing programme or to suit a style. The definition of parametricism, not including Schumacher's restrictive vision, is a purist philosophy that when applied to design allows a process to be developed using parameters applied specifically to suit that individual project.

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Schumacher further defines his version of parametricism in his parametric epoch ‘Let The Style Wars Begin’ published in 2010.

‘This implies a fundamental ontological shift within the basic, constituent elements of architecture. Instead of the classical and modern reliance on ideal (hermetic, rigid) geometrical figures - straight lines, rectangles, as well as cubes, cylinders, pyramids, and (semi-)spheres - the new primitives of parametricism are animate (dynamic, adaptive, interactive) geometrical entities splines, nurbs, and subdivs - as fundamental geometrical building blocks for dynamical systems like “hair”, “cloth”, “blobs”, and “metaballs” etc. that react to “attractors” and that can be made to resonate with each other via scripts.’

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He implies that by using parametricism as a design tool it allows for curves, spheres, interactive and dynamic forms to be created just as easily as the rigid geometrical forms of the past. This can be argued to be true as parametricism defined in both definitions has evolved and become more accessible and applicable to a greater number of industries due to advancements in technology and the increase in the complexity of design.

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There is a clear divide between the two definitions of parametricism thought there are also some similarities between the previous definitions of parametricism and Schumacher's vision of parametricism . Schumacher's vision of parametricism for the purpose of this essay shall be refereed to as Schumacherism. However to accurately define a current definition of parametricism within architecture both definitions much be investigated and analysed to determine whether the architecture that the public see’s today is Parametricism, Schumacherism (as Schumacher has been involved in much of the architecture deemed parametric by the public) or a combination of the two. In order to achieve this the evolution of these concepts must be thoroughly evaluated to determine an intelligent response.

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Parametricism Within Architecture

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To further evaluate these concepts of Parametricism it must be investigated how these concepts have been applied to develop architecture.

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Smithsonian Institution Courtyard Enclosure, by Foster and Partners (2004)(Fig 4), is an undulating, diagonally gridded roof structure that flows over the central courtyard. The design was developed using parametric software producing a digital schematic. This allowed the designers and architects to have complete control over the manipulation of the complex geometries. The architects used a parametric approach as it allowed them to simultaneously generate multiple iterations of the enclosure within the single digital model. Each iteration could then easily and quickly be environmentally performance tested to single out the design that would be most suitable. Manipulation of the digital model could be precisely controlled allowing the roof system to be easily adapted. For example, the undulating lattice could be adjusted making the voids within it either smaller or larger and the relationship with its support columns would automatically update making alterations to the design much quicker and easier. Using non-parametric design software if one part of the project was changed the rest of the project would have to be remodelled to take into consideration this change.

This can be a lengthy and costly process showing parametrically designing is much more efficient.

Fig 4.

Internal view of Smithsonian Institution Courtyard Enclosure, by Foster and Partners. Shows

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the undulating mesh of the enclosure and its support pillars.

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This design process involved identifying the key parameters within the brief, such as, it had to be a canopy that sheltered people within the courtyard from external elements and had to stand independently from the exiting Smithsonian Institute building. The remaining perimeters consisted mainly of aesthetic requests from the client. These parameters were then used as the foundation of the design development. Digitally generating these parameters allowed for the design to be sufficiently malleable. This design process is consistent with the initial parametric definition of designing through parameters that can be manipulated to create the desired form. However this design also avoids familiar typologies, straight lines and is a dynamic form that was created using a script rather than physically modelled so it also follows some of laws of Schumacherism.

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Kitagata Community Centre, by Arata Isozaki (2004)(Fig 5), is also an undulating, amorphous form. Its shape represents a piece of fabric covering the community centre. The initial design perimeters were established such as the height and volume however the roof was to be designed using a shape analysis method. The design was developed using parametric software as the generated digital model would adapt depending upon the outcome of the roofs form. The roof went through various iterations with each shape being analysed. The advantage of multiple variations of the design allowed the architect to analyse each one systematically and select the most interesting shape that was also most successful at performing as a roof to the community centre. The software also allowed the design to be rigorously rested in terms of structural integrity and drainage efficiency.

Using this method the roof became a fifteen centimetre reinforced concrete shell to allow the desired form to be fabricated. This process is also consistent with the initial parametric definition where the architect has designed (using initial parameters) and manipulated these parameters to create the desired form for the community centre. It is clear again that parametricism has been used to create the forms however also again certain aspects of the design can be seen as aspects of Schumacherism such as the flowing cloth like form of the roof as well as the lack of straight lines and linear geometries within the design.

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Fig 5.

Kitagata Community Centre, by Arata Isozaki (2004). Showing the fabric like roof structure

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flowing over the community centre.

In both circumstances parametric softwares have been used to develop the forms. The architects in both cases have identified the initial input parameters and used them to initiate the development process which supports the definition that to parametrically design, initial parameters are first defined and then combined using a formula (in these cases the parametric script) to develop a form that suits the requirements of the project. In the case of Smithsonian Institute Courtyard enclosure there were 57 base parameters which could be manipulated using multiple controlling options. These controlled approximately 120 000 elements and resulted in 415 generated models of different iterations of the enclosure over a six month period. This confirms how parametric design has evolved, computationally developing but still relying on initial parameters set out within the project briefs to then be developed and manipulated create a final design that suits brief requirements.

