Youth Travel Matters Understanding the Global Phenomenonof Youth Travel

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Youth Travel Matters Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Copyright © 2008 World Tourism Organization Calle Capitán Haya, 42 28020 Madrid, Spain

Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel ISBN: 978-92-844-1239-6

Published and printed by the World Tourism Organization, Madrid, Spain First printing 2008 All rights reserved

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Table of Contents

1

Foreword.............................................................................................................................

v

Acknowledgement.............................................................................................................

vii

Introduction........................................................................................................................

ix

Executive Summary...........................................................................................................

xi

Youth Travel – Definitions and Assessment.....................................................................

1

2 Profile of the Young Independent Traveller, 2007............................................................

11

3 Government Policy on Youth Travel – An International Review.....................................

4 Impact of Extended Travel Experiences on the Values of Youth Travellers..................

29 37

5 Profile of the Global Youth Accommodation Industry....................................................

49

6 International Work Experience Programmes for Youth – Profile of Participants.........

55

7 Global Directions in Language Travel...............................................................................

67

8 The Future of Youth Travel ...............................................................................................

73

77

Bibliography........................................................................................................................

© 2008 World Tourism Organization – ISBN 978-92-844-1239-6

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Foreword

This report has been developed within the framework of the Cooperation Agreement signed between the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and the World Youth Student and Educational Travel Confederation (WYSE Travel Confederation), a UNWTO Affiliate member.

The rapid development of youth travel has stimulated a growth in research, which has helped to create a sharper picture of youth travellers, their motivations, requirements and behaviour. The aim of this report is to bring together the various studies carried out by WYSE Travel Confederation and UNWTO in the field of youth travel over the past five years in order to provide a comprehensive overview of the characteristics and trends in this segment.

The unique motivations of young travellers makes this niche market extremely important to the key objectives of the global tourism agenda; and the personal social and economic value of youth, student and educational travel is increasingly being recognised by educational institutions, employers, official tourism organisations and governments worldwide.

Young people travel with a purpose – to explore and to engage with cultures, and to mix their travel ambitions with study, work, volunteer placements and adventure. They tend to stay much longer and therefore spend more than the average tourist, interacting more closely with the communities that they visit and making a direct contribution to local businesses.

More than any other market segment, youth and student travellers can pave the way to responsible tourism, helping to achieve a more equitable distribution of tourism development on a world-scale and become more sustainable by taking responsibility for the impact of their travel ambitions on climate change.

Young travellers will be tomorrow’s globally-oriented citizens, leaders in future travel trends, and pioneers in contributing to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

David Jones Director General, WYSE Travel Confederation and Francesco Frangialli Secretary General, UNWTO

© 2008 World Tourism Organization – ISBN 978-92-844-1239-6

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Acknowledgements

This report was prepared by Greg Richards of Tourism Research and Marketing, Barcelona, and Reader at the Centre for Leisure, Tourism and Society, Bristol, on commission to the WYSE Travel Confederation and the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).

The report, which forms part of the cooperation agreement between UNWTO and WYSE Travel Confederation, was carried out under the supervision of UNWTO Market Trends, Competitiveness and Trade in Tourism Services Section and of WYSE Travel Confederation.

Š 2008 World Tourism Organization – ISBN 978-92-844-1239-6

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Introduction

Youth travel has become an increasingly important part of the global tourism industry in recent decades, as more young people have begun to travel more frequently and over greater distances. Youth travellers are recognised today as valuable visitors who can, not only make an important economic contribution to the places they visit, but also develop personal skills, social ties and cultural links in their quest for engaging experiences.

The important and multiple impacts of youth travel have recently begun to be appreciated by governments across the world, and they are now taking a more active role in developing youth travel policies, products and marketing campaigns. Although the global youth travel industry is now more than 50 years old, it is only rather recently that the rapid growth of this market, combined with the increasing professionalisation of the youth travel community, has drawn more attention to its potential. Youth travel is becoming more important in the global travel industry as a whole, and is stimulating the development of new market niches in areas such as specialised youth accommodation, work experience, volunteer travel, ‘au pairing’, language learning and educational travel.

The present report includes a review of government youth tourism policy worldwide, a profile of the behaviour of young independent travellers, an analysis of the impacts of extended travel experiences on young people’s attitudes and values, market profiles of different youth travel sectors, and a bibliography of youth travel studies.

Structure of the Report Chapter 1 will deal with some of the key questions surrounding the development of youth and student travel in recent years, including the concept of youth travel and its importance in terms of both market size and value.

The remaining chapters provide a comprehensive overview of recent research on youth travel, bringing together reports from the WYSE Travel Confederation research programme to address the following questions: •

Who are the youth and student travellers? (Chapter 2)

•

What policies do governments have? (Chapter 3)

•

What impact does their travel have? (Chapter 4)

•

How are different sectors of the youth and student travel market performing? (Chapters 4-7)

•

What is the future of youth and student travel? (Chapter 8)

•

What else has been written about youth and student travel? (Bibliography)

© 2008 World Tourism Organization – ISBN 978-92-844-1239-6

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Executive Summary

The present report, Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel, provides an up-to-date overview of the global youth travel industry. The extensive programme of original research presented in this unique publication was undertaken by the WYSE Travel Confederation and by UNWTO between 2002 and 2007.

This report provides a fresh picture of today’s young traveller and shows that youth travel is:

…an important industry •

With an estimated 160 million international tourist arrivals a year, youth travel would account for over 20% of international tourist arrivals;

•

the youth travel market is worth an estimated US$ 136 billion a year, or around 18% of worldwide international tourism receipts;

•

due to longer average trip duration, a typical youth traveller spends more than the average tourist during his/her trip. The average youth traveller spends US$ 2,600 per trip, of which US$ 1,550 is spent in the destination;

•

as a proportion of the total income, young people spend more than any other group on international travel.

…a growing market •

Total average travel expenditure by young people increased by 39% between 2002 and 2007;

•

with global volume growth of 3-5% a year and spend increasing by 8% a year, the youth market is growing faster than most other travel segments;

•

the average number of trips taken over the past five years by young people increased from 6.2 in 2002 to 7.3 in 2007, indicating a growing frequency of travel;

•

as people try to stay young with ‘youth’ travel styles extending into their early 30s, the market for youth travel products will continue to grow;

•

50% of youth accommodation suppliers increased their capacity in 2006.

…an opportunity to reinforce positive values •

Young people undertake long trips, primarily to increase their knowledge of the world and to encounter and learn about other cultures;

•

70% of all trips taken by young people are motivated by goals such as a desire to explore, work or study abroad;

•

over 80% of young travellers report that their trip has changed their overall lifestyle in some way, and the majority said that they were travelling in a more responsible manner and thinking more about issues such as social justice and poverty;

© 2008 World Tourism Organization – ISBN 978-92-844-1239-6

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xii

•

Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

in a pioneering study, measuring pre and post-trip values, the level of cultural tolerance among the study’s participants increased 6% post-trip. The same study shows that: –– young people become more trusting as a result of travel – the proportion agreeing with the statement “most people can be trusted”, rose from 58% before the trip to 68% after the trip; –– increased trust and tolerance is stimulated by having more contact with local people and customs; –– young travellers return from their trips feeling more connected to the global community – the proportion seeing themselves as ‘global citizens’ almost doubled after their trip;

•

those travelling further, and combining work and leisure motivations, feel they benefit more from their trip than those who do not travel as far away;

•

the majority of young travellers feel that they have broadened their horizons and become more open-minded, flexible, confident and tolerant as a result of their travel experience.

…a connected, information ‘hungry’ market •

Young travellers are consulting a growing number of information sources in planning their trips, even though the average length of visit is falling;

•

young travellers are early adopters of new travel technology – 80% of young travellers now use the Internet to search for information before their trip, and the proportion of Internet searches converted into bookings has grown four-fold over the past five years;

•

young people today are using new technologies to stay in touch with home more often than they did five years ago;

•

around 50% of young travellers book their travel or accommodation with specialist youth travel agencies because of the information and price advantages they offer.

…an adventurous market •

Young people are ‘experience hungry’– over 80% want to explore other cultures, increase their knowledge and experience everyday life in the destination;

•

a high proportion of young travellers are keen to meet local people (45%) and get off the beaten track (37%);

•

young people are taking more trips outside their own home region and exploring new areas of the world;

•

destinations with the highest growth in 2007 include South-East Asia, Australia, China and India;

•

few young travellers are deterred by problems such as terrorism, natural disasters or epidemics – only 3% report delaying their travel because of such concerns.

…a different type of travel •

Young people like to develop their own identity and travel style – only 23% view themselves as ‘tourists’;

•

a growing number of young travellers want to help people and make a contribution to the places they visit (42% of respondents in 2007, compared with 27% in 2002);

•

youth travel contribute to spread tourism outside major gateways – over 46% travelled to locations outside major gateway cities in 2007;

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Executive Summary

•

xiii

youth travellers develop more direct contacts with local communities, and reduce economic leakages.

… an important segment for the accommodation sector •

The youth market currently accounts for almost 300 million overnight stays annually;

•

this figure is forecast to rise to almost 500 million by 2020;

•

total industry turnover is likely to rise from almost US$ 7.4 billion in 2005 to around US$ 12 billion in 2020;

•

hostels continue to be the most important youth accommodation product, hosting over 60% of travellers in 2007 compared with just over 50% in 2002.

...a gateway to language learning •

The demand for language travel is growing, and the average age of students is falling;

•

young people learning languages stay on the destination an average of 5 to 6 weeks, and the length of stay is rising;

•

Japan was the most important source market for language schools in 2005, followed by Spain and Germany;

•

France, the Republic of Korea and Brazil were the source markets with the largest expected growth in 2006;

•

the United Kingdom is the major destination for language travel, underlining the dominance of English in the market. However, new destinations are developing, notably Australia;

•

international agents accounted for almost 70% of language school business in 2006, and have increased their market share;

•

language travel providers see important areas of convergence between their products and other youth travel sectors, such as work experience, adventure travel, cultural experience and volunteering.

… and to work experience •

Over 60% of respondents participating in work experience programmes made the decision to travel and work abroad on the basis of information from friends;

•

the average length of a work experience trip is around 200 days, or just under 7 months;

•

the average total budget for work experience trips is almost US$ 4,800 (including travel and expenditure in the destination);

•

respondents earned just over 40% of the total travel cost while working at the destination, which means a net investment of almost US$ 2,800 per person;

•

almost 80% of the respondents stayed in their original job for the duration of their working time and only 1% were fired by their employers.

… a rapidly changing and competitive market Research identified the following trends: •

Increasing industry professionalism to meet the needs of a more demanding clientele;

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

•

more women travelling, which is leading to the provision of customised facilities;

•

increasing trip frequency linked to falling trip duration;

•

a growing role of budget airlines, again stimulating the trend towards shorter trips;

•

blurring boundaries between industry sectors, and between ‘youth’ products and mainstream travel (e.g. hostels and budget hotels);

•

the familiarity of young people with new technologies means that they are at the forefront of change in the travel industry;

•

bookings made on the Internet have grown dramatically, from 10% in 2002 to almost 50% in 2007;

•

youth travel is becoming an increasingly global market, covering not just the traditional generating countries, but also emerging countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa;

•

price is still the most important factor in making purchase decisions – cited by 94% of young people in 2007;

•

discount cards play an important role in the youth market – 92% of the survey respondents had heard of the International Student Identity Card (ISIC);

•

ISIC card holders saved US$ 100 on their last main trip – many times the cost of the card.

