Ornament & Making

Ornament & Making An investigation into the relationship between the architect and making and how this manifests itself in the use of ornament in practice.

University of Strathclyde Architecture Department Reg no. 201343280

Jessica Gaudi Cowan

Preface

This dissertation stemmed from a desire for contrast and context in my architectural knowledge. As an somewhat ignorant minimalist, completely enthralled by the work and philosophy of Peter Zumthor and Kengo Kuma, I have been blissfully ignorant of the presiding and more local architecture discourse. I chose to study ornament because as a maker myself, I have always quietly appreciated it but never afforded myself such excess in my own practice. Perhaps that will change.

I would like to thank my supervisor, Mike Grant for his support, encouragement and guidance throughout the writing of this dissertation. I’d also like to thank my family and friends for their invaluable support.

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Contents

Abstract pg 3

Introduction pg 7

Chapter 1: The Architect and the Theorist pg 11

1.1: The Ornamental Debate 1.2 Escaping Modernism 1.3 Postmodernism

Chapter 2: The Architect and the Artist pg 17

2.1: Architectural style 2.2 Ornament and Object

Chapter 3: The Architect and the Craftsman pg 33

3.1 The Role of the Architect 3.2 Communication and Information

Chapter 5: The Architect and the Future pg 45

5.1 Conclusions

References & Bibliography pg 51

Figures

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Abstract Why architects should reconnect with ornament & craft.

This dissertation is an exploration of the role of craft in architectural practice and modern manifestations of ornament, to imagine potential futures in contemporary architectural practice in the UK. An investigation of the historic uses and motivations for the use of ornament will inform the propositions of techniques to re-engage the user and architect with ornament. The connection between the tangible and intangible processes of architecture is also examined. The role of craft and building in a literal rather than virtual manner is discussed with the hypothesis that greater connection between the architect and his mediums may produce more decorative or communicative outcomes.

The investigation is structured in a series of chapters exploring roles which intersect with the practice of an architect. This structure, firstly, highlights the plethora of roles an architect can potentially undertake when practicing and secondly, lists influences or viewpoints which propose arguments for and against reconnecting architecture with ornament and the benefits of increased experience with material.

Architecture has a permanence and scope unique to its condition. As the cross section where art and science converge, there is inherent tension in the outcome between its existence as a functional object and an art object. In light of this complexity, this dissertation seeks to prove that these are not two dimensional scaler properties. Ornament is the historic voice of the architect and the traditional technique for separating the primary architecture from the secondary decorative elements. (Picon 2013) Modernism saw the shedding of decoration in favour of the built object as an ornament in its own right.

The paradigm shift of modernist thinking sought to move the role of art and communication away from placed decoration and into integrated form,

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journey and narrative. (Venturi 1977) Buildings and their programs became symbols of lifestyle and values. This shift is characterised by the review of spatial standards to accommodate the post war rise of consumerism, and socio-economic reshuffling.

In the age of specialisation, Architects too have become far removed from the craftsmen and materials that realise their designs. The role of the architect has become fragmented, pulled in various directions as the complexity of the built environment grows. Architects are working ever more virtually in the most tangible of sciences.

Contemporary architecture in the UK may be on the cusp of an ornamental renaissance. Minimalism and the post-industrial aesthetic are running their course. If the cycling of history is to continue, this would suggest the reemergence of ornament and craft, but what shape will this take? (E. Heathcote 2015) Society has changed a lot since the Modernists. Technologically the environment is vastly different. It is demanded that architecture responds to it’s context. (Frampton 1983) Decoration and craftsmanship have always been near to the heart of British sensitivities (Slessor 2016) It could be understood that during the rise of Critical Regionalist thinking, that ornament can be gin to be reclaimed by architects in new, creative but modest applications, in order to reconnect with the public and the context of the UK as a whole.

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Introduction An introduction to the context and motivations.

Introduction to the Context The motivation for this body of work is to further the discussion on the subject of ornament and its communicative value. In this investigation ornament is regarded as the primary technique used by the architect to communicate with the user.

Other theories of contemporary ornament raise further questions, perhaps ornament has not disappeared as such but has ceased to be used in the traditional applique fashion, its role has simply subverted into a different language. Alina Payne (2015) argues that perhaps Loos was correct in predicting the decline in ornament, but perhaps this just meant ornament in its current application. She theorises the move from ornament to object. Perhaps this approach, with the aid of digital manufacturing could reconnect the architect with ornament. But this opens up the debate of the role and hand of the craftsman.

Statement of the Problem This dissertation will investigate the historic evolution of architectural ornamentation, drawing on theories and manifestos of Robert Venturi and Le Corbusier and applying to a UK context. The writing of Loos and Ruskin will provide historic insight to the ornament, craftsmanship and historicism discourse. This body of work looks at the architect’s relationship with tangible craft and ornamental theory and whether reconnecting the architect with physical craft would aid their use of ornament to this end. Contemporary theorists on the subject of ornament Antione Picon and Alina Payne set the tone of current ornamental theory. The work of Caruso St John and FAT

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Architecture inform decorative architectural trajectory. Contemporary voices on subjects of ornament and sociology such as Edwin Heathcote, Owen Hatherley and Cathrine Slessor provide a current analysis of architecture and society.

The term style in architecture emerged in the 19th century as culture widened enough to distinguish its differences, discovered through endeavours like the grand tour. (Picon 2013) Geographical differences and the aesthetics that emerged from cultural communities are the crux and origins of architectural style. Cultures adorn themselves to reinforce their ideals and unite people.

Modernism and the International style changed this. In an effort to simplify and therefore unify the international communities that were beginning to form, buildings became similar and the beginnings of what could be understood as “universal civilisation” (Frampton 1983). We now live in a globally integrated community in the UK but perhaps turning our back inexclusively on the past has had unpredicted consequences.

Methodology My research to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter will include the following research topics: •

Literature reviews to gather a broad grasp of ornamental theory and craft and the relationship these have to the changing role of the architect.

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Analysis of ornamental, minimalist, modernist and postmodernist theory.

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Exploration of the current appetite for ornament and analysis of contemporary and examples that retain ornamental elements.

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Investigation into the role that the senses and material relationships affect the use of or desire for ornament.

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Discussion about the effect technology has had on the use of ornament.

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Discussion of topics raised at the Venice Biennale 2018 to apply the ideas of this dissertation to contemporary architectural discourse.

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Figure 1 : (Jones 1868) A pattern plate from The Grammar of Ornament by Owen Jones.

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1.

The Architect & the Theorist A discussion of the current cultural and academic views on ornament.

1.1 The Ornamental Debate The subject of ornament can prove divisive. The general consensus in contemporary architecture, thanks to the some misinterpretation of Loos and 1970s kitsch, is that ornament is dead. (Heathcote 2015) Decoration which was once loved because of the wealth it represented became tacky in the wake of mass production. It lost the sense of quality it once had. We now are in a slightly different crisis, buildings and furniture and products are not only undecorated but the expense saved is not to improve the quality of the integral object, it is simply of poor quality inherently (Percy 1954). The delight in craftsmanship which Loos refers to in “Ornament and Crime” has all but disappeared in mechanical mass production (Loos 1997).

