Dissertation booklet

How has technology influenced the apparel industry in Britain since the Industrial Revolution?

Figure 1: Dianne Heath, (2011)

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Contents.

4 Introduction 6 Textile Production 8 Ready-made clothing before machinery 10 The Industrial Revolution 12 Large scale textile production 15 Tailoring 16 Technology of 21st Century 19 Technologies impact on the fashion production.

21 Trend Forecasting

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23 Fast Fashion 26 3D Body Scanning 30 3D Printing 32 Iris Van Herpen 34 Wearable fashion is the future 36 Conclusion 38 References 42 List of Figures

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Introduction.

For this dissertation, I will be researching the role that the Industrial Revolution (1760 – 1840) had in the development of machinery and technology and how they have influenced our current apparel industry. I will be investigating the ever-changing developments of this technology and how they have impacted clothing design, style and structure.

I will then explore the current technology uses within the fashion industry, looking into the ways they have revolutionised clothing design and manufacture and discovering technologies impact on stripping garments back to their core purposes to reveal abstract and interesting unseen garments. With the chance to uncover the opportunities that this has provided to those working in the apparel Looking closely at the integration of technol- sector, I will research a particular designer ogy with fashion, I will seek to explore the who has uncovered and displayed fashion influences that technology has had on mod- in its most raw form. ern-day clothing production since the Industrial Revolution. Investigating the ways technolo- Beyond this, I seek to explore beneficial ways gy has improved the production process, re- we use technology and software, everything duced costing and created new and exciting from 3D printing to body scanning and moways to design and manufacture garments, tion capture systems, looking into fashionboth mass market and customised pieces. able technology, wearable technology and interactive fashion. I will explore the potential Looking firstly at the production of apparel uses of technology for the future and how we pre- Industrial Revolution (early 1700’s) and can develop these to suit the apparel market. discovering the different methods of clothing manufacture during this time period. Looking ahead to the invention of the sewing machine and its introduction into apparel production, uncovering the benefits this would have had on production cost, time and efficiency.

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Textile Production.

Fashion production prior to the industrial revolution was typically small scale and most textile production took place inside of small workshops. Many houses that homed spinners, weavers and dyers would be taken over as small workshops to contribute to the textile production industry. (White. M, 2009) With large scale textile production not yet in play, it was these small in-house workshops that became reliable for most if not all cotton trade across the UK. Cotton quickly became a traditional material to use in Europe, prior to the 1700’s, where materials such as linen and wool were used to create textiles. Due to cotton being classed as an exotic material, that did not grow in Western Europe, the reliance on opening up trade with Egypt and India meant that the cotton industry in Lancashire developed in the early 18th Century. This meant that by 1760, roughly 2.6 million pounds of cotton were being used in the UK alone, this is compared to the 90 million pounds of wool being consumed at this time. (Clark. G, 2005, p.5) Textile production in the 1700’s was a complex and lengthy process and apart from fulling wool, the cloth industry was entirely powered by man and required hours of labour-intensive work. Of this work, Spinning the yarn was considered the most labour-intensive part of the textile industry. This process required each spinner to spin only one thread at a time. To make the cotton yarn, using a spinning wheel, a ball of cotton fibres had to be carefully examined, drawing on only the finest and strongest fibres, at the same time using their fingers to pull and twist the yarn. Because of this lengthy process, making a pound of yarn could take over a week and set about limitations on how much cloth could be generated for the textile industry and how much could be consumed. (Clark. G, 2005, p.7)

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“By 1760, roughly 2.6 million pounds of cotton were being used in the UK alone.�

Figure 2: HistoryLearning. com, (2015)

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Ready-made clothing before machinery.

In Britain, the clothing trade was one of the largest sources of employment during the Industrial Revolution and by 1851, the dress trade was the second most important source of non-agricultural employment for women.

Preceding the beginning of the first world war, in 1914, there were concerns of the level of pay being supplied to the textile workers at this time. Such low paying wages for workers in the clothing industry, prompted the beginning of the Minimum Wage Legislation in Britain. (Godley. A, 1997, p.3) Most garments were sewn together in the comfort of people’s homes before the invention of the sewing machine. However, as labour intensive as this was, people would often offer their skills in the form of a seamstress or tailor in small shops for a minimal wage. It wasn’t until after the introduction of the sewing machine that clothes were beginning to be made inside of factories, lightning the load on those who would sew at home.

Clothes were commonly sewn together by hand at home, with the sewing machine firmly replacing the need for hand sewing, clothing and shoe production were now operating on a large scale. (Bellis. M, 2017)

The development of standard sizing lies with the invention of the sewing machine.