… a market for the future •

Over 60% of governments worldwide are anticipating market expansion in the next five years;

•

in 2007, 95% of young travellers said that their experiences made them thirsty for more travel;

•

youth travel businesses are anticipating future growth in almost all industry sectors.

…and an opportunity for governments •

Although governments generally recognise that youth travel is a growth market, only a third of countries worldwide recognise youth travel as a specific market, and only a quarter are active in product development;

•

a small number of countries are now benefiting from the development of integrated policies on youth travel, which cover visas, educational provision, work programmes, exchanges and youth accommodation. Countries which have developed this type of policies, such as Australia and New Zealand, have seen their youth travel markets grow considerably in recent years.

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Chapter 1 Youth Travel – Definitions and Assessment What is Youth Travel?

The study of youth tourism policy carried out by WYSE Travel Confederation and UNWTO in 2005 (see chapter 3) revealed some major differences in the way in which national tourism administrations and organisations (NTAs and NTOs) define youth travel. In particular, there were significant differences in the age ranges used to define youth tourism, which in some cases covered the 16-24 age group, in some cases 16-29 and in others 16-35. These differences reflect the fact that the concept of ‘youth’ is increasingly difficult to link to age, as young people are delaying their entry into work, marriage and family formation, and older people strive hard to remain ‘young’. This underlines the point that youth travel is not solely a question of demographics, but increasingly one of travel style. ‘Youth’ accommodation is now used by travellers of all ages, many of whom seek to maintain the relatively independent travel styles of their younger counterparts.

At present, therefore, there is a wide range of definitions related to student and youth tourism in use, with little consistency in terms of age ranges. This diversity is partly related to the different ways in which student and youth tourism is characterised: •

As an age group, generally covering young people between the ages of 15 and 26, but with widely varying limits.

•

As a niche market related to a particular product or style of travel, such as independent travel, backpacking, adventure travel, language study and work exchange.

•

Student travel for the specific purpose of study, which is becoming more important as a growing number of destinations try to attract the lucrative international student market.

•

As a vehicle for international exchange, peace and understanding.

There is clearly a need to develop a more widely applicable definition of youth travel, which can cover all of these different types of market niches and still allow the total market to be delimited. In order to achieve this, we have looked extensively at the definitions applied by UNWTO and by different NTAs, and consulted with the youth travel industry. The definition which is proposed by WYSE Travel Confederation is: Youth travel includes all independent trips for periods of less than one year by people aged 16-29 which are motivated, in part or in full, by a desire to experience other cultures, build life experience and/or benefit from formal and informal learning opportunities outside one’s usual environment.

This definition of youth travel conforms to UNWTO definition of tourism – “the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes”. A person’s ‘usual environment’ is defined as including their home and place of work or study, or other places frequently visited. In the WYSE Travel Confederation definition, the term ‘independent trip’ refers to travel undertaken independently, i.e. without being accompanied by a parent or guardian.

How Important is Youth Tourism?

Youth tourism is a large and growing global market, which is important to destinations, not just in volume terms, but also in economic, social and cultural terms. As the WYSE Travel Confederation/ © 2008 World Tourism Organization – ISBN 978-92-844-1239-6

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

UNWTO study on youth tourism policy indicates (see chapter 3), governments promote youth travel because it is a vital educational resource, a stimulus to cultural understanding and tolerance, because young travellers can ‘pioneer’ new tourism products and destinations, and because it can deliver ‘lifetime value’ to the destination through young travellers’ tendency to make repeat visits later in life.

Many governments believe that youth tourism will become an important component of their ‘future’ tourism strategies. Yet, paradoxically, governments pay relatively little attention ‘today’ to youth travel, and few are taking an active approach to developing this market.

In the past, much of the discussion around youth travel has tended to concentrate on two issues: the volume of youth tourism and its value to the destination in economic terms. These basic quantitative indicators of the significance of youth tourism, such as arrivals and spend, as well as the qualitative role of youth tourism in cultural and social terms are discussed below.

The size of the youth tourism market A number of studies have attempted to gauge the size of the youth tourism market over the years.

For example, in 1991 UNWTO1, reported that “every sixth arrival in the world is a youth tourist” and estimated that the average annual rate of increase of youth tourism was outstripping the average annual rate of increase of world tourism by almost 60%. By 1995, a report from the European Travel Commission (ETC) identified youth tourism as a potential market of 125 million young travellers, or 23% of the world market at that time. By the year 2000, the Federation of International Youth Travel Organisations (FIYTO) argued that youth tourism accounted for 20% of international tourist arrivals, and forecast it would rise to 25% in the near future (FIYTO, 2000).

The basic assumption that youth travel accounts for between 20% and 25% of the global market is roughly in line with the proportion of young people in the world population. Current population figures indicate that 26% of the world’s population is aged 15-29. Young people make up an even larger proportion of the population in regions such as Asia, Africa and the Middle East.

Table 1.1 Age distribution of world population, 2005 (million) Age group

World

Asia and the Pacific

0-4

604

325

76

50

127

26

5-9

593

331

76

51

111

24

10-14

593

337

78

57

100

22

15-19

609

357

77

65

89

21

20-24

559

323

73

65

78

19

25-29

510

294

69

64

65

18

30-34

497

299

66

64

52

15

35-39

469

287

63

64

42

13

40-44

417

246

61

66

35

10

45-49

360

206

55

63

28

8

50-54

319

186

47

57

23

7

55-59

253

142

39

49

18

5

60-64

195

109

30

38

14

4

1

Americas

Europe

Africa

Middle East

World Tourism Organization (1991), International Conference on Youth Tourism, New Delhi, India, 18-21 November 1991, Final Report, p. 13

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Youth Travel – Definitions and Assessment

Age group

World

Asia and the Pacific

Americas

Europe

Africa

3

Middle East

65-69

166

88

23

41

11

3

70-74

128

68

19

32

7

2

75-79

92

45

15

27

4

1

> 80

87

37

18

28

3

1

6,451

3,681

884

881

808

198

Total

Source: US Census Bureau

Most of the estimates of youth travel volume were based on limited data, because age profiles of travellers are not consistently collected among the tourism statistics of most countries (see chapter 3).

In trying to estimate the current size of the youth tourism market, therefore, an exhaustive search was made for data sources which could provide at least a partial picture of youth tourism demand.

Assuming that young people travel with the same frequency as other age groups in the population (this seems a reasonable conservative basis for estimation, since the indications are that youth travellers tend to make more trips on average than most other age groups), as using a narrow definition of youth travel (aged 15-24), the global youth travel market would account for over 130 million international tourist arrivals in 2005, or 16% of the total. Using a broader definition (aged 15-29), then the estimate would raise to 193 million arrivals in 2005, accounting for almost 24% of the total.

Table 1.2 Estimated international tourist arrivals by age group, 2005 (million) Age group

World

Asia and the Pacific

Americas

Europe

Africa

Middle East

15-24

131.2

29.1

23.4

67.3

4.3

4.4

15-29

192.6

41.6

34.2

100.5

5.9

6.4

The fact that 26% of the world’s population was aged between 15 and 29 in 2005 indicates the growth potential that exists in youth tourism. This potential is even greater when specific markets are considered. Although the current volume of international travel by young people in Europe is equal to about 50% of the youth population, the proportion of youth travellers is far lower in other regions. As youth populations are larger in many emerging tourism markets in Asia and Africa, there seems to be considerable room for future growth.

Table 1.3 Estimated youth travel as a proportion of total youth population by region, 2005 (%) Age group

World

Asia and the Pacific

Americas

Europe

Africa

Middle East

15-24

11

4

16

52

3

11

15-29

11

4

16

52

3

11

Other figures on specific markets give similar indications of the significance of the youth market. For example, data drawn from IPK statistics on five major generating markets in Europe indicate that travellers aged 15-29 accounted for about 23% of all outbound trips in 1998. These five markets accounted for about a third of all outbound trips globally in that year.

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Table 1.4 International outbound tourism data for five major european generating countries, 1998 Origin country

Total trips abroad

Age group 15-29

Million

%

Million

Germany

73

23

17

United Kingdom

36

22

8

France

16

22

4

Netherlands

15

25

4

Italy

14

25

3

154

23

36

Total Source: IPK, 2002

These data indicate that of the five major mature European generating markets, between one fifth and one quarter of the total number of outbound travellers was aged 15-29 years.

Estimates derived from inbound tourism statistics to a number of destinations provide a similar picture (table 1.5). Though the differences in definition noted above make it difficult to compare these figures directly, they give a general indication of the importance of youth tourism in global tourism flows.

These sample figures seem to support the contention of the UNWTO in 2001 that youth tourism accounted for about 20% of world’s international tourist arrivals. When these sample figures are grossed up to the level of total world arrivals, youth tourism accounted for an estimated total of around 140 million arrivals in 2002, or just under 21% of global tourism. Assuming the proportion of youth tourism remained the same, by 2005 this figure would have reached about 160 million international tourist arrivals a year, a value close to that estimated before. Figures supplied on the growth of youth tourism indicate an average annual growth rate of 3-5%, between 2002 and 2005 which compares with global tourism growth rates of around 3% a year over the same period.

Table 1.5 Proportion of student and youth tourism in total international tourist arrivals for selected countries Region

Africa

Americas

Country

Series

International Youth tourism arrivals, 2002 (%) (x 1,000)

Estimated youth arrivals, 2002 (x 1,000)

Notes

Mauritius

VF

709

32

232

Visitors under 30, 2003

Morocco

TF

4,453

20

838

Tourists under 25, 2003

Swaziland

TF

256

20

66

Tourists under 30, 2002

Anguilla

TF

44

27

15

Tourists under 30, 2001

Barbados

TF

498

37

198

Tourists under 35, 2003

Brazil

TF

3,785

17

643

Tourists 18-27, 2002

Canada

TF

20,057

27

5,415

Chile

TF

1,412

12

169

Tourists 15-24

Honduras

VF

788

27

149

Visitors under 30

Jamaica

VF

2,131

22

297

Visitors under 25, 2003

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Tourists under 30, 2002

Youth Travel – Definitions and Assessment

Region

Asia

Europe

Oceania

Country

Series

International Youth tourism arrivals, 2002 (%) (x 1,000)

Estimated youth arrivals, 2002 (x 1,000)

Notes

Tourists under 35

Bhutan

TF

6

16

1

China

TF

36,803

11

4,048

Tourists under 25, 2003

Hong Kong, China

VF

16,566

16

2,650

Visitors under 25, 2004

India

VF

2,428

38

901

Visitors under 30

Indonesia

TF

5,033

13

640

Tourists under 25, 2002

Japan

VF

5,239

30

1,571

Visitors under 30, 2001

Macao, China

VF

11,531

13

1,498

Visitors under 25, 2002

Nepal

TF

275

23

83

Republic of Korea

VF

5,347

29

1,130

Visitors under 30, 2003

Taiwan, Pr. of China

VF

2,978

27

606

Visitors under 30, 2003

Thailand

TF

1,873

10

1,047

Tourists 15-24, 2002

Cyprus

VF

2,495

20

249

Visitors 20-31, 2002

Finland

VF

4,687

15

689

Visitors under 25, 2002

Germany

TCE

17,969

34

6,109

Tourists 15-34, 2004

Ireland

TF

6,476

19

1,230

Tourists under 25, 2003

Israel

TF

862

24

357

Tourists under 25, 2004

Italy

TF

39,799

10

3,980

Inbound and domestic tourism

Lithuania

TF

1,428

29

416

Poland

TF

13,980

27

3,775

Tourists under 35, 2002

Spain

TF

52,327

17

8,797

Tourists under 25, 2004

United Kingdom

VF

24,180

36

8,705

Visitors under 35, 2004

Australia

VF

4,841

15

739

Visitors 15-25, 2002-2003

New Zealand

VF

2,045

33

675

Visitors under 30

302,301

19

57,669

Total

5

Tourists 16-30

Tourists 15-34, 1999

TF: Tourist arrivals at frontiers (excluding same-day visitors) TCE: Tourist arrivals at collective establishments VF: Visitors arrivals at frontiers (including same-day visitors) Source: WYSE Travel Confederation/UNWTO Survey of Youth Tourism Policy, 2005

The value of the youth tourism market Data on expenditure by young travellers are even scarcer than those on volume. Because of the perception of youth travellers as a low value market, they also tend to be ignored in many studies on tourism impacts. However, there is now a growing realisation that young people tend to spend a large proportion of their disposable income on travel, they stay longer in the destination and spend money directly with local businesses more often than most other travellers.

