SYSTEM vs INDIVIDUALISM
A comparison study of ancient Roman and Japanese war cultures. Prof. Denis Earle, DES 201 Design, Culture, Environment
Project by Ujal Gorchu, 04/25/2018. TA;Megan Gilmore
ABSTRACT
War has been one of the most consistent phenomenas throughout the history of humankind; we’ve fought for resources, power, religious and cultural beliefs. We’ve invented and perfected the art of war which in return became a defining element in our identity. But culture of war is not simply the weapons used for killing, in fact that is only a small part of the equation. In order to understand the weapons produced by the specific civilization one should understand the context in which they emerged and why they looked the way they did. For this exercise I’ve decided to consider two different civilizations and to evaluate their perception of war in relation to each other. The main goal is to see how the physical environment affect the way people think and how does that get reflected in their wars. War is also an important cultural phenomena because it creates a body of literary/visual works that try to depict it in a very specific manner and trying to find clues in the way civilizations talk about their wars may help us to further understand the essence of the culture. Roman legions and Japanese samurai may be one of the biggest historical war references up to these day. We often use these references in pop culture negating the tremendous difference in their philosophy. Even though the period of the Roman Empire evaluated in this project (300BC - 600AD) is chronologically earlier than the ancient Japanese one (700AD-1200AD) the essence of the argument still stays relevant since the tendencies stayed consistent up to this day.
INDEX
Abstract
2
Geographical influences
4
Designing apparatuses of war
10
Cultural representation of war
18
Conclusion & References
30
GEOGRAPHICAL INFLUENCES How does the geography and natural environment lay the ground for the formation of cultures.
Figure 1.
Japan’s geographic location has undoubtedly contributed to the unique set of characteristics we define as Japanese nowadays. First of all, even though Japan was highly influenced by China in the early stages, appropriating some of the cultural, philosophical and utilitarian items it was an island with closed borders up until 1853 1. This in addition to the mountainous topography (discussed in class) set the basis for the inwards oriented society.
The geographic location made it difficult and unnecessary to conquer lands. Even though Japan was not fighting wars with its neighbors it always had wars between the clans and provinces which made the organization of an unified government almost impossible. This eventually led to the emergence of the mercenary legends we know as samurai.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Rome on the other hand was occupied one of the most fertile parts of Europe which gave birth to the culture based on agriculture, farming and appreciation of dolce vita. But it was also surrounded by other groups of settlers that at the beginning threatened the prosperity of Rome. Roman empire did not always have the glorious and all mighty army we all know today, that happened after they were defeated by Celts in 390BC 3. A lot of things were rethought and the training of soldiers became systematized. Rome had an army that consisted of highly skilled warriors that did not have a second thought about following the orders of legions. Another important thing is that initially the only people who were allowed to join the army were not slaves, but landowners since it was believed that they were the ones who had things to lose4. And in general, fighting for Rome was a big honor and the only way of climbing up the political ladder. Later on as the empire expanded and started colonizing the army was expanded by soldiers and half time soldiers but the orderliness and the unity of the army remained. The Roman army became that perfect mechanism of war.
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DESIGNING APPARATUSES OF WAR How does the design of weapons reflect the cultural and philosophical views of people.
Figure 4.
Japan did not have a unified army up to the end of 19th century. It consisted of different clans that were constantly at war, the emperor was there but shared the power with Shogun who was supposed to take care of the military aspect (and sometimes was seen as superior to the king himself). 5 Under this conditions we see the birth of the samurai. Now we shouldn’t get caught up with the romantic image of samurai we’ve been fed by Hollywood because even though samurai did have an honor code it was very different to what we may think it should be. Early Samurai were mercenaries usually hired by wealthy people to protect them from local bandits. So we see a greater individualism as every samurai had a different employer and developed a particular relationship with his master.6 Since samurai were never part an army their weapons had to be able to deal with different situations like; combat with cavalry, long range, short range and etc. However these criteria were differently prioritized during different times (figure 6.5); the long curved blades were favored after the Mongol war in 1274, shorter single edged swords known as katana were favored later due to the smaller combat environments. Another thing that reinforced the individualism of each samurai was the degree of customization of the sword. Every samurai had a sword made specifically for them and by the end of the 11th century the hamon (figure 5,6) was introduced making it even more customized.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
When it comes to Roman design we see a variety of different weapons. Weapons were extremely practical and specific which made them extremely powerful when used together as a system. Unlike samurai all of the Roman soldiers had a specific role in the battle and therefore weapons did not have to be suitable for all combat situations rather they were designed for practicality and efficiency. Since most of the weapons were distributed by the state itself we hardly see any customization of the individual weapons in form of visual appearance.