The evolution of culture is synonymous with the removal of ornament from utilitarian objects.

(Loos 1997) Loos has acquired credit for predicting the rejection of ornament. However, on closer inspection it can be deduced that the removal of all ornament was not what Loos was advocating. He theorised that in 1908, ornament had reached its pinnacle “They could produce no new ornaments”. With the technology and innovation available at the time, the only development that could be made in ornamentalism in an ornamentally saturated culture was for it to extinguish itself. Owen Jones’ Grammar of Ornament and the like had inadvertently formalised what was once an art form in and of itself. The pattern book removed the need for essential creativity so that anyone could recreate ornamental aesthetics inspired by patterns, flora and fauna from across the globe. (Figure 1) It therefore proliferated into abundance. (Picon 2015)

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Loos describes “All art ...[as] erotic” which could be read as intrinsically instinctive, and fundamentally human. The Grammar of Ornament is hinged on the interest in geographically and historically differing styles. If nothing else it highlights that decoration is something that developed in every human colony across the globe (Picon 2015). Perhaps he describes it as degenerate because of his blatantly racist views but perhaps also because eroticism is unique to the human condition . It is noted by multiple scholars on the analysis of Loos that for an essay actioning the shedding of ornament the language used was considerably ornamental and verbose. There is also suggestion that it may have been written with more satire than some of the more dry contemporary analysis would allow. (Heathcote 2015) In the article “The Problem with Ornament” Edwin Heathcote pulls together an overview of the Ornamental debate. He discusses the origins of the shedding of Ornament in the Bauhaus and Art and Crafts movement. He deduces that Ornament has been categorically black listed and can only be used by contemporary architects with irony, unholy pastiche or by some stoic neo-classicist. However, he highlights that the moment ornament was removed from the architects tool box marks the point where architecture and its relationship with the public began to diverge. (Heathcote 2015) This idea has piqued the interest of Antoine Picon, Director of Research at Harvard School of Design. Picon supposes that what was historically regarded as ornament and what constitutes contemporary ornament have changed over time, and therefore it could be considered that traditional ornament is in fact dead. However, there are elements that have been maintained in the form of politics and subjectivity that were previously expressed through the medium of ornament that have now changed their vessel of communication. Ornament is a creative process ranging from production to reception, perhaps in a conceptual sense it has never disappeared. Picon notes the functional roles that historical applications of ornament fulfilled, like relaying vital information about the building, what it was, what it wanted to be and who owned it. He is also critical of the modern baseline modernist prejudices, the performative value is by default of a lesser value than the structural or functional value.

Performative value and symbolic language is key to the stance of Ruskin in regards to ornament. He describes in” The Seven Lamps of Architecture” what he believes the role of ornament to be.

[Ornament,] uniting the technical and imaginative elements as essentially as humanity does soul and body. It shows the same

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infirmly balanced liability to the to the prevalence of the lower part over the higher, to the interference of the constructive, with the purity and simplicity of the reflective, element.

(Ruskin 1880) Ruskin wrote extensively on the subject of ornament, and the study of architecture as a whole however, most of his work and experience remained in the academic field. He revered the skill of the craftsman, perhaps stemming from his love of gothic architecture; one of the most technically challenging applications of ornament. Architecture, unlike art and design, could be considered more of a tradition than discipline. Art and other creative endeavours take inspiration from life, nature and the human condition whereas architecture takes precedent prominently from itself; it earns from the merits and limitations of its previous iterations. (Picon 2015) Ruskin brought to light the importance of in depth study and relationship with material, and therefore the true value of a skilled craftsman. It could be under this belief that Ruskin honed his skills as an educator and appreciator of craft rather than attempting to build physical skills himself.

Writing in various architectural journals regularly suggests that the public still love ornament, it is a language that despite architects best efforts to scourge the people still connect with. Perhaps architects should acknowledge this.

Architects could be criticised for putting their role as an artist or lifestyle designer before their duty as a public servant. (Heathcote 2015) (Slessor 2016)

1.2 Escaping Modernism Robert Venturi proposes an alternative school of thought to the Modernism beloved in his time. In Complexity and Contradiction, an expanded manifesto and timely response to Le Corbusier’s Towards a New Architecture, Venturi critics the Modernists. The author rejects the idea of the architect as the lifestyle designer and maintains that an architect is not a social scientist. He simply designs the set in which life plays out and sets up opportunities for connection and use, without the ability to set an autocratic program. The role of the architect loses its power when it attempts to control things out with its demise. By reducing the scope of the architects concern and focusing intently on the role he does play, he can prove much more effective. (Venturi 1977) In non-straight forward Architecture – A gentle manifesto, Venturi explains modernist architecture is puritanically too exclusive, an overly simple answer

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that excludes the majority to create equality. It is overtly without access point.

“Forced simplicity results in over simplification”. Venturi critiques the overt simplicity of form and function by the modernists. False synthetic programs for life and purpose of spaces allows for over simplified buildings that lack ambiguity and therefore richness. In Complexity and Contradiction Venturi references to a quote by Paul Rudolph to describe the problematic disposition of the 20th century architect.

It is characteristic of the twentieth century that architects are highly selective in determining which problems they want to solve…[he is] committed to his particular way of seeing the world.

(Rudolph 1961 cited in Venturi 1977) He suggests that rather than create an exclusive framework to justify the architecture, at risk of alienating the user and society due to its improbable nature, architects can suggest an approach to wider issues rather than the resolution to an impossibly narrow problem.

Such a commitment [in the architects approach] surely means that the architect determines how the problems should be solved, not that he can determine which of the problems he will solve.

(Venturi 1977) Venturi advocates a mannerist approach to design. The mannerists ideology is an observation of reality, but subtly distorted to emphasise a particular element or narrative which, although untrue to life, is more authentic to the emotional and communicative accuracy of the image or object. Venturi values the mannerist approach to architecture and the subtlety that it encourages.

However, when applied to the use of ornament, the mannerist interpretation gathered criticism. Simply lifting symbols of historical relevance and placing them, now alien and hollow, in a superficial contemporary context quickly fell into disregard. (Picon 2015) Ambiguity, or the ability to pose calculated ambiguity as it adds richness to form is another key topic in Complexity and Contradiction. “The discrepancy between physical fact and psychic effect” ( Joseph Albers cited in R. Venturi 1977) gives clarity of intention through developing and pre-empting possible interpretations and therefore requiring a deeper grasp of the concept in its entirety. Ambiguity and tension provoke thought and therefore interest, this

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allows opinions to be formed and therefore connections to be made.

Venturi explores plans with contradictory elements central to their design, these contradictory elements are often caused by a collision between the needs of the site and the program. This inexclusive approach, “both-and” as he describes it, is the ability to use the skills of an architect to devise a solution which does not compromise but cleverly resolves warring factors in an architectural environment.

