Jaffna water project report by Kanaga Gnana

Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a pilot study

Identifying Petroleum Hydrocarbons and associated Contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

B Vigneswaran, KP Sivakumaran and P Veerasingam

June 2015

Tamil Australian Professionals Australia

Report number: Jaffna Water Project R2015-001

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

The cover: A potentially contaminated well in Kondavil in the Chunnakam aquifer with a visible sheen Photograph by KP Sivakumaran (March 2015)

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

Table of Contents List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... 5 List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ 6 Abbreviations ....................................................................................................................... 7 Executive Summary ............................................................................................................. 8 1

Background ............................................................................................................... 11 1.1 1.2 1.3

Objective and Scope ................................................................................................. 15 2.1 2.2 2.3

Sampling............................................................................................................ 17 Analytical Methods ............................................................................................. 19

Presentation and Analysis of Results ..................................................................... 21 4.1

4.2

4.3 4.4 4.5 5

Recent studies ................................................................................................... 15 Objectives .......................................................................................................... 15 Scope ................................................................................................................ 16

Methodology ............................................................................................................. 17 3.1 3.2

Groundwater in Jaffna peninsula........................................................................ 11 Recent petroleum oil contamination of Jaffna groundwater ................................ 11 Public health concerns of petroleum hydrocarbons ............................................ 13

Petroleum hydrocarbons .................................................................................... 21 4.1.1 Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) .................................................... 21 4.1.2 Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX) ............................................ 21 4.1.3 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) ............................................. 23 4.1.4 Other petroleum hydrocarbons ............................................................... 23 4.1.5 Oil and grease (O&G) ............................................................................. 23 Inorganic constituents ........................................................................................ 28 4.2.1 Cations and metals ................................................................................. 28 4.2.2 Anions .................................................................................................... 29 4.2.3 Alkalinity, hardness and solids ................................................................ 31 General physico-chemical parameters ............................................................... 31 Microbiological parameters ................................................................................ 32 Pesticides .......................................................................................................... 32

Discussion................................................................................................................. 34 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

Source of contamination .................................................................................... 34 Composition of the suspected pollutants ............................................................ 34 Fate of petroleum hydrocarbons in soil and water .............................................. 35 Fate of reported petroleum traces reported around Chunnakam ........................ 36 Validity of FROG 4000 results ............................................................................ 37 General Questions ............................................................................................. 38 5.6.1 Is my well-water safe for drinking and cooking?...................................... 38 5.6.2 Is my well-water safe for bathing? .......................................................... 39 5.6.3 Is my well-water safe for irrigation? ........................................................ 39

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

5.7 5.8

5.6.4 What was that shiny thing in my well water? ........................................... 39 5.6.5 Can I purify my well water?..................................................................... 40 5.6.6 Why was there a confusion about the water quality? .............................. 40 5.6.7 Who polluted the water? ......................................................................... 41 Lessons learnt ................................................................................................... 41 Way forward ...................................................................................................... 42 5.8.1 Short-term steps ..................................................................................... 42 5.8.2 Medium-term steps ................................................................................. 43 5.8.3 Long-term steps ..................................................................................... 44

Conclusions and Recommendations ...................................................................... 45 6.1 6.2

Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 45 Recommendation ............................................................................................... 45

Acknowledgement .................................................................................................... 47

Disclaimer.................................................................................................................. 47

References ................................................................................................................ 48

Appendix 1: Early documentation of oil pollution ......................................................... 53 Appendix 2: Health impacts of petroleum hydrocarbons ............................................. 58 Appendix 3: Limitations of O&G measurement ............................................................. 62 Appendix 4: Water sampling ........................................................................................... 64 Appendix 5: Summary results ......................................................................................... 70 Appendix 6: Revised Oil and Grease Guideline ............................................................. 80 Appendix 7: Accreditation certificates ........................................................................... 82 Appendix 8: Metals and PAHs in motor oil..................................................................... 85 Appendix 9: Short- and Medium-term study .................................................................. 89 Appendix 10: Technical capacity building in Jaffna ........................................................ 92 Appendix 11: Financial contributions and expenses ...................................................... 96

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

List of Figures Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6:

Figure 7:

Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15: Figure 16: Figure 17: Figure 18: Figure 19: Figure 20: Figure 21:

Figure 22: Figure 23:

Figure 24: Figure 25:

Twelve well sites for physical, chemical, microbial and petroleum analyses near Chunnakam Power Station Complex ......................................................... 18 (a) Water surface at of well NWW1 in Chunnakam and (b) Sampling of the well 19 Oil and grease reported in the Chunnakam aquifer (Saravanan and Sutharsini, 2014) ................................................................................................................. 28 Cation and anion concentrations in twelve wells in Chunnakam aquifer. ............ 30 Calcium, hardness, alkalinity and solids in twelve wells in Chunnakam aquifer. . 31 Letter from the Government Agent of Jaffna to the Sri Lanka Electricity Board on potential pollution of soil and groundwater around Chunnakam Power Station ............................................................................................................... 56 Letter from the Government Agent of Jaffna to the Sri Lanka Electricity Board on potential pollution of soil and ground water around Chunnakam Power Station ............................................................................................................... 57 (a) The water surface of well at NWW1 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam .......... 64 (a) The water surface of well at NWW1a and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam ........ 64 (a) The water surface of well at WW2 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam ............. 65 (a) The water surface of well at SWW2 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam .......... 65 (a) The water surface of well at NEW1 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam ........... 66 (a) The water surface of well at EW3 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam .............. 66 (a) The water surface of well at KDW1 and (b) Sampling in Kondavil ................. 67 (a) The water surface of well at KDW2 and (b) Sampling in Kondavil ................. 67 (a) The water surface of well at NEW3 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam ........... 68 (a) The water surface of well at TRKW1 and (b) Sampling in Kantharodai ......... 68 (a) The water surface of well at ACW1 and (b) Sampling in Alaveddy ................ 69 (a) The water surface of well at MW1 and (b) Sampling in Manipay ................... 69 (a) Chromatogram for the reference standard and (b) for the Representative sample at NWW1 for the determination of C6 – C9 fraction of TPH ................... 72 (a) Chromatogram for the reference standard and (b) for the Representative sample at NWW1 for the determination of C10 – C14, C15 – C28 and C29 – C36 fractions of TPH.......................................................................................... 72 Chromatogram for FROG4000 of BTEX for Sample NWW1 .............................. 74 (a) Chromatogram for the reference standard and (b) for the Representative sample at NWW1 for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fractions of TPH ................................................................................................. 76 A letter by Ministry of Health on revised O&G standard (Maheepala, 2014) ....... 80 A letter by Ministry of Health on revised O&G standard (Jayalal, 2015) ............. 81

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

List of Tables Table 1: Table 2: Table 3: Table 4: Table 5: Table 6: Table 7: Table 8: Table 9: Table 10: Table 11: Table 12: Table 13: Table 14: Table 15: Table 16: Table 17: Table 18: Table 19: Table 20: Table 21: Table 22: Table 23: Table 24:

Sampling sites for physical, chemical, microbial and petroleum analyses .......... 17 Petroleum hydrocarbons analysis for water samples (analysed by ALS Environmental)................................................................................................... 20 Petroleum hydrocarbons in the water samples (analysed by ALS Global) .......... 22 Physical, chemical and microbial parameters and petroleum hydrocarbons in the water samples (analysed by SGS Lanka Limited) ........................................ 24 Major anions, cations and metal in the water samples (analysed by SGS Lanka Limited) ................................................................................................... 25 Oil and grease content of twelve wells in Chunnakam aquifer ............................ 26 Oil and grease content of twelve wells in Chunnakam aquifer (Saravanan and Sutharsini, 2014)................................................................................................ 27 Monthly rainfall in Jaffna Peninsula (in mm) since Year 2010. (NWSDB, 2015) . 37 Petroleum hydrocarbons analysis for water samples (analysed by ALS Global) 70 Petroleum hydrocarbons in water samples in terms of C-numbers (ALS Global) ............................................................................................................... 73 Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX) in water samples (ALS Global) ....... 73 GC-MSD and FROG 4000 results of Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylene................................................................................................................ 75 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water samples (ALS Global) ..................... 75 Oil and Grease (HEM) and phenolic compounds in water samples (SGS Laboratory) ........................................................................................................ 76 Metals in water samples (SGS Laboratory) ........................................................ 77 Sodium, magnesium and calcium in water samples (SGS Sri Lanka) ............... 78 Cyanide, ammonia, chlorine and phosphate in water samples (SGS Sri Lanka) 78 Fluoride, chloride, sulphate, nitrate and nitrite in water samples (SGS Sri Lanka)................................................................................................................ 79 Alkalinity, hardness and dissolved solids in water samples (SGS Sri Lanka) ..... 79 Typical composition of petrol, diesel and heavy fuel oil (Dupuis and UcanMarin, 2015) ...................................................................................................... 85 Typical composition of metals and PAHs in used mineral-based motor oil (ATSDR, 1999) .................................................................................................. 87 Typical composition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in motor oil (Vazquez-Duhalt,1989) ...................................................................................... 87 Typical composition of metals in motor oil (Vazquez-Duhalt,1989)..................... 88 Typical instruments to analyse different groups of pesticides ............................. 94

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

Abbreviations APHA ADWG AWWA BTEX CEA CEG CEB CPSC EPA HEM HFO MHO MOH NWSDB O&G PAH TOG TPH WEF WHO USEPA

American Public Health Association Australian Drinking Water Guidelines American Water Works Association Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylene Central Environmental Authority Community Environmental Group Ceylon Electricity Board Chunnakam Power Station Complex Environmental Protection Agency Hexane Extractable Material Heavy Fuel Oil Medical Health Officer Ministry of Health National Water Supply and Drainage Board Oil and Grease Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Total oil and grease Total petroleum hydrocarbons Water Environment Federation World Health Organization United States Environmental Protection Agency

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

Executive Summary In 2008 and 2011, a local farmers association wrote to the Government Agent of Jaffna to raise their concern regarding the pollution of soil and groundwater in the vicinity of the Chunnakam Power Station Complex (CPSC). In 2013, the National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) commenced a groundwater study by taking samples in and around CPSC. NWSDB study and another separate investigation by the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) implicated operations associated with CPSC as the cause for oil pollution in local wells. Involvement of public health professionals and local outcry over the contamination of the wells led to court actions and to a number of studies to analyse water quality in and around Chunnakam. All recent studies in Chunnakam aquifer used Oil and Grease (O&G) to characterise petroleum oil pollution. These studies regularly detected O&G above the stipulated levels. Although it is the most commonly used method in Sri Lanka for hydrocarbon analysis, it is not a suitable surrogate for petroleum hydrocarbons, as the extraction process used for O&G analysis actually extracts a range of other hydrocarbons as well. The need to analyse a suite of specific petroleum hydrocarbons was recognised. Well-wishers from Australia and North America donated a portable gas chromatographic apparatus (FROG 4000TM) to measure specific compounds in petroleum products (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene), and commissioned this preliminary study to detect a broad range of petroleum hydrocarbons through state of the art techniques. The primary objectives of this study are to (a) conduct a preliminary water quality study with comprehensive analyses for a limited number of water samples for petroleum hydrocarbons and other associated parameters, (b) perform an integrated analysis to study the relationship between petroleum hydrocarbons and O&G and (c) verify the analytical results produced by FROG 4000TM. In this study, no traces of petroleum hydrocarbons were found in any of the twelve samples. Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX: benzene, toluene, ethylbenze and xylene), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and total petroleum hydrocarbons were below the level of detection. Although NWSDB reported lead and chromium in some of their samples, this study did not detect aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium or zinc in any of the samples. Nitrate exceeded the drinking water quality standard in three of the twelve samples. Hardness of all samples exceeded the standard, and dissolved solids exceeded in all but one sample. Of particular concern is the E. coli content of the water samples. This indicates that all sampled wells are substantially contaminated by seepage from toilet pits. Absence of evidence for the presence of petroleum hydrocarbons in water samples during this study cannot be used as evidence for absence of petroleum pollution of the Chunnakam aquifer. Although the results provide good insight into the potential presence of petroleum hydrocarbons, the authors stress that twelve samples cannot represent the vast and diverse Chunnakam aquifer. Undoubtedly, oil traces and distinct smells were reported from a number of drinking and irrigation wells in and around Chunnakam. It is quite likely that the

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

hydrocarbon plume moved from CPSC after the monsoon rains, but hydrocarbon levels reduced over the time due to physical, chemical and microbial degradation in soil and water matrices. There is a general consensus that the Chunnakam Power Station Complex is the primary source of the oil residues detected in the Chunnakam aquifer. Relative contributions of various players in the Chunnakam power generation operations and specific contributions of other potential local sources, if any, cannot be quantified without carrying out a detailed environmental assessment and a hydro-geological study for the area. This preliminary study recommends that a scientifically designed extensive groundwater study should be commissioned to investigate the presence of petroleum hydrocarbons in all four aquifers of Jaffna groundwater with a large number of water samples to establish the residual effects of petroleum pollution. In this study, metals, nitrate, pesticides, faecal microorganisms etc. should be analysed simultaneously. Until the authorities confirm that water is safe for consumption, good quality water for drinking and cooking should be provided for all residents in the identified high-risk locations. It is recommended that short-, medium- and long-term steps should be taken to address pollution in the Chunnakam aquifer, including,  Good quality water for drinking and cooking should be delivered for all residents in the identified high-risk locations. This service needs to continue until the authorities confirm that water is safe for consumption.  Civil and public health authorities need to facilitate residents to clean their wells by

pumping and cleaning the well-walls as a matter of high priority.  Appropriate (State / Provincial) authorities need to conduct a detailed Environmental

Site Assessment study in and around the Chunnakam Power Station Complex.  A scientifically designed groundwater monitoring study should be conducted in the

Chunnakam aquifer area quarterly for a year (once in pre-monsoon, post-monsoon, and thereafter at intervals of three months) with appropriate techniques for petroleum and metal analyses, and adequate samples from other aquifers for benchmarking.  A series of boreholes could be drilled, and soil and water samples taken as the first

step to understand hydrological, hydro-geological and hydro-geochemical characteristics, recharge and interactions with salt water, and influence of the rate of extraction on hydrodynamics. Using appropriate techniques (such as ground penetrating radar), the subsurface could be mapped. 

Appropriate steps are to be taken for capacity building and strengthening of organisations like Northern Province Hydrological Research Centre to provide technical leadership and to sustain a knowledge base.

 The Northern Provincial Hydrological Research Centre Laboratory should be

strengthened in terms of equipment, expertise, and technical capabilities to undertake the regional task of environmental assessment and pollution control.

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

 A holistic approach is critical to reduce and eliminate all types of pollution (such as

pesticides, faecal seepage, nitrates, solid-waste, hospital and other toxic waste) in the peninsula.  Groundwater recharge areas in Jaffna Peninsula should be identified and protected.  A water policy and water master plan should be developed for the Northern Province.

This plan must incorporate water and food security; equitable distribution of freshwater for domestic, industrial, and commercial uses; irrigated water; prevention of contamination; and environmental protection.  Potential benefits and drawbacks of converting the saltwater lagoons in Jaffna

Peninsula into freshwater lagoons, the use of desalination for drinking water treatment, reducing the stormwater runoff to sea (storage, recharge, etc.) and the potential use of Iranamadu water for drinking should be objectively analysed. There should be a quick response from the civil authorities to attend the complaints and inquiries of the residents. Keeping in mind that the residents will feel disenfranchised in the absence of credible and timely information, authorities should focus more on communication. Factsheets and information pamphlets will be very useful for the concerned public. A unified approach by political leaders, water professionals, academics and public health professionals with the support of central, provincial and local government arms is the best way to address such issues without chaos or confusion.

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

1 Background 1.1

Groundwater in Jaffna peninsula

In Sri Lanka, groundwater resources are widely used for domestic, commercial, industrial and irrigation purposes. About 80% of the rural domestic water supply needs in Sri Lanka are met by groundwater through dug wells and tube wells (Panaboke and Perera, 2005). In the Jaffna Peninsula, all freshwater needs, including drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, livestock and agriculture, are catered for by groundwater (Villholth and Rajasoorier, 2010). The whole Jaffna peninsula is underlain by Miocene limestone formations. The shallow aquifer of the peninsula occurs in the channels and cavities (karsts), which is appropriate for the development of a good aquifer. All the shallow groundwater found within the cavities originates from the infiltration of rainfall, and this shallow groundwater forms mounds or lenses floating over the saline water that reach their peak during the monsoon rains from October to December. Around half of the annual recharge of rainwater eventually drains out to sea, and the remainder is used most intensively for agricultural (80%) and domestic (20%) purposes (Panaboke and Perera, 2005). Intensive farming activities induce significant movement in the shallow aquifers in Jaffna. The Jaffna Peninsula has four main types of aquifer systems, namely Chunnakam (Valikamam area), Chavakacheri (Thenmaradchi), Vadamaradchi East and Kayts. The Chunnakam aquifer is the largest among them and caters the Valikamam area, which is the most densely populated and intensively cultivated area in the Jaffna Peninsula (Mikunthan et al., 2013), providing water for nearly 400,000 people. Panaboke and Perera (2005) observed that the Jaffna aquifers are the most intensively utilised as well as the best studied aquifers in Sri Lanka and, as a result, much is known in respect to its variation in time and space. Investigative studies have been undertaken since the 1960s despite the political unrest (Balendran et al., 1968; Arumugam, 1969; Joshua, 1973; Nadarajah, 1973; Gunasekaram, 1983; Nandakumar, 1983; Mageswaran and Mahalingam, 1983; Puvaneswaran, 1986; Nagarajah et al., 1988; Shanmugarajah, 1993; Navaratnarajah, 1994; Rajasooriyar, et al., 2002; Mageswaran, 2003; NWSDB, 2006; Punthakey and Gamage, 2006; Gunaalan, 2015). However, Mikunthan et al. (2006) described that the observations and conclusions made by various researchers are often contradictory and that no consensus has been reached. Moreover, no information relating to spatially and temporally descriptive groundwater abstraction, recharge, etc. is available. Rajasooriyar et al. (2002) reported that an estimation of the total catchment recharge has rarely been made for the Jaffna aquifers due to absence of relevant data.

1.2

Recent petroleum oil contamination of Jaffna groundwater

In 2008, Chunnakam South Farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Organization wrote to the Government Agent (District Secretary) of Jaffna to raise their concern regarding the pollution of the soil and groundwater in the vicinity of the Chunnakam Power Station Complex (CPSC). They requested the Government Agent to take the necessary action to protect the environment and people

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

(Appendix 1). The Government Agent forwarded the petition to the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB), and sought a report on this issue (Ganesh, 2008; Appendix 1). Chunnakam South Farmer’s Organization wrote to the Government Agent again in 2011, indicating that four new generators were to be commissioned in CPSC. They argued that the operations of Northern Power, a new power generation entity (Thiyagalingam, 2008), has adverse impacts. They illustrated that wastewater and waste oil had already been discharged to nearby bare land, and had infiltrated the groundwater. A report prepared by the National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) (Saravanan and Sutharshiny, 2014) stated that, “Chunnakam Power Station dumped the waste oil directly onto the land which reached surrounding groundwater wells and the well water odour had changed unfavourably. Therefore, several wells were not used for domestic and agricultural purposes in nearby areas”. Saravanan and Sutharshiny (2014) found that, of the 150 wells sampled within 2 km radius from CPSC in 2013-2014 (226 samples), 109 wells (73%) contained oil and grease (O&G) at concentrations exceeding the stipulated water quality standard (not to exceed 1 mg/L as O&G; SLS, 1983). Seven other wells (5%) reported the presence of O&G, but within the required standard. They concluded that oil contamination decreased with the distance from CPSC and no contamination was reported beyond 1.5 km, and that the oil plume moved predominantly in the northern direction. An investigation report was exclusively prepared for the Magistrate Court of Jaffna on ‘Oil Contamination of Groundwater in Chunnakam Area’ (Arachchi, 2014) by the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) of Sri Lanka. CEA collected water samples from six dug wells in the Chunnakam area (Power Station Road) where NWSDB took samples for their study. Arachchi (2014) concluded that the contamination of groundwater with oil in and around CPSC cannot be conclusively pinpointed to a single source, but as a result of a combined effect, and cannot be concluded without carrying out a systematic hydrological study. CEA documented that an attack on fuel tanks with more than 1500 cubic metres of diesel oil, in 1990 caused a spill, and that the runoff ended up in the nearby pool, later known in Tamil as Oil Kulam (oil pool). In CEA’s view, most of the oil may have had seeped through the soil column. The Oil Kulam was filled by CEB in 2011 – 2012 and new grid station was established. Arachchi (2014) stated that the soil compression tasks during the filling operations may have had an adverse effect on the surrounding shallow groundwater. The diesel power plant was operated by Aggriko Company (Pvt) during the war time until 2009. This operation may have caused significant damage to the shallow groundwater due to their disposal of diesel and oil soaked material in a backyard open dump (Arachchi, 2014). CEA stated in its report that the Northern Power Company (Pvt), which was established in 2009, continued to discharge contaminated water and waste into the adjoining premises where Aggrikko disposed their wastes. Following an inspection in October 2009, Northern Power adopted rectification and mitigation measures, according to the CEA report. In 2014, Uthuru Janani power station was launched in CPSC. This brand new system is in line with the state of the art pollution control equipment, including on-line monitoring and high fuel oil sludge burning incinerator. Arachchi (2014) concluded that Uthuru Janani cannot be considered to be a causative factor for groundwater contamination in Chunnakam area.

