To What Extent have Past Ideas of Future Architecture Been Realised? by James Anderson

To What Extent have Past Ideas of Future Architecture Been Realised?

James Anderson

Dissertation

James Anderson

Dissertation

UNIVERSITY OF HUDDERSFIELD

School of Art Design and Architecture Department of Architecture and 3D Design

THA1121 Architectural Dissertation

To What Extent have Past Ideas of Future Architecture Been Realised?

A Special Study submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for BA (Hons) Architecture

By James Anderson U1253603014

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is their own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. 13th February 2015

James Anderson

Dissertation

James Anderson

Dissertation

Abstract This dissertation aims to understand to what extent past ideas of future architecture have been realised. Predictions are selected around two central themes; the first chapter considers glass in architecture and the second explores technology. Each will consider a selection of past predictions including literary works, ideas proposed by architects and architectural groups. Notably, the novel The Sleeper Awakes by H.G. Wells, works and concepts by Bruno Taut and Mies van der Rohe as well as concepts and themes explored by Archigram and other avant-garde architectural groups, will be analysed. This dissertation analyses the extent of the realisation of these various predictions, hypothesising that those made around the use of glass are more varied in terms of realisation than those of technology, and that the extent of the realisation is inversely proportional to the specificity of detail in the predictions. For a complete list of all predictions in chronological order, please see appendix A, for a chronological order of the futures predicted, please see appendix B. For a list of all case studies and realisations of the predictions, listed alphabetically by case study, please see appendix C and for the same list alphabetically by prediction, please see appendix D.

Word Count: 5802

James Anderson

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James Anderson

Dissertation

Contents Abstract....................................................................................................................................5 Acknowledgments....................................................................................................................8 Illustration Appendix.................................................................................................................9 Introduction............................................................................................................................13 Chapter 1: Glass Architecture................................................................................................17 Bruno Taut..................................................................................................................17 Mies van der Rohe.....................................................................................................19 Geometry....................................................................................................................21 Chapter 2: Technology...........................................................................................................27 Literary Works............................................................................................................27 Avant-garde Architectural Groups..............................................................................31 Arcology.....................................................................................................................43 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................44 Appendix A.............................................................................................................................47 Appendix B.............................................................................................................................48 Appendix C.............................................................................................................................49 Appendix D.............................................................................................................................51 References.............................................................................................................................54 Bibliography...........................................................................................................................61

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Acknowledgments Great thanks to Becky Paxton for help with all aspects historical, including many unfortunately not included, and to Emma Anderson and family for the time given in help and advice.

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Illustration Appendix Full illustration references can be found in References. Figures

Description

Architect(s)/

Year

Firm

designed

Reference

Page Found

Cover

Sketch

Author’s own, 2015

‘Cologne Glass

Bruno Taut

1914

Architects

House’

Architecture Architectuul, 2013

‘The Construction

Bruno Taut

1917

Schirren, 2004 p. 77

Bruno Taut

1917

Schirren, 2004 p. 55

Bruno Taut

1917

Schirren, 2004 p. 49

‘Glass Skyscraper’

Mies van der

1919

Emily, 2014

Project

Rohe

‘Glass Skyscraper’

Mies van der

1922

Strasse, n.d.

Project-

Rohe

Area’- Alpine

Architecture 3

‘Firns in Ice and Snow’- Alpine

Architecture 4

‘The Crystal Mountain’- Alpine

Architecture 5 6

Friedrichstrasse Office Building 7

London Skyline

Author’s own, 2014

‘Cenotaph for Sir

Étienne-

1784

Miller, 2014

Isaac Newton’

Louis 1859

ARC 350 Study

Boullée 9

‘Shelter for rural

Claude

guards’

Nicolas

Guide, 2014

Ledoux 10

‘Montreal Biosphère’

Buckminster

1967

Sorensen, 2014

1982

Wikimedia

Fuller 11

‘Spaceship Earth’-

Buckminster

Epcot Park

Fuller

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Dissertation

Commons, 2010 9

Basillica of Santa

Leon Battista

Maria Novella

Alberti

1470

Wikimedia

Commons, 2009 and Ream, 2014

‘MuCEM Museum’

Rudy

2013

Massart, 2013

2013

Massart, 2013

2013

Ricciotti, 2013

2014

Robert, 2014

1970

Verner Panton, n.d.

Ricciotti 14 15 16

‘MuCEM Museum’

Rudy

bridge

Ricciotti

‘MuCEM Museum’

Rudy

bridge section

Ricciotti

Glacier Skywalk

Sturgess Architecture

‘Visiona 2’

Verner Panton (Interior designer)

‘Plug in City’

Archigram

1964

Crompton (ed),1994

‘Living 1990’

Archigram

1967

Crompton (ed),1994

The Lunar Module

NASA (not

1969

AIAC Aerospace

architect)

Industries Association of Canada, n.d.

‘Capsule Dwelling’

Archigram

1964

University of

Westminster, 2010 22

‘Gasket Homes’

Archigram

1965

University of

Westminster, 2010 23

‘Living Pod’

Archigram

1966

Crompton (ed),1994

‘Tiny Apartment In

Kitoko Studio

2014

Delafraye, 2014

‘Halley VI Research

Hugh

2006

British Antarctic

Station’

Broughton

Paris’ 25

Survey, 2012

Architects 26

‘Continuous

Superstudio

1971

Monument’ conception 27

‘Continuous

2003 Superstudio

1971

Monument’ conception

James Anderson

Lang and Menking, Lang and Menking,

2003

Dissertation

‘Futurist City’

Sant’Elia

1914

Woods, 2009

‘Futurist City’

Sant’Elia

1914

Woods, 2009

‘Futurist City’

Sant’Elia

1914

Woods, 2009

‘Futurist City’

Sant’Elia

1914

Woods, 2009

‘Futurist City’

Sant’Elia

1914

Woods, 2009

Sant’Elia

1914

Woods, 2009

‘Copenhagen Opera

Henning

2001

Wikimedia

House’

Larson

‘L’IMAX 3D’

Denis

unfinished sketch 33

‘Futurist City’ unfinished sketch

34 35

Commons, 2008 1996

Tom, 2012

1987

Wela, 2011

1987

Brenne Easy

Laming 36

‘Pavillion Futuroscope’

Denis Laming

‘Le Kinémax’

Denis Laming

Camping, n.d.

‘Arcosanti’

Paolo Soleri

1965

Arcosanti, 2012

‘Arcosanti’

Paolo Soleri

1965

Lopez, 2011

‘Arcology’ Concept

Paolo Soleri

1965

Lopez, 2011

Hong Kong Island

From

Author’s own, 2014

Author’s own, 2015

the1970s 42

Analytical Diagram

James Anderson

Dissertation

James Anderson

Dissertation

To What Extent have Past Ideas of Future Architecture Been Realised?

