After a Million - Retrofitting urban islands of Million Home Program

After a Million Retrofitting urban islands of Million Home Program.

Julius Seniunas

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Title: After a Million Retrofitting urban islands of Million Home Program.

Author: Julius Seniunas Student number: r0700217 Student e-mail: julius.seniunas@kuleuven.be Academic Promotor: Martino Tattara Faculty of Architecture: KU Leuven Campus Sint-Lucas Brussels International Master Program University: KU Leuven Campus Sint-Lucas Ghent Faculty of Architecture Hoogstraat 519000 Ghent, Belgium Date: June, 2019

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TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1. MILLION HOMES PROGRAM 1.1 Swedish modern architecture manifesto ..................................................06 1.2 Insight to the program ..............................................................................12 1.3 Design guidelines .....................................................................................14 1.4 Atlas of housing unit typologies ...............................................................16 1.5 Case of “Stacken” .....................................................................................32 1.6 Million Homes Program district portraits in Gothenburg ........................64 2. SWEDISH HOUSING 2.1 Swedish housing system ..........................................................................70 2.2 Housing demand estimate ........................................................................72 3. URBAN CONDITIONS OF SATELLITE DISTRICTS 3.1 Relation of built and unbuilt ....................................................................74 3.2 Atlas of Million Homes Program cluster typologies ...............................88 3.3 Conditions of open space .........................................................................90 3.4 Juxtaposition of densities .........................................................................98 4. PROJECT DESIGN Urban island Bergsjon ..............................................................................110 Urban island Rannebergen - Angered ......................................................146 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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INTRODUCTION 1 Carlström Vilhelm. Sweden needs to build a new Stockholm in five years but is investing in renovations instead”, Business Insider. 2016

2 Grander Martin, Personal Interview

by Lee Roden. (2017) at Malmö University. The Local.

The question of an affordable housing market is a dominant issue of today in Sweden and is impossible to be solved with established and currently ongoing tendencies as a vast volume of housing is needed.

At present, according to Boverket - country’s National Board of Housing, Building and Planning, 255 of Sweden’s municipalities are facing a housing shortage. If taken the current level and pace of production, only 44 of 255 municipalities in shortage will be able to overcome their housing crisis within half a decade. According to data estimates, Sweden is in need of constructing new residences in the amount corresponding to a new Stockholm during the period of the next five years 1.

Today, new housing is being built within large scale projects and although the overall housing stock rate is increasing, the share of affordable housing is decreasing as a major amount of the newly built stock is sold to private tenants 2 . Sweden, as one of the most innovative and rapidly increasing population countries in Europe, cannot afford such a scarce housing market and lack of flexibility when finding a home for those in demand. The most growing part of the population is formed by young immigrants as well as young locals - the defined least financially-able group. As local Swedes tend to queue for up to approximately 10 years in order to receive a loan for state or municipality owned housing, new coming immigrants and/or expats does not afford such a luxury in terms of time.

The government supported case of Million Homes Program unit - Stacken as Sweden’s first collective house of the self-work model sets a pilot example of how structures could be collectively managed to meet the needs and standards of present and future affordable dwelling. A majority of Social Democrat party initiated Million Homes Program districts, when million living units were constructed between 1965 and 1974 in Sweden, were originally meant to provide dwelling areas for lower income class locals. However the shift in demographics happened when original inhabitants of satellite districts outgrown their initial economical status and moved to look for alternative and more central locations to dwell, or as stated by Erik Stenberg, Associate

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Professor at KTH University in Stockholm, program areas were affected by “the social transformation of Sweden from a welfare state with homogenous nuclear families to a globalized society with a multiplicity of demands and needs.�3 At present, the Million Homes Program districts are home to lower-income immigrants, a vivid range of ethnic groups and are highly positioned in rates of unemployment as well as criminality. As a result, this leads to multilayer segregation of Swedish cities as well as a division of its urban pattern by classes, income and ethnicities. Satellite towns of established phenomenal program, when million dwelling units were built in the periphery of major Swedish cities are stuck in time and no more meets spatial standarts of contemporary living with its rigid and monofunctional urban planning systems. However, a resource of undetermined open areas within nature embedded districts presents a great potential for further densification through the improvement of existing conditions.

A current state of density in Gothenburg, with the main population living in the over-densified central part of the city, does not offer possibilities for larger growth that is needed in the nearest future. The issue of insufficient housing market and presence of high potential zones provokes a thought that analysed project of Stacken could be much more than just an isolated case. It could serve as a pilot example and a stepping stone for the rest of the Million Homes Program housing districts to be regenerated as well as new managing and ownership models implemented in otherwise orthodox Swedish real estate market. Increasing demand for affordable housing stock serves as a groundbreaking opportunity to rethink the Swedish housing market through the transformation and densification of existing undetermined land in Million Homes Program districts. Creating new centralities and breaking the perception of Million Homes Program districts as monofunctional-dormitory neighborhoods would serve as a tool when strengthening local community cores and reinforcing further metropolitan development of Gothenburg as an interlinked urban archipelago.

Research finds a place in the environment of the modern Swedish housing market and proposes a new program to be coupled with Million Homes Program districts. Converting them from zones of neglection into the new interlinked multifunctional centralities.

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3 Erik Stenberg Structural Systems of the Million Program Era. 2016

CHAPTER 1 MILLION HOMES PROGRAM 1.1 SWEDISH MODERN ARCHITECTURE MANIFESTO

4. Asplund, Gunnar; Wolter Gahn; Sven Markelius; Gregor Paulsson; Eskil Sundahl; Uno Ahren (2008). “acceptera”. Modern Swedish Design: Three Founding Texts. New York: The Museum of Modern Art. p. 338.

The link between the Swedish welfare state and modern architecture starts with their common rise in the 1930s. Just after the Stockholm Exhibition in 1930, the very first Swedish Modern architecture manifesto was published paving the path for the future of housing construction and planning. The text was composed by the six head designers of the Stockholm Exhibition and most prominent as well as influential Swedish architects of the period: Gunnar Asplund, Wolter Gahn, Sven Markelius, Gregor Paulsson, Eskil Sundahl, and Uno Åhrén. The manifesto was named with the phrase “Acceptera”, in English translatable, as the imperative “accept” or the infinitive “to accept”.

As mentioned in the manifesto 4, the main driving idea was: “To accept the reality that exists — only in that way we have any prospect of mastering it, taking it in hand, and altering it to create a culture that offers an adaptable tool for life.” During the period, Social Democrats party received majority votes in Stockholm municipality elections and at the same time formed their very first national government in Sweden with a stated goal to serve their society “from cradle to grave”. The collision of Sweden’s industrialization, housing demand, a rise of Social Democrats party and manifestation towards more efficient modern architecture paved the way for Swedish modern housing industry that would be based on the notion of collectivity, industrial production, planning, standardization, and functionality for the decades to come.

The new and upcoming vision of Swedish housing planning had to be a mixture of “Sweden then” and “Sweden now”. In order to merge two different epochs and the shift from an agrarian country to an emerging industrial powerhouse of Europe, a link between past and future had to be created. In order to do that, authors of Swedish modern architecture manifesto took a look at the development of cities in Europe, two typologies were determined and named accordingly: Europe A and Europe B. When the first typology of European cities - Europe A, was noted as fast-paced and ultimately planned modern metropolis of the time, life in it was criticized of being disconnecting and antisocial, much more orientated to hosting a large number of inhabitants rather than forming social links between them. Meanwhile, Europe B was seen as less organized, organically developed, smaller clusters embodying our agricultural past, yet maintaining a sense of belonging and social networks between its inhabitants. Noting all this, the authors of the Swedish modern architecture manifesto, understood collectivity as a group rather than a mass, with future cities developments formed of smaller, patterned groups and unified by shared amenities in order to strengthen the sense of belonging to one another.

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Cover of modern Swedish housing manifesto - Acceptera

Asplund Gunnar; Wolter Gahn; Sven Markelius; Gregor Paulsson; Eskil Sundahl; Uno Ahren. (1931). “acceptera”. Stockholm: Tidens förlag

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5 Åhrén et al., ‘acceptera’, p. 180.

6 Helena Mattsson and Sven-Olov Wallenstein in 1930/1931: Swedish Modernism at the Crossroads

7 Uno Åhrén et al., ‘acceptera’, p. 242.

As Swedish Social Democrats party goal was to construct a society that would live “under one roof” and that would be united by solidarity, welfare and social equality between all the citizens. This idea is also celebrated in Manifesto of Modern Architecture - “Acceptera”. It is noticeable, that the boundary between the individual, the state and the home got interlinked way stronger than before: “The most important thing is that society takes care of certain elements in the lives of individuals that were formerly their own responsibility or that did not exist at all.” 5 Initiated changes of household and domestic work in order to make a living more time and cost efficient resulted in the decay of some recreational, social and practical functions at home. As stated by Helena Mattsson and Sven-Olov Wallenstein in 1930/1931: Swedish Modernism at the Crossroads: “The notion of the household as the self-sufficient yet vulnerable economic cornerstone of agrarian society had been transformed under the dual processes of industrialization and democratization to become home, a physical entity set aside from the world of work, a place of relaxation and privacy.”6 Thus we are able to notice that, in a society, highly structuralized norms of what belongs to public collectivity and private individuality were born.