This prompted a need for industrial development and not necessarily the need for more machinery, rather a way of better using the machinery available. It is thought that readymade clothing originates as far back as the end of the seventeenth century, whereby the need for manufacturing uniforms first began.

Although ready-made clothing was still fairly limited to the military, some ready-made garments were created mainly for agricultural purposes, such as the smock. The very early ready-made garments had little shape, the garment cuts were unflattering and little craftsmanship was required to make them.

However, the agricultural workforce would wear the standardised shape and stitch of the ready-made garments created before machinery. (Godley. A, 1997, p.4) In Hampshire, before 1820, families would spend a high percentage of income on clothing than first realised. It is thought that between 10 and 12% of household income was spent was spent on clothing. Clothing such as smocks, for the everyday working person, was a popular choice of garment and often other ready-made garments such as waistcoats were sold, not just for their functional purpose but also for their fashion consumption. (Godley. A, 1997, p.5)

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Figure 3: The museum of English Rural Life, No Date

“It is thought that between 10 and 12% of household income was spent was spent on clothing” 9

The Industrial Revolution.

The industrial revolution in Britain surfaced during the 18th Century. This was the process of introducing machinery to take the place of hand crafted work. This revolution, as popularized by English economic historian Arnold Toynbee, began the development of Britain’s economy between 1760 and 1840. This then spread to other countries, encouraging an increase in their economic climate.

The industrial Revolution saw the change of technology, economy and culture. The use of machinery meant more trade jobs became available and working conditions, although more dangerous, due to high powered machinery, were much improved hygienically.

The technological changes at this time were significant for the production of textiles and it meant there was better use of basic materials, such as iron and steel, as machinery for extracting these metals was more readily available and with the use of machinery came the need for its power supply. Using energy sources like coal, steam engines, petroleum and internal-combustion engines, meant these newly created motive power machines made light work of yarn and cloth manufacture.

Within factories, a new organisation of work load division, known as the factory system, was being used to divide the factory into function and specialisations. The separation of work processes into a number of tasks, means each task can be performed by

This system is applied to mass production, the use of an assembly line to create one whole product. (Britannica. E. E, 1998) By the mid-18th century, when the revolution was in full swing and the British population was seeing growth, foreign trade was making a greater demand for manufactured goods to be exported out of the country overseas. With new forms of energy supplies in place, water and man power now being replaced by steam engines and other external power sources, textile manufacture was flourishing in Britain.

(Manolopoulou. A, 2008 -09) The introduction of steam power became the influence for the development of the pre-existing steam engine. James Watt, a Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist, worked alongside Matthew Boulton, an English manufacturer, to create the rotary engine. This piece of equipment could function faster and more efficiently without the use of human power. This piece of machinery was later known as the Watt Steam Engine.

In order to power these newly created machines, a huge reliance on the mining industry was the key to the success of this revolution.

Since coal was the key factor, improving the mining conditions for working ensured that more coal could be extracted to power the factories and railways that were exporting goods. (Manolopoulou. A, 2008 -09)

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A patent for Watts Steam Engine brought about bouts of success in the cotton spinning industry and led Watts, in 1755, to extend the current patent he had for a further 25 years, up to 1800. It was at this time Watt and Boulton began to flourish in their partnership in the steam engine factory. It was here that they sought out a series of mills at the Soho Manufactory. (Grace’s Guide, 2017) In Birmingham, large establishments for metal works were being founded by Watt and Boulton. Here they had over 1000 people in employment, making buckles, boxes, buttons and engine parts for their new steam engines.

(White. M, 2009) Despite having manufactories in Birmingham, the steam engines required more power. With a bustling mining industry in Cornwall, it was Boulton who saw the opportunity to grow their empire and encouraged Watt to develop the Rotative Engine. (Grace’s Guide, 2017)

Figure 4: Lee Swettenham, (2013)

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Large scale textile production.

Spinning cotton into threads for weaving, before the revolution, would have taken place inside the homes of weavers and spinners.

In 1769, Richard Arkwright patented the Water Frame. This allowed for large-scale spinning of cotton threads to take place on just one machine. (White. M, 2009) New factories, also known as Manufactories, were up and coming as a result of the discovery of this new technology. Richard Arkwright’s, Water Frame resulted in nearly 600 people working out of his cotton factories in Nottingham and Cromford.

Those employed included small children as they we small enough to fit through gaps in the machinery and their nimble fingers made light work of the spinning yarn.