Though both also feature aspects of Schumacherism within their final forms. This is due to parametric modelling allowing, as Schumacher implies, for curves, spheres, interactive and dynamic forms to be created more easily due to the technology and parametric design tools available. This is not because they are following his Schumacherist regime.

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Is Schumacherism Parametric?

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Patrik Schumacher, a world renowned architect and director at Zaha Hadid Architects, has expressed his vision of parametricism globally. He has created a style of architecture that can be instantly identified as his style that he has named Parametricism. However is this style that the public see actually parametric?

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We can apply the initial individual definitions of parametricism and Schumacherism to case studies such as the Galaxy SOHO Complex (2009-2012) in Beijing,China by Zaha Hadid Architects (ZHA)(Fig 6). As Schumacher is a director at ZHA we can assume his parametric theory was taken into account in the project.

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Fig 6.

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Internal view of the Galaxy SOHO Complex, Beijing by ZHA

The complex is made up of five continuous fluid forms which create a flow of multiple interconnected open spaces. This involves inter-articulation of space, the form can definitely be described as morphed and deformed. The flowing spaces deterritorialise any possible territories within the complex and from a aesthetic stance the use of splines, nurds and generative components seem to have been used to create the forms of the complex. Furthermore, the program of the

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complex is hybridised as it is a collaboration of office space, retail and car parking. The idea of the complex was to re-invent the classical Chinese courtyard, however there seems little of this precedent left once the Schumacher’s parametric obstacles have been accounted for.

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Comparing the SOHO Complex to at a bird's eye view of courtyard house in Beijing. Apart from there being an internal circulation space in the form of a courtyard there seem to be no further similarities comparing aesthetics, materials or use of space. Unless the inputs were merely a courtyard and Schumacher’s pre-set parameters stated within his manifesto. Therefore it can be seen that the Galaxy, SOHO Complex can be classed as Schumacherism as it suits all Patrik Schumacher's Laws. However it seems to ignore any rational parameters that would normally apply to a design projects such as site, size, orientation,budget etc. Therefore, is this a version of parametricism? Is Schumacher's vision of parametricism just a form of glorified blobitecture?

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To then analyse the Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum at Michigan State University, 2012, (also

by ZHA) we can evaluate the project using Schumacherism and see that there is a lack of interarticulation and deterritorialisation due to the boundaries and divisions within the design (Fig 7).

Further more, there seems to be a lack of hybridisation within the project. There is a lack of morphing as it is all very angular. However, it could be classed as deformed with all the ‘gill like slit’ glazing at different angles making up the facade.

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Fig 7.

Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum, Michigan State University, by ZHA. External view of the angular ‘slit like’ facade.

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Throughout the project there is a lack of curves and a lack of splines, nurbs or generative components. It is clear however that if this project was to be classed as Schumacherism it has failed as it involves the aims that Schumacher had specified to avoid, such as the use of familiar typologies, clear cut zones, repetition, straight lines, right angles and corners. This shows that even a practice such as ZHA, which is supposedly recognised for its ‘parametric’, but really Schumacherist style, can design hypocritically.

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If instead of applying Schumacherism, Parametricism is used to evaluate a ZHA design. We can state the initial architectural parameters as site, orientation, size, budget, material and structure. Now we can analyse the London Aquatics Centre, 2011, by Zaha Hadid Architects (Fig 8). The building itself is a fantastic curved architectural achievement influenced by the fluid geometries of water in motion, it suits Schumacher's vision of inter-articulation of space internally and externally, morphed and deformed geometries and the use of splines, nurds and generative components to create the curved, flowing form. However does it parametrically meet its goals according to the definitions/ theories of Parametricism by Moretti and Burry? The work of ZHA has been criticised for not fitting in with its surroundings and this design definitely makes a bold statement like the previous two examples.

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Fig 8.

Internal view of London Aquatics Centre, 2011, by ZHA. Shows the fluid roof structure and how

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it bulges preventing some spectators from seeing the highest diving board.

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The intended size of the aquatics centre was to allow up to 5000 occupants/spectators.

However the final drawings and erected structure supported 8000 spectator spaces. In terms of orientation, the divers face a northernly direction so not to be put off by the sun, which is a logical parameter to incorporate. However, the project went a minimum of twenty percent over budget. Most importantly a fundamental part of the space being used for the Olympics was for the diving event involving the high diving boards. It came to light in the news that;‘Refunds are being offered on up to 4,800 tickets for the 10m diving in the Olympic aquatics centre after it emerged that the design of the stadium seating means that divers jump out of view.’ Robert Booth, The Guardian, 25.7.2012.

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This must be seen as a failure of the initially set parameters. Even if Schumacher only used his parametric theory he must have considered the importance of the Olympic events to the aquatic centre. However a spokesman for ZHA stated the initial brief from Locog (London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games) was to design for 5000 spectator seats with uninterrupted views of the diving platforms. The centre now provides 8000 and Locog approved the sightline studies from this seating layout. Therefore, does this show that the initial parameters of the design were not analysed properly or that Schumacher's version of parametricism is merely a name he has taken from another theory that already existed and coined it as his own? If this design was to be designed parametrically the purpose of the building would be an important parameter therefore a vision analysis would naturally have been taken into consideration allowing for all of the spectators to be able to see the events going on in the pool. This could have been done by a line from head height distance from each seat drawn to each space of importance which could have been done easily using parametric software. The roof structure could then have flown over the resultant ‘vision grid’ still being strongly influenced by the motion of water just allowing spectators to see the events they came to see. Also if the building was parametrically designed it should not have gone over budget as these factors should have been incorporated into the design process.