With life being way more tightly connected to the social apparatus of the whole “flat” society based on the common welfare and the equality, the home became one of only a few remaining enclaves where individuality would be cultivated and celebrated. However, as the new agenda of housing was based on emerging industrialism based production, this leaves us in paradox, how one can still remain individual and unique when living in a society of equalness. In fact, standardization does not exclude individual expression, as an opposite enhances it. As stated by Uno Åhren in “Acceptera”: “If we furnish our home with the things we really need, the selection will be an expression of the life in the home as we live it. In this way, the personal home evolves naturally and authentically - just as much if each item is also one in a series of humble, impersonal manufactured pieces of furniture.“ 7 In this sense, standardized space with prefabricated furniture is provided and tailored to suit the general needs of the inhabitants of the welfare state. However, tenant of the space is able to express it’s own character and individuality through personal material and immaterial values stored at home, thus emotionally charging a space that is equipped with well planned yet not overwhelming commodities. A prefabricated space provided for all through unifying welfare gesture becomes “tabula rasa” for individuality to bloom.

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Housing block evolution, from closed to open design.

Asplund Gunnar; Wolter Gahn; Sven Markelius; Gregor Paulsson; Eskil Sundahl; Uno Ahren. (1931). “acceptera”. Stockholm: Tidens förlag

Living room in model apartment by Sven Wallander.

Stjernström John. (1930). Foretagskallan. Stockholm. https://www. foretagskallan.se/foretagskallan-nyheter/lektionsmaterial/den-goda-bostaden/

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1.2 INSIGHT TO THE PROGRAM

8 Erik Stenberg Structural Systems of the Million Program Era 2016

The Million Homes Program Sweden developed between 1965 and 1974 was strongly influenced by the guidelines of Acceptera published in 1930 during the Stockholm Exhibition. The program was initiated by Swedish Social Democrat party and the goal of the program was to rapidly elevate the volume of decent quality affordable price housing units in whole Sweden. At the time Million Homes Program was the most ambitious housing program in the world resulting in 1 million dwelling units of various scales constructed in a country of at the time 8 million inhabitants. As mentioned in “Structural Systems of the Million Program Era“ by Erik Stanberg: “It was a period of an almost complete and utopian alignment of political interests, policy making, production models, planning ideals, and implementation of architectural research and education.

In contrast to these rapid and deterministic processes, it was also a decade where experimentation excelled and the distance between research and the profession was extremely short. Ideas could be tested immediately and at a grand scale.”8 In other words, newly planned neighbourhoods were seen as a tool of the mental reconstruction for the society when implementing the norms and thinking of the Swedish welfare state.

As Sweden after World War 2 was transforming from agrarian to industrial country, being the main goods and supply manufacturer to post-war Europe in order to rebuild itself, Sweden had one of the highest growing economy rates in the whole Western world. Economy growth and booming industrialization shifted Swedish profile - from an agrarian country to Scandinavian industry powerhouse. Economical and industrial growth resulted in the need of new volume of the housing and 1006000 dwelling units were constructed for the lowest income group. With people moving to the cities and with a rising economy, the increasing standard of living resulted in a demand to drastically lower saturation of population in cities. Because of the growth, Sweden had from the 1950s to 1960s that resulted in a rise of income into the national treasury it was possible to implement new social guidelines as well as reforms.

Social Democrats party introduced reforms that had to ensure the availability of land. One of them was to let municipality real estate companies build homes outside their municipality boarders - Lex Bollmora. The cause of this was that municipalities andjacent to larger cities were not able to cover the market demand on their own.

As stated in report by the Boverked: “In 1964, the Housing Construction Report had identified a need for more than a million new dwellings. Annual construction volumes were already very high at this time: in 1964 almost 90 000 dwellings were built. But with the decision in 1965 to implement a special “million dwellings programme” – i.e. that one million new dwellings were to be built in the ten years between 1965 and 1974 – the government wanted to point out that it was prepared to guarantee the circumstances for sustaining an annual construction volume of as much as 100 000 dwellings over such a

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Construction from prefabricated panels.

Erik Stenberg, red. (2013). Structural Systems of the Million Program Era. KTH

Million Home Program district in 1970 Author Unknown. Gรถteborgs Stadsmuseum. (1970). https://www.kringla.nu

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9 Swedish Board of Housing, Building and Planning October 2008

10 Swedish Board of Housing, Building and Planning October 2008

considerable period of time. The state’s guarantee would consist of placing the required capital and labour at the construction sector’s disposal.” 9 Thus, a vast amount of people would be provided with high standart living units when at the same time increasing industrial production rates in the city centres. As a result, Million Homes Program created an environment as well as a strong base for the industry to grow, several major companies have risen in the field of the construction sector and remain dominant up to the date of today. In order to make the phenomenal program financially viable, most of the buildings were constructed as part of large scale clusters of apartment blocks in order to elevate density and to provide more income per square meter. The principle of the programme funding was that the government would cover around 65% of the initial construction price and then the citizens would be needed to repay the coverage in the next 30 year period. Swedish public housing was constructed in the module of tenant-owned co-operatives, municipal owned building companies as well as rent contracts managed by municipal housing departments. As mentioned by Boverket representatives: “It was through the building of the Million Dwellings Programme that the municipal housing companies became the dominant manager of Sweden’s blocks of flats.” 10 1.3 DESIGN GUIDELINES

11 Erik Stanberg Structural Systems of the Million Program Era 2016

New and decent quality districts were designed and greatly contributed to the urban sprawl of Swedish cities. General planning system used for The Million Homes Program was based on typical at that time modernist planning guidelines taking functionalism as a cornerstone of it all and rethinking the notion of open space, road and the movement of citizens. Majority of districts were inspired by pioneering suburban neighbourhoods such as Vällingby and Årsta that served as self-sufficient satellite towns in the otskirts of Stockholm.

As districts were mostly formed and built in virgin - post agrarian farmlands or in close connection to the natural resources and forested areas, nature implementation in to the living neighbourhoods played important role when forming the welfare of satellite “towns” and their inhabitants. As stated in the reports: “They were conceived as commuter suburbs with small commercial centers to serve daily needs and the majority work places were to be located elsewhere. These Million Program Era areas were autonomous and only tenuously connected to existing infrastructure, usually dependent on a single highway or rail connector.”11 Satellite neighbourhoods of Million Homes Program were intended to be equipped with at that time modern facilities as well as a progressive planning system that included a vast amount of different services. Nurseries, churches, schools, public spaces, libraries as well as gathering areas were intended to be designed for different household groups through the mixture of spatial tenures, when commercial areas were closely linked to public transportation stops.

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Million Homes Program housing typologies.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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When developing blocks of Million Homes Program districts, one of the design principles as foreseen back in 1930 with the publication of Swedish modern architecture manifesto “Acceptera” was to liberate planning process from enclosed spaces and to propose open design guidelines that would enable large green areas in between the new housing blocks thus structuring the connection between living units and common service spaces when at the same time separating recreational areas from the road. In order to do that, the principle of SCAFT (Stadsbyggnad, Chalmers, Arbetsgruppen för Trafiksäkerhet) was introduced in the year of 1968 and was issued by the National Road Administration and the National Board of Urban Planning.

This meant in complete separation of living units from the road providing safe and hermetic spaces for pedestrians, cyclists, recreational and family-friendly zones in courtyards or road detached areas. Outer areas of living blocks adjacent to the traffic became less determined areas mostly used for parking, non-productive fields or secondary utility zones. However, when providing traffic-free comfort and safety to the residential areas, it is notable that the planning principle of SCAFT with the majority of housing units featuring repetitive residential floorplans this separation of private and public created monofunctional enclosures resulting in urban plans with clear segregation between living, working and commercial patterns.

1.4 ATLAS OF HOUSING UNIT TYPOLOGIES

12 Erik Stenberg Structural Systems of the Million Program Era 2016

Housing units constructed greatly served for the development of prefabrication methods of Swedish industry. Million home program construction was significantly dependent on the economic rationality as well as time efficiency in order to meet with almost utopian-like goals and demands of the program at that time. This resulted in well organized and highly industrialized methods of construction in order to simplify building technology. The range of techniques was applied when building neighborhoods and trying to offer a range of diverse typologies of the houses. More than 500 000 houses were detached or semi-detached houses as well as terraced dwelling units, meanwhile, the other half of a million consisted of towers and slab blocks - multifamily buildings. Orientation played a decisive role when buildings were positioned in predetermined sites in order to provide a high-quality living units. As mentioned by Erik Stanberg in Structural Systems of Million Home Program Era: “The apartments designed during the Million Program Era have been lauded for their layouts melding the functionalist ethos with the production processes of the day. They were larger, had better day lighting conditions, were cleaner, and closer to nature than the average urban apartments of the mid 20th century.“ 12 Majority of housing units were suited with regular three room apartments (“Normaltrea” in Swedish), designed for a typical family with two children of that time. Only a few exemplary cases analyzed in the six most common typology houses were able to offer space for more differentiating living plot scenarios.

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SCAFT principle and design guideline.

Arrangement of dwelling units in relation to the street.

Chalmers tekniska högskola. Arbetsgruppen för forskning om trafiksäkerhet.

(1968) Scaft guidelines. Stockholm. Swedish National Board of Urban Planning

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Björk Cecilia; Kallstenius Per; Reppen Laila. (2013).“Så byggdes husen” Stockholm. Svensk Byggtjänst

LAMELLHUS Production: 1960-1975 Prefabrication system: SM Floor number: 3 (repetitive) Formation: slab houses built around inner garden.

Stairwell units: 2 Units: 75M2, 3 room appartment with kitchen and bathroom.

