39 History: since the dawn of civilisation

A History – the great and the ordinary

B

C

D

Archaeologists1 patiently work among the remains of past civilisations, trying to understand once-powerful vast empires2 , kingdoms3 and dynasties4. Since the dawn5 of civilisation, societies have recorded the reigns6 of kings and emperors, the fate of their heirs7 and successors8 and major events such as coronations9, wars and conquests10. All this can be recorded in manuscripts11 or on stone tablets. When an heir succeeds to the throne and is crowned, we usually learn how long he/she reigns. Meanwhile, the lives of the ordinary people, the peasants12 and labourers13, the pattern of their days, the migrations14 of social groups, oft en go unrecorded, and archaeologists and historians have a tougher task in interpreting whatever shreds15 of evidence remain. But for many, this is the real history and archaeology, the true key to our past.

1 person who studies the material evidence of past societies 2 group of countries ruled by a single person 3 individual countries ruled by a king or queen 4 diff erent rulers who are all from the same family, or a period of time that a country is controlled by them 5 beginning 6 period that a king, queen or emperor rules 7 person who is legally entitled to continue the work of someone important who has died or who has the same position as they had 8 person who takes over from another person 9 event when a king or queen receives his/her crown 10 when someone or an army defeats and takes over another country 11 texts written by hand 12 person who works on the land and earns little, usually having a low social status 13 person who does unskilled manual work 14 moving from one place to another in large numbers 15 very small amounts

Historical eras

In ancient Egypt, the Bronze Age began about 5,000 years ago. [period when the metals copper and tin

began to be used to make weapons, tools, etc.; we also talk of the Stone Age, the Iron Age] Life in medieval times was hard. [of or from the European Middle Ages, i.e. 1000–1500 AD] I love the great Renaissance art of Italy. [period of new growth of interest and activity in the arts especially in Europe in the 14th to 16th centuries] Magnificent architecture and works of art were created in Central America in the pre-colonial era.

[period before Europeans arrived in large numbers and took power; opp. = post-colonial]

Military history

infantry: soldiers on foot (uncountable) cavalry: soldiers on horseback (uncountable) (suit of) armour: metal protective clothing worn by soldiers chariot: two-wheeled vehicle pulled by a horse and used in ancient times for racing and war galleon: large sailing ship with three or four masts, used in the 15th to 18th centuries

People

warlord: a military leader who controls a country or, more oft en, an area within a country slave: person legally owned by someone else and who has to work for them (noun = slavery) ruler: leader of a country explorer: someone who travels to places that no one is thought ever to have visited, in order to find out what is there merchant: someone who buys and sells things in large amounts, especially by trading with other countries monarch: neutral term for a king or queen (a country with a king or queen at its head can also be called a monarchy) the nobility: collective term for people of the highest social rank in a society

39.1

39.2

39.3

39.4

Which words on the opposite page are these definitions of?

1 The period during which someone is king or queen 2 A family that rules during different generations 3 Someone who is legally entitled to take power or control when someone dies 4 A text written by hand 5 The event when a king or queen receives a crown 6 Several different countries ruled by one person 7 A metaphorical expression meaning ‘the beginning’ of something 8 A small amount 9 A historical era when the use of copper and tin to make weapons and implements began 10 The period in the history of many countries before European conquerors arrived

Complete the table, using a dictionary if necessary. Do not fill the shaded boxes.

person noun verb kingdom

emperor successor

archaeologist

ruler monarch conquest

reign labour migration crown

Match the beginnings and endings of the sentences.

1 The sailors a marched for three days. 2 The emperor drove 3 The infantry b led his army into battle. c drew a map of the island.

4 The nobility 5 The cavalry d boarded the galleon. e traded with the local tribespeople.

6 The warlord f lived in large, expensive houses.

7 The merchant

g a chariot with two black horses. 8 The explorer h galloped across the field.

Here are some of the words from the opposite page used in a metaphorical way. Read the sentences and answer the questions about the underlined phrases.

1 The princess swept into the room like a galleon in full sail. Was the princess (a) small and awkward or (b) large and stately? 2 He doesn’t mind criticism and it’s often hard to penetrate his armour. Is the person described likely to be (a) thick-skinned or (b) physically strong? 3 There has been a renaissance of interest in the harp. Has interest (a) increased or (b) decreased? 4 No one should be a slave to tradition. Does the writer think people should (a) always follow tradition or (b) not always follow tradition? 5 Mike has a positively medieval attitude towards the role of women in society. Does Mike have (a) a liberal, open-minded attitude or (b) a very old-fashioned, conservative attitude?