Galadius -most commonly used sword in the Roman Empire was adopted from the clans and tribes that lived in Spain. 7 However, they made it shorter and lighter to be able to use it in tight formations which was crucial for the army.
Figure 8.
Figure xx
The widespread use of catapults and ballistas imply that they were used by a group of people in a larger context, as a part of a bigger unit. This was only made possible by the systematization of the army.
There are some speculations about how they dressed), emperors wore purple, legions wore yellow or white and most of the soldiers wore red with red helmets. All of these were directly proportional with the cost of the given materials at the time.8
CULTURAL REPRESENTATION OF WAR How do different civilizations depict their wars and what does that say about them.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
The way people portray themselves is often exaggerated but that exaggeration is simply amplification of the values they already posses or the ones that they idealize. When it comes to Japanese war/combat art there are couple of things that stand out. First of all we see an articulation of the individual. Every single character on the canvas is carefully represented. Unlike, Roman art of this kind where it is a matter of “us against them” it is impossible to say who is “us” and who is “them”, it is solely about the individuals. Secondly, Samurai, unlike Roman soldiers had an honor code and a specific traditions for one on one combat. “The samurai remained attached to ideas of single combat, that of honorable battle between individual warriors, and to certain ritual elements of battle, such as a series of archery exchanges conducted before entering into hand-to-hand fighting”9. Even in the artworks depicting a battle of armies we would never see a samurai arbitrarily swinging his sword trying to kill as many enemies as he can, rather it was an honorable act, a dance one had to perform with his opponent and die with honor.
Figure 11.
From top to bottom; Figure 12,13,14
Knowing that Roman Empire was best described as a huge ticking mechanism that was driven by pragmatism and economy what can be said about the way the wars were depicted in art, mosaic and sculpture? We clearly do not see the articulation of the individuals the way we do Japanese artworks, Roman army is presented as a mass that is hardly differentiated within each other (figure 17). However, with the introduction of color in paintings and mosaics a new perspective becomes present; Romans as a group are clearly differentiated from their opponents. Even the way they dressed had a unifying logic behind it making the army look and feel as a single body. It is important to highlight the fact that the design of the armor was mainly dictated by the economy10 (availability of the materials around) and function so unlike Japanese design it had nothing to do with aesthetics and individuality.
Figure 17.
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
But what about the depiction of failure?
Figure 18. Cursed field. The place of execution in ancient Rome. Crucified slave. (Fyodor Bronnikov
Third Servile war was fought between ex-gladiators led by Spartacus and the Roman army and Rome was under siege for three years before being freed by its armies that were on the conquest. 11 What is being depicted is crucification of the rebels along with the members of the two legions that lost the first battle with Spartacus. This was meant to serve as a visual example for anyone that wanted to go against the “government�.
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Roman soldiers were trained to be brave but the bravery we are talking about is not associated with honor but rather interdependence of everyone within the army. If someone did not fulfill their part that meant putting everyone else in danger and it was punishable by death (in most cases the person was beaten to death by his comrades). These human sacrifices were made in order to keep the whole system that was mainly sustained by fear.
Figure 19.