Characteristics: units depicted were always formed with 2 or 3 staircases per house. Housing units were built without a basement in order to make the process of construction more economically and time efficient. Structurally, Lamellhus housing unit is designed according to the SM modular system that was launched just before the Million Homes Program in 1960. The system is based on the repetition of 30cm thickness load bearing walls, thus complicating further flexibility if rearrangements in flats would be needed.

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a - kitchen, b - living room, c - bedroom Image produced by the author of the project.

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Björk Cecilia; Kallstenius Per; Reppen Laila. (2013).“Så byggdes husen” Stockholm. Svensk Byggtjänst

LOFTGANGSHUS Production: 1960-1975 Floor number: 3-4 (repetitive) Formation: Parallel houses forming open courtyards.

Stairwell units: varies Units: Type 1: 3 rooms and kitchen of 78 M2.

Type 2: 1 room and kitchenette of 32 M2.

Type 3: 4 rooms and kitchen of 92 M2.

Type 4: 2 rooms and kitchens connect to 60 M2.

Characteristics: this distinctive type of housing featuring heated detached staircase serving a whole building through open balcony-type corridors.

Transit zones went beyond regular monofunctional spaces and provided an opportunity for additional socializing areas, thus introducing an unorthodox model of spatial planning. Housing type got most of economic value, serving 2-3 times more people when using only one lift and staircase for the whole building. Structurally, bearing pillars were placed every 2.8 and 3.6 m along the facade, creating a possibility for an alteration of inner plans in the future.

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a - kitchen, b - living room, c - bedroom, d - studio Image produced by the author of the project.

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Björk Cecilia; Kallstenius Per; Reppen Laila. (2013).“Så byggdes husen” Stockholm. Svensk Byggtjänst

PUNKTHUS Production: 1950s-1960s Floor number: 9 (repetitive) Formation: Tower houses.

Stairwell units: 4 Units: Type 1: 2 rooms and kitchen of 57 M2.

Type 2: 3 room and kitchen of 75 M2.

Characteristics: The tower houses were always understood as one of the most distinctive architectural elements of any Million Homes Program district.

“Point houses” were always placed according to the world directions regardless of the location and its surroundings. The house has a clear planning system which is divided by load-bearing partition walls in quarters with dimensions of 8x8M and 8x10.5M. There are only pipe slots which impose restrictions on the apartment layouts, thus, inner planning can be easily changed if required. Units were mostly constructed of lightweight concrete blocks in order to manage the weight distribution on loadbearing walls.

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a - kitchen, b - living room, c - bedroom Image produced by the author of the project.

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Björk Cecilia; Kallstenius Per; Reppen Laila. (2013).“Så byggdes husen” Stockholm. Svensk Byggtjänst

SKIVHUS Production: 1965-1974 Floor number: 9 (repetitive) Formation: Parallel slab houses forming open courtyards.

Stairwell units: 2 Units: Type 1: 80M2, 3 room appartment with kitchen and bathroom.

Characteristics: the Skivhus slab house units were the most popular typology in the Million Homes Program. Large volume houses required extensive groundwork with leveling and ground densification, thus primary natural land resulting to disappear completely. This type of house featured only “Normaltrea” - regular three room apartments as planned for a typical family of the time.

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a - kitchen, b - living room, c - bedroom Image produced by the author of the project.

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Björk Cecilia; Kallstenius Per; Reppen Laila. (2013).“Så byggdes husen” Stockholm. Svensk Byggtjänst

SKIVHUS Production: 1965-1974 Floor number: 9 (repetitive) Formation: Parallel slab houses forming open courtyards.

Stairwell units: 4 Units: Type 1: 3 rooms and kitchen of 80 M2.

Type 2: 1 room and kitchenette of 30 M2.

Characteristics: Slab house features one type of two-sided apartment with oversized and very deep living rooms. The facade consists of non-load-bearing prefabricated room sizes concrete elements with varying widths from 2.3 m to 4.6 m. Facade blocks could be molded in shape on the building site and then attached to the already erected load-bearing structure thus determined building technique into clear phases.

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a - kitchen, b - living room, c - bedroom, d - studio Image produced by the author of the project.

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Björk Cecilia; Kallstenius Per; Reppen Laila. (2013).“Så byggdes husen” Stockholm. Svensk Byggtjänst

SKIVHUS Production: 1965s-1974s Prefabrication system: 5k Floor number: 3-5 (repetitive) Formation: Parallel slab houses forming inner courtyards.

Stairwell units: 2 Units: Type 1: 2 rooms and kitchen of 64 M2.

Type 2: 3 room (with guest room) and kitchen of 80.5 M2.

Characteristics: apartment separating walls, columns and facade elements are load-bearing and made from prefabricated and on-site assembled concrete elements. The heavy elements system known as 5k “Skamesysternet” was developed to provide flexible apartment buildings with removable partitions in order to be adaptable if further flat rearrangement would be required.

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a - kitchen, b - living room, c - bedroom Image produced by the author of the project.

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View of a typical living room.

Stockholmsutställningen. (1930) typlägenhet nr. 4. HSB i paviljong 35.

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Typical kitchen prototype.

Holger Ellgaard. (1968). Sweden

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1.5 CASE OF STACKEN Stacken or otherwise called “the Ant Hill” is a collective housing unit that was constructed as a part of Million Homes Program in the periphery of Gothenburg, in the neighborhood of Bergsjön.The co-house initiated in 1980, became Sweden’s first collective house of the self-work model. Cohousing unit is pretty well known locally, however, despite its rich history and unorthodox management continuum, it is not that discussed co-ownership example outside the boundaries of the country. Collective unit features 35 households that host approximately 70 inhabitants of various occupations and ages, however they are all united by the organization - members not only live together in solidarity and mutual trust, but are also united by work activities that serve when maintaining the cooperative housing unit.

Caldenby Claes & Walldén Åsa.

Kollektivhuset Stacken. Gothenburg: Korpen. 1984 13

Stacken Historia. Retrieved from https://www.stacken.org/historia. 2017 14

ONE OF A KIND During the Million Home Program new districts were being built and/ or expanded, one of them was the satellite town - Bergsjön in Gothenburg.

Completely new 9 identical towers were built as a part of the program in 1969.

Although the house structure was already erected, the housing market was highly saturated thus resulting in the building being left vacant in the mid ’70s, as a temporary solution - few floors were turned to office cabinets for a number of years. Owners of the houses, the municipal organization currently named Göteborgshem took much- needed actions and came up with the proposal that one of the 9 identical housing towers could be transformed into cooperative housing thus bringing completely new qualities as well as an alternative way of living into at that time overly saturated market. Lars Ågren from Chalmers University together with possible tenants researched and planned how cooperative building could be transformed, thus common areas fitted living structure was formed. As mentioned by Caldenby Claes in 1984 “Stacken is formed as reactions to an insufficiency of the (at the time) residential scene, with stigmatized residential areas and discontinuity in transferral patterns, but embodying social will and needs amongst the residents, in different ways”.13 Common functions in the ground floor as well as in the fifth floor were planned when remodelling and reconstructing established repetitive plan of private flats in particular floors. Ground level was suited with common wood workshop, laundry room, photography laboratory, music room and sauna. Meanwhile, the fifth floor suited communal kitchen adjacent to the dining hall, a day care center for kids (later changed to the playroom). Thus, fifth floor that once was a part of repetitive flats-only planning system became common area, a bonding layer of the whole spatial organization of the unit. Proposed common areas rich model proved to be successful, in 1980 Stacken welcomed its first tenants to move in and the housing unit became occupied.

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Stacken

Nine towers and Collective house Stacken.

Caldenby Claes & Walldén Åsa. (1984). Kollektivhuset Stacken. Gothenburg: Korpen

Stacken in relation to Bergsjön district

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Widehammar Malin Interview taken at Gothenburg. 2019 15

Personal Stacken.

Mary Douglas. The Idea of a Home: A Kind of Space. in Arien Mack (Ed.). Home: A Place in the World, New York: New York University Press.

1993 16

MODEL OF FINANCING The dwelling unit, legally entitled as all cooperatives in Sweden - Economic Association was being transferred from hands to hands in the next two decades to come. The municipal company owning Stacken sold it to the private investor as a part of larger real estate deal together with several office buildings in Gothenburg. Private owner, that specialized in the management of commercial buildings had no interest in managing housing cooperative such as Stacken. for an extensive period of time, thus Stacken housing unit was placed on the market again. Residents of the building formed cooperative tenancy and buy out was initiated, as a result, inhabitants formed an organization with a help of the government dotation purchased housing unit and started taking care of their building on their own in the year of 2003. “The buy out was made for the price of 9 000 000 Kr (~870 000 Eur), an extra loan of 2 000 000 (~195 000 Eur) on top of the initial price was in need to be taken for required renovations of the building” as marked by Widehammar Malin 3. As the vast amount of budget in order to complete the buy out was too much for the tenants formed cooperative to bear on its own, government came in hand with guarantee for loan - “Cooperative Guarantee” covered 95% of the capital needed for a total amount of 11 000 000 Kr (~1 070 000 Eur). As a result, tenants had to collect capital for only 5% of the whole sum of the buyout deal, thus enabling the purchase agreement to go through. For the buy out of the building to be accomplished, almost 100 percent of the whole members ran organization agreement rate was needed. Required majority of votes in favor was reached and organization completed the buyout, correspondingly, managing apparatus of the building was handed to the tenants formed association. Tenants of the house gained all the managing and maintenance power of the building for the years to come. The legal entity of the cooperative was changed from Economic Association to Cooperative Rented Accommodation Association as the new law was written in 2005. Stacken became the first pioneer entitled to this type of newly formed legal status.

