Skills and Cities Edinburgh Glasgow Belfast Dublin James Beardall Phil Noone Charlotte Rumsey Ben Tague
Edinburgh
City Location Plan
Border Main River Reference City
Scotland
Edinburgh
Northern Ireland
Ireland England
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Fig 1: Map G, Industry in Edinburgh and surrounding area, 1953 1 | Cardboard, Paper Boxes and Wrappers
16 | Rope, Cord, Twine
33 | Printing and Bookbinding
2 | Brass Castings (compression joints)
17 | Biscuits
34 | Beer
3 | Marine Accessories and Equipment (radar equipment)
18 | Stationery
35 | Paper Making Machinery
Electrical Plant and Appliances; Radio and Electronic Devices
19 | Structural Engineering
36 | Newspaper and Periodicals
Textile Equipment;
20 | Iron and Steel Castings
37 | Newspaper and Periodicals
4 | Wire and Wire Articles
21 | Cardboard, Paper Boxes and Wrappers
38 | Rubber Manufacturers
5 | Electrical Plant and Appliances
22 | Shipbuilders (other than ship repairers)
39 | Beer
6 | Printing and Bookbinding
23 | Cotton (fishing nets)
40 | Beer
7 | Clothing (suits, uniforms)
24 | Aluminium
41 | Biscuits
8 | Confectionery (sweets)
25 | Wire and Wire Articles
42 | Tin Boxes
9 | Marine Accessories (gears, engines, aircraft catapults)
26 | Wool (woven)
43 | Pharmaceuticals
10 | Iron and Steel Castings
27 | Paper
44 | Rubber Manufacturers
11 | Tea (Blended)
28 | Paper
45 | Light Fabricated and Sheet Metal Work
12 | Wool (woven), Wool (knitted)
29 | Paper
46 | Biscuits
13 | Stationery
30 | Marine Accessories (hydraulic appliances, cranes, gears)
14 | Paper Making Machinery
31 | Beer
15 | Agricultural Supplies
32 | Pharmaceuticals
47 | Oatmeal 48-49 | Paper
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Manufacturing and Trades: The Convenery of the Trades of Edinburgh The incorporations of Edinburgh are trade organisations whose members are “craftsmen” or “tradesmen” manufacturers, known as “freemen masters” of their particular trade. The freemen of the incorporations, who historically were burgesses of the burgh, were obliged to employ journeymen and to train apprentices, playing an important role in developing skills and industry in the city. Surgeons (and Barbers) In 1505 The Surgeons and Barbers of Edinburgh jointly received a Seal of Cause from the Town Council, forming them into a single incorporation. in 1778 the Incorporation of Surgeons was upgraded to the status of a Royal College.
goldsmiths, lorimers, saddlers, cutlets, buclar makers and armourers. Pewterers and locksmiths were included from an early date and gradually more recent crafts such as that of horology were added as they arose. The Incorporation of Hammermen exists today and is one of the largest and active incorporations in Edinburgh. It awards an annual prize for engineering and is also active in supporting the young and other charitable works.
Goldsmiths
Wrights and Masons In 1475, the Incorporation of Wrights was formed. The wrights were specialist wood-workers including ordinary joiners who were a grouping within the wrights. In 1475 the Incorporation of Masons was also formed. The Masons were stone-workers but included architects and other specialists. The two incorporations
Skinners In 1450 / 51 The Incorporation of Skinners of Edinburgh was formed in 1451 King James II granted a charter under the Great Seal, in which the customs duties on the importation of skins and salt were removed. In 1474 the Seal of Cause was granted to the Incorporation of Skinners.
Tailors The Incorporation of Tailors was formed in 1500. Tailors converted the products of the websters and waulkers into finished clothes. In 1584 King James VI wrote a polite letter to the Deacon of the Incorporation of Tailors in Edinburgh requesting that his personal tailor, Alexander Miller, might be admitted to the Edinburgh Incorporation, even though he had no connection to the Edinburgh trade and had not been apprenticed to a former master there. The Incorporation felt obliged to admit him and duly did so, even though it was contrary to their rules and against their normal practice.
As early as the 12th Century Goldmsiths have been working in Edinburgh. In 1525 they Separated from the Hammermen and in 1687 The Incorporation of Goldsmiths were confirmed when King James VII granted it a Royal Charter. The organisation formed due to a large number of members undertaking goldsmithing and the incorporation controlled all aspects of members work including admission to the craft, but crucially being able to assay and hallmark their work. They are called a ‘hallmark’ as they were struck in the incorporations hall as a sign of authenticity to buyers.
became known as the United Incorporation of Mary’s Chapel, deriving from their regular meeting place. The Incorporation of Wrights eventually comprised the five crafts of the wrights, bowmakers, plumbers, painters and upholsterers, while the Incorporation of Masons comprised the five crafts of the masons, coopers, glaziers, slaters & sievewrights.
Fig 2: Royal College of Surgeons, Edinburgh
Fig 3: Incorporation of Goldsmiths
Fig 4: Arms of the Skinners
Fig 5: Incorporation of the Hammermen
Furriers At the same time, in 1474, the Incorporation of Furriers was formed and manufactured articles of clothing from furs purchased from the skinners Fig 6: Incorporation Arms of the Tailors
Hammermen The Incorporation of Hammermen formed over a period of time between 1477-1483 due to the large number of trades involved. The Hammermen include a number of different crafts, all of which involved working with a hammer on metal. The Seal of Cause names blacksmiths, 486
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Baxters (bakers) In 1492 the Deacon of Baxters, sat on the Town Council with seven other Deacons of Crafts, however, it took until 1522 for the Incorporation of Baxters to form in Edinburgh. The Baxters were bakers in the burgh but also owned their own mills to grind grain into flour. These were mainly located along the Water of Leith, near the premises of the Skinners, known as the Dean Village. In 1619 the Incorporation built its Main Barn for the storage of the finest white flour for the making of bread on the north side of the Water of Leith a little upstream from the present Dean Bridge. Fleshers (butchers) Just before the Baxters, in 1490, the Incorporation of Fleshers (butchers) was formed in Edinburgh. The Fleshers handled all aspects of the meat trade from purchase to sale.
Cordiners (shoemakers) In 1509 the Incorporation of Cordiners (shoemakers) was formed. As a tradition, when a person became a member of the Incorporation they had to make a pair of shoes or boots, which were examined by two other shoemakers who were members of the incorporation. The applicant was allowed to join if the shoes were deemed to be good quality. Shoes were commonly made of leather in Edinburgh, in which they would have collaborated with the skinners and furriers. Websters (weavers) The weaving of cloth was practised as early as the 12th century in the royal burghs of Scotland including Edinburgh. However, the Incorporation of Websters was created in 1475 and most recently, in 1965, Edinburgh Guild of Weavers Spinners and Dyers, agreed to take responsibility for the Incorporation that was declining.
Candlemakers In 1488 (the date of the Fleshers’ Seal of Cause), and possibly earlier, the candlemakers of Edinburgh were associated with the Incorporation of Fleshers and shared the payment of stent with them. The reason for the candlemakers’ close connection with the Incorporation of Fleshers was that the candlemakers used tallow as their principal raw ingredient for their work, and tallow was a by-product of the fleshers’ trade. Between 1492 – 1517 the Incorporation of Candlemakers was granted its first seal of cause by the Town Council. Bonnet-makers and Dyers The Incorporation of Bonnet-makers and Dyers had originally been part of the Incorporation of Waulkers but in 1530 the bonnet-makers asked the town council of Edinburgh if they could have their own incorporation.