The postmodern approach described by Venturi is key in the investigation of the future of ornament. This mindfulness of the richness and interest brought about by calculated ambiguity, is perhaps what is lacking in the intensity of contemporary minimalist tendencies. When attempting to address a broad spectrum of the public into engaging with their environment, this mindful ambiguity and sensitive interest in perception may aid the production of successful communicative architecture. However, overly ambiguous projects lose their meaning in a sea of vagueness and therefore also alienate the user.

Calculated use of ambiguity in ornamental symbolism, striking the balance between direct and indirect interaction is imperative if ornament is to regain relevance.

The postmodernist movement was short lived but the discrepancy between what the literature inspires in the mind and what was actually produced as “postmodernist” architecture, by the likes of Venturi and Charles Moore leaves much to be desired. The way in which it can be seen as simply stealing from past architectural movements with no attempt to reinvent itself, would turn the stomach of any believer in Ruskinian values. It also appears hollow and dishonest as it is created with modern tools and materials.

Applying postmodernist theory in regards to the role of craftsmanship in practice supports the understanding of calculated ambiguity. The act of making and physically exploring the tangible qualities of objects and details that create the built environment may improve the articulation possible by the architect. The argument for 3D modelling can be justified by the ability to rapidly test ideas and prototype virtually. However, in isolation this is a narrow view of the quality of space or design as it only consults the visual sense. Other factors beyond the visual are omitted and therefore there are further layers of ambiguity that are neglected. (Pallasmaa 2005) Also, perhaps it is the similar vagueness of information and lack of deep understanding of the materials that reduces the use of ornamental features, there is little scope to test and experiment physically which could produce or inform the celebratory use of ornament.

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Figure 2 : (Fletcher 1905) This diagram, one of the first of it’s kind, by Bannister Fletcher is one of the first mappings of architectural style, showing its evolution and its perceived formal origins from across the world.

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The Architect & the Artist The transgression of ornament may be subdued with the complicity of an artist.

2.1 Architectural Style There are many warring factions of architectural style, unlike the historic styles which evolved around geographic locations and societies which they house, contemporary buildings are not bound by local materials, specific taste or form. The term ‘style’ in architecture is a 19th century phenomenon (Figure 2) for instance, prior to global migration the baroque architect did not identify himself as designing in the baroque style, he was simply fulfilling his role as an architect. (Picon 2015) Society is so rich with possibilities and a global influences it is more the domain of the architect to narrow down and choose the particular rules he intends to follow rather than attempt something novel.

(Picon 2015) Due to this great bank of architectural history, our cities are filled with varied aesthetics, all jostling for attention.

It could be considered that ornament, in a contemporary sense, is any decorative element within the architecture. Beyond the primary load bearing elements and sequence of spaces, it is the physical theatre that communicates with the user. As described by Adam Caruso, of Caruso St John, in reference to Zurich Landesmuseum competition entry (Figure 3) “It’s a picture of structure so it’s real architecture, it’s not the structure itself” (Vermulen 2002). Ornament has evolved from the applique applications of Gothic and Baroque. Technology has freed the hand of the architect, he is no longer bound by the limitations of heavy load bearing structure or limited resources. (Vermulen 2002) On the subject of style, a current, praised practice identify themselves as the anti thesis to contemporary tenancies in the UK. Caruso St John as a practice subvert the modernist approach which separates the compositional imperative from the technical imperative. They also reject the emerging

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Figure 3 : (Caruso St John 2002) Caruso St John, Zurich Landesmuseum competition entry. It is described in and interview with Adam Caruso and Peter St John by Paul Vermulen as having an internal wall that is both structural and sculptural, taking the visual form of a curtain. (Vermulen 2002) The building was an competition bid that was not realised, drawings of the wall in question have unfortunately proved elusive.

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practice of designing a building, choosing a skin and constructing it in the most quick and economical fashion; in the words of Caruso. (Vermulen 2002) They demonstrate and identify their process as Critical Regionalism. The practices “integrated construction” driven approach, with a sensitivity to the principles of vernacular typologies, is exemplified in (Figure 1) the Zurich Landesmuseum. This competition entry was said to have a “pure Semper facade”. However, it also hosted an internal structural wall that appears like a curtain. (Vermulen 2002) Unlike the high-tech architects that surrounded their education, they have freed themselves to work with alternative technical expression. In regards to ornament this raises a question about whether alternative expression of technical detail could be described as an ornamental quality. Adam Caruso explains this theory in an interview with Paul Vermulen, describing the architectural process they have developed, “we are interested in this dynamic between construction and the experience of construction”.

(Vermulen 2002) It is evident that they view these as somewhat independent components.

This approach could be compared to the approach taken by the Greeks in their decorative expression of structure, which is widely considered ornamental.

The replication of carpentry in the marble columns of the Doric order continues to retain the shape and fluting of trees which have been debarked with an adze. (Fletcher 1905) Although no such process has been required for the marble they still retain their form as a symbol of their origin and current purpose. Similarly the structural wall which appears as a fabric curtain in the Landesmuseum describes itself as the function that is most suitable to be in the space, whilst still fulfilling its duty to the structure as required. This subversion of structural and spatial needs introduces ornament to the space in a contemporary manner.

This can feel somewhat at odds but simultaneously in line with Adolf Loos’ sentiments in “The Principle of Cladding” (Loos 1982) which is also referenced in the Vermulen Interview: the internal to external approach. Loos speaks of “hanging the curtains” of a space before designing the structural component.

An uncomfortable postmodernist sentiment is brought to mind by the curtain like wall in the Landesmuseum.

Paul St John highlights the reliance the practice has on models. Not always of exhibition standard but as a tool for thinking and developing, testing material and space, in conjunction with drawings and concept material. They describe their process working with fabric and ETFE at the Barbican. As Adam Caruso describes:

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Figure 4 : (V&A 2015) A sample external tile from A House for Essex.

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You’re not sure what the shape is, then you finally find the right material, and then the shape becomes natural.

(Vermulen 2002) The close relationship which the practice maintains with the physical aspects of building and design may have aided the success they have achieved. This relationship with material, on both model scale and construction scale simulates the sentiments of the cultural appreciation of the hand of the craftsman. The understanding they gather of the opportunities and limitations of materials on a physical level is evident in their designs. Paul St John recounts, in the aforementioned interview, the arguments they have had with consultants about the suitability and applications of materials which have only been won by their confidence in their collective technical knowledge and past experience.