MODEL OF HOUSEHOLD As today, the cooperative housing building is owned by tenants formed association and managed in a self-work model. This method of living is supposed to bring people together to communicate, share and to enhance the feeling of collectivity. The community is envisioned on the base of shared labor model, where the majority of people have their own roles and responsibilities.

Inhabitants are obligated to invest time, thus resulting in home perceived not only as a “plot” they live in, but as a place that depends on their own devotion, as stated by Mary Douglas in 1993: “So a home is not only a space, it also has some structure in time; and because it is for people who are living in that time and space, it has aesthetic and moral dimensions.“ 16 Following that, presently there are nine work groups that every tenant should belong to communal activities, gardening, house maintenance, cleaning, monthly meetings organizers, planning, contact, home inspection and the council groups. These groups cover major physical household works as well as more formal decisions

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Stacken and its first inhabitants.

Caldenby Claes & WalldĂŠn Ă…sa. (1984). Kollektivhuset Stacken. Gothenburg: Korpen

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regarding the selection of who is able to move into the apartment, how money should be collected, divided and what updates might be needed to the house.

Despite the division in personal functions under the name of work groups, all decisions are carried out and taken collectively at the monthly meetings.

Following that, every single year, there is a gathering where the board and organization is elected in order to keep the continuum of already started works.

Although the whole organization is flat, the board still maintains the most responsibilities as legally bonded managing organ. Board is responsible for overall budget division, any accidents that occur in the building during their supervised period as well as lead most conflict and unsolved questions from legally less formal work groups that are active through the whole year.

Widehammar Malin Interview taken at Gothenburg. 2019 15

Personal Stacken.

TOGETHER IN LABOUR Current tenants of the house pay a rent equivalent to 7000 Kr (~682 Eur) a month for a four-room apartment. As this is is self-work model cooperative, to get admitted for a rental contract, one of the main criteria is for an applicant to understand what it means to be a part of a collective working group and what responsibilities it brings. The fixed monetary rent is complimented with 2.5 hours of weekly or a combination of 10 hours monthly labor as stated by rental contract. 15 Majority of works are done by responsible workgroups that keep up the maintenance of the house and enables the building up-keeping prices to be lower than in municipality managed cooperatives thus positively affecting whole rental cost for every single flat. In comparison, four room first-hand rental apartment in a regular municipality managed cooperative house at same or similar area costs from approximately 8500 Kr (~830 Eur) according to National Board of Housing, Building and Planning - Boverket.

If considered second-hand contracts market, rental prices tend to rise up to two times, thus resulting in Stacken rental holders paying prices positioned way below the overall average of the current rental housing market value, moreover, every rent contractor becomes a part of the tenant ran organization and thus the co-owner of the house for the signed period. Budget gathered per loans is accumulated and then divided for lease re-pay in conjunction with refurbishment and upkeeping of the house private and common areas.

RETROFITTING THE OLD It is easy to spot that self-initiated managing of the household works progressively. Tenants are able to feel the responsibility of the structure they live in, as a result, building underwent a step-by-step renovation in order to reach the passive house standard with the program of Retrofitting. The new workgroup was formed by a mixture of in-house enthusiasts and specialists in order to develop a passive house standard meeting project. A Building was covered in an additional layer of insulation as well as solar panels that serve as a covering layer of the insulating material. A model was applied as solar panels cost was lower than an alternative, more typical facade material planned beforehand. This was possible as solar panels were bought in a substantial amount, meanwhile, old facade did not require in-depth cleaning and renovation

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Section of Stacken collective house.

Caldenby Claes & WalldĂŠn Ă…sa. (1984). Kollektivhuset Stacken. Gothenburg: Korpen

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17

Stacken Passivhus Projektet.

Retrieved from https://www.stacken. org/.passivhusprojektet. 2017

Widehammar Malin.

Interview taken at Gothenburg. 2019 15

Personal Stacken.

if covered with insulation and sun absorbing panels. As a majority of Million Home Program buildings were constructed with estimated serving time-span of 40 years, because of a retrofitted facade estimated life span of Stacken was extended by the same period time by reinforcement of its outer shell. With the help of the solar panels it is an approximate number of 70% of savings in purchased heating.17 Electricity is produced using thin-film solar cells covering the facade surface of the building as well as with crystalline solar cells mounted on the roof. This serves not only as a benefit for the long term expenses of the tenant managed cooperative, but as a pilot project and eco-friendly example of retrofitting old structure to be suitable for contemporary standards.

CHALLENGES OF STACKEN However, in the whole story of Stacken spanning for almost 40 years, cooperative association faced many challenges. First of all, as a pioneering project of such ownership typology, it finds it more challenging and timeconsuming to gain financial and legal support in order to realize new and time wise advanced plans. An established entity also finds it hard to make quicker decisions thus wasting time and effort when proposing new ideas for the house upgrades. As today, 2/3 of whole votes are needed for one or another offer to go through, it finds itself in a struggle when accepting new initiatives through the inner meetings and votes that follow.15 This large amount of votes needed proves to be inefficient to pass new proposals, however, shifting the scale of the required votes would compromise the principle of democracy in Stacken.

In addition to that, the community experiences difficulties in dividing the labor and specific responsibilities as the formal formation of collective is tough to determine and to sort out because of the second-hand market. Several tenants rent rooms to secondary tenants thus making the division of the collective labor complicated as second-hand rental contractors are mostly there for a short time and do not find themselves that engaged to the collaborative working model.

Children day care center as an organization and as an architecturally fitted space in the fifth floor was remodeled to the simplified and less maintenance requiring playroom. Although some of the tenants still collaboratively take care of each other children in joint groups, this established activity no more accepts children from the neighborhood as it would require its separate legal status as an organization and would be more problematic to maintain. Cafeteria or socalled dining hall in the fifth floor also faced problems when finding a suitable compromise, because of different attitudes towards the inclusion of the meat dishes as well as dairy products into the menu it was eventually canceled as a regular activity. At present, common dining is organized mostly once or twice a week, although at past being of way higher frequency. Thus, it is possible to state that besides all perks of such a model, sometimes romanticized view of living together skews the portrait with new tenants finding it hard to adapt to the self-work model.

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5th floor. Common areas floorplan in Stacken.

Caldenby Claes & WalldĂŠn Ă…sa. (1984). Kollektivhuset Stacken. Gothenburg: Korpen

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POTENTIAL Despite all of the challenges, the case of collective house Stacken stands as a solid example in multiple levels. It is not only an exemplary case of the social will of its inhabitants to shape their lives through sustainable, efficient and collaborative living, but an embodiment of how to tackle the existing case of architectural insufficiency and to turn it into progressive as well as contemporary place for living together. Stacken, could be considered as a role model for further transformation of Million Homes Program era structures.

Advertisement of Stacken outlining advantages of collective living.

Caldenby Claes & WalldĂŠn Ă…sa. (1984). Kollektivhuset Stacken. Gothenburg: Korpen

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Room as a window to the nature. Concept drawing.

Caldenby Claes & WalldĂŠn Ă…sa. (1984). Kollektivhuset Stacken. Gothenburg: Korpen

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Christmas in collective dining hall.

Caldenby Claes & WalldĂŠn Ă…sa. (1984). Kollektivhuset Stacken. Gothenburg: Korpen

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Collective dinner.

Caldenby Claes & WalldĂŠn Ă…sa. (1984). Kollektivhuset Stacken. Gothenburg: Korpen

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Teleskopgatan street view from the tram station.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Fragment of collective house Stacken (in the background).

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Stacken before retrofitting of the facade. Before 2017 Image produced by the author of the project.

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Stacken after retrofitting of the facade. After 2017 Image produced by the author of the project.

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Facade fragments of Stacken - frosted sun panels.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Facade fragment of Stacken.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Facade fragment of Million Homes Program era building.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Facade fragment of Million Homes Program era building.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Staircase of Stacken.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Fragment of personalised staircase.

Fragment of personalised staircase.

Images produced by the author of the project.

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Fragment of personalised staircase.

Fragment of personalised staircase.

Images produced by the author of the project.

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Collective game room - cafeteria.

Fragment of game room.

Images produced by the author of the project.

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Items exchange point in cafeteria.

Wood workshop.

Images produced by the author of the project.

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Fragment of living room.

Collective living room.

Images produced by the author of the project.

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Personalised entrance to the private apartment.

Personalised entrance to the private apartment.

Images produced by the author of the project.

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Personalised entrance to the private apartment.

Personalised entrance to the private apartment.

Images produced by the author of the project.

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Flexibility of rooms in Stacken Image produced by the author of the project.

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Space as a reading room.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Space as a working room.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Space as a dining room.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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1.6 MILLION HOMES GOTHENBURG

PROGRAM

DISTRICT

PORTRAITS

IN

Swedish Socialist party initiated Million Homes Program districts in Gothenburg - Biskopsgarden, Hisings-Backa, Bergsjön, Hjällbo, Hammarkullen and Angered were originally designed 50 years ago for the people of the Swedish welfare state. As time passed, a tendencies in political formations, demographics and socio-economic conditions shifted dramatically. The transition from a state with homogenous nuclear families to a contemporary country with a vivid range of demands and needs inevitably turned Million Homes Program districts to clustered portraits of the past. A monumental islands of welfare state planning ideologies in a metropolitan areas of contemporary cities that serve for the multilayered segregation in terms of social status, ethnicity groups and classes.

