การพัฒนาและติดตามศักยภาพนิสิตในการสื่อสารทางวิทยาศาสตร์ by คณะศึกษาศาสตร์

Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 1, p.1 (Dec., 2013) Sasithep PITIPORNTAPIN Thai pre-service science teachers' practice of science communication in communities

Thai pre-service science teachers' practice of science communication in communities Sasithep PITIPORNTAPIN Division of Science Education, Department of Education Faculty of Education, Kasetsart University Bangkok, THAILAND E-mail: fedustp@ku.ac.th Received 5 Aug., 2013 Revised 19 Dec., 2013

Contents o o o o

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Abstract Introduction Purpose of the Study Methodology o 1. Research Design o 2. Research Participants o 3. Context of the Study o 4. Research Methods o 5. Data Collection o 6. Data Analysis Research Findings o Using wording appropriate to personal prior knowledge or background o Providing reasonable and sufficient explanations to change the viewpoint and behavior of people in communities o Telling the truth about bad experiences with propaganda to promote people's critical thinking Discussion and Conclusion Recommendations References

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Abstract The objective of this research is to follow up the practice of three Thai pre-service teachers in science communication within communities. These teachers had taken a science communication course in one of the universities in Bangkok. They then practiced science communication in their communities in the second semester of the academic year 2012. The researcher gathered the information in semi-structured interviews in which the participants answered questions about their practice of science communication. In addition, the researcher collected documents that the participants used in conducting activities. They were asked to write journal entries about their practice of science communication in community. Moreover, informal interviews were used for clarification. These collected data were analyzed using within-case and cross-case analyses. The findings showed that the pre-service science teachers were able to use wording appropriate to personal prior knowledge and background. They provided reasonable and sufficient explanations for changing the viewpoints and behavior of people in community. Furthermore, they told the truth about bad experiences of propaganda used to promote people's critical thinking. They also used more than one communication technique in science communication to promote people's understanding of science. These findings were considered in terms of further professional development. Keywords: pre-service science teachers, science communication, community

Introduction Scientific knowledge has become important in peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lives because it helps to increase their understanding of natural phenomena. When the benefits of science are combined with creativity and the use of knowledge in other fields, new technology, which helps to facilitate various activities, could be developed. In return, technology has advanced the knowledge of science (Institute for Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology [IPST], 2002). Thailand has changed from an agriculture-based economy to an industrial economy. It is therefore necessary to provide Thai citizens with higher levels of knowledge and skills so that they are equipped to engage in the global economy (Pillay, 2002).

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However, the careless use of scientific knowledge and technology has caused many problems, including global warming (Gayford, 2002), polluted water (Bouillion & Gomez, 2001), garbage (Kortland, 1996), and the degradation of natural resources (Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning [ONEP], 2004). Therefore, science communication in needed to promote the scientific and technological literacy of Thai citizens. With this knowledge, they will gain ethical and moral decision-making skills regarding the scientific, technological, social, and environmental issues that affect their daily lives (Malmfors, Garnsworthy, & Grossman, 2000). Science communication is also considered an academic discipline that can be used for various purposes, such as the distribution of knowledge, entertainment, advertising, and campaigning (Welgold, Treise, & Rausch, 2007). Moreover, science communication is concerned with the nature of science, especially scientific enterprise (American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS], 1989). For example, science communication has been identified as the public engagement with science (PES), which enables people who have scientific knowledge and expertise, such as scientists, to help the public to express their visions, ideas, and knowledge in answering scientific questions or participating in science-related controversies. Public participation in science therefore is the framework for multi-directional dialogues among people who are willing to educate those involved in the discussion (McCallie, et al., 2009). Many channels are available to communicate science knowledge to the public. The senders can use these channels according to their own objectives to educate, entertain, inform, or campaign (Welgold, Treise, & Rausch, 2007). Public audiences can receive ideas, knowledge, or value in response to scientific questions or science-related controversial issues from scientific experts by one- or two-way communication through listening, speaking, reading, or writing (Burns, Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Conner, & Stocklmayer, 2003). Science communicators should have some important characteristics. They do not believe things easily, do not make biased judgments about people, accept reasonable information, are willing to change, and are confident that problems can be solved by scientific trials (Sing, 2007). Many models are used to explain and understand the complex process of science communication. For example, the Sender-Transmitter-Receiver model indicates that the message is produced by the scientist (sender) and transmitted to the student (receiver) without changes made by a schoolteacher or textbook (mediator). Such mediators often distort messages from scientists (Justin & Gilbert, 1999). This model was replaced with the interactive model, which is based on constructivist theory. In this model, the scientist provides information to the mediating teachers or textbooks. The mediator Copyright (C) 2013 HKIEd APFSLT. Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 1 (Dec., 2013). All Rights Reserved.