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

Following increasing local outcry over the contamination of local wells by waste oil leaking from CPSC, a local court issued an interim order to restrict the Northern Power Company operations in January 2015. The court instructed to suspend the power plant‘s functions immediately and to temporarily shut down the plant until further notice (Tamil Guardian, 2015). The court also ordered authorities to undertake immediate steps to ensure the provision of drinking water to areas affected and to instigate a programme of public health awareness about the dangers. The court instructed authorities to form an independent commission into the contamination issue and to carry out scientific investigation with the help of qualified bodies, and to produce a report to the court (Tamil Guardian, 2015).

1.3

Public health concerns of petroleum hydrocarbons

An extensive review of potential environmental and public health concerns due to exposure to petroleum contamination is beyond the scope of this report. A brief summary, based on Toxicological Profile for Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry of US Department of Health and Human Services in 1999 (ATSDR, 1999), is presented in the section. More details can be found in Appendix 2. ‘Petroleum hydrocarbons’ (or, total petroleum hydrocarbons, TPH) is a term used to describe a broad family of several hundred chemical compounds that originally come from crude oil. In this sense, it really describes a mixture of chemicals. Almost all of them are made entirely from hydrogen and carbon (ATSDR, 1999). Because modern society uses so many petroleum-based products, their contamination of the environment is potentially widespread. Contamination caused by petroleum products will contain a variety of these hydrocarbons. TPH is released to the environment through accidents, through intentional disposal, as releases from industries, or as by-products from commercial or private uses. TPH released to the soil through spills, leaks or dumping may move through the soil to the groundwater. When water is contaminated with petroleum products, TPH fractions will affect both the surface and the bed of a water body. Solubility of TPH in water is generally low. Certain fractions of TPH float in water and form thin surface films, which will facilitate agglomeration of particles and natural organic matter, and impact on oxygen transfer. Other heavier fractions will accumulate in the sediment at the bottom of the water, which may affect bottom-feeding fish and organisms (ATSDR, 1999). Health effects from exposure to TPH are dependent on many factors (ATSDR, 1999). These include the types of chemical compounds in the TPH, the amount (or concentration) of the chemicals contacted and how long the exposure lasts. Very little is known about the toxicity of many TPH compounds. Until this is available, information about health effects of TPH must be based on specific compounds or petroleum products that have been studied. The compounds in different TPH fractions affect the body in different ways. Some of the TPH compounds, particularly the smaller compounds such as benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene (collectively known as BTEX), can affect the human central nervous system (ATSDR, 1999). High exposures can cause death. Swallowing of certain petroleum products causes irritation of the throat and stomach, central nervous system depression, breathing

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

difficulties, and pneumonia from breathing liquid into the lungs. The compounds in some TPH fractions can also affect the blood, immune system, liver, spleen, kidneys, lungs, and in developing fetuses. Certain TPH compounds can be irritating to the skin and eyes. At the same time, many TPH compounds, such as some mineral oils, are not very toxic and are used in foods (ATSDR, 1999) (see Appendix 2 for further details).

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

2 Objective and Scope 2.1

Recent studies

A number of random and targeted studies have been undertaken to establish the status of oil pollution in the dug well and tube well waters in the Chunnakam aquifer since 2013. NWSDB continues its routine sampling for O&G in the wells, and expands the sampling to analyse water quality in the wells where visible oil layer or oil smell is reported by the residents. Northern Provincial Council facilitated the sampling by Industrial Technology Institute (ITI, under Ministry of Technology and Research, Sri Lanka) to collect samples from 44 wells in a number of towns around CPSC (February 2015). A community environmental group collected 108 samples in and around Chunnakam (since February 2015). Water samples were collected from a number of wells and were analysed by the Chemistry Department of University of Jaffna (February 2015) on behalf of the Expert Panel of the Northern Provincial Council. In March 2015, the Ministry of Health collected 27 samples and analysed them. In all recent studies that were undertaken to monitor the water quality of the Chunnakam aquifer, total oil and grease content (O&G) was used as the surrogate for petroleum oil contamination. Although O&G could be used as a gross measure to verify petroleum contamination, O&G includes not only petroleum oils but also vegetable and natural oils (Irwin et al., 1997b). Sediments, biota, and decaying life forms are often high in natural oils and lipids which make up part of the oil and grease measure (see Appendix 3). Hence, using only O&G to measure the extent of petroleum pollution is inadequate. Some of the samples collected by NWSDB in 2013-2014 and by ITI in 2015 were analysed for a specific suite of metals as well. Well-wishers from Australia and North America donated a portable gas chromatographic apparatus, FROG 4000TM (Defiant Technologies, 2015), to measure specific compounds in petroleum products, such as benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene (BTEX). The apparatus has been managed by the Northern Province Hydrological Research Centre (at Thondamanaru). A large number of water samples are collected from wells on an on-going basis and are analysed for BTEX. Groundwater and water quality professionals recognised the need for a robust laboratory analysis for an extensive suite of petroleum hydrocarbons. It was envisaged that this data could be used to verify (a) the BTEX results produced by FROG 4000TM, and (b) the O&G results against the detailed results of petroleum hydrocarbons. Further, a broader analysis of metals, nitrates and faecal contamination indicators was also recommended.

2.2

Objectives

The specific objectives of this work are: ď&#x201A;ˇ to conduct a preliminary water quality study with comprehensive analyses for a limited number of targeted samples for physical, chemical and microbiological parameters and petroleum hydrocarbons

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

ď&#x201A;ˇ to perform an integrated analysis to investigate the relationship between specific

petroleum hydrocarbons and the surrogate measures (such as total O&G) TM ď&#x201A;ˇ to verify the analytical results produced by FROG 4000 on the same water samples ď&#x201A;ˇ to analyse the results against previously reported O&G results at the same locations to study the temporal variations in water quality

2.3

Scope

This preliminary study was designed to investigate the potential presence of constituents of concern in the waters reportedly polluted by petroleum waste, by undertaking a comprehensive laboratory analysis for specific petroleum hydrocarbons. The work described in this report was limited to twelve water samples collected from the wells around the Chunnakam Power Station Complex in March 2015. Selection of those locations followed a targeted sampling approach, not random sampling. The wells that returned positive results for O&G in other recently reported works were reviewed and twelve of them were chosen. As a result of this approach and the sample size, a statistical study was not intended in this preliminary study. This preliminary study is expected to form a basis for a more comprehensive study in the future. This limited study was not expected to address the major gaps in the other recent studies. Due to non-availability of past results by other parties in the public records, a comparative analysis could not be undertaken to investigate the water quality trend at each location. The actual source of contamination, soil contamination by petroleum, dynamics of groundwater and hydrogeology of the Chunnakam aquifer, and transport of pollution plume in groundwater are expected to have a significant influence on the fate of the constituents of the reported contamination. This preliminary study did not undertake any integrated analysis of these parameters, but limited its focus on the potential presence of various hydrocarbons, metals and other main constituents in those specific groundwater samples.

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

3 Methodology 3.1

Sampling

Eleven dug wells and one tube well were specifically identified in the vicinity of CPSC (Figure 1). The locations were chosen to represent different directions from CPSC, in consultation with those who are familiar with the O&G results from the recent tests. The site locations are presented in Table 1. Most of the samples (7 out of 12) were collected in the town of Chunnakam, and another in the nearby village of Kantharodai. Two samples were taken at the Kondavil Bus Depot. The other two samples were collected at a well in Alavedy and another at Suthumalai, where higher levels of O&G were reported in the recent past. Sampling was undertaken by two technicians from an accredited laboratory (SGS Lanka Limited) in Colombo on 11 March 2015. Samples were collected using Ruttner Sampler. The samples from the dug well were collected close to the surface layer, which incorporates the potential surface sheen or deposit. Photographs were taken during water sampling (Figure 2 and Appendix 4). The samples were collected in different sample bottles for various analyses. The sample bottles were refrigerated and forwarded for analysis to two accredited laboratories, SGS Lanka Limited in Colombo, and ALS Environmental in Singapore. Table 1: Sampling sites for physical, chemical, microbial and petroleum analyses Site code

General address

Northing

E 080 01.940’

E 080 01.950’

E 080 01.844’

E 080 01.888’

E 080 02.161’

E 080 02.372’

E 080 02.384’

E 080 02.423’

E 080 02.265’

E 080 00.443’

E 080 00.047’

E 080 00.362’

N 09 44.472’

N 09 44.499’

NWW1

Mr T. N. (name withheld ) Kathiramalai Road, Chunnakam

NWW1A

Mr S. V. (name withheld )

Easting

DW: High O&G reported by UoJ

TW (35 feet): adjacent to NWW1

DW: High O&G reported by UoJ

DW: near a potential pollution source

DW: High O&G reported by UoJ

DW: High O&G reported by CEG

Kathiramalai Road, Chunnakam #

WW2

Mr K V. (name withheld ) Bank Lane, Chunnakam

N 09 44.389’

SWW2

Mr S. S. (name withheld ) Chunnakam South, Chunnakam

N 09 44.258’

NEW1

Mr A. A. (name withheld ) Power House Road, Chunnakam

N 09 44.469’

EW3

Mr S. S. (name withheld ) Thinaikkaladdy, Chunnakam South

N 09 44.450’

KDW1

Drinking water well Kondavil Bus Depot

N 09 42.468’

KDW2

Washing water well Kondavil Bus Depot

N 09 42.520’

NEW3

Mr P. T. (name withheld ) Power House Road, Chunnakam

TRKW1

Mrs P. S. (name withheld )

N 09 44.630’ N 09 44.873’

Vihara Lane, Kantharodai ACW1

Church of American Mission Alukkai, Alaveddy

MW1

Mr Y. R. (name withheld ) Suthumalai North, Manipay

N 09 45.893’ N 09 43.059’

Notes

DW = Dug well; TW = Tube well; UoJ = University of Jaffna; CEG = community environmental group; # for protection of privacy

Page 17 of 96

Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a pilot study

Figure 1a: Twelve well sites for physical, chemical, microbial and petroleum analyses near Chunnakam Power Station Complex

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a pilot study

Figure 1b: Well sites for physical, chemical, microbial and petroleum analyses near CPSC

(a)

(b)

Figure 2: (a) Water surface at of well NWW1 in Chunnakam and (b) Sampling of the well

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

3.2

Analytical Methods

Accredited laboratories (SGS Lanka Limited in Colombo and ALS Environmental in Singapore were contracted to perform the analysis of the samples from this pilot study. Internationally practiced methods (EPA and APHA) were used for most of the analyses. EPA methods were developed and endorsed by the US Environmental Protection Agency. APHA methods (Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater) (APHA, 2014) were jointly developed by the American Public Health Association (APHA), the American Water Works Association (AWWA) and the Water Environment Federation (WEF). ALS Environmental used Purge-and-trap for aqueous samples (EPA 5030B), which is suitable for the analysis of volatile organic compounds in aqueous samples and water miscible liquid samples. Page 19 of 96

Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

EPA 8015B method was used by ALS Environmental for the analysis of Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) (EPA, 1996c) in two separate Gas Chromatograph (GC) processes. A GC, equipped with split injector and Flame Ionization Detector (FID) was used to separate and quantify all hydrocarbons with carbon number 10 to 36. The smaller hydrocarbons, from carbon number six to carbon number nine, were determined by a separate GC system equipped with a purge and trap, split injector, and Mass Spectral Detector (MSD) (Table 2). Further details on these methods and processes can be found in Appendix 5. Table 2: Petroleum hydrocarbons analysis for water samples (analysed by ALS Environmental) Component

Methods

Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons

EPA5030B/EPA8015B

Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

EPA5030B/EPA8260C

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

EPA3510C/EPA8270D

Reported results C6 - C9, C10 - C14, C15 - C28 and C29 - C36 Fractions Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylenes Naphthalene, 2-Methylnaphthalene, 2-Chloronaphthalene, Acenaphthylene, Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene, Anthracene, Fluoranthene, Pyrene, N-2Fluorenyl Acetamide, Benz(a)anthracene, Chrysene, Benzo(b) and Benzo(k)fluoranthene, 7.12Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene, Benzo(a)pyrene, 3-Methylcholanthrene, Indeno(1.2.3.cd)pyrene, Dibenz(a.h)anthracene, and Benzo(g.h.i)perylene

Volatile organic compounds by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (EPA 8260C) was used for benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene (BTEX) analysis (EPA, 1996a; EPA, 1996d). For polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), Semi-volatile organic compounds by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (EPA 8270D) method was used (EPA, 1996b; EPA, 2007) (Table 2). Similar to the analysis for smaller hydrocarbons, the constituents were determined by a separate GC equipped with a purge and trap, split injector, Mass Spectral Detector (MSD). Different capillary columns were used for BTEX and PAHs (Appendix 5). For the analysis of oil and grease (O&G) in the water samples, SGS Lanka Limited used Oil and Grease: liquid-liquid, partition-gravimetric method (APHA Method 5520B; APHA, 2014) and n-Hexane Extractable Material by Extraction and Gravimetry (EPA1664B) method. Although the results are reported as ‘Total Oil and Grease’, it is technically called ‘Hexane Extractable Material’ or (HEM), due to the limitations of hexane extraction. SGS Lanka Limited used APHA methods to analyse metals, major anions and cations, toxic substances, nitrogen and phosphorus. The individual APHA method used for each constituent is listed in Appendix 5. Microbial indicator organisms (E. Coli and total coliforms) were analysed as outlined by Sri Lanka Standard 1461: 2013 (MPN technique). For phenolic compounds in water, Phenol: chloroform extraction method (APHA Method 5330C; APHA, 2014) was used. Chemical oxygen demand was analysed by APHA Method 5220C.

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

4 Presentation and Analysis of Results 4.1 4.1.1

Petroleum hydrocarbons Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs)

The results for total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) from Gas Chromatograph (GC) with Mass Spectral Detector (MSD) and with Flame Ionization Detector (FID) are shown in Table 3. Essentially, the results from the GC analyses indicated that the TPH for each carbon fraction for each of the 12 water samples was below the respective levels of detection of 5, 10, 50, and 50 µg/L (ppb) respectively. There is no specific WHO maximum for TPH (WHO, 2005). The representative standard and sample chromatograms for GC-MSD and for GCFID are presented in Appendix 5.

4.1.2

Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX)

Analysis of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons for this study indicated that benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and total xylenes (BTEX) were not present above the level of detection in any of the 12 samples, despite the very low detection limit (respectively, 1, 1, 1, and 2 µg/L), and are significantly below the WHO guidelines for drinking water. The results obtained from GCMSD analysis for these constituents are presented in Table 3. The representative standard and sample chromatograms for GC-MSD are presented in Appendix 5. BTEX hydrocarbons are known public health hazards and strict standards and guidelines are implemented around the world to monitor their presence in drinking water. Acute exposure to benzene affects the central nervous system causing dizziness, nausea, vomiting, headache and drowsiness, while very high concentrations can cause death. Chronic and sub chronic exposure to lower concentrations may lead to a range of adverse effects on the blood system (NHMRC, 2011). Exposure to ethylbenzene may cause enlargement of the liver and kidney at high doses, and is also classified as being possibly carcinogenic to humans (NHMRC, 2011). Toluene is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, liver and brain. However, toluene is not classified as carcinogenic to human. Monitoring of BTEX is critical due to their toxicity. Further, BTEX results would serve as an indicator for the potential contamination of the groundwater by petroleum products in the technically advanced countries. BTEX monitoring is justified for a number of reasons:  All petroleum fractions contains detectable amount of BTEX, and a potential oil contamination (such as an accidental spill of petrol or kerosene) can be easily detected by the presence of BTEX.  Benzene (1800 mg/L) and toluene (500 mg/L) are the two most water-soluble petroleum hydrocarbons. Therefore benzene and toluene are the first hydrocarbons to enter water phase. They can easily enter the biological system and cause the first damage.  Aromatics (including BTEX) are more toxic than aliphatics.  If BTEX is present in a sample, a full chemical analysis for petroleum hydrocarbons by GC-MSD and GC-FID can be undertaken to identify each toxic component present.

Page 21 of 96

Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

Table 3: Petroleum hydrocarbons in the water samples (analysed by ALS Global) Analyte

Methods

Level of detection (µg/L)

Relevant Guidelines # (µg/L)

Result $ (µg/L)

Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons

EPA5030B/EPA8015B

C6 - C9 Fraction

GC-MSD

C10 - C14 Fraction

GC-FID

< 10

C15 - C28 Fraction

GC-FID

< 50

C29 - C36 Fraction

GC-FID

< 50

Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

EPA5030B/EPA8260C

Benzene

GC-MSD for all

Toluene

700

Ethylbenzene

300

Xylenes

500

Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons

EPA3510C/EPA8270D

Naphthalene

GC-MSD for all

2-Methylnaphthalene

2-Chloronaphthalene

Acenaphthylene

Acenaphthene

Fluorene

Phenanthrene

Anthracene

Fluoranthene

Pyrene

N-2-Fluorenyl Acetamide

Benz(a)anthracene

Chrysene

Benzo(b) and Benzo(k)fluoranthene

7.12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene

Benzo(a)pyrene

3-Methylcholanthrene

Indeno(1.2.3.cd)pyrene

Dibenz(a.h)anthracene

Benzo(g.h.i)perylene

$ - The reported results are identical for all wells: NWW1, NWW1A, WW2, SWW2, NEW1, EW3, KDW1, KDW2, NEW3, TRKW1, ACW1 and MW1 # - World Health Organisation Drinking Water Guidlines

BTEX was tested by FROG 4000TM for a number of samples. A qualitative comparison of BTEX data from FROG 4000TM data and this preliminary study can be found in Section 5.5 and Appendix 5. BTEX is not expected to be present at a level of concern in the groundwaters polluted by used oil, diesel or heavy fuel oil in the presence of nitrate. Nitrate is a commonly used additive for enhancement of in-situ biodegradation of BTEX compounds in petroleum-contaminated aquifers (see Section 4.2.2).

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

4.1.3

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

PAHs, specifically naphthalene, 2-methyl naphthalene, 2-chloro naphthalene, ace naphthalene, ace naphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, n2-fluorenylacetamide, benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b) & (k) fluoranthene, 7, 12dimethyl benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, 3-methylchloroanthrene, indeno(1,2,3cd)pyrene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene and benzo(g,h,i)perylene were quantified for this study using GC-MSD. The test results are summarised in Table 3. Similar to monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, data indicates that, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were not detected in any of the 12 samples despite the very low levels of detection of 1 – 2 µg/L. PAH analysis sample chromatograms are presented in Appendix 5. No other data on PAHs is available from other studies in Jaffna aquifers to compare the reported non-detection in this study. However, the general absence of carbon numbers and BTEX in these samples indicates that non-detection of PAHs in the collected samples may be acceptable.

4.1.4

Other petroleum hydrocarbons

In hydrocarbon contamination debates, alkanes are generally discussed as a potential toxicant. It should be noted that alkanes are generally not much of a toxicological concern. However, chlorinated and brominated (halogenated) alkanes tend to be more hazardous and have different fate characteristics, and some of these (such as carbon tetrachloride) have proved to be carcinogenic (Irwin et al., 1997a). The twelve samples collected for this work were not specifically analysed for alkanes or halogenated alkanes. However, total petroleum hydrocarbon was measured according to several carbon number ranges (fractions). The analyses did not detect TPH in any of the reported ranges (from six to thirty six equivalent carbon number) for any of the samples. The limit of detection was as low as 5 µg/L to 50 µg/L (Table 3), so the alkane levels in the water samples cannot be at a level of concern.

4.1.5

Oil and grease (O&G)

EPA1664B method was used for the determination of oil and grease (O&G) for this preliminary study. As highlighted earlier, this method determines the hexane extractable material (HEM), which includes a range of non-volatile hydrocarbons (Section 3.2). The result of this analysis will not be a true representation of TPH. The results obtained for O&G (HEM) are summarised in Table 4. The results for this analysis indicate that the O&G (HEM) for all twelve water samples were below the limit of detection (1 mg/L). Another gross measurement, total phenolic compounds, is also presented in Table 4. None of the samples returned a positive detection. Although the laboratory results of this study did not find O&G (or HEM) in detectable levels, other recent studies found significant O&G concentrations. Users of drinking water and irrigations wells complained about oil smell and visible shiny water surface.