In 1684 the litsters (dyers) of Edinburgh joined the Incorporation of Bonnet-makers, which then became the Incorporation of Bonnet-makers and Dyers. In the current day, The Incorporation of Bonnetmakers and Dyers of Edinburgh exists for benevolent and social purposes, maintaining traditions of the past and to foster skills. The Incorporation encourages its members and those interested in its purposes to “maintain and promote the wellbeing of the City of Edinburgh, her citizens and the whole country in the widest possible way, relieving poverty and distress, fostering education and good citizenship and the preservation of the good and agreeable traditions of the community, all within the law of charity.”1
Fig 7: Incorporation of Baxters
Fig 8: Incorporation of Fleshers (butchers)
Fig 9: Incorporation of the Cordiners (shoemakers)
Fig 10: Incorporation of Websters (weavers)
Waulkers (cloth-finishers) In 1500 the Incorporation of Waulkers (cloth-finishers) was established as an intermediary trade that worked with the raw product from the weavers and finished it for export or sale to the public and tailors. The principal occupations of the craft were the fulling and shearing of cloth, the preparing of felt and the manufacture of felt hats.
Fig 11: Incorporation of Waulkers (cloth-finishers)
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Heavy Industry and Textiles:
Ship Building and Allied Industries 1913; Current Brown Brothers & Co. Hydraulic engineers, nonferrous founders and steel fabricators produce Steering Gear in Edinburgh for nautical industry. Machine Wire Weaving 1848 – 1953; Wire meshes produced for paper making industry and ‘Fourdrinier’ machine Shale Oil Industry 1850 – Current; Shale oil fields near Edinburgh are tapped for distilling shale oil for products. Most notably in Edinburgh are the pharmaceutical products manufactured for use in the medical industry. Linen Industry Yarn and Spinning was a large industry in Scotland
and Edinburgh from the early 18th century where in its height, it was claimed “All our women spin, and spin tolerabely well.”2
Fig 12: A battery of extractors in an Edinburgh Factory specialising in fine pharmaceutical products
Wool Industry: Edinburgh has a strong heritage for producing woollen products, as early as the 12th century. Most notably, from 1946 – Current the Edinburgh Woollen Mill. was founded as Langholm Dyeing and Finishing Company. Skill: dyeing of yarn, weaving Cordage (making rope) 1640; South Leith Roperie founded in Edinburgh producing ropes and in 1750 was reorganised as the Edinburgh Roperie and Sailcloth Company still in operation today; Currently is an important factory of British Ropes, Ltd and pioneered nylon cordage in Great Britain. Skills: spinning, laying. Hemp spun into yarn. Edinburgh Crystal Glass 1870 – Current; Edinburgh and Leith Glass Works was founded by the Jenkinson’s family manufacturing lead crystal glass until WWI, when in 1914, were acquired as Webb’s Crystal Glass Co. Since, full-lead glass wear known as ‘Edinburgh Crystal’ has been made and exported globally. Skills: hand-blown glass, glassblowing, annealing, hand decoration. Fig 13: The manufacture of some kinds of footwear from rubber. Some of the trade moved from Edinburgh to Dumfries 488
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Rubber 1855 – Current Henry Lee Noris established The North British Rubber Co. Manufacturing rubber goods. In particular, waterproof products such as shoes and wellington boots. Paper Industry 1590; the first handmade paper mill is set-up named ‘Dalry No.1’ in Edinburgh. During the 1700s handmade paper production increases steadily, but the introduction of the Fourdrinier Machine in the early 1800s saw paper production boom. Due to the industrial revolution and introduction of steam power, the increasing population demanding more paper led to the era of ‘Endless Paper Making’ between 1825 and 1861. Between 1800-1825 saw the last of the hand-made paper mills. In the current-day, Bertram’s of Sciennes and James Bertram & Son of Leith Walk are manufacturers and engineers of paper-making machines in Edinburgh exported globally.
Fig 14: Beating espar to grass pulp in a paper mill near Edinburgh. The plant was made in an Edinburgh engineering works
Map Printing Before technological advances, modern map printing was a branch of photo-lithography and required large amounts of skill to produce high quality maps. The map is drawn, engraved on copper, from which transfers are taken, adapted by artists and printed photographically on to metal plate machines. Colours are added using glass positives laid colour by colour before printing. Due to the technicalities of this method, there are only two print houses in Scotland that produced maps in this way during the mid 20th Century, John Bartholomew & Son and W. & A. K. Johnston, both in Edinburgh. Both were founded~1850. New technologies led to specialist cartographers in Edinburgh, the most notable being “the Edinburgh map-publisher John Bartholomew first introduced what was termed ‘contour layer colouring’ in a commercial series of maps.”3 These were of particular benefit to historic maps, along with other advances in printing technology not previously accessible. Skill: Cartography (map compilation) and printing
Fig 15: Edinburgh, Plate 26 of J G. Bartholomew’s ‘Survey Atlas of Scotland’, 1912, produced in Edinburgh Skills and Cities
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FIg 16: In the cellars of a large Edinburgh brewery where the beer is being racked into casks
Food, Drink & Tobacco Beer Up to 33 brewing companies existed in 1950 Edinburgh pioneering bottled beers for export. Jeffrey’s lager, brewed in Edinburgh is exported to more local countries. McEwan’s Scotch Ale exported mainly to Belgium and McEwan beers exported globally to the commonwealth and Canada. Tobacco 1770; John Cotton set up a tobacco retail shop, later expanding to create a factory and export warehouse in Easter Road supplying tobacco products, snuff and blending high-class tobaccos. From the 1860s – Current Thomson & Porteous set-up tobacco manufacturing in Edinburgh successfully developing a machine for spinning tobacco and presses producing tobacco products for export and snuff. From 1882 – Current John Mckinnell was founded as a family run business blending speciality tobaccos for smaller firms.
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Tea Blending A highly skilled craft that requires knowledge of the varying characteristics of teas to produce finest quality and taste. From 1750 - current Melroses and James Mclaren & Sons established tea houses in Edinburgh blending teas for export globally. Skill: Knowledge of tea characteristics and global climates, blending, packaging. Biscuits 1850; McVitie & Price and W. Crawford & Sons set up as a bakers, eventually progressing to biscuit production in Edinburgh. Most biscuits companies are in Edinburgh (and Glasgow) and still operate a family-run hierarchy which historically reduced labour issues and disputes. Most biscuit manufactures in Scotland produce biscuits, as well as cakes and shortbread. Oatmeal Oatmeal is a traditional breakfast cereal in Scotland with much production in Edinburgh. Processes and skills include milling the oats to flake them, before re-Think the Region
drying in the kiln. Kilning is the most important process where moisture content is reduced after the oats come from harvesting. At this stage, the drying process adds flavour to the product. This skill has been active in Scotland historically until the current day. Scotch Whisky Exported and appreciated globally for its unrivalled quality. The quality is said to be due to “the standards of craftsmanship and practical integrity to be found generally in Scotland , in the character of its people.”4 Due to the care taken in the manufacturing process and the soft water of Scotland, a quality only found in Scotland can be produced. Skill: Sourcing of crop to distil and characteristics of soil, air and water. Blending malt and grain whiskies.
Fig 17: Distilleries in the Lowlands of Scotland, 1953
Fig 18: Occupations of the People, 1901-1910, J.G. Bartholomew’s ‘Survey Atlas of Scotland’, 1912, produced in Edinburgh Skills and Cities
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Endnotes
Image Credits
“Incorporation of Bonnetmakers & Dyers.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed October 2, 2014. http:// edinburghtrades.org/bonnetmakers-dyers/.
Fig 1: Oakley, Charles Allen, ed. Scottish Industry: An Account of What Scotland Makes and Where She Makes It. Edinburgh: Scottish Council, 1953
Fig 10: Ibid.
Alastair J. Durie, The Scottish Linen Industry in the Eighteenth Century (Edinburgh: Donald, 1979), 38.
Fig 2: “Royal College of Surgeons” Press Dispensary, accessed 01 October 2014 www.pressdispensary.co.uk/ q99371/images/rcs_edinburgh.jpg
FIg 12: Oakley, Charles Allen, ed. Scottish Industry: An Account of What Scotland Makes and Where She Makes It. Edinburgh: Scottish Council, 1953
Fig 3: “Incorporation of Goldsmiths” Incorporation of Goldsmiths, accessed 02 October 2014, “http://www. incorporationofgoldsmiths.org/history
Fig 13: Ibid.