2.2 Ornament or Object “A House for Essex” by Grayson Perry and Charles Holland of FAT Architecture, poses questions about the nature of architecture and its separation with art as a discipline. The house was commissioned as part of Alain de Botton’s Living Architecture project as a contemporary interpretation of a pilgrimage chapel to the character of Essex. It is adorned with faience tiles designed by Perry and contains a number of the artist’s specific commissions for the project. The facade of tiles was created of the close collusion of the artist and a specialist ceramicist, Shaws, founded in 1897. Perhaps the artists ability to work closely with the craftsman, the last surviving company of its craft in the UK, that produced this facade dripping with connection to Essex. (Slessor 2016) This closeness to materiality that comes from the use of tiles breaks the facade down to an object like scale allowing for the attention to detail required to speak with its context (Figure 4). The decorative elements in this project, although saturated to the point that some would consider distraction, each illustrate quantity of effort, an idea or their role as conceptual and functional and therefore demand a certain level of interest, whether perceived simply as art or architecture.

Alina Payne covers a similar topic in “From Ornament to Object” highlighted in a review by Ornamental academic Spyros Papapetros. She attempts to define a transition and transformation of the role and manifestation of ornament, rather than point out its disappearance (Papapetros 2012). She discusses how

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Figure 5 : (Living Architecture 2015) The interior of the central chapel space/main space in A House for Essex. It is programmatically the destination and largest room in the building. Central to the concept but also central to the plan as a whole is the sculpture of an immortalised Julie Cope, the heroine and muse of the project.

Figure 6 : (Millimetre 2015) Craftswoman working on the positive for one of the gable ornaments.

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the functions of ornament have gradually become transposed into the role of objects within a space. When analysing A House for Essex, the fundamental difference between FAT Architecture’s existing portfolio and its final project, working closely with the artist Grayson Perry, is the insistence of objects.

Although, it could be argued that the building in its entirety has qualities like that of an object. The house is designed with the display of symbolically scaled spaces and sculpture central to the programme. This is intended to create ritualistic experiences and behaviours in each space. The house is designed closely to a narrative of the life and memory of a fictional character, Julie Cope (Figure 5). The house then becomes a place of worship to this character and her life as an embodiment of Essex. The interior is filled with idols and great amounts of intense ornamentation that adorn both internal and external surfaces.

The view that the artist is more in contact with the fabrication process could be criticised in this instance because Perry did not physically fabricate the sculptures that are placed in the house however, much like the architect he did design them. Much like the formal architectural practice specialist craftsmen were employed on the project: Millimetre designers and makers. However, the argument can be posed that the designer does not need to master the medium that they are working with physically, but to fully understand what it is capable of in order to work more fluidly with a master craftsman. (Figure 6) Heathcote suggests contemporary art is now so broad and all encompassing, it has relaxed in ways that architecture has conversely got tighter. (Heathcote 2015) It seems only through the moral license the involvement of an artist, can architecture indulge itself in ornament in a way that is deeper than the superficial “decorated shed” (Scott Brown & Venturi 1977). Postmodernists Venturi and Scott Brown divided decorated buildings into two categories, “ducks” and “decorated sheds”; the former describing buildings which resemble formally the shape of an object, and the latter a structural frame with decorative objects or elements added on superficially to the programmed structure. A House for Essex dances this line as it is a residential building that is a caricature of formal typologies of architecture; a dwelling house, a chapel and a shrine. This building could be considered a “catwalk” piece for the field of architecture, not exemplar in the traditional more functional roles, but testing and raising questions to inform and inspire future projects with its principles. Perhaps giving value to a more artist like practice could create buildings which similarly embody place and strike up conversation with a particular community.

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Figure 7 : (Living Architecture 2016) A John Pawson interior, Life House. Part of the Living Architecture Houses, in stark contrast to The House For Essex.

Figure 8 : (Living Architecture 2015) The corresponding kitchen in the Essex House, also a commission for Living Architecture.

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A House for Essex is saturated with colour and form. This could be considered overwhelming. Although it does function as a holiday dwelling and a chapel experience it is noted that the hospitable features are very much secondary to the art. (Heathcote 2015) This pushes the project into more novel territory. The rejection of modernism and first wave postmodernism led into more stripped back styles strongly based on honesty of form, material and construction and a rejection of whimsy. Contemporary movements like High-tech and Deconstructivism focus intensely on the fabric of the building itself and its construction rather than social concepts. (Rolfe 2004) It could be deduced that contemporary minimalism arose from a state of overstimulation. It could even be theorised that contemporary minimalist aesthetics are a modern manifestation of ornament. (Figure 7) Minimalism, a term popularised in the UK by the architectural critic Reyner Banham (Maxwell 1998) surfaced as a movement from post-industrial revolution America under the banner of Functionalism and then Modernism.

Minimalism didn’t enter the British Architectural palette until after World War II. The stripped back aesthetic, devoid of motif marks a seismic shift in public perception of quality. Quality which was once symbolised by time spent in creating ornamentation (Morris 2008) shifted to an appreciation of precision and accuracy. Perhaps this is a natural progression as suggested in the work of Adolf Loos’ “Ornament will disappear of its own accord.”(1924) Once one commits to total accuracy, the humanly perceptible measurement of quality becomes finite. Through the progression of technology, this once rarity becomes infinite in availability. Rarity is still a preoccupation of the middle class, inevitably minimalism will fall into the depths of kitsch too. (Heathcote 2015) Since the 1920’s ornament in its previous decorative application, no longer satisfied designers as they searched for the aesthetic of the future. Le Corbusier and the Bauhaus created a new aesthetic and manifesto that resonated internationally. A vision of the future. Architecture has always been closely tied with the tools and materials of its time. With each new generation mastering the ways of designing with stone, brick, steel or glass as building science evolved. (Ruskin 1880) However with a plethora of products and infinitely more complex materials being developed at increasing rates, it could be reasoned that architects may have struggled to keep up. It could be deduced,particularly of the high-tech movement, that architecture gradually receded to the comforts of simply addressing and expressing structural and construction based expression.

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Figure 9 : (Living Architecture 2016) Above and below- Images of John Pawsons Life House

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John Pawson is a key figure in contemporary minimalism. But the starkness of his work emphasises designed details such as light fittings and furniture. A self identified modernist, the spaces he designs are minimal and at a glance, could be described as vacant in appearance. Although minimalism does not suffer embellishment in the way postmodernism does, it does foster a relationship with craft. The extreme control and use of complex detail to achieve these strict aesthetics requires the architect to be meticulous in their knowledge of material. It also leads to a movement from static decoration to impermanent decoration. Alina Payne theorised that ornament never disappeared but with the rise of consumerism it grew too slow and static to keep up with the ever accelerating culture of fashion. (Papapetros 2012) In regards to the lamp in Figure 9, it could be deduced that the level of craftsmanship required to refine it into such small dimensions has an ornamental quality. The lamp is needlessly fine in order to reach a certain aesthetic standard. It responds essentially to the architecture and has been carefully built into. It is integral to the composition of the room. Removing this lamp from this particular location would remove a level of information from the composition of the room as a whole. This lamp could also be in a number of other formats or locations however, it has been designed to fulfil a very specific role and function for the user of the bed. It could be argued that the very specific nature of the design of this lamp represents the hand, or what could be considered ingenuity of, the modern craftsman.