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

For example, a recent report from Youth Travel Consortium of Canada (2004) indicated that total youth travel receipts in Canada in 2002 were approximately C$ 12.3 billion. This represents close to 23% of the C$ 51.8 billion in total travel and tourism industry receipts in Canada that year. Data from Statistics Canada also indicates that travellers under 25 years old generate 54% more person visit-nights in domestic travel (non business/not visiting family) than those 55 and over.

In the United States of America, the 565,000 foreign students and their families were estimated to have generated total of almost US$ 13.3 billion in 2004-2005. In 2003, international backpackers accounted for 11% of overseas visitors to Australia, however they spent AU$ 2.3 billion during their stay.

International students studying in Australia were estimated to have generated a further AU$ 3.8 billion for the Australian economy in 2000-2001 (Michael, Armstrong and King, 2003). In New Zealand, the economic contribution of student expenditure on travel is estimated to be twice the level of domestic tourist spend (Cloesen, 2006).

A study of youth tourism from major generating markets by the UNWTO in 2002 indicated that the average spend for youth travellers from the United Kingdom, Germany and France, three of the leading world tourism generators, was e 730 per trip. This is very close to the global average for all tourists in 2002 (e 721). If we make the general assumption that youth tourism expenditure worldwide is roughly equivalent to the share for all international tourist arrivals, then the total international youth tourism spend in 2005 can be estimated at about 20% of total tourism spending, or e 109 billion (US$ 136 billion). Given the estimates generated for individual markets noted above, this figure is likely to be conservative.

Qualitative impacts of youth tourism Besides its importance in terms of tourism volume and expenditure, youth tourism also has important qualitative impacts.

First and foremost, travel is an important form of socialisation and education for young people around the world. As the WYSE Travel Confederation/UNWTO Survey of Youth Tourism Policy shows (see chapter 3), many governments see youth tourism as a means of increasing knowledge of one’s own and other cultures. WYSE Travel Confederation’s research on young independent travellers also shows that among the major benefits of travel is increased socialisation and development of social, cultural and personal skills. The data from the travel values research show that levels of interpersonal trust increased by 10% as a result of travel, and tolerance of other cultures grew by over 5% (see chapter 4).

The travel style of young people can also bring important benefits to the destination. Because young people tend to travel independently and look for cultural encounters and social interaction with the host population, they will tend to stay in local accommodation and spend money with local businesses.

This increases their direct impact on the economy compared with most other travellers, who often generate high economic leakages by demanding imported goods and staying in international chain hotels. The economic impact of young travellers is heightened by the fact that they usually stay longer in a given destination, so that although their daily spend may not be as high as other tourists, their total expenditure is often greater (see chapter 2).

In an increasingly insecure world, the desire of young people for adventure and a certain degree of risk means that they are likely to travel to destinations which might otherwise be avoided by other tourists. In the past, young people served as the ‘pioneers’ of new tourism destinations, opening them up for more traditional forms of tourism. Even though there are now fewer new destinations to be pioneered, young people play an important role in stabilising destinations which might be more vulnerable to factors such as political uncertainty.

In the longer term, investment in youth tourism markets is also an investment in the future. Young people who have positive travel experiences are likely to later return to destinations they have been to, bringing an important element of repeat visitation and increased tourism expenditure. In New Zealand, “58% of people who apply for residency have previously been to New Zealand as visitors and some of those would have been here on working holidays” (Dalziel, 2000).

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Governments are also beginning to realise that these current and long term benefits apply not only to independent youth travel, but increasingly to emerging niches such as student travel, language courses and work exchange. This has made governments increasingly likely to offer special visas to attract these groups, and studies have shown that these visitors can also attract friends and family during their stay, increasing the economic impact of an already long trip. WYSE Travel Confederation’s research also indicates that those governments, who have recognised the need for integrated action across different policy areas, including tourism, education, visa and work policies, are those which seem to have benefited most from youth travel. Australia is one country where integrated policies have produced widespread economic, social and cultural benefits from increased youth travel.

Market trends The youth tourism sector has changed rapidly over the past decade or so. Among the most important trends are increasing supply and demand, the emergence of new market segments, diversification, professionalisation, availability of market data and growing government recognition.

Increasing supply and demand: Although data on the growth of global youth travel market is lacking, evidence of demand growth comes from specific national studies. In Australia for example, the number of international backpacker arrivals grew from 194,000 in 1993 to 445,000 in 2003, an increase of almost 230%. In Germany, the number of young holiday travellers (15 to 34 years old) from Europe increased from 4.3 million in 2000 to 5.2 million in 2004, a growth of 21%.

The growth in the number of youth tourists, and the increasing recognition of youth travel as a distinct market, has stimulated the development of services and products for this market. There has been a marked growth in the youth accommodation sector, most notably through the growth of youth and backpacker hostels. The WYSE Travel Confederation report on the global youth accommodation industry (chapter 5) indicates that there are now some 1.6 million bedspaces in youth accommodation units worldwide, including almost 8,000 youth and backpacker hostels. The rapidly developing backpacker industry has recently seen the creation of hostels with up to 1,000 beds in city centre locations in Europe and Australasia.

New market niches: One of the effects of the growth in youth travel demand is that some of the constituent sectors of the overall market have become much more visible and clearly defined.

•

Backpacking: Backpacker travel is, according to many industry players, the core of the youth travel business, reflecting a long standing tradition of long-term independent travel among young people from many mature origin markets. Figures from WYSE Travel Confederation’s Independent Traveller Survey (see chapter 2) indicate that just under a quarter of young travellers worldwide see themselves as ‘backpackers’. However, the term ‘backpacker’ has only been consistently applied to such travellers in the academic literature since 1990, and the first policies on backpacker travel date from the mid 1990s. However the nascent backpacker industry has matured quickly, driven by rapid market and supply growth in key markets. In the English-speaking world, this market has spawned a series of industry associations linking hostels and backpacker service providers.

•

Student travel: Students are not only travelling for leisure, but they are also increasingly studying and working abroad as well. A study by the OECD revealed that there were almost 2 million students enrolled on courses in foreign countries in OECD member and partner states in 2002.

The number of enrolments had also grown by 11.5% compared with 2001, and 34% compared with 1998. This rate of growth far outstrips the global growth in international tourism over the same period.

This important market is now being actively targeted by governments keen to attract these long stay, high spend visitors. As in the case of backpacker tourism, Australia and New Zealand have been particularly active in developing the international student market. In Australia, the number of foreign students doubled between 1995 and 1997, and grew by a further 14% to 1999 (Michael, Armstrong and King, 2003). In New Zealand, education visitor numbers increased by 59% over the period 2000-2005, reaching over 50,000 arrivals a year.

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

•

Work experience: Chapter 6 of this report provides a more detailed analysis of work experience tourism, a rapidly growing market niche, which is becoming increasingly global. The study examined in detail in this chapter was supported by members of the International Association for Educational Work Exchange Programs (IAEWEP), which merged in October 2006 with the Global Work Experience Association (GWEA) to form the WYSE Work Abroad Association (www. wyseworkabroad.org).

Data from the Independent Traveller Survey (chapter 3) also indicate that over 7% of the global youth travel market is related to work abroad, and that these travellers spend an average of US$ 3,200 per trip. There is also an increasingly important market in ‘gap year’ travel, where young people entering higher education take a year off between school and university. Mintel (2004) estimates that global gap year tourism accounts for about 1 million to 1.5 million trips per year.

Around 90% of the long-haul travel involved in this market is organised independently.

•

Language learning: As chapter 7 of this report shows, language learning is a major youth travel growth market, serviced by members of the Association of Language Travel Organisations (ALTO).

This study shows that current growth rates in this segment are well above tourism markets in general, and that language students spend a relatively long time in the destination. Data from the Independent Traveller Survey (chapter 3) also indicate that more than 2% of youth travellers have language learning as their primary purpose of visit, and that they spend well above the average for youth travellers (US$ 3,300 per trip).

At present, language tourism seems to be more important for those countries with a major world language, particularly English and Spanish. For example, a 2005 British Council report indicated that demand for international student places in the ‘Main English Speaking Destinations’ was expected to grow from 1 million in 2003 to 2.6 million by 2020. Language Travel Magazine also estimated that the total market for English courses in native English speaking countries was worth over US$ 7.5 billion in 2002 in terms of total student expenditure, with the largest two destinations in terms of incoming language travel being the United Kingdom and the United States of America.

A recent report also indicated that foreign students spent over 590,000 study weeks in Canadian language schools in 2003, with an average spend of almost C$ 3,500 a month. This indicates a total spend of C$ 516 million for language students in Canada alone (CAPLS, 2004).

Professionalisation Just as the different market niches have spawned industry associations, there is also a growing level of professionalism across the industry as a whole. As the size of the market grows, so does the scale of operation of many major players, and as in other sectors of the travel industry, there is increasing emphasis on quality.

Membership of the leading youth travel organisations has grown considerably in recent years. For example, FIYTO membership rose from 353 organisations in 1999 to 517 members in 2006. At the end of 2006, FIYTO merged with the International Student Travel Confederation (ISTC) to form WYSE Travel Confederation, which now enjoys a membership of more than 550 organisations.

As professionalism grows, the need and capacity to develop quality services in youth travel rises accordingly. A growing number of organisations, particularly in the accommodation sector, are developing quality standard schemes.

Availability of market data The large number of sources listed in the WYSE Travel Confederation annotated bibliography of Research Studies on Youth and Student Travel (see Bibliography of this report) underlines the increasing attention paid to the sector in recent years by academics and industry associations alike. In the United States of America, for example, the Student and Youth Travel Association has recently begun working together

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with the Michigan State University in 2006 to undertake specific studies of the youth travel market (www.syta.org). Specialised international research networks such as the ATLAS Backpacker Research Group (www.atlas-euro.org) are also adding to our understanding of this dynamic industry and social phenomenon. Through such networks and studies, the economic, social and cultural benefits of youth mobility are becoming increasingly well understood, documented and recognised.