Predictions of the future are constantly being imagined, some look to the near future, extrapolating knowledge existent at the time, whilst others look to the distant future, tentatively speculating what might be yet to come. Architecture is a common theme in these predictions, being the sole focus or imagined as part of a larger scenario. Attempting to predict the future is something that has been ongoing for years and, as a result, many imagined ‘futures’ have since become the present, then the past. This dissertation will investigate a selection of these predictions, considering two central themes and analysing to what extent the concepts and ideas, as well as physical architectural forms predicted, have been realised. The topic chosen has been done so because of the little existing analysis around this subject; almost all the specific examples to be discussed have, in themselves, been extensively analysed, yet when considered as predictions they have not. There are extensive current predictions of the future, but past predictions are outdated and therefore often considered insignificant or altogether irrelevant, hence there is little formal literature and few academic sources which seriously consider to what extent these predictions have been realised. The scope of past predictions is immense, thus it is impossible to comprehensively analyse them all. This dissertation, therefore, only considers predictions made in or after the 18th Century, disregarding such concepts as the ‘Ideal City’, coined during the Renaissance and the proposed or implemented remodelling of various cities such as Rome by Pope Sixtus V in the 1580’s and London by Christopher Wren and John Evelyn in 1666. Fictitious works are limited to literature, ignoring cinematic predictions like

Metropolis and Back to the future II. Architects’ imaginings are limited to specific groups or projects fitting the stated themes, meaning imagined city plans such as Ville Contemporaine by Tony Garnier, Broadacre City by Frank Lloyd Wright and Albert Speer’s plans for the Nazi conceived ‘Germania’ are not analysed. All the primary sources analysed, the prophetic novels, have been read in full by the author in order to comprehensively understand the futures they predict. This dissertation will study the most significant categories of past predictions; the first theme is glass, selected because of the extensive use of this material in current architecture. Predictions of the use of glass in the novel We, 1921, as well as ideas

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proposed by architects; notably work by Bruno Taut, in both his theoretical Alpine Architektur and built ‘Cologne Glass house’ and Mies van der Rohe’s ‘Glass Skyscraper’ projects, will be analysed in conjunction with Matthias Schirren’s understanding of Taut and the theorist Jean-Louis Cohen’s analysis and interpretations of Mies’s proposals. Within the topic of glass, geometry arises as a constant theme and is further analysed in Neoclassicist designs by Étienne-Louis Boullée and Claude Nicolas Ledoux. The second chapter will consider the relationship between technology and architecture. Many past predictions of future architecture are centred around technological developments; H.G. Wells’ novel, The Sleeper

Awakes, 1899, looks 200 years into the future and Isaac Asimov’s I, Robot, 1950, spans a period from 1996 to 2052, with both detailing technologically dependant architectural developments comparable to today. Taking insights from peoples involved in the architectural profession with relation to technology, Archigram’s projects and Superstudio’s ‘Continuous Monument’, are analysed in conjunction with arguments put forward by Archigram Member Peter Cook and analysis by theorists Simon Sadler and Peter Lang. These are followed by sketches of the ‘Futurist City’ conceived by Antonio Sant’Ellia and Paolo Soleri’s concepts of arcology in ‘Arcosanti’, as they can be considered predictions because the projects are examples of the authors’ proposed direction for the future of architecture.

James Anderson

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James Anderson

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Fig1: ‘Cologne Glass House’- Bruno Taut

Fig2: ‘The Construction Area’- Alpine

Architecture- Bruno Taut

Fig3: ‘Firns in Ice and Snow’- Alpine

Fig4: ‘The Crystal Mountain’- Alpine

Architecture-Bruno Taut

Architecture- Bruno Taut

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Chapter 1: Glass Architecture Bruno Taut The ‘Cologne Glass House’, better known as The Glass Pavilion, fig1, designed by Bruno Taut, was commissioned by The Association of the German Glass Industry for the Deutscher

Werkbund Exhibition, 1914 (Weston, 2010 p.40). Considered “Taut’s stroke of genius”, (Schirren, 2004 p.16) it shows a previously unseen architectural use of glass and concrete; the coloured glass becomes “imposing... [expressing] qualities of lightness and transparency” (Linford, 2013 p.7) and is a specific example of how glass can be used in current, at the time of construction, architecture. Taut’s ideas surrounding glass architecture, developing just before the 1920s, are not limited to pavilions commissioned by interested parties; his most famed work, Alpine Architektur, is contrasting in that it is not a specific proposal designed to informatively showcase the potential future architectural uses of glass, but is speculative of glass in imagined works. Centred on utopic glass constructions, this work is not a prediction of the future specifically, but a conception of an alternate world with utopian cities; it can therefore be conceived as a prediction of sorts, an undated prediction of the architecture that would surround imagined future idealist utopian cities. Taut idolised Paul Scheerbart, novelist, poet and playwright, considered in Architectural Review by historian R. Banham as one of Modernism’s “missing pioneers” (1959 p.89), as an “artistic father figure” (Schirren p.13). Taut drew inspiration from the “phantasmagorical” (p.13) traits in Scheerbart’s varied and diverse works of “Crystal palaces” and “glass superstructures” (p.13) in conceiving his “visual drama” (p.11): A “series of peaks built up with... crystal pyramids symmetrically grouped around a ‘Crystal Mountain’” (p.10) are “an imagined architecture of glass in the sumptuous colours of the Orient” (p.13), figs2-4 show Taut’s own artistic conceptions of this coloured glass Alpine Architecture. Obviously Bruno Taut’s Alpine

Architektur has not been realised, the alps remain devoid of coloured glass city utopias, the teachings from ‘Cologne Glass House’, however, have been learnt as glass plays a crucial part in most current architecture, as will be discussed later.

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Fig5: ‘Glass Skyscraper Project’-

Fig6: ‘Glass Skyscraper Project-

Mies van der Rohe

Friedrichstrasse Office Building’- Mies van der Rohe

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Mies van der Rohe Mies van der Rohe’s ‘Glass Skyscraper’ projects of 1919, fig5 and 1922, fig6, have proved monumentally influential. Unlike the ‘Cologne Glass House’ they are not a direct prediction of the future direction of architecture; they did, however, showcase possible future architectural implications of glass. The concepts were intended to be embraced by all new architecture (Cohen, 1996 p.23) and, because of the subsequent influence of the proposals and their underlying principles, they have been extensively realised. The concept of removing all decoration and load bearing from the façade, leaving an “unbroken glazed surface” (p.26), such “a breach” with current architectural thinking, was radical for its time (p.26). Mies’s proposals, much like examples of Taut’s cities, are geometrically driven around the crystal, creating, in Mies’s words, “a prismatic form corresponding to the triangle” (Rohe 1922). This “monumental yet hollow crystal, an open frame wrapped in glass” (Phaidon n.d.) was never built. Scott Murray, expert in curtain walling, explains that in 1922 “the technology did not yet exist to solve the technical requirements of such a curtain wall” (2009 p.27). Mies’s proposals were specific in their concept, the form the buildings would take and in the justification for this, but lacking specificity in the technical means of achieving this. Scheerbart, who, Cohen argues, inspired Mies’s designs with his Glass Architecture poetry (Cohen p.26) understood the lack of technical ability in both the construction of this type of ‘all glass’ façade and managing such a building in terms of climate control, in particular temperature regulation (Murray p.28). Mies’s proposals are fitting to Yevgeny Zamyatin’s imagined future in the novel We, written in the USSR in 1921, it describes a dystopian future that could be paralleled to an extreme version of Soviet rule. Here, although not devoid of decoration like the ‘Glass Skyscraper’ projects (Zamyatin, 1993 p.53), almost all buildings are entirely made of glass: “the glass of the ceiling, the walls, everywhere, all over” (p.67). Furthermore, architecture in We, like the 1922 skyscraper, is driven by geometry; “the beauty of the square, the cube, the straight line” (p.20) are considered for their “unimpeachable geometrical beauty” (p.170). Additionally, since We is a novel, it is inevitably centred around a plotline and like Taut’s glass cities, it leaves the architectural predictions vague, explaining the vast extent of the glass and it’s nature but not attempting to explain the logistics of its construction. Zamyatin’s visions of a world of glass architecture and Bruno