Page 23 of 96

Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a pilot study

Table 4: Physical, chemical and microbial parameters and petroleum hydrocarbons in the water samples (analysed by SGS Lanka Limited) Unit

LOD

SLS Standard

NWW1

NWW1A

WW2

SWW2

NEW1

EW3

KDW1

KDW2

NEW3

TRKW1

ACW1

MW1

6.5 - 8.5

6.9

7.7

7.1

7.3

7.0

6.9

7.1

7.3

7.2

7.1

General pH @ 250C Odour # Taste #

Colour

NTU

0.5

0.6

0.9

0.6

0.5

Total Hardness as CaCO3

mg/L

250

396

347

317

426

347

446

466

367

406

396

595

Total Alkalinity as CaCO3

mg/L

200

292

272

218

178

278

330

298

248

342

388

334

384

Total Dissolved Solids

mg/L

500

570

520

426

613

516

645

762

726

636

622

588

1272

COD

mg/L

Oil and Grease $

mg/L

0.2

Phenolic Compounds

mg/L

0.05

0.001

E.coli in 100 mL

350

550

350

225

275

350

550

225

275

Total Coliforms in 100 mL

225

350

550

350

225

275

350

550

225

275

Turbidity Hardness and Solids

Organics

Micro-organisms

# - UO = Unobjectionable # - Sri Lanka drinking water quality standard for Oil and Grease is unclear. SLIS stipulates 0.2 mg/L (SLS, 1983), while Ministry of Health maintains 1 mg/L in some drinking waters and 2 mg/L for bottled water (Jayalal, 2015)

Page 24 of 96

Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

Table 5: Major anions, cations and metal in the water samples (analysed by SGS Lanka Limited) Unit

LOD

SLS Standard

NWW1

NWW1A

WW2

SWW2

NEW1

EW3

KDW1

KDW2

NEW3

TRKW1

ACW1

MW1

Cyanide

mg/L

0.04

0.05

Fluoride

mg/L

0.1

1.0

0.23

0.11

Chloride

mg/L

250

157

101

311

Sulphate as SO4

mg/L

250

25.4

9.4

36.0

35.5

37.5

47.5

32.0

40.0

9.5

14.7

Nitrate as NO3

mg/L

0.03

28.3

33.2

37.4

162.3

26.1

79.8

43.1

50.8

21.4

0.7

23.5

30.7

Nitrite as NO2

mg/L

0.03

0.04

0.06

0.10

0.07

Ammonia as NH3

mg/L

0.05

0.15

Total Phosphates as PO4

mg/L

0.21

2.0

Major Cations and Metals

mg/L

Aluminium as Al

mg/L

0.01

0.2

Arsenic as As

mg/L

0.02

0.01

Cadmium as Cd

mg/L

0.005

0.003

Calcium as Ca

mg/L

0.5

100

123

127

131

107

115

103

115

Chromium as Cr

mg/L

0.01

0.05

Copper as Cu

mg/L

0.01

Iron as Fe

mg/L

0.1

0.3

Lead as Pb

mg/L

0.04

0.01

Magnesium as Mg

mg/L

0.5

Manganese as Mn

mg/L

0.01

0.1

Mercury as Hg

mg/L

0.001

Nickel as Ni

mg/L

0.01

0.002

Selenium as Se

mg/L

0.01

Sodium as Na

mg/L

0.5

200

191

Zinc as Zn

mg/L

0.01

3.0

Major Anions

Page 25 of 96

Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a pilot study

Water quality criteria established by U.S. EPA pursuant to Section 304(a) of the Clean Water Act specify that oil and grease should not be present at levels that produce a visible oily sheen (EPA, 2004). Oil and grease concentrations less than 1 mg/L can create sheen on surface waters due to the reflection of sunlight (CDS, 2005). The National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration in the U.S. has developed a general glossary of terms to describe the appearance of oil floating on the water. A light, almost transparent layer of oil is approximately 0.00004 mm thick; a slightly thicker layer (0.00007 mm) appears as a silver sheen. A rainbow sheen that reflects colours can be approximately 0.0003 mm thick, and brown oil is a dull coloured sheen that is typically a 0.1 to 1.0 mm thick layer of water-in-oil emulsion (NOAA, 1996). A number of wells reportedly developed visible sheens in and around Chunnakam. For all twelve samples collected for this preliminary study, O&G were below the level of detection. These results are in general agreement with the reported results by ITI for same sample wells (Table 6). Samples collected by ITI in March 2015 from deeper locations in the water column did not have O&G above the level of detection, and the surface samples reported O&G at or below 1.3 mg/L, with an exception of one sample, which reported 3mg/L. However, the O&G results reported for the same wells by the University of Jaffna (sampled in April 2015) were significantly different, ranging from below the level of detection to as high as 13.5 mg/L. The samples collected by the Community Environment Group produced two extreme O&G concentrations. A well in Alaveddy returned 26 mg/L, and a well in Suthumalai returned an extremely high concentration of 502 mg/L. Reported O&G of 502 mg/L appears to be an anomaly. However, during this preliminary study, neither the O&G analysis nor the GC analysis for the water samples from the same well produced any detectable results. Table 6: Oil and grease content of twelve wells in Chunnakam aquifer Oil and grease content (mg/L)

Well This study

Results #1a

Results #1b

Results #2

Results #3

Results #4

NWW1

0.8

< 0.2

9.24

3.33

NWW1A

WW2

< 0.2

13.53

0.33

SWW2

< 0.2

9.99

10.56

NEW1

1.3

< 0.2

10.56

10.89

EW3 ^

3 (0.5)

< 0.2 (<0.2)

10.56

5.28

KDW1

KDW2

NEW3

< 0.2

12.54

6.27

TRKW1

10.56

ACW1

MW1

502

Results #1: ITI results at (a) surface and (b) deep layer samples; February 2015 Results #2: Unpublished data (Velauthamurthy, pers comm.); sampled March 2015 Results #3: Unpublished data (Velauthamurthy, pers comm.); sampled March 2015 Results #4: Unconfirmed data by Community Environment Group (source: Facebook); sampled March 2015 ^ : EW3 was sampled twice for the ITI analysis

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

High O&G concentrations were reported for the water samples collected by the National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) in late 2013 (Saravanan and Sutharshiny, 2014) (Table 7). These water samples were collected from 150 wells from the top surface and from deeper locations in the water column. Out of 150 wells, 109 (73%) wells reported non-compliance with the O&G standard of 1 mg/L (SLIS, 2013), and 23% of the wells did not report the presence of O&G. Of the sampled wells, 81% of wells within 200 m of the Chunnakam Power Station exceeded the drinking water standard for O&G (SLS 614, SLIS 2013). Similarly, 74% of wells within 200 m to 500 m, and 51% of wells within 500 m to 2 km exceeded the drinking water standard (Table 7). The results were presented on a contour map (Figure 3) to depict the distribution of wells with high O&G risk. Saravanan and Sutharshiny (2014) concluded that oil contamination decreased with the distance from CPSC. However, a closer review of their report implies that their data collection was not at random, as the samples were collected based on a questionnaire on potential presence of oil in water. Reported O&G within 1 km from CPSC was not significantly different. Further, there is an apparent error in their determination of O&G at wells. Water quality results by Saravanan and Sutharshiny (2014) for each well with their geographical locations need further interpretation and analysis. NWSDB work (Saravanan and Sutharshiny, 2014) based their data analysis and conclusion on a drinking water guideline of 1 mg/L for O&G. However, the Ministry of Health (MOH) informed the Directors of Health Service twice in two years (Maheepala, 2014; Jayalal, 2015) that “for the implementation of Bottled Water Regulations 2015, it was decided to consider the maximum value for grease and oil as 2 mg/L” (Appendix 6). It is inconceivable for the Health authorities impose a 1 mg/L guideline for drinking water sourced from groundwater. Ideally, the data by Saravanan and Sutharshiny (2014) needs to be reanalysed with the new revised advisory by the MOH, 2 mg/L of O&G. The analyses undertaken by NWSDB (Saravanan and Sutharshiny, 2014) and University of Jaffna (2015), and for this work (by SGS Lanka Limited) used hexane extractable gravimetric method for O&G analysis. EPA Method 1664 (EPA, 1999) for hexane extractable method (HEM) by extraction, and gravimetry has inherent challenges. EPA (1999) states that, “This method is entirely empirical. Precise and accurate results can be obtained only by strict adherence to all details”. Accuracy of O&G analysis by hexane extractable gravimetric method should be demonstrated through recovery assessment. Table 7: Oil and grease content of twelve wells in Chunnakam aquifer (Saravanan and Sutharsini, 2014) Distance from CPSC < 200 m 200 – 500 m 500 – 2000 m All wells

Sampled number of wells 67 42 41 150

Maximum O&G (mg/L) 31.0 13.9 8.58 31.0

Percentage Detected: Above 1 mg/L Below 1 mg/L Not detected 81 19 74 9 17 51 3 46 73 4 23

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

Figure 3: Oil and grease reported in the Chunnakam aquifer (Saravanan and Sutharsini, 2014)

HEM or O&G is not a suitable surrogate for petroleum hydrocarbons. In addition to petroleum hydrocarbons, this parameter incorporates other hexane-soluble material (HEM) including, but not limited to, soaps, animal fats, waxes, vegetable oil and related substances. For small communities, domestic wastewater effluent reported O&G concentration at 16 to 45 mg/L (Siegrist et al. 1984). Crites and Tchobanoglous, (1998) observed that effluent leaving a conventional septic tank typically has concentration of 20-50 mg/L O&G. An accredited laboratory demonstrates their capability to perform this and other tests, and obtains a certificate of accreditation. They meet the requirement of their methods by conducting ongoing analysis of standards and blanks. SGS Laboratory demonstrates the proficiency of their chemists and their processes by conducting spike recovery test. Hence, the result generated by SGS is reliable and credible among the other laboratories in Sri Lanka. The accreditation certificate for SGS Laboratory can be found in Appendix 7. In the absence of active pollution sources, degradation of organic matter in soil and water (Section 5.3) may also cause a reduction in the concentration of petroleum and other hydrocarbons.

4.2 4.2.1

Inorganic constituents Cations and metals

All samples were analysed for a suite of metals and other cations. None of the metals analysed for (aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium and zinc) was detected in any of the samples that were collected for this preliminary study (Table 5).

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

Sodium concentration for all samples were under the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013), although one of them was only marginally below the standard (Table 5). Magnesium analysis showed that six samples complied with the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013). Four water samples marginally exceeded the standard, and two samples contained high concentrations of magnesium. Calcium concentrations in the samples fell within a range of 87 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 131 mg/L. Three samples were marginally within the drinking water standard of 100 mg/L, and five samples were marginally above standard. Presence of cations is discussed further in the next section (Section 4.2.2). Presence of calcium in high levels is not uncommon for the Chunnakam aquifer, due to limestone. NWSDB (Saravanan and Sutharshiny, 2014) claimed that five out of fifty wells reported positive results for lead, with a maximum concentration of 0.168 mg/L (minimum was 0.029 mg/L and the drinking water standard for lead is 0.010 mg/L). Although waste oil is a known source of lead (Appendix 8), a number of other sources could have also contributed to the lead levels in groundwater. Besides the natural presence of lead (leached from soil), petroleum-powered vehicles (which have used leaded-petrol over the years in the Jaffna Peninsula) and paints are known sources of lead. Although this preliminary study did not detect any metals in any of the samples, past studies have indicated the presence of lead and other metals in Jaffna groundwater. A comprehensive study is critical to investigate the presence of metals in the Chunnakam aquifer and other aquifers in Jaffna Peninsula. Saravanan and Sutharshiny (2014) found chromium in three out of twenty wells, with a maximum concentration of 0.002 mg/L, whereas the drinking water standard is 0.050 mg/L. However, the current discussions on the presence of chromium in Chunnakam aquifer overlook the required standard and claim that 12% of wells contain chromium at a level of concern. Arsenic was not detected in any wells. Reported concentrations of chromium and lead need to be analysed further in conjunction with O&G and the locations of the wells.

4.2.2

Anions

Fluoride, chloride, cyanide, sulphate, phosphorus (all forms of phosphates combined) and various forms of nitrogen (nitrate, nitrite, albuminoid ammonia and free ammonia) were measured for all 12 water samples. Cyanide (LOD: 0.04 mg/L), ammonia (LOD for free ammonia: 0.06 mg/L), chloride (LOD: 1 mg/L) and phosphate (LOD: 2 mg/L) were not detected in any of the samples (Table 5). Fluoride was reported only in one samples (LOD: 0.1 mg/L) (Table 5). Sulphate was reported in all twelve well samples at concentrations well below the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013). Chloride was also detected in all samples, but only one sample exceeded the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013). Nitrite was reported only in five samples out of twelve, at very low concentrations, just above the limit of detection (0.03 mg/L). For nitrate, nine samples complied with the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013). One of the samples marginally and another moderately exceeded the drinking water standard, while the other showed a substantial concentration of nitrate (Table 5).

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Figure 4 shows the variation of sodium, magnesium, nitrate, chloride and sulphate in those samples. Similarly, the calcium levels are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 4: Cation and anion concentrations in twelve wells in Chunnakam aquifer.

Although the first six samples (NWW1, NWW1A, WW2, SWW2, NEW1, EW3) were from Chunnakam aquifer and the locations were very close to CPSC, the sodium and magnesium levels were not similar. Among the samples, NWW1 was from a dug well, and NWW1A was from a tube well (10.7 m) in the adjacent plot. Despite this, they do not resemble each other in any of the measured parameters. These results imply that these two wells receive water from two different aquifers, although their depths differ by only few metres. The sample collected at MW1 exhibited some interesting results. In addition to the very high concentration of total dissolved solids (Table 4), sodium, chloride and sulphate contents were extremely high in comparison to the other 11 samples. It is likely that MW1 is receiving water from a brackish source. This well reported a very high O&G concentration of 502 mg/L for the water samples collected by CEG. Nitrogen concentration in Chunnakam aquifer is relatively high. Two of the twelve samples in this study exceeded the Sri Lankan drinking water standard for nitrate of 50 mg/L as nitrate (as 11 mg/L as nitrogen). The nitrate standard of World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water is 10 mg/L nitrite (as 3 mg/L as nitrogen). Nitrate pollution is known to cause Blue Baby Syndrome and other health problems in general population. NWSDB (Saravanan and Sutharshiny, 2014) found that 51 out of 138 samples (37%) had a nitrate concentration above 50 mg/L. Sutharshiny et al. (2014) observed that, during the rainy season, 38% of the agro-wells exceeded the nitrate-N limit of the WHO drinking water guidelines of 10 mg/L and became unsuitable for drinking purposes, and indicated that the kidney ailments in Jaffna peninsula are significantly higher than the general population of Sri Lanka. Wimalawansa and Wimalawansa (2014) found that agricultural pollution causes significant health problems in the farming community of the North-Central province. Currently, Sri Lankan farmers use around 600,000 tonnes of solid fertilisers and 250,000 tonnes of liquid fertilisers every year. There are no structured regulations for the application

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of fertilisers in Sri Lanka (Jeyasumana, 2015). Although a number of studies have highlighted the nitrogen levels in Jaffna groundwater, there have been no actions or plans to remedy the problem in terms of reduction and prevention of nitrate pollution of the groundwater. Vithanage et al. (2014) observe that if the excessive application of fertiliser is not brought under control, Jaffna groundwater will continue to deteriorate. Waters with high levels of nitrogen, exceeding the drinking water standards, cannot be recommended for consumption without treatment. Considering the proximity of toilets and wells (discussed later) it is quite likely that toilets also contribute to the high nitrogen levels in the wells.

4.2.3

Alkalinity, hardness and solids

All samples were analysed for total alkalinity, total hardness and total dissolved solids. None of the samples complied with the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013) for total hardness. Total alkalinity and total dissolved solids exceeded the standards in eleven out of twelve samples aquifer (Table 4), but the reported values were approximately 80% of the stipulated standard (Figure 5). Sodium, magnesium, chloride and nitrate appear to be the main constituents of dissolved solids. Calcium is the major cause for high hardness levels. Although the residents of Jaffna Peninsula consume waters with high levels of dissolved solids and hardness over the decades, waters exceeding the drinking water standards cannot be recommended for consumption without treatment. These contaminants cannot be removed from water through a simple water treatment process.

Figure 5: Calcium, hardness, alkalinity and solids in twelve wells in Chunnakam aquifer.

4.3

General physico-chemical parameters

All water samples collected during the study were within the neutral pH range (6.9 to 7.7) at 25o C, and complied with the SLS 614 (SLIS, 2013) requirement of 6.5 to 8.5 (Table 4). Chemical Oxygen Demand was not detected in seven of the samples (LOD: 6 mg/L). In the other five samples, the reported COD was within a narrow range of 8 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 9 mg/L. The drinking water standard for COD in Sri Lanka is 10 mg/L (SLIS, 2013). Turbidity was below 1 NTU for all samples, satisfactorily below the SLS 614 requirement of 2 NTU.

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True colour was not reported for any of the samples (Table 4). SLS 614 (SLIS, 2013) stipulates ‘unobjectionable’ taste and odour for the drinking water in Sri Lanka. According to the results report by SGS Lanka Laboratories, the taste and odour ratings for each of the 12 samples were unobjectionable.

4.4

Microbiological parameters

The water samples were analysed for total coliforms and E. coli bacteria to investigate any potential faecal contamination of the groundwater. Laboratory analysis for this preliminary study showed that all twelve samples contained significant presence of these organisms (Table 4) and exceeded the drinking standards, with E. coli levels as high as 550 MPN/100 mL (with a median value of 300 MPN/mL). The drinking water standard stipulates that no E. coli should be detected, as this organism implies the potential faecal contamination, and other pathogenic organisms may be present in water. Such concentrations of E. coli in the drinking water would trigger a ‘boil water alert’ in the developed world. Various past studies have also demonstrated potential faecal contamination in the groundwater and aquifers in Jaffna. Jaffna groundwater is prone to faecal contamination due to the poor design and construction of on-site systems (soak pits, cesspools and septic tanks), use of toxic toilet cleaning products, improper disposal of substances in toilets (eg. oils) and close proximity of on-site systems and drinking water wells. Until recently, there was no requirement for sealing the pits. However, no systematic studies or risk assessments are available to quantify the nature of faecal contamination and the impact on the population in Jaffna Peninsula. Although there are guidelines and a natural tendency for a household to keep the on-site system far away from the drinking water well within their premise, there is no restriction for locations of on-site system and drinking water well in the adjacent plot. As the population density in Jaffna peninsula increases, the plot sizes will continue to shrink and the faecal contamination is expected to increase, and worsen the potential for faecal pollution. In terms of public health, this is a critical area to focus in the future.

4.5

Pesticides

Analysing for pesticides is not within the scope of this work. However, the presence of nitrogen levels indicates that Chunnakam aquifer is subject to heavy agricultural pollution. It is likely that pesticide content is also high in wells in the Jaffna peninsula. Jeyasumana (2015) discussed the association of chronic kidney disease with drinking well water and occupational exposure to pesticides. Pesticides are often considered a quick, easy and inexpensive solution to controlling weeds and pests. However, they pose significant risks to the ecosystem, including soil microorganisms and other beneficial insects, plants, fish and birds. It is suspected that chronic kidney disease reported in the North Central Province since the early 1990s is due to improper application of pesticides.

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Although the potential presence of pesticides in the aquifers of Jaffna Peninsula has been discussed by the science and social researchers in the past (Kraft, 2002; Mikunthan et al., 2013), a systematic study on this aspect has not yet been undertaken. Lack of available methods at affordable cost to detect the range of pesticides in water is the main reason for this knowledge gap. A well-structured preliminary study on pesticides and their metabolites will shed light on the nature of pesticide pollution, in terms of presence, persistence and seasonal variations. Based on the results of the preliminary study, a comprehensive pesticide investigation in Jaffna groundwater could be designed and undertaken throughout the high intensive agricultural areas of Jaffna Peninsula.

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5 Discussion First of all, the authors note that this preliminary study was limited to twelve samples from identified wells, which were chosen for sampling based on the reported presence of oil and grease at a level of concern. Duplicate samples were not taken to verify the result, except some cross-verification through other surrogates. These results cannot be extensively analysed, but the main strength of this pilot work is that the analyses were undertaken in accredited commercial laboratories, and an extensive suite of individual petroleum hydrocarbons and a range of metals were analysed. This is the most comprehensive analysis for individual samples of all available studies to date. This section briefly discusses the results, addresses general questions and summarises potential way forward on reported oil pollution of Jaffna groundwater aquifers.