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Therefore it can be seen that Schumacherism does not follow the initial parametric definition. It embraced modern technology and may use parametric software to allow for the curved forms it wants however it does not follow the parametric ethos/philosophy of designing using input parameters that are specified for that individual project. Then developing these parameters through a formula that will adapt and be controlled by the architect allowing the final form to suit the brief in all aspects possible.

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Revised Parametric Definition/Redefined Manifesto for Parametricism.

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Having investigated multiple definitions of parametricism including Schumacher's version which the public believe is parametric. It is vital to define a new pure manifesto for Parametricism within architecture in order to determine whether this is the future of architecture or just a style that will continue until the next style takes over.

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From the investigation in defining parametricism it is clear the level and usability of parametric design within architecture is due to developments within technology. Parametricism is a tool that involves initial parameters that are adaptable and malleable applied through a formula which will result in a final design. Using todays technology this is done computationally to reduce human error but also because in the increase in speed it allows for multiple iterations of design to be created.

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Due to how parametricism has evolved computationally it allows for many new forms to be created and tested digitally using a script. These include curves and flowing forms which as a result allows them to be fabricated in reality much more easily than without the use of this technology and design theory.

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Parametricism within architecture is the use of defining initial parameters which are identified and extracted from the projects brief. These parameters are solely applicable to the individual project that is being developed and pre-set parameters from other styles should not be incorporated. A brief can request a typology to be followed which is a defined parameter to the individual project not the use of a pre-set styled parameter like Schumacher's heuristics from his manifesto. Each project should be independent from others and each brief should be approached an as individual design project.

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It is wrong to state parameters that should be included as certain parameters that could be

stated may not be relevant or applicable to all briefs. Though as this it to suit architecture parameters such as size, site location, materials, budgets etc, should be considered when extracting the initial parameters from the brief. As the initial parameters are fundamental to the success of the project the architect must assess thoroughly what the initial parameters should be otherwise the project could fail to fulfil all of its aspirations.

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Parametric architecture can be any form or shape that can be fabricated within the constraints of the brief. It is not limited to curves or straight lines as the form should be developed to be whatever suits the brief most effectively.

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Why Parametricism Has Evolved Within Architecture !

Parametricism has come about due to Globalisation of architecture as an industry, an increase in the complexity within designs, the desire for more environmental consideration and with the intention to reduce the design time period thus attempting to reduce costs within the design process.

One of the most crucial factors of the evolution of parametricism within the design process are advances in technology. In the past engineers have had to calculate a majority of the fundamental calculations in their projects, where as now computer functions can do a majority of this. Therefore reducing the time taken for the engineer but also reducing risk of human error.

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Technology over the last decade has advanced dramatically. Just looking at a laptop or mobile phone and comparing todays with one of 10 years ago shows the advances in power, memory and speed are beyond comparison. The human mind has and will always be the spark and/or inspiration to a design project however the advances in technology of today are what allow architects and designers to formulate their desires/the desires of their clients into physical forms. Schumacher is correct when he implies that using todays technological resources combined with parametric theory, allows us to develop and fabricate forms such as curves, spheres, interactive and dynamic forms just as easy as the more ridged and linear geometries of the past. Kostas Terzidis stated in his book Algorithmic Architecture that in 2005 ‘the total number of digits of the constant number Pi memorised by a human mind is 83,431,’ whereas ‘a supercomputer that can operate at 10 petaflops, or 10 quadrillion (10,000,000,000,000,000 or 1016) calculations per second’ was being developed in Japan.

This provides an insight into the level of complexity technology is able to control, working as an extension of the human mind allowing man to develop more intelligent and complex designs in a fraction of the time.

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These huge advances in technology and computational processing power are what have allowed Parametricism and Schumacherism to evolve rapidly over the last decade. This is supported by both Mark Burry and Patrick Schumacher in their individual philosophies upon the theory as a whole.

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‘Digital design tool and massive computer processing power, along with an increasing interest

in physics and pure mathematics have given architects the means to describe and build spatial constructs that would have been inconceivable even ten years ago’ The New Mathematics of Architecture, Jane Burry and Mike Burry.

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‘The current stage of advancement within parametricism relates as much to the continuous advancement of the attendant computational design technologies as it is due to the designer’s realisation of the unique formal and organisational opportunities that are afforded. Parametricism can only exist via sophisticated parametric techniques. Finally, computationally advanced design techniques like scripting (in Mel-script or Rhino-script) and parametric modelling (with tools like GC or DP) are becoming a pervasive reality. Today it is impossible to compete within the contemporary

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avant-garde scene without mastering these techniques’ Parametricism as Style - Parametricist Manifesto, Patrik Schumacher.

In both cases the complex forms and designs the public see in architecture today which have been designed using Parametricism, Schumacherism or a combination of the two have only become possible due to the advancements of technology. If architects and designers did not have these technological recourses, architecture would be very different to what the public sees today.