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composes a message based on their interpretation. The students receive the message and give feedback to the mediator and the scientist. However, the proportion of students to scientists is too high for this model to be feasible (Osborne, 1996). Several studies identified ways to achieve the goals of science communication. For example, the senders and receivers of information should have basic communication skills as well as understanding of the message that will be transmitted to the receivers. Moreover, the senders and receivers should know each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s background, including beliefs, prior knowledge, and culture. In messages, if the senders use an incorrect meaning, it might cause the receiverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s misunderstanding. In media, the senders have to consider time, size, position, and clarity. In fact, the receivers commonly select some messages for attention, perception, or retention. Moreover, the environment of communication between the senders and receivers, such as place, time, instruments, relationships, responses, and feedback are important (Thai Communication Language Board, 2010). Yager (1991) suggested the importance of some aspects of constructivist learning environments in informal science communication. These include using open-ended questions; encouraging participants to suggest causes for particular events and predictions of consequences; encouraging the testing of the participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; own ideas; encouraging participants to challenge conceptions and ideas; using cooperative strategies; encouraging adequate time for reflection and analysis; respecting all ideas; encouraging self-analysis; collection of real evidence to support ideas; and re-formulation; and encouraging the use of alternative sources of information. In fact, there is little opportunity in the informal context for science communicators to examine the prior knowledge or background of participants. Therefore, the science communicator has to be aware that knowledge can occur by building, not by telling. The participants also need to be given the opportunity to make sense of what is learned (Stocklmayer, 2001). In the digital age of the 21st century, which is plagued by leapfrogging technology, information, and unbounded competition, communication knowledge and skills help to improve the potential working ability of people. Therefore, educators have an important role in terms of policy and practice in developing syllabi and organizing extra educational courses for learners (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory and Metiri Group, 2003). Educational reform includes changing the traditional style of teaching, to one that focuses on the learning process. In particular, students should not be passive learners but should learn actively (Office of the National Education Commission [ONEC], 2003). Moreover, the aim of holding science courses for learners nowadays is not only to ensure that students understand Copyright (C) 2013 HKIEd APFSLT. Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 1 (Dec., 2013). All Rights Reserved.

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principles and theories but also to equip students with basic scientific skills (e.g., science communication skills). In addition, students should recognize the relationships among science, technology, human beings, and the environment with regard to their influences on each other. Hence, students could apply their scientific and technological knowledge meaningfully in their daily lives, which would benefit society. Therefore, teachers need to organize activities that develop communication skills, such as using actual scenarios or problems so that students have a chance to practice in real situations (IPST, 2002). Unfortunately, at present, the teachers in Thailand and other educational systems around the world are making little effort to link the topics studied in the classroom with informal learning environments (Anderson, Kisiel, & Storksdieck, 2006). It is surprising that recent science learning processes do not relate science knowledge to daily life (Ngamkeeree, 2006). Moreover, the Thai educational system places too much emphasis on technical knowledge and not enough on knowledge that would help students become knowledgeable and qualified citizens (Pillay, 2002). In order to address the aforementioned problems, institutions for teacher education need to educate and improve pre-service teachers to possess adequate qualifications and standards for high vocations. According to Section 52 of The National Educational Act of 1999 and Amendments (Second National Education Act B.E. 2545 2002), a pre-service teacher should have not only understanding and knowledge about the content of courses but also relevant skills, including communication skills and ethics (National Research Council [NRC], 1996). As a lecturer in a teacher-education institution, the researcher found that most newly graduated pre-service science teachers did not have knowledge about scientistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; activities at the social level (Butkatunyoo & Pitiporntapin, 2013), particularly science communication. Therefore, the researcher developed a 15-week science communication course to enhance pre-service science teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; teaching competencies in science communication by using reflection. At the end of this course, most pre-service science teachers who enrolled had increased their understanding of science communication in the following areas: science and communication; science language; science resources; science and technology issues; critical thinking; scientific listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Moreover, through taking this course, they had continued to develop their listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills had gained a positive attitude towards science communication and learning (Pitiporntapin, 2013). In order to examine the contribution of what they learned to the public, it was essential that the researcher follow up the pre-service science Copyright (C) 2013 HKIEd APFSLT. Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 1 (Dec., 2013). All Rights Reserved.

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teachers who enrolled in the science communication course in their practice of science communication in communities. In the follow-up, the researcher focused on how they applied the knowledge and skills learned in the science communication course in the community practice. The researcher paid particular attention to how they helped people to express their visions, ideas, and knowledge in answering scientific questions or participating in science-related debates. This study uses the case studies of three pre-service science teachers who volunteered to be research participants in the research. The findings of this study will contribute to improving the science communication course by making it more meaningful and linking it to real situations.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this in-depth study was to follow up three cases of pre-service science teachers who applied the knowledge and skills learned in the science communication course in their community practice. To achieve the purpose of the study, the following research question was posed: â&#x20AC;&#x153;How did the pre-service science teachers practice science communication in communities?â&#x20AC;?

Methodology 1. Research Design This research has its roots in the interpretive paradigm. The researcher attempted to understand and explain the ways that the science communication course taken in the first semester of the 2012 academic year benefitted pre-service science teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; practice of science communication in communities during the second semester of the 2012 academic year. Using an interpretive lens, the researcher analyzed the qualitative data gathered from the interviews with and documents of three pre-service science teachers. The case study is concerned with the field of interpretive study as a research design. Its purpose is to provide an understanding of what happens in the natural phenomena under investigation. Multi-case studies provide deeper understanding and uncover meaning by investigating individual cases and examining other cases to produce commonalities and differences (Merriam, 1998).