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Fig7: London Skyline, showing: ‘20 Fenchurch Street’,

The Walkie Talkie, ‘30 St Mary Axe’,

The Gherkin and ‘The Leadenhall Building’, The

Cheesegrater.

Fig 8: ‘Cenotaph for Sir Isaac Newton’Étienne-Louis Boullée

Fig9: ‘Shelter for rural guards’Claude Nicolas Ledoux

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Taut’s glass cities have somewhat been realised in the vast numbers of recent glass fronted corporate developments in major cities, fig7. Mies’s proposals specifically have been extensively realised; the technology available has excelled to point where these ideas and concepts can be realised, the technological advancements in curtain walling, (arguably developed ultimately from glass construction technologies first expressed in ‘Cologne Glass House’), construction, insulation, air handling and climate control have allowed these ‘all glass’ buildings to exist in the manner originally proposed by Mies van der Rohe. For example, ‘30 St Mary Axe’, The Gherkin; ‘The Leadenhall Building’, The Cheesegrater and ‘20 Fenchurch Street’, The Walkie Talkie, are typical glass skyscrapers completed in the last 15 years in the London skyline, highlighted in fig7. The realisation of these ‘all glass’ buildings is, however, limited to only the superficial appearance, the architectural justification of the ‘Glass Skyscraper’ projects, the area Mies covers in specific detail, is strictly fitting to the then current development of the Modernist ethos. Mies used glass “to achieve... a rich interplay of light reflections” (Rohe 1922) rather than to create the image corporate companies are aiming to display. The visions of Taut, Mies and Zamyatin’s predicted worlds of glass architecture are not realised only in large scale corporate developments, as their principles are also realised in contemporary architecture; of the enclosed spaces ArchDaily, architectural journal’s Guide to Current Architectural Trends feature, half have façades almost entirely of glass (Wacht 2015).

Geometry As an aside, geometry features heavily in the previously analysed glass architecture; Étienne-Louis Boullée and Claude Nicolas Ledoux were visionary French Neoclassical architects practicing at the end of the 18th Century. Towards the end of Boullée’s career, he became “interested in geometrical forms rather than intent upon copying ancient models”, (Kaufmann 1952 p.641) with projects typified “by monumentality combined with simplicity” (p.460), none more so than his proposed ‘Cenotaph for Sir Isaac Newton’, fig8, 1784, consisting “of a sphere rising from a circular structure” (p.461). This project, and lesser known works by Ledoux such as his ‘Shelter for rural guards’, 1859, fig9, were severely

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Fig10: ‘Montreal Biosphère’Buckminster Fuller

Fig11: ‘Spaceship Earth’- Epcot ParkBuckminster Fuller

Fig12: Basillica of

Santa Maria NovellaLeon Battista Alberti

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rational forms of the Neoclassicism of the age (Miller 2014), and although not necessarily predictions of future architecture, like the ‘Glass Skyscraper’ projects, they were unrealised at the time of their conception but showcased possible future architectural ambitions. They may have inspired many works including Buckminster Fuller’s ‘Montreal Biosphère’, fig10, and Epcot Park’s ‘Spaceship Earth’, fig11, characterised as an icon of ‘futuristic’ architectural design; giving credit to the argument that, to some extent, Boullée and Ledoux’s ideas were predictions of future architecture that have been realised. It is to be noted, however, that geometry in architecture is not a new concept, with it featuring heavily in the façade completed by Leon Battista Alberti in 1470 of the Basillica of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, fig12, for example. The concept of the geometry deriving the massing and form of architecture, rather than predominantly decorative aspects, as suggested by Mies, Taut, Boullée and Ledoux was, however, a new concept. Indeed, using Robert Venturi’s conclusions in Learning From Las Vegas, Santa Maria Novella could be considered ‘a decorated shed’, applying geometry to a façade as “ornament independent [of its space and structure]” (Venturi, 1972 p.64). Whereas the concepts by the architects discussed can be considered as “the duck”, although the buildings program is not entirely “submerged and distorted by an overall symbolic form”, (p.64) the geometry in Newton’s cenotaph, for example, is the sole reference for its form, so should therefore be considered more a ‘duck’ than a ‘decorated shed’. These proposals, although not fully refined, could potentially have been built at the time of conception, so should be considered fairly specific, at least in the idea for deriving the whole form geometrically. Despite that some buildings, including the

Santa Maria Novella, have geometric aspects in plan, overall form and the façade; the proposed concepts of geometry deriving the massing and form to the extent of the cenotaph for Newton, in Alpine Architektur and the ‘Glass Skyscraper’ projects was, however, new in 1784 and has extensively been realised. Foster and Partners’, ‘School of Management’, Yale University, completed in 2014, for example, is described as having “strong diagrammatic geometries represented in form”, an example of how geometry is heavily referred to in current architectural design (Wacht 2015). Predictions of glass architecture vary in specificity and have been extensively realised, the skyline of London is no isolated example; the world’s major cities are heavily punctuated with similar glass skyscrapers. The surprising aspect is the extent of the realisation of glass

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architecture, since, without the technological advances previously mentioned, buildings of this nature would be uninhabitable. If unregulated, the internal temperature would soar like a green house when in direct sunlight and plummet at night (Bodart, 2011 p.605), making them highly energy dependant, a greatly undesirable feature. The geometric aspect of the glass predictions of BoullĂŠe and Ledoux, have perhaps been further realised than those of glass architecture alone, the same Guide to current Architectural Trends talks of geometry in all, except one, of the emerging architectural movements it discusses.