5.1

Source of contamination

Much debate is underway regarding the source of contamination of the Chunnakam aquifer in the 2000s. The debate mainly focuses on the actual petroleum oil that polluted the aquifer, the public health effects of specific pollutants and the parties that caused the pollution. The first formal complaint on oil pollution in the Chunnakam aquifer was made with the civil authorities in 2008. This complaint was followed up in 2011, and targeted water testing commenced in 2012, continuing through to 2013, 2014 and 2015. National Water Supply Drainage Board (Saravanan and Sutharshiny, 2014) and Central Environmental Authority (Arachchi, 2014) undertook sampling and analysis. Sooriasegaram (2015), Hettiarachchi (2014) and Somasundaram (2015) broadly commented on the nature of groundwater pollution around CPSC. Based on their assertions, there is a general consensus that the Chunnakam Power Station Complex is the primary source of the recent detections of oil residues in the Chunnakam aquifer. Relative contributions of various players in the Chunnakam power generation operations and specific impacts of the local sources cannot be quantified without carrying out a detailed environmental assessment and a hydrogeological study. Further discussion on this issue can be found in Appendix 1.

5.2

Composition of the suspected pollutants

This section briefly discusses the typical constituents of Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) and lubricant oil. Both HFO and lubricant oil are complex products, and their compositions vary greatly, depending on the source of oil and processes used during refining. Undertaking an extensive review on the composition and pollution pathways of HFO and lubricant oil is beyond the scope of this work. Specific details on the compositions of these oils can be found in Appendix 8 and elsewhere (ABB Environmental. 1990; ATSDR, 1999; Dahlmann, 2003; Bornstein 2012, Speight 2001; Dupuis and Ucan-Marin, 2015). HFOs are blended products of various residues from refinery distillation and cracking processes. As a result, the contents of HFOs may differ widely. They are highly viscous and relatively dense with a characteristic odour and black colour. Globally, HFO is used in medium to large industrial plants, marine applications and power stations in combustion

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equipment such as boilers and furnaces (Dahlmann, 2003). HFOs contain an extensive suite of hydrocarbons, as well as some nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur-containing compounds. They also contain trace levels of metals, such as vanadium, nickel, iron and copper. The organic components of HFO are broadly grouped into four categories: saturates, aromatics, resins and asphaltenes. Saturates are generally alkanes. Aromatic hydrocarbons are generally with benzene rings, and those with multiple aromatic rings are commonly referred to as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (such as naphthalenes, phenanthrenes and pyrenes). Mono-aromatics such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX) are not expected to be present at high concentrations in the HFOs (Appendix 8). Crankcase oil (or motor oil) may be either mineral-based or synthetic, but the former is more widely used than the latter. Mineral-based crankcase oil is a petroleum product that is a complex mixture of hundreds of low and high molecular weight (C15-C50) aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, metals and additives. The composition varies widely, depending on the original crude oil, the processes used in refining, the types of additives included in the oil, the efficiency and type of engine in which it is used, the type of fuel used in the engine, and the length of time the oil was used in an engine. Some mineral oils consist of substantial fraction of nitrogen- and sulphur-containing compounds. PAHs and alkyl PAHs are important components of these oils, and the used oils typically having higher concentrations than unused oils (ATSDR, 1999). The concentrations of high molecular weight PAHs in unused lubrication oils are negligible but increase with running time of the oils (Fujita et al, 2006). Although BTEX is expected to be at lower level in the used oil, the ABB-Environment (1990) reported large concentrations of xylene and toluene in used oil. Additional information on used mineral oil concentration could be found in Appendix 8. Another important difference between crude oils and HFOs is the way they behave in aquatic environments. Crude oils generally have low densities, and often float to the surface. Floating oils form sheens that are easily spotted by observers (Bomstien, 2012). Further, these oils undergo various changes in soil and water environments. Observers in Jaffna reported visible sheen or oil layers in the domestic and irrigation wells in the Chunnakam area. Hence, it is likely that the main source of contamination is the waste oil.

5.3

Fate of petroleum hydrocarbons in soil and water

Release of hydrocarbons into the environment accidentally, due to human activities or intentionally, is a significant cause for water and soil pollution. How to clean up the hydrocarbon contamination in a timely, affordable and effective manner is an on-going challenge in developed and developing countries. Extensive studies have been undertaken and literature is available on the fate of hydrocarbons and potential means for remediation. Various physical, chemical and biological processes affect the fate and transport of these hydrocarbons in the subsurface and groundwater (Vandermeulen and Hrudey, 1987). Hydrodynamic dispersion is the combined effects of dilution and molecular diffusion in causing a contaminant plume to spread within a groundwater system. Dilution is the mixing of the oil with uncontaminated water, thus reducing the concentration of the contaminant. Variations in pore size, flow path, and pore friction cause dispersion. Longitudinal dispersion

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occurs in the direction of the movement of groundwater flow (advection) while lateral dispersion takes place perpendicular to groundwater flow. Molecular diffusion occurs even in the absence of groundwater flow (University of Texas, 2014). Adsorption is the partitioning of organic contaminants from the liquid phase onto a solid phase, usually the soil matrix. Since most petroleum constituents are nonionic, they adsorb more readily to organic carbon rather than mineral particles in soil (Testa and Winegardner, 1991). Therefore, adsorption is a more important process in aquifers with high organic carbon content. In addition, adsorption reactions between oil constituents and organic particles are usually chemical in nature, and therefore, are reversible (Testa and Winegardner, 1991). Volatilisation is the evaporation of oil constituents. The rate of volatilisation is controlled by a range of factors including molecular weight, solubility and temperature (EPA, 1995). Volatilisation can result in mass loss from the groundwater into the atmosphere. Biodegradation is a process by which hydrocarbons are broken-down or consumed by microorganisms through a series of enzyme-catalysed reactions. When oxygen is available, aerobic bacteria convert hydrocarbon contaminants to carbon dioxide and water. Under anaerobic conditions, nitrate, manganese, ferric iron, sulphate and carbon dioxide are utilised by the microorganisms (ASTM, 1998). An injection of nitrate and sulphate together into the contaminated aquifer can be used to accelerate BTEX removal as compared to remediation by natural attenuation (Cunningham et al., 2001). The capability of petroleum hydrocarbons to biodegrade depends on composition and chemical structure. Lighter, more soluble hydrocarbons are typically more biodegradable, as are hydrocarbons with simple chemical structures. For example, straight-chain hydrocarbons degrade faster than branched structures and monoaromatic compounds, such as benzene, are more easily degraded than polycyclic aromatic compounds, such as naphthalene (Chapelle, 1993). Biodegradation has been shown in numerous studies to be the primary mechanism for attenuation of petroleum hydrocarbons in the subsurface and groundwater (Chiang et al., 1989; Buscheck et al., 1993; Salanitro, 1993; McAllister and Chiang, 1994; and Maresco et al., 1995). In the event of hydrocarbon pollution, microorganisms require time to acclimatise and commence biodegradation.

5.4

Fate of reported petroleum traces reported around Chunnakam

All observations and reports confirmed the presence of oil traces in the wells in recent years, without substantive evidence of the nature of oil. In the absence of credible quantification, a robust analysis on the degradation pathways and the rate of degradation is not possible. Qualitatively, it appears that substantial rainfall in October to December, in 2010 and particularly in 2011 (Table 8), drove oil from the vicinity of the Chunnakam Power Station to outer areas, and led to the development of sheen and smell in a number of wells. It is likely that the oil layer at the top of the water surface degraded through evaporation (or volatilisation) dispersion, ultra-violet radiation, oxidation and biodegradation by the

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microorganisms in water. Nitrogen in the groundwater and soil microorganisms further degraded the oil. Citing a number of studies, Das and Chandran (2011) summarised that, “Microbial degradation is the major and ultimate natural mechanism by which one can cleanup the petroleum hydrocarbons from the environment. Hydrocarbons in the environment are biodegraded primarily by bacteria, yeast, and fungi. Many scientists reported that mixed microbial populations with overall broad enzymatic capacities are required to degrade complex mixtures of hydrocarbons in soil and fresh water environments. Hydrocarbon biodegradation can occur over a wide range of temperatures, and the highest degradation rates generally occur in the range 30–40 °C in soil environments and 20–30 °C in freshwater environments.” The environmental conditions in Jaffna are suitable for such biodegradation. In the developed countries nitrate treatment is used to remove hydrocarbon contamination (Chapelle, 1993; Norris, 1994). It was noticed that the well water in Jaffna peninsula contain excess amounts of nitrate due to the agricultural activities and septic tanks. This excess nitrate facilitates the removal of hydrocarbon from well water. In the absence of any fresh contamination, a fraction of the hydrocarbon in the wells, originally reported at higher levels, would have been removed due to natural degradation or removal processes. These well samples should be continuously monitored for the hydrocarbon content. Table 8: Monthly rainfall in Jaffna Peninsula (in mm) since Year 2010. (NWSDB, 2015) Year

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Total

2010

128

143

115

492

296

1418

2011

211

301

518

295

1469

2012

135

395

240

949

2013

152

151

117

100

162

1033

2014

109

262

496

155

1272

5.5

Validity of FROG 4000 results

Well-wishers in Australia and North America jointly donated an innovative portable (world’s smallest) purge and trap gas chromatograph (FROG 4000TM) to Northern Province Hydrological Research Centre through the Northern Provincial Council. In accordance with quality guidelines, the operating procedures were professionally transferred from the manufacturer to users. This technology was chosen following a review of available instruments in terms of technical capability, skill requirements and the cost:  The sensitivity of FROG 4000TM is 1 part per billion (ppb, 1 µg/L).  The analysis time is 5 minutes compared to more than 5 hours by the O&G test.  Test result can be obtained on the same day compared to minimum two weeks for the O&G test.  The instrument is portable, can be taken to the field and analysed at the polluted site.  The instrument can analyse the contaminated soil samples and air samples.  Material costs for operating this instrument is almost zero, and it does not need any reagents or gases.

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 Determination is against a reference standard and the results are more reliable compared to the O&G test, which does not use a reference standard.  The instrument can separate each toxic component and quantify separately. Comparatively, the O&G test provides a single lumped value, including non-petroleum hydrocarbons.  With over 2000 residents requesting their water samples to be tested, an O&G determination would take more than one year, whereas FROG 4000TM could complete the screening analysis in one month.  FROG 4000 is being used as screening equipment. During the screening analysis, if a well sample is detected with BTEX, the sample could be retested in a short time and could be analysed in a conventional laboratory Gas Chromatograph. Five of the twelve samples (NWW1, WW2, SWW2, NEW1, EW3 and NEW3) from this pilot study were analysed by FROG 4000 to determine the equivalency and efficiency of the apparatus. During GC analysis, none of the 12 samples reported the presence of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene or xylene. FROG 4000TM did not detect benzene, ethylbenzene or xylene in any of the samples, but detected toluene in only two samplesL: NEW1 (1 ppb) and NEW3 (0.3 ppb). Although both GC-MSD and FROG 4000TM results are in good agreement for these samples (Appendix 5), in the authors’ view, values below the level of detection cannot be used to convincingly verify the validity of two different methods.

5.6

General Questions

This section briefly addresses general questions raised by the drinking water consumers catered by the Chunnakam aquifer. Authors emphasise that these questions are addressed based on limited available information, and more work is required to provide comprehensive responses.

5.6.1

Is my well-water safe for drinking and cooking?

There is no simple answer for this question. The data collected for this preliminary study indicated that toxic constituents linked to the oil products were not present in any of the sampled wells in March 2015, even in the presence of visible sheen. As long as there is no visible sheen on the water surface, petroleum contaminants are less likely to be present in the middle layer of the water in dug wells. It is advisable to keep a watch for changes in the well water surface immediately after pumping and after heavy rain. Conversations with the residents in and around Chunnakam area indicated that most of the wells have not been pumped or maintained over the years for a variety of reasons. It is recommended to pump wells completely and flush the well-walls thoroughly, at least twice, and to observe the water surface for any development of sheen. In April 2015, Director for Environmental and Occupational Health (Sri Lanka) stated that, “Most wells in the area were unsafe and kept in unhygienic conditions”. The Director requests the Medical Officers of Health (MOHs) in the area to take necessary action to keep the wells clean and safe (Srilal, 2015) (Appendix 6).

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Although oil pollution is not expected to be a concern for a majority of wells, presence of nitrate and calcium, total dissolved solids and the bacteria that indicates contamination by toilet runoff do not comply with the drinking water standards. Particularly, the reported E. coli levels imply that faecal contamination is a major concern in the Chunnakam aquifer. Hence, this water is not acceptable for drinking and cooking without some form of treatment. Under current water quality conditions, extended boiling (over 30 minutes) can satisfactorily remove most of the microorganisms and marginally remove calcium and alkalinity. Let the heated water cool down for about two hours and the decanted water is relatively safe for consumption. Nitrate in water will mostly affect children, but cannot be removed by boiling.

5.6.2

Is my well-water safe for bathing?

In the absence of visible oil sheen, under current water quality conditions, well-water in the Chunnakam aquifer is fit for bathing in most wells. E.coli levels are above the drinking water standards, therefore swallowing water should be avoided. Young children, elderly and immuno-compromised people should be cautious. With respect to bathing or other external contacts, the presence of nitrate, calcium, dissolved solids and chloride, and high alkalinity and hardness are not expected to cause any health hazards or discomfort. Soaps, however, are generally ineffective in hard waters.

5.6.3

Is my well-water safe for irrigation?

Under current water quality conditions, in the absence of visible oil sheen, well-water in the Chunnakam aquifer is fit for irrigation. Certain plants are known to uptake hydrocarbons and metals, and certain metals are known to accumulate in plant tissue. Considering the fact that metals were not detected in this preliminary study, and were relatively low in previous studies, well water in Jaffna may be safe for irrigation. However, comprehensive studies need to be conducted by testing water at various locations and during different seasons around Jaffna Peninsula for the presence of lead, cadmium, chromium, arsenic and mercury.

5.6.4

What was that shiny thing in my well water?

A number of wells were found with a shiny layer on the water surface. It is likely that oil in groundwater floated to the surface and facilitated the accumulation of other materials â&#x20AC;&#x201C; namely, calcium compounds in groundwater (aquifers are known for high calcium concentrations) and settling dust from the atmosphere. Most households use motorised pumps to extract water, i.e., people no longer use bucket-and-rope. Some of the residents indicated that generally they do not look at the well for months. Due to this, there is no aeration or surface mixing taking place, allowing this layer to establish. Over the months, oil may be degraded, but the solids (calcium, dust, etc) may remain. Without the proper sampling, composition of this surface layer cannot be accurately determined. The Director for Environmental and Occupational Health states that, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Most wells in the area were unsafe and kept in unhygienic conditionsâ&#x20AC;?, and MOHs in the area to take necessary action to keep the wells clean and safe (Srilal, 2015) (Appendix 6).

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5.6.5

Can I purify my well water?

First of all, it is possible that accumulated oil contaminants are no longer present. A good clean up of the stagnant water may refresh the well. The well water should be pumped out completely, and the well walls should be flushed at least twice. Keeping watch of the new water for any visible sheen will indicate whether oil pollution is still present. Well water can be purified (or treated), to make it suitable for consumption, by various methods. Simple methods may cost less and can be designed and constructed by lay people, but they remove only some of the impurities in the groundwater. Advanced methods, however, are much more effective, but can be costly and require higher technical skills for construction and on-going operations and maintenance. Water can be filtered through sand and charcoal, followed by addition of chlorine tablets. Small package units (carbon adsorption, reverse osmosis, etc) can be purchased, which are ready to use without much adjustments or technical support. Some of these filter units can remove petroleum products, metals and nitrates. Consumers should be watchful about the limitations and challenges of these commercially available units before investing their money. Some of the units may only be effective for a short time, and the user might be lulled into a false-sense of security. Rain water can be blended with groundwater to reduce the concentration of nitrogen, calcium, dissolved solids and hardness. On a rainy day, the first wash from the roof can be by-passed and relatively clean water from the rain can be collected from the roof in a storage tank to be used as a drinking water source. Rain water may be treated with carbon filters or ultra-violet irradiation prior to domestic use. These types of water systems have become popular in Central and North Central province of Sri Lanka. In Northern Province, number of houses and businesses use these tanks. Proper care should be taken to protect water in these tanks from rodents, birds and insects. Rainwater tanks should be inspected regularly for potential contaminations.

5.6.6

Why was there a confusion about the water quality?

There was an obvious presence of floating material in a number of wells. Some consumers found that the floating material was sticky and smelt like oil. NWSDB stated that 73% of wells in the Chunnakam aquifer near CPSC had high levels of oil. CEA also found a presence of oil at a level of concern. However, a gross measurement (oil and grease) was used to quantify the pollution, which is not at all a good measure for petroleum pollution. There was no unified approach to address the problem, creating a temporary chaos and media stories exasperated the situation and increased the confusion on all fronts. There was a lack of communication from authorised people through authentic channels. A collegiate approach by all parties (consumers, political leaders, public health professionals, water supply experts, CEB, etc.) backed up by a systematic approach to address the problem could have avoided the confusion.

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5.6.7

Who polluted the water?

There is a general consensus that the most likely main source of the oil pollution was Chunnakam Power Station Complex. Careless disposal of waste oil, wastewater and contaminated solid waste seems to be the primary reason. There was no accountability in the management of spilled diesel and disposed waste oil (including oil kulam) in and around CPSC. However, reported detections of high oil levels at locations far away from CPSC, such as Manipay, Alaveddy and Keerimalai imply that there may be other local pollution sources, such as garages, service stations and vehicle parking stations, which also contribute to the contamination of the Chunnakam aquifer. A well-designed comprehensive study of groundwater and soil is critical to quantify the relative contributions from Chunnakam Power Station Complex and other local sources.

5.7

Lessons learnt

This section briefly lists the lessons learnt from the oil pollution incident in the view point fo the authors. In his article, titled Science and Politics of Mass Kidney Failure in Sri Lanka, Nalaka Gunawardena (2012) writes about a ‘slow emergency’ for two decades in Anuradhapura and Polnnaruwa, a mass scale kidney failure affecting large number of farmers. His observations and the oil pollution of Chunnakam aquifer have remarkable resemblance. Gunawardena (2012) writes, “The World Health Organisation and the Health Ministry’s epidemiological unit appointed ten study groups to study this problem. Their findings have been submitted to the government but not yet released. We cannot afford bureaucratic apathy in a matter of such urgency and importance. The outcome of public science must be shared with the public and media in the public interest.” “Delays in releasing research and analysis will only allow speculation and conspiracy theories to gain momentum. Selfish opportunists are already flocking hit areas apparently seeking to implicate their pet hates. Sadly, some of these speculations are being peddled, and even cheered, by sections of our media without due diligence. Such tilting at windmills is muddying the already suspect waters and can confuse policy makers. Senior scientists at the forefront in related research have stressed the need to separate facts from speculation and myths.” “Three medical researchers called for dispassionate discussion of current knowledge and gaps. Given the widespread discussion and debate in the media recently, they urged, “It is timely that the available, credible, scientific evidence is collated and analysed, and the difficulties faced in establishing causality are discussed. They added that the cause is likely to be multi-factorial. At this point in time there is insufficient evidence to pinpoint a cause.” “Scientific credibility requires that such studies are peer reviewed and published in national and international journals of high standing. Making unfounded claims at press conferences and throwing wild allegations in TV talk shows might create some ripples, but such

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grandstanding does not help anyone. There is no room for miracles or absolute truths in science. By its very definition, science is open to rigorous scrutiny, challenge and refinement.â&#x20AC;? A collective approach is required to manage a crisis like the recent oil pollution. The best practice to handle such challenging developments is through emergency and crisis management processes. An Incident Controller is appointed and an Incident Management Team is chosen with required power and resources. The Incident Controller calls all the shots in terms of technical, operational and media aspects. While keeping a close watch, political leaders, direct stakeholders and the community, should let the Incident Management Team operate with a reasonable autonomy. The ways to manage reported disposal of all wastes in the Jaffna Peninsula (and other areas) should be reviewed as soon as practicable. Similar to the apparent disposal of waste oil in Chunnakam, disposal of Jaffnaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s solid waste and other hazardous material continue without scrutiny. There is no systematic approach to dispose highly toxic hospital waste in Jaffna. Wastewater from toilets in public places (government offices, hospitals, etc.) is disposed without appropriate treatment. Environmental regulations are either not available or not appropriately implemented with respect to oil and other petroleum products at the garages, filling stations, etc. In the absence of a systematic approach, unsafe practices may lead to another crisis in the near future.