(The British Library, Factories, 2017)

Inspired by previous attempts at modernising machine production, upon visiting Richard Arkwright’s factory in Cromford in 1784, Edmund Cartwright followed suit and constructed a similar machine for weaving. At first, it’s complicated nature left many questioning how useful it may be but he continued its construction until 1785, when his power loom was patented. By this time, Cromford had already established loom factories in Doncaster and he continued to test the strength and validity of his invention through constant use on large scale production. (BBC, 2014)

Despite his determination, his loom was only capable of weaving plain and un-patterned textiles. But by the 1830’s two people could operate four looms at once, meaning they could manufacture lots of difThis discovery was later followed by James ferent types of fabrics. (Watt. M, 2004) Hargreaves, an English weaver, carpenter and inventor, he revolutionised the process of spinning cotton with the Spinning Jenny. In 1801, a French inventor, Joseph-Marie (White.

M, 2009) Jacquard, introduced a new piece of machinery that aided the creation of woven The Spinning Jenny was a machine like no patterned textiles. A machine that saw its other at this time. It used eight spindles, of uses throughout Britain at this time, that was which were used to spin the threads. This originally a Draw Loom system in place, mechanism worked by its operator turning enabling the creation of woven textiles. the wheel. At any one time, eight threads It involved a lengthy set-up and was often could be spun at once. With further im- impractical and took long periods of time provements to this technology, it was then to create one woven textile. The Jacquard made possible for as many as eighty Loom eventually replaced the out-dated threads to be spun at any one time. (The Draw Loom, and allowed its operator to creBritish Library, The Spinning Jenny, 2017) ate complex and structured woven textiles.

(Watt. M, 2004)

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Using the Jacquard Loom meant there was no longer any need for a weaver’s assistant or Drawboy. Because of this, workloads were cut in half, as were the workforce. This reduction in workforce, and continued innovation of machinery, forced weavers to take repeated wage cuts causing the radical reduction in social status across most parts of Europe by the end of the century. (Watt. M, 2004)

Figure 5: MVArgic, (2013)

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Figure 6: V&A, No Date

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“Jewellery was becoming more decorative and garments became lavish yet practical.�

Tailoring.

During Queen Elizabeth’s reign, in the second half of the 16th century, London offered a wide range of shopping opportunities. A diverse range of fabrics, textiles and dyes were being imported from overseas. This meant fabrics were varied and colourful, unlike the fabrics originally being produced in Britain. Most fabrics, like linen and lace would come from Italy and by the end of the 17th century, fabrics like calico and East Indian chintz were available.

Because of this selection, women were able to purchase exotic fabrics and accessories.

Jewellery was becoming more decorative and garments became lavish yet practical. Personal customisation became a popular way for many women to shop, adding lace, embroidery and patterns to already ornate garments.

The introduction of customised garments saw the development of ready-to-wear clothes becoming available at cheap prices. Although this was of great interest to many women, hand-made clothing or second-hand garments still took up a large proportion of the clothing market as many would seek the craftsman ship of those they already knew in the textile trade. (Hope. J, 2015) As many of the machines in use at this time, were far quicker than any hand sewn garments, they could not produce a garment with similar care and quality as seen by tailors and seamstresses, this is why many would choose to have clothing handmade then buy generically made clothing.

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Technology of 21st Century.

Significant amounts of research are being carried out on the imminent use of Nano-technology. Experiments are underway in the plastics industry and biopolymers are quickly becoming revolutionary as the future of fibres and fabrics. (Hunter. B, 2013) In fact, biopolymers have been a consideration in manufacturing since the birth of the Ford. Henry Ford, in the 1940’s, was using a soya plastic for many of his car parts. (Dr. Choudhury. A. K. R, 2017) The research into smart fibres could be the push that global steel markets are looking for, to gain fuel efficiency not only in the car industry but also in the manufacture of smart fibres for textiles. (Hunter. B, 2013) The use of smart fibres is having a positive impact on many levels. Its uses are allowing for quick production turn around and flexibility for many corporate textile manufacturers. This fibre technology allows for small-scale production also and means that semi-bespoke garments can be designed and created to fit a person’s body measurements by altering standard pattern blocks.

Not only is the use of smart fibres more efficient for manufacture, they also hold the key to environmentally friendly garment production. These fibres are put through the production chain as ‘clean processing’, this means machinery, interior surfaces and fittings are frequently cleaned internally via this method. The disposal of textiles containing smart fibres is environmentally better as the textile end of life will be transformed into other useful textiles such as carpets. (Rigby. D, 1993)

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Figure 7: David Hellqvist, 2011

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Technologies impact on the fashion production.

Currently, technology is influencing fashion in ways never before predicted. It is seeing that we have better knowledge of clothing brands, a better interaction with the companies we buy from and a sense that certain brands really understand their target market and are able to deliver a certain service because of it.