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What The Public See !

It is clear, through this investigation into what parametricism is, that Schmacherism is different to parametricism though does incorporate some of the same ideas. Schumacher has named his work parametric though it is not, it is an architectural blobitectural style that has used parametric software.

However this has been used incorrectly to create Schumacherism and not Parametric architecture.

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The public see ZHA’s work which has used Schumacherism in the design process. They have been said to be parametric and then been criticised by the public to not suit any local context (to look like space age morphed forms) however this is not the reason it is not parametric. If the briefs they have analysed were to create these designs without them being informed by the local context or typologies then they could still be deemed parametric. It is the fact that the buildings fail to meet aspects of the brief, if they were truly parametric they would suit the brief criteria such as meeting budgets and working to suit the needs of the designs themselves such as spectators view of events within the structures.

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Criticism Of Schumacherism

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According to Daniel Davis, a designer and researcher specialising in computational architecture. ‘Schumacher is clueless when it comes to digital technology – I wouldn’t follow his advice on how to operate a kettle, let alone parametric software.’ ‘It is possible Schumacher has taken the word parametric design literally, as design from parameters……. The architecture from Zaha Hadid Architects that Schumacher uses as his only example of parametricism is probably some of the least constrained architecture in existence; literally deployable anywhere in the world, the architecture from ZHA is free from the parameters of sites, free from the parameters of culture, free from the parameters of tectonics, free from the parameters of the environment.’

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Davis completed a PhD entitled “Modelled on Software Engineering: Flexible Parametric Models in the Practice of Architecture”. He clearly has a very strong opinion upon Schumacher’s theory of parametric architecture. Further more, he makes valid points about ZHA and Schumacher’s designs. It is argued by many that their design’s have minimal relation to their surroundings and, therefore, the implied architectural parameters such as site, size and orientation are can easily seen to be missing from Schumacher’s view on how parametric architecture should be constructed.

However if these aspects Davis mentions, such as site, culture, the environment, were not specified in the briefs that ZHA were designing for, then according to the revised manifesto of parametricism some of their designs could still be deemed parametric. Through would still remain in a grey area and not purely parametric due to the preconditioned rules that are applied when incorporating Schumachism and a design process.

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Peter Buchanan, an Architecture critic for Architects Review, believes; ‘Parametricism as mere ‘exaggeration’’ and has ‘nothing to do with the future’ of architecture. Instead, Buchanan sees ‘the next era would usher in a new concept of sustainability which would serve the ‘big picture’. However, if Buchanan’s point was to be argued, he may have this opinion because he sees parametric architecture as this blobitecture that applies Schumacher’s strict set of rules and the lack of application of architectural parameters. This results in the creation of forms with little to no relation to their surroundings and, therefore, could be placed anywhere. He fails to see that Schumacher has taken a title from another theory and coined it as his own to name his theory of restricted, morphed and deformed blobitecture. Therefore, arguing that the architecture of which the public understand today as this ‘parametric’ phenomenon is not actually ‘parametricism’ at all but merely ‘Schumacherism’.

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Parametricism is a tool that can be applied to architecture and the initial input parameters can be almost anything depending upon the brief. If a project brief requested a design that was more sustainable then this could be included in the formula (script) of the building design. This could then be applied more or less depending upon the requests of the brief. Using parametricism to design also allows the digitally generated model to be tested. In this case, if the design was to include local materials and was to be powered by solar panels this could be included to inform the design and analysed to prove the design would succeed. For example if only ‘x’ amount of a local material could

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be acquired before the construction phase of the project, this data could be applied to the design making sure the design didn't include more of this material than was available. Also if the building was to be powered by solar panels the digitally generated model could be analysed using a solar analysis of the site so the panels could be situated in the most effective areas and then tested to show approximately how much power they would produce and if more or less panels were needed in each area.

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The Future

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Having now investigated and redefined a pure manifesto for parametricism and proved that what the members of the public see as parametric architecture is not always actually parametric especially in the case of Schumacher's work. It will now be determined whether designing parametrically to truly design parametric architecture is the future of architecture or if it is just an theoretical style that can be replaced by the next fashionable trend within architecture.

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Architecture and design as a process today involves constant evaluation and development of designs as the design process progresses. Architects and designers constantly adapt and redesign elements of their work to more effectively express the requirements of a particular brief. Robert Aish, director of research at Bentley Systems, explains this theory beautifully at a SmartGeometry Group meeting between the leaders in software development, research and design, where he says ‘Design as a discipline emerges from the craft process as a way of abstracting and evaluating alternative possible configurations, usage scenarios, and materialisations without actually physically making and testing each possible alternative’.

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This exemplifies the importance of digitally generated models and evaluation simulations within the design process. As architecture becomes much more complex in terms of design with the design process per design taking greater time and projects increasing in scale and complexity, there is a requirement within the field to increase the efficiency of this process. Designing parametrically may be the answer to this.