5.8

Way forward

This section very briefly proposes a potential approach to address the oil pollution of Chunnakam aquifer, along short-, medium- and long-term steps.

5.8.1

Short-term steps

It is a priority to deliver good quality water for drinking and cooking for all residents. Appropriate arrangements should be in place to meet the demand of the families in the highly affected areas, particularly close to the Chunnakam Power Station Complex. This service should continue until appropriate authorities formally confirm that water is safe for consumption. Civil and public health authorities need to work with the residents to clean their wells. The wells should be pumped out completely and the well walls should be washed. Fresh water in the pumped out wells should be monitored for the potential development of an oil layer on the water surface. The wells with reported presence of oil and grease at higher levels should be monitored in an on-going basis, particularly after any significant rainfall. There should be a quick response from the civil authorities to attend the complaints and inquiries of the residents. Keeping in mind that the residents will be disenfranchised in the absence of credible and timely information, authorities should focus more in communication. Factsheets and information pamphlets (such as, Guidelines for the Dug Well Cleaning; NWSDB, 2014) will be very useful for the concerned public.

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All available data from the recent studies in Chunnakam aquifer needs to be collated and reviewed for the pattern of the presence of oil and grease and specific contaminants (hydrocarbons, metals and other compounds). Variations between the analytical methods should also be incorporated in this analysis. It is recommended that the Northern Provincial Council conduct a detailed intrusive Environmental Site Assessment (ESA) study in and around the Chunnakam Power Station Complex (on-site and off-site study). The objective of this assessment work is to provide information to the residents and the decision-makers on the current status of contamination of the Chunnakam Power Station Complex and the surrounding. This scientifically designed groundwater monitoring study should be conducted in the Chunnakam aquifer area quarterly (once in pre-monsoon, post-monsoon, and thereafter at intervals of 3 months). Appropriate techniques should be used for petroleum and metal analyses. Adequate samples should be collected from other three aquifers for benchmarking. A description of the site assessment objectives, a conceptual site model for the site and the proposed scope of work for the Environmental Site Assessment (ESA) are provided in the Appendix 9.

5.8.2

Medium-term steps

Groundwater in Jaffna peninsula is in a dynamic state, and hence is subjected to periodic changes. This preliminary study and a number of other recent studies were conducted as an ad hoc measure to collect information at a basic level for a limited number of wells. The presence of pesticides, which is suspected to be the primary cause for chronic kidney disease among Sri Lankan farmers, in Jaffna groundwater needs to be established. A systematic study for the detection of a range of pesticides will enable the public health professionals and civil authorities to manage pesticide application and exposure. Despite all studies in the past, the nature of Jaffna groundwater is still a puzzle in terms of hydrological, hydro-geological and hydro-geochemical characteristics, recharge and interactions with salt water, and the influence of the rate of extraction (particularly for irrigation and industries) on hydrodynamics. As Phase 1, a series of boreholes could be drilled and soil and water samples could be taken. Using appropriate techniques (such as ground penetrating radar), the subsurface could be mapped to gain a preliminary understanding of the nature and complexity of the hydro-geological features for a welldeveloped investigative study. Capacity building and strengthening of organisations like The Northern Province Hydrological Research Centre and Laboratory is a critical requirement to provide technical leadership and to sustain a knowledge base. The Northern Provincial Hydrological Research Centre Laboratory should be strengthened in terms of equipment, expertise, and technical capabilities to undertake the regional task of environmental assessment and pollution control in Northern Province. It is recommended that Northern Provincial Council explore an international collaborative programs to provide much needed support for this endeavour (Appendix 10)

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The World Health Organization (WHO, 2009) has developed the Water Safety Plan (WSP) to provide a systematic approach for improving and maintaining drinking-water safety. WSPs are generally meant for community water suppliers to systematically assess and manage risks, but can be customised for well water supplies as well. Health authorities, in association with NWSDB, can provide leadership in this risk management approach. A holistic approach is critical to reduce and eliminate all types of pollution (such as pesticides, faecal seepage, nitrates, solid-waste, hospital and other toxic waste) in the peninsula. In addition, groundwater recharge areas in Jaffna Peninsula should be identified and protected.

5.8.3

Long-term steps

A water policy and water master plan should be developed for the Northern Province. A country must have a master plan for water; the lack of such in the longer-term is somewhat suicidal for the country. Provision of clean water and an equitable water policy should be at the heart of reconciliation and ethnic harmony. This plan must incorporate water and food security; equitable distribution of freshwater for domestic, industrial, and commercial uses; irrigated water; prevention of contamination; and environmental protection. However, the plan must be fair and just, and attention and priority must be given to optimising human health. Greater water policy for the Northern Province should incorporate a water budget, including drinking water, irrigation water, stormwater, fresh and brackish groundwater, treatment and disposal of domestic and industrial wastewater. Potential benefits and drawbacks of converting the saltwater lagoons in Jaffna Peninsula into freshwater lagoons, the use of desalination for drinking water treatment, and the potential use of Iranamadu water for drinking water supply for Kilinochchi and Jaffna are among the main consideration. A roadmap with timelines and agreement with all decision-making institutions and other major stakeholders should be agreed. All intentions and decisions should be communicated to the public in an ongoing basis.

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6 Conclusions and Recommendations 6.1

Conclusion

There is a general consensus that the Chunnakam Power Station Complex is the primary source of the recent detections of oil residues in the Chunnakam aquifer. Relative contributions of various players in the Chunnakam power generation operations and specific impacts of the local sources cannot be quantified without carrying out a detailed environmental assessment and a hydro-geological study. All recent studies in Chunnakam aquifer used Oil and Grease to characterise oil pollution, and regularly detected O&G above the stipulated levels. Although it is a commonly used method in Sri Lanka for hydrocarbon analysis, it is not a suitable surrogate for petroleum hydrocarbons. This preliminary study used state of the art techniques for petroleum hydrocarbon analysis, and found no traces of petroleum hydrocarbons in any of the twelve samples. Petroleum oil traces were found in drinking and irrigation wells in and around Chunnakam after the monsoon rains, but it is quite likely that petroleum hydrocarbon levels reduced due to physical, chemical and microbial degradation. Presence of nitrates and faecal indicators are at alarming levels in the Chunnakam aquifer. Calcium and dissolved solid levels also exceed the drinking water standards. It is likely that pesticides would also be at a level of concern, but metals of concern were not detected in the limited number of samples collected for this study.

6.2

Recommendation

It is recommended that potential approach to address the oil pollution of Chunnakam aquifer can be taken along short-, medium- and long-term steps.  Good quality water for drinking and cooking should be delivered for all residents in the

identified high-risk locations. This service needs to continue until the authorities confirm that water is safe for consumption.  Civil and public health authorities need to facilitate residents to clean their wells by

pumping and cleaning the well-walls as a matter of high priority. Fresh water in wells should be monitored for the potential development of an oil layer on the water surface.  Northern Provincial Council needs to conduct a detailed Environmental Site

Assessment study in and around the Chunnakam Power Station Complex.  A scientifically designed groundwater monitoring study should be conducted in the

Chunnakam aquifer area quarterly for a year (once in pre-monsoon, post-monsoon, and thereafter at intervals of three months) with appropriate techniques for petroleum and metal analyses, and adequate samples from other aquifers for benchmarking.  Civil authorities need to attend to the complaints and inquiries of the residents, and

provide credible and timely information.

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 All available data from the recent studies in the Chunnakam aquifer need to be

collated and reviewed for the pattern of the presence of petroleum hydrocarbons and metals.  A systematic study should be commissioned to investigate nitrate and pesticide levels

in Jaffna groundwater, and a proactive management plan should be established.  A series of boreholes could be drilled, and soil and water samples taken as the first

task to understand hydrological, hydro-geological and hydro-geochemical characteristics, recharge and interactions with salt water, and influence of the rate of extraction on hydrodynamics. Using appropriate techniques (such as ground penetrating radar), the subsurface could be mapped.  Appropriate steps are to be taken for capacity building and strengthening of

organisations like Northern Province Hydrological Research Centre to provide technical leadership and to sustain a knowledge base.  The Northern Provincial Hydrological Research Centre Laboratory should be

strengthened in terms of equipment, expertise, and technical capabilities to undertake the regional task of environmental assessment and pollution control in Northern Province.  A holistic approach is critical to reduce and eliminate all types of pollution (such as

Peninsula into freshwater lagoons, the use of desalination for drinking water treatment, and the potential use of Iranamadu water for drinking should be objectively analysed.

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7 Acknowledgement Authors are grateful for the contributions of the reviewers of the report, Dr. Gnana Bharathy, Dr. Dharma Dharmabalan, Dr. S. Kumarabharathy Dr, Para Parameshwaran, Eng. Sri Pragash, Dr. Gnana Rajan, Mr. Jey Surier and Dr. Uma Umakanthan for their useful guidance, feedback and discussions. Dr. Vasanthy Arasaratnam, Eng. Jerome Arunekumaran, Dr. A. Atputharajah, Minister P. Ayngaranesan, Dr. S. Balakumar, Dr. Bas Baskaran, Dr. Dharma Dharmabalan, Eng. E. Jegatheesan, Eng. S. Nantharuban, Mr. Steven Prasanna, Dr. Sivashanthini Kuganathan, Dr. Meena Senthilnanthanan, Dr. S. Sivachandran, Dr. Suthan Suthersan, Dr. Murali Vallipuranathan and Dr. K. Velayuthamurthy gracefully participated in discussions, and provided assistance and added value to the delivery of this task. Without the kind contributions of the well-wishers, who sponsored the purchase of FROG 4000TM apparatus for water monitoring and financially contributed towards the sampling and analysis of water (Appendix 11), this work would not have been possible. Human Harmony Incorporated (Australia) and Ilankai Thamil Sangam (USA) played a key role in facilitating the financial contributions. Mr. Jeyatheepan Ulagapragasam (Australia) and Mr. Jey Surier (USA) coordinated the activities from their respective countries to bring the professionals together towards the purchase of 4000TM, training of analysts in Jaffna and the delivery of this project. Two of the authors travelled to Jaffna peninsula to observe the nature of wells, facilitate the operation of 4000TM apparatus and to take water samples from the identified wells. All those who assisted them in undertaking these tasks in Jaffna are gratefully appreciated. The professionalism and prompt services of ALS Environmental and SGS Lanka (Pvt) Limited are appreciated.

8 Disclaimer This report is based on limited data. The findings of this work should not be expended beyond the scope of this project. The opinions and interpretations made in this report by the authors are based on their best professional judgement. The contents of this report do not represent the views of the organisations of employers of the authors, or the individuals and entities who financially contributed to this study. Authors, or the individuals and entities who financially contributed to this study cannot be held legally responsible for the analysis, discussions or the comments made in this report. Authors have occasional interactions with various stakeholders of water quality and environmental aspects in the Northern Province (Sri Lanka). These relationships are professional in nature, and have no influence on the activities undertaken for this work and the interpretations and views presented in this report.

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9 References ABB Environmental (1990) Compilation of data on the composition, physical characteristics and water solubility of fuel products. Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection. Wakefield, Massachusetts. APHA (2014) Standard Methods of Water and Wastewater. 21st Edition, American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation publication. APHA, Washington D.C. Arumugam, S. (1969) Development of groundwater and its exploitation in the Jaffna Peninsula. Annual conference of the Institution of Engineers, October 1970. The Institution of Engineers, Ceylon. # ATSDR (1999) Toxicological profile for total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. Pp 315. Balendran, V.S., Sirimanne, C.H.I, and Arumugam, S. (1968) Groundwater resources of Jaffna Peninsula, Water Resource Board, Colombo.# Bornstein, J.M., Adams, J., Hollebone, B., King, T., Hodson, P.V., and Brown, R.S. (2014) Effects-driven chemical fractionation of heavy fuel oil to isolate compounds toxic to trout embryos, Environmental Toxicololgy and Chemistry, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 814-24 Birunthai, R., Sritharan, K., Vasantharuba, S., Balakumar, S. and Arasaratnam, V. (2008) Microbial and coliform contamination in the drinking water samples of university of Jaffna during dry and wet seasons, Abstract, Jaffna University, Last accessed on 25 March 2015, http://repo.jfn.ac.lk/med/handle/701/381 Chapelle, F.H. (1999) Bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated ground water: the perspectives of history and hydrology. Ground Water, vol 37, no. 1, pp. 122132. Dahlmann, G. (2003) Characteristic Features of Different Oil Types in Oil Spill Identification. Berichte des BSH, No. 31, 48pp Defiant Technologies (2015) FROG-4000â&#x201E;˘, Volatile Organic Compound Analysis for Water, Soil and Air Samples, Portable GC PID, Gas Chromatograph with Photoionization Detector, Last accessed on 12 March 2015, http://www.defiant-tech.com/frog-4000.php Dominguez-Rosado, E. and Pitchel, J. (2003) Chemical characterization of fresh, used and weathered motor oil via GC/MS, NMR and FTIR techniques. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science. v112, no. 2, p109-116. EPA (1996a) Purge-and-trap for aqueous samples, US Environmental Protection Agency, Last accessed on 27 March 2015, http://www.epa.gov/solidwaste/hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/5030b.pdf EPA (1996b) Separatory funnel liquid-liquid extraction, US Environmental Protection Agency, Last accessed on 27 March 2015, http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/3510c.pdf

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EPA (1996c) Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) as Gasoline and Diesel, US Environmental Protection Agency, Last accessed on 27 March 2015, http://www.epa.gov/region9/qa/pdfs/8015.pdf EPA (1996d) Volatile organic compounds by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), US Environmental Protection Agency, Last accessed on 27 March 2015, http://www.epa.gov/solidwaste/hazard/testmethods/pdfs/8260c.pdf EPA (2007) Semi-volatile organic compounds by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), US Environmental Protection Agency, Last accessed on 27 March 2015, http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/testmethods/sw846/pdfs/8270d.pdf Fujita, E. M., Campbell, D. E. and Zielinska, B. (2006) Chemical Analysis of Lubrication Oil Samples from a Study to Characterize Exhaust Emissions from Light-Duty Gasoline Vehicles in the Kansas City Metropolitan Area, Technical report for National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado, pp.42 Ganesh, K., (2008) Letter to the Sri Lanka Electricity Board, District Secretariat, Jaffna, Sri Lanka, 21 October 2008. [in Tamil] Gunasekaram, T. (1983) Groundwater contamination and case studies in Jaffna Peninsula, Sri Lanka, Global Engineering Technology Services, Jaffna.# Hewstone, R .K . 1994 . Health, safety and environmental aspects of used crankcase lubricating oils. The Science of the Total Environment, vol. 156, pp. 255-268. Irwin, R.J., VanMouwerik, M., Stevens, L., Seese, M.D. and Basham, W., (1997a) Environmental Contaminants Encyclopedia: alkane, National Park Service, Water Resources Division, Fort Collins, Colorado. pp. 17 Irwin, R.J., VanMouwerik, M., Stevens, L., Seese, M.D. and Basham, W., (1997b) Environmental Contaminants Encyclopedia: oil and grease, National Park Service, Water Resources Division, Fort Collins, Colorado. pp. 17 Jayalal, T. B. A. (2015), Water samples testing reports from suspected oil contaminated wells in the Jaffna district, Letter by Director/Environmental Occupation and Health, Ministry of Health, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 10 April 2015 Jegajeevagan, K., (2005) Morphological, physical and chemical characterization of selected soil series in Jaffna Peninsula. Unpublished Thesis, B.Sc, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jaffna.# Joshua, W.D. (1973). Physical properties of soil as related to irrigation and water management. In: Proceedings of National seminar on water management and control at the farm level FAO/ Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka, pp. 18-23. June 1973. Kraft, H. (2002) Jaffna Rehabilitation Project, GTZ Report, Colombo, Sri Lanka # Mageswaran, R. (2003) Quality of groundwater in the Jaffna Peninsula. International Workshop on Environmental Management in North East Sri Lanka. 1- 4 December, 2003, Jaffna, Sri Lanka. #

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Mageswaran, R. and. Mahalingam, S. (1983) Nitrate nitrogen content of well water and soil from selected areas in the Jaffna Peninsula. Journal of National Science Council, Sri Lanka. vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 269-275. # Maheepala, W.P.P. (2014), A letter in Sinhala, Ministry of Health, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 27 August 2014 Mikunthan, T., Vithanage, M., Pathmarajah, S., Ariyaratne, R. And Manthrithilake, H. (2013) Hydrogeochemical Characterization of Jaffna's Aquifer Systems in Sri Lanka, International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka, pp. 69 Nadarajah, N. (1973). Soils of Jaffna peninsula, Land use division, Irrigation Department.# Nagarajah, S., Emerson, B.N., Abeykoon, V. and Yogalingam, S. (1988) Water quality of some wells in Jaffna and Kilinochchi with special reference to nitrate pollution. Tropical Agriculturist. 144: 61-73 pp. # Nandakumar, V. (1983) Natural environment and groundwater in Jaffna peninsula, Sri Lanka. Climatological Notes, Tsukuba, Japan. vol. 33, pp. 155-164. # Navaratnarajah, V. (1994) Water problems in the Jaffna peninsula, 20th WEDC International Conference in Affordable Water Supply and Sanitation. 1994, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp.191- 193. # Norris, R.D. (1994) In-situ Bioremediation of Soils and Groundwater Contaminated with Petroleum Hydrocarbons. in R.D. Norris, R.E. Hinchee, R.A. Brown, P.L. McCarty, L. Semprini, J.T. Wilson, D.H. Kampbell, M. Reinhard, E.J. Bower, R.C. Borden, Handbook of Bioremediation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.In-situ bioremediation of ground water and geological material: A review of technologies. Research report NWSDB (2006). A feasibility study for water supply and sanitation system for the Jaffna Peninsula. ADP project. Project No: 5068020 . National Water Supply and Drainage Board. Jaffna. Sri Lanka. # Panabokke, C.R. and Perera, A.P.G.R.L. (2005) Groundwater resources of Sri Lanka, Water Resources Board, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp. 28. Parcher, M. A. (1999), Assessing Various Technologies to Remediate a Hydrocarbon Contaminated Aquifer, Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Environmental Science and Engineering, Blacksburg, Virginia Punthakey, J.F. and Gamage, P.D.N. (2006). Coupled flow and salinity transport modelling and assessment of groundwater availability in the Jaffna Peninsula, Sri Lanka. Proceedings of 32nd WEDC International Conference, 2006, Colombo, Sri Lanka. # Puvaneswaran, P. (1986) Geomorphology of the Valukkai Aru drainage basin. Sri Lankan. Journal of South Asian studies. vol. 1, pp. 43-58. # Rajasooriyar, L., Mathavan, V., Dharmagunawardhane, H.A. and Nandakumar, V. (2002) Groundwater quality in the Valigamam region of the Jaffna Peninsula, Sri Lanka. In: Sustainable Groundwater Management. Hiscock, K.M., Rivett, M.O. and Davison, R.M. (Eds). Geological Society, London. vol. 193, pp. 181 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 197.