When we replace the personalisation function that the role of decoration plays with a users choice of objects, it then becomes the territory of the architect to control where objects can be placed and how they can be stored.

In L’Unite d’Habitation Le Corbusier enforced a strict ban on personalising apartments, the material conditions in Pawson’s house also enforce a similar program, perhaps unknowingly supporting this consumerist agenda. (Vasey 2010) Semper and Loos used the analogy of clothing to describe application of ornament in their theories. When moved into the context of ones objects the analogy of clothes to dress a building still runs true; the temporary nature and the personality it represents. So in some ways the act of having open shelves, table top desks without closed storage or even open clothing rails is the contemporary invitation to temporary ornament.

The primary criticism for this view point would be how does this apply to external surfaces. However, there is a prevalence within minimalist architecture for large glass apertures which means internal condition can affect the external aesthetic. However, this does not excuse the way in which

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Figure 11 : (Helena Binet 2015) The ornamental floor decoration in the Tate Britain, London, by Caruso St John.

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this is more challenging to apply to external surfaces and the wider urban context.

Critical Regionalism emerged as a reaction primarily to the International Style. (Frampton 1983) It is a reactionary movement from the whimsy of Postmodernism and the austerity of modernism and the international style.

As opposed to the avante garde, who pushed forward and looked to progress culture, the arriere garde as Frampton describes it, has a duty to guard the rear, to prevent the falling back into previous versions of ones self. In the words of Frampton: A critically arriere-garde has to remove itself from both the optimisation of advanced technology and the ever present tendency to regress into nostalgic historicism or the glibly decorative.

(Frampton 1983) It seems easier to define critical regionalism by what it is not, rather than what it is. It aims to avoid “universal civilisation” through the celebration of geographical differences, with a sensitivity to history but without simplistically imitating the vernacular. It can be abstract but still solidly derived from place.

It also looks to respond to the contemporary secular culture and mediate responsibly between the global and vernacular languages. This is the stance taken by many contemporary practices now, such as Caruso St John.

Caruso St John have drawn a line with their architecture, an oppositional stance, against the “international scene” or the “spectacular” architecture demanded by institutions and politicians. (Fernandez 2005) It is intriguing how this has led them to dip back into the ornament. This could be attributed to the symbolic significance of ornament and the British civic aesthetic (Heathcote 2015) Throughout the practices portfolio there are moments of tactical ornament. Some more traditional in execution than others. Figure 11 fits its contextually ornamental surroundings. It overcomes Regionalist schools of thought which would urge towards modern interventions to be hushed and not interrupt the sanctity and historicism of the existing building. (Picon 2015) No new architecture can emerge without a new kind of relations between designer and user, without new kinds of programs.

(Frampton 1983)

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It is in light of Frampton’s point in “Towards a Critical Regionalism” the idea that the reinvention, or rediscovery of ornament could appear relevant again in the UK. Its success has already been seen in the work of Caruso St John, managing to tastefully use element of historic British decor in new ways which gather abstracted memories of the past in modern interpretations. Responsibly reacting to the British sensitivity to craft. It opens avenues for inventiveness and the preservation of trades which are dying, not so that they can work the same way they have since the 1800’s but so they can be invited to explore new avenues beyond the traditional. As discussed at the Biennale Closing lecture, technology does not mean new, it can mean new applications, it is a spectrum rather than scaler property. The faience tiles in A House for Essex are exemplar of this ability to reimagine applications of historic processes. However this can only be applied with the study of material and processes.

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Figure 12 : (Andrews 2018) A capital sculpted by the O’Shae stonemasons at the Oxford National History Museum.

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3.

The Architect & the Craftsman The eternal exchange between designer and maker.

3.1 The role of the Architect The relationship between the designer and the maker in the field of construction has changed greatly with the advancement of technology. The architect, despite his best intentions, has become far removed from front line construction. No longer is the architect the principle on the construction site.

The role has been in some cases, relegated to the confines of conceptual design and BIM modelling. The emergence of the role of a project manager has also eaten into the architects professional remit. This is highlighted in the modern tendency towards Design and Build contracts, splitting and refining the roles once all under the umbrella of ‘architect’. In the words of Catherine Slessor, formed editor of the Architectural Review : “Architects are time-pressed specifiers, picking products out of catalogues with an eye to maximising convenience and minimising liability” (Slessor 2016) In the RIBA’s study, “The Future for Architects”, which investigated the progression of the occupation of architect, found that many components of the industry and profession believed that the role of that architect will fragment further into specialisations. External contributors urge architects to take a more managerial role, where as architects themselves found the title ‘architect’ limiting in regards to other types of design work and were more inclined towards a shift towards multidisciplinary practice. ( Jamieson, Worthington, Robinson, Cole 2011) It is understandable that the development of the role of the architect has been in reaction to the changing markets and technological advancement. But as the demanded skill set changes this theoretically may

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Figure 13 : (Kenneth Easton 2016) The pilotis of Unite d’Habitation by Le Corbusier, showing the articulaterd shuttering. Evidence of the hand of the craftsman in a Modernist criteria.

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change what constitutes contemporary architecture and therefore the culture surrounding ornament.

Perhaps it is nostalgic to look back to the days of Ruskin’s incomplete drawings being handed to the O’Shae stone masons at Oxford Natural History Museum to create column capitals as they see fit. (Gilbert 2009) Examples of these columns are shown in Figure 12, each column depicts a different plant species in incredible detail and strong composition. But perhaps this trust that was retained for craftsmen is sorely missed. Allowing space and scope for personal expression could be considered a symbol of respect. Ruskin heralded the imperfection or inconsistency of the works made by the hand rather than the machine as being truer to life and therefore more compelling to those who experience it. Picon recounts the views of Thomas Carlyle, likening the uniformity in mechanically sculpted ornament to the enslavement of men.

(Picon 2105) Much like Adrian Forty’s deliberations over the meaning of form, it is the cognitive element and the ambiguity of hand crafted ornament that is where the value lies, the visible decisions and the experience that created the object. (Forty 1948) However, personal expression hasn’t always been in line with the vision of the architect. Although the infamous O’Shae brothers were brilliant stone masons, they were mischievous; carving the likenesses of the Kildare Street Club as monkeys playing billiards at the base. This lack of control can have unexpected outcomes. Antoin Picon touches on the historic culture of expression in “Ornament, Subjectivity and Politics” he quotes Choisy to communicate this: Each sculptor has his stone and is free to manage its ornaments; one feels that the architect wanted to tie him to the common work by leaving him the possibility of leaving a trace of his participation.

(Choisy in Picon 2013) In light of this historic sentiment, it is not to say that the modernists did not also appreciate the hand of the craftsman, perhaps just in a different application.

Corbusier, although attempting to move architecture from a more emotional art form to a science of building, did frame particular moments within his buildings showing evidence of the worker. (Figure 13) Modern materials are so complex in their applications it could be considered that architects are less inclined, or haven’t the opportunity to fully understand and experiment with application of material like they may have had historically.