Fig 4: “Incorporation of Skinners” Edinburgh Trades, accessed 02 October 2014, http://edinburghtrades. org/skinners/
FIg 15: Bartholomew, J G, Survey Atlas of Scotland, Edinburgh: J G Bartholomew, 1912
1
2
Jeremy Black, Maps and History: Constructing Images of the Past (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1997), 50.
Fig 11: Ibid.
3
Oakley, Charles Allen, ed. Scottish Industry: An Account of What Scotland Makes and Where She Makes It. Edinburgh: Scottish Council, 1953 4
Fig 5: “The Hammermen of Edinburgh” Incorporation of Hammermen of Edinburgh, accessed 02 October 2014, http://www.hammermen.org/trades.html
Fig 6: “Incorporated Trades of Edinburgh” Edinburgh Trades, accessed 02 October 2014 Fig 7: Ibid. Fig 8: Ibid. Fig 9: Ibid.
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Fig 14: Ibid.
Fig 16: Oakley, Charles Allen, ed. Scottish Industry: An Account of What Scotland Makes and Where She Makes It. Edinburgh: Scottish Council, 1953 Fig 17: Ibid.
Fig 18: Bartholomew, J G, Survey Atlas of Scotland, Edinburgh: J G Bartholomew, 1912
Bibliography Black, Jeremy. Maps and History: Constructing Images of the Past. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1997. Durie, Alastair J. The Scottish Linen Industry in the Eighteenth Century. Edinburgh: Donald, 1979 “Incorporation of Baxters.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed October 2, 2014. http://edinburghtrades.org/ baxters/. “Incorporation of Bonnetmakers & Dyers.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed October 2, 2014. http:// edinburghtrades.org/bonnetmakers-dyers/. “Incorporation of Candlemakers.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed October 2, 2014. http:// edinburghtrades.org/candlemakers/. “Incorporation of Cordiners.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed October 2, 2014. http:// edinburghtrades.org/cordiners/.
“Incorporation of Skinners.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed October 2, 2014. http:// edinburghtrades.org/skinners/. “Incorporation of Surgeons.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed October 2, 2014. http:// edinburghtrades.org/surgeons/. “Incorporation of Tailors.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed October 2, 2014. http://edinburghtrades.org/ tailors/. “Incorporation of Waulkers.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed October 2, 2014. http:// edinburghtrades.org/waulkers/. “Incorporation of Weavers.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed January 20, 2015. http:// edinburghtrades.org/weavers/. “Incorporation of Wrights and Masons.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed October 2, 2014. http://
“Incorporation of Fleshers.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed edinburghtrades.org/wrights-masons/. October 2, 2014. http://edinburghtrades.org/ Oakley, Charles Allen, ed. Scottish Industry: An Account fleshers/. of What Scotland Makes and Where She Makes “Incorporation of Furriers.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed It. Edinburgh: Scottish Council, 1953. October 2, 2014. http://edinburghtrades.org/ “Royal College of Surgeons” Press Dispensary, furriers/. accessed 01 October 2014 www.pressdispensary. “Incorporation of Goldsmiths.” Edinburgh Trades. co.uk/q99371/images/rcs_edinburgh.jpg Accessed October 2, 2014. http:// “Society of Barbers.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed edinburghtrades.org/goldsmiths/. October 2, 2014. http://edinburghtrades.org/ “Incorporation of Goldsmiths” Incorporation of barbers/. Goldsmiths, accessed 02 October 2014, Thomson, Alistair G. The Paper Industry in Scotland, “http://www.incorporationofgoldsmiths.org/ 1590-1861. Edinburgh : London: Distributed history by Chatto and Windus, 1974. “Incorporation of Hammermen.” Edinburgh Trades. Accessed October 2, 2014. http:// edinburghtrades.org/hammermen/.
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Glasgow Heritage City Industry Skills
Introduction
Own Image (Height of image can vary)
Fig 1: Allan Line’s S.S Grampian moored in Princes Dock. At the time this was the bigggest of the Alan Line fleet.
With a population of 596,550 (2013) Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland and the chief industrial area within the country.1 The name ‘Glasgow’ is believed to be derived not from Gaelic but the welsh term ‘Glas-cu’ - meaning ‘Beloved green place’.2 Glasgow is situated on the River Clyde 46 miles west of the capital city of Edinburgh.
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Past skills evident in the city along with skills present today exist due to the cities strong lineage of industry. These industries are a direct result of the cities
in engineering, design and technology and grew to become a distinguished city for the manufacturing of chemicals, textiles and heavy industry- notably ship building.
A former merchant city and hub for transatlantic trade from the 18th century onwards, Glasgow followed the industrial revolution trend of embracing advancements
In the shadow of its ship building reputation, Glasgow also contained a diverse range of skills- from carpet manufacturing, leather processing, pottery and furniture making, to food, drink and cigarette making, as well as printing and publishing.
geographical location and its relationship with the river Clyde upon which it sits.
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City location
Fig 2: Location of the city in relation to its wider context of Scotland.
Key: Glasgow City
Scottish / English border
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Location informs the City
Sourced Image
City boundary (NTS)
The cities relationship and proximity to the river Clyde informed and directed its growth as an industrial giant of Scotland. Major key historic industrial areas can be seen to follow a distinct path along the river, used for transport and sea trade, a source of potential power and a logical area to build and develop ships and further heavy industry.
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Four distinctive stages to the city
Fig 3:
Fig 5:
Pre Medieval to Medieval settlements
Industrial city
Skills and Cities
Fig 4:
Merchant City
Fig 6:
Post industrial metropolitan
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The founding of Glasgow The first identifiable tribes in the region of Glasgow who left a trace of their existence were that of the Celtic Druids.3 This early demographic would have stood a high chance of coming into contact with members of the Roman Empire, as the Romans (circa 90AD) had a trade post in the area (the area being named Cathures at the time).3 In 543AD St. Mungo is said to have passed through and later settled in the Glasgow region (Glas-gu, interpreted as meaning ‘beloved green place’).
St. Mungo- meaning ‘dear one’ is the name of the man typically accepted as the founder and patron Saint of the city. Also known as St. Kentigern, St. Mungo sort refuge from his home region, where he faced apparent exile by his monastic brothers in Culross3 (a township 31 miles north east of Glasgow). St. Mungo established his own church on the banks of a tributary to the River Clyde called the Molendinar Burn3 where the Glasgow Cathedral now stands.
Fig 3:
Pre Medieval to Medieval settlements
The Merchant City After the reformation period, where intense scrutiny of the Catholic sphere took place all across Europe, Glasgow’s last Roman Catholic Archibishop James Beaton4 fled the city in 1560AD. This resulted in an increase in civic power which gave a platform for the regions craftsmen and merchants to become a more influential presence in the city. Exporting and importing trade to foreign shores had now begun and by 1649 Glasgow had become Scotlands fourth largest burgh4. It would only take just over 20 years for Glasgow to rise to the second largest burgh in the country behind Edinburgh. As previously mentioned the geographical location
of Glasgow being based upon the river Clyde meant that the city was an ideal access route and gateway to Ireland from both the Highlands and more importantly Edinburgh. Glasgow’s national presence and wealth was able to grow thanks to this siting of the city and a consistent supply of natural resources including fish, sugar and coal4. Glasgow’s first recorded tobacco cargo arrived in 16744 and by the end of the century the city had surpassed its medieval status and was a considerable presence around what is now the UK and the surrounding areas of Europe. Fig 4:
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Merchant City
An Industrial Giant As the industrial revolution spread throughout Europe Glasgow prospered. Its location on the west of Scotland facing the Atlantic along with the Treaty of Union in 1707 created a new and vast opportunity for trade with the colonial world in America.5 By 1730 vast amounts of American tobacco were being imported to Glasgow which were then distributed throughout Europe by Glasgow’s merchants- who due to this process of import and export, were to become the countries first millionaires.5 Glasgow’s merchants then sourced trade with the West Indies and started the importation of sugar in order to make Rum.