Government recognition As the survey of national tourism administrations/organizations (NTAs/NTOs) in chapter 3 of this report indicates, governments are now more aware of the existence of the youth travel market and keener to promote youth tourism.

A growing number of countries are therefore implementing specific policies to develop and market youth tourism, seeking to attract youth niche markets and trying to ease visa barriers for young travellers.

Taken together, all of these trends underline the growing importance of youth and student travel in the global tourism industry.

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Chapter 2 Profile of the Young Independent Traveller, 2007

The WYSE Travel Confederation survey of independent travellers is designed to expand the understanding of international youth and student travel and test some of the widely-held notions about this market.

It provides insight into various dimensions and characteristics of the international youth and student travel experience from the point of view of those who participate in it – young people and students themselves.

The survey was first conducted in 2002, with the support of the Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS), and then repeated in late 2006 and early 2007, allowing trends to be measured for a number of key variables.

The surveys were conducted using mailing lists provided by members of WYSE Travel Confederation in Africa, Asia, Europe and North America. The email response questionnaire generated over 2,300 responses in 2002 and over 8,500 in 2007. Most major world regions were well represented in the 2007 survey, with the exception of Africa. In general, the distribution of respondents matches the pattern of international youth tourism. (To view the complete survey report, please visit www.wysetc.org).

Table 2.1 Distribution of survey responses by world region/subregion Regions/subregions Africa

Number of answers

Survey respondents (%)

70

0.8

Asia/Pacific

1,453

17.0

North America

1,525

17.9

840

9.8

Europe

4,653

54.5

Total

8,541

100.0

Latin America

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

As in the 2002 survey, there were more female respondents (73%) than male respondents (27%) underlining the increasingly important role of female travellers in the youth market. This proportion is similar to that found in other studies of this type, such as the Lonely Planet Traveller’s (2006).

The average age of respondents in 2002 was 23.6 and in 2007 this had risen to 24.5.

Who Are the Youth and Student Travellers?

The respondents had a relatively high level of education, with around 70% of travellers studying for or already having a higher education qualification in both 2002 and 2007. The stereotype of poor youth and student travellers seems to be confirmed by half the respondents having an income of US$ 5,000 or less in both 2002 and 2007. However, the relatively large travel budgets (see below) indicate that most are able to save up for a major trip, or can supplement their income by working abroad.

Questions of identity are important for young people, and this is reflected in the terms they use to describe their travel style. Less than a quarter of young people defined themselves as ‘tourists’, and the proportion has fallen since 2002. Almost half the respondents saw themselves as ‘travellers’ in both © 2008 World Tourism Organization – ISBN 978-92-844-1239-6

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

2002 and 2007. The backpacker label was slightly less popular in 2007. The desire to escape from the traditional travel labels is reflected in the large number of people preferring to create their own definition for their travel style in 2007. Of those opting for another label, the most frequent responses included ‘a mixture of backpacker/traveller/tourist’, ‘volunteer’, or ‘student’.

Figure 2.1 Travel style of young people, 2007 (%) Other 6 Tourist 23

Backpacker 25

Traveller 46 Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

Older respondents with more travel experience in particular rejected the ‘tourist’ designation, more often calling themselves ‘travellers’. Younger respondents were significantly more likely to call themselves ‘backpackers’. ‘Backpackers’ also tend to be found where the development of the backpacker industry is strongest (for example, within destinations with dedicated backpacker infrastructure in South East Asia, the Indian sub-continent and Australasia).

Why Are Young People and Students Travelling?

In terms of the main purpose of their most recent main trip, exploring other countries and cultures was cited by over a third of travellers. Although fun and relaxation was the main aim of the trip for some, such ‘leisure’ motivations were far outweighed by those wanting to explore or undertake more specific types of travel such as learning a language or volunteering. Altogether, ’non-leisure’ motivations accounted for over 70% of all trips.

Figure 2.2 Purpose of most recent main trip, 2007 (%) Language course 2

Volunteering 3 Work abroad 7 Study abroad 9

Explore other places/cultures 34

Visit friends and relatives (VFR) 17 Relax and have fun 28 Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

An analysis of the more detailed motivations for the last trip indicate that even where there is a clear purpose for travelling, the trip usually covers a mix of different motivational factors. Overall, the search for experience tended to be most important, as it was in 2002. Exploring other cultures, increasing one’s

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knowledge and experiencing everyday life were all rated as important or very important by over 80% of young travellers in 2007. Interacting with local people was also rated as an important motivation (76%), showing that above all what young people are looking for in their travel experiences is contact with other cultures and new ideas. In particular, there was a marked increase in people saying that they wanted to help people and make a contribution to the places they visit. This may be indicative of the fact that young travellers often build important bonds with the places and people they visit (see chapter 4).

Figure 2.3 Main motivation for most recent main trip, 2002 and 2007 (% very important or important) Explore other cultures Increase my knowledge Experience everday life Interact with local people Relax mentally Learn more about myself Avoid the hustle and bustle 2002

Have a good time with friends

2007

Relax physically Build new friendships Be in a calm atmosphere Test and develop physical abilities Help people and make a positive contribution Visit friends and relatives Meet other travellers 0

20

40

60

80

100

Agree% agree Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

How Much Travel Experience Do They Already Have?

In terms of their international travel activity over the last five years, the global average number of short trips (less than 7 days) was 6.2, and the number of long trips (7 days or more) was 5. This indicates an average of about one short trip and one long trip a year. Over the past 12 months, however, the global average number of short trips was almost two a year, and the number of long trips over 1.5. Again this seems to indicate a general increase in the level of trip taking among young people in recent years.

Table 2.2 Number of trips taken in the last five years and in the last 12 months Regions/subregions

Last five years

Last 12 months

Short trips

Long trips

Short trips

Long trips

(less than 7 days)

(7 days or more)

(less than 7 days)

(7 days or more)

Africa

2.0

3.9

0.7

1.4

Asia/Pacific

5.2

3.7

1.8

1.6

North America

4.1

3.8

1.2

1.2

Latin America

7.3

5.2

2.2

1.8

Europe

7.0

5.9

2.0

1.7

Total

6.2

5.0

1.9

1.6

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Young travellers were also asked to indicate how many trips they had made outside of their home region during their lifetime. This gives an indication of the level of long haul travel, which tends to be less frequent than international travel in general. On average, the travellers had made more than seven major trips outside their region of residence over their entire travel career. The number of overall trips taken increased from 6.2 in 2002 to 7.3 in 2007, indicating a growing frequency of travel (although some of this rise may be accounted for by the slightly older sample in 2007). Over their lifetime, Europeans had made the most trips outside their home region, and North Americans the least. This emphasises the relative ease of international travel in Europe, and also the relative difficulty of making international trips from North America.

Table 2.3 Average number of trips taken in lifetime by world region/subregion Regions/subregions

Average number of lifetime trips

Africa

4.4

Asia/Pacific

7.0

North America

1.7

Latin America

6.6

Europe

9.4

Total

7.3

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

What Information Sources Do They Use for Planning Their Trip?

Youth and student travellers tend to be information intensive, consulting a wide range of information sources before departure. Internet remains the main form of pre-trip information gathering (80%), followed by family and friends (70%) (figure 2.4). The dominance of Internet as an information source is highlighted by the fact that in 2007 tourist office information increased from 10% to 52%, thanks to the question being broadened to include tourist office websites. This indicates that, not only is Internet the most consulted medium, but travellers are searching a number of different types of websites to find the information they need. The use of travel agencies and tourist office information also increased in 2007, which may indicate that they are adapting themselves to new market conditions, for example by providing more information over the Internet.

Figure 2.4 Information sources consulted before departure on most recent main trip, 2002 and 2007 (%) Internet Family, friends Tourist office/website Travel agency Guidebooks

2002

Previous visit

2007

Tour operator brochures/websites Product suppliers Newspaper, magazines Embassy/Consulate TV/radio Other books Exhibition/fair/trade shows 0

10

20

30

40

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

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50

60

70

80

90

Profile of the Young Independent Traveller, 2007

15

In general, less experienced travellers tended to rely more on friends and family and travel agents for information, whereas Internet and guidebooks tended to be used more by experienced travellers.

Guidebooks were also consulted more by ‘backpackers’ prior to departure, compared with ‘travellers’ or ‘tourists’, the same pattern that was seen in 2002. Backpackers are also more likely to use internet and most other sources of information, underlining their role as information-hungry trip planners. This is usually because they are making longer visits to more ‘difficult’ destinations which require higher levels of planning.

Figure 2.5 Information sources used in trip planning by different traveller types, 2007 (%) Internet Family, friends Guidebooks Tourist information office material/website Travel agency

 Tourists  Travellers  Backpackers

Tour operator brochures/websites Information from previous visit Product suppliers: airlines, hostels, hotels, language, schools Embassy/Consulate Newspaper, magazines TV/radio Exhibition/fair/trade shows 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

Respondents consulted an average of four different information sources prior to their trip, a significant increase compared with 2002, when the average was only three sources. The number of sources consulted increased with trip length, and more experienced travellers also consulted significantly more sources pre-departure.

How Do They Book Their Travel, Accommodation and Activities?

There is little doubt that booking behaviour is changing rapidly with the introduction of new technologies, and young travellers are among the most avid users of these new possibilities. The 2007 survey indicates that for those who make prior bookings, about half the market is now reserving their air travel online, and over 60% are making accommodation bookings over the Internet. Travel agents are still very important in the surface and air travel markets (and have an even larger share in terms of booking value), and also account for a large number of insurance and tour product sales. Niche products, such as work and study abroad and volunteering, are likely to be sold by a relatively small number of specialist agencies.

Table 2.4 Mode of booking for most recent main trip, 2007 (%) Travel component

Online

In a travel agency

Phone or fax

Air travel

51.7

38.3

10.0

Surface travel

48.6

40.6

10.8

Accommodation

63.5

21.2

15.3

Language course

54.9

27.9

17.2

Work abroad programme

57.1

25.4

17.5

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Travel component

Online

In a travel agency

Phone or fax

Study abroad programme

55.7

24.8

19.5

Volunteer programme

58.3

24.5

17.2

Insurance

45.9

39.5

14.6

Tours

41.2

47.4

11.4

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

These figures indicate that, although the use of the Internet to search for information has only increased slightly in the last five years (from 70% to 80% of respondents), the number of bookings made on the Internet has grown dramatically, from 10% in 2002 to almost 50% in 2007. This shows that Internet is increasingly being seen as a trusted medium for booking travel as well as finding information.

In terms of the type of suppliers that bookings are made with, specialist student or youth travel agents are still very important for this market, even when bookings are made online. Almost half of the young travellers booked air travel with specialist travel agencies, for example. In general, the role of travel agents reflects the demand for advice from the customer (which will reflect the complexity of the product) as well as the availability of commissionable products. If travel products do not offer a commission to the agency, they will either not be sold, or else the agency will charge a fee for making a booking. Although young travellers are very likely to use travel agents to purchase standard commissionable products such as air travel, surface travel or accommodation, products such as work abroad or volunteer programmes are more complex and are likely to be purchased through other channels.