Architects work with principles and then hand it over to a specialist to work out in its drawn level before fabrication. (Slessor 2016) These extra levels of

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separation between conception and actualisation blur the consistency in the final product. This is far from the process of decades of cumulative knowledge learned and departed, architect to apprentice about the opportunities and constraints of a particular medium. (Percy 1954) It is not the material, but the absence of the human labour, which makes the thing worthless; ...nobody wants ornaments in this world, but every body wants integrity.

(Ruskin 1880) Ruskin was an advocate of the hand of the craftsman theorising that the worth that was found in decoration stemmed specifically from the processes that went on in the mind of the maker, how that constituted in the product and then the reception that the product allowed upon experience by the user. It then becomes evident that this does not include ornaments for ornaments sake. These layers of experiential information are something that could be reimagined through different applications that are now available to an architect. The traditional skill set is in decline (Strehlke, Loveridge 2005) however, new types of craft could be considered as emerging in their place.

Perhaps if the historicism of regionalism could be set aside, embracing these technological opportunities could improve the built environment.

In the contemporary technical manufacture industry it can be argued that virtual design entails a Ruskinian style cognitive experience within the designer, and still when applied to ornament, will provide the reception aspect that is also crucial to the Ruskin’s philosophy of quality and connection. (Picon 2015) The designers experience within a software program, although through the vessel of keyboard and mouse it still a experience of craft. Work is still being done in a data based environment of virtual physics rather than a real workshop. (Strehlke, Loveridge 2005) Kai Strehlke and Russell Loveridge of The Swiss Federal School of Technology make evident in their writing “The Redefinition of Ornament� the complexities and skill that is required in CNC manufacturing and the potential it has if we only embrace the opportunities and limitations that are inherent in digital manufacture.

The strengths of virtual modelling is the ability to test as scale, 1:1 modelling allows for complex detail to be captured and drawn in three dimensional space without the ambiguity of communication through drawings. The ability to test ideas in a virtual environment is also more sustainable rather than wasting material of failed prototypes. However, what is most interesting about the use of machines could be the handling of their limitations. There is an element of

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Figure 14 : (Weisstein N/A) The Hilbert Curve

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the hand of the craftsman in CNC manufacture. These machines traces of the processes they have used to create the object. Strehlke and Loveridge argue that if these traces are utilised to enhance aesthetic value then a new level of value comes from virtual design. There is still a discrepancy between what can be modelled in a virtual environment and what can be manufactured through CNC. CNC relies on the programming of numerical coordinates to articulate the tools, the better the program the higher quality the output. However, an improved understanding of how the tool works with the material creates more reliable outputs. Understanding how to give the most effective instructions for the machine to perform is the craftsmanship of CNC production.

Currently CNC ornament can be split into 3 approaches, modelled surfaces, programmed surfaces and image derived surfaces. Modelled surfaces are digitally sculpted from a single direction into a depth of material. Programmed surfaces are the application of a creative programming language which take in topographical or geometry information and reacts to create surface outputs derived from the application of mathematical concepts. Famous example of this is the Hilbert Curve (Figure 14) Image derived surfaces use digital image data to manipulate the form of a surfaces pattern in three dimensions to create a surface that is a representation of an existing image. It represents the transition of pictorial information in to data.

The evolving tool set of the architect could be considered as widening the gap between designer and creator. In the void between plan and actualisation now stands virtual design. It could be theorised that in this virtual environment the architect no longer has an intense relationship with material; the virtual environment deprives the designer from a multi sensory relationship with the mediums they are designing in. Pallasmaa theorises that the “bias towards vision� of contemporary architectural practice is having a negative effect on the quality of architecture as it is ignorant of other, perhaps more affective yet harder to quantify virtually, ways in which users connect to spaces (Pallasma 2005). In light of this, it could be deduced that the usage of ornament may also have been effected by this change in practice. This change in relationship and new intangibility has reduced the architects’ exposure, and therefore relationship to materials in space, this separation may discourage the architect from celebrating materials through more decorative applications.

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3.2 Communication & Information Exhibition is an essential function in the dissemination of information.

It constitutes an integral part of most art practices as the intersection of multiple institutions. (Cline 2012) Architecture is famously difficult to wrangle into exhibition format however, it is still important in the discourse of a discipline of visual and tangible arts. It is a key skill to be able to distil your practice into exhibition format. The Venice Biennale could be considered the most influential and mainstream Architectural exhibition still being held on a regular basis in Europe. It received 275,000 visitors in 2018, 50% of which were under 26 (Barrata, P., Farrell, Y., McNamara, S. 2018) The exhibition contains representatives from across the world and consists of a plethora of models, drawings and installations describing aspects throughout the breadth of architecture; practice, philosophy, technology and social science. What is unique of the Venice Biennale is the physical quality of the communication.

Often models are relied upon to express spatial ideas as these are viewed as the most effective tool for understanding space.

It could be speculated that modern screen based media has changed how we interact with architecture. Image based visual stimulus is central to our daily lives. The role of models overcomes could be considered as playing a vital role, over coming the trickery and limited experience of visuals of architecture without being able to experience the space in its native form.

Catherine Slessor voiced her view at he closing lecture of the Archifringe 2017 that architecture is going through a crisis as it does not seem to communicate with the masses anymore. (Slessor 2017) The former editor for The Architectural Review explained that gone are the days of the architectural hobbyist, and architectural magazines being found next to other lifestyle journals collected by non-professionals. The Biennale is one of the last Great Exhibitions. However, culturally architecture has departed from the public sphere. But maybe this has been moved into digital media. This was touched on in the closing lecture of The Venice Biennale which consisted of reflective conversation between the curators, Yvonne Farrell and Shelley McNamara of Grafton Architects and Paolo Barrata, an Economist and President of the Venice Biennale.

Barrata described the Biennale as a “machine of desire” in regards to the surreal quality of an “Architecture” exhibition as everything other than the architecture itself a can be conveyed and relies upon secondary sources and interpretations in an art format. McNamara described architecture as “inexplicable except through space”. However, it could be reasoned that

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architecture, as a discipline, shares a commonality with the Ruskinian views of craftsmanship; the process and reception, therefore development, drawings and the communication of the other layers of information must too, constitute architecture. However, these sources should perhaps lead to a experiential affect to be tested and experienced fully. Although models themselves do not constitute architecture, they are a communication device suitable for architectural ideas. “The machine of Desire” thrives on the concept that can be captured by models (Baratta et al 2018) Models are unable to fully communicate architecture as it is in-situ however the control of material, scale light and composition can communicate qualities of a space, perhaps more accurately in regards to the multi sensory experience.