This happened as the local Swedes of newly built lower-income orientated districts outgrown their initial economic status and moved to look for an alternative locations to live in. Vacant housing blocks were quickly occupied by immigrants thus resulting in Million Homes Program districts becoming an isolated islands of foreigners and highly segregated clusters not only physically but also mentally. Today, neighborhoods host a vast majority of immigrants population in major cities of Sweden. In Gothenburg, the rate of immigrants living in Million Homes Program districts is as high as 55% thus being twice larger than in the central area of the city. If considering inhabitants with an immigrants background the rate rises up to more than 80% as informed by Swedish municipality office. However, the foreigners who live in post-Swedish Social Democrats era districts are also challenged with a large unemployment.

If compared to an average unemployment rate in the whole Gothenburg metropolitan area, Million Homes Program neighborhoods have almost three times higher numbers constituting of almost 13.6% when compared to 5.6% in the overall region. In connection to rates described, it results in districts being home for the least financially able group with an average income being stated way below the regular norms of the Gothenburg region.

18 Lee Roden Gothenburg ‘one of Europe’s most segregated cities’ The Local, 2016

A social integration problemacy of Million Homes Program districts as well as clustered immigration in Gothenburg is stressed and brutally noted by Lee Rodem from The Local: “Gothenburg ‘one of Europe’s most segregated cities”18. With almost 25% of the whole Gothenburg municipality population living in challenged neighborhoods, this question of segregation is acute yet vital. Recent events that were taken in Gothenburg prove that just right. In 2018 around 80 cars were set to fire as a targeted arson attack in districts described.

The non-peaceful way of protests was taken by inhabitants of local immigrant-

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Million Homes Program

Media coverage of Million Homes Program districts in Sweden.

Collage produced by the author of the project.

Protests in Million Homes Program districts

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19 Zhuhan Viktoriia. “What’s behind the car burnings in western Sweden”.

The Local, 2018

20 Torbjörn Forkby, interview with The Local, 2018

only communities that feel left out of society. However, despite the dramatic events that embodied an ongoing tendency of discontinuity in social patterns as well as integration problems of the modern age, it was stated as partly expected row of accidents. As published by Viktoriia Zhuhan in an interview: “If you exclude many people from society and impoverish them, they are not going to be happy about it. They are stripped of opportunities and separated geographically. They are supposed to assimilate but they don’t have a chance!”

19 . Noting that, it is possible to state that an ongoing tension in Million Homes Districts turned to become a portrait of problemacies suffered by Swedish government and seperate municipalities immigrants integration agendas. As further explained by Torbjörn Forkby, a professor at the Department of Social Work at Småland’s Linnaeus University an ever-increasing disparity between social groups and city districts could be taken as an explanation: “Too great share of young people living in separated areas feel that society belongs to someone else,” 20 Segregation and a matter of tension in social relationships is also described in artistic culture. One of the pioneering cases is critically acclaimed film “Play”. The movie directed in 2011 by Ruben Östlund and written by Erik Hemmendorff was influenced and based on actual court cases. It depicts and analyses a psychological game between a group of immigrant boys and a smaller group of locals. When shot in one of Million Homes Program districts in Gothenburg, the movie not only portraits the social aspects and rigid cultural differences, but also a relation of grand socialism housing program architecture with an ongoing tendency of disconnection and multi-leveled fragmentation of peripheral societies.

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DISTRICTS IN NUMBERS

District Name

Inhabitants

Public Housing

Eu.Avg. Income

Unemployed

Immigrants

Biskopsgården Bergsjön Angered Hammarkullen Hjällbo Hisings-Backa

25 000 16 000 52 720 8 200 7 600 23 000

29.6 % 39.0 % 56.0 % 49.0 % 40.0 % 49.0 %

19 000 17 000 21 000 17 000 18 000 17 500

13.5 % 15.0 % 11.7 % 14.5 % 13.0 % 14.0 %

60.0 % 48.0 % 52.0 % 58.0 % 58.0 % 59.0 %

Area Name

Inhabitants

Public Housing

Eu.Avg. Income

Unemployed

Immigrants

26.3 % 43.8 %

29 700 18 160

5.6 % 13.6 %

25.1 % 55.8 %

Gothenburg Million Homes Progr.

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Movie screen shot reflecting compromised relationships in Million Homes Program districts.

Play. Directed by Ă–stlund Ruben. (2011). Sweden: Coproduction Office

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Million Homes Program in popular culture.

Stuken. (2019). Blue Duck Music distributed by Warner X

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CHAPTER 3 SWEDISH HOUSING 2.1 SWEDISH HOUSING SYSTEM The question of an affordable housing market is a dominant issue of today.

With a large part of rental housing transformed to the tenant-owned property as well as residential construction market being in crisis, a vast insufficiency of housing emerged in Sweden and is impossible to be solved with an ongoing tendencies.

21 Roden Lee. “The story of Sweden’s housing crisis”. The Local. 2016.

22 Beacon Pathway. “Housing Affordability in Europe - Housing in Sweden”. 2015.

According to the housing market data, current Swedish housing stock mainly consists of privately or a municipally owned rental apartment that occupies 45% of the whole housing market. Private units and collectively owned building cooperatives contribute to 37% and 18% of whole housing volume respectively. At present, Sweden has an approximate number of 300 municipally managed housing companies that are in charge of more than 700 000 public housing units.21 Municipally managed rental organizations host an approximate amount of 1.5 million people thus making it 15% of the whole Swedish population. At the same time, municipally rented flats occupy 50% of the whole rental market in the country. 22 Welfare policy, that was initiated to provide housing for those in need as well as to moderate housing market prices in desirable areas had a side effect as well. With its tight financial rules, long waiting times as well as regulations, it created obstacles for those it was targeted to - a lower financial abilities group.

Strict regulations in order to receive municipal rented contract provided an advantage for higher income locals who could afford to buy or rent a place to live from the private market, yet tend to get a cheaper municipally rented apartment. At the same time, an illegal second-hand market that is inflating prices emerged, with people in urgent need of a housing purchasing rental contracts from tenants that are re-renting it from municipality offices. The closed loop of renting and re-renting was created, at the same time dramatically affecting housing market prices in Sweden.

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CHAPTER 3

Population growth in Sweden.

Beacon Pathway, Housing Affordability in Europe - Housing in Sweden, 2015.

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2.2 HOUSING DEMAND ESTIMATE

22 Roden Lee, “Gothenburg ‘one of Europe’s most segregated cities”. The Local, 2016

23 Planning and Building comitee, Development Strategy Gothenburg 2035, Boverket, 2015

24 Sjelvgren, Anders. Interview by: The Local. “Sweden needs 600,000 new homes by 2025”. The Local. 28 February 2018

As calculated by the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning Boverket, 255 of Sweden’s municipalities are facing a housing shortage.22 With an ongoing level and pace of production, only 44 of 255 municipalities will be able to overcome an insufficiency within half a decade. According to the data forecast, Sweden is in need of constructing 440 000 new living units in the next ten years, the amount corresponding to a new Stockholm - approximately one million new inhabitants. That constitutes to almost 90 thousand new dwelling units in need of being built every year, however, with a current average that is three times lower, largely increasing housing shortage is almost inevitable.

Meanwhile, the demographic forecast of Gothenburg indicates a growth of 120 thousand new inhabitants that makes an increase of approximately 30% in population in the next 10 years.23 An Increase of population mainly constitutes of lower income group - young locals and immigrants. As stated by the head of housing market analysis at Boverket: “They have less time in the queue for state or municipal housing, they have less money, and some are unemployed, so by definition their problems can’t be solved by building in standard, marketdefined terms as we have until now.” 24 Thus, it is possible to state that the legal apparatus of a Swedish housing system that was set during the post-war period no longer serves efficiently and is no longer in sync with current socio-economical tendencies of contemporary living in Sweden. An ongoing insufficiency creates an increasing demand for alternative solutions of housing management towards the crisis.

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CHAPTER 3 URBAN CONDITIONS OF SATELLITE DISTRICTS 3.1 RELATION OF BUILT AND UNBUILT Six Swedish social welfare state era districts of Gothenburg has been picked as exemplary cases. Districts selected, were mostly formed in the time span from 1965 to 1974, thus making them the most prominent and puristic exemplary cases of Million Homes Program era architecture and urban planning in Gothenburg. Open space mapping and analysis of its relation to district footprints, enabled to determine the most distinctive features of Swedish Social democrat era urban islands, revealing not only rich natural resources, but compromised relation between the build and unbuilt areas as well.

As each of the districts was structured in design and building phases, this created vivid and clearly visible urban figures as well as settlement principles that could be seen from the footprint of the buildings. At the same time, time-framing building phases created rigid patterns and a vast amount of undetermined land in between different urban patterns of Million Homes Program era structures. Clear determination of different function orientated areas and separation of traffic from housing units resulted in compromised transferral patterns between the differentiating urban blocks.

Rigid relation between typologies provoked an appearance of vast open spaces that lack definition as well as function, turning highly potential open land to a zone of segregation rather than a connection. Undetermined areas in Million Homes Program districts could be seen as a resource and a tool for further densification and improvement of neighborhoods. It would also serve as an opportunity to rethink the relation of open areas through programmatic enrichment of urban islands thus provoking spatial qualities exchange between nature, new and already built structures.