By the end of the 18th century the city was the unions largest sugar importer with countries such as Ireland largely dependant on Glasgow for the sugar required in its alcohol. The decline of cotton and tobacco trade in the mid 19th century due to the American Civil war meant the city turned its hand to heavy industry, particularly ship building. In a period from 1870 to 1914 Glasgow became a global industrial entity that produced almost one fifth of the worlds entire ships- allowing it to be ranked as one of Europes wealthiest cities that was ‘acclaimed as a model of organised industrial society’5. Fig 5:
Industry City
Fig 6:
Post industrial metropolitan
Glasgow as we know it In 1999 Glasgow won the title of UK City of Architecture and Design. This paved the way for the city to create further urban regeneration such as the Glasgow harbour project in 20016. The Glasgow harbour project aimed at rejuvenating the redundant shipyard and dockland that was an after thought of the cities industrial golden years. Residential, commercial, retail and leisure facilities were all integrated into the new district in order to maintain the cities metropolitan status.6
The city was recently described as a ‘Chic, modern city that proudly embraces its industrial heritage’7 which is echoed in the cityscape via the addition of modern buildings by world renowned ‘starchitects’ such as Zaha Hadid and her Riverside Museum of Transport. Glasgow demonstrated its presence as an international contemporary city recently, when the city staged the 2014 Commonwealth games.
Today Glasgow is an internationally renowned city with a wealth of heritage and culture that is woven into the fabric of Europe.
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City Industry- a diverse mixture From medieval skills such as agriculture, cordage and stone masonry through to Glasgow’s present array of skills commonly found in most contemporary cities throughout Europe, the period which has created a lasting legacy with regards to skills of the people who inhabit the city is the industrial revolution.
•
In 1953 there were 161 registered industrial firms in the city boundary of Glasgow.
•
The vast majority of these companies were a direct result of the industrial revolution and rapid expansion of the city.
Glasgow was an industrial giant in this period due to the previously mentioned import and redistribution of both cotton and tobacco from America to the rest of Europe. The wealth the city accumulated during this phase along with its location on the Clyde meant that when the American Civil War ended the fruitful trade relationship Glasgow was able to readapt straight into heavy industry, as well as other industries common throughout the UK at the time.
•
The diagram opposite communicates the location of industrial firms.
•
The diagram communicates a distinctive relationship between that of industry and the river as source provider for many means; such as transport for export and importing trade, power production or heavy industries such as ship building. This expresses the importance of the river to city skills
Fig 7: Ship building and releasing directly into the Clyde.
Fig 10: Biscuit and confectionary making.
•
The most prevalent industry is heavy industry- most reputably ship manufacture, iron / steel production, However there are also an array of industries concerning textiles, chemical manufacture and various forms of engineering.
•
Other skills developed over the past two centuries in the city include; biscuit production, sugar refining, fish products, scotch whiskey making, tobacco production through to the manufacture of explosives, pharmaceuticals, pottery, glass, printing and leather products.
and industry.
Fig 8: Scotch Whiskey production
Fig 11: Marine / ship accessories- wire rope (cable).
Fig 9: Iron and Steel forging, rolling and general manufacture.
Fig 12: Textiles- cordage / rope manufacture.
Opposite: Fig 13: A map highlighting all the registered industry business’s in the midst of the 20th century. 502
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Glasgow’s famous industry- Ship Building The most reputable industry of the city.
Skills included; •
Riveting
•
Steel construction
•
Engineering
•
Marine cable manufacture
•
Interior design / fit outs
•
Weld smiths
•
Propeller and engine assembly
•
Rope manufacture
•
Machinery operators Fig 14: An aerial looking over Govan, Patrick and a view down the Clyde.
Enormous building yards adorned the banks of the Clyde, such as the John Brown shipyard, the Prince and Queen docks. The vast expanse of the industry caused significant growth to Glasgow, however this declined in the early 20th century due to a global economic downturn that labelled Glasgow as a depressed area- despite the launching of the cunard liners the Queen Mary and the Queen Elizabeth from John Browns shipping yard on the Clyde bank. A small demand for merchant and navy ships managed to reduce the speed of the industries decline shortly after the end of world war two, however by the mid 20th century the demand for ships from Glasgow had had virtually stopped. This was down to lack of reinvestment into the ship construction sector and cheaper labour costs from emerging competitors overseas.8
Fig 15: In John Browns yard the cunard ordered Aquatania under construction in 1912.
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Fig 16: An aerial view showing the Titan crane in use during a build.
Fig 17: Skilled metal workers riveting the hull of a ship compartment.,
Fig 18: Men resting from work on the Clyde.
Fig 19: The ‘Titan’ crane had the ability to lift 175 tonnes at any given time, now it is used as a tourist attraction and is a recognised land mark of the city.
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Light industry as old as the City- Cordage Rope is an ancient and essential hand made tool that has been in use within the region of Glasgow for almost as long as the city has existed, as it would have been utilised by early Druid settlers as well as the Romans who frequented the area in the 1st century. Cordage or laid rope making is a skilled process that has potentially been a constant throughout Glasgow’s existence- through all major stages of the city. It’s extremely tactile and originally handmade up until
the industrial revolution replaced the hand making process with machine made ropes which were more economic and far stronger thanks to the use of steel wire and cable. The making of rope and its use in fishing and then in the shipping industry make it a skill that is inherently a part of Glasgow’s overlooked industries. Individual strands are twisted into groups- then twisted into three larger groups which are twisted again.
Fig 20: Hand made ropes still have a small demand but were a victim to the industrial revolution.
Fig 21: Strands upon strands are woven together in order to create strength in numbers.
A process of deconstructing a rope to understand its making.