Humanism and education were key topics within this years provocation of “Freespace” Farrell described architectural education as cumulative “a process of making and doing” and remarked on how a lack of this negatively effects the humanism of design, making the point that architecture without humanism leads to alienation. When applied to the role of ornament the absence of ornamental semiotics could be considered anti-humanist. During the International style even form based indicators of building were subverted creating a break in the language of typology understood by architects and users. Perhaps it is the role of the architect to engage the mainstream and educate users in architectural discourse as they navigate the futures we face as humanity. Barrata makes the case for this nearing the end of the lecture: What is architecture if not facing the complexity of what we live and making action?

(Barrata, P,. et al 2018)

Some contemporary practices do produce exhibition as part of their work flow. Caruso St John, curators of the British Pavilion at the 2018 Biennale are known for their public presence in published theory, interviews and exhibitions. This tendency, and the availability of their philosophy made them a stellar candidate from representing the UK at the global exhibition.

The role of exhibition encourages a relationship with further forms of communication outside of the strictly architectural. This could prove valuable in communicating the discourse over ornament but the act itself could provide context and motivation to experiment further in a material medium.

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5.

The Architect & the Future Recommendations for the future of contemporary ornament and making.

5.1 Conclusions

Ornament and making are two converging topics in the practice of architecture. The historic reasoning for ornament, to convey information and enhance aesthetics are still functions we look for in contemporary architecture, but perhaps from alternative sources. Pastiche reproductions of the ornament of old does not suffice. These roles have moved on in ways that Adolf Loos did not predict. Banished are the pattern books and alienating ignorance of the International style. This is interesting because both movement became so prescribed and extreme that they ultimately became meaningless. Ruskin’s theories still prove valid when applying to the contemporary context. During the rise of Critical Regionalism in the UK perhaps more of his theory will become influential in order to connect sensitively to the current UK context.

Modernist and Postmodernist principles make arguments for alternative applications of ornament and a revised approach to making. Modernism has no place for ornament of a permanent nature although some of the care and attention to detail can carry ornamental properties. Postmodernist theory rather than practice supports the use of ornament but the overly simplistic use of applique and pastische elements of historic architecture in modern contents proves dishonest and garish. Venturi’s theory of ambiguity and multiple perceptions leads well into the argument for architects to maintain a close relationship with making. As Pallasmaa warned, the emphasis on the visual deprives the other sense. A physical relationship with material and form will aid in the production of calculated ambiguity as the maker is in touch with more information than the non-maker.

Architecture can take influence from the practice of artists. The propensity for play with materials and context, like that of an artist, can allow the architect a deeper connection to the user and their environment. There is a level of novelty in “A House for Essex” that

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would not be appropriate for many commissions. However, this hyper focused building shows elements that can be utilised in further projects and works as an example of modern applications of traditional craft. It also raises the point that the designer need not become a master craftsman themselves to be able to communicate clearly and get the desired results out of the fabricator however, some hands on experience of processing will only aid the communication.

The approach taken to ornament and making by Caruso St John is exemplar of how ornament and making can retain relevance in contemporary architecture.

The Critical Regionalist approach opens up avenues

for exploration, in

meaningful way, of heritage and context with a mindfulness to avoid repeating history in a present day setting or becoming ignorant of history altogether.

Making and technical knowledge are key to the practice of Caruso St John and will have contributed to their ability to achieve the sensitivity that is prized in their philosophy.

The transcendence from ornament to object in an age of consumerist fashion only becomes apparent in the work of Alina Payne. The movement of functions that were once fulfilled by ornament could be perceived as a natural progression. A House for Essex embodies the movement from ornament to object through scale, aesthetics and construction. When viewed through the theory of Payne even minimalism has qualities of ornamentalism. The work of John Pawson is so stark it celebrates intensely the smallest moments of ornament through the environment of contrast.

The role of the architect is changing and perhaps there is scope for practice to be broken down into more specific disciplines or typologies, this may allow for more intense study of ornamental applications or focus on material and craft. However, there are architects in practice which seem to be able to juggle these aspects in a relatively conventional practice. This also questions whether craftsman should be allowed self expression in their work where ordinarily drawings are very prescriptive. Allowing scope for moments of the fabricators self expression could foster positive relationships and respect but ultimately change the design process.

Digital manufacture and virtual design both have great potential in the resurrection of ornamental details. Not only does virtual design constitute and emerging new typology of craftsman but CNC offers alternative modes of manufacture. However, it still has drawbacks and level of misinformation between what is created virtually and what is virtually modelled.

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The role of exhibition and communication through making provides an argument for leaning through tangibility. The Biennale could be considered the most diverse reaching event in contemporary architecture and is filled with installations and models to communicate ideas. However, these are often made purposely for the exhibition. If this were a method of practice perhaps architecture might become more free to experiment with the craft contingent of ornament. The quality of this exhibition comes from the immersion in a world of multi dimensional information, from drawing to models to 1:1 installations of elements. There is a prevalence in information and communication for screen based visual material which ignores the roles of the other senses. The use of models and maintain a relationship with material and tangible resources is imperative because ultimately architecture is still a multi sensory experience.

Limitations of this dissertation include the loose definition of ornament and allowing for the meaning to become transposed to object. It could be criticised that ornament is a very specific type of decoration, however sources treat the strictness of the syntax differently case by case. Another limitation of this research is not including 3D printing in digital manufacture.

In conclusion, this body of work indicates that an appreciation of ornament in contemporary society could be considered relevant when applying Critical Regionalist principles to a UK context. As the research suggests, ornament is innately human and has developed across the globe. So perhaps with a sensitive approach ornament can be reclaimed in local communities in new and appropriate applications. These application would benefit from material and three dimensional studies to add further information to their applications, the potential for exhibition of such outputs could help users find connection with the forms created. Digital manufacture and virtual modelling can also aid in the production and testing of ornament however, traces left by CNC need to be considered when working with this process.

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Bibliography & References

Corbusier, L., (1931). Towards a New Architecture. London: J Rodker The author discusses a Modernist manifesto. This source provides the philosophy behind the shedding of ornament and the adoption of a simpler more functional architecture and a new radical style. This work examines the seductive and revolutionary philosophy that drove the modernist movement.

Cline, Anna C., (2012) The Evolving Role of the Exhibition and its Impact on Art and Culture.

Trinity College Digital Repository, http://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/267 Etherington, R., 2011. “Will architects exist in 2025?” - RIBA Building Futures. Dezeen, [Online].

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riba-building-futures/ [Accessed 1 January 2019].

Forty, A,. (1948) Words And Buildings : a Vocabulary of Modern Architecture. New York, N.Y. :Thames & Hudson.

Freestone, M., McGoldrick, J., (2007). Ethical positioning and political marketing: the ethical awareness and concerns of UK voters. Journal of Marketing Management 23, 651–673.

This journal provides insight into the interests and concerns of contemporary society. This journal contains broken down census information and primary data collection on the topic of ethics and it suitable for developing an analysis of the thoughts and concerns of UK public opinion.

Fletcher, B,.(1905) A History of Architecture, 5th ed, Bradbery Agnew & Co, London.