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2. Research Participants The participants in this study were three third-year female pre-service science teachers from one teacher-education institution in Bangkok. They were 21 years old at the time of the study, and they were majoring in science teaching. They took the science communication course in the education program (Science Teaching) in the first semester of the 2012 academic year. In the second semester of that academic year, they had the opportunity to practice science communication in communities in several ways, such as conducting science communication activities, participating in a campaign, and having conversations with the people in the community. The pseudonyms Wandee, Juree, and Benjamas, which are used throughout this report, were assigned to each participant for ethical reasons and are used throughout this paper. Wandee had a GPA of 3.21. She is a highly responsible person and has the characteristics of leadership and assertiveness. By being a Master of Ceremony (MC) regularly in many activities of her field, Wandee had prior experience in communication. She had good attitudes toward science communication and she recognized the benefits of communication. She stated “…practicing leadership, assertiveness, creativity, and responsibility. Personally, in the future, I will be a science teacher. So, taking this course is directly beneficial.” Benjamas had a GPA of 2.84. Her level of communication skills was average. She did well when she was in a group activity with other pre-service teachers. In her free time, she liked to do activities in science communication, such as by watching the documentary, “World Explorer,” which uses many scientific terms. This helped her learn techniques to develop knowledge and to distribute her knowledge to others. Benjamas would like to be a good example of a science communicator for the people. She stated that “If people listen to what I am advising…though I am not sure if they would apply things that I have advised. It takes time…and I have to do so as an example for them to follow. If people in the community see the benefits of doing so, this will help the society as a whole.” The third participant, Juree, had a GPA of 3.11. She was quiet. Juree often supported her classmates’ communication. Before taking the science communication course, Juree thought that science communication was complicated and involved only scientists. After completing the course, Juree had a better attitude toward science communication. When she was free, she practiced science communication regularly. Therefore, her attitude toward science had improved considerably. Juree was determined to correct the beliefs of the local people. She stated, “incorrect beliefs that could be found in the newspaper were results of the Copyright (C) 2013 HKIEd APFSLT. Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 1 (Dec., 2013). All Rights Reserved.

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lack of knowledge of the people. We have to explain, demonstrate, and conduct experiments for them to see and correct their views.” 3. Context of the Study These three participants were studying at a teacher education institution, which has a commitment of generating and developing pre-service science teachers of high quality and standards sufficient for high vocations. The five-year program graduates teachers with the basic qualification of a bachelor’s degree. The purposes of the programs are as follows: 1) generating graduates of science teaching in physics, chemistry, biology and general science; 2) generating graduates who have the ability to think analytically in order to solve problems creatively in science; 3) developing science teaching to be consistent with socio-economic conditions, advanced technologies and future technologies; 4) generating graduates in order to relieve the problem of a diminishing workforce. In order to complete the requirements of the program, pre-service teachers must take the following courses: 1) a compulsory general course that includes a compulsory teaching course and a compulsory specialized disciplinary course; 2) elective specialized courses, which include a selective teaching course and an elective specialized disciplinary course; and 3) an elective course. In addition, students must participate in extra activities (e.g., the Science Education into Communities Project). The Science Communication course is one of the elective specialized disciplinary courses in science teaching. The course has the value of 2 units. It was developed because most newly graduated pre-service science teachers should have views that are in line with the nature of science. However, they had some knowledge of scientist’s activities at the social level, as previously mentioned. The objectives of the course are to help students gain understanding and knowledge about principles and theories related to science communication, idiosyncrasies of scientific language, scientific and technological information sources, and guidelines for learning activities to support science communication. This includes the development of listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in science. It also includes expressing opinions about scientific and social issues that emerge in daily life. In addition to recognizing the importance of science communication in daily life, pre-service teachers should develop science-learning activities, which are taught in the researcher’s science communication course. The researcher used constructivism and reflection as a framework to design learning activities. The three pre-service teachers attended this course in the first semester of the 2012 academic year. Through this

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course, they increased their understanding about science communication. Moreover, they also continually developed their listening, speaking, reading and writing skills and gained a positive attitude towards science communication and learning by attending this course. It was essential that the researcher should follow up their practices of science communication in real contexts. Therefore, in this study, the researcher examines how they applied their knowledge and skills learned in the science communication course in the communities where they practiced in the second semester of the 2012 academic year. 4. Research Methods The researcher was also an important instrument for data-gathering (Jackson, 1995). A strong relationship between the three cases and the researcher was needed in order to understand their practice of science communication in the communities. The researcher also used semi-structured interviews, which are useful for accessing in-depth data. The topics of the interview questions were drawn from the backgrounds of the participants, the topics that they communicated to the communities, how they practiced science communication in the communities, and factors that constrained or facilitated their practice of science communication in communities. Before starting the interviews with these three participants, the questions were sent to three science educators for their approval regarding format, content, and wording. The questions were also and answered by two pre-service science teachers whose backgrounds were similar to the three research participants. The feedback from these test interviews involved clarifying, jargon, and eliminating ambiguous items, which the researcher used to improve the questions. Moreover, the document review was also a way to reduce the subjectivity of the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interpretations. In this study, the researcher used the participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; journal entries to examine their practice of science communication in communities. In their journal entries, they had to record their practice and their reflection on this practice. The researcher also used informal interviews for clarification and facilitating analysis, validity checks, and triangulation. 5. Data Collection The researcher explained the research project in detail to the three pre-service science teachers who volunteered to participate. Their responses provided rich information to develop an in-depth understanding of how they practiced science communication in the communities after participating in the science communication course. With regard to ethical issues, the researcher treated the participants with Copyright (C) 2013 HKIEd APFSLT. Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 1 (Dec., 2013). All Rights Reserved.