Both the customers and the companies benefit from technology revelations made since the start of the 20th century.

But for today’s society, technology sees that we receive trend updates at our finger tips and trends to follow for notoriety.

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“Trend forecasting is the ability to foresee future trends.�

Figure 8: Danny Ellison, 2016

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Trend Forecasting.

Fashion is no longer about expressing ourselves, it has solely become about staying on trend, having the latest gadgets and maintaining a reputation for style.

WGSN, a British born country, founded in 1998, is a website based platform, used by professionals to research new and emerging technologies as well as fashion trends. A common use for this website is trend forecasting. Trend forecasting is the ability to foresee future trends. This gives an in-sight into today’s consumer, trends in both retail and consumer markets and industry experts sourcing on-the-ground trend hunters to find fresh ideas and perspectives on new and existing fashion trends. Trend forecasting gives people the ability to plan their wardrobes with colour and trend reports that are up to 2 years ahead of the soon to be trends. (WGSN, 2017) To get a true picture of the type of industry fashion has become, it is important to look and the statistical data that is available to us. It gives a clearer idea just how huge the fashion industry is in the UK. For example, the domestic market value of the fashion industry in Britain is 66 billion pounds, a number so large that surprisingly consumes only a 6% market share for the UK alone. With Britain’s population currently peaking 64.5 million, of that only 555000 people are employed in the fashion or textile market and the sub industry are seeing that 75% of that number, 414000 people, are working in retail. Considering this small proportion of the UK working population is employed within the fashion industry, it is astounding that its workers are capable of competing with the ever-changing trends and style updates that occur every couple of weeks. (Fashion United, 2016)

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(Siegle. L, 2011)

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Fast Fashion.

Fast-fashion, a term quickly being used to describe a quick production turn around on mass produced clothing, is seeing that an estimated 1.72 tonnes of brand new fashion is being consumed in the UK on an annual basis. This figure suggests that in one year, the average shopped will be adding approximately 28kg of fashion to their wardrobes. Spending roughly £625 a year on clothes, it seems the average shopper is demanding four times the amount of clothes since the 1980’s. (Siegle. L, 2011) Fast fashion is designed to make you replace items in your wardrobe on a regular basis, due to the nature of clothing falling apart and ending up in landfills. Investing in a few quality key pieces in your wardrobe actually works out to be more cost effective and saves us money by ensuring that the garment lasts longer.

Fast fashion is not just expensive for our wallets but it is also costing the planet through its largely unregulated burn of the fast fashion industry.

It is predicted by 2030, that the fashion industry will emit nearly 2.8 billion tonnes of CO2 a year. That is an estimated 60% increase on current CO2 emissions. (Quora, 2017) Creating fashion textile is a lengthy process, involving varied supply chains, the uses of raw materials, manufacturing the textiles. Shipping into retail and eventually the textile end of life cycle, when the garment will undoubtedly end up in land fill.

Through the textile manufacturing process comes an obvious use of pollutants and other chemicals. For example, the pesticide used in cotton farming, to ensure large quantities of cotton are growing, any colouring or artificial dyes used throughout the textile production process and excess amounts of water used when creating textiles.

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Whilst cotton is a common raw material used for textile manufacture, it is not necessarily the smartest choice of material. It is a raw material that can use up to 5000 gallons of water to make a simple t-shirt and jeans.

This problem may be a direct consequence of the use of man-made fibres. These fibres are also polluting the plane and are not the most sustainable source of material for the industry but they are infinitely less water intensive than cotton. (Sweeny. G, 2015) Fast fashion requires selling more for less. Its simple premise is to sell large quantities of clothing at low prices to ensure high turnover rates, based on the trends that reach stores every few weeks. This industry exploits people globally, both factory owners and factory workers alike. The constant change in trends creates a competitive workplace by which factory feel they have to offer garments for the lowest prices. This in turn means cutting corners on health and safety in the factories and reducing wages to a poverty level.

Figure 9: Rosie Spinks, 2011

Approximately 80% of garment workers are women, with women being at the heart of the industry as the manufacturers and the consumers, it seems these impossible fast fashion standards are taking their toll on the industries women. For many manufacturers, it is a constant concern for running costs of factories every month. From running the machinery, to paying electricity bills and paying wages.

Each year these standards are pushed further and further into poverty levels. Seeing that a typical working week is 10-14 hours a day, six days a week, with heavy deadlines and restricted use on basic necessities such as toilet breaks and the ability to stop for a drink of water and on such low wages, it is becoming almost impossible for women to survive and support any family or children they have home. (Winterstein. I, 2015)

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“Cutting corners on health and safety in the factories and reducing wages to a poverty level.�

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3D Body Scanning.