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6

5 4

2

3

1

Million Homes Program islands. Biskopsgarden (1), Hisings-Backa (2), Bergsjon (3), Hjallbo (4), Hammarkullen (5) and Angered centrum (6) Image produced by the author of the project.

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Footprint of Biskopsgarden.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Open space analysis of Biskopsgarden.

Image produced by the author of the project.

Controlled nature

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Wild nature

Industrial land

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Parking / utility

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Footprint of Hisings-Backa.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Open space analysis of Hisings-Backa Image produced by the author of the project.

.

Controlled nature

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Wild nature

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Footprint of Bergsjon.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Open space analysis of Bergsjon.

Image produced by the author of the project.

Controlled nature

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Footprint of Hjallbo.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Open space analsysis of Hjallbo.

Image produced by the author of the project.

Controlled nature

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Footprint of Hammarkullen.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Open space analysis of Hammarkullen.

Image produced by the author of the project.

Controlled nature

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Footprint of Angered.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Open space analsysis of Angered.

Image produced by the author of the project.

Controlled nature

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3.2 ATLAS OF CLUSTER TYPOLOGIES As Million Homes Program districts in Gothenburg were mostly composed of differently arranged repetitive housing units, it’s sorting out accordingly to their formation in urban pattern revealed large differences between the districts despite the identical housing block typologies. Classification of buildings accordingly to their formation - rows of slab houses, open yard houses, private houses, and courtyard houses revealed an amount of each typology and its relation to the scale of each district. This differentiation of districts through a typological variety of housing outlined each of the districts formations as well as a range of settlement conditions.

With Biskopsgarden (black) and Bergsjon (red) being one of the largest districts in a number of inhabitants as well as featuring most versatile set of building formation typologies we can see clear relation between housing unit typologies and open space analysis. Undetermined areas of districts are mostly in between different building typology clusters, as a result of high ratio of different settlement conditions colliding in one district.

At the same time, districts of Hammarkullen (brown) and Angered centrum (green) are mostly composed of similar type of housing block typologies, thus creating a singular urban condition through both districts with most undetermined spaces being in the outer part of the district.

Both Hisings-Backa (purple) and Hjallbo (blue) feature a vast amount of differently arranged housing unit typologies with a range similar to Biskopsgarden (black) and Bergsjon (red). However, differentiating typologies are composed in up to two times smaller area, resulting in complicated transferral patterns in between the housing units.

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Biskopsgarden (black), Hisings-Backa (purple), Bergsjon (red), Hjallbo (blue), Hammarkullen (brown) and Angered centrum (green).

Image produced by the author of the project.

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3.3 CONDITIONS OF OPEN SPACE Analysis of open areas in Million Homes Program districts pointed out recurring tendencies and typologies of open space that could be used as a tool for further densification of districts.

Enclave - a typology that is mostly recurring on the edge of the districts, when a dense cluster of living units is enclosed by the traffic ring road. Tension and a rigid boundary between areal qualities is created when car traffic, as well as parking lots, are isolated from recreational areas for the purposes of safety and noise isolation, yet forested nature in the outside of the ring road is cut from inner spaces as well.

Introverse - open space typology mostly prominent to the blocks of courtyard houses. The unbuilt area is highly differentiated to two parts, featuring collective gardens placed in the inner yards as recreational zones, yet leaving spaces between the housing blocks as a monofunctional “corridors” and utility zones. This urban condition creates rigid transferal patterns in between the dwelling units.

Contrast - planning condition appears as a result of “Scaft” planning system that was used at that time in order to disconnect traffic from recreational areas of the district. As a result featuring segregation between the natural landscape and densified living area with transport infrastructures in between. However, unlike in the condition of an “Enclave”, this situation appears not on the edge of the urban settlement, but in the inside of it.

Boundary - a condition that repetitively appears together with one of the most frequent Million Homes Program housing units typology - slab house.

As natural landscape qualities were lost when preparing groundworks for construction sites, they were never completely restored afterward slab houses construction was finished. As a result, the majority of housing blocks stand in a land that lacks any functional purpose creating a vast amount of undetermined space in between large scale housing units.

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Modern, bright and fresh - key design features of Million Homes Program era.

Author unknown. (1965–1970). Hallands konstmuseum.

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Enclave Image produced by the author of the project.

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Introverse Image produced by the author of the project.

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Contrast Image produced by the author of the project.

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Boundary Image produced by the author of the project.

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Open space with a garden.

Open space with nature ponds.

Collages based on old postcards and edited by the author of the project.

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Open space with no determined function.

Open space with parking lots.

Images produced by the author of the project.

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3.4 JUXTAPOSITION OF DENSITIES An overlay of densities when comparing central part of Gothenburg with a density of Million Homes Program era urban islands of Biskopsgarden, Hisings-Backa, Bergsjon, Hjallbo, Hammarkullen and Angered centrum districts unveiled dramatic scale differences between the built and unbuilt patterns of the two mediums.

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Biskopsgarden versus Gothenburg centre.

Hisings-Backa versus Gothenburg centre.

Images produced by the author of the project.

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Bergsjon versus Gothenburg centre.

Hjallbo versus Gothenburg centre.

Images produced by the author of the project.

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Hammarkullen versus Gothenburg centre.

Angered versus Gothenburg centre.

Images produced by the author of the project.

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CHAPTER 4 PROJECT DESIGN 4.1 SUBDIVISION IN GOTHENBURG Gothenburg is a city of production. The favorable location in the meeting point of Baltic and North seas enabled Gothenburg to establish itself as the largest seaport in whole Scandinavia. Logistically advantageous location triggered the growth of various activities ranging from material, industrial and finishing with intellectual production. Thus, Gothenburg became not only the second largest city in Sweden but most importantly, a productive powerhouse of the whole region.

Municipal sprawl of Gothenburg, that was tightly related to ongoing, creative, productive and logistic activities created great urban differentiation, thus resulting in clear typological characteristics of a city that could be determined in four quarters. An open loop of different segments that feature main employers of Gothenburg - Volvo cars, Gothenburg Port authorities, Chalmers University of Technology and the University of Gothenburg as well as other complimentary intellectual production enterprises, resulted in a clear typological division of the metropolitan area of the city by various levels of productive activities.

A current state of density in Gothenburg, with the main population living in the over the densified central part of the city, does not offer any possibilities for larger growth that is needed in the nearest future. National Board of Housing, Building and Planning - Boverket is envisioning further growth of municipality of Gothenburg not in brand new developed areas, but within Million Homes Program districts that are already equipped with great public transportation as well as feature an abundance of open undetermined land.

Thus, we are able to say that the potential of growth in Gothenburg is embedded in satellite towns of Million Homes Program era. With ongoing municipal activities as well as with further programmatic enrichment of Million Homes Program districts accordingly, Gothenburg is envisioned not only as a monocentric city with an over-densified core but as an interlinked urban archipelago reinforcing Gothenburg metropolitan area with new complimentary and co-dependant centralities.

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Gothenburg - Scandinavian gate to the North sea.

Image outsourced from Google Earth and edited by the author of the project.

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Gothenburg - determined in terms of major organisations and enterprises.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Industrial production

Crafts and material production

Port and logistics

Immaterial production

Gothenburg - determined in interlinked quarters of functionality and character.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Gothenburg city plan footprint.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Million Homes Program islands in Gothenburg.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Density of population in Gothenburg.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Million Homes Program islands in relation to public transport and city centre.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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4.2 URBAN ISLAND - BERGSJON Gothenburg is a city of two major Swedish academic institutions - the University of Gothenburg and the University of Chalmers, being one of the largest employers of the city as well as turning Gothenburg into an attractive destination of education for students from all around the world. However, being a hub of higher education means not only providing qualitative studies and places to work, but employs a responsibility to provide an up to date housing thus enabling Gothenburg to become more than just a one time stop destination for students and academics.

Dwelling units for the social group of researchers, students and young alumni working in the intellectual production sector has to be provided in order to stop drainage of intellectuals. Million Homes Program district - Bergsjon is closely located to the hub of immaterial production - two international universities as well as major intellectual production companies of Gothenburg.

Close proximity to the heart of intellectual production of the city as well as developed connection to it by the public transport enables Bergsjon to feature an extension of the immaterial production quarter of Gothenburg, serving as a home - a place to work and live for the social group of intellectual workers. A programmatic ambition of the expansion goes beyond an existing understanding of the satellite town of Bergsjon that was always conceived as a dormitory neighborhood. It proposes an opportunity to offer a diversified landscape of programmatic typologies turning a Million Homes Program era district to a new centrality of living and working together.

Construction of cooperative buildings would be performed step by step and would be based on the mixed interest and benefits of living and studying or working in a collaborative manner. It is envisioned as a collaborative gesture to be taken by the municipality, universities and enterprises as well as new inhabitants.

Universities / enterprises

Working

Interest Social integration

Cooperative Municipality

Living

Students / alumni

Cooperative organisation diagram.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Location of Million Homes Program island - Bergsjon.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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4.3 PROGRAMMATIC ANALYSIS OF BERGSJON Million Homes Program district is composed of two parts - Western and Eastern Bergsjรถn. The development of Eastern Bergsjรถn began in the year of 1965, meanwhile, the construction works in the Western part of Bergsjรถn were started two years later - in 1967. Currently, there are 140 different nationalities inhabitants in the district. Satellite town is composed of two equally sized parts that are separated by a forested hill. Two centralities compose twin districts in one urban conglomerate of 16 000 people. Both parts of the district were developed as self-sufficient clusters, that were fitted with their own central points - major public transportation hubs. Tram line stops are accompanied by several primary and middle education schools, shopping centers, indoor sports facilities, and a church. Both centralities are reinforced by different urban patterns of Million Homes Program era buildings and forested areas - green fingers sprawling from the outer ring road towards the two centralities of the district.