Table 2.5 Booking means for travel component, 2007 (%) Travel component

Other specialised travel agent

Directly with product supplier

Other

General travel agent

Specialised student/ youth travel agent

Air travel

21.2

47.2

6.1

22.9

2.6

Surface travel

13.3

25.5

6.7

46.8

7.7

Accommodation

8.9

23.2

6.8

46.4

14.7

Language course

6.6

20.0

9.2

47.8

16.4

Work abroad programme

6.5

24.0

10.7

40.1

18.7

Study abroad programme

5.8

18.6

5.4

48.1

22.1

Volunteer programme

5.6

22.6

8.1

40.5

23.2

Insurance

12.9

41.7

6.2

31.1

8.1

Tours

16.7

31.2

9.2

33.1

9.8

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

When asked about the factors that influence how they make their travel arrangements, the most important aspect for young travellers is price. This is hardly surprising, as many are travelling on a restricted budget. Beyond this, the quality of service and product tend to be the most important features.

In spite of the attempts by many travel suppliers to develop brands in this market, young people do not see this as important in their purchasing decisions (although it should be recognised that some people may not like admitting that they are influenced by brands). Although most travellers use the Internet to find information, the ability to book online is still not as important as one might expect. This may be partly due to continuing resistance from some travellers to booking online, but it may also reflect the relatively low access to credit cards among this group.

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Table 2.6 Factors influencing travel arrangements on most recent main trip, 2007 (%) Factors of influence

%

Price

94.3

Quality of information and services provided by travel agency or product supplier

37.6

Reputation and quality of the travel products (e.g. airline, accommodation provider, etc.)

33.1

Flexibility to change travel plans after purchase

30.7

Ability to book online

29.6

Speed and efficiency

24.0

Access to specialised student/youth travel products

21.1

Range of different products available

20.0

Reputation and quality of the travel agency (whether on-line or store-based)

13.5

Having a travel shop/agent close by

4.5

Buying a well-known brand

3.9

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

Over 60% of the respondents obtained some kind of student discount on their trip in 2007, which represents a slight increase compared with 2002. Air travel was the most frequent source of discounts (46% of respondents), followed by surface travel (43%) and accommodation (40%). In terms of the specific discount cards used, the International Student Identity Card (ISIC) was most well-known and most widely used among young travellers.

Table 2.7 Discount cards young travellers have heard of, 2007 (%) Card

%

ISIC

92

Local cards

78

IYHF

56

IYTC

43

EURO < 26

41

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

Local cards were most widely used in the destination, but the ISIC card was used more often to book air travel.

Table 2.8 Discounts obtained using cards by travel product, 2007 (%) Card

Air travel

Surface travel

Euro < 26

1.3

1.2

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.5

0.6

IYHF

0.3

1

5.1

0.3

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.7

Local

4.8

5.9

3.1

1.9

1.3

2.2

1.3

3.9

4.2

19.7

17.5

11.9

3.5

3.1

3.7

2.8

8.8

12

4

2.6

3.1

0.3

0.4

0.4

0.4

1.2

1.7

18.2

18.2

19.8

21.5

22

21.2

21.8

19.9

19.3

ISIC IYTC Other

Accomm. Language course

Work abroad

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

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Study Volunteer Insurance abroad programme

Tours

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Those travellers who used the ISIC card to obtain discounts during their travels saved an average of almost US$ 100 on their last main trip. The amount saved increased significantly for longer journeys, with those who travelled for between four and six months saving over US$ 150.

Figure 2.6 Amount saved by using ISIC card on most recent main trip, 2007 (US$) 0ver 180

Trip length (days)

121-180 91-120 61-90 31-60 15-30 0-14 0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

Where Do They Go? The survey respondents were asked to indicate the destinations they had visited during their entire travel career, as well as the destinations they had visited during their most recent major trip.

Regions ever visited over whole ‘travel career’ Over the course of their entire ‘travel career’, the respondents had visited many world regions, with over half having visited Northern and Southern Europe and over 40% having visited North America and Eastern Europe. This general pattern changed little between the 2002 and 2007 surveys. There was some decrease in the relative importance of European destinations, largely because of the wider global spread of survey respondents in 2007. Those regions which show a significant increase in visitation, such as South-East Asia and Australia, have increased largely because of changes in the survey sample (particularly the increase in Asian and United Kingdom respondents in 2007). It is clear, however, that most regions show an increase in visitation levels in the last five years, again underlining the growing frequency and range of youth travel.

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Figure 2.7 Destinations ever visited over entire â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;travel careerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and destinations visited on most recent main trip, 2002 and 2007 (%) Southern Europe Nothern Europe North America Eastern Europe South East Asia Australasia

2007

2002

Central America/Caribbean China/Japan North Africa Middle East Central Asia South America Central/Southern Africa Indian subcontinent Arctic/Antarctica 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

Destinations on the most recent main trip The most popular destinations for the last main trip taken by young travellers were Australia, the United States of America and France, all of which were visited by more than 10% of travellers. These figures match fairly closely the international tourist arrivals data of the UNWTO, which listed France as the top international destination in 2006, and the United States of America as number three. The major exception is the high level of visitation for Australia, a pattern which is influenced by the large number of United Kingdom respondents in the survey.

Figure 2.8 Top 20 destinations visited during most recent main trip, 2007 (%) Australia United States of America France Spain Italy Germany United Kingdom Thailand New Zealand China Greece Canada Austria Czech Republic Mexico Egypt India Estonia Malaysia Turkey 0

2

4

NB: A trip may cover more than one destination Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

6

8

10

12

14

20

Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

There is also some evidence that young people construct a ‘travel career’, starting out in the ‘easier’ destinations with most independent travel infrastructure, and later striking out for more ‘adventurous’ destinations. In 2007, among the destinations which tended to attract more experienced travellers were Vietnam, Morocco, South Africa, India and Argentina, whereas the less experienced travellers tended to be found in European destinations.

Although it is obviously easiest to travel to major gateways which are well served by air and other transport links, a large proportion of young travellers are keen to get ‘off the beaten track’ into nontourist areas. Backpackers in particular tend to travel further afield, although the ‘travellers’ are those who try hardest to distinguish themselves from the ‘tourists’ in their activities.

Figure 2.9 Travel locations and activities by travel style, 2007 (%) 55 ���Travel beyond gateways ���Non-typical activities

50

45

40

35

30 Backpacker

Traveller

Tourist

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

What Transport Do They Use? In 2007, the transport question was changed slightly to cover main modes of transport used outside major cities. The intention was to identify the main forms of long distance travel used, rather than those used for shorter, intra-urban trips.

Table 2.9 Transport used outside of major cities on most recent main trip, 2007 (%) Means of transport

%

Bus

62.6

Car

45.0

Rail

42.5

Air

32.5

Bicycle/moped/motorcycle

9.9

Other, specify

9.2

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Profile of the Young Independent Traveller, 2007

21

These data indicate that the main means of long distance travel was bus, followed by car and rail. Air travel was only used by a third of respondents to travel within their chosen destination, although as the 2002 survey indicated, this was by far the most frequent means of travel to the main destination itself.

Where Do They Stay?

The main form of accommodation for young travellers continues to be hostels, with over 60% having stayed in some sort of hostel in 2007 (a slight increase compared with 2002). Independent or backpacker hostels were used more frequently (37%) than â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;officialâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Youth Hostels (24%). Interestingly, the proportion of travellers staying in hotels also increased in 2007, indicating the growing convergence between hostels and budget hotels in the youth market.

Table 2.10 Accommodation used on most recent main trip, 2007 (%) Accommodation

%

Hostel

61.5

Hotel

47.6

Stayed with family or friends

36.1

Guesthouse, pension, etc.

19.9

Bed & Breakfast/room in a private house

18.9

Self catering accommodation

11.5

Tent/caravan

12.1

Other

8.9

Campervan/motor home

3.7

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

The fact that young travellers seek out budget accommodation or stay with friends and relatives means that a higher proportion of their expenditure is likely to be made with local businesses rather than national or global chains. This may have the effect of increasing their local economic impact in relation to other types of visitors.

How Long Do They Stay?

In line with general trends in the tourism market, it seems that young people are taking more frequent, shorter trips. The average length of the main trip taken fell from 63 days in 2002 to just over 53 days in 2007. In particular, the number of trips of two weeks or less grew considerably in comparison with 2002, and now accounts for over 45% of all main trips taken. In contrast, there has been little change in the proportion of trips of six months or more, which still account for almost 8% of all main trips.

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

22

Youth Travel Matters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Figure 2.10 Trip length in days, 2007 (%) 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0-14

15-30

31-60

61-90

91-120

121-180

> 180

Days Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

The longest trips were made by respondents from Africa, and the shortest trips by travellers from Latin America. Respondents from the other regions were all very close to the average trip length.

Table 2.11 How long was your most recent main trip abroad?, 2007 Regions/subregions

Average trip length (number of days)

Africa

68

Asia/Pacific

55

North America

56

Latin America

47

Europe

53

Total

53

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

How Much Do They Spend?

In 2007, the average total travel expenditure for all respondents was about US$ 2,600. Of this amount, about 40% was spent on transport, which in most cases meant air fares. This means that about US$ 1,550 per main trip was spent in the destination. Of the money spent in the destination, accommodation was the largest single element, although as previous studies have indicated, accommodation accounts for a lower proportion of total spend that for most other types of tourist.

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Profile of the Young Independent Traveller, 2007

23

Table 2.12 Spend breakdown for most recent main trip, 2007 (%) Spend breakdown

Share

Transportation to/from the primary destination

31.5

Transportation between secondary destinations (e.g. pre-paid railpass)

9.5

Accommodation

18.1

Food and drinks

15.1

Communication (phone, internet, postcards, etc.)

4.1

Activities and entertainment

11.2

Other

10.6

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

There was a marked increase in expenditure in 2007 compared with the previous survey in 2002. Total average expenditure increased by 39%, and expenditure in the destination grew by almost 29%. The growth in total expenditure is almost 8% a year, ahead of inflation and slightly higher than the growth in per capita travel expenditure in general.

Table 2.13 Travel spend on last main trip in 2002 and 2007 (US$) 2002

2007

Change (%)

Total spend

1,875

2,600

39

Spend in destination

1,200

1,550

29

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

In terms of total spend, the highest spending came from the Americas, largely because of their relatively high expenditure on transport (figure 2.11). Europeans tended to spend least on their last major trip, however it should be remembered that the high frequency of trips taken by young Europeans means that their total annual travel spend is likely to be highest of all regions.

Grossed up to the level of total global youth travel spend (an estimated e 109 billion), these figures indicate that young travellers spent about e 43.6 billion (US$ 58.9 billion) on travelling to the destination and e 65.4 billion (US$ 88.3 billion) in the destination itself.

Figure 2.11 Average total spend by region of origin, 2007 (US$) 3.500 3.000 2.500 2.000 1.500 1.000 500 0 Africa

Asia/Pacific

North America

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Latin America

Europe

24

Youth Travel Matters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

What Do They Do on Their Travels?

In terms of those activities that young travellers most enjoy on a long trip abroad, visiting popular tourist attractions was the most frequently cited, followed by visiting cultural attractions and meeting local people. Although frequenting popular tourist sites was a desirable activity for many, there was also a sizeable group who indicated that they preferred to get off the beaten track. Those who were most likely to seek non-tourist destination were travellers from North America and Europe, whereas African, Asian and Latin American travellers tended to be more interested in the popular tourist sites.