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James Anderson

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Fig13: ‘MuCEM Museum’- Rudy Ricciotti

Fig14: ‘MuCEM Museum’ bridge- Rudy Ricciotti

Fig15: ‘MuCEM Museum’ bridge

Fig16: ‘Glacier Skywalk’-

section- Rudy Ricciotti

Sturgess Architecture

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Chapter 2: Technology Literary Works Past predictions of the future have often included vast developments in technology, particularly in works of fiction. H.G. Wells, writing in 1899 in a newly industrialised England, describes the imagined technological advances reached by 2102 with uncanny parallels to today in The Sleeper Awakes. Between the densely populated urban cities, the “whole expanse [of the landscape is] set with wind-wheels” generating electricity (2005 pp.125, 145) and three years before the Wright brothers flew for 12 seconds, (Heppenheimer, 2003 p.207) Wells talks of trans-continental travel in “flying machines”, (Wells p.74) 20 years before this was realised (Burns, 2012 p.5). His insights were not limited to large scale inventions, he hints at climate control through the lack of fireplaces (Wells p.55) and of city wide public electric lighting providing continuous “cool white light”, (p.42) specifically foreseeing the implementation of wind turbines, the commercialisation of flight and the mass use of climate control and electric lighting. Architectural innovations are included in Wells’ 2102, including tensioned structures, a “crow’s nest a clear thousand feet above the roofs, a little disk shaped speck on a spear of metallic filigree” (p.124) and “frail-looking bridges... closed in with glass” where “the floor... was also of glass” (p.48). His ‘crow’s nest’ 1000 feet above the roofline of London bears a remarkable similarity in height to ‘London Bridge Tower’, The Shard, 2012, which is officially 1016 feet high (The Shard 2014). Furthermore, the use of ultrahigh performance concrete, a new, still developing material (Fehling 2008), has enabled such bridge structures to be built. ArchDaily describes the ultrahigh performance concrete bridge, part of the ‘MuCEM Museum’, 2013, by Rudy Ricciotti, figs13 and 14, as a “delicate” structure, “little more than skin and bones”, fig15, (Massart 2013) fitting the ‘filigree’ description Wells gives for this form of structure in 2102. The glass floor of Wells’ bridges can be compared to any number of glass-floored viewing platforms, for example the ‘Glacier Skywalk’, Alberta, 2014, fig16, which is fully dependant on toughened glass, a technology not applied to flooring until 1990 (Behling 1999). Wells’ predictions, though specific in aspects, are generally vague; his imagined London is described as having “Titanic buildings... [with] mighty cantilevers” (Wells p.42) but like We, there is no specificity

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Fig17: ‘Visiona 2’- Verner Panton

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in the explanation of how this is achieved, meaning his predictions are both extensively realised and generally vague. Isaac Asimov, celebrated science fiction author’s I, Robot is a prophetic work centred on technological development; published in 1950, it predicts that by 2052 technological advancement will mean “no unemployment, no overproduction or shortages, waste and famine... [will be] words in history books” (Asimov, 1950 p.202). Robot technology will develop to the point of technological singularity, where “we can no longer understand our own creations” (p.203), predictions that are unlikely to be realised in less than 40 years. Asimov further, inaccurately, theorised the completion of the once planned “half-mile tall Roosevelt Building” by 1996 (p.15). Asimov, however, describes Art Deco as “the archaism of the mad Twenties” (p.15) then embracing the current, at the time of his writing, Modernist architectural trend, extrapolated the development of Modernism to 2029, where he describes a room as being “featureless”, (p.154) “of a gleaming silvery finish... There were no angles; walls floors, and ceiling faded gently into each other... [with] no interdistinguishing features” (p.152). Le Corbusier, Modernist architect, similarly but negatively, describes Art Deco as having “burned itself out in a brilliant burst of exuberance” (Rybczynski 1998) and subsequently, the space described by Asimov can be paralleled to ‘Visiona 2’ by interior designer Verner Panton, 1970. Designed for a temporary showroom, Verner Panton’s

Official Reference Portal describes it as “consisting of vibrant colours and organic forms” (Panton n.d.) and fig17 shows how the wall, floor and ceiling components seamlessly merge in the manner described by Asimov. Asimov, like Wells, predicts a sustainable future with self sufficient cities. ‘Masdar City’, currently being constructed in the United Arab Emirates, aims to be a zero carbon city (Kingsley 2013); it will be a technologically dependant city, the

Technology Review explains it will utilize state of the art technology, including heat reflecting foil “protected from the desert dust by a self-cleaning Teflon-like plastic” (Bullis, 1998 p.62). It should be noted, however, that the configuration of the city was influenced not by contemporary technology, but by the ancient designs of Cairo, Shibam and Muscat “to see how the traditional cities of the Middle East had kept houses cool” (Kingsley 2013). Other prophetic prose exist where the predicted future has already passed or is almost the present, with varying levels of accuracy in their predictions. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep, published in 1969 is of the same nature as I, Robot, yet inaccurately talks of “hovercar[s]”

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Fig18: ‘Plug in City’- Archigram

existing in 1992 (Dick, 1969 p.75) and We, as previously analysed, predicts “high-voltage waves” (Zamyatin p.225) as a form of barrier and of using renewable tidal energy (p.66). These works of fiction like I, Robot and The Sleeper Awakes generally avoid giving specific details in their predicted futures, restricting specificity to a few aspects essential to the plot, or when giving a sense of the place as a whole. Mary Shelly, on the other hand, writing in 1826, around the time of locomotive development, (Kirby, 2002 p.54), wrote of “machines exist[ing] to supply with facility every want of the population” by 2073, in The Last Man, (2004 p.84). Yet, paradoxically, she describes the fastest means of transport from Windsor to Edinburgh in the same year as being “a sailing balloon”, (p.55) an already 43 year-old technology at the time of writing (Irving, 2011 p.5). Shelly’s predictions are specific and unrealised as she describes a world almost identical to early 19th Century England. Consequently, the fictitious works vary in the extent of their realisation, but are almost all equally vague in their predictions.

Avant-garde architectural groups Archigram and similar revolutionary groups of the 1960s created projects with huge ambition, some of which could be the model for all future urban development, potentially creating a cohesive urban environment for all inhabitants. Architectural critics supporting the ideas of Cedric Price, who worked alongside members of Archigram and was architect of the once planned ‘Fun Palace’, explain that their “vision[s] of a consumerist city... [were] made possible through a faith in technology and the optimism... [before] the realisation of the finite nature of natural resources” (Spatial Agency n.d.). The projects to be analysed have been selected because of their uniqueness in concept, at the time of their imagining, and can be mostly considered as undated predictions since their concepts, although self admittedly theoretical, provide an alternative way to consider architecture. Their concepts of the future of urbanism and architecture in general are almost entirely highly technologically dependant and are detailed to a high level of specificity in terms of how they function; the projects selected, at least in part, are the most realised projects conceived by Archigram. Peter Cook, prominent member of Archigram, when discussing ideas around the concept of ‘Plug-in City’, 1964, fig18, and the changing scene of architecture (Crompton, 1994 p. 25) describes the

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Fig19: ‘Living 1990’Archigram