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great respect. If they felt uncomfortable about participating in this research, they could withdraw at any time. When they understood the commitment of this study, the researcher started collecting the data by interviewing them about their background in science communication. The researcher also asked them for their permission to tape record the interview. Each interview took approximately 20 to 30 minutes. At that time of the data collection, Wandee and Benjamas had the chance to be volunteers in the Science Education into Community Project, which was an extra-curricular project in the science-teaching program, of which the researcher is the project advisor. This project provided an opportunity for them to apply their science communication knowledge in a creative and meaningful way and to link their learning to a real situation. They were able to work with others in communicating science to people in the community, with the goal of developing society and the environment in a sustainable way. The location of this activity was a community in the Pakkret district of Nontaburi province. The people in this community have medium to low levels of income. Most are merchants. Because they were interested in science, they allowed the pre-service science teachers to hold activities with their children in the community. The activities held by the pre-service teachers emphasized science communication in the form of “edutainment,” and activities were designed to educate as well as to amuse. Edutainment typically seeks to instruct or socialize its audience by embedding lessons in familiar forms of entertainment. There were three activities, in which the pre-service science teachers had to use their communication skills, such as listening, reading, speaking and writing, promote the children’s understanding of science. The first was a “Walk Rally,” which was divided into multiple activity bases (e.g., activities of charades and holding trials). These activities provided knowledge and promoted positive attitudes toward science in the children in the community. The second was a “Science Show,” which was a science-related story (e.g., examples of scientific trials and skills in scientific procedure) designed to encourage assertiveness in both the pre-service teachers and the children in the community. Third, recreation activities were held for fun. These activities also encouraged assertiveness, unity, and leadership (e.g., games to help children in the community practice scientific skills in many ways). The pre-service teachers took turns holding these activities eight times during January and February in 2012. Juree participated in some communities where she lived and studied by conducting science communication activities, participating in a campaign, having conversations with the people in the community. The other two participants conducted similar activities in Copyright (C) 2013 HKIEd APFSLT. Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 1 (Dec., 2013). All Rights Reserved.

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the second semester of the academic year 2012. After finishing these activities, the researcher asked the participants to write journal entries to record their practice and their reflection on the practice of science communication. At the end of the second semester, the researcher used semi-structured interviews and recorded the interviews with each participant. The interview topics included what they communicated in the communities, how they practiced science communication in the communities, and the factors that constrained or facilitated their practices of science communication in the communities. The interviews took approximately 20 to 30 minutes. In some cases, the researcher used informal interviews to clarify some points that were not understood in the semi-structures interviews and the journal entries. 6. Data Analysis The data analysis involved organizing, reducing, and interpreting the data collected from the semi-structure interviews, the informal interviews, and the journal entries regarding the pre-service science teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; practice of science communication in communities after participating in science communication course. These data were analyzed using within-case analysis and cross-case analyses. The within-case analysis was conducted using the constant comparative method. The process of the data analysis using the constant comparative method comprised four steps: comparing the incidents applicable to each category; integrating categories and their properties; delimiting the theory; and reducing and refining categories and their properties (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). After the within-case analysis was completed, the cross-case analysis was performed in order to make comparisons across the three cases. The researcher identified and summarized the relevant themes that emerged with respect to each case. Similarities and differences were identified based on how the pre-service science teachers practiced science communication in the communities. With regard to the trustworthiness of this study, the researcher increased creditability using the triangulation of various data sources, including semi-structured interviews, informal interview, and journal entries. Moreover, the researcher showed the analysis to the participants so that they could determine whether data were misinterpreted. The researcher also increased the studyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dependability by describing and explaining how the data were collected in detail and how the categories were derived. With regard to confirmability, details about the data collection, coding, and analysis were examined and reviewed by experts in science Copyright (C) 2013 HKIEd APFSLT. Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 1 (Dec., 2013). All Rights Reserved.

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education, who gave the researcher feedback on the accuracy of the process. To achieve transferability, the researcher tried to provide thick description about the three cases’ practice of science communication into community.

Research Findings This section describes the findings that emerged from the data collected from three pre-service science teachers regarding their practice of science communication in communities, after participating in a science communication course. Using wording appropriate to personal prior knowledge or background With regard to the activities in the Science Education into Community Project, the three cases found that they had to use wording found in daily life instead of scientific terminology in communicating scientific knowledge to the public. In the Science Education into Community Project, Wandee and Benjamas were responsible for the topic of “Musical glass bottles”. The activity was done by placing eight glass bottles in a line and then filling them with different amounts of water. The levels of water ranged from low to high. The tip of a pencil was used to tap each bottle gently at exactly the same height. This activity was used to demonstrate the scientific concept of sound. The children who Wandee communicated with were in the upper-primary level. On the first day of the activity, Wandee was highly confident in her science communication because she had taken the science communication course. In the informal interview, Wandee said. “I am sure that the children will like our activity.” After Wandee finished the demonstration, she picked a child randomly to tap each glass bottle gently with the tip of the pencil. In order to make them think, Wandee questioned the children: “Why does each of the glass bottles have different tones like the sound of the notes?” Some children were picked randomly to guess the answer. Most of their answers were simply “because we filled the bottles with different amounts of water.” The children did not explain the scientific reason for the activity. Wandee then tried to explain to them that “... by hitting on the glass bottles, this created vibrations. The velocity of the vibrations depends on the amount of water in the glass. If there is a lot of water, there are not many vibrations. Therefore, the tone is low. If there is a little amount of water, there will be many vibrations. Hence, the tone is high.” Some scientific terminology in this explanation was too difficult for the children to understand. When Wandee randomly picked some children to