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Advantages Of Parametric Modelling -Industries Working Together

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The traditional architectural design process involves client meeting, the development of the design then testing the performance of the design using multiple programs, after a certain point the drawings will be sent off to structural engineers, electrical engineers, plumbers, quantity surveys etc which is a slow and time consuming process. Then if a change needs to be made due to a query from one of the other industries or a request from the client, it comes back to the architect to then alter the initial drawings then start the cycle again. This also involves a vast number of drawing for each industry which is an inefficient way to communicate data which can become a long winded and slow process. Designing parametrically using parametric tools can streamline this process and rapidly increase the ease and speed by which the design and be developed and evaluated individually and between industries.

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An example of this streamlined process is by introducing a system that collaborates all required industries and allows them to work together. A program that can be used in this manner is BIM (Building Information Modelling) (Fig 9).

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Fig 9.

Diagram of the industries BIM can apply to during design process allowing all industries to work

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on the same model.

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Architect Eddy Krygiel, Author of Author of the Mastering Revit Architecture series (2008 to current) as well as Revit Essentials and Green BIM. Agrees that buildings have become more complex and this is the direction the design process needs to develop in order to become more efficient and a more streamlines process for all the industries involved .In his paper ‘Using Building Information Modelling for Performance Based Design’ he writes ‘Creating a building within the architecture, engineering and construction professions has become ever more challenging.

Throughout the past one hundred years, the design and blurring industry has changed dramatically.

Buildings have become much more complex with many more interrelated and integrated systems’. He follows on from this to later to discuss the advantages of using BIM as a more efficient medium of communication between industries.

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The use of parametric computational programmes such as BIM, which can be defined as a process that involves the management of digitally generated models used to inform and develop a fabricatable physical form (a building/structure). BIM is a program that uses parametric data to aid decision making throughout a project and can be used to produce construction documents, eliminate costs, aid construction planning and predict building performance (Fig 10). It allows for multiple industries to work collaboratively on a single digitally generated model. As design projects become more complex the increasing number of industries involved must keep up with the growing trends of technology. These industries must find more efficient ways to communicate the vast quantity of information between one another as well as conveying the design decisions to a client using a system that they are all comfortable with. James Glymph, Chief Executive Officer of Ghery Technology which aims to supply parametric software solutions for architecture, engineering and constructive industries, agrees with this within his interview summarised within the essay ‘CAD/CAM in the business of architecture, engineering and construction’. He says ‘success of a collaboration among architects, engineers and builders depends to a great extent on their willingness to… streamline the flow of information’. Designing using parametric theory through programs such as BIM allows for the multiple industries to become better integrated. It allows changes to be made to a project by each industry independently and the model will adapt/can be adapted by the remaining industries to accommodate these changes rather than one industry making a change and then having to inform the remaining industries, then them having to alter and update their individual drawings to accommodate this change. As all the industries work on one model when one change is made the other industries can quickly and easily alter the single model to accommodate any changes needed. With complex and/or well scripted models the model is even able update itself. A very basic example of this would be if the window opening mechanism were changed on a building of a thousand windows changing the mechanism on one of the windows would result in all the remaining windows, if requested, being automatically updated with the mechanism change. This idea is applied through all the industries from materials, to details, to where services run. If a wall with services running through it is moved in the digital model the service route would automatically update to accommodate the design change. This also allows for the system to track the alterations made resulting in an up to date list of design decisions for the involved industries, project managers and clients to assess as the project develops.

The use of just one digital model that all the industries are able to collective use reduces time for the development during the design process as decisions and changes can be achieved much quicker as mentioned earlier. Also importantly, this can also reduce the cost of projects as the fewer

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hours spent redrawing and sending back and fourth for the other industries to approve or change further, the less times can be charged for. However this may be seen as a negative as architecture practices would complete projects faster for less revenue though this would also allow practices to take on more jobs resulting in a greater output from practices with the intention of higher profits. As from experience in practice, only so much can be charged for a project, no matter how many alterations are done during the design process, before the client looks else where. However if these changes can be done more efficiently and over-all faster more projects can be taken on, resulting in a greater revenue in the long term.

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Fig 10.

Image showing a compilation of some of the data BIM can be used to produce from the single

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collaborative digitally generated model.

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Advantages Using Parametric Programs For Analysis

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Because parametric design programmes within architecture uses/generates instantaneous digital models, such as Grasshopper and BIM, it allows a designer, architect or client to instantly visualise the form they create from any angle, interior or exterior. This continuously aids the design process, but also can be used to convey ideas as the design develops. Further more it can be used for the initial environmental studies such as effects of the sun on different aspects of the design or where water could settle on an undulating form like in the previous case studies.

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Parametric modelling allows for the architect to have full control over a design from the form itself to the materials used within the fabrication of the design. BIM, for example, creates a database for the virtual model that lists all the information within each component. This information would be needed if it where to be physically fabricated. The information can be taken from multiple components at a time and compile the lists of information. This allows anyone analysing the project to assess what amount of each material that are needed to construct the components selected. For example, if a wall was constructed using 3 materials, material x, y and z, the information list would show the total quantity of each material needed for the total project if it were to be built. Or by just selecting one wall it would show the amount of each material needed for just that wall. This data can then be tabulated and used to much more accurately determine the build cost for a project. Though this could be seen to threaten the need for quantity surveyors on future projects.

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Parametric technology is constantly evolving. Within architecture, more and more plugins (additional software which link into the existing software providing an additional tool that can be used within the program) are being produced to merge the gap between the digitally generated model and the final physical design. Parametric modelling allows these models to be assessed in order to develop the designs and make sure the designs that are produced will do as they are designed to.