Fig20: The Lunar ModuleNASA

Fig21: ‘Capsule Dwelling’Archigram

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future building as becoming “an animal,” (p.33) through the use of “inflatables and hydraulics and the cheap localised electric motor” (p.33). Archigram’s further embracing of nonexistent, or in their view: not-yet-existent, technology is elaborated through Simon Sadler’s, Archigram expert, comments on the transport infrastructure surrounding Archigram’s ‘Plug-in City’. He states: “the journey might be unnecessary, since mobile buildings... propelled by newly invented hovercraft levitation” could serve the region (2005 p.20). ‘Living 1990’ was the result of a commission in 1967, from the Weekend Telegraph, to design “a house for the year 1990” (Crompton, 1994 p.197). This direct prediction of the future is, like other undated projects, highly technologically advanced. Walls, ceiling and floor “are no longer rigid, but adjustable, programmed to move up and down, in and out” as required, with inflatable seating and sleeping arrangements (p.197). “Robots” serve the user’s needs and “[r]efreshments can be drawn from them”, with moving parts controlled “up &[sic] down by anti-gravity pads”, fig19 (p.198). ‘Plug-in City’ and ‘Living 1990’ have clearly not been realised, with their components including ‘hovercraft levitation’ and ‘anti gravity pads’; yet aspects of them have been. Inflatable furniture was developed by Verner Panton from 19541960, in the form of the inflatable stool (Panton n.d.) and served as the inspiration for this aspect of ‘Living 1990’. As technological improvements allowed more suitable plastics to be manufactured, inflatable furniture was not only commercialised but was popular through the 1990s, (Sliver 2013) and the electric motor is a key component in numerous household items from toothbrushes to dishwashers. The unrealised aspect is the interconnectivity of these items, and the use of the electric motor in allowing the entire spaces we inhabit to be flexible. Pascal Schöning, who conceptualised cinematic architecture, “architectural thinking inspired by and understood through films”, (Disegno.Daily 2012) writing in The Future of Architecture

Lies in the Brain, discusses how Buckminster Fuller, Neo-futuristic architect, “introduced the idea [to the members of Archigram,] that architecture should be flexible, making use of advanced technology and reacting to the changing needs of its users” (Crompton, 1994 p.40). Fuller’s idea, taking inspiration from the Apollo space missions (p.38), in particular the lunar module, fig20, from the Saturn V rocket, which Schöning describes as “the epitome of High-Tech”, (p.40) was conceptualised in Archigram’s “Capsule Dwelling”, 1964, fig21, (p.154) and “Gasket Homes”, 1965, fig22, (p.156) as part of ‘Plug-in City’ (p.154).

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Fig22: ‘Gasket Homes’- Archigram

Fig23: ‘Living Pod’- Archigram

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Fig24: ‘Tiny Apartment In Paris’ plan- Kitoko Studio

Fig25: The Halley VI Research Station- Hugh Broughton Architects

Fig26: ‘Continuous Monument’ conception- Superstudio

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Fig27: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Continuous Monumentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; conception- Superstudio

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These projects later influenced the highly technologically dependant “Living Pod”, fig23, project of 1966 (pp.156, 182-185). Unlike ‘Plug-in City’, ‘Living Pod’ was independent of a mega-structure and was further developed from precedents that were considered “flexible, technologically advanced, and engineered kits-of-parts” (Sadler p.99). The compactness of ‘Living Pod’, derived from ‘Capsule Dwelling’ and ‘Gasket Homes’, is realised, to some extent, through the recent increase in ‘micro architecture’, small one-person inner city dwellings such as “Tiny Apartment In Paris” by Kitoko Studio, 2014, fig24, (Delafraye 2014) but arguably more so in exploratory missions into the Antarctic, similar to the Apollo missions. The Halley VI Research Station is an extreme example of efficient compact living, fig25 (British Antarctic Survey 2012). Archigram’s projects can be considered highly specific predictions and are explained in detail in all areas where existing technology is used or extrapolated, the projects only become vague in areas discussing non existing technology. Superstudio’s projects are considered predictions in the same manner Archigram’s can be; their concepts were often more theoretical than Archigram’s, selected for analysis because a major concept of theirs was for all architecture to “be created with a single act” with “the world rendered uniform by technology” (Lang, 2003 p.122). This conceived “Continuous Monument”, figs26 and 27, (p.122), is a monolithic singular piece of architecture that would be entirely uniform and devoid of geographical context, able to exist, theoretically, in any location. Though Superstudio’s Twelve cautionary tales for Christmas depict abstractions of the cities of their ‘today’, they highlight the technological credo Superstudio follow, discussing inventions such as “brain-impulse-receiver” in the first city (p.150), mind controlled “hemispheres”, fifth city (p.154), as well as machines of incomprehensible scale, ninth city (p.159). This is a small sample as all their theoretical cities, if not all their concepts entirely, are highly technologically dependant. Unlike Archigram, almost no aspect of Superstudio’s specific concept or ethos is realised, although they themselves argue that motorways and highways can be conceived as a form of ‘Continuous Monument’ (pp.124125) and thinking abstractly, the form and repetitive uniformity of the ‘Continuous Monument’ could arguably be realised in the glass fronted corporate developments discussed in the previous chapter.

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Fig28: ‘Futurist City’- Sant’Elia

Fig29: ‘Futurist City’- Sant’Elia

Fig30: ‘Futurist City’Sant’Elia

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Fig31: ‘Futurist City’- Sant’Elia

Fig32: ‘Futurist City’- Sant’Elia

Fig33: ‘Futurist City’Sant’Elia

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Fig34: ‘Copenhagen Opera House’-

Fig35: ‘L’IMAX 3D’- Denis Laming

Henning Larson

Fig36: ‘Pavillion Futuroscope’-

Fig37: ‘Le Kinémax’- Denis

Denis Laming

Laming

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The developments in technology have allowed the ‘all glass’ buildings to exist in any climate, hence major global cities, like London, have similar buildings all finished in an identical material, the only unrealised aspect, in this case, is the homogenous purity of Superstudio’s conception. Superstudio’s ‘Continuous Monument’ is a specific prediction only in concept, its form and purpose are detailed extensively, yet the manner for it to be physically realised is decidedly vague. Futurism, originating in Italy in the early 1900s, was an artistic and social movement centred on concepts such as modernisation and the advancement of technology, often in a destructive light, to the extent where the Futurist Manifesto is self-confessedly “incendiary” (Marinetti 1909). The movement later diversified into many creative mediums, including architecture; the Manifesto of Futurist Architecture, 1914, proposes future architecture with implementation potentially being equally, if not more, destructive than Superstudio’s ‘Continuous Monument’. It begins by discussing using “all the resources of technology and science” in “the healthy growth of the Futurist house... trampling down all... tradition, style, aesthetics [and] proportion” (A. Sant'Elia 1914). It uses the simile of “gigantic machine” for a home and continues to exalt technology, for example, by declaring the “lifts must scale the lengths of the façades”; figs28-33 show Sant’Elia’s drawings of the ‘Futurist City’. The movement lost popularity post First World War, partly because of fascist association, but primarily due to the death of its most prominent advocates in the war. The almost abrupt end to the Futurist movement meant their predictions remain, to some extent, unfinished, including some of Sant’Elia’s drawings, figs32 and 33, creating an inevitable lack of specificity in the Futurists’ predictions in areas other than general aesthetics and ethos. Despite this their concepts of embracing new technology in architecture and not mimicking the past are extensively adhered to in Modernist, and much current, architecture (The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms 2010). The stylistic architectural aspects of stark lines and bold angular forms also exist, albeit somewhat diluted, in the ‘Neo-futurism’ Postmodern architectural movement in buildings including the ‘Copenhagen Opera House’, 2004, by Henning Larson, fig34 and Denis Laming’s works at Futuroscope theme park, such as, ‘L’IMAX 3D’- cinema, 1996, fig35 and older projects, still conceived after the Futurist predictions, ‘Pavillion Futuroscope’, 1987, fig36 and theatre, ‘Le Kinémax’, fig37.