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describe this phenomenon in their own language to their friends, no child wanted to do so, despite the fact that Wandee used a reward as an incentive. Then, Wandee realized that her explanation had used scientific terminology that was too difficult for the primary schoolchildren to understand. When Wandee asked the children why they could not explain this phenomenon to their friends, the children said that they did not understand “low tone” and “high tone.” A girl asked Wandee, “What is low tone?” Therefore, Wandee switched to the word “deep sound” in order to give an explanation. This helped the children understand, and they could answer the questions better. In her journal entry after the activity, Wandee wrote, “the children did not understand low tone. Their body language showed that the children were perplexed at what I meant. Therefore, I, as an explainer, switched to the word ‘deep sound’, which made it easier to understand.” Hence, on that day, Wandee also learned how to use language appropriate to the age of the information receivers. Wandee said, “in conducting science communication, the communicator must use appropriate language. For example, in a biology experiment, if we asked children to “cross section,” they would not understand us. We have to select appropriate words. This could be done by explaining the procedure while demonstrating it. Then, we have to explain to the children that what we have done is called the “cross section” method.” Benjamas found that the children in the community did not understand technical words when she explained things to them. According to her journal entry after participating in the activity, Benjamas stated that “By hitting the bottles, vibrations were generated and that we should explain vibrations to the children.” Moreover, Benjamas found that the communicator should explain technical words to the information receivers for their better understanding. According to Benjamas’s journal entry,“when we hit the bottle which caused vibrations as the water in the glass moved.” Benjamas linked this statement to the learning activity in which the learners developed knowledge by themselves. In the journal entry made after participating in the activity, Benjamas stated “... in order to make children understand the meaning of words, we need to know the details related to those words. Also, in order to obtain this information we need to observe.” Juree worked with people in her community to campaign the control of common house mosquito larvae in the community. In conversations with the people in the community, Juree had learned that technical words perplexed people. In the interview, Juree said, “the people in the community were advised to put Abate sand

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into containers which hold water in order to prevent the mosquito from laying eggs. We have to explain to the people about what Abate sand is and how to use them. We have to communicate with the language that people can easily understand. We do not use words that are too technical as they would not be interested in those words. Also, the people do not remember them.” Juree, therefore, gave an additional explanation about technical words so the people would have better understanding of them. In the interview, Juree said that “according to my experience of working with the people in my community, sometimes the people were not able to understand what we have explained to them. It is necessary for us to change questions or explain some words so that the language used is what the people frequently use and is easy to understand.” Juree also learned to use language appropriate to the age of the listeners. In the interview, Juree stated that “... I also used appropriate language according to the age of the people that we asked for the information. People at different ages have different interests. If we asked them what the species of the mosquito that causes hemorrhagic fever is ... what do we call them? ... I think this is inappropriate and useless. Since most of the people in the village are old and not well-educated, it is better to ask them if they know the mosquito that causes hemorrhagic fever. What do they look like? And, how can we eliminate mosquito breeding grounds?” Similarly, Benjamas also participated in a stop-smoking campaign in her community. Most of the people in her community smoke. Smoking not only has bad effects on a smoker’s health but also indirectly pollutes the air and harms other people. Benjamas searched for information about the danger of smoking and explained it to the people in her community. However, most of them did not understand scientific terminology, which she noticed in the listeners’ facial expressions. In the interview, Benjamas said, “people in the community looked perplexed as they did not understand scientific words that I mentioned (e.g. nicotine, carbon monoxide, and radiation).” Therefore, Benjamas switched to language that the people would understand, and she used pictures to accompany her explanations, which made them more successful. In her journal entry after participating in the activity, Benjamas stated, “I switched to daily-life language and this made people better understand the dangers of smoking. Many of them tried to quit smoking.” Providing reasonable and sufficient explanations to change the viewpoint and behavior of people in communities

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Wandee tried to encourage the children to participate in the activity as much as possible. She found that apart from choosing appropriate language in communication, children’s beliefs and background knowledge affected their use of scientific terminology. After participating in the activity, Wandee stated in her journal entry “it took a long time for the children to be able to explain things by themselves. Some children understood thing slowly, some did it quickly. This depends on experiences of each child.” Wandee also had the opportunity to conduct science communication about global warming to people in the community. She found that having experiences in common was helpful in communication because it increased the listeners’ understanding. In an informal interview, Wandee said, “in my neighbourhood, there were old people aged around 60-70 years old coming to have a chat together in the evening. On that day, it was very hot. The old people were complaining about the weather. I, therefore, explained to them about global warming. At first, there were perplexing because I explained the topic to them according to what I have read from a book. Then, I switched to use easier examples for them to understand the topic (e.g. burning away the refuse and deforestation).” Wandee also found that the reasons she gave to explain global warming to these people had to be both reasonable and convincing in order to change their viewpoint and their behaviour. In an informal interview, Wandee said, “I told them not to set the fire in their rice fields after they finished doing rice farming because this could increase the global temperature. Burning will produce gases that flow to the atmosphere and this causes the warmer weather nowadays. However, they asked that if they did not set the fire in their rice fields, it would take too much time and they could not do rice farming. I tried to persuade them for a long time to leave their rice fields, as this would maintain the fertility of the surface of the ground as well. At the end, they took my view and admired me a lot.” Moreover, Wandee had an opportunity to explain some scientific principles of cooking to the people in her community. In the interview, Wandee said, “I had a chance to talk with people in my community who were curious about scientific explanations about cooking. They asked me that when we added some salt to the cooking water to boil eggs, why the eggs were easily to peel. I explained to them that there was a process of Osmosis. Osmosis is the process where molecules of water travel from an area with a lower concentration to an area with a higher concentration. The egg white has two parts: higher concentration and lower concentration. There is a process of Osmosis and the egg white with the lower Copyright (C) 2013 HKIEd APFSLT. Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 1 (Dec., 2013). All Rights Reserved.