3D body scanning, even now, is still an emerging technology, with many of its attributes still not fully recognised. With regards to its uses in the fashion industry, a body scanner will measure the surface area of the human body, taking carefully calculated recordings through the use of light projection or low power lasers. These beams of light will illuminate a narrow strip of the objects body and translate that to an image through camera devices. The final outcome will be the surface area of the object becoming composed by a series of cloud points which are formulated into 3D spatial coordinates. (Lerch et al. 2008)

A motion capture system will record the subject’s movements, this is typically a human subject but not always. The motions captured are based upon a rigid structure articulated from a model of the human form. This model is captured either from a model based feature or a points feature approach in order to track movements in joints also. (Zelman et al. 2009)

The initial purpose for a body scanner was to obtain body measurements without having to use the traditional method of a tape measure for the fashion industry. In more recent years, body scanners have been used to indicate standard body sizes within countries, Motion capture systems are better advanced such as, USA, China, Germany, France, at scanning the entire human body, com- Japan, Italy, the Netherlands and the UK pared to that of a body scanner that uses a low laser beam of light. This is because the motion capture will take accurate readings of both body dimensions and skeletal motions alike. A body scanner will simply evaluate the surface area and require the subject to remain in a static position to ensure correct 3D data is received.

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Demographics are also taken into consideration when conducting this sort of research and this too will affect the final result. (Lu. J & Wang. M, 2008)

Body scanners were designed to relieve the apparel industry of the gap between e-commerce and customer. With the idea of a customer being able to try a product online before purchase is a concept the apparel industry is working on. Several clothing companies have attempted to incorporate this technology into their online shops as a way of encouraging the virtual generation to generate a virtual copy of themselves with the intention of trying clothing on a 3D avatar.

3D scanners have been tested for the effectiveness when participants are clothes. A study was carried out to enable researchers to evaluate the way a garment fits the body. This experiment evaluated the way sized ranged and took specific body measurements to better accommodate a set of trousers that were being designed for a certain female target market. Since this idea is still in its infancy, 3D body scanning has not yet reached a breakDespite motion capture systems offer- through in the apparel market. Since there ing a more in-depth range of data, it is is an obvious issue of garment draping, not common practice for motion cap- fabric uses and an accurate 3-Dimensional ture to be used in the apparel industry. representation of the digital garment. How(Zong. Y & Lee. Y, 2011) ever, through the combined use of 3D body scanning and motion capture systems, the development of a virtual fitting room could soon be a common practice for e-commerce.

(Zong. Y & Lee. Y, 2011)

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Figure 10: Elaine Polvinen, (2012)

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3D Printing.

3D printing is a process by which ordinary everyday objects are produced inside of a single machine in different types of material.

(Walker. A, 2013) 3D printing was invented by a man called Chuck Hull, in 1986. (Krassenstein. B, 2015) Hull was using UV light to harden table top coatings in 1983, when he first came across the idea of printing thin layers of ultraviolet curable material on top of one another to for a 3 Dimensional, free standing object.

(Ponsford. M & Glass. N, 2014) Hull went onto to founder the world largest 3D printing companies, 3D Systems, and concentrated his research solely on a fabrication process later known as Stereolithography. (Krassenstein. B, 2015) Stereolithography is a 3D printing method that converts liquid plastic into solid objects.

This process is carried out via a uniquely design print machine called a Stereolithograph apparatus. (Palermo. E, 2013) This method of material processing has been used by designers such as Iris Van Herpen, when she collaborated with Austrian architect Julia Koerner on a 3D printed dress for the Haute Couture show “Voltage� in 2013.

(Materialise.com, no date)

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Figure 11: Meredith Rutland Bauer, (2016)

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Iris Van Herpen.

A Dutch born fashion designer, Iris Van Herpen is renowned for her futuristic design approach and dark aesthetic. Upon using 3D printing in the early stages of her career, Van Herpen positioned her uniquely created works of art into the centre of technology and fashion collaborations.

She began her career studying fashion design at Artez Institution of the Arts Arnhem and later interned for Alexander McQueen in London and Claudy Jongstra in Amsterdam before creating her own fashion label in 2007. (BOF, 2017) Van Herpen interests remain solely with the haute couture. In an interview, she gave for Vogue earlier this year, she stated that “My aim is to contribute and empower the 21st century of haute couture. And by haute couture, I mean more generally “the art of fashion,” She prides herself on the ability to create garments that do not fit into the mould of fashion in general. (Borrelli- Persson. L, 2017) Iris Van Herpen, creates strong silhouettes by rejuvenating original crafts and applying innovative materials. Her designs mainly consist of abstract shapes, avoiding basing new designs around old designs. In an interview, she gave to Dutch Profiles for YouTube, Van Herpen explained that she created a new texture for her then current collection by drawing a grid system onto some imitation leather and sewing elastic bands along the grid. Once sewn in, the elastic band shrink back to their original shape and size and you are left with a crumpled yet textured fabric.