Frampton, K. (1983). Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six Points for an Architecture of Resistance. [Essay] Viewed 1st March 2019 < https://www.modernindenver.com/wp-content/ uploads/2015/08/Frampton.pdf>

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Gilbert, J, B. (2009) Puncturing an Oxford Myth: the Truth about the ‘Infamous’ O’Sheas and the Oxford University Museum. London. Oxfordshire Architectural and Historical Society.

Hatherley, O. (2018). Lash out and cover up – Radical Philosophy. [online] Radicalphilosophy.com. Available at: https://www.radicalphilosophy.com/ commentary/lash-out-and-cover-up [Accessed 2 Nov. 2018].

This article discusses the bastardisation of historic political aesthetics and the misuse of nostalgia to manipulate the British public. It has a Marxist bias however does provide a thought provoking lens with which to view current aesthetic trends and the possible political agendas that drive them.

Hatherley, O. (2015). Owen Hatherley on FAT’s House for Essex. The Architects Journal, [Online]. Available at: www.architectsjournal.co.uk/buildings/owenhatherley-on-fats-house-for-essex/8687794.article [Accessed 14 Feb. 2019] Heathcote, E., (2015). The Problem with Ornament. The Architectural Review, [Online]. Available at: https://www.architectural-review.com/essays/ ornament-is-the-language-through-which-architecture-communicateswith-a-broader-public/8687822.article [Accessed 10 October 2018].

The author discusses the role of ornament and makes the case that when architecture stopped engaging with ornament it distanced itself from the public and the user.

This article identifies architects like Gaudi and Macintosh as successful in their use of ornament due to the transferability of their aesthetics into other mediums.

He also discusses how architects interact with artists over the use of ornament concluding that architects often use the involvement of an artist as a licence to use ornament at a remove from the “Architecture” which is evident in “A House for Essex”.

Jamieson, C., Robinson, D., Worthington, J., Cole, C. (2011). The future for Architects?. London: RIBA. Jencks, C., (1985). Towards a Symbolic Architecture. 1st ed. London: Garden House Press.

Unread Jones, L. Gingell, G. (2019) About Buildings and Cities [Podcast] 30th September 2018. Accessed: 10th Nov 2018.

José, J., (2015). On Loos, Ornament and Crime: Columns of Smoke: Volume II. Tenov Books.

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Unread José, J., (2016). Ornament, Fire and Ashes: Columns of Smoke: Volume III. Tenov Books.

Unread Loos, A., (1997). Ornament and Crime: Selected Essays. Ariadne Press.

From this selection of essays, so far only “Ornament and Crime” and “Ornament and Education” have been analysed. The author in “Ornament and Crime” writes a manifesto for the eradication of ornament from modern design. He describes that work that does not produce joy within the crafts man is superfluous and advocates for a more functionalist approach to mass production. Mass produced culture has no need for flourishes as these, when of little value are simple inefficiencies in the production process. In “Ornament and Education” a later essay, the author reflects on the impact is previous work has had and the potential misconceptions that have come from it. He reflects that ornament and decoration are useful tools for connecting the user with their designed object however, he reiterates that it is the delight of the crafts man and the user that are imperative to the value of the product. This philosophy is much more evident in the architects work in practice.

Loos, A,. (1982) Spoken into the Void, Massachusetts, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Morris, W., (2008). Useful Work Versus Useless Toil. 1st ed. London: Penguin Group.

The author discusses the philosophy of the Arts and Crafts movement and the value of craft over the soullessness of mass production. This piece has a socialist angle throughout to justify its focus on the conditions of the worker. The argument is made that consumable items waste the time of the maker and the user and simply line the pockets of the bourgeoisie. Morris argues that the satisfaction of creating something useful and of beauty is overlooked and essential to workers.

Pallasmaa, J. (2005). The eyes of the skin. 1st ed. Chichester: Wiley.

Papapetros, S. (2012) Ornament and object – Ornament as object. Journal of Art Historiography. Vol 12. Viewed 12th November 2018 < https://arthistoriography. files.wordpress.com/2012/12/papapetros-review.pdf> Percy, H. (1954). The Decline of Craftsmanship. The Dalhousie Review.

Picon, A. (2013) Ornament: The Politics of Architecture and Subjectivity. John

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Rolfe, G,. (2004) Nursing Philosophy, London: Blackwell Publishing.

Ruskin, J., (1935). The Nature of Gothic. 3rd ed. London: Unwin Brothers ltd.

Ruskin, J., (1880). The Seven Lamps of Architecture. 2nd ed. Kent: George Allen The author discusses the role of architecture and its difference to other art or sciences. He introduces a moral element to architectural discourse. However, Ruskin aligns his moral standing with the serving of the Christian God. Ruskin, J., (2008). The Lamp of Memory. 1st ed. London: Penguin Group.

Slessor, C,. (2016) Architects should get their craft freak on. London, The Architects Journal. Viewed 1st February 2019 < https://www.architectsjournal. co.uk/opinion/architects-should-get-their-craft-freak-on/10001735.article> Slessor, C,. (2017) The Seven Hells of Architectural Publications [Lecture] Archifringe Closing Lecture. 23rf July 2017 Smith, R. W., Bugni, V. (2006). Symbolic interaction theory and architecture.

Symbolic Interaction, 29(2), University of California Press.

The authors provide an insight into the current and historic investigations into Symbolic Interactionist theory and give examples of others analysis using this sociological theory. This work has provided insight in how to apply symbolic interactionism to the study of ornament and architecture. The deductions of the theory of Herman Mead by E. Doyle McCarthy and the investigation of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;selfâ&#x20AC;? inform my own deductions as I attempt to make framework for the current UK society.

Venturi, R., (2017). Learning From Las Vegas. Massachusetts. The MIT Press.

The author studies the new typology of Las Vegas, and how this commercial architecture adapted itself to the needs of a completely new and alien state of user.

This resource is used to inform the collection and analysis of architectural data when working with a non-traditional typology.

Venturi, R., (1977). Complexity and Contradiction. London: The Architectural Press Ltd. The author writes in the 1970s a manifesto in response to the work of Le Corbusier and the Modernists, critiquing where he claims they lacked and predicting a more

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responsive future. Venturi advocates for the richness brought about by planned ambiguity. He argues that over simplifying problems solves nothing and alienates the user. He also adds that it is not the role of the architect to solve social problems but to provide an environment that suggests a way in which go about solving them.

Vermulen, P., (2002) Knitting Weaving Wrapping Pressing [online] Basel: Birkhauser

Available

from:

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wrapping-pressing-interview/ [accessed 12 November 2018]

Waite, R, 2018. Venturiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s book radically changed architecture. The Architectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Journal, [Online]. Available at: https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/news/ venturis-book-radically-changed-architecture-farrell-and-gough-leadtributes/10035368.article [Accessed 1 November 2018].

The authors provide an insight into how Venturiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s writings influenced contemporary architects. This provides a context it the writings when read in the present day and how they have manifested in current design studios.

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