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History: since the dawn of civilisation A
History – the great and the ordinary
Archaeologists1 patiently work among the remains of past civilisations, trying to understand once-powerful vast empires2, kingdoms3 and dynasties4. Since the dawn5 of civilisation, societies have recorded the reigns6 of kings and emperors, the fate of their heirs7 and successors8 and major events such as coronations9, wars and conquests10. All this can be recorded in manuscripts11 or on stone tablets. When an heir succeeds to the throne and is crowned, we usually learn how long he/she reigns. Meanwhile, the lives of the ordinary people, the peasants12 and labourers13, the pattern of their days, the migrations14 of social groups, often go unrecorded, and archaeologists and historians have a tougher task in interpreting whatever shreds15 of evidence remain. But for many, this is the real history and archaeology, the true key to our past. 1
2 person who studies the material evidence of past societies group of countries ruled by a single person 4 individual countries ruled by a king or queen different rulers who are all from the same family, or a period 5 6 of time that a country is controlled by them beginning period that a king, queen or emperor rules 7 person who is legally entitled to continue the work of someone important who has died or who has the same 8 9 position as they had person who takes over from another person event when a king or queen receives 10 11 his/her crown when someone or an army defeats and takes over another country texts written by 12 13 hand person who works on the land and earns little, usually having a low social status person who 14 15 does unskilled manual work moving from one place to another in large numbers very small amounts 3
B
Historical eras In ancient Egypt, the Bronze Age began about 5,000 years ago. [period when the metals copper and tin began to be used to make weapons, tools, etc.; we also talk of the Stone Age, the Iron Age] Life in medieval times was hard. [of or from the European Middle Ages, i.e. 1000–1500 AD] I love the great Renaissance art of Italy. [period of new growth of interest and activity in the arts especially in Europe in the 14th to 16th centuries] Magnificent architecture and works of art were created in Central America in the pre-colonial era. [period before Europeans arrived in large numbers and took power; opp. = post-colonial]
C
Military history infantry: soldiers on foot (uncountable) cavalry: soldiers on horseback (uncountable) (suit of) armour: metal protective clothing worn by soldiers chariot: two-wheeled vehicle pulled by a horse and used in ancient times for racing and war galleon: large sailing ship with three or four masts, used in the 15th to 18th centuries
D
People warlord: a military leader who controls a country or, more often, an area within a country slave: person legally owned by someone else and who has to work for them (noun = slavery) ruler: leader of a country explorer: someone who travels to places that no one is thought ever to have visited, in order to find out what is there merchant: someone who buys and sells things in large amounts, especially by trading with other countries monarch: neutral term for a king or queen (a country with a king or queen at its head can also be called a monarchy) the nobility: collective term for people of the highest social rank in a society
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English Vocabulary in Use Advanced