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concentration will get through the membrane. It will travel to the part with a higher concentration.” However, Wandee realized that she would need to find out more information in order to support her explanation and make it more credible. Wandee said, “I was not sure if my explanation was correct so I sought out the information from other sources. If I found that things that I have explained to them were not completely correct, then I would come back to explain to them again.” Similarly, Benjamas found that children with good background knowledge understood what she explained better than those who had misconceptions. After participating in the activity, in her journal entry, Benjamas stated that “I was at the activity base of ‘Musical glass bottle’. I had to use scientific knowledge in order to explain and make the students understand. Some students have good background knowledge and it was easy for them to understand. But, some students have their prior knowledge with misconception and it took a longer time to explain to them until they understood.” Benjamas then asked the students who already understood to explain what they had learned to their fellow students. After participating in the activity, Benjamas wrote in her journal that “I asked the students who did not understand to participate in the activity again and asked the students who already understood to explain what they have learned to their friends. I question the students until they understood.” Furthermore, in her frequent science communication, Benjamas found that the use of pictures or samples was helpful in increasing the effectiveness of scientific explanations. In the interview, Benjamas stated that “we need to make a concrete picture for the people in the community to understand by using pictures or samples when we explain. For example, in explaining about unicellular species like paramecium, which is very tiny, we need pictures or samples for better understanding of the students.” Juree applied the knowledge she gained in the science communication course in her daily life. She found many incorrect viewpoints. In the interview, Juree said, “As I have studied Science Communication, I found when I have applied the knowledge to my daily life that each individual person has different background knowledge. Some people have incorrect beliefs, which we call incorrect notions (e.g. doing rice farming in the dry season). To do so would not make them whole. However, the local people still believe that it would be okay for them to do so. They thought that they did it in the past and others also did. This is an incorrect notion. So I tried to let them

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know and explain to them that it was not good to do rice farming in the dry season. But, no one believed me.” Therefore, in Juree’s case, she gave an explanation with reasons in order to persuade the people. It would take time for them to change their beliefs. In the interview, Juree said, “... I think it is necessary for us to give them more reasons when we explain to them. We should inform them the pros and cons of doing rice farming in the dry season. Some people did change their beliefs when I explained to them. However, some still stick to their beliefs.” However, Juree did not give up, and she kept trying to change their beliefs. She found that a demonstration and an interesting explanation were better science communications than only a spoken explanation. In the interview, Juree said, “I began to change the belief of the people who are around me. Then, I asked them to follow my advice and demonstrate it to other people. If the other people saw that doing rice farming in the dry season only resulted in loss, no profits, and a waste of their energy, they might change their beliefs and the way of doing rice farming.” Telling the truth about bad experiences with propaganda to promote people’s critical thinking In communication with her friends, Wandee had an opportunity almost every day to use what she learned about critical thinking in the science communication course, particularly regarding beauty—a topic in which Wandee and her friends are interested. In the interview, Wandee said “I like to beautify myself. But, before doing anything, my friends and I will find out the information as much as possible in order to make a decision whether or not to go for it. This is a critical thinking in science communication as nowadays the use of propaganda is common in the beauty industry as to become a norm” Furthermore, Wandee was not persuaded by the propaganda (e.g., plastic surgery and injections of glutathione to whiten skin). She also let her friends know about her thoughts so that they too were not persuaded by the propaganda. In the interview, Wandee said, “I would like to have a fair skin and I used to consider injecting glutathione to make my skin fair. But I have not done so. When I searched for the information, I found that a doctor has stated that if we inject Glutathione into our body, the chemical will inhibit melanin synthesis. Our pupils also have melanin. If the melanin is inhibited, it could result in blindness in the future. What the doctor said has made me think critically about the advantages and disadvantages of doing so. I told my friends about this. My friends agreed with me and they decided not to go Copyright (C) 2013 HKIEd APFSLT. Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 1 (Dec., 2013). All Rights Reserved.