Table 2.14 Activities you most enjoy when taking a long trip abroad?, 2007 (%) Activities

%

Visiting popular, well known tourist attractions

46.3

Visiting cultural attractions (museums, galleries, heritage sites, etc.)

45.4

Meeting local people

45.1

Eating and drinking

43.3

Getting off the beaten track/visiting non-tourist areas

36.9

Relaxing on a beach

26.8

Attending events and festivals

25.0

Learning a language

19.6

Hiking/trekking

18.7

Visiting friends and family

18.0

Sports (surfing, skiing, water sports, etc.)

16.3

Gaining work experience/developing new skills

9.8

Other

2.3

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

In terms of the activities actually undertaken during their last main trip, it seems that the travellers spent more time doing everyday activities. Although visiting tourist attractions was still a main activity for most respondents, the most frequently undertaken pastimes were shopping and sitting in cafes. There have been no major changes in the popularity of activities between 2002 and 2007, except that visits to specific cultural attractions seem to have declined slightly. It may be that the desire of young people to experience everyday life in the destination is also being expressed through spending more time in those everyday locations where they are most likely to meet local people and to soak up the atmosphere of everyday life. Among the few activities which increased in popularity in 2007 were earning money and working as a volunteer. This seems to underline the trend towards more personal development as well as the need for many young people to fund their travel by working in the destination.

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Profile of the Young Independent Traveller, 2007

25

Figure 2.12 Activities undertaken in the destination on most recent main trip, 2002 and 2007 (%)

2007

2002

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

What Communication Channels Do They Use during Their Trip?

Modern communication technologies make it much easier to stay in touch with home during a trip, almost regardless of the destination. It is clear, however, that not every traveller wants to be in constant contact with â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;homeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. About a third of young travellers who are away for one month or more never make contact with people at home.

Figure 2.13 How often do you make contact with home? Travellers away for at least one month, 2007 (%) 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Daily

Every 2-3 days

Weekly

Monthly

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Less than once a month

Never

26

Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Of the available means of communication, Internet has consolidated its position as the most popular way of keeping in touch with home while travelling. In 2002, about 68% of respondents used Internet or email, but in 2007 this had risen to almost 80%. Internet is heavily used by those contacting home weekly or more frequently, whereas those keeping in touch every day are more likely to use text messages. More than half of travellers still write letters or postcards, but these tend to be sent fairly infrequently.

Figure 2.14 Communication methods used on trip by frequency of use, 2007 (%) ��������

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��� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� � �����

�������

����������

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

In terms of the different means of communication available, the shifts in use between 2002 and 2007 have been relatively small. There has been a 10% growth in the proportion of travellers using Internet, and a 15% decline in the use of regular phones. The major change that has taken place is therefore a growth in the frequency with which people are staying in touch, rather than the medium of communication.

With the growth of Internet telephony, the Internet is now used as a much more frequent means of communication, rather than just checking emails every few days or weeks.

Reflecting on the Trip – What Do They Gain from Their Travels?

The benefits that travellers felt they had gained from their travels have changed little between 2002 and 2007. The main benefit gained from travel was a thirst for more travel (figure 2.15). Once young people start travelling, they find it difficult to stop, underlining the importance of attracting backpackers early in their ‘travel careers’ as they are likely to remain avid travellers. Apart from a desire to travel more, a trip is likely to awaken an interest in learning about other cultures and generate more understanding and appreciation of cultural differences. These important findings are also confirmed by the results of the cultural impacts of travel survey (see chapter 4).

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Profile of the Young Independent Traveller, 2007

27

Figure 2.15 Benefits gained from travel, 2007 (%)

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

Travel also has an important impact on the values and attitudes of young people. In 2007, over 80% of travellers said that their trip had changed their overall lifestyle in some way. And nearly three quarters indicated that they had re-evaluated their career goals and options as a result of their trip. Their travel experiences also made the majority of young people more likely to travel independently in the future, indicating healthy prospects for the youth travel market.

Table 2.15 The impact of travel experiences on attitudes and lifestyle, 2007 (%) My travel experiences abroad have...

(%)

Changed my overall lifestyle

81.0

Changed how I think about my career options, professional goals, etc.

73.7

Made me travel in a more responsible manner (i.e. more respect for other cultures and the environment)

69.6

Made me think about issues of social justice, poverty, international relations, etc.

66.2

Strengthened my personal values and ethics

60.5

Made me more likely to arrange independent-style travel experiences in the future

58.2

Increased my understanding of and respect for other cultures

40.2

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey, 2007

In terms of events and problems which might prevent people from travelling, such as war or natural disasters, young people reveal themselves to be relatively fearless travellers. Only about 3% of travellers indicated that they had delayed their trip abroad because of terrorism, crime, political instability or other problems. The main reason for young travellers to avoid visiting certain destinations was crime, which is often more of a structural issue in the areas visited than is terrorism or war. Even then, perceived levels of crime were more likely to produce a feeling of anxiety rather than an actual change in travel plans.

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28

Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Figure 2.16 What impact did the following factors have on your travel plans?, 2007 (%) �� �� ��

No impact at all Made me anxious about visiting certain places Made me avoid certain destinations Caused me to delay my trip abroad

�� �� �� �� �� �� � ���������

�����

������� ��������� �����������

������� ���������

���������

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation Profile of the Young Independent Traveller, 2007

Conclusions The results of the 2007 WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey underline the dynamic and buoyant nature of the youth travel market. In summary, young people are: •

Travelling more often: the average number of trips taken by young people has increased in the last five years.

•

Exploring more destinations: young people are taking more trips outside their own home region and exploring new areas of the world.

•

Spending more on travel: spending on the main trip abroad increased by almost 40% between 2002 and 2007, a rate of growth faster than the international travel market as a whole. As a proportion of their total income, young people spend more than any other group on international travel.

•

Booking more over the Internet: young travellers are early adopters of new travel technology.

Internet is now used by more than 80% of young travellers to search for information before their trip, and the proportion of Internet searches converted into bookings has grown four-fold over the past five years.

•

Experience hungry: what young travellers want most of all from their travel is a range of different experiences, often involving the everyday life and culture of the places they visit. Contacts with local people are particularly important in this process.

•

Information hungry: young travellers are consulting a growing number of information sources in planning their trips, even though the average length of visit is falling.

•

Intrepid travellers: very few young travellers are deterred by problems such as terrorism, natural disasters or epidemics. For them, travel is a way of life, and a certain level of risk is a part of travel, even though this can be minimised through careful planning.

•

Getting a lot out of their travel: travel experiences seem to make young people even thirstier for travel. The contacts with other people and cultures stimulate them to want to learn more and to develop themselves still further. Travel is now an experience which young people feel is changing their lifestyles, and in fact is becoming a lifestyle in itself for many.

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Chapter 3 Government Policy on Youth Travel – An International Review

In order to assess the current awareness of student and youth travel and the level to which governments are actively involved in developing and marketing youth travel products, WYSE Travel Confederation and UNWTO launched a joint research project in 2005. Specific questions on student and youth travel were added to the Questionnaire on Tourism Development that UNWTO carries out every year in the framework of its series of Tourism Market Trends reports. Results were published in the 2005 Edition of Tourism Market Trends: World Overview & Tourism Topics.

The 220 responding countries were asked questions about the following topics: •

Definition of student and youth tourism;

•

specific policies for student and youth tourism;

•

tourism development for student and youth markets;

•

marketing activity for student and youth tourism;

•

collection of statistics on student and youth tourism.

Recognition of Student and Youth Travel Notwithstanding some notable examples of government campaigns to develop youth travel, the general level of recognition of student and youth travel is relatively low. Only 41 countries (34% of valid responses) recognised youth and/or student travel as a specific market, indicating that the majority of countries do not see student and youth tourism as distinct from the general tourism market.

In general, recognition of student and youth travel was proportionally higher in Asia and Africa. In the Americas, recognition of student and youth tourism is particularly low. The general pattern seems to be that student and youth tourism is a higher priority for developing markets at present.

Figure 3.1 Recognition of student and youth tourism as a separate category by region, 2005 (%) ��� �� �� �� �� � ������

��������

������������

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation/UNWTO Survey of Youth Tourism Policy, 2005

© 2008 World Tourism Organization – ISBN 978-92-844-1239-6

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

������

�����������

30

Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Although many countries do not have an umbrella policy for student and youth tourism, increasing attention is being paid to specific niches within the overall market, such as student travel, volunteer tourism, language tourism and cultural exchanges.

Collection of Statistics Not many countries gather specific figures on youth or student tourism, and those which do use widely varying collection methods. Only 38 countries (32%) indicated that they collect statistics.

There are significant differences in the collection of statistics by world region. Oceania is the subregion where the largest proportion of countries collects statistics on this market, which probably relates to the high proportion of countries in the region with a specific policy.

Figure 3.2 Collection of statistics on student and youth tourism by region, 2005 (%) �� �� �� �� �� �� �� � � ������

��������

������������

������

�����������

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation/UNWTO Survey of Youth Tourism Policy, 2005

Student and Youth Tourism Policy Governments can directly or indirectly influence student and youth travel in many different ways. They can facilitate travel by young people not only through tourism policy, but also as part of educational or cultural policy. They also have a role in providing youth tourism infrastructure and facilities, most notably through regulation in the area of accommodation. Finally, governments can raise or lower barriers to travel through their policies on visas.

Many countries mentioned the importance of visa policies for student and youth tourism. There are already some signs that student travel and working holidays for young people may be under threat from tightened visa controls in response to global terrorism. The 2005 OECD report on education1 notes a slowing of growth in student travel to the United States of America. Some countries are therefore taking steps to ease visa problems for young people, for example by extending visa waivers or lowering visa fees.

Relatively few countries have a specific policy for student and youth travel. The policies that do exist are generally related to promotion and marketing (see below). There are some signs that the number of specific policies relating to student and youth tourism is increasing, however. Hungary includes youth

1

OECD (2005), Education at a Glance, Paris, OECD

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Government Policy on Youth Travel – An International Review

31

tourism in the National Tourism Master Plan to 2013, and India identified youth tourism packages as a key tourism objective in the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002).

The most comprehensive policies relating to student and youth tourism seem to have been developed in Asia, where a number of countries see travel as an extension of the education process, and as a means of generating international understanding. For example, Taiwan (Province of China) has an ‘Action Plan to Promote International Student and Youth Travel’ and the Philippines also has specific youth tourism policies.

In Oceania, Australia and New Zealand are more actively involved in promoting youth tourism by developing the backpacker market. Because the development of backpacker tourism has been led largely by the private sector (particularly the providers of hostel accommodation), this represents a more free market approach to youth tourism development. There has been substantial growth in the backpacker market in recent years in both countries.

The importance of student tourism has prompted many countries to ease visa restrictions, particularly in allowing students to work. In the United Kingdom, for example, there were 578,000 inbound study visits in 2004, and the total overseas student population in the United Kingdom was of 270,000 (Visit Britain, 2005). In Australia, studies have shown that students not only travel extensively within Australia, but they also attract friends and relatives to visit them during their stay. A recent study of students in Melbourne, for example, indicated that over half the students were visited for an average of 31 days each (Jarvis and Peel, 2005). In some cases, young people are also specifically targeted for working holidays. In Australia, the Working Holiday Maker visa programme expanded from 74,450 visas in 1999-2000, to 93,760 in 2003-2004. In New Zealand, growth has been even more dramatic, from 8,000 visas in 1998 to 40,000 in 2006.