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Russel, P. A. (2005) Analyses of Fat, Oil and Grease in Wastewater or Receiving water using Fourier Transform Infra-Red spectroscopy (FTIR), Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation, WEFTEC 2005: pp. 5427-5452(26) Saravanan, S. and Sutharshiny, P. (2014) Analysis of the status of groundwater quality which was contaminated with waste oil in the Chunnakam area, Jaffna, Reginal Labboratory, National water Supply and Drainage Board, Jaffna, Sri Lanka, September 2014, pp. 78 Schmoll, O., Howard, G., Chilton, J. and Chorus, I. (2006) Protecting Groundwater for Health: Managing the Quality of Drinking-Water Sources. World Health Organization, IWA Publishing, London. Shanmugarajah, K. (1993) Water Resources Development Jaffna Peninsula, Department of Irrigation, Jaffna, Sri Lanka, pp. 121. SLS (1983) Specification for potable water quality SLS 614. Sri Lanka Standards Institute Government of Sri Lanka Colombo Speight, J. G. (2001) Handbook of Petroleum Analysis, John Wiley & Sons: Toronto. Somasundaram, D. (2015) Ecological Disaster – in Vallikamam, North Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka Guardian, March 4, 2015, Sri Lanka, Last accessed on 27 March 2015, http://www.slguardian.org/?p=27017 Soorisegaram (2015) NPC guidance to public dangerously confusing - Investigation of oil pollution in Jaffna water, Newspaper article, Ceylon Today, 25 April 2015, Last accessed on 24 May 2015 https://www.ceylontoday.lk/90-90890-news-detail-npc-guidance-to-publicdangerously-confusing-investigation-of-oil-pollution-in-jaffna-water.html Sutharsiny, A., Pathmarajah, S., Thushyanthy, M. And Meththika, V. (2012) Characterization of irrigation water quality of Chunnakam aquifer in Jaffna Peninsula, Journal of Tropical Agricultural Research, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 237-248. Tamil Guardian (2015), Judge orders Chunnakam power station to close over waste oil leak 27 January 2015, Last accessed on 12 March 2015 http://www.tamilguardian.com/article.asp?articleid=13586 Thiyagalingam, K. (2008) Letter to the Government Agent, Chunnakam South Farmer’s Organisation, Chunnaka, Sri Lanka, 10 October 2008. [in Tamil] Ukiwe, U., Egereonu, U., Njoku, P. C., Nwoko, C. I. A. and Allinor, J. I. (2013) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons degradation techniques: a review, International Journal of Chemistry, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 43–55, 2013 University of Texas (2014) Groundwater hydrogeology: Rock interactions, University of Texas, Austin, Last accessed on 12 March 2015, http://www.esi.utexas.edu/outreach/groundwater/hydrogeology.php?sec=hydr&pag Vandermeulen, J.H. and Hrudey, S.E. (1987) Oil in freshwater : chemistry, biology, countermeasure technology : proceedings of the Symposium of Oil Pollution in Freshwater (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada in 1984), New York : Pergamon Press, 1987. pp 512

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Vazquez-Duhalt, R. (1989) Environmental Impact of Used Motor Oil", The Science of the Total Environment, 79: pp. 1-23 Villholth, K.G. and Rajasooriyar, L.D. (2010) Groundwater resources and management challenges in Sri Lanka â&#x20AC;&#x201C; an overview, Water Resources Management, June 2010, vol 24, no 8, pp 1489-1513. Vithanage , M., Mikunthan, T., Pathmarajah, S., Sutharshiny, A. and Manthiritilleke, H. (2014) Assessment of nitrate-N contamination in the Chunnakam aquifer system, Jaffna Peninsula, Sri Lanka, SpringerPlus vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 271 WHO (2005) Petroleum Products in Drinking-water Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, World Health Organisation, Geneva, pp 11 WHO (2009) Water safety plan manual (WSP manual): Step-by-step risk management for drinking-water suppliers, World Health Organisation, Geneva, pp 11

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Appendix 1: Early documentation of oil pollution In 2008, Chunnakam South Farmer’s Organization wrote to the Government Agent (District Secretary) of Jaffna to raise their concern regarding the pollution of the soil and groundwater in the vicinity of the Chunnakam Power Station Complex (CPSC). They forwarded a petition, pointing out that Chunnakam area comprises of extensive agricultural land and a sizeable population lives around CPSC, and requested the Government Agent to take the necessary action to protect the environment. The Government Agent forwarded the petition to the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB), and sought a report on this issue (Ganesh, 2008; Figure 6) from CEB. Chunnakam South Farmer’s Organization wrote to the Government Agent again in 2011, indicating that four new generators were to be commissioned in CPSC. While welcoming the initiative to enhance the power supply to the Peninsula, they argued that the operations of Northern Power, a new power generation entity (Thiyagalingam, 2008; Figure 7), has adverse impacts on the environment. They illustrated that wastewater and waste oil had already been discharged to nearby bare land, and had infiltrated the groundwater. They expressed their concern also regarding environmental pollution due to the fumes and smoke being released to the atmosphere. A report prepared by the National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) states that, “Chunnakam Power Station dumped the waste oil directly onto the land which reached surrounding groundwater wells and the well water odour was changed unfavourably. Therefore, several wells were not used for domestic and agricultural purposes in nearby areas” (Saravanan and Sutharshiny, 2014). The report highlights that, “One health problem that is commonly associated with long-term exposure to the petroleum products is cancer”. It then lists potential health problems relating to pregnancy, pulmonary health, psychological health, skin, and the health effects, as a result of lead and aromatic hydrocarbons due to waste oil contamination. Saravanan and Sutharshiny (2014) found that, of the 150 wells sampled within 1.5 km radius from CPSC in 2013-2014 (226 samples were taken), 109 wells (73%) contained oil and grease (O&G) at concentrations exceeding the stipulated water quality standard (not to exceed 1 mg/L as O&G; SLS, 1983). Seven other wells (5%) reported the presence of O&G, but within the required standard. The degree of oil contamination level decreased with the distance from CPSC, and no oil contamination was reported beyond 1.5 km from CPSC. Based on the contour map of reported O&G concentrations, Saravanan and Sutharshiny (2014) concluded that oil contamination moved predominantly in the northern direction. The National Water Supply and Drainage Board report (Saravanan and Sutharshiny, 2014) states that “The Chunnakam Power Station dumped waste oil directly onto the land, which subsequently mixed with the groundwater and developed unfavourable odours in wells in the vicinity of CPSC. As a result, several wells could not be used for domestic and agricultural purposes in nearby areas”. Due to the presence of oil and grease in the wells, NWSDB discontinued the use of Chunnakam water supply intake and commissioned a study. An investigation report was exclusively prepared for the Magistrate Court of Jaffna on ‘Oil Contamination of Groundwater in Chunnakam Area’ (Arachchi, 2014) by the Central

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Environmental Authority (CEA) of Sri Lanka. CEA collected water samples from six dug wells in the Chunnakam area (Power Station Road, Chunnakam) where NWSDB took samples in 2012 for their investigation (see Section 3). Arachchi (2014) concluded that the contamination of groundwater with oil in and around CPSC area cannot be conclusively pinpointed to a single source, but as a result of a combined effect, and cannot be concluded without carrying out a systematic hydrological study. CEA documented that an attack on fuel tanks, which contained more than 1500 cubic metres of diesel oil, during the war (in 1990) caused a spill, and that the runoff ended up in the nearby pond, later known in Tamil as Oil Kulam (oil pool). In CEA’s view, most of the oil may have had seeped through the soil column. The Oil Kulam was filled by CEB in 2011 – 2012 and new grid station was established. Arachchi (2014) stated that the soil compression tasks during the filling operations may have had an adverse effect on the surrounding shallow groundwater. The diesel power plant was operated by Aggriko Company (Pvt) during the war time, until 2009. This operation may have caused significant damage to the shallow groundwater due to their disposal of diesel and oil soaked material in a backyard open dump (Arachchi, 2014). CEA stated in its report (Arachchi, 2014) that the Northern Power Company (Pvt), which was established during the war (in 2009), continued to discharge oily contaminated water and waste into the adjoining premises where Aggrikko disposed their wastes. Following an inspection in October 2009, Northern Power adopted rectification and mitigation measures, according to the CEA report (Arachchi, 2014). Uthuru Janani power station was launched in 2014 in CPSC. This brand new system is in line with the state of the art pollution control equipment, including on-line monitoring and high fuel oil sludge burning incinerator. Arachchi (2014) concluded that Uthuru Janani cannot be considered to be a causative factor for groundwater contamination in Chunnakam area. A study by Central Environmental Authority (CEA) of Sri Lanka (Arachchi, 2014) summarised the activities related to the CPSC operations. Arachchi (2014) concluded that the contamination of groundwater with oil in and around CPSC area cannot be conclusively pinpointed to a single source, but is as a result of a combined effect, and cannot be concluded without carrying out a systematic hydrological study. In CEA’s view, the pollution sources include, (a) nearly 1500 cubic metres of spilled diesel oil due to attack during the war (accumulated in Oil Kulam), (b) the disposal of diesel and oil soaked material in a backyard by the Aggriko Power Company open dump, and (c) the discharge of oily contaminated water and waste into the adjoining premises by the Northern Power Company (Pvt). Uthuru Janani power station, which was launched in 2014, cannot be considered as a causative factor for groundwater contamination (Arachchi, 2014). Following increasing local outcry over the contamination of local water supplies by waste oil leaking from CPSC, a local court issued an interim order to restrict the Northern Power Company operations in January 2015. The court instructed to suspend the power plant‘s functions immediately and to temporarily shut down the plant until further notice (Tamil

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Guardian, 2015). The court also ordered authorities to undertake immediate steps to ensure the provision of drinking water to areas affected and to instigate a programme of public health awareness about the dangers. Finally, the court instructed authorities to form an independent commission into the contamination issue and to carry out scientific investigation via the commission with the help of qualified bodies, and to produce a report to the court (Tamil Guardian, 2015). Various concerned parties point fingers at Northern Power Company, which uses Heavy Fuel Oil for its electricity generators. While not pointing at the heavy fuel for the water pollution, Sooriasegaram (2015) articulates that “Northern Power has not been open and transparent, and has not provided honest answers to basic questions asked of them. Scientists and engineers need honest and accurate information from the CEB of past practices by all power generating companies and also from the recent offender (Northern Power) in order to be able to properly assess the situation and to provide scientific solutions to arrest further pollution and to treat the already polluted soil and groundwater.” Citing a construction worker, Sooriasegaram (2015) suggests that “[a worker] observed a bore hole dug in the middle of the Oil Kulam at this site to make the oil disappear deep into the ground. Whether it is speculation or truth needs to be found out through forensic work. I suspect there was a great deal of cover up, needing ruthless but impartial investigation”. In a letter, the Chairman of the National Water Supply and Drainage Board (Hettiarachchi, 2014) stated that “Due to disposal of petroleum waste by Northern Power Chunnakam, drinking water source of Chunnakam Water Supply Scheme is highly polluted with contamination of grease and oil. Because of this, the water source is now abandoned and distribution of water through pipework is stopped”. Somasundaram (2015) states that during the war years, the electricity supply was cut off from the national grid and private companies were contracted to provide electricity using generators. He estimates that the Northern Power Company may have had to dispose of around 100,000 to 200,000 litres (at 2,000L per 5 generators three times a year for six years) of lubrication oil. Based on the assertions of Arachchi (2014), Saravanan and Sutharshiny (2014), Somasundaram (2015) and Soorisegaram (2015), there is a general consensus that (a) the Chunnakam Power Station is the primary source of the recent detections of oil residues in the Chunnakam aquifer, (b) the disposal of waste oil played a major role in the groundwater contamination, and (c) the dumping of wastewater and oil-contaminated soil waste also contributed to the pollutant load. The potential roles of spilled diesel in the 1990s and local pollution sources including garages, agricultural operation and service stations in Chunnakam and surround villages cannot be discounted. Relative contributions of various players in the Chunnakam power generation operations and specific impacts of the local sources cannot be quantified without carrying out a detailed environmental assessment and a hydrogeological study.

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Figure 6: Letter from the Government Agent of Jaffna to the Sri Lanka Electricity Board on potential pollution of soil and groundwater around Chunnakam Power Station

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Figure 7: Letter from the Government Agent of Jaffna to the Sri Lanka Electricity Board on potential pollution of soil and ground water around Chunnakam Power Station

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Appendix 2: Health impacts of petroleum hydrocarbons An extensive review of potential environmental and public health concerns due to exposure to petroleum contamination is beyond the scope of this report. A brief summary, based on Toxicological Profile for Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry of US Department of Health and Human Services in 1999 (ATSDR, 1999), is presented in the section. More details can be found in Appendix 2. â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Petroleum hydrocarbonsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (or, total petroleum hydrocarbons, TPH) is a term used to describe a broad family of several hundred chemical compounds that originally come from crude oil. In this sense, it really describes a mixture of chemicals. Almost all of them are made entirely from hydrogen and carbon (ATSDR, 1999). Because modern society uses so many petroleum-based products, their contamination of the environment is potentially widespread. Contamination caused by petroleum products will contain a variety of these hydrocarbons. TPH is released to the environment through accidents, through intentional disposal, as releases from industries, or as by-products from commercial or private uses. TPH released to the soil through spills, leaks or dumping may move through the soil to the groundwater. When water is contaminated with petroleum products, TPH fractions will affect both the surface and the bed of a water body. Solubility of TPH in water is generally low, and solubility generally decreases with increasing molecular weight of the hydrocarbon compound. Certain fractions of TPH float in water and form thin surface films, which will facilitate agglomeration of particles and natural organic matter, and impact on oxygen transfer. Other heavier fractions will accumulate in the sediment at the bottom of the water, which may affect bottom-feeding fish and organisms (ATSDR, 1999). Health effects from exposure to TPH is dependent on many factors (ATSDR, 1999). These include the types of chemical compounds in the TPH, the amount (or concentration) of the chemicals contacted and how long the exposure lasts. Very little is known about the toxicity of many TPH compounds. Until this is available, information about health effects of TPH must be based on specific compounds or petroleum products that have been studied. The compounds in different TPH fractions affect the body in different ways. Some of the TPH compounds, particularly the smaller compounds such as benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene (collectively known as BTEX), can affect the human central nervous system (ATSDR, 1999). High exposures can cause death. Swallowing of certain petroleum products causes irritation of the throat and stomach, central nervous system depression, breathing difficulties, and pneumonia from breathing liquid into the lungs. The compounds in some TPH fractions can also affect the blood, immune system, liver, spleen, kidneys, lungs, and in developing fetuses. Certain TPH compounds can be irritating to the skin and eyes. At the same time, many TPH compounds, such as some mineral oils, are not very toxic and are used in foods (ATSDR, 1999). The International Agency for Research on Cancer has determined that benzene is carcinogenic to humans (ATSDR, 1999). Some other TPH compounds or petroleum

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products, such as benzo(a)pyrene are considered to be probably and possibly carcinogenic to humans. Note: The following section is a summary of excerpts of the Public Health Statement prepared by Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. An extended version of this paper could found elsewhere (ATSDR, 1999b) 1.1

What is TPH?

Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH) is a term used to describe a broad family of several hundred chemical compounds that originally come from crude oil. In this sense, TPH is really a mixture of chemicals. They are called hydrocarbons because almost all of them are made entirely from hydrogen and carbon. Crude oils can vary in how much of each chemical they contain, and so can the petroleum products that are made from crude oils. Most products that contain TPH will burn. Some are clear or light-colored liquids that evaporate easily, and others are thick, dark liquids or semisolids that do not evaporate. Many of these products have characteristic gasoline, kerosene, or oily odors. Because modern society uses so many petroleum-based products (for example, gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil, mineral oil, and asphalt), contamination of the environment by them is potentially widespread. Contamination caused by petroleum products will contain a variety of these hydrocarbons. Because there are so many, it is not usually practical to measure each one individually. However, it is useful to measure the total amount of all hydrocarbons found together in a particular sample of soil, water, or air. The amount of TPH found in a sample is useful as a general indicator of petroleum contamination at that site. However, this TPH measurement or number tells us little about how the particular petroleum hydrocarbons in the sample may affect people, animals, and plants. By dividing TPH into groups of petroleum hydrocarbons that act alike in the soil or water, scientists can better know what happens to them. These groups are called petroleum hydrocarbon fractions. Each fraction contains many individual compounds. 1.2

What happens to TPH when it enters the environment?

TPH is released to the environment through accidents, as releases from industries, or as byproducts from commercial or private uses. When TPH is released directly to water through spills or leaks, certain TPH fractions will float in water and form thin surface films. Other heavier fractions will accumulate in the sediment at the bottom of the water, which may affect bottom-feeding fish and organisms. Some organisms found in the water (primarily bacteria and fungi) may break down some of the TPH fractions. TPH released to the soil may move through the soil to the groundwater. Individual compounds may then separate from the original mixture, depending on the chemical properties of the compound. Some of these compounds will evaporate into the air and others will dissolve into the groundwater and move away from the release area. Other compounds will attach to particles in the soil and may stay in the soil for a long period of time, while others will be broken down by organisms found in the soil.

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1.3

How might I be exposed to TPH?

Everyone is exposed to TPH from many sources, including gasoline fumes at the pump, spilled crankcase oil on pavement, chemicals used at home or work, or certain pesticides that contain TPH components as solvents. If TPH has leaked from underground storage tanks and entered the groundwater, you may drink water from a well contaminated with TPH. You may breathe in some of the TPH compounds evaporating from a spill or leak if you are in the area where an accidental release has occurred. Children may be exposed by playing in soil contaminated with TPH. 1.4

How can TPH enter and leave my body?

TPH can enter and leave your body when you breathe it in air; swallow it in water, food, or soil; or touch it. Most components of TPH will enter your bloodstream rapidly when you breathe them as a vapor or mist or when you swallow them. Some TPH compounds are widely distributed by the blood throughout your body and quickly break down into less harmful chemicals. Others may break down into more harmful chemicals. Other TPH compounds are slowly distributed by the blood to other parts of the body and do not readily break down. When you touch TPH compounds, they are absorbed more slowly and to a lesser extent than when you breathe or swallow them. Most TPH compounds leave your body through urine or when you exhale air containing the compounds. 1.5

How can TPH affect my health?

Health effects from exposure to TPH depend on many factors. These include the types of chemical compounds in the TPH, how long the exposure lasts, and the amount of the chemicals contacted. Very little is known about the toxicity of many TPH compounds. Until more information is available, information about health effects of TPH must be based on specific compounds or petroleum products that have been studied. The compounds in different TPH fractions affect the body in different ways. Some of the TPH compounds, particularly the smaller compounds such as benzene, toluene, and xylene (which are present in gasoline), can affect the human central nervous system. If exposures are high enough, death can occur. Breathing toluene at concentrations greater than 100 parts per million (100 ppm) for more than several hours can cause fatigue, headache, nausea, and drowsiness. When exposure is stopped, the symptoms will go away. However, if someone is exposed for a long time, permanent damage to the central nervous system can occur. One TPH compound (n-hexane) can affect the central nervous system in a different way, causing a nerve disorder called "peripheral neuropathy" characterized by numbness in the feet and legs and, in severe cases, paralysis. This has occurred in workers exposed to nhexane in the air. Swallowing some petroleum products such as gasoline and kerosene causes irritation of the throat and stomach, central nervous system depression, difficulty breathing, and pneumonia from breathing liquid into the lungs. The compounds in some TPH fractions can also affect the blood, immune system, liver, spleen, kidneys, developing fetus, and lungs. Certain TPH compounds can be irritating to the skin and eyes. Other TPH compounds, such as some mineral oils, are not very toxic and are used in foods.

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One TPH compound (benzene) has been shown to cause cancer (leukemia) in people. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has determined that benzene is carcinogenic to human. Some other TPH compounds or petroleum products, such as benzo(a)pyrene and gasoline, are considered to be probably and possibly carcinogenic to humans based on cancer studies in people and animals. Most of the other TPH compounds and products are considered not classifiable. 1.6

Is there a medical test to determine whether I have been exposed to TPH?

There is no medical test that shows if you have been exposed to TPH. However, there are methods to determine if you have been exposed to some TPH compounds, fractions, or petroleum products. For example, a breakdown product of n-hexane can be measured in the urine. Benzene can be measured in exhaled air and a metabolite of benzene, phenol, can be measured in urine to show exposure to gasoline or to the TPH fraction containing benzene. Exposure to kerosene or gasoline can be determined by its smell on the breath or clothing. Methods also exist to determine if you have been exposed to other TPH compounds. For example, ethylbenzene can be measured in the blood, urine, breath, and some body tissues of exposed people. However, many of these tests may not be available in your doctor's office. Further reference: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 1999. Toxicological profile for total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH). Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.

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Appendix 3: Limitations of O&G measurement In all recent studies that were undertaken to monitor the water quality of the Chunnakam aquifer, total oil and grease content (O&G) was used as the surrogate for petroleum oil contamination. Although O&G could be used as a gross measure to verify petroleum contamination, O&G includes not only petroleum oils but also vegetable and natural oils (Irwin et al., 1997b). Sediments, biota, and decaying life forms are often high in natural oils and lipids which make up part of the oil and grease measure. Hence, using only O&G to measure the extent of petroleum pollution is inadequate. The analyses undertaken by NWSDB (Saravanan and Sutharshiny, 2014) and University of Jaffna (2015), and for this work (by SGS Lanka Limited) used hexane extractable gravimetric method for O&G analysis. EPA Method 1664 (EPA, 1999) for hexane extractable method by extraction and gravimetry has inherent challenges. Hexane – soluble material includes, but not limited to, soaps, animal fats, waxes, vegetable oil and related substances. EPA (1999) states that, “This method is entirely empirical. Precise and accurate results can be obtained only by strict adherence to all details”. Accuracy of O&G analysis by hexane extractable gravimetric method should be demonstrated through recovery assessment. O&G method also alerts the user about other interferences which may over-estimate the result:  Solvents, reagents, glassware, and other sample-processing hardware may propagate errors and affect the results. Specific selection of reagents and purification (redistillation) of solvents may reduce the error (Russell, 2002).  All materials used in analysis shall be demonstrated by running laboratory blanks. The residue of the blank should be subtracted from the sample residue for O&G calculation.  Glassware is cleaned by washing in hot water containing detergent, rinsing with tap and distilled water, rinsing with solvent or baking. Boiling flasks that will contain the extracted residue are dried in an oven at 105-115° C and stored in desiccators.  Sodium sulphate fines have a potential to inflate the results for HEM by passing through the filter paper. A filter paper with porous size 0.45 micron is recommended. This method also stating that “Each laboratory that uses this method is required to operate a formal quality assurance program. The minimum requirement of this program consist of an initial demonstration of laboratory capability, ongoing analysis of standards and blanks as a test continued performance, and analysis of a matrix to assess recovery. The laboratory shall make an initial demonstration of the ability to generate acceptable accuracy and precision with this method”. An accredited laboratory demonstrates their capability to perform this test method before obtain the certificate of accreditation. SGS Laboratory had proved the proficiency of their chemist by conducting spike recovery test and meets the requirement of the method by conducting ongoing analysis of standards of blank and standards. Therefore the result generated by SGS is reliable and credible among the other laboratories in Sri Lanka. The accreditation certificate for this SGS laboratory is attached (Appendix 8).