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Fig38: ‘Arcosanti’- Paolo Soleri

Fig39: ‘Arcosanti’- Paolo Soleri

Fig40: ‘Arcology’ Concept- Paolo Soleri

Fig41: Hong Kong Island

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Arcology Paolo Soleri’s ‘Arcosanti’, figs38 and 39, was conceived in 1965 and unlike previously discussed future concepts, construction began in 1970 and is still continuing, with 7000 volunteers having contributed (Arcosanti 2012). The fact this project is under construction proves it is a highly specific prediction for the future direction of urbanism in architecture, in the same manner that the once built ‘Cologne Glass House’ was a very specific prediction for the future use of glass. Instead of 200 square miles of urban sprawl, ‘Arcosanti’ will be a “complex three-dimensional structure”, (Harvey 1971) “imploded to only a few square miles 300 stories high”, fig40 (Soleri 1971). Soleri considers technology in a different light; ‘Arcosanti’ is removed from a dependence on it and does not anticipate great advances in technological development, yet is designed for co-operation with technology, allowing productive use of available, and potential future, technologies. “In the debate of technologyversus-humaneness, the Project stands as a strong rejection of the notion that we have to choose between the two.” (Soleri, 1993 p.84). ‘Arcosanti’ could arguably be in the process of being fully realised due to its ongoing construction, only a fraction is complete however, and it is intended as a model for total urbanisation so can hardly be considered realised if this is the only example. The concepts held by ‘Arcosanti’ are arguably more realised; the three dimensional living, in cities such as Hong Kong with elevated pedestrian walkways, fig41, and underground rail network, for example. Arcology, the combination of architecture and ecology, the underlying teaching of Paolo Soleri in ‘Arcosnati’, is not fully realised but is present, in part, in current sustainable design and is still taught at Arcosanti and on many other platforms. Past ideas of the future centred on technology are incredibly diverse, but have one of two themes. Those considered by the authors studied, excluding Mary Shelly, avant-garde groups and the Futurists predict that the increasing development of technology will aid in solving humanity’s problems and create a prosperous technologically advanced city dwelling society. The true utopian or dystopian nature of such a society is ambiguous, both in the literary works and conceived projects of Archigram, whereas the ‘Continuous Monument’ and the world devised by the Futurists are more probably dystopian, due to the destructive nature of their ideologies, whereas Superstudio and the Futurists themselves may have

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believed otherwise. Alternately, Paolo Soleri, and to an extent Mary Shelly, predict that technology is irrespective of prosperity and will not necessarily aid or hinder development; other factors are more prominent in bettering urban existence. Like the predictions centred around the future use of glass in architecture, the specificity of the predictions centred around technology varies. The novels give the most vague predictions, as discussed, and the work by architects is more specific, particularly Soleri’s ‘Arcosanti’, due to its ongoing construction.

Conclusion Predictions surrounding glass architecture differ more than those based on technology in terms of the extent of realisation. Taut’s exhibited use of glass in ‘Cologne Glass House’, alongside the physical form of Mies’s ‘Glass Skyscraper’ projects, have extensively been realised in contemporary architecture and corporate city developments. Yet neither the extent of glazing in We, the physical manifestation of Alpine Architektur, nor the Modernist justification for Mies’s use of glass, have been. The geometric Neoclassical proposals analysed have been realised to some extent, not in physical form, but in the then proposed application of geometry in contemporary architecture. The extent of the realisation of the predictions centred on technology vary dependant on source. The prophetic fictitious works are generally surprisingly realised, most prominently Wells’ The Sleeper Awakes, with accurate predictions ranging from broad concepts to specific details, yet it is not without mistakes. Avant-garde architectural groups’ predictions and concepts are generally unrealised due to their outlandish nature, yet aspects of Archigram’s and the Futurist’s concepts have been, at least in part; additionally, Soleri’s ideas are only truly realised in a single, incomplete example. To summarise, the most realised works are those by H.G. Wells and Isaac Assimov, with the teachings of Bruno Taut showcased in ‘Cologne Glass House’ and Mies van der Rohe’s ‘Glass Skyscraper’ projects also being extensively realised. The Neoclacisist geometric predictions and the ‘Futurist City’ by Sant'Elia are exhibited in aspects of current architectural design, whereas the projects of Archigram and Superstudio, Taut’s Alpine Architektur and Soleri’s ‘Arcosanti’ are almost entirely unrealised. Interestingly, in terms of specificity, ‘Cologne Glass House’ and ‘Arcosanti’ are the most specifically

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detailed projects due to their completed and ongoing construction. These are closely followed by Archigram’s work, then the ‘Glass Skyscraper’ proposals and the geometric designs proposed by Boullée and Ledoux, as they were genuine building proposals. The predictions of Superstudio, the Futurists and, more so, of Taut in Alpine Architektur are relatively vague, as are the works of fiction, having only minor levels of detail in some areas. There is an inverse correlation between the specificity and realisation of these predictions. Fig42 diagrammatically shows this correlation; the vaguer predictions are perceived as having been more accurately realised due to their lack of specificity, whereas the more precise predictions are generally less realised because of their inclusion of specific aspects of architecture. Consequently, the more detail included in a prediction, the more scope for error, whereas general predictions that avoid specificity are perceived as having been more accurate since they do not commit to specific details. There are exceptions, however, as

Alpine Architektur and Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep are vague, unrealised predictions. This can be explained since they are such radical proposals; the level of specificity is irrelevant to the extent of the realisation. The ‘Glass Skyscraper’ projects and ‘Cologne Glass House’ are alternatively extensively realised and relatively detailed, a more true exception to the general conclusion, perhaps explained simply by Mies and Taut’s foresight or level of genius. In answer to the question ‘to what extent have past ideas of future architecture been realised?’, generally the more specific past ideas of future architecture are less realised whereas the vaguer past ideas of future architecture are more realised.