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Above: Steel wire | Rope on wood by James Beardall . In the spirit of the Mars Studio the Skills and Cities group thought it a good idea to explore the skills and industries under examination. Above is a wire rope freying / dispersing into a tree like form. This model aims to represent the decline in laid hand made rope making due to the arrival of metal cable born in the industrial revolution, hence the rising of the wire. The method used was as in the laid rope making process, a selection of strands were clamped and spun together then re-spun with other cloisters of wire to create the rope or cable above. The dispersal of the wire as it rises represents the rapid decline of the industrial revolution in Glasgow after the great depression of the 1920’s. Skills and Cities
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Figure Index 1. S.S Grampian in Princes Dock. [online] Accessed on 20/01/15 Available at:http://legacy.history.co.uk/ shows/history-of-britain/history-of-glasgow 2. Map taken from Oakley, C. Scottish Industry 1953 3. Archeology Guard: [online] Accessed on 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.guard-archaeology.co.uk/ news12/OpenDayNews.html 4. The Glasgow Story: [online] Accessed on 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.theglasgowstory.com/ image.php?inum=TGSA00529 5. The Glasgow Story: [online] Accessed on 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.theglasgowstory.com/ image.php?inum=TGSA00529 6. Misty River: [online] Accessed on 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.mistyriver.co.uk/img/s3/ v44/p297600057-3.jpg 7. Glasgow History. [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.glasgowhistory.com/ sailing-down-the-clyde-%E2%80%9Cdoon-thewatter%E2%80%9D.html 8. Flickr. [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: https://c2.staticflickr.com/4/3355/3658985467_9ae 9ab3289.jpg 9. Metal Engineering. [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.wd-bearing.com/ upload//201002/04/2010241354560.jpg 10. Greedy Rosie. [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: https://greedyrosie.wordpress. com/2010/09/06/ 11. Industrial Cordage [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.wd-bearing.com/ upload//201002/04/2010241354560.jpg 12. Cordage: Rope making [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Rope 13. Map taken from Oakley, C. Scottish Industry 1953 14. Glasgow History. [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.glasgowhistory.com/ sailing-down-the-clyde-%E2%80%9Cdoon-thewatter%E2%80%9D.html 15. Glasgow History. [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.glasgowhistory.com/ sailing-down-the-clyde-%E2%80%9Cdoon-thewatter%E2%80%9D.html 16. Glasgow History. [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.glasgowhistory.com/ sailing-down-the-clyde-%E2%80%9Cdoon-thewatter%E2%80%9D.html 17. Glasgow History. [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.glasgowhistory.com/ sailing-down-the-clyde-%E2%80%9Cdoon-thewatter%E2%80%9D.html
References 18. Glasgow History. [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: http://www.glasgowhistory.com/ sailing-down-the-clyde-%E2%80%9Cdoon-thewatter%E2%80%9D.html 19. IB Times. [onine] Accessed on 20/01/2015 Available at: http://d.ibtimes.co.uk/en/full/400917/titancrane.jpg 20. Cordage: Rope making [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Rope 21. Cordage: Rope making [online] Accessed on: 20/01/15 Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Rope
1. Radical Glasgow [online]. Available at: http://www. gcu.ac.uk/radicalglasgow/chapters/the_name.html [Accessed 20 January 2015]. 2. Scotland.Gov [online]. Available at: http://www. gro-scotland.gov.uk/files2/stats/council-area-datasheets/glasgow-city-factsheet.pdf [Accessed 20 January 2015]. 3. Birth of a City [online]. Available at: https:// www.glasgow.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid=3295 Accessed on: 20 January 2015. 4. Glasgow City Council [online]. Available at: https:// www.glasgow.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid=3683 Accessed on: 20 January 2015. 5. Glasgow City Council [online]. Available at: https:// www.glasgow.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid=3122 Accessed on: 20 January 2015. 6. Glasgow City Council [online]. Available at: https://
www.glasgow.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid=31702 Accessed on: 20 January 2015. 7. The DailyMail [online]. Available at: http://www. dailymail.co.uk/travel/article-2054309/Glasgowcity-break-The-chic-gleaming-city-Europeanatmosphere.html Accessed on: 20 January 2015. 8. Glasgow City Council [online]. Available at: https:// www.glasgow.gov.uk/index.aspx?articleid=3372 Accessed on: 20 January 2015.
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Belfast
Above: Photo of the Causeway Stones
Belfast
BĂŠal Feirste, meaning mouth of the sandbanks Belfast Lies on the Estuary of the River Lagan in county Antrim in North Eastern Northern Ireland, the natural resources of the river are what provided Belfast with a lot of its indutry.
During our Field Research trip we visited not only Belfast but the surrounding areas of Ustler and County Antrim , travelling the entire northern coast of Northern Ireland through Randelstoen, Carrick-a-rede, the Giants Caueway and over to London Derry. From this extensive visit it was clear to see what Industries Survived and what Skills and Industries have perished. Along the way we have tried to pinpoint the direct skills invovd within certain Industries, the tools used and the Notable locations where these happened. The Skills and Industries are hugely Influenced by the cultural and political changes that have happened in Belfast. Out of the entire Celtic Region we have studied. Belfast has had one of the most turbulant histories of all. 512
Belfast is a hugely interesting city because of this turbulence and the creation of a city with many identies. One of the characterics of Belfast that struck us was the pride of the people. There is visible evidence of this pride thoughout the city with areas like Shankill road and the Titanic Quarter. These areas are also areas that were the birthplace of the cities growth, the Location development of Northern Island main idustries situated in these areas. Using the estuary to connect to the rest of the Uk and the world. Although the boom of Industy that began in the 1800’s has morphed into a different set of skills, there is still evidence of the strong indutrial heritage. We also managed to see some skills of a new birth of creative industry in the City. Thoughout this research the links with the other regional cities becmae apparent, such as the Harland and Woolfe Shipyards which has connections with Glasgow. Above: Martians on the Carrick-a-Rede Rope Bridge re-Think the Region
Fig 1: Historic map of Belfast. Skills and Cities
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Potato Farming Potatoes arrived in Europe as early as 1500’s from their origin thought to be south America. During the 1800’s Ireland was an agricultural country producing mainly Potatoes. The North East had the most fertile farm land as the South was more wet and boggy lands. Therefore the areas around Belfast became the biggest potato producers in Britain. The Irish were among the poorest in Western Europe during this time.The great potato famine killed a million people during 6 years from 1845. Although the famine killed a million people the Potato Industry did survive and Ireland is still famed for its beautiful tasting Potatos. During this time although the Southern Ireland was more populated the North had much more arable land. The South and West was too boggy and marshy for good Potato Yields. This
reputation lived up to it’s name on our visit to the City of Cork, that day saw the worst downpoors experienced on our entire Research trip. Although the Potato famring happened mainly outside of the City within the Rural areas it is this Indstry that birthed the City, a place of export for this crop. The Early town maps show just a few docks at the mouth of the River Lagan allowing crops to be trasnported to the UK and Europe. Although the crops could provide for both the public and be exported this was not a hugely profitible Industry. The people that worked in the fields were still some of the poorest people in Europe at the time. Although some Poato farming still goes on, Ireland now has a big Cattle Farming Idustry. The farming industry is massivly different today than it was in the early years. Now it will be heavily machine based. Because of this it was intersting to find bespoke tools developed purley for the early days of the Potato Industry in Ireland. (See Opposite)
Figure 2: Women using Loy Spades to Potato Farm
Skills: Sowers
Notable Locations:
- Sow the Potato Seeds using just a spade (A Loy) in long parallel lines, mixing in manure and crushed sea shells. The soil is turned (tilled) and the seeds are inserted, turned and buries in the fertilised soil. The trenches provided good drainage while growing. The ‘Lazy bed Process”
Rural North & East Ireland where the land is moist.
Harvesters - Potatoes were harvested by hand and stored in pits an acre of fertilised land could produce 12 tons of Potatoes. Notable Locations: Rural North East Ireland where the land is moist.
Fig 3: Digging for Potato’s in the Irish Potato Famine 514
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Loy Spade From the Gaelic word Lai meaning Spade. The Loy Spade was used before Factory made Spades. In Southern Ireland the Loy is also reffered to as a FACK. It has A long Ash Handle with a single footrest and metal blade, it is used to plough, allowing more leverage. This spade gave way to the development of spades used today sucha as the Garden spade bu thas now been replaced with machine ploughs. Although the Loy Spade is no longer used it as there are other methods availible. The tool itself is still thought fondly of. There is even a Loy associaation to honour the craft that has almost become extinct. The design of the Loy spade is unique to the area of which it is used. Adapting its form due to the soil conditons of that place.
Above: Photos of a Loy spade maquette
Fig4: Loy Spade Skills and Cities
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Linen Industry
Figure 5: Linen looms
-1770’s Domestic scale Spinning and Weaving -1820’s sees mechanisation of Linen Industry The Linen Industry became concentrated to the ‘LinenTriangle’ of East Ustler. Competition from mainland Britain textile Industries drove northern Ireland to rely on agriculture once again. The Linen Idustry encourged a boom of building within the city. The White Linen Hall was an International Linen Exchange. The Building sits in the centre of Belfast and is a representation of how the Linen Idustry shaped the city. With the linen Industry the population grew as people came to work in the mills and Belfast moved from a town to a City.
Figure 6: Histoic Plan of the White Linen Hall
Although such a prevelant Indusrty in the development in the CIties history, the industry soon had to fight compettion from the mainland which eventually bought on the demise of the Irish Linen boom. There is eveidence of Linen Manufacturing throughout the city but the Linen hall is probably the most notable piece of Archiecture that signifies thi slost industry.