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to inject Glutathione.” Wandee also had opportunities to use critical thinking in discussions with her parents regarding scientific news (e.g., landslide, heavy rains, and floods.) In the interview, Wandee said, “My mom or my dad and I often have a conversation about the news that we hear from the media (e.g. television, radio, newspaper) before we believe so.” Benjamas was personally interested in weight loss. She would like to have a good body shape. Benjamas applied her knowledge about critical thinking by not believing in propaganda. In the interview, Benjamas said that “there are weight-loss drugs, fat-burning drugs, fat-burning pills for a specific body part, fat-absorbing vitamins, and fat-reducing gel sold in the market. There are also advertisements that state that the drugs could reduce weight within 7 days or in one month. I think it is propaganda, and I need to do some research before buying those products.” Benjamas shared her views with her friends so that she had more information in order to make a decision about buying these products. In the interview, Benjamas stated that “I talked to my friend about the weight-loss pills that were advertised on Facebook for 3 bahts each. I thought it was very cheap so I asked my friend about the pills. My friend said she does not know about the pills but she used to take other weight-loss pills that did not have any side-effects on her. So I asked a further question if the pills are approved by Thai FDA. My friend said they were not approved by the FDA. She said if they were, some of the ingredients had to be changed and/or reduced. This would make the drugs ineffective. So, I had to think critically when listened to that and I reached a conclusion that the pills might be harmful.” Benjamas also had an opportunity to inform her friends about her direct experience of weight loss. She advised them to switch to using natural ways of losing weight. In the interview, Benjamas said, “I used to buy thigh-reducing pills. However, I did not forget that I also had to consider about the danger of taking the drug. The result of taking it was that I got “yo-yo effect.” I gained weight back like before taking the pills. I also told my friends about this experience so that they could think critically before buying the drug.” In the case of Juree, she met many people and received much scientific information in her daily life. Juree learned about critical thinking in communication by reading and listening to advertisements. In the interview, Juree said, “We need to find a lot of information in order not to be persuaded by the propaganda which states that the product is good. I think, Science Communication helps me to develop critical

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thinking so that I will not be persuaded by the propaganda. I read much more than before taking the course. Before I buy a product, I will find the information in order to make a decision. I will ask people who have used it, read some books, or search on the internet from credible websites.” Regarding the issue of building an expressway in front of the university, Juree considered that she had to use critical thinking in communication. In the interview, Juree said, “there are many people who agree and disagree about building an expressway in front of my university. I think it is the issue of critical thinking in science communication. The information that we have obtained from watching television states that there is a calculation of risks to my university caused by building the expressway and the effects of having the expressway. There is a speed estimation of cars, which might harm students in the case of a car falling off the expressway. Other estimations are about the problems of dust, smoke, and noise. In distributing the information to the public, the media needs to consider whether the public will understand the information.” They also needed to consider the extent to which the public understood the information correctly and the effects of miscommunication. Therefore, Juree told her friends, who had not taken the science communication course, about this issue. They then applied critical thinking in science communication. In the interview, Juree said, “I have advised my friends that, as an information receiver, they need to analyze and apply their critical thinking when listen to the news and think carefully before believing it. All the things were related to science in some ways. I think that learning and possessing science communication skills are necessary. They could also help people to understand each other better.” Using more than one communication technique in science communication to increase people’s understanding about science Because Wandee was often assigned to do homework and present it in front of the class, she applied her science communication techniques to her presentation. In the interview, Wandee said, “I applied techniques that I learned to other classes when I had to present scientific research in front of the class. For example, I presented a topic about animal behaviour. There are two types of animal behaviour: instinct behaviour and learned behaviour. I also gave examples in order to make a concrete picture for my classmates.” In addition, Wandee had opportunities to use many techniques of science communication when she taught in front of the class. Wandee recognized this when she questioned students in order to encourage them to explain

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about science. In the interview, Wandee said, “While I taught in front of the class. I participated in the activity with primary school children by teaching about the five main food groups. I asked students to explain what they are and what the differences between each group are.” In the case of Benjamas, when she had an opportunity to do practice teaching in a school, she applied the techniques she had learned about scientific listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In the interview, Benjamas said that “in doing pre-service education, I applied my communication technique. I found that the success of a learning activity in a class depends on both the teacher and the students. The teacher should have good technique of listening, speaking, reading and writing in science communication.” With regard to the listening technique, Benjamas said that “a good teacher should possess good listening skills. She should accept students’ opinions, listen to them carefully, and engage in what students are explaining to her. While the teacher listens to the children, she should write down the points that the students have mentioned in order to draw and advise the students about the pros and cons of what they have said (e.g. listen to what students have presented in front of the class)”. As for the speaking technique, Benjamas stated, “a teacher should have good speaking skills. She should speak clearly and concisely on what she is prepared to teach. A teacher should not go off-topic too much; she should be smooth-tongued.” Regarding the reading technique, Benjamas proposed that “a teacher should have good reading: read correctly, pronounce a diphthong clearly, and pause while reading (e.g. reading questions).” With regard to writing, Benjamas stated that “while a teacher is teaching, she has to write on the board. In order to help students to understand better, the teacher should write in a way that is easy for the students to read. Her writing should be in an appropriate size. She should write only main topics.” Juree had an opportunity to do practice teaching in the same school as Wandee and Benjamas. She applied her technique regarding science communication when she held learning activities. The activities emphasized two-way communication in order to encourage interaction among children and the teacher. In the interview, Juree said, “I tried to use communication techniques to promote my students’ scientific explanation. We need to listen to the children about what they think and why they think so. We tried to question them so that they would talk about what they know and think.” During the class activities, Juree found that most of the children still had incorrect knowledge. Juree then tried to find a way to help to correct the student’s viewpoints by questioning them. In the interview, Juree said, “each child I met has Copyright (C) 2013 HKIEd APFSLT. Volume 14, Issue 2, Article 1 (Dec., 2013). All Rights Reserved.