Figure 3.3 New Zealand working holiday scheme approvals, 1998-2006 ������ ������ ������

Visas

������ ������ ������ ������ ������ ����� � ����

����

����

����

����

����

����

����

����

Source: Newlands, 2005

Activities/Products Active involvement in product development by governments is less common. Less than a quarter of the countries responding indicated that they were actively involved in this area. There was a very clear relationship between the level of recognition for student and youth travel and the development of policy and collection of market information. Over 80% of those recognising youth/student travel also had a specific policy on product development, and about 80% of those recognising youth/student travel as a distinct market also had a specific policy on marketing.

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32

Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Table 3.1 Relationship between recognition of student and youth tourism and product development policy, 2005 (%) Policy on product development

Recognition of youth/student travel

Y

N

Y

83

18

N

17

82

100

100

Total

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation/UNWTO Survey of Youth Tourism Policy, 2005

In general, countries in Asia and the Pacific and the Middle East were more likely to have a specific policy for product development. This matches the attention paid to student and youth tourism policy in these regions. In Africa, in contrast, the relatively high level of recognition of student and youth tourism as a specific market is not yet matched by active product development policies in most countries.

Figure 3.4 Countries with a specific policy for product development by region, 2005 (%) �� �� �� �� �� �� � ������

��������

������������

������

�����������

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation/UNWTO Survey of Youth Tourism Policy, 2005

The basic areas of product development for student and youth tourism are accommodation (particularly the development of youth hostels), cultural routes, information services, tour packages and discount programmes. In most cases, such activities are carried out in partnership with the private sector, or through government schemes which promote private sector activity in the field.

Marketing Policy Although more countries are active in student and youth tourism marketing, less than a third of respondents indicated that they had a specific policy in this area. Such marketing tends to be linked to specific products within the wider youth tourism area, such as youth hostels, adventure tourism or backpacking. Again, Asian and Middle Eastern countries tend to be particularly active in promoting youth tourism.

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Government Policy on Youth Travel – An International Review

33

Figure 3.5 Countries with specific policy for promotion and marketing by region, 2005 (%) �� �� �� �� �� �� � ������

��������

������������

������

�����������

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation/UNWTO Survey of Youth Tourism Policy, 2005

For those countries that are active in the student and youth tourism market, there are a number of key promotion and marketing policy areas. These are niche markets, the development of new media, discounting and collective marketing.

Student and youth tourism is being promoted by many countries within specific niches, particularly adventure tourism, sports tourism and backpacking. The German National Tourist Board (GNTB) has a special ‘Germany for youth’ section on its website, offering tailor-made information for planning and organising group tours and school trips, as well as language holidays, studying and au pair work. In Austria, a holiday specialist group was established in 2004 to develop a marketing campaign for the 15 to 25 age group. This includes special pages for young people on www.austria.info and ongoing consultation with Austria’s leading experts on youth. The renewed interest of many European countries in youth travel is underlined by the creation of a dedicated youth section of the Visit Europe portal (www.visiteurope.com). Adventure tourism is particularly important for a number of Asian destinations.

In 2005, the South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation programme of the Asian Development Bank included an Integrated Project on Adventure Tourism in South Asia targeting youth tourism.

In Australia, Tourism Australia has been working with the Backpacking Tourism Advisory Panel (BTAP) on an innovative approach to Backpacker marketing. The group is developing a research-based consumer focused strategy for targeting youth/backpacker travellers to Australia, including a database, web portal and viral marketing. The Philippines is also marketing youth travel through internet, mobile phones, SMS and WAP. Discounts are particularly important in marketing youth tourism. In Hungary, for example, discounts are offered by accommodation facilities, transportation companies and other service providers (e.g. museums, festivals). The visa policy also includes a 50% discount for young people (up to 14 years). In Africa in particular, a number of countries mentioned specifically the availability of discounted youth entry fees for National Parks as a form of promotion for this market.

The growing professionalisation of the student and youth travel industry is also providing new opportunities for collaborative marketing. In France, “the promotion of youth tourism is one of the priorities of Maison de la France. The campaign is based on a Promotional Club comprising 69 members drawn from different sectors of the youth tourism industry (accommodation suppliers, tour operators, theme parks, language travel companies, etc.)”. This fits in with a national strategy of achieving a new balance between different target groups in order to create value and reduce seasonality. The Club participates in regular workshops under the banner of ‘Destination Jeunes’, which attract strong industry participation. Collaborative marketing is also emerging at a regional level through initiatives such as the European Union Youth Portal (http://europa.eu/youth), which offers information on youth travel in all European Union (EU) member states.

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

34

Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Prospects for Future Growth There was a general feeling among the respondents that the importance of youth tourism is likely to grow in the next five years. Over 60% thought that student and youth travel would become more important, while only 8% thought it would be less important.

Table 3.2 Evolution of youth/student travel over the next five years, 2005 (%) Youth/student travel will be

%

Less important

8

Equally important

29

More important

63

Total

100

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation/UNWTO Survey of Youth Tourism Policy, 2005

Middle Eastern, Asian and African countries tended to be most optimistic about future growth, with over two thirds of respondents in these areas forecasting a growth in demand.

Figure 3.6 Evolution of the youth travel market over next five years by region, 2005 (% expecting student and youth travel to be more important) ��� �� �� �� �� � ������

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������

�����������

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation/UNWTO Survey of Youth Tourism Policy, 2005

Those countries recognising youth/student travel as a specific market were also much more likely to be optimistic about the evolution of demand. None of those who already recognised the market expected it to decline in the future, and over two thirds expected it to become more important. One of the reasons for this is the ‘life time value’ of youth tourism. Marketeers increasingly hope to attract people when they are young on the basis that they will return again, perhaps many times over the course of their lifetimes.

In spite of the fact that the youth population is falling in many developed markets, the tendency for young people to travel more frequently means that their share of total travel activity is growing. In developing countries, where young people make up a substantial proportion of the total population, growth can be expected as young people grow up and start travelling both domestically and internationally.

Conclusions This review of NTA’s policy and activity in the field of student and youth tourism underlines the growing importance of this market for countries around the world. There is also considerable optimism about the prospects for growth over the next five years, with over 60% of survey respondents anticipating market expansion.

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Government Policy on Youth Travel – An International Review

35

However, only about a third of the respondents currently recognise student and youth tourism as a specific market, and about the same proportion are engaged in specific promotional activities for this market. Specific product development policies tend to be less common, accounting for only a quarter of the countries.

Although relatively few countries currently have specific policies for developing or promoting youth tourism, there are many signs that the number will increase over the next few years. Many countries indicated that they are in the process of formulating new policies and/or conducting evaluations of the market. Much of the optimism surrounding student and youth tourism relates to the buoyant nature of different niche markets, including backpacking, student tourism, language learning, adventure travel, youth accommodation, cultural exchange and working holidays.

There seems to be particular optimism in countries in Asia and Africa where the student and youth travel market is developing rapidly, and where opportunities for adventure travel and backpacking abound.

In these regions, student and youth tourism is seen as a vital means of developing cultural exchange and extending formal school education. The prospects for student travel seem particularly strong, with increasing enrolments in tertiary education around the globe.

In marketing terms, student and youth travellers are often seen as an attractive segment because of the particular qualities of the market, including: •

The anti-seasonal nature of demand;

•

the potential for repeat visits and future growth;

•

its relative resilience in the face of external shocks;

•

the potential for spreading tourism to new areas, particularly outside major gateways;

•

more direct contact and spending with local communities;

•

the cultural exchange benefits it can offer.

These are all benefits which are underlined by the research contained in the current volume, particularly the Profile of the Independent Traveller (chapter 2) and the Values study (chapter 4).

Even in more mature markets in the Americas and Europe, where student and youth travel has traditionally been viewed as low yield, attitudes appear to be changing. There is increasing recognition that developing youth tourism is an investment in future travel revenues, as well as a means of spreading current tourism expenditure at the local level. Attention for young travellers may also grow in many regions once the link between student and youth travel and the emergence of budget airlines becomes clear.

This review has, however, indicated that there is a considerable gap between the importance of student and youth tourism in the global market and the level of government action in this field. In view of the optimism about future growth, this relative lack of activity seems surprising, and it may indicate that governments at present lack understanding of the market, or lack the tools to approach young travellers effectively. At present, the relative dearth of statistical information on the scale and impact of student and youth tourism makes the development of adequate policy responses all the more difficult. However, the experience of countries which have been most successful in developing the youth market seems to indicate that there is a clear role for government action – not just in terms of marketing, but also in removing travel barriers, such as visa restrictions, a distinct student and/or youth tourism policy and support for commercial and non-profit initiatives.

In the absence of such actions, governments are missing opportunities to develop this market and to link with the emerging student and youth tourism industry. There is a lack of coordinated policy which recognises the essential links between youth tourism and aspects of educational policy, cultural policy, general youth policy and immigration policy. Integrated policy which takes account of these linkages would help countries to maximise the longer-term benefits of youth travel, including the potential for repeat visitation, the development of cultural ties and support for international understanding.

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Chapter 4 Impact of Extended Travel Experiences on the Values of Youth Travellers

Introduction In support of its mission to “increase international understanding through the promotion of travel and educational opportunities for students and youth”, WYSE Travel Confederation commissioned research on the impacts of long stays abroad (for work and study) on the values of young people.

The study aimed to assess the impact of travel experiences on the attitudes and behaviour of young people and to: •

Find out how travel experiences change young people;

•

identify what factors cause the most important changes;

•

measure changes in levels of tolerance, cultural understanding and xenophobia as a result of travel;

•

analyse how travel experiences contribute to personal development;

•

assess the importance of contacts between travellers and local residents.

The idea that cultural exchanges are beneficial for the development of cultural understanding is deeply embedded in many countries, particularly in Europe and Asia. Many organizations sprang up after the Second World War with the express aim of stimulating contacts between young people from different nations in order to avoid future conflicts. Official support, allied with the growth of voluntary organizations and associations such as the WYSE Work Abroad Association (www.wyseworkabroad. org) stimulated significant expansion in the number of educational and cultural exchanges in recent years.

This growth is also bolstered, at least in part, by the perceived benefits of travel and study abroad, which include improved academic performance, increased career prospects, more awareness of global issues and fuller appreciation of one’s own culture, and an increase in personal and social skills.

However, there have been relatively few studies to provide evidence for such impacts, particularly outside a formal learning context. In order to gather a more complete picture of the cultural impacts of travel experiences, therefore, it was decided to design a study which would analyse the cultural attitudes of participants both before and after travel, and which would look in more detail at different aspects of the travel experience.

The survey covered work and study exchange participants from WYSE Travel Confederation members in Canada, the Czech Republic, Germany, Ghana, Ireland, Mexico, the Russian Federation, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. In total, 1,452 pre-trip responses were collected and 510 post-trip responses. It was therefore possible to measure directly the changes in attitudes of the same respondents pre and post-travel.

This summary concentrates particularly on the cultural impacts of travel experiences. Other results of the research relating specifically to work experience participants is provided in chapter 6 of this report.

The full report is available online at www.wysetc.org and www.wyseworkabroad.org.