Ancient Japanese samurai were also famous with a ritual performed when things went wrong but this was a hardly a sacrifice for the system, rather a suicidal act in order to preserve/restore one’s honor. Known as seppuku this ritual says a lot about the people performing it. “Being an extremely painful and slow means of suicide, it was favoured under Bushidō (warrior code) as an effective way to demonstrate the courage, self-control, and strong resolve of the samurai and to prove sincerity of purpose.”12 So again we see an interesting opposition between the Roman scheme where the state punishes the soldiers or the slaves for being disobedient and potentially threatening the wellbeing of the empire whereas in Japan it is the samurai themselves
CONCLUSIONS AND REFERENCES So we’ve analyzed how the difference in the natural environment of the given civilizations have eventually led to the formation of a “culture� with specific priorities. In order to maintain the dominance in the area Romans built an empire that would run like a ticking clock, a clock fueled by fear. On the other hand the absence of a unified government or the military lead to the Do these archetypes still apply today? Europe still uses a lot of things that were inherited from Romans and was only possible with a high level of rigor and organization. Roman alphabet, highway systems, Roman legal system (basis of many European systems to this day), Julian calendar, concrete/mortar/cement and sewage systems were adopted from Romans. When it comes to the culture of war Roman Empire has defined the way the Western world thinks about the army and war in general. The technological advances may make the war more anonymous and less visual but the orderliness and interdependency rather than individualism is something we see up to this day. On the other hand individualism is still one of the things that define Japan. We may not see it as much as in real wars anymore but we definitely see it in the cinematographic products like movies and animes that focus on the metamorphosis of the individual characters which usually have a moral standard they try to maintain throughout their journeys. In conclusion, countless cultural traits get lost/reappropriated with the extreme globalization, and war is not an exeption. Today majority of the wars are faught in a similar manner that proved to be more efficient, financially beneficial and etc. The new day brings a new set of values and priorities however, that does not necessarily make the old ones obsolete because culture of war is not merely the way we fight our wars but it has become deeply rooted in who we are.
ENDNOTES 1. Notehelfer, Fred G., and Yasuo Masai. “Japan.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 19 Apr. 2018, www.britannica.com/place/Japan/History. 2. Turnbull, Stephen R. (1996). The Samurai: A Military History.. London: Routledge. 2. Hurst, G. Cameron, and Takeshi Toyoda. “Japan.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 19 Apr. 2018, www.britannica.com/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan#ref319283. 3. Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). Complete Roman Army, 69-71 4. “The Roman War Machines - Roman Soldier Weapons Documentary.” YouTube, YouTube, 8 May 2015, www. youtube.com/watch?v=Io5NjZut0KQ&t=1441s. 5. Hurst, G. Cameron, and Takeshi Toyoda. “Medieval Japan.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 19 Apr. 2018, www.britannica.com/place/Japan/Medieval-Japan#ref319283. 6. History.com Staff. “Samurai and Bushido.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 2009, www.history.com/ topics/samurai-and-bushido. 7. 4. “The Roman War Machines - Roman Soldier Weapons Documentary.” YouTube, YouTube, 8 May 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Io5NjZut0KQ&t=1441s. 8. “Did Roman Soldiers Wear Red Tunics?” YouTube, YouTube, 6 Feb. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=9cc39T1xeI. 9. “Military History of Japan.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Apr. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_ history_of_Japan. 10. “Did Roman Soldiers Wear Red Tunics?” YouTube, YouTube, 6 Feb. 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=9cc39T1xeI. 11. “Third Servile War.” Third Servile War, www.unrv.com/roman-republic/third-servile-war.php. 12. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Seppuku.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 27 Sept. 2017, www.britannica.com/topic/seppuku.
IMAGE REFERENCES 1. https://www.hjbmaps.com/products/antique-map-world-plancius-1594 2. https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=Provinces%20of%20Japan&item_type=topic 3. http://fwfx.info/roman-republic-spqr.html 4. http://lafinlarry.net/faas/viewtopic.php?f=5&t=16&start=1030 5. http://new.uniquejapan.com/7-points-to-consider-when-choosing-your-japanese-sword/ 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. http://dueorediarte.blogspot.com/2015/03/materiali-per-il-disegno-di-unanfora.html 9.ibid 10. https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFt_V%C4%A9nh 11. https://budova.wordpress.com/2011/06/22/samurais/ 12. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tamomori_tied_to_a_huge_anchor_ready_to_cast_himself_into_ the_sea.jpg 13. https://ukiyo-e.org/image/mfa/sc167607 14. http://www.3dmgame.com/news/201006/16620.html 15. https://www.polityka.pl/tygodnikpolityka/historia/1529315,1,mozaika-symbolem-luksusu.read 16. https://www.directart.co.uk/mall/brian_palmer_postcards.php 17. https://www.oupjapan.co.jp/en/node/1482?language=en 18. http://lagerbauer.ru/page/rasskazy-v-plenu-u-gospozhi 19. https://matome.naver.jp/odai/2146971363641928001