Planning tendencies of Swedish Socialism era, that were setting a goal to cut transportation or intense car traffic from living areas is highly expressed in the district of Bergsjon as well. The whole district is composed of different patterns of housing blocks accompanied by green areas as well as low-density traffic roads. This creates an urban condition - a cluster of alleys, interlinked network of housing block patterns connecting outer ring road with public transportation hubs in the middle of the district.

One of the urban settlement principles - stripes, is where collective housing unit Stacken is located, as a part of nine towers cluster embedded in a valley of forested hills. As the analyzed case of Stacken shows, Million Homes program era districts are unable to meet the tendencies of modern living and needs of contemporary inhabitants. This presents an opportunity to reinforce the cluster of nine towers by not only proposing new collective housing units targeted to the social group of students and academics but by facilitating the situation of insufficiency that was left in a state of limbo after the Million Homes Program era.

Project designed is placed in a parallel to the existing row of nine storey towers. Mirroring it in terms of architectural typology as well as the number of inhabitants, however offering a completely different program and possibilities of contemporary living in an otherwise single-purposed planning system of Million Homes Program era cluster. An absence of public facilities is tackled through the reappropriation of the land and its conversion to social needs meeting programmatic organisation.

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Bergsjon footprint and functions: commercial (red), public transportation (blue), education (green).

Images produced by the author of the project.

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Bergsjon - satellite town embedded in forested nature.

Author Unknown. Program fรถr Bergsjรถn. (Year Unknown). Gรถteborgs Stad. https://goteborg.se/wps/portal/start/byggande-lantmateri-och-planarbete/kommunens-planarbete/plan--och-byggprojekt

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Cluster of repetitve housing units.

Arnepe1. Gรถteborg: Bergsjรถn, Teleskopgatan. (2008). Panoramio.

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Plan of the twin district revealing its duality yet codependance with intelrinked cores.

Image outsourced from Google Earth, edited by the author of the project.

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Urban metaphor. Photo image of twins revealing two cores duality yet codependance in Bergsjon.

Gallery outsourced image edited by the author of the project.

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Stripe of towers towards the forested nature.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Stripe of towers towards the open undetermined land.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Teleskopgatan view towards parking lots..

Image produced by the author of the project.

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teleskopgatan view towards the cluster of towers.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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4.4 DESIGN PROPOSAL As a collective unit of Stacken is the only single tower unit featuring common facilities in an otherwise typically planned living neighborhood of Swedish Social Democrats era, targeting problematic common areas and their enriching is a vital step towards revitalisation of the cluster. A new set of towers complement the existing ones and serve as an extension of functionality with its own collective inner and outer spaces.

Collectively managed and used program is applied to the stripe creating a 400-meter pedestrian focused alley thus celebrating and emphasizing monumental star-shaped Million Homes Program era towers. Alley leading towards public transportation hub is reinforced with common facilities targeting neighboring tower dwellers as well as new building inhabitants, thus resulting in a programmatic exchange between two polarities. Brand new social relation and scenario of the cluster is created, inhabitants are integrated as well as encouraged to meet each other through public activities in indoor facilities such as hobby rooms, libraries, collective office spaces, cooperative store, children care centres, sauna and more. Meanwhile, outdoors areas in between new towers are also designed to facilitate not only the new structures but to give back to the existing community. Publically accessible stripe is reinforced through common kitchen gardens, children playgrounds, canopycovered plaza, an open forum as well as half-sunken parking lots underneath the collective spaces. Thus, it is possible to state that the alley becomes a spine of collective interaction that is encouraged through a mixture of different spatial tenures.

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Implantation plan.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Pedestrian-first alley as a social spine of the towers cluster.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Site plan with collective groundfloors.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Collective open offices, library and hobby rooms with outdoor activities in-between.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Collective kid rearing centre, social centre and cooperative shop with outdoor activities in-between.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Typological mirror - conceptual collage.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Garden view - collective groundfloor accompanied with common playground.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Collective playground and half sunken parking lot in between the towers.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Collective kitchen garden in between the towers.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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4.5 SPATIAL ORGANISATION OF UNITS Towers are organised in a radial planning system. Living units specified for students, alumni or academics are arranged through the perimeter of the tower and feature open study rooms that double as 360 degree light penetration zones towards the central part of the tower. The core of the building features main vertical axis serving as circulation points that are accompanied with an open spiraling staircase. The centre of the tower is reinforced with common activities flexibly adapting to the needs of the inhabitants. Collective areas feature common kitchens, dining rooms, playrooms, living rooms that turn central core into a collective axis that encompasses all inhabitants of the tower.

Living / Studying Circulation

Collective area

Functional diagram.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Student dormitory floorplan scenario 1.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Student dormitory floorplan scenario 2.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Living units floorplan scenario 1.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Living units floorplan scenario 2.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Facade panel 300mm: reinforced concrete 120mm, thermal insulation 90mm, reinforced concrete 90mm.

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Load bearing column 300mm Functional shaft with functional wall Image produced by the author of the project.

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4.6 DWELLING UNITS As noted in the research that was made when analysing Million Homes Program buildings and their dwelling unit typologies, an inherited housing stock in Sweden is dominated by regular three room apartments that were once designed to tackle the needs of nuclear family composed of husband, wife and two kids. Regular three room appartment units of the time were called - “Normaltrea� and the word remains used today when discussing about a standart living unit in Sweden.

However, during a span of 50 years, demographics in Sweden have changed dramatically. The shift from at that time examplary nuclear families to the tendency of today when more people tend to create families later or prefere to live as singles was not foreseen when Million Homes Program era housing units were designed.

Project designed, offers not only different way of living through a model of common areas enriched dwelling units, but at the same time targets a group of those in need of housing when enriching an already existing housing stock in Sweden. With projected audience being least financially able group mainly composed of young professionals, project targets the missing link in an otherwise orthodox Swedish dwelling units selection.

Project proposes a range of living units, ranging from studios of 16 M2 and finishing with duplexes of 64 M2. Dwelling units are focused on a wide range of inhabitants and tends to offer space from one person orientated studios to larger flats that would be suited for newcomming young families.

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Living unit equiped with functional wall and flexible space in the middle. Initial concept drawing.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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4.7 FUNCTIONALITY Prefabrication of simple to use and functionality focused design has always been one of the main driving forces in Scandinavian design industry. Million Homes Program era was not an exception of the rule, with its pioneering ideas first published during Stockholm Exhibition in 1930, the very first Swedish Modern architecture manifesto celebrated the idea of prefabrication and standartilzaion of the household as well as dwelling units. Interestingly, the ideas that were applauded at that time are still valid today and could be taken as an examplary case for contemporary living units planning.

As a continuum of “minimal necessity” design guidelines that were applied in Million Homes Program era buildings and their household is maintained. project design features a functional wall thus providing a necessary facilities tailored to the needs of every inhabitant and corelating to the size of the studio or an apartment. Thus, each space comes with a most necesary and not overwhelming facilities to tackle the basic needs of every individual, such as a single or double bed, kitchen or kitchenette, shower and a toilet. Functional wall is opened up according to the need of at that time required facilities, or is completely closed in order to create a room as a tabula rasa.

Application of functional wall results in a vast amount of unobstructed space in every living unit, weather it is the smallest studio 16 M2 or larger. Prefabricated functional wall expands in to the open area if opened and morphs with an overall space to extends its own functionality. Thus, examplary case of 16 M2 studio becomes a host to three diferent functions that adapts to the need of the inhabitant. Three functions in a sigle apartment addresses the heritage of “Normaltrea” - three room apartment in Swedish housing market and proposes a contemporary understanding of it in a much smaller scale.

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a

b a+b+c

c

Normaltrea 2.0

Normaltrea

Comparison of a minimal unit featuring 3 functions and a typical example of Normaltrea regular three room appartment from Million Homes Program era. Indicative: a - bedroom, b - living room, c - dining room Image produced by the author of the project.

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Example of modular functional wall - Open functional wall as an extension of function.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Closed functional wall - room as a tabula rasa.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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4.8 URBAN ISLAND - ANGERED - RANNEBERGEN As a majority of Million Homes Program districts were built on agrarian lands, the character of artisanry, crafts, as well as small scale production activities, prevailed even after the retransformation of the land in the North East of Gothenburg. Angered centrum - Rannebergen district is located on the brink of the Gothenburg municipality and rural areas. Its location, as well as logistically favourable urban condition, presents a unique opportunity to have a continuum of smaller scale productive activities and to propose new dwelling units that would serve not only as an expansion of housing volume but at the same time would integrate people through workshop activities. An existing pool of untrained people, could be seen as an asset and naturally presents an opportunity of integration through collective work and living.

Construction of working cooperatives would be taken in steps and would be based on the mixed interest and benefits of living and working in a collaborative manner. The design proposal is envisioned as a collaborative gesture to be taken by the municipality, smaller scale independent businesses as well as new inhabitants. As Million Homes Program districts are suffering from an unemployment crisis, new housing units combined with workshop facilities would target several issues at once - lack of housing, lack of workplaces and a lack of social integration. Working areas are envisioned to employ not only people living in cooperative units but would also use the workforce that is an available resource in the Million Homes Program district.