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Fig42: Analytical Diagram

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Appendix A All predictions chronologically listed and dated in the order conceived: Predictor

Date

Date predicted

Page

Prediction

created ‘Cenotaph for Sir Isaac Newton’

Étienne-Louis Boullée

1784

n/a

The Last Man

Mary Shelly

1826

2073

‘Shelter for rural guards’

Claude Nicolas Ledoux

1859

n/a

The Sleeper Awakes

H.G. Wells

1899

2102

Manifesto of Futurist Architecture

Filippo Marinetti

1909

n/a

‘Cologne Glass House’

Bruno Taut

1914

Unspecified

‘Futurist City’

Sant’Elia

1914

n/a

Alpine Architektur

Bruno Taut

1917

n/a

‘Glass Skyscraper’

Mies van der Rohe

1919

n/a

Yevgeny Zamyatin

1921

Distant future

I, Robot

Isaac Asimov

1950

1996- 2052

‘Plug-in City’

Archigram

1964

Unspecified

‘Capsule Dwelling’

Archigram

1964

Unspecified

‘Gasket Homes’

Archigram

1965

Unspecified

‘Arcosanti’

Paolo Soleri

1965

n/a

‘Living Pod’

Archigram

1966

Unspecified

‘Living 1990’

Archigram

1967

1990

Do Androids Dream of Electric

Philip K. Dick

1969

1992

Superstudio

1971

Unspecified

Sheep ‘Continuous Monument’

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Appendix B All predictions chronologically listed and dated in the order of the predicted date: Predictor

Date

Date predicted

Page

Prediction

created ‘Living 1990’

Archigram

1967

1990

Do Androids Dream of Electric

Philip K. Dick

1969

1992

I, Robot

Isaac Asimov

1950

1996- 2052

The Last Man

Mary Shelly

1826

2073

The Sleeper Awakes

H.G. Wells

1899

2102

Yevgeny Zamyatin

1921

Distant future

‘Plug-in City’

Archigram

1964

Unspecified

‘Capsule Dwelling’

Archigram

1964

Unspecified

‘Gasket Homes’

Archigram

1965

Unspecified

‘Living Pod’

Archigram

1966

Unspecified

‘Continuous Monument’

Superstudio

1971

Unspecified

Manifesto of Futurist Architecture

Filippo Marinetti

1909

Unspecified

Alpine Architektur

Bruno Taut

1917

n/a

‘Glass Skyscraper’

Mies van der Rohe

1919

n/a

‘Cologne Glass House’

Bruno Taut

1914

n/a

‘Cenotaph for Sir Isaac Newton’

Étienne-Louis Boullée

1784

n/a

‘Shelter for rural guards’

Claude Nicolas Ledoux

1859

n/a

‘Futurist City’

Sant’Elia

1914

n/a

‘Arcosanti’

Paolo Soleri

1965

n/a

Sheep

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Appendix C

Page

Designer

Relevant Prediction(s)

created

Architect/ Date

Realisation (Case Study)

Page

Case studies showing the realisation of the predictions, listed alphabetically by case study:

‘Arcosanti’

Paolo Soleri

1965

‘Arcosanti’

‘Copenhagen Opera

Henning

2004

Manifesto of Futurist Architecture

‘Futurist City’

The Sleeper Awakes

‘Capsule Dwelling’

Broughton

‘Gasket Homes’

Architects

‘Living Pod’

‘Arcosanti’

House’ ‘Glacier Skywalk’

Larson 27

Sturgess

2014

Architecture Halley VI Research

Station

Hugh

2006

Hong Kong Island

n/a

Inflatable furniture

n/a

1990s

‘Living 1990’

‘Le Kinémax’

Denis

1987

Manifesto of Futurist Architecture

‘Futurist City’

Manifesto of Futurist Architecture

‘Futurist City’

‘Cologne Glass House’

Street’, The Walkie

Alpine Architektur

Talkie

‘Glass Skyscraper’

‘Cologne Glass House’

Alpine Architektur

‘Glass Skyscraper’

The Sleeper Awakes

‘Cologne Glass House’

Alpine Architektur

‘Glass Skyscraper’

Laming ‘L’IMAX 3D’

Denis

1996

London Skyline

Laming ‘20 Fenchurch

‘30 St Mary Axe’,

The Gherkin

‘London Bridge

Rafael Viñoly

Foster and

2014

2003

Partners

Renzo Piano

2012

Tower’, The Shard

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‘The Leadenhall

Rogers Stirk

2013

‘Cologne Glass House’

Building’, The

Harbour +

Alpine Architektur

Cheesegrater

Partners

‘Glass Skyscraper’

‘Continuous Monument’

The Sleeper Awakes

I, Robot

‘Cenotaph for Sir Isaac Newton’

‘Shelter for rural guards’

2013

The Sleeper Awakes

1987

Manifesto of Futurist Architecture

‘Futurist City’

‘Cenotaph for Sir Isaac Newton’

‘Shelter for rural guards’

Alpine Architektur

‘Glass Skyscraper’

‘Cenotaph for Sir Isaac Newton’

‘Shelter for rural guards’

‘Capsule Dwelling’

‘Gasket Homes’

‘Living Pod’

I, Robot

As whole ‘Masdar City’

n/a

Foster and

2006

Partners ‘Montreal Biosphère’

Buckminster

1967

Fuller ‘MuCEM Museum’

Rudy Ricciotti

‘Pavillion Futuroscope’

Denis Laming

‘School of Management’,

Yale University

‘Spaceship Earth’

Foster and

2014

Partners

Buckminster

1982

Fuller ‘Tiny Apartment In Paris’

‘Visiona 2’

Kitoko Studio

Verner

2014

1970

Panton

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Appendix D

Alpine

Architektur

Bruno

1917

Date

Relevant Case Studies

Page

created

Predictor Date

Prediction

Page

Predictions with case studies showing their realisation, listed alphabetically by prediction:

predicted n/a

Taut

‘30 St Mary Axe’, The Gherkin

‘The Leadenhall Building’, The

Cheesegrater ‘20 Fenchurch Street’, The Walkie

Talkie ‘Arcosanti’

Paolo

1965

n/a

Soleri ‘Capsule

Archigram

1964

Unspecified

Dwelling’ ‘Cenotaph

Étienne-

1784

n/a

‘London Bridge Tower’, The Shard

‘Arcosanti’

Hong Kong Island

‘Tiny Apartment In Paris’

Halley VI Research Station

‘Montreal Biosphère’

for Sir

Louis

‘Spaceship Earth’

Isaac

Boullée

‘School of Management’, Yale

Newton’ ‘Cologne

University 17

Glass

Bruno

1914

Unspecified

Taut

’30 St Mary Axe’, The Gherkin

‘The Leadenhall Building’, The

Cheesegrater

House’

‘20 Fenchurch Street’, The Walkie

Talkie ‘Continuous

Monument’

Superstud

‘London Bridge Tower’, The Shard

27 21

1971

Unspecified

London Skyline

1969

1992

-io 29

Androids

Philip K. Dick

Dream of Electric Sheep

James Anderson

Dissertation

‘Futurist

Sant’Elia

1914

n/a

City’

‘Gasket

Archigram

1965

Unspecified

Homes’ ‘Glass

Skyscraper’

Mies van

1919

n/a

der Rohe

‘Copenhagen Opera House’

‘L’IMAX 3D’

‘Pavillion Futuroscope’

‘Le Kinémax’

‘Tiny Apartment In Paris’

Halley VI Research Station

‘30 St Mary Axe’, The Gherkin

‘The Leadenhall Building’, The

Cheesegrater ‘20 Fenchurch Street’, The Walkie

Talkie ‘London Bridge Tower’, The Shard

‘School of Management’, Yale

University

I, Robot

Isaac

1950

1996- 2052

Asimov ‘Living

‘Visiona 2’

‘Masdar City’

Archigram

1967

1990

Inflatable furniture

Archigram

1966

Unspecified

‘Tiny Apartment In Paris’