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For example, in grasshopper there are plugins for creating and testing many aspects of design.

These range from structural analysis software such as ‘Millipede’ and ‘Karamba’ to environmental software such as ‘Heliotrope’ and ‘Eve-Rain’ that work within Grasshopper program.

‘Millipede’ is a structural analysis and optimisation plugin that allows for rapid linear elastic analysis of frame and shell elements. So can be used to test stress and strains within a design and has been used in projects to show areas that should be strengthened (especially in tensile structures) (Fig 11). ‘Karamba' is an interactive, parametric plugin that allows the analysis of 3-dimensional beam and shell structures to be tested to failure under user specified loads (Fig 12).

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Fig 11.

Millipede being used in Grasshopper showing the elastic analysis of the sheets in the generated

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model in Rhino.

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Fig 12 Karamba being used in Grasshopper showing the cartinery mesh being stress analysed under user specified loads.

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‘Heliotrope’ is used to calculate solar position vectors at specific dates and times. Which allows a user to analyse incident sun upon the design resulting in a more solar-aware design to be created (Fig 13). ‘Eve-Rain’ is used for rain simulation it does this by analysing how water reacts to a design.

It enables a user to see how water runs over the form as well as where water gets trapped, this allows the form to be designed with better natural drainage or aid the decision of where best to situate guttering (Fig 14).

Fig 13.

Heliotrope being used in Grasshopper showing effect of the sun upon the model in a specified site at a specified time and date.

Fig 14.

Eve-Rain being used (through Grasshopper) on a 3D form to analyse how falling rain will react to the surface.

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Plugins are constantly being developed or existing ones updated, allowing more and more to be achieved through digital modelling. Plugins such as ‘Geco’ allows a direct link from Grasshopper and its host program Rhino into Autodesk’s program ‘Ecotect’ which is a sustainable design analysis software that uses energy, water, and carbon-emission analysis capabilities to analyse the digital model and enables the user to visualise and simulate a building's performance within the context of its environment (Fig 15). Plugins such as ‘gHowl’ and ‘Firefly’ further bridge the gap between the digital model and reality by allowing a user to access the ‘Arduino’ micro-controller, which enables physical prototypes to be controlled virtually but tested physically (Fig 16) or gives Grasshopper the ability to communicate with and exchange data/information with other devices and/or applications (Fig 17).

Fig 15.

Geco being used to like Grasshopper and Ecotect and environmentally analyse a digital model.

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Fig 16 & 17.

Showing Firefly allowing a scaled physical model to be controlled though Grasshopper and gHowl allowing grasshopper to be controlled using a smart phone.

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Using parametric design such an BIM and Grasshopper (including plugins) architects can now perform multiple analysis’s on projects in less than half the time. Eddy Krygiel mentions before BIM was integrated into the practice it could take up to two weeks to go though the traditional energy modelling process. The parametric process allows for this analysis to be accessible to many more projects where it would normally not be cost effective, allowing for buildings to be much more effectively designed.

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These are all advantages of parametrically designing or using parametric tools to design.

Designing in this way is much more efficient in all aspects of the design process. It creates a more efficient medium of communication between industries. It allows a greater number of investigations to be achieved before physically modelling a design. It has massively decreased the time its takes to make changes to a project between different iteration and when communicating between different industries by removing a majority of the necessity of remodelling geometry. It can be almost completely tested and analysed to prove it will be a success when it is physically constructed to scale.

Further more the fact an instantaneous digital model of the design is generated that can be used to convey the project between industries and to clients make the process much more efficient and manageable than previous design processes.

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Advantages Of Using Parametric Design For Manufacture And Fabrication

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Parametricism is revolutionising design and architecture, standardisation as a concept is no longer viable with the access to parametricism as a tool. Using parametric technology it is easier to more accurately analyse and develop projects. Applying the parametric tools and software to the fabrication process through the use of computationally controlled physical machines (CAM machines) like CNC machines, laser cutters and robotic arms etc, it is possible to construct to-scale and scaled elements of designs. These machines provide a faster production process with more precise tooling dimensions and material consistency. The use of these machines can also reduce waste while simultaneously reducing energy consumption.

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Unlike previous methods parametric design allows the form to be almost fully analysed before fabrication which reduces the number or physical models needed to test the design in reality. Further more the digitally generated models, once at their most developed stage necessary for that project, can then be produced physically. This is usually done from 2-dimensional elements, such as laser cutting, will cut elements out of the necessary material which will then let the form be constructed from the pieces. However to produce curved forms in this way within the parametric software the forms can be broken down into grids or meshes which can then be used to construct panels for each piece, these panels can then be fabricated using the above machines. Examples of this process is the ITKE Research Pavilion 2011 by students from the Institute for Computational Design (ICD) and the Institute of Building Structures and Structural Design (ITKE) at University of Stuttgart, and the ARUM

by Zaha Hadid Architects.

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The ITKE Research Pavilion explores the architectural transfer of biological principles of the sea urchin’s plate skeleton morphology which has been allowed by the application of parametric programs as they allow for more complicated forms to be fabricated (Fig 18). The form was digitally generated and then analysed and tested. It was constructed using the universities robotic fabrication system, which cut over 850 geometrically different components out of 6.5 mm thin sheets of plywood.