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Due to the expected variability of this method, the result of O&G can only be used as a screening test for further analyses. The O&G results reported for the same wells by the University of Jaffna were significantly high, ranging from below the level of detection to as high as 13.5 mg/L. The laboratory of UoJ is not accredited and blank and spikes recoveries were not conducted. Therefore the result from UoJ can be used only as a screening tool for further analysis. The two previous high results of 26mg/L and 502 mg/L, analysed for community environmental group (CEG) by SGS were reviewed. A resample was not provided by CEG to conform the high results. The sample producing 502 mg/L appears to be an anomaly. However the O&G analysis or the GC analysis for these water samples did not produce any detectable results. Note: Following is a summary of a paper prepared by Irwin et al. (1997b) Oil and grease includes not only petroleum oils but also vegetable and natural oils. Sediments, biota, and decaying life forms are often high in natural oils lipids which make up part of the oil and grease measure. Oil and grease results tell only little about the detailed chemical composition of a substance. Oil and grease should not be used as a measure for most oil pollution studies or other studies where petroleum hydrocarbons are the main concern. Like Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH) and Total Recoverable Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TRPH) data, oil and grease data is very difficult, if not impossible, to interpret with respect to ecological effects. Field tests of bioremediation of soils contaminated that oil and grease was prone to producing misleading results concerning the degree of bioremediation taking place. Scatter plots of oil and grease levels versus the levels of petroleum hydrocarbons often appear random. However, oil and grease does have some indirect value as one of the measures of oxygen demanding materials. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are important hazardous components of many of the petroleum products. Risk assessments involving petroleum products should include analyses of PAHs and alkyl PAHs utilizing rigorous GC/MS/SIM methods. Oil and grease is an inappropriate measure when considering carcinogenicity, developmental, reproductive, endocrine, and genotoxicity hazards. Particularly, oil and grease method is not appropriate for analysing the fate, transport, persistence or pathways of petroleum contamination. Irwin, R.J., M. VanMouwerik, L. Stevens, M.D. Seese, and W. Basham. 1997. Environmental Contaminants Encyclopedia. National Park Service, Water Resources Division, Fort Collins, Colorado. pp. 17

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Appendix 4: Water sampling Photographs taken at the selected sampling locations are presented in this Appendix.

(a)

(b)

Figure 8: (a) The water surface of well at NWW1 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

(a)

(b)

Figure 9: (a) The water surface of well at NWW1a and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

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(a)

(b)

Figure 10: (a) The water surface of well at WW2 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

(a)

(b)

Figure 11: (a) The water surface of well at SWW2 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

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(a)

(b)

Figure 12: (a) The water surface of well at NEW1 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

(a)

(b)

Figure 13: (a) The water surface of well at EW3 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

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(a)

(b)

Figure 14: (a) The water surface of well at KDW1 and (b) Sampling in Kondavil

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

(a)

(b)

Figure 15: (a) The water surface of well at KDW2 and (b) Sampling in Kondavil

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

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(a)

(b)

Figure 16: (a) The water surface of well at NEW3 and (b) Sampling in Chunnakam

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

(a)

(b)

Figure 17: (a) The water surface of well at TRKW1 and (b) Sampling in Kantharodai

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

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(a)

(b)

Figure 18: (a) The water surface of well at ACW1 and (b) Sampling in Alaveddy

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

(a)

(b)

Figure 19: (a) The water surface of well at MW1 and (b) Sampling in Manipay

(Photographs by SGS Lanka Limited)

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Appendix 5: Summary results Accredited laboratories (SGS Lanka Limited in Colombo and ALS Environmental in Singapore were contracted to perform the analysis of the samples from this pilot study. Internationally practiced methods (EPA and APHA) were used for most of the analyses. EPA methods were developed and endorsed by the US Environmental Protection Agency. APHA methods (Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater) (APHA, 2014) were jointly developed by the American Public Health Association (APHA), the American Water Works Association (AWWA) and the Water Environment Federation (WEF). Individual method code for each test is listed in Table 9. Table 9: Petroleum hydrocarbons analysis for water samples (analysed by ALS Global) Component

Methods

Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons

EPA5030B/EPA8015B

Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

EPA5030B/EPA8260C

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

EPA3510C/EPA8270D

Laboratory analysis for petroleum hydrocarbons ALS Environmental used EPA 8015B method for the analysis of Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) (EPA, 1996c) in two separate processes. A Gas Chromatograph (GC), equipped with split injector, Flame Ionization Detector (FID) and a capillary column (HT-5, 12m x 0.22 mm, 0.1 µm film) was used for this purpose. This GC system is capable to separate and quantify all the hydrocarbons with carbon number 10 to carbon number 36. This test was conducted by ALS Laboratory Group, an Accredited Singapore laboratory. The results obtained from this analysis were separately reported in three fractional groups of C10 – C14, C15 –C28 and C29 – C36 (Table 10). The smaller hydrocarbons, from carbon number C6 to C9, were determined by a separate GC system equipped with a purge and trap, split injector, Mass Spectral Detector (MSD), and a capillary column (DB-VRX, 20m x 0.18 mm, 1.0 µm film). An internal standard was used for this analysis. Two methods, Purge-and-trap for aqueous samples (EPA 5030B) and Volatile organic compounds by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (EPA 8260C) were combined for benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylene (BTEX) analysis (EPA, 1996a; EPA, 1996d). Separatory funnel liquid-liquid extraction (EPA 3510C) and Volatile organic compounds by Page 70 of 96

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gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (EPA 8270D) methods were used for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) (EPA, 1996b; EPA, 2007) analysis (Table 2). Similar to the analysis for smaller hydrocarbons (from C6 to C9), BTEX constituents were determined by a separate GC system equipped with a purge and trap, split injector, Mass Spectral Detector (MSD), and a capillary column (DB-VRX, 20m x 0.18 mm, 1.0 µm film). An internal standard was used for this analysis as well. For the Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH), Gas Chromatograph (GC), equipped with split injector, Mass Spectral Detector (MSD) and a capillary column (DB-5, 20m x 0.18 mm, 0.36 µm film) were used. For the analysis of oil and grease (O&G) in the water samples, SGS Lanka (Pvt) Limited, an accredited Sri Lankan laboratory, used APHA methods (Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater). Oil and Grease: liquid-liquid, partition-gravimetric method (APHA Method 5520B; APHA, 2014) and EPA1664B method. Due to the limitations of Total Oil and Grease method, it is called as Hexane Extractable Material (HEM) analysis. For phenolic compounds in water, Phenol: chloroform extraction method (APHA Method 5330C; APHA, 2014) was used, to assess the potential petroleum contaminants in the water samples. Chemical oxygen demand was analysed by APHA Method 5220C (Chemical oxygen demand: direct photometric method).

Laboratory analysis for metals and other constituents SGS Lanka (Pvt) Limited used APHA methods (Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater) to analyse metals, major anions and cations, toxic substances, nitrogen and phosphorus. The individual APHA method used for each constituent is listed in Table 10. Microbial indicator organisms (E. Coli and total coliforms) were analysed as outlined by Sri Lanka Standard 1461: 2013 (MPN technique).

Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) The results from Gas Chromatograph (GC) with Mass Spectral Detector (MSD) and from Gas Chromatograph (GC) with Flame Ionization Detector (FID) are shown in Figure 20 and Figure 21. GC-MSD reported TPH in a single fractional group of C6 – C9, and GC-FID analysis separately reported TPH in three fractional groups of C10 – C14, C15 – C28 and C29 – C36. Essentially, the results from the GC analyses indicated that the TPH for each fraction, C6 – C9, C10 – C14, C15 –C28 and C29 – C36, for each of the 12 water samples was below the respective levels of detection of 5, 10, 50, and 50 µg/L (ppb) respectively (Table 10). Therefore TPH content of all water samples are below the WHO maximum specification limit of 1 mg/L. The representative standard and sample chromatograms for GC-MSD (C6 – C9) and for GC-FID (C10 – C14, C15 – C28 and C29 – C36) are depicted in Figure 20 and Figure 21. The peaks appeared in this sample chromatograms are due to the internal standards, which were added during sample preparation.

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(a)

(b)

Figure 20: (a) Chromatogram for the reference standard and (b) for the Representative sample at NWW1 for the determination of C6 – C9 fraction of TPH

Peaks in the chromatograms are spiked internal standards not the constituents in water

(a) (b) Figure 21: (a) Chromatogram for the reference standard and (b) for the Representative sample at NWW1 for the determination of C10 – C14, C15 – C28 and C29 – C36 fractions of TPH

Peaks in the chromatograms are spiked internal standards, not the constituents in water. Page 72 of 96

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Table 10: Petroleum hydrocarbons in water samples in terms of C-numbers (ALS Global) Level of detection (µg/L)

Standard (µg/L)

Reported results for NWW1, NWW1A, WW2, SWW2, NEW1, EW3, KDW1, KDW2, NEW3, TRKW1, ACW1 and MW1

C6 – C9 Fraction

C10 – C14 Fraction

C15 – C28 Fraction

C29 – C36 Fraction

Analyte Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons

Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX) The results obtained from GC-MSD analysis for monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are summarised in Table 11. The representative standard and sample chromatograms are depicted in Figure 20. The peaks appeared in this sample chromatograms are due to the internal standards, which are added during the sample preparation. The results indicate that the BTEX components (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and total xylenes) in all of the collected water samples are below the level of detection (respectively, 1, 1, 1, and 2 µg/L), and significantly below the WHO guidelines. Table 11: Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX) in water samples (ALS Global) Level of detection (µg/L)

Standard (µg/L)

Reported results for NWW1, NWW1A, WW2, SWW2, NEW1, EW3, KDW1, KDW2, NEW3, TRKW1, ACW1 and MW1

Benzene

Toluene

700

Ethylbenzene

300

Xylenes

500

Analyte Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Well-wishers in Australia and North America jointly donated an innovative portable (world’s smallest) purge and trap gas chromatograph (FROG 4000TM) to Northern Province Hydrological Research Centre through the Northern Provincial Council. In accordance with quality guidelines, the operating procedures were professionally transferred from the manufacturer to users. This technology was chosen following a review of available instruments in terms of technical capability, skill requirements and the cost:  The sensitivity of FROG 4000TM is 1 part per billion (ppb, 1 µg/L).  The analysis time is 5 minutes compared to more than 5 hours by the O&G test.  Result can be obtained on the same day compared to two weeks for the O&G test.  The instrument is portable, can be taken to the field and analysed at the polluted site.  The instrument can analyse the contaminated soil samples and air samples.  Material costs for operating this instrument is almost zero, and it does not need any reagents or gases.  Determination is against a reference standard and the results are more reliable compared to the O&G test, which does not use a reference standard. Page 73 of 96

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 The instrument can separate each toxic component and quantify separately. Comparatively, the O&G test provides a single lumped value, including non-petroleum hydrocarbons.  With over 2000 residents requesting their water samples to be tested, an O&G determination would take more than one year, whereas FROG 4000TM could complete the screening analysis in one month.  FROG 4000 is being used as screening equipment. During the screening analysis, if a well sample is detected with BTEX, the sample could be retested in a short time and could be analysed in a conventional laboratory Gas Chromatograph. Five of the twelve samples (NWW1, WW2, SWW2, NEW1, EW3 and NEW3) from this preliminary study were analysed by FROG 4000 to determine the equivalency and efficiency of the apparatus. During GC analysis, none of the 12 samples reported the presence of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene or xylene. FROG 4000TM did not detect benzene, ethylbenzene or xylene in any of the samples, but detected toluene in only two samples: NEW1 (1 ppb) and NEW3 (0.3 ppb). The representative chromatograms for Sample NWW1 produced by FROG 4000 (Figure 22) and conventional GC-MSD (Figure 21b) are comparable and in agreement (Table 12). Although both GC-MSD and FROG 4000TM results are in good agreement for these samples, in the authors’ view, values below the level of detection cannot be used to convincingly verify the validity of two different methods.

Figure 22: Chromatogram for FROG4000 of BTEX for Sample NWW1

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Table 12: GC-MSD and FROG 4000 results of Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylene Analyte

Benzene

Apparatus

Toluene

Ethylbenzene

Xylene

GC-MSD

FROG

GC-MSD

FROG

GC-MSD

FROG

GC-MSD

FROG

WW2

ND ND

SWW2

NEW1

EW3

NEW3

0.3

NWW1

Note: FROG 4000 is portable Purge and Trap GC-PID; Concentrations in μg/L; ND = Not detected

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) PAHs, specifically naphthalene, 2-methyl naphthalene, 2-chloro naphthalene, ace naphthalene, ace naphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, n2-fluorenylacetamide, benzo(a)anthracene, chrysene, benzo(b) & (k) fluoranthene, 7, 12dimethyl benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, 3-methylchloroanthrene, indeno(1,2,3cd)pyrene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene and benzo(g,h,i)perylene were quantified for this work using GC-MSD with a different capillary column (DB-5, 20m x 0.18 mm, 0.36 µm film). The test results are summarised in Table 14. Despite the very low level of detection of 1 – 2 µg/L, none of these constituents was detected in any of the 12 samples. Table 13: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water samples (ALS Global) Level of detection (µg/L)

Standard (µg/L)

Reported results for NWW1, NWW1A, WW2, SWW2, NEW1, EW3, KDW1, KDW2, NEW3, TRKW1, ACW1 and MW1

Naphthalene

2-Methylnaphthalene

2-Chloronaphthalene

Acenaphthylene

Acenaphthene

Fluorene

Phenanthrene

Anthracene

Fluoranthene

Pyrene

N-2-Fluorenyl Acetamide

Benz(a)anthracene

Chrysene

Benzo(b) and Benzo(k)fluoranthene

7.12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene

Benzo(a)pyrene

3-Methylcholanthrene

Indeno(1.2.3.cd)pyrene

Dibenz(a.h)anthracene

Benzo(g.h.i)perylene

Analyte Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

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The representative standard and sample analysis chromatograms for PAH analysis are shown in Figure 24. The peaks appear in the sample chromatograms are due to the internal standards, which are added during the sample preparation.

(a)

(b)

Figure 23: (a) Chromatogram for the reference standard and (b) for the Representative sample at NWW1 for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fractions of TPH

Note: The peaks shown in the chromatograms are spiked internal standards, not the constituents in the water sample.

Total oil and grease For the determination of Total Oil and Grease, EPA1664B method ((EPA, 1999) was used by SGS Lanka Pvt. Ltd, an accredited Sri Lankan laboratory As highlighted earlier, this method the hexane extractable material includes a range of non-volatile hydrocarbons. The result of this analysis will not be a true representation of TPH.. The results obtained for Total Oil and Grease (HEM) are summarised in Table 15. The results for this analysis indicate that the Total Oil and Grease (HEM) for all twelve water samples were below the limit of detection (1 mg/L). Another gross measurement, total phenolic compounds, is also presented in Table 14. Table 14: Oil and Grease (HEM) and phenolic compounds in water samples (SGS Laboratory)

Analyte

Level of detection (mg/L)

Standard (mg/L)

Reported results for NWW1, NWW1A, WW2, SWW2, NEW1, EW3, KDW1, KDW2, NEW3, TRKW1, ACW1 and MW1

0.05

Oreganic matter Total oil and grease (HEM) Phenolic compounds

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Inorganic constituents Cations and metals All samples were analysed for a suite of metals and other cations. None of the metals analysed for (aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium and zinc) was detected (Table 15). Table 15: Metals in water samples (SGS Laboratory) Level of detection (mg/L)

Standard (mg/L)

Reported results for NWW1, NWW1A, WW2, SWW2, NEW1, EW3, KDW1, KDW2, NEW3, TRKW1, ACW1 and MW1

Aluminium

0.01

0.2

Arsenic

0.02

0.01

Cadmium

0.005

0.003

Chromium

0.01

0.05

Copper

0.01

Iron

0.1

0.3

Lead

0.04

0.01

Manganese

0.01

0.1

Mercury

0.001

Nickel

0.01

0.02

Selenium

0.01

Zinc

0.01

Analyte Metals

Sodium concentration for all samples were under the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013), although one of them was only marginally below the standard (Table 16). Magnesium analysis showed that six samples complied with the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013). Four water samples marginally exceeded the standard, and two samples contained high concentrations of magnesium. Calcium concentrations in the samples fell within a range of 87 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 131 mg/L. Three samples were marginally below the drinking water standard of 100 mg/L, and five samples were marginally above standard. Presence of calcium in high concentrations is not uncommon for the Chunnakam aquifer.

Anions Fluoride, chloride, cyanide, sulphate, phosphorus (all forms of phosphates combined) and various forms of nitrogen (nitrate, nitrite, albuminoid ammonia and free ammonia) were measured for all 12 water samples. Cyanide (LOD: 0.04 mg/L), ammonia (LOD for free ammonia: 0.06 mg/L), chloride (LOD for free chlorine: 1 mg/L) and phosphate (LOD: 2 mg/L) were not detected in any of the samples (Table 17).

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Table 16: Sodium, magnesium and calcium in water samples (SGS Sri Lanka) Sodium (mg/L) 200

Magnesium (mg/L) 30

Calcium (mg/L) 100

NWW1

100

NWW1A

123

WW2

123

SWW2

NEW1

127

EW3

KDW1

KDW2

131

NEW3

107

TRKW1

107

ACW1

115

MW1

191

103

Site Standard

Fluoride was reported only in one samples (LOD: 0.1 mg/L) (Table 18). Sulphate was reported in all twelve well samples at concentrations well below the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013). Chloride was also detected in all samples, but only one sample exceeded the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013). Nitrite was detected only in five samples out of twelve, at very low concentrations, just above the limit of detection (0.03 mg/L). For nitrate, nine samples complied with the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013). One of the samples marginally and another moderately exceeded the drinking water standard, while the other showed a substantial concentration of nitrate (Table 18). Table 17: Cyanide, ammonia, chlorine and phosphate in water samples (SGS Sri Lanka) Reported results for NWW1, NWW1A, WW2, SWW2, NEW1, EW3, KDW1, KDW2, NEW3, TRKW1, ACW1 and MW1

Level of detection (mg/L)

Standard (Âľg/L)

Chlorine

0.07

Cyanide

0.04

0.05

ND ND

Ammonia (free)

0.05

0.06

Ammonia (albuminoidal)

0.05

0.15

Phosphate

0.21

Analyte Inorganic matter

Alkalinity, hardness and solids All samples were analysed for total alkalinity, total hardness and total dissolved solids. None of the samples complied with the drinking water standard (SLS 614: SLIS, 2013) for total hardness. Total alkalinity and total dissolved solids exceeded the standards in eleven out of twelve samples aquifer (Table 19).

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Table 18: Fluoride, chloride, sulphate, nitrate and nitrite in water samples (SGS Sri Lanka) Fluoride (mg/L) 1

Chloride (mg/L) 250

Sulphate (mg/L) 250

Nitrite (mg/L) 3

Nitrate (mg/L) 50

NWW1

25.4

0.04

28.3

NWW1A

9.4

33.2

WW2

36.0

37.4

SWW2

35.5

0.04

162.3

NEW1

37.5

26.1

Site Standard

EW3

47.5

0.06

79.8

KDW1

0.23

157

32.0

43.1

KDW2

101

40.0

0.10

50.8

NEW3

58.0

21.4

TRKW1

9.5

0.70

ACW1

14.7

23.5

MW1

0.11

331

95.0

0.07

30.7

Table 19: Alkalinity, hardness and dissolved solids in water samples (SGS Sri Lanka) Site

Total hardness (as CaCO3 mg/L)

Total alkalinity (as CaCO3 mg/L)

Total dissolved solids (mg/L)

Standard

200

250

500

NWW1

292

396

570

NWW1A

272

347

520

WW2

218

317

426

SWW2

178

426

613

NEW1

278

347

516

EW3

230

446

645

KDW1

298

466

762

KDW2

248

367

726

NEW3

342

406

636

TRKW1

388

396

622

ACW1

334

396

588

MW1

384

595

1272

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Appendix 6: Revised Oil and Grease Guideline The documented communication by the Ministery of Health regarding the revised oil and grease guideline is presented in this Appendix.