Halley VI Research Station

‘Copenhagen Opera House’

‘L’IMAX 3D’

Architectu-

‘Pavillion Futuroscope’

‘Le Kinémax’

1990’ ‘Living Pod’

Manifesto

of Futurist

‘Plug-in

Filippo

1909

n/a

Marinetti

Archigram

1964

Unspecified

Claude

1859

n/a

‘Montreal Biosphère’

‘Spaceship Earth’

‘School of Management’, Yale

City’ ‘Shelter for rural

Nicolas

guards’

Ledoux

University

The Last

Man

James Anderson

Mary

1826

2073

Shelly

Dissertation

The

‘London Bridge Tower’, The Shard

Sleeper

‘MuCEM Museum’

Awakes

‘Glacier Skywalk’

‘Masdar City’

Distant

‘30 St Mary Axe’, The Gherkin

future

‘The Leadenhall Building’, The

H.G. Wells

Yevgeny Zamyatin

1899

1921

2102

Cheesegrater ‘20 Fenchurch Street’, The Walkie

Talkie

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Dissertation

‘London Bridge Tower’, The Shard

‘Glacier Skywalk’

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student platform Retrieved From: http://koozarch.com/masters/section-2/ Crompton, D e.d. (1994). A Guide to archigram1961-74 New York, USA: Princeton Architectural Press p. 198 Crompton, D e.d. (1994). A Guide to archigram1961-74 New York, USA: Princeton Architectural Press p.184 As Found on: Green, D. (n.d.) Retro Future Retrieved From: http://www.fabiofeminofantascience.org/RETROFUTURE/RETROFUTURE18.html Delafraye, F (2014). Tiny Apartment In Paris / Kitoko Studio ArchDaily Retrieved From: http://www.archdaily.com/562119/tiny-apartment-in-paris-kitoko-studio/ Dick, P.K. (1969). Do Androids dream of electric sheep? Great Britain: Rapp & Whiting Disegno.Daily. (2012) Disegno.Daily Retrieved From: http://www.disegnodaily.com/salon/disegno-film-nights-pascal-schoning-on-cinematicarchitecture Emily. L (2014). Study Blue Retrieved From: https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/chapter-35-europe-and-america-1900-to1945/deck/11001082 Fehling, E., Schmidt, M., St端rwald, S. (e.d.) (2008). Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) In Second International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete March 05-

07, 2008 Schhriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau Structural Materials and Engineering Series Retrieved From: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OMsdSJ-

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LUBQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=ultra+high+performance+concrete&hl=en&sa=X&ei=BPXA VPvBCdbaaruPgYAP&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Harvey, D. (1971 May 1) Architect proposes mile-high cities to counter sprawl and preserve land The Montreal Gazette p.18 Retrieved From: http://news.google.com/newspapers Heppenheimer, T. A. (2003). First Flight USA: Wiley IAC Aerospace Industries Association of Canada (n.d.) AIAC Aerospace Industries

Association of Canada Retrieved From: http://www.aiac.ca/canada-aerospaceindustry/success-stories/heroux-devtek-lunar-module-landing-gear/ Irving, D. (2011). Volume and Hot Air Balloons Oxford: Capstone Kaufmann, E. (1952). Three Revolutionary Architects, Boulee, Ledoux, and Lequeu

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Places: Buildings and Projects Basel, Switzerland: BirkhĂ¤user

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Lopez, O. (2011). Paolo Soleriâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Arcosanti : The City in the Image of Man ArchDaily Retrieved From: http://www.archdaily.com/ Marinetti, F. T. (1909 February 20) The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism Le Figaro p.1 Retrieved from: http://www.italianfuturism.org (trans.) Flint, R.W, as taken from: Umbro, A, (ed.) (1973). Documents of 20th Century Art: Futurist Manifestos New York: Viking Press Massart, S. (2013). MuCEM / Rudy Ricciotti ArchDaily, Retrieved From: http://www.archdaily.com Mathews, S. (2007). From Agit- Prop to Free Space: The Architecture of Cedric Price London: Black Dog Publishing Limited Miller, M. (2014) ArchDaily Retrieved From: http://www.archdaily.com/544946/ad-classicscenotaph-for-newton-etienne-louis-boullee/ Murray, S. (2009). Contemporary Curtain Wall Architecture New York: Princeton Architectural Press Panton, V (n.d.) Verner Panton Official Reference Portal Retrieved From: http://www.vernerpanton.com/spaces/archive/121/ Panton, V (n.d.) Verner Panton Official Reference Portal Retrieved From: http://www.vernerpanton.com/furniture/archive/16/ Phaidon. (n.d.). How Mies invented modern architecture Retrieved From http://uk.phaidon.com Ream, A. (2014) Figuring the unfigurable, Symbolism in Florentine Art and culture Retrieved from: https://figuringtheunfigurable.wordpress.com/2014/08/05/santa-maria-novella/ Ricciotti, R. (2013). MuCEM / Rudy Ricciotti ArchDaily, Retrieved From: http://www.archdaily.com Robert, L. (2014). ArchDaily Retrieved From: http://www.archdaily.com/505500/glacierskywalk-sturgess-architecture/

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Rohe, M. (1922). Hochhӓuser, Frühlicht 1(4) 124 As Translated by: Neumeyer, F. (1991).

The Artless World, Mies Van der Rohe on the Building Art London: MIT Press, As found in Cohen, J. (1996). Mies van der Rohe London: E & FN Spon p.26 Rybczynski, W (1998). The Architect LE CORBUSIER TIME as found on: http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988492,00.html Sadler, S. (2005). Archigram Architecture Without Architecture. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Sant'Elia, A (1914). Manifesto of Futurist Architecture Milan Schirren, M (2004). Bruno Taut Alpine Architecture Italy: Prestel Books (as translated by: Worpswede, J) Schirren, M (2004). Bruno Taut Alpine Architecture Italy: Prestel Books As found on: Sloterdijk, P. (2013, December, 4). Crystal Palace [Web log post]. Retrieved From: http://laboratoireurbanismeinsurrectionnel.blogspot.co.uk/2013/11/peter-sloterdijk-crystalpalace.html Schirren, M (2004). Bruno Taut Alpine Architecture Italy: Prestel Books As found on: Serra, J. (n.d.) Aproximación al Expresionismo (Doctoral Thesis) Retrieved From: http://juaserl1.blogs.upv.es/juanserralluch/cuando-color-en-la-historia-de-laarquitectura/color-en-la-arquitectura-de-las-vanguardias/expresionismo-bruno-taut/ Schirren, M (2004). Bruno Taut Alpine Architecture Italy: Prestel Books As found on: Kenneth, C (2014, April, 1) Ludwig Mies van der Rohe - German Pavilion, Barcelona Exhibition 1929 [Web log post]. Retrieved From: http://compositionx.blogspot.co.uk/2014/04/ludwig-mies-van-der-rohe-german.html Shelly, M. (2004). The Last Man Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Limited Sliver, L (2013). 15 Interior Design Trends From the '90s That You'll Never See Again

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