(Dutchprofiles, 2011)

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As part of a collection, called Chemical Crows, Van Herpen pulled apart 700 children’s umbrellas and began creating shapes with this abstract material. She names her creations body sculptures. (Dutchprofiles, 2011) Van Herpen is named the first designer to have ever sent a 3D printed couture collection down the runway. This revolutionary fashion statement began in 2010 and since then many other designers have joined this technology movement and have begun incorporating 3D printing techniques into their garments.

(Logan. L, 2015)

Figure 12: Emma Robertson, (2016)

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Wearable fashion is the future.

In a bid to combine fashion and technology, it is important to ensure the product is tailored towards a certain market, to ensure the products success. Back in 2016, Google launched a combined product with Levis.

Together creating the commuter jacket, the Jacquard. A jacket to be worn whilst travelling in and around a busy town or city, via a bicycle. The jacket allows its wearer to fulfil simple tasks safely whilst riding with the left cuff using a conductive yarn is weaved inside meaning the cyclist can change music, block or answer phone calls and access navigation through tapping, swiping or holding the left cuff. The navigation will be delivered to the cyclist via voice control, meaning the cyclist won’t become distracted when on the bike. (Arthur. R, 2016) Designing a product specifically for the commuting community seems insignificant by comparison to the rest of the fashion industry. However, creating a technology such as this for a smaller community only leaves space for more inventive and bigger things to happen for the fashion world as a whole. Wearable technology is growing in popularity. (Arthur. R, 2016)

Consumers are less focused on flashing a branded product and are more invested in a wearable technology providing them with ease as well as comfort.

The idea of a user being able to experience the feeling of a garment, that happens to have wearable technology, is next in line for a key feature for a garment to have. The quality of the garment is just as, if not more important than the productivity of the technology that’s installed. (Arthur. R, 2016) Although this is an innovative way of combining technology with fashion, these sorts of collaborations will continue full stop. Whereas research into manufacturing technology into fashion may at some point reach its pinnacle and we may begin to lose the quality of clothing manufacture, leading to wearable technology becoming undesirable due poor garment quality.

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“Wearable technology is growing in popularity”

Figure 13: Jacquard, (No Date)

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Conclusion.

Technology has had many influences over the design and manufacture of apparel, right down to how we use and wear our clothing.

Since the turn of the 20th century we have seen progression in efficient manufacture and even more importantly innovative manufacture. With emphasis being taken away from a garments appearance, although this is still important, and being placed onto a garments structure, our shopping habits are no longer about how a person’s body looks in a certain piece of clothing, it has become more about a garment fitting correctly and how it is able to align its self with the human form.

Many of the manufacturing techniques discussed still have potential to grow and formulate new ways of predicting garment shape and size. Our next step for technology is to devise ways of ensuring technology will always been in place to assist us, rather than take over. Fears that maybe one day our jobs will be replaced by a machine, allows us to keep technologies influence into perspective.

The affiliation we have with technology will never cease, we always look to progress and will forever need to be a step ahead. In terms of what technology means to fashion, it is relative to how we use it in our daily lives.

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Borrelli- Persson. L, (2017), 10 Questions for Iris van Herpen as She Prepares to Celebrate 10 Years of Fashion Innovation at Couture, Vogue, Available at: https://www.vogue.com/article/ iris-van-herpen-haute-couture-anniversary-interview, Accessed on: 07 December 2017 6.

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Clark, G, (2005). The British Industrial Revolution, 1760-1860, (Online) World Economic History. Chapter 2, p.7. Available at: http://faculty.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/gclark/ecn110b/readings/ ecn110b-chapter2-2005.pdf, Accessed on: 30 November 2017 8.