The digital model can be constructed at a digitally 1:1 scale, so in the case of this project each panel could be labeled and organised on a digital sheet of ply and then sent to cut out. Each piece was connected to one another using a glued tongue and grove system to increase strength and allow for minimal flexibility. However in some areas a simple screw connection was used instead of gluing so the structure could be disassembled and reassembled when needed.

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Fig 18.

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Internal view of ITKE Research Pavilion

This project would have been much more complicated and taken much more time without the use of parametric tools that allowed it to be created, tested and developed through multiple iterations of its form until the most efficient was found. Then with the access to computationally controlled machines, this allowed each component to be quickly and accurately fabricated.

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ARUM by Zaha Hadid Architects was also created using parametric software but as discussed earlier ZHA does use parametric software but does not fully use parametric theory due to their implementation of Schumacherism (Fig 19). Therefor this shows the use of parametric tool can benefit the design and construction process for parametric and non-parametric designing. ARUM is a pleated metal sculptural exhibition piece that was designed for the 13th international architecture exhibition.

The sculpture is constructed from 488 unique interlocking panels that have all been cut out by a CNC machine and then folded using the robotic arms at Robofold (Fig 20). The form was digitally modelled, analysed and developed, then each panel was physically constructed and connected to the next unique panel to create the designed pavilion. Designing in this manner allows for many unique pieces to be created at one time allowing for mass customisation to take over in this field. As buildings become more complex the need for more unique pieces to construct them becomes necessary thus this approach becomes a successful and efficient way of fabricating/manufacturing this aspect of design.

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Fig 19.

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ARUM for Zaha Hadid Architects exhibited at the 13th international architecture exhibition

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Fig 20.

Robotic arm at Robofold preparing to bend one one the unique pieces used to create the ARUM

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exhibit.

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Does Parametric Design Remove The Job Of An Architect

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The profession of an architect has evolved to kept up with growing trends in technology, culture, fashion etc. Architects developed from master builders with pencils and drawing boards, to incorporate the use of CAD and other computational softwares. This is not a trend or style this is an evolutionary step for the profession of architecture. There is still an architect that constructs and then controls this parametric formula. A project still needs an architect to make the decisions and develop the project in the required ways. It has been questioned that parametricism is a theory where inputs go into a formula and the result appears at the end, however this is incorrect as the architect in still in control of developing the formula and making the design decisions based upon the analysis of each iteration of the project which determines how the design progresses. As stated earlier the computer acts as an extension of the mind of the architect, in this case parametricism is a tool architects can use to create forms more easily that a decade ago (some of which may not have been possible a decade ago). It can be used to increase the efficiency of the design process and allows architects to more quickly, thoroughly and extensively test and analyse these forms than ever before. Therefor it is clear, parametric design does not remove the architect from the design process but gives the architect more control over design aspects and allows the architect as well as other industries to more effectively test the digitally generated model making it a more thoroughly developed design when physically constructed.

Lars Hesselgren is director of research at Kohn Pedersen Fox Associates. He believes ‘Generative design is not about designing a building. It’s about designing the system that designs a building’. Parametrically design allows the architect to design and control the system that result in the development of their designs. The system generates the building, however the system needs the architect to control it as it is still a tool.

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Conclusion

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This investigation has clearly analysed definitions of parametricism and redefined parametricism as a theory that can be applied to architecture today. Through cross referencing a range of case studies with the Parametric theories and Schumacherism it has allowed for concise decisions to be made upon what is and what is not parametricism. This also determined that what the public see as parametricism, expressed by Buchanan, is usually not actually parametric. Though this investigation has shown, that ZHA’s work such as the fabrication of ARUM, that parametric tools can be used without strictly following parametric theory. The process of parametric theory improves the design process in all aspects, from collaborating industries, to the increase in speed by which projects can be tested, evaluated and developed. Parametricism it is not a style or trend but a theoretical process which drastically increases the efficiency of the design process. It is the next step in the evolution of the architectural profession.

Achim Menges, professor at the University of Stuttgart where he is the founding director of the Institute for Computational Design states ‘geometry has always played a central role in architectural discourse’. Showing Parametricism is the next step by which architects can manipulate geometries in order to evolve the profession.

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‘A great building must begin with the immeasurable, must go though measurable means when it is being designed, and in the end must be immeasurable’ -Louis Kahn

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References

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Burry, M (2011). Scripting Cultures. West Sussex UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. p258.

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Chaszer, A and Glymph, J. (2010). CAD/CAM In Business Of Architecture, Engineering, And Construction. In: Corser, R Fabricating Architecture: Selected Readings In Digital Design And Manufacturing. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. p88.

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Davis, D. (2010). Patrik Schumacher – Parametricism. Available: http://www.danieldavis.com/patrikschumacher-parametricism/. Last accessed 7 Jun 2014.

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Federico, B (2002). Luigi Moretti: Works and Writings. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. p17.

Kahn, L. (2011). Louis Kahn quotes. Available: http://arkistudentscorner.blogspot.co.uk/2011/05/louiskahn-quotes.html. Last accessed 9th Jun 2014.

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Krygiel, E. (2010). Using Building Information Modeling For Performance-Based Design. In: Corser, R Fabricating Architecture: Selected Readings In Digital Design And Manufacturing. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. p43.