Small businesses

Working

Interest Social integration

Cooperative Municipality

Living

Inhabitants

Cooperative organisation diagram.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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2

Selection of two Million Homes Program districts.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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4.9 RANNEBERGEN - ANGERED Million Homes Program district is composed in a radial planning system and is implemented into the forested nature on the mountain in Angered. The urban island features a selection of common outdoor and indoor facilities. Park in central part features a number of summer pavilions, middle school with a swimming pool, ample-sized flower and farming ponds for the benefits of the locals. All facilities together with Million Home Program era buildings are interlinked with pedestrian paths scraping inner courtyard - 9 hectares of forested nature in the middle of the cluster that is shared in between 4 thousand inhabitants of the urban island.

The outer ring road of the district consists of purely traffic related facilities road, public transportation stops, bicycle lane, driveways and large parking lots, thus all the traffic is sealed from the inner garden. As the whole district was designed following the same guideline as well as the only single typology of housing unit - slab house, urban condition of a boundary presents itself.

Segregation of the outer nature and the inner garden results in a continuous stripe of undetermined land.

The project proposed is placed on the boundary and implements a new functional layer, introducing new inhabitants as well as a productive program to a singlepurposed urban island of million homes program era. The reappropriation of the undetermined land creates new possibilities of integration through working and living. This results in creating a new perspective to the district through a collection of productive activities and turning it into a new centrality embedded in forested nature.

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Rannebergen - Angered footprint and functions: collective (blue), education (green).

Images produced by the author of the project.

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Million Homes Program cluster on top of the Rannebergen mountain.

Kamerareportage. (1970). Svenska Dagbladet. https://www.svd.se/vi-bygger-den-onda-staden--mot-battre-vetande

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Housing unit facade from the outer ring road.

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Radial plan of the district revealing different urban planning layers.

Image outsourced from Google Earth, edited by the author of the project

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Urban metaphor. Scan of human brain revealing different anatomical layers.

Gallery outsourced image edited by the author of the project.

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Slab housing unit and large collective garden.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Slab house and stripe of undetermined land.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Postcard from Rannebergen - Angered district.

Postcard author unknown. (1970-1975). Publisher unknown

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Inner garden with summer pavilions, playgrounds and vegetation ponds. ร strรถm Ola. (1970) Gรถteborgs Stadsmuseum. https://www.kringla.nu

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Recreational common program of the Million Homes program era district is enriched through application of dwelling units fitted with common ground floors serving as a range of productive industries as well as craft workshops and showrooms.

Collectively used and managed program is applied to the circular settlement creating a loop of productive activities that are set to reinforce not only each other as a chain of interlinked initiatives but to also propose a new range of functions to the existing settlement. This results in blurring a boundary between working and living in a suburb when at the same time offering new places for a living to new inhabitants and new workplaces for the locals. The new functional layer adjacent to the outer ring road serves as an invitation and opens up the Million Homes Program era district for visitors through the enrichment of an existing situation.

New building groundfloors feature workshops, craft production spaces as well as collective showrooms during work days that double as much needed social centres and meeting points for the inhabitants of the district on weekends.

When combined with forested landscape, Million Home Program era buildings and existing facilities, newly proposed program creates an exchange of functionalities in between old and new structures as well as different generations of inhabitants. New programmatic relation is created when facilitating the insufficiency of productive activities and benefitting from a vast resource of leisure facilities that are present in the urban island as well as its surroundings.

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Implantation plan.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Productive layer as a reinforcing shell of slab houses cluster.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Site plan with collective productive facilities.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Collective workshops, recreational areas and exhibition space.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Collective workshops, recreational areas and exhibition space.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Typological mirror - conceptual collage.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Ringroad view - workshops and entrance towards Million Homes Program district.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Productive facilities workshop towards parking lot.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Collective room towards garden.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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5.9 DWELLING UNITS New housing blocks are organized in a linear manner. Different living units are connected with an outdoor terrace that doubles as a circulation zone featuring main vertical axes connecting living areas and common showrooms as well as workshops underneath. Dwelling units targeting workers in small scale productive industries are combined with common living rooms shared between different inhabitants and / or families. First living floor common areas feature access to a large outdoor terrace that is placed on the rooftop of productive facilities and serves as a collective deck for cinteraction and ommon activities in the summertime.

Terrace

Living / Collective area

Circulation

Functional diagram.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Living units floorplan scenario 1.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Living units floorplan scenario 2.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Living units floorplan scenario 3.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Living units floorplan scenario 4.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Facade panel 300mm: reinforced concrete 120mm, thermal insulation 90mm, reinforced concrete 90mm.

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Load bearing column 300mm Functional shaft with functional wall Image produced by the author of the project.

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Common room opening up towards outdoor terrace as a collective platform.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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Bedroom with a view from Rannebergen mountain.

Image produced by the author of the project.

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CONCLUSION As the case of Stacken reveals, living areas of Million Homes Program districts do not meet the need of contemporary living demands and it could be much more than just an isolated case. Satellite towns embedded in landscapes of forested nature feature an abundant resource of undetermined land that could be employed for further development of Metropolitan Gothenburg. Densification of urban islands, when tackling their shortcomings would serve as a tool not only to integrate people through collaborative living and working, but would also find a place for architectural monuments of Million Homes Program era in the present day.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Asplund Gunnar; Wolter Gahn; Sven Markelius; Gregor Paulsson; Eskil Sundahl; Uno Ahren. “acceptera”. Modern Swedish Design: Three Founding Texts. New York: The Museum of Modern Art. 2008 Beacon Pathway. Housing Affordability in Europe - Housing in Sweden.

2015. http://www.beaconpathway.co.nz/images/uploads/Background_ Housing_in_Sweden.pdf Caldenby Claes & Walldén Åsa. Kollektivhuset Stacken. Gothenburg: Korpen. 1984.

Carlström Vilhelm. Sweden needs to build a new Stockholm in five years but is investing in renovations instead”, Business Insider. 2016.

Creagh Lucy. From acceptera to Vällingby: The Discourse on Individuality and Community in Sweden (1931-54). 2011 Grander Martin, Personal Interview by Lee Roden. at Malmö University. The Local. 2017.

Mary Douglas. The Idea of a Home: A Kind of Space. in Arien Mack (Ed.).

Home: A Place in the World, New York: New York University Press. 1993.

Mattsson Helena and Wallenstein Sven-Olov. 1930/1931: Swedish Modernism at the Crossroads. Sweden, Axl Books. 2009 Planning and Building comitee. Development Strategy Gothenburg 2035.

Boverket. 2014. https://international.goteborg.se/sites/international.goteborg. se/files/field_category_attachments/development_strategy_goteborg_2035. pdf Roden Lee. Gothenburg ‘one of Europe’s most segregated cities. The Local.

2016 Roden Lee. The story of Sweden’s housing crisis. The Local. 2016

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Stenberg Erik ed. Structural Systems of the Million Program Era.KTH Arkitekturskolan. 2016 Stacken Historia. Retrieved from https://www.stacken.org/historia. 2017.

Stacken Passivhus Projektet. 2017. Retrieved from https://www.stacken.org/. passivhusprojektet Swedish Government. “Bonus-malus”. Policy type: Economic Instrument.

2017.

Sjelvgren Anders. Interview by: The Local. “Sweden needs 600,000 new homes by 2025”. 28 February, 2018 Widehammar Malin, Personal Interview at Stacken. Gothenburg. 2019 Zhuhan Viktoriia. What’s behind the car burnings in western Sweden. The Local. 2018 CONSULTED PROFESSIONALS: Erik Stenberg - an architect and Associate Professor in Architecture at the KTH School of Architecture and the Built Environment in Stockholm, Sweden.

IMAGERY: Asplund Gunnar; Wolter Gahn; Sven Markelius; Gregor Paulsson; Eskil Sundahl; Uno Ahren. “acceptera”. Stockholm: Tidens förlag. 1931.

Arnepe1. Göteborg: Bergsjön, Teleskopgatan. Panoramio. 2008.

Björk Cecilia; Kallstenius Per; Reppen Laila.“Så byggdes husen” Stockholm.

Svensk Byggtjänst. 2013.

Caldenby Claes & Walldén Åsa. Kollektivhuset Stacken. Gothenburg: Korpen.

1984.

Chalmers tekniska högskola. Arbetsgruppen för forskning om trafiksäkerhet.

Scaft guidelines. Stockholm. Swedish National Board of Urban Planning.

1968.

Author Unknown. Göteborgs Stadsmuseum. 1970. https://www.kringla.nu Göteborgs Stad. Program för Bergsjön. Göteborgs Stad. Year Unknown. https://goteborg.se/wps/portal/start/byggande--lantmateri-och-planarbete/ kommunens-planarbete/plan--och-byggprojekt

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Holger Ellgaard. Sweden. 1968.

Stockholmsutställningen. Typlägenhet nr. 4. HSB i paviljong 35. 1930.

Stjernström John. Foretagskallan. Stockholm. 1930. https://www. foretagskallan.se/foretagskallan-nyheter/lektionsmaterial/den-goda-bostaden MUSIC AND MOVIES Play. Directed by Östlund Ruben. Sweden: Coproduction Office. 2011.

Stuken. Blue Duck Music distributed by Warner X. 2019.

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