Figure 24: A letter by Ministry of Health on revised O&G standard (Maheepala, 2014)

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Figure 25: A letter by Ministry of Health on revised O&G standard (Jayalal, 2015)

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Appendix 7: Accreditation certificates

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a pilot study

Appendix 8: Metals and PAHs in motor oil This appendix briefly summarises the characteristics of various motor oils in terms of petroleum hydrocarbons and metals.

Heavy fuel oil (HFO) Heavy fuel oils are blended products of various residues from refinery distillation and cracking processes. As a result, the contents of HFOs may differ widely. They are highly viscous (kinematic viscosity of 10,000 to 50,000 mPas at 15°C) and relatively dense (typical specific gravity of 0.96-1.04 g/cm3 at 15°C) with a characteristic odour and black colour. Globally, HFO is used in medium to large industrial plants, marine applications and power stations in combustion equipment such as boilers and furnaces (Dahlmann, 2003). Due to their characteristics, the use of heavy fuel oil as bunker oil on ships has been found as the main cause of chronic marine oil pollution. HFOs contain an extensive suite of hydrocarbons, as well as some nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur-containing compounds. They also contain trace levels of metals, such as vanadium, nickel, iron and copper. The components of HFO are broadly grouped into four categories: saturates, aromatics, resins and asphaltenes. Saturates are generally alkanes (straightchain, branched and cyclic). Aromatic hydrocarbons are generally with benzene rings, and those with multiple aromatic rings are commonly referred to as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (such as naphthalenes, phenanthrenes and pyrenes). Resins and asphaltenes are large high molecular weight compounds with polar molecules. shows the typical compositions of petrol, diesel and HFO. Mono-aromatics such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes are not expected to be present at high concentrations in the HFOs. However, a number of poly-aromatic hydrocarbons that could be quantified by the GC analysis (Table 20) are present in HFOs. Table 20: Typical composition of petrol, diesel and heavy fuel oil (Dupuis and Ucan-Marin, 2015) Component Viscocity

mPa∙s at 15 C o

Gasoline

Diesel

Heavy Fuel Oil

0.5

10,000 – 50,000

Density

g/mL at 15 C

0.72

0.84

0.96 – 1.04

Saturates

Total (% wt)

50 – 60

65 – 95

20 – 30

Olefins

Total (% wt)

5 – 10

0 – 10

Aromatics

Total (% wt)

25 – 40

5 – 25

30 – 50

BTEX (% wt)

15 – 25

0.5 – 20

0.0 – 1.0

PAHs (% wt)

0–5

30 – 50

Total (% wt)

0–2

10 – 30

Polar

5 – 20

Ashphaltenes (% wt) Resins (% wt) Metals

Total (% wt)

0.02

0–2

10 – 20

0.1 – 0.5

2–4

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Lubricant oil Crankcase oil (or motor oil) may be either mineral-based or synthetic, but the former is more widely used than the latter. Mineral-based crankcase oil is a petroleum product that is a complex mixture of hundreds of low and high molecular weight (C15-C50) aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, metals and additives. The composition varies widely, depending on the original crude oil, the processes used in refining, the types of additives included in the oil, the efficiency and type of engine in which it is used, the type of fuel used in the engine, and the length of time the oil was used in an engine. Some mineral oils consist of substantial fraction of nitrogen- and sulphur-containing compounds. PAHs and alkyl PAHs are important components of these oils, and the used oils typically having higher concentrations than unused oils (ATSDR, 1999). The concentrations of high molecular weight PAHs in unused lubrication oils are negligible but increase with running time of the oils (Fujita et al, 2006). Information on composition of lubricant oil for power generation is not readily available. In this section, general compositions of unused and used motor lubricant oil are discussed. In addition to hydrocarbons, lubricant oils typically comprise of additives (detergents, dispersants, oxidation inhibitors, rust inhibitors, viscosity improvers), nitrogen and sulphur compounds, and metals such as lead, zinc, calcium, cadmium, barium, molybdenum and magnesium (Hewstone, 1994; Vazquez-Duhalt,1989). Table 21 shows the typical concentrations of hydrocarbons and metals in used mineral-based crankcase oil. Although BTEX is expected to be at lower level in the used oil, the ABB-Environment (1990) reported large concentrations of xylene and toluene in used oil. Another important difference between crude oils and HFOs is the way they behave in aquatic environments. Crude oils generally have low densities, and often float to the surface. Floating oils form sheens that are easily spotted by observers (Bomstien, 2012). Observers in Jaffna reported visible sheen or oil layers in the domestic and irrigation wells in the Chunnakam area. Hence, it is likely that the main source of contamination is the waste oil. lubricant oils typically comprise of additives (detergents, dispersants, oxidation inhibitors, rust inhibitors, viscosity improvers), nitrogen and sulphur compounds, and metals such as lead, (Pb), zinc (Zn), calcium (Ca), cadmium (Cd), barium (Ba), molybdenum (Mb) and magnesium (Mg) (Hewstone, 1994; Vazquez-Duhalt,1989). Table 22and Table 23 show the typical concentrations of hydrocarbons and metals in oil.

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Table 21: Typical composition of metals and PAHs in used mineral-based motor oil (ATSDR, 1999) Constituent

Median concentration in ppm

Arsenic

Barium

Cadmium

Chromium

6.5

Lead

240

Zinc

480

Dichlorodifluoromethane

Trichlorotrifluoroethane

160

1,1,1-Trichloroethane

200

Trichloroethylene

100

Tetrachloroethylene

106

Benzene

Toluene

380

Xylene

550

Benz(a)anthracene

Benzo(a)pyrene

Naphthalene

330

PCBs

Table 22: Typical composition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in motor oil (VazquezDuhalt,1989) PAH concentration in μg/g

Now motor oil

Used oil from Diesel vehicles

Diesel Trucks

Diesel Bussses

Antracene

0.002 –0.0 30

0.5 – 4.4

0.02 – 0.12

0.03 – 0.16

Benzo(a)pyrene

0.008 –0.266

0.7 – 11.9

0.13 – 0.60

0.07 – 0.55

Benzo(e)pyrene

0.030 – 0.402

1.3 – 10.7

0.23 – 1.10

0.29 – 1.04

Benzo(ghi)pyrene

0.010 – 0.139

2.1 – 16.0

0.20 – 0.78

0.26 – 0.65

Benzo{b)naphtha(2,1-d)thohene

0.097 – 9.430

0.7 – 4.3

0.78 – 6.20

1.60 – 4.80

Benzo(k)fluoranthene

0.013 – 0.234

1.8 – 16.8

0.26 – 1.30

0.37 – 1.20

Chrysene + triphenylene

0.182 – 11.900

5.1 – 42.8

1.60 – 6.10

1.90 – 8.00

Coronene

0.001 – 0.016

0.1 – 6.4

0.10 – 0.13

0.00 – 0.08

Fluoranthene

0.008 – 2.750

1.3 – 58.9

0.18 – 2.90

0.40 – 2.70

Indeno(1.2.3.cd)pyrene

0.001 – 0.020

0.8 – 9.0

0.06 – 0.28

0.70 – 0.25

Perylene

0.007 – 0.224

0.4 – 2.7

0.11 – 0.35

0.04 – 0.29

Pyrene

0.039 – 6.530

1.4 – 78.0

0.33 – 6.40

0.90 – 4.90

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Table 23: Typical composition of metals in motor oil (Vazquez-Duhalt,1989) Metals concentration in Îźg/g

Used motor oil from

30 used oil samples

Petrol engine

Diesel engine

Average

Maximum

Lead

7500

7097

13885

Zinc

1500

1300

1061

2500

Copper

Chromium

10.5

Nickel

1.2

Cadmium

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Appendix 9: Short- and Medium-term study Groundwater Monitoring Studies are essential to update the scenario of ground water occurrence, availability and utilisation in term of quality and quantity with reference to the previous studies. Agriculture is an essential part of our lives. However, excessive use of agrochemicals, and irresponsible and harmful agricultural habits cause soil and water pollution, and secondary contamination and bioaccumulation of human food chain. Contamination of soil and water with toxic agrochemicals (e.g., high nitrogen fertilisers, phosphate fertiliser contaminated with heavy metals, pesticides and herbicides etc.) is a particular concern. These pollutants in water generally are in small quantities, and thus, cannot be seen or tasted. Therefore, their harmful effects do not manifest in humans for several years. During the past three decades, an escalating incidence of chronic kidney disease (CKDu) of an unusual nature has manifested in agricultural dry-zonal areas in several tropical countries, including Sri Lanka. It is recommended that the Northern Provincial Council conduct a detailed intrusive Environmental Site Assessment (ESA) study in and around the Chunnakam Power Station Complex (on-site and off-site study). The objective of this assessment work is to provide information to the residents and the decision-makers on the current status of contamination of the Chunnakam Power Station Complex and the surrounding. This scientifically designed groundwater monitoring study should be conducted in the Chunnakam aquifer area quarterly (once in pre-monsoon, post-monsoon, and thereafter at intervals of 3 months). Appropriate techniques should be used for petroleum and metal analyses. Adequate samples should be collected from other three aquifers for benchmarking. A scientifically designed comprehensive robust groundwater study should be conducted in Chunnakam aquifer area for four times for a year (once in pre-monsoon, post-monsoon, and thereafter at intervals of 3 months). The following parameters should be analysed from the groundwater samples. Physical: Colour, odour, temperature, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, pH Nutrients: nitrate, nitrite, ammonia and ammonium, ortho-phosphate, total-N, total-P Natural organics: total organic carbon (TOC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), COD, BOD Soilds: total suspended soild, total dissolved solids, turbidity Major cations: Ca, Mg, K, Na Major anions: Cl, F, I, SO4, CN, CO3, HCO3 Metals: Fe, Mn, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, Cd, Zn, Hg, As (full screen) Hydrocarbons Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (MAHs include BTEX) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Halogenated phenols Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (including alkanes)

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Microbiological: Total and faecal coliforms Pesticides Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs)  Aldrin, α-BHC, β-BHC, γ-BHC, Chlordane, Dieldrin, p,p’-DDE, o,p-DDT, p,p’-DDT, Endrin, á-Endosulfan, α -Endosulfan, Heptachlor, Mirex, Toxaphene Organophosphorus Pesticides (OCPs)  Chlorpyrifos, Malathion, Methyl Parathion Herbicides, 2,4-D and Carbamates Optional PCBs Dioxin like (coplanar) congeners Indicator congeners Mono-ortho and Di-ortho congeners Dioxin & Furan 7 Dioxin congeners 10 Furan congeners HCB/THM Hexachlorobenzene Trihalomethanes Carbonyl Compounds Aldehydes Ketones The list parameters proposed for analysis is not exhaustive, but the minimal requirement. This does not restrict analysis of more parameters depending upon specific requirements of the analysing agency and its resource availability. Groundwater Sampling: Samples for groundwater quality monitoring would be collected from one of the following three types of wells / boreholes.  Open dug wells in use for domestic or irrigation water supply;  Tube wells fitted with a hand pump or a power-driven pump for domestic water supply or irrigation;  Piezometers, purpose-built for recording of water level and water quality monitoring (groundwater monitoring bores).

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Sampling Method  Use a weighted sample bottle (Ruttner Sampler) to collect sample from an open well about 30 cm below the surface of the water. Do not use a plastic bucket, which is likely to skim the surface layer only;  Use surface samplers to collect a few samples to analyse the for the surface deposits and surface sheen;  Samples from the production tube wells will be collected after running the well for about 5 minutes;  Non-production piezometers should be purged using a submersible pump (low flow method). The purged water volume should equal 4 to 5 times the standing water volume, before sample is collected; and  For bacteriological samples, when collected from tube wells, the spout/outlet of the pump should be sterilised under flame by spirit lamp before collection of sample in container. Since variation in groundwater quality is very high and unpredictable, it is practically not possible to cover assessment of groundwater quality of a particular area fully. It is also not practicable to create so many groundwater structures for sampling. Thus, a compromise has to be made between resources available and criticality of information required. It commonly agreed that groundwater quality is generally degraded in the urban, industrial, solid wastes (both municipal and hazardous from industries) dumpsites and agricultural areas. In such areas a reasonable network is adopted for groundwater quality monitoring depending on resources available. Sometimes groundwater structures need to be created in view of the criticality of the information needed for a particular area. The ESA at Chunnakam Power Station complex and groundwater monitoring study in Chunnakam area should be carried out for a period of 12 months. Further, scientific analysis of the research data is essential for drawing meaningful conclusions. The most vital part of a research investigation is the conclusion to be drawn objectively from the results properly analysed and interpreted. Based on these studies, the relevant authorities can advice the people to draw water from their well to drink and cooking purposes. The Northern Provincial Hydrological Research Centre Laboratory at Thondamannaru should be strengthened in terms of equipment, expertise, and technical capabilities to undertake the regional task of environmental assessment and pollution control in Jaffna District. Northern Provincial Council should explore an international bilateral program to provide much needed support for this endeavour.

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Appendix 10: Technical capacity building in Jaffna Capacity building and strengthening of Northern Provincial Hydrological Research Centre Laboratory The Northern Provincial Hydrological Research Centre Laboratory will be strengthened in terms of equipment, expertise, and technical capabilities to undertake the regional task of environmental assessment and pollution control in Northern Province. Northern Provincial Council will explore an international bilateral program to provide much needed support for this endeavour.

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Stockholm Convention has identified several chemical compounds as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP’s), which are especially toxic more to the environment and hazardous to human health. The Persistence Organic Pollutants are of concern globally for high persistence in the environment, have ability to transport through various pathways. These do not disintegrate easily causing various serious short and life long health affects. The Persistent Organic Pollutants as identified for priority action globally include:  Pesticides - Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Chlordane, Heptachlor, DDT, Toxaphene, Mirex, HCB; Poly-chloro Biphenyls (PCB’s);  Polychlorinated dibenzo - para - dioxin (PCDDs); and  Polychlorinated dibenzo-furan (PCDFs). The Northern Provincial Hydrological Research Centre Laboratory will have a well-equipped state-of-art environmental laboratory to undertake the environmental monitoring of various environmental attributes. The environmental laboratory will be recognized by Sri Lanka Accreditation Board and will be accredited with ISO-9001 certification. The laboratory facilities will include:

Air Quality Analysis       

Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM); Respirable Particulate Matter (RPM); Oxides of sulphur (SOx); Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx); Carbon Monoxide (CO); Total Hydrocarbons; and Total settleable dust.

Water / Effluent Quality Analysis  Physical parameters (pH, colour, temperature, turbidity etc.);  Chemical characteristics (COD, heavy metals & trace metals); and  Biological characteristics (BOD, MPN).

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Noise Level  Noise intensity survey  Leq value of noise The environmental laboratory will follow ISO/IEC 17025 Standards to achieve “Tested Once – Accepted Everywhere”.

Physical facilities  

Equipment Human resources

Laboratory Accreditation Ensuring Credibility of Testing    

Calibration Test methods and test validation – Quality system Independent accreditation Recognition

The Northern Provincial Hydrological Research Centre Laboratory will have following equipment’s and its staff will be trained in following instruments operation:  Analytical techniques on trace metals (AAS & ICP-MS);  Mercury speciation (Solid AAS & GC-AFS);  Organotin speciation (GC-FPD & GC-MS);  Analytical techniques on petroleum hydrocarbons (GC-MS, GC-FID & Spectrofluorometer);  Analytical techniques on organochlorine pesticides and PCBs (GC-ECD & GC-MS),  Analytical techniques on PBDEs (GC-ECD & GC- MS). The Northern Provincial Hydrological Research Centre Laboratory will have all the equipments and reagents to analyse air, water, soil, sludge, waste oil and hazardous waste. Ground Water Resources occur in dynamic state and hence subjected to periodic changes. Groundwater Management Studies (GWMS) are essential to update the scenario of ground water occurrence, availability and utilization in term of quality and quantity with reference to the previous studies. The effect of ground water withdrawals and out-flows are directly measurable through water table. Since, the main inputs and outputs frequently change with time, the ground water situation is being periodically reappraised. The Northern Provincial Hydrological Research Centre will collaborate with National Water and Drainage Board, Water Resources Board and University of Jaffna to undertake groundwater studies in Northern Province, and potentially throughout the country as well. The development of ground water resource leads to changes in its regime and water quality, therefore planning for further development of the resource is to be done on the basis of findings of the studies, which will provide valuable information for reorienting ground water development program keeping in view the emerging scenarios.

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Table 24: Typical instruments to analyse different groups of pesticides Group

Analytes Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs) Aldrin, -BHC, -BHC, -BHC, Chlordane, Dieldrin, p,p’DDE, o,p-DDT, p,p’-DDT, Endrin, á-Endosulfan,

Pesticides

 -Endosulfan, Heptachlor, Mirex, Toxaphene, etc. Orthophosphate Pesticides (OPs) Chlorpyrifos, Malathion, Methyl Parathion, etc. Herbicides, 2,4-D and Carbamates Glyphosate, etc.

Instrument GC-ECD,

GC-FPD/NPD HPLC

PCBs

Dioxin like (coplanar) congeners, Indicator congeners, Mono-ortho and Di-ortho congeners

GC-ECD, GC-LRMS, HRGC-HRMS

Dioxin & Furan

7 Dioxin congeners and 10 Furan congeners

HRGC-HRMS

HCB, THM

Hexachlorobenzene, Trihalomethanes

GC-ECD, GC-LRMS

HAPs

Polynuclear aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Organo-Metallic Compounds

GC-LRMS/FID

Group

Analytes

Instrument

BTEX

Benzene, Toluene, Ethyl Benzene, m-Xylene, p-Xylene, o-Xylene

GC-FID/PID

Carbonyls

Carbonyl Compounds (Aldehydes and Ketones)

HPLC

Centre Staff/Expertise Requirement:  Analytical Chemist  Inorganic Chemist  Organic Chemist  Geochemist  Biochemist  Hydrologist  Hydrogeologist  Limnologist  Hydrobiologist  Aquatic Ecologist  Terrestrial Ecologist  Environmental Scientist  Soil Chemist  Soil Scientist  Marine Scientist  Climatologist  Oceanographer These resources can either be sources full time, or organised in a collaborative arrangement.

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

Groundwater is a Precious National Resource - Preserve it, Protect it and Don't Pollute it. The objectives of the Groundwater Management Studies are as follows:  To depict the ground water regime in terms of quality and quantity as on the date;  Ascertaining the factors influencing the ground water scenario;  Identification of problems and issues pertaining to ground water and provide suitable object oriented strategy for implementation;  To assess the social and economic aspects of ground water utilization and the role of various agencies, Pradeshiya Saba, Industries and Farming sector etc., in ground water development, conservation and management;  To update the existing database on ground water regime;  To demarcate the ground water worthy and unworthy areas; and  To recommend suitable follow up action/ remedial measures/ administrative and technical measures for the specific problems. Priority Areas of Research in Groundwater Domain will be:  Groundwater quality: processes, contamination, prevention, remediation;  The physical, chemical and biological processes in the unsaturated zone and in the saturated zone;  Aquifers protection from deterioration of the water quality; to prevent pollution, and remediate the quality in areas where it has been degraded;  Management of aquifers with waters of different qualities;  Climate change and groundwater - impact and adaptation;  Relationship between the coastal plain’s shallow aquifers, surface water, and the confined aquifer;  Relationship between the transfer of contaminants and waste discharges from land and surface waters to shallow aquifers and vice versa;  Saline and potable groundwater interface in coastal and inland regions;  Groundwater fluxes – recharge & discharge mechanism, quantification and management in varied geological and climatic setup; and  Groundwater flow and contaminant transport mechanism, Application of isotope techniques.

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Jaffna Water Project: Petroleum hydrocarbons and associated contaminants in the Chunnakam Aquifer: a preliminary study

Appendix 11: Financial contributions and expenses Australian well-wishers contributed to a total of A$ 20,120 towards the full cost of the sampling and analysis, and 50% payment for cost of FROG 4000TM and associated components. The cost for FROG 4000TM and associated components (US$ 15418) was equally shared by the well-wishers in North America and in Australia. Australian share was US$ 7709 (A$ 10285). With respect to ALS Singapore, a payment of A$ 3792 was made. A payment A$ 4270 was made to SGS Lanka Limited. Australian financial contributions were made by ten groups and individuals North American contributions were facilitated through Ilankai Thamil Sankam (USA). Fully audited financial accounts will be available at www.tapsforum.org in the due course.

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