Fig 7: Bleaching the Linen 516
Notable Locations: The Linen Hall now City hall Shankill Road and west Belfast also famous for ‘the Troubles’ Skills: Cultivators (Harvest the crop, and treat) Hecklers (Fibres are combed) Spinners (Fibres are spun into yarn) Weavers (Yarn then woven into fabric) Finishers (Dyed, coated, bonded & printed)
Figure 8: The Linen Hall 1785 re-Think the Region
Tobacco Industry
Figure 9: Murray’s Tobacco Factory
Tobacco Industry took off in 1810 with the production of Tobacco for Pipes and later morphed into Cigarettes manufacturing for well known brands such as B&H, Mayfair and Silk Cut. There were a few competeting Tobbacco Manufacturer such as Gallaher’s Murrays & Goodbody’s. The skills involved were mainly carried out by women; the Gallaher Girls became well known figures within the city.
Figure 11: Historic Advert of the Gallaher Tobacco Factory
Women played a key role in factories like this during war time. The York street factory was bombed badly during the Belfast Blitz in 1941. Skills: Rollers, Strippers, Trimmers Packers Notable Locations: Junction of Sandy Row, Boyne Bridge and Hope Street. York Street
Figure 10: The Gallahher Factory Cigarette Card
Figure 12: Women at work at the Goodbody’s Tobacco Factory Skills and Cities
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Shipbuilding Industry Harland and Wolff was the biggest Ship builders in the world at one point, Employing 35,000 in Belfast. Most of whom were working class laborers and lived close to the docklands. Harland and Wolff famous for creating the Titanic for White Star line Cruise Ships. Workman Clark & Co also occupied the Docklands for Shipbuilding. Harland and Wolff still running today, but specialising in off shore rigs. During our Field Research we went to the docklands which is a huge expnsive area, Parts are still in Operation and parts are facing re-development plans. This area named the Titanic quarter which has a museum and preservation of Titanic’s dock, is a big tourist atraction in the City, and the city recognises its responsibilty to preserve one of the greatest locations of Ship building history. Skills: Designers Engineers Riveters Boiler makers Sheet metal makers Crane Makers
Fig 13: Construction of Titanic and Olympia
Belfast’s biggest and most famed industry is it’s shipbuilding industry. The shipbuilders of Harland and Wolff rule the skyline in Belfast with the huge Cranes dominating the skyline.
Before and During both world wars Belfast was a huge city in the creation of ships. The land that is situated in the Estuary is mas made as part of the demand for shipbuilding. The Industry still exisits although it produces more Offshore Equipment than Ships.
Noteable Locations: Belfast docks on the River Lagan Estuary
‘The Irish writer, Filson Young likened the scene to the construction of half-a-dozen cathedrals’
Fig 14: Construction of Titanic and Olympia 518
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The Ships Yards Of Belfast ‘Twas not by nature’s handiwork Those mighty piles were raised , But years of grim unceasing toil, That held the world amazed; Undaunted heart, and steady hands, With fortitude-at last There rose from out the swirling flood, The shipyards of Belfast.
Time has revealed how man can win Though nature would opress, if they but breed a strudy race, Above: Photo of Titanic Drawng Rooms
Riveting is one of the most widely used forms of fixing, and came to fame during the early years of steamship building as one of the most required skills in the making of ships. Other skills were broken down even from this including roles as catchers and passers, who would through molten rivets to the catchers who would catch them in a cone shaped catcher and pass them to the riveter.
Luckily while at the docks we were able to agin entry to the origional drawing rooms where the Titanic and other Ships were designed and drawn up. It was sad to see it in such a neglected state, compared to what it used to be (Below). The Room had a wonderuful quality of light as seen above, needed for drawing when ships such as Titanic were built.
And steadfast hearts possess. ‘Twas not her boasted chivalry Dim idyll of the past, That damned the floor and raised aloft, The shipyards of Belfast.
The mighty deeds of bygone days Live but in history’s page, And graceful arts portray the gifts Of each successive age; But how can man enrich the soil By worshipping the past, It was not thus how men produced
Fig15: Titanic Drawng Rooms
Above: Peeling Paint in the Drawig room. Skills and Cities
The shipyards of Belfast. ‘Songs of the Shipyard and other poems’ 1921 Thomas Carnduff, 1886-1956
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Samson & Goliath Famous Landmarks on the Skyline of Belfast, the cranes Samson and Goliath were constructed from 1969-1974 by the German Krupp Group as part of the Harland and Wolff Docks. The Cranes dominate the skyline and with such biblicle names it is clear to see what they mean to the city. Their striking yellow can be seen from all over the city. They have become an icon of the city bearing the initials of the shipbuilders that bought them to the city.
Above: Harland and Wolff Cranes behing barbed wire.
Above: MonoPrint of Samson and Goliath Prints 520
Above: MonoPrint of Samson and Goliath Prints re-Think the Region
Above: Callograph of Samson and Goliath Prints
Figure Images
References
Fig 1: ‘Historic Map” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://maps.osi.ie/publicviewer/
Fig 13:”Riveters” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 https://www.facebook.com/HarlandWolff
[Online] Accessed 20 October 2014 http://www. loyassociation.ie/History/history.html
Fig 2: “Women Ploughing ” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://www.bshs.org.uk/travel-guide/irish-linencentre-and-lisburn-museum-northern-ireland
Fig 14: “Shipbuilding” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://www.irishtimes.com/working-lives-18931913-exhibition-1.1571789
[Online] Accessed 16 October 2014 http:// www.irishtimes.com/working-lives-1893-1913exhibition-1.1571789
Fig 3: “Digging for Potatoes” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://www.askaboutireland.ie/learningzone/primary-students/3rd-+-4th-class/history/thehistory-of-food-and-f/early-irish-diet/the-potato-inireland/
Fig 15: “Inside the ship” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://www.nmni.com/titanic/Design-Build.aspx
[Online] Accessed 22October 2014 http://www.nmni. com/titanic/Design-Build.aspx [Online] Accessed 22October http://www. fergusonsirishlinen.com/pages/index. asp?title2=History-of-Irish-Linen&title1=About-Linen
Fig 4: “A Loy Spade” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://www.thedailyspud.com/2013/08/12/tullamoreshow-potatoes-loy-digging/
[Online] Accessed 22 October http://www.irishlinen. co.uk/whatislinen/
Fig 5: “Linen Looms” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://photosales.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/media/ u3bKqX6leDrx8DoLbIRBEQ..a
[Online] Accessed 15 October -http://www.gutenberg. org/files/31992/31992-h/31992-h.htm
Fig 6: “Historic Map” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://photosales.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/media/ u3bKqX6leDrx8DoLbIRBEQ..a
[Online] Accessed 15 October http://www.harlandwolff.com
Fig 7: “Bleaching the Linen” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://www.bshs.org.uk/travel-guide/ irish-linen-centre-and-lisburn-museum-northernireland Fig 8: “The White Linen Hall” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb. ancestry.com/~econnolly/books/additionalsidelights/ as_donegall_place.html Fig 9:”Murrays Tobacco Factory” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://pipesmagazine.com/forums/topic/ murray-sons-and-company-tobacco-works-of-belfastireland Fig 10:”Gallaher Factory” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://archiseek.com/2012/1896-gallahertobacco-factory-york-street-belfast/#.VL6Xdr48pHw Fig 11: Ibid Fig 12: “Tobacco Workers” [Online] Accessed 20 January 2015 http://www.irishtimes.com/working-lives-18931913-exhibition-1.1571789 Skills and Cities
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Dublin
Balbriggan
Fingal
Ch
ap
Central
eliz
od
Dublin
The Docklands
The Liberties Ringsend
Fig 1: Historical map showing locations of interest c1835
Dublin In understanding the skills and the city of Dublin, this study will focus on the industries and the associated skills that accompanied them. Understanding the work that much of the city’s residents were involved in throughout history should provide a good idea of the skills its residents learnt to help shape this historic city. The city does not have same history of heavy industries as found in Belfast and Glasgow, and the lack of fossil fuels in Ireland meant that any coal used in industrial 524
processes was usually imported from Britain. The main industries found in Dublin, and the ones which this study will concentrate on, were the textile and drinks industries. In studying these industries, the investigation will look at their evolution within the city and surrounding county and how the skills and technologies evolved with them. It will also look at how these industries did not stand alone in their skills and development and re-Think the Region
were accompanied by supporting industries and skills which were crucial to their success. We will also see how many of the industries and skills have now left Dublin and consider some of the factors which led to this.