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Dutchprofiles, (2011), Iris van Herpen, (Online Video), Available at: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Nq1CcZlFs7g, Accessed on: 07 December 2017 10. Fashion United, (2016), UK Fashion Industry Statistics, (Online), Available at: https://fashionunited.uk/uk-fashion-industry-statistics, Accessed on 06 December 2017 11. Godley. A (1997) The Development of the Clothing Industry: Technology and Fashion, Textile History, (Journal) p.3. Accessed on: 23 October 2017 12. Godley. A (1997) The Development of the Clothing Industry: Technology and Fashion, Textile History, (Journal) p.4. Accessed on: 23 October 2017 13. Godley. A (1997) The Development of the Clothing Industry: Technology and Fashion, Textile History, (Journal) p.5. Accessed on: 23 October 2017 14. Grace’s Guide, (2017), Boulton and Watt, (Online) Available at: https://www.gracesguide. co.uk/Boulton_and_Watt, Accessed on: 08 December 2017 15. Hope. J, (2015), Dressing to impress in the 17th century, (Online), Available at: http://www. historyextra.com/article/social-history/dressing-impress-17th-century, Accessed on: 01 December 2017

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16. Hunter. B, (2013), 21st Century Innovations in Technical Textiles, (Online) Available at: http:// www.innovationintextiles.com/new-publication-21st-century-innovations-in-technical-textiles/, Accessed on: 01 December 2017 17. Iris van Herpen Debuts Wearable 3D Printed Pieces at Paris Fashion Week, (No Date), (Online), Available at: http://www.materialise.com/en/cases/iris-van-herpen-debuts-wearable-3d-printed-piecesat-paris-fashion-week, Accessed on: 08 December 2017 18. Krassenstein. B, (2015), What is 3D Printing & How Do 3D Printers Work? - A Guide, (Online) Available at: https://3dprint.com/82272/what-3d-printing-works/, Accessed on: 07 December 2017 19. Lee, H., Hong, K. and Kim, E. 2004. Measurement protocol of women's nude breasts using a 3D Scanning technique. Applied Ergonomics, 35(4): (Journal) p. 353–359. Accessed on: 07 December 2017 20. Lerch. T, Anthony. S and Domina. T, (2008). Initial validation of point cloud data from a 3D Body Scanner. International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, (Journal) 20(5): 271–280.

Accessed on: 07 December 2017 21. Logan. L, (2015), The Dutch Designer Who Is Pioneering the Use of 3D Printing in Fashion.

(Online) Available at:https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/dutch-designer-who-pioneering-use-3d-printing-fashion-180957184/. Accessed on: 07 December 2017 22. Lu, J.-M. and Wang, M.-J.J. (2008). Automated anthropometric data collection using 3D whole bodyscanners Expert Systems with Applications, 35: (Journal) p.407–414, Accessed on: 07 December 2017 23. Manolopoulou. A, (2008-09), The Industrial Revolution and the changing face of Britain. Available at:(Online), http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/publications/online_research_catalogues/paper_money/paper_money_of_england__wales/the_industrial_revolution.aspx, Accessed on: 30 November 2017 24. Morales. C. R, (2001), Development of an XML web based motion capture data warehousing and translation system for collaborative animation projects. (Journal) pp.168–173. Accessed on: 07 December 2017 25. Palermo. E, (2013), What is Stereolithography? (Online) Available at: https://www.livescience. com/38190-stereolithography.html, Accessed on: 07 December 2017 26. Ponsford. M & Glass. N, (2014), The night I invented 3D printing, (Online) Available at: http:// edition.cnn.com/2014/02/13/tech/innovation/the-night-i-invented-3d-printing-chuck-hall/index.html, Accessed on: 07 December 2017 27. Quora, (2017), Forbes, Fast Fashion Is a Disaster for Women and The Environment, (Online), Available at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/07/26/fast-fashion-is-a-disaster-for-women-and-the-environment/#7cd44fcc1fa4, Accessed on: 01 December 2017 28. Rigby. D, (1993), Textiles of the 21st Century: New Products and Processes with Wilder Potential, (Online), Available at: http://www.davidrigbyassociates.co.uk/DRA%20WEBSITE%2003/assets/ Textiles%20of%20the%2021%20Century.pdf, Accessed on: 01 December 2017 29. Siegle. L, (2011), The Observer, why fast fashion is slow death for the planet, (Online), Available on: https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2011/may/08/fast-fashion-death-for-planet, Accessed on: 01 December 2017