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different background knowledge as they come from different families and social backgrounds. When we gave them a correct knowledge, which is not in accordance with their own views, they would be questioning against the new knowledge. If a student has an incorrect knowledge, it is better that the teacher has questioning skills for asking her until she has correct views.” Nevertheless, Juree found that the students could not answer questions because they did not have adequate information. Juree then advised her students to seek information from other sources. She then found that the students could finally answer more questions, and they raised some interesting points in the discussion. In the interview, Juree said, “nowadays, many skills must be used in science teaching and presentation in order to make it more interesting, and learners would be enthusiastic to learn. This makes science communication easier.”

Discussion and Conclusion The analysis of the data collected in the case studied of Wandee, Benjamas, and Juree yielded four main aspects in the practice of science communication in the community: they were able to use wording that was appropriate to personal prior knowledge or background; they provided reasonable and convincing explanations that changed the viewpoints and behavior of people in the community; they told the truth about bad experiences with propaganda in order to promote critical thinking; they used more than one communication technique in science communication to promote people’s understanding of science. Many children in the community did not understand technical words when the pre-service teachers explained things to them, so for better understanding they used language that was appropriate to personal prior knowledge or background. Tinnaluk & Hemasiri (2005) indicated that scientific language is well understood among scientists in the same field or close fields. However, when conducting science communication, the communicator must understand the differences between scientific, academic, and casual levels of language. If the communicator does not understand the communicating language, an unbalanced communication might result. Gross (1994) found that unbalanced communication occurs when the listener lacks the necessary knowledge of scientific principles. Hence, the communicator should recognise the background knowledge of the receiver of the information. Supporting this idea, Piano, et al. (2011) stated that in order to understand the meaning of words, the communicator must consider the surrounding context. When the context changes,

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the meaning of the words changes accordingly. The meaning of some words might change when they are used in a different culture. Charunrochana (2005) stated that language is not an instinct with which humans are born. Instead, language is a system that is invented for communication. Moreover, there will be a process of passing on this invented system to a new member. The finding also revealed that the three participants also provided reasonable and sufficient explanations for changing the viewpoints and behavior of people in the community. Supporting this idea, Tadtasaai (2004) stated that the distribution of scientific information and technology by scientists or researchers to the public are a means of building consciousness about the importance of science and its effects the daily lives of people now and in the future. However, the information receivers showed selective reception, selective attention, selective perception, and selective retention of the information, according to their own thoughts, beliefs, viewpoints, and experiences. These factors are barriers that prevent the information from being transferred to the information receiver (Phungamdee, 2003). The National Office of Statistics [NOS] (2006) also found that nowadays people have incorrect beliefs. Hence, it is extremely crucial for them to be able to think and select information to make decision accordingly. In order to promote peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s critical thinking, the three participants also told the truth about their bad experiences with beauty propaganda. According to Sadler & Zeidler (2003), social issues related to science and technology are increasing because of anxiety about the safety of technology and the rapidity of scientific advancement, which might affect life, society, the economy, and the environment. Therefore, the three participants disseminated knowledge regarding critical thinking to their family members and friends. The subjectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; conduct could be considered characteristic of a well-informed person in the field of science. They could explain, predict natural phenomena, and conduct science communication (e.g., they read and understood articles in the press, which were related to science, and they took part in a discussion about the credibility of scientific conclusions). Well-informed persons in the field of science can identify scientific issues, based on their knowledge of science and technology. Well-informed persons in the field of science can evaluate scientific information, based on the information source and the creation of that information (National Research Council [NRC], 1996). Moreover, all three participants had the opportunity to use more than one communication technique in their practice of science communication to promote

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peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s understanding of science. They applied their techniques of science communication. Tyler (2002) found that when a person who is involved in a communication has an alternative concept that is not in accordance with the concept of a scientist, it could be difficult to build a knowledge base. Wandee used a questioning technique, which helped her students to acquire new and correct knowledge that was good for further communication. In addition, Juree used two-way communication to promote peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s understanding of science. Luhnman (1990) indicated that two-way communication is a good promoter of interaction among the communicator, the transmission media, and the information receiver. In summary, these three cases indicated their understanding of constructivist theory in their practices of science communication in communities even though this context differed from the context of their learning. The framework of their practices shows that constructivism is the most useful and relevant theory to explain how people learn about science in both formal (e.g., in school) and informal situations (e.g., learning resources in a community). In order to apply the constructivism to the design of a science communication event or activity, science communicators should ensure relevance, which induces people to participate in events and activities. Moreover, science communicators should also consider participant learning and interaction, providing hands-on activities, ask questions, asking for opinions, and encouraging reflection and self-analysis (Bowater & Yeoman, 2013).

Recommendations The findings showed that the three pre-service teachers demonstrated their understanding of constructivist theory in their practices of science communication in communities. Therefore, the Education Department should develop further courses that are related to science teaching. Each course should have a science communication activity. This attention to science in curricula would promote the understanding of both students and teachers. Teachers would have increased understanding of learning based on constructivist theory, and they would learn effective science communication skills that could apply to many contexts of teacher education. This would help their careers as science teachers. In the three cases studied here, the practice of science communication in the community took place in similar contexts. Therefore, future studies should be conducted in other areas (e.g., museums and science centers) to investigate the effects of the science

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communication course on the practice of science communication in different science educational contexts.

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