Textiles
The textile industry was the most important industry to the city of Dublin throughout the 18th and 19th Centuries. The industry started with wool, then expanded into cotton and linen production, before emergence of specialist industries such as silk and poplin production in the city.1
The Liberties “The Liberties area of Dublin was synonymous with textile production in the eighteenth-century. Following an Act of Parliament in 1662 encouraging immigration, Dublin city experienced an influx of Anglican weavers from the west of England as well as Protestants from the continent fleeing persecution.”2 The image on the right shows the area around Weaver’s Square which was used as a market, where traders “would deal in raw materials... to service the growing industries.” 3 The “large open fields to the south [were the] tenterfields”4 used for the process of tentering, where “cloth or skins were stretched on wooden frames to dry and cure”.5 Weaver’s Square and the tenterfields, including the wooden posts used to stretch the materials, are depicted in John Roque’s 1754 map shown on the right., demonstrating the presence the textile industry had on the landscape of the city in the 18th Century.
Fig 3: John Roque’s map of Weaver’s Square and surroundings 1754
In 1815, the Stone Tenter House was built on Cork Street, Dublin. The building was heated by “four furnaces”7 and allowed workers to stretch and cure cloth in all weather conditions, increasing the productivity of the industry. The Irish textile industry became so successful that it started to become a problem for the English textile
industry, so much so that the “English Government issued new rules ... and new taxes”8 to discourage the use of Irish poplin in England. “This eventually cased the weaving industry in Dublin to decline”.9 The Stone Tenter House was then left abandoned before it “opened as a refuge for the homeless”10 in 1861.
The tentering process of “washing, fulling and hanging woollen cloth”6 and the associated tools are shown below.
Fig 2: Tentering Engraving.
Fig 4: Stove Tenter House, Cork Street Dublin, 1818 Skills and Cities
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Chapelizod
Fig 5: Historical map of Chapelizod c1835
Chapelizod During the 17th Century in the Chapelizod area of greater Dublin, there was “significant textile industry centred on the River Liffey [producing]... army linen, diaper, ticking, sailcloth, cordage... and other textiles... but by 1691 the linen industry at Chapelizod had failed”11 Amongst the contributing factors to the decline in the industry at Chapelizod was “the withdrawal of a contract for the supply of woollen goods to the army.”12 By the 18th Century, the former “linen manufactory” was 526
replaced by “industries such as a woollen processing and silk production mill” and by the beginning of the 19th Century the revival of the textile industry in Chaplizod saw the addition of “two fulling mills... a woollen mill and a linen manufactory”. In the mid 19th Century a “thread spinning mill” was established by William Dargan, which was eventually purchased and “converted... to a distillery.”13 This highlights the reuse of the industrial buildings in Dublin, where the resurgence of an industry following its decline meant not only were buildings repurposed for new uses but the skills of the re-Think the Region
industries were developed along with new technologies and rediscovered by the city’s inhabitants.
Fig 6: Historical map of Balbriggan and Fingal
Balbriggan and Fingal In the more rural areas of Balbriggan and Fingal to the north of the city, “cotton manufacture” was developed after its introduction by “Baron Hamilton” in 1780. “The firm Smyth and Company established before moving to Balbriggan. Smyth and Company gradually and steadily gained in reputation and Balbriggan products became known the world over.” In 1783 “Smyth and Co. occupied what was known as Upper Mill... with the Drogheda Linen Company operating out of Lower Mill on Mill Street.”14 During the early 19th Century, Smyth and Company “began producing openwork stockings which were to become a favourite of Queen Victoria and the Tsarina of Russia and the Drogheda Linen Company developed their factories to take “advantage of mechanisation... developing power from water turbines and installing weaver looms from Lancashire.” The company specialised “in bed sheets, pillowcases, tablecloths and mattress coverings.” By the middle of the 19th Century the area was home to “two thriving large factories powered by a combination of steam engine and waterwheel – together providing 84 horsepower... to drive 7500 spindles for spinning... cotton, [producing around] 7400lbs per week, giving employment for around 300 people.” Between 1867-1882 – “Smyth and Co built new premises [containing] the most up-todate machinery” before it was “destroyed by fire”. The factory was then “rebuilt on a larger scale [and] fitted with the latest machinery”.15 In 1884 an “English firm Deeds, Templar and Co established... Balbriggan Banks Hosiery Company. The factory was destroyed by the Black and Tans in 1920” during the Irish War of Independence. (Carrig 2011)
Fig 7: Smyth and Co. Factory
In 1887 the Drogheda Linen company was purchased by and became “Charles Gallen and Co and continued operating with marked success into the late 20th Century”.16 As well as the large and mechanised version of the textile industry in the area, throughout the 19th Century there was also a large “cottage industry” of “tambour-work”, which is pictured on the right. This demonstrates that alongside the skills carried out in the area’s factories, the skills of the textile industry were also being used on a smaller scale, with “more than 700 women [working and producing textiles] in their homes.”17
Skills and Cities
Fig 8 and Fig 9: Tambour work process and tools
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Fig 10: Historical map of Golden Triangle c1835
The Drinks Industry The Golden Triangle, The Liberties “Brewing, after textiles, was the second most important Irish industry of the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1804 there were 55 brewers in Dublin, of which c.30 were in the Liberties.” The Liberties area contained, “at one stage... 37 different operational distilleries”.18
Perhaps the largest, most famous and most important of these breweries and distilleries were the Jameson and Son’s Distillery on Bow Street and St James’s Gate Brewery of Arthur Guinness, these are the two that will be looked at in detail. Jameson and Son’s Distillery, Bow Street “A city inside a city”19 The distillery at Bow Street was established in 1780. John Jameson was “initially the General Manager, before taking full ownership and enlarging the distillery in 1805. By 1810, it had been officially renamed to John Jameson & Son” and grew to “upwards of 5 acres by 1886.”20 Jameson and Son’s distillery became known as “a city inside a city”21 due to the scale of the production and the site containing a large amount of the supporting industries it required to function. Alongside “the necessary distilling works, [the site housed] a Smithy, Cooperage, Saw Mills, Engineers, Carpenters, Painters and Coppersmiths’ Shops. The water came from two deep wells underneath, where it was said an oak forest from Celtic times had once stood, which gave this water very special qualities.”22 528
Fig 11: Jameson and Son’s Distillery, Bow Street in 1886
“Three hundred men were employed on the premises and many were “hale and hearty old men; one old veteran was over eighty-six years of age”.” 23 The distillery operated successfully into the 20th Century, however “it suffered like all Irish distilleries from the introduction of Scottish blended whiskies, American prohibition and Ireland’s Trade War with Great Britain.”24 “The Bow Street Distillery became one of the last
distilleries in Ireland to close, the stills going cold in 1971, when the production of Jameson whiskey was transferred to Midleton. The millions of bottles of Jameson whiskey produced each year from Midleton still embrace the Bow Street, Dublin 7 address on their labels.”25
re-Think the Region
Fig 12: Jameson and Son’s Distillery, Bow Street in the 1920s
Fig 13: St James’s Gate Brewery Railway
St James’s Gate Brewery, The Liberties
In 1759 Arthur Guinness purchase lease at St James’s Gate Brewery “and began to brew a new beer known as porter. Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the brewery expanded and grew with the construction of storehouses, brew houses and malthouses which has had a profound impact on the streetscape of this section of the city. Its close proximity to the River Liffey and the Grand Canal was an essential element in its growth during this period. Indeed the use by the Brewery of the canal resulted in the survival of the Grand Canal Harbour as a transport hub into the second half of the twentieth century.”26
Fig 14: St James’s Gate Brewery aerial view, 1939
“The Guinness Brewery, by the 1830s, was the largest brewery in Ireland. Today, the brewery is the biggest industrial complex in the city centre, covering a site of c.60 acres and providing some of the most distinctive features of the city’s skyline.”27 As with the Jameson and Son’s Distillery, the brewing industry at St James’s Gate required supporting industries to thrive. The expansion of this industry saw mountains of barrels line the city’s skyline created by the on-site coopers as seen on the right. There was also a thriving bottle making industry in Ringsend area of Dublin to the south of the docks. The availability of sand in Ringsend and proximity yo the port for importing “coal to melt the sand” meant Ringsend was the perfect location to support the industry.28 “In 1880 the Irish Glass Bottle Company ... 86,400 bottles per week”to support the “many breweries, whiskey distilleries and soft drinks factories”29 in Dublin.