(Chapter quoted as each chapter in this book has a different author)

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Menges, A. (2010). Instrumental Geometry. In: Corser, R. Fabricating Architecture: Selected Readings In Digital Design And Manufacturing. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. p23.

(Chapter quoted as each chapter in this book has a different author) Menges, A. (2010). Instrumental Geometry. In: Corser, R. Fabricating Architecture: Selected Readings In Digital Design And Manufacturing. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. p32.

(Chapter quoted as each chapter in this book has a different author)

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Meredith, M (2008). From Form To Design: Parametric / Algorithmic Architecture. New York: Actar Publishers. p3.

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Murray, C. (2012). WAF keynote: Buchanan claims Neo-Modernism and Parametricism 'not the future'. Available: http://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/daily-news/waf-keynote-buchanan-claimsneo-modernism-and-parametricism-not-the-future/8636715.article. Last accessed 7 Jun 2014.

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Oxford University. (2014). Parameter. Available: http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ parameter. Last accessed 2nd Jun 2014.

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Oxford University. (2014). parametric. Available: http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ parametric?q=parametric. Last accessed 16th May 2014.

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Schumacher, P. (2008). Parametricism as Style - Parametricist Manifesto. Available: http:// www.patrikschumacher.com/Texts/Parametricism%20as%20Style.htm. Last accessed 7th Jun 2014.

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Schumacher, P. (2010). The Parametricist Epoch: Let the Style Wars Begin. Available: http:// www.patrikschumacher.com/Texts/The%20Parametricist%20Epoch_Lets%20the%20Style%20Wars %20Begin.htm. Last accessed 8th Jun 2014.

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Terzidis, K (2006). Algorithmic Architecture. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. p35.

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Image References

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Figure 1. Harmens, J. (Own Image)(2014). Grasshopper script showing a slider value increased though a multiplication function resulting in a change to the result.[Image](Created on 9.06.14)

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Figure 2. Harmens, J. (Own Image)(2014). Grasshopper generated Bucky Ball showing before and after the number of beams is reduced, with all other parameters remaining constant. [Image](Created on 9.06.14)

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Figure 3. Harmens, J. (Own Image)(2014), Showing the Grasshopper script being altered and added to, to include the required changes. Freeze frames of the instantly generated model are shown at each stage. [Image](Created on 9.06.14)

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Figure 4. Foster and Partners (2004). Smithsonian Institution Courtyard. [Photo] At: http:// www.fosterandpartners.com/projects/smithsonian-institution/ (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 5. Gamboni, C (2008). Kitagata Community Centre. [Photo] At: http:// carlogamboni.blogspot.co.uk/ (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 6. Hufton + Crow (2013). Galaxy Soho Complex. [Photo] At: http://www.dezeen.com/ 2013/07/22/movie-galaxy-soho-by-zaha-hadid/ (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 7. Warchol, P. (2012). Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum. [Photo] At: http:// www.designboom.com/architecture/eli-and-edythe-broad-art-museum-at-msu-opens/(Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 8. original unknown. Internal view of London Aquatics Centre. [Image] At: http:// djstorm.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/lac08.jpg (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 9. original unknown. BIM Diagram showing range of industries that can work together. [Image] At: http://insitebuilders.wordpress.com/category/3d-construction-modeling/page/4/ (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 10. Graphisoft. (2013) BIM Diagram showing some of the data that can be produced from the single model. [Image] At: http://www.graphisoft.com/archicad/open_bim/about_bim/ (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 11. Melenbrink, N. (2013) Evolutionary Optimization with Millipede. [Image] http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=EvKPmIwfJ10 (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 12. Opugnale, A . (2013) Karamba experiment. [Image] At: http:// albertopugnale.wordpress.com/2013/03/29/form-finding-through-numerical-tools-comparisonbetween-karamba-and-kangaroo/ (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 13. Nagy, D . (2013) Heliotrope experiment. [Image] At: http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=TM9NXY0ntVY(Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 14. Dimcic, M . Eve-Rain experiment. (2013) [Image] At: http://www.food4rhino.com/project/ everain (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 15. Mamou-Mani ltd. (2012) Geco experiment. [Image] At: http://mamou-mani.com/advancedworkshop-with-simply-rhino/0_divagecogalapagos/ (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 16. IAAC. (2011) Firefly experiment. [Photo] At: http://www.iaacblog.com/blog/2011/datamachines-designing-associativity-seminar/ (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 17. Fraguada, E. (2014) gHowl experiment. [Photo] At: http://fraguada.net/ghowl-2/ (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 18. University of Stuttgart. (2011) Internal view of ITKE Research Pavilion. [Photo] At: http:// www.archdaily.com/200685/icditke-research-pavilion-icd-itke-university-of-stuttgart/14_view-seated/ (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 19. Designboom. (2012) ‘arum’ installation by zaha hadid in the arsenale at the venice architecture biennale. [Photo] At: http://www.designboom.com/architecture/13th-internationalarchitecture-exhibition-arum-by-zaha-hadid/ (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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Figure 20. AEC Magazine. Robofold arm working on arum. [Photo] At: http://aecmag.com/technologymainmenu-35/619-into-the-fold (Accessed on 9.06.14)

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