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30. Signatureweaves, (2017), The impact of technology on fashion industry, (Online) Available at: https://www.signatureweaves.com/impact-of-technology-on-fashion-industry/, Accessed on: 01 December 2017 31. Sweeny. G, (2015), Fast Fashion Is the Second Dirtiest Industry in the World, Next to Big Oil, (Online), Available at: https://www.ecowatch.com/fast-fashion-is-the-second-dirtiest-industry-in-the-worldnext-to-big--1882083445.html, Accessed on: 06 December 2017 32. The British Library, (No Date), Factories, (Online), Available at: http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item106480.html, Accessed on: 01 December 2017 33. The British Library, The Spinning Jenny, (Online), Available at: http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item107855.html, Accessed on: 01 December 2017 34. The Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica (1998) Industrial Revolution, (Online) Available at: https:// www.britannica.com/event/Industrial-Revolution, Accessed on: 30 November 2017 35. Walker. A, (2013), 3D Printing for Dummies: How do 3D Printers Work? (Online) Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/features/3d-printing-for-dummies-how-do-3dprinters-work-8668937.html, Accessed on 07 December 2017 36. Watt. M, (2004) Nineteenth-Century European Textile Production, In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, (Online), Available at: https://www.metmuseum. org/toah/hd/txtn/hd_txtn.htm, Accessed on: 30 November 2017 37. WGSN, (2017), The World's Trend Authority, (Online), Available on: https://www.wgsn.com/ en/, Accessed on: 01 December 2017 38. White, M. (2009). The industrial Revolution. (Online) The British Library, Available at: https:// www.bl.uk/georgian-britain/articles/the-industrial-revolution, Accessed on: 30 November 2017 39. Winterstein. I, (2015), Deadly Fast Fashion, (Online) Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost. co.uk/ilana-winterstein/deadly-fast-fashion_b_8169152.html?utm_hp_ref=uk-fast-fashion, Accessed on: 06 December 2017 40. Zelman, I. 2009. Nearly automatic motion capture system for tracking octopus arm movements in 3D space. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 182(1): (Journal) p. 97–109. Accessed on: 07 December 2017 41. Zong. Y & Lee. Y, (2011) International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education, Volume 4 - Issue 2 (Online), 4.2.3 Design and develop custom-made product, Available at: http://www. tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17543266.2010.537281, Accessed on: 08 December 2017 42. Zong. Y & Lee. Y, (2011) International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education, Volume 4 - Issue 2, (Online) 2.2 Applications of motion capture systems, Available at:http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17543266.2010.537281, Accessed on: 08 December 2017

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List of Figures.

Figure 1: Dianne Heath, (2011), Analysis of Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse, (Online Image) Available from: http://www.noveltysense.com/2011/10/analysis-stanzas-from-grande-chartreuse.html, Accessed on 07 December 2017 Figure 2: HistoryLearning.com, (2015), The Cotton Industry and the Industrial Revolution, (Online Image), Available from: http://historylearning.com/great-britain-1700-to-1900/indrevo/cotton-industrial-revolution/, Accessed on: 06 December 2017 Figure 3: The museum of English Rural Life, (No Date) Farm labourer pictured wearing a smock. (Online Image), Available from: http://www.reading.ac.uk/merl/interface/public/countrypeople/farmersworkers/farmersworkers_costume.htmlAccessed on: 05 December 2017 Figure 4: Lee Swettenham, (2013) Lancashire Cotton Corporation Ltd, (Online Image) Available from: http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/nostalgia/way-were-cotton-king-manchester-6085736, Accessed on: 04 December 2017 Figure 5: MVArgic, (2013), Watts Steam Engine, (Online Image) Available from: http://www.historyrundown.com/did-james-watt-really-invent-the-steam-engine/, Accessed on: 07 December 2017 Figure 6: Victoria & Albert Museum, (No Date), Gown (Online Image) Available from: http://collections. vam.ac.uk/item/O13815/gown-unknown/, Accessed on: 09 December 2017 Figure 7: David Hellqvist, (2011), Stone Island Jacket, (Online Image) Available from: http://www. dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/10111/1/stone-islands-heat-reactive-jacket, Accessed on: 09 December 2017 Figure 8: Danny Ellison, (2016), Mood Board, (Online Image) Available from: http://alisonpeebles. co.uk/learn-all-you-can-about-shoes-here/, Accessed on: 08 December 2017 Figure 9: Rosie Spinks, (2011), Vivien Westwood, (Online Image) Available from: https://theecologist. org/2011/aug/09/not-charity-work-vivienne-westwoods-ethical-fashion-africa-collection-goes-sale, Accessed on: 07 December 2017 Figure 10: Elaine Polvinen, (2012), Body Scan Model, (Online Image) Available from: https://fashiontech.wordpress.com/tag/dress-forms/, Accessed on: 05 December 2017 Figure 11: Meredith Rutland Bauer, (2016) 3D Printed Dress, (Online Image) Available from: https:// motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/gv58mm/3d-printed-clothes-are-hitting-the-runways-and-maybeyour-closet, Accessed on: 02 December 2017 Figure 12: Emma Robertson, (2016) Iris Van Herpen, (Online Image) Available from: http://the-talks. com/interview/iris-van-herpen/, Accessed on: 30 November 2017 Figure 13: Jacquard, (No Date) Levis Jacket, (Online Image) ÂŹAvailable from: https://atap.google.com/ jacquard/, Accessed on 09 December 2017

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Lauren Ludlow

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