Fig 15: St James’s Gate Brewery cooperage yard, 1939
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Cooperage, St James’s Gate Brewery, The Liberties
The Process
“Wooden casks were used by Guinness for almost two hundred years [before they were gradually replaced by aluminium and then stainless steel casks]. Three hundred coopers were employed at Guinness but by 1961 this number had declined to only 70. The last wooden cask was filled at St. James’s Gate brewery in March 1963.”30 The skill of the cooper is precise and impressive. “The staves and hoops [the elements which form a cask] remain in place purely because they are precisely fashioned.”
“The process of making a cask might involve the use of over thirty different types of tool, mostly used for cutting and paring the wood. Many stages were involved and a cooper might have several casks on the go at once rather than following one through, at a time, from beginning to end.”32
The art of coopering “was only learned through a rigorous apprenticeship, which might take from five to seven years... The cooper did not rely on written measurement or patterns to make a cask of specific size. Everything was gauged by the eye and perfection was required since each cask must be airtight, strong enough to withhold the force of fermenting beer, and sufficiently durable to withstand years of rough handling.”31
The process begins with preparing the staves “which were traditionally made using Prime American White Oak. The wood required ‘seasoning’ or drying... for a minimum of two years.” Each stave was shaped individually with angled edges “to form a watertight seal”. “The staves were then brought together in the next stage known as ‘raising up’. Here staves were gathered and placed standing upright inside a metal hoop forming the cask shape.. The cooper then fixed the staves roughly together by hammering a hoop down over their top end.” The staves were then bent using a “steam bell” before being charred to dry the cask out and seal it.33
The cask was then prepared to receive its bottom and top, or heads, before the heads were made by joining “several individual planks”. The planks are then shaped to the precise dimensions of each individual cask by measuring it with a compass. The cooper would then make a “set of hoops which were hammered down over the staves” to form the finished cask.34
Fig 16: Shaping staves with an axe
Fig 17: Finishing stave edges with jointer
Fig 18: Rasing up the cask
Fig 19: Steam bell lowered over the cask
Fig 20: Charring the inside of the cask
Fig 21: Cutting the groove with a croze
Fig 22: Measuring head with a compass
Fig 23: Bevelling edges of head
Fig 24: Forming set of hoops
Fig 25: Fitting hoops onto cask
530
re-Think the Region
Image Credits
End Notes
Fig 1: OSI Map, 2014. Ordinance Survey Ireland. http://maps.osi.ie/pu
1
blicviewer/#V1,591271,743300,0,10
ie/NR/rdonlyres/EBE7C28D-FAD2-42EA-92BD-8CC2CFA0809F/0/
Fig 2: Irish Historical Textiles, 2014. Irish Historical Textiles. www.
DublinHistoricIndustryDatabaseReport.pdf.
pinterest.com/pin/55169164155484265/
2
Ibid., 5.
Fig 3: Roque, J. 1754. Weaver’s Square Map http://comeheretome.
3
Ibid.
com/2014/08/01/drunken-vagabonds-and-lawless-desperadoes/
4
Ibid.
Fig 4: Stove Tenter House Cork St, 1815. Archiseek.com. http://
5
Ibid.
archiseek.com/2011/1815-stove-tenter-house-cork-st-dublin-
6
ireland/#.VL6zHC5GiSo
pinterest.com/pin/55169164155663860/.
Fig 5: OSI Map, 2014. Ordinance Survey Ireland. http://maps.osi.ie/pu
7
blicviewer/#V1,591271,743300,0,10
2014,
Fig 6: Ibid
dublin-ireland/#.VL65-y5GiSo.
Fig 7: Fingal Local Studies, 2014. Fingal Local Studies. https://www.
8
flickr.com/photos/fingallocalstudies/
9
Fig 8: Use tambour hooks, 2014. Rajmahal.com. http://www.rajmahal.
10
Ibid.
com.au/pages.php?pageid=15
11
Carrig, ‘Dublin Historic Industry Database’, 5.
Fig 9: Rogers Cooper, G. 1968. The Invention of the Sewing Machine.
12
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32677/32677-h/32677-h.htm
https://sites.google.com/site/covachapelizod/history-sources/ball.
Fig 10: OSI Map, 2014. Ordinance Survey Ireland. http://maps.osi.ie/
13
Carrig, ‘Dublin Historic Industry Database’, 5.
publicviewer/#V1,591271,743300,0,10
14
Ibid., 6.
Fig 11: The Ireland Whiskey Trail, 2014. Bow Street Distillery,Dublin.
15
Ibid.
http://www.irelandwhiskeytrail.com/?pg=jameson_distillery_bow_
16
Ibid.
street_dublin.php
17
Ibid.
Fig 12: Ibid
18
Ibid.
Fig 13: The Guinness Collectors Club, 2014. The St. James’s Gate
19
Ireland Whiskey Trail, ‘The Ireland Whiskey Trail’, 2014, http://www.
Brewery Railway and Locomotives,. http://www.guinntiques.com/
irelandwhiskeytrail.com/?pg=jameson_distillery_bow_street_dublin.
stjamesgaterailway.aspx
php.
Fig 14: Cornell, M.
2012. Zythofiile: Beer now and then. https://
20
Ibid.
zythophile.wordpress.com/2012/06/28/guinness-myths-and-
21
Ibid.
scandals/
22
Ibid.
Fig 15: Ibid
23
Ibid.
Fig 16: Guinness Archive, 2014. Archive Fact Sheet: Cooperage. http://
24
Ibid.
www.guinness-storehouse.com/en/docs/Coopering_Process.pdf
25
Ibid.
Fig 17: Ibid
26
Carrig, ‘Dublin Historic Industry Database’, 7.
Fig 18: Ibid
27
Ibid.
Fig 19: Ibid
28
Dublin City Public Libraries, ‘The Irish Glass Bottle Company,
Fig 20: Ibid
Ringsend’,
Fig 21: Ibid
buildings/irish-glass-bottle-company.
Fig 22: Ibid
29
Ibid.
Fig 23: Ibid
30
Guinness Archive, ‘Archive Fact Sheet: Cooperage’, 2014, 1, http://
Fig 24: Ibid
www.guinness-storehouse.com/en/docs/Coopering_Process.pdf.
Fig 25: Ibid
31
Ibid., 2.
32
Ibid., 3.
33
Ibid., 4.
34
Ibid., 4–5.
Skills and Cities
Carrig, ‘Dublin Historic Industry Database’, 2011, https://www.gsi.
Irish Historical Texiles, ‘Irish Historical Textiles’, 2014, http://www. archiseek.com, ‘1815 - Stove Tenter House Cork St., Dublin, Ireland’, http://archiseek.com/2011/1815-stove-tenter-house-cork-st-
Ibid. Ibid.
COVA, ‘Ball - History of Chapelizod & the Pheonix Park’, 2014,
2010,
http://dublincitypubliclibraries.com/dublin-
531