© 2008 World Tourism Organization – ISBN 978-92-844-1239-6

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Youth Travel Matters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Profile and Travel Behaviour of Respondents Looking at the general profile of the young people responding to the survey, it seems that those who undertake study and work exchanges are similar in many respects to the profile of young independent travellers in general (see chapter 2). They tend to travel frequently, are relatively experienced travellers and tend to be aged between 21 and 24.

Their biggest source of inspiration for undertaking a period of work or study abroad is their friends, and the existence of specific exchange programmes is also very important. Less than 30% of travellers said that their parents encouraged them to travel.

The major source of information used prior to travel was the Internet. This matches the findings of the Independent Traveller Survey (see chapter 2). However it should be recognised that the level of Internet use is likely to be higher in a survey population approached by email, as was the case.

The average expected trip length was just over 200 days, or just under 7 months (much longer than the average youth trip). The average total expenditure for those returning from their trips was just over US$Â 4,000. Those spending most on their travel tended to come from Western Europe and North America. The destinations which required the biggest budgets were Australasia and Western Europe. In the case of Australia and New Zealand, the relatively high cost of travel and the extended duration of stay added to the cost.

Table 4.1 Total expenditure on trip by region of destination, 2005 (US$) World region/subregion

Total expenditure

Western Europe

5,154

Eastern Europe

3,407

North America

3,468

Australasia

5,850

Total

4,043

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

Almost 40% of respondents visited another country than that of the stay during their trip, which is lower than the proportion expecting to do so prior to departure (60%). As relatively few people cut their trips short, this indicates that actual travel simply ended up being less extensive than originally planned.

Contact with local people Most participants had a great deal of contact with local people, although they were slightly more likely to have had contact with colleagues at work. Most people also had fairly frequent contacts with fellow travellers. North American respondents reported most contact with local people, whereas Europeans were more likely to have contacts with work colleagues. Contacts with fellow travellers were most likely to be reported by those visiting Australasia, where hostel accommodation was more likely to be used.

Table 4.2 Level of contact during trip, 2005 (%) Level of contact

Local people

Colleagues at work

Fellow travellers

A great deal of contact

49

52

43

Regular contact

22

22

21

Some contact

19

15

18

Little contact

8

7

12

No contact

1

4

6

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

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In general, people reported relatively few problems with the people they met. Problems that did arise were most likely to be caused by cultural differences.

Table 4.3 How often did you experience the following barriers?, 2005 (%) How often

Language

Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know

People not understanding my attitudes or beliefs

Cultural differences

Being treated differently to locals

2

1

1

2

Not at all

48

40

19

26

Not very often

27

34

34

40

Sometimes

13

17

26

17

Quite often

7

6

13

10

A lot of the time

3

2

7

5

100

100

100

100

Total

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

Not surprisingly, those with more previous travel experience tended to encounter fewer problems during their travels. Prior preparation also helped to reduce problems. The small number of respondents who did not gather any information about the destination before departure reported significantly more problems than other travellers.

Changes in Attitudes One of the main aims of the study was to measure the impact of travel experiences on the attitudes of work and study exchange participants. In order to do this, a number of questions were asked of the same respondents both before and after their trip. A comparison of the results shows significant changes in a number of areas, including their attitudes towards the country visited, levels of personal trust and tolerance, and levels of xenophobia.

Attitudes towards the destination In general terms, the post-visit experiences were fairly similar to pre-visit expectations. The main exceptions were in terms of cultural richness, which tended to be less than expected, and honesty and politeness, which were higher. This finding seems to indicate that stereotypical images of the host countries changed relatively little as a result of the trip, probably because of the strength of such images in the home culture. But, if we compare the attitudes towards the destination country pre and post-visit, we can see a number of changes in the way in which people view the visited country.

Table 4.4 Comparison of pre and post-trip attitudes to the destination country, 2005 (% more or a lot more than expected) Characteristics of the destination

Pre-trip

Post-trip

Economically rich

61

59

Culturally rich

38

28

Well organised

58

55

Relaxed

59

64

Honest

40

39

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Youth Travel Matters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Characteristics of the destination

Pre-trip

Post-trip

Polite

47

55

Tolerant

40

43

Welcoming

53

51

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

In terms of those attitudes that did change, the most marked change was in terms of the cultural richness of the destination. These changes were due mainly to people who had not visited the destination before, and also tended to be linked to feelings of friendliness and being treated like a local. It seems that the initial welcome that visitors experience is important in determining their image of the destination.

The relationship between motivation and experiences Comparing the motivations that travellers had before their journey with what they felt they had achieved, it is clear that most of their aspirations were realised or exceeded. The scores for most motivational factors were higher for the post-trip surveys (mean score 3.6 on a scale of 1-5) than the pre-trip surveys (3.3). In particular, the social aspects of the trip were rated highly. Earning money remained a very low priority, even though participants tended to work more during their trip to cover additional costs or to travel more.

Table 4.5 Pre-trip motivations compared with post-trip evaluations, 2005 (% important or very important) Motivations

Pre-trip motivation

Post-trip experience

Increase my knowledge

81

84

Explore other cultures

81

81

Interact with local people

70

72

Build friendships

65

80

Experience everyday life

63

81

Learn a language

59

52

Have a good time with friends

58

82

To gain work experience

55

50

Find myself

53

47

Expand my creativity

47

47

Use abilities/skills

46

53

Avoid hustle and bustle

46

46

Associate with other travellers

45

61

Use my imagination

41

53

Learn about history of the country

40

54

To relax

38

51

To earn money

35

43

Gain a feeling of belonging

33

51

Contribute to the places I visit

31

48

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

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There was relatively little change in the importance attached to factors such as gaining work experience, earning money or learning a language. In other words, the more instrumental aspects of the trip were relatively unimportant pre-trip, and remained post-trip. The areas where people felt they gained most from their trip were more likely to be in the social and cultural aspects of the experience.

Changes in attitudes to trust and tolerance In terms of levels of interpersonal trust, there was a dramatic rise in the proportion of people agreeing that ‘most people can be trusted’, from 58% before travel to 68% after travel. Even though the levels of trust among young people are already high compared to the rest of the population (World Values Survey, 2000), it seems that travel has a strong positive influence on attitudes towards other people.

Figure 4.1 Most people can be trusted, 2005 (% agree) �� �� �� �� �� �������������������������������������������� Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

In general, those who became more trusting also found the destination more exciting. These travellers also had higher levels of intergenerational trust as well, being less likely to agree with the statement that ‘older people do the opposite of what they say’.

In contrast, there was a tendency for levels of trust in institutions such as the armed forces and the church to decline. The education system was the only institution in which levels of trust were higher after travel. This tends to support the findings of earlier studies, which suggested that attitudes towards the education system in the home country become more positive after travel abroad.

Table 4.6 Institutional trust pre-trip and post-trip, 2005 (%) With a great deal of trust Institution

Pre-trip

Post-trip

15.1

9.4

9.8

3.8

Education system

15.2

15.9

Police

13.8

11.7

6.4

6.1

Church Armed forces

Government

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Cultural tolerance Levels of tolerance towards other cultures were measured from the reactions to a range of scenarios involving cultural interactions derived from the Cultural Tolerance Scale. These results showed that the total cultural tolerance scores across nine items increased from 28 pre-visit to 29.8 post-visit, which is a statistically significant rise. Female travellers had a higher total score both pre and post-visit, but the increase in tolerance was even greater for male respondents. The increase in cultural tolerance was independent of origin, age, any previous visits to the destination or the level of travel experience.

Table 4.7 Total cultural tolerance scale scores by gender, 2005 Pre-trip

Post-trip

Change

Male

26.9

29.2

+8.6

Female

28.7

30.3

+5.5

Total

28.0

29.9

+6.9

Note: Cultural Tolerance Scale, maximum score 45 – methodology is explained in detail in the full report.

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

The factor having most influence on increased tolerance was the amount of contact that travellers had with local people and customs, indicating that practical experiences with cultural difference contribute to an increase in tolerance. On the other hand, cultural tolerance was reduced by negative experiences with local people, which also shows that intolerance can be fuelled by certain incidents in the destination.

Increased levels of cultural tolerance post-trip were also related to the amount of professional and physical challenge that people experienced. Those with little sense of challenge exhibited little change in cultural tolerance, whereas those with moderate levels of challenge experienced the biggest changes.

Increased cultural tolerance was also positively related to a greater sense of connection to the global community. Those who had more contact with local people were particularly more likely to see themselves as ‘global citizens’ after the trip.

Table 4.8 Which of the following do you identify with most closely?, 2005 (%) Pre-trip

Post-trip

Village/town

10.6

11.2

Region

12.8

10.3

Country

35.3

25.0

Continent

13.8

23.3

Global citizen

12.8

20.7

Never thought about it

14.7

9.5

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

Attitudes to other races and cultures On the whole, it seems that attitudes to other races and cultures changed relatively little as a result of the trip abroad. While respondents did become marginally more liberal in their attitudes to asylum, there was no statistically significant change (pre-trip vs. post-trip) in their views on a range of questions gauging levels of xenophobia.

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Table 4.9 Reaction to statements on xenophobia pre and post-trip, 2005 (% tend to agree) How far would you agree with the following statements?

Pre-trip

Post-trip

It is good for society to be made up of different races and cultures

83.5

81.4

My country benefits from the presence of immigrants

50.5

48.8

Asylum should be easier to obtain

28.4

32.2

In time, minority groups will be like the rest of society

45.8

48.8

There is a limit to how many people of other races, cultures, my country can accept

41.0

36.4

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

The basic conclusion that can be drawn from this analysis is that attitudes towards people of different races or immigrant groups were comparatively positive prior to travel, and had not changed significantly on return. Perhaps because xenophobic attitudes are substantially less frequent among young travellers compared to the rest of the population, it would be unrealistic to expect major changes as a result of travel.

Changes in travel style Before travel, people were asked what kind of travel style they usually have. The most popular response before travel was ‘traveller’, accounting for over 40% of responses. After the trip, however, the ‘backpacker’ label was almost as important. This may indicate the important impact of travelling to destinations where the backpacker ‘industry’ is well established. For example, those visiting Australasia were much more likely to call themselves backpackers after their trip.

Table 4.10 Travel style designation pre and post-trip, 2005 (%) Pre-trip

Post-trip

Backpacker

20

38

Traveller

44

42

Tourist

36

20

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

The major influence on post-visit evaluation of travel style was the level of association with fellow travellers. Those who indicated that they had associated frequently with other travellers were significantly more likely to see themselves as backpackers. This underlines the important socialisation role of the backpacking experience.

Benefits gained from travel When asked what they had gained from their trip, a thirst for more travel was the most frequently cited benefit (81%). In addition to this, the common assertions about the personal development benefits of youth travel were supported by the majority of travellers, who felt that they had broadened their horizons and become more open-minded, flexible, confident and tolerant as a result of their experience. In contrast, only just over a quarter of the respondents felt that they had become ‘a new person’ as a result of their experience.

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Table 4.11 Benefits gained from travel, 2005 (%) Benefits

Important or very important

Developed a thirst for more travel

80.6

Broadened my horizons

74.1

Became more open-minded

72.4

Became more flexible

71.4

Became more confident

69.6

Became more tolerant

61.9

Became better able to make decisions

61.1

Became more patient

54.6

Developed a better understanding of my own culture

54.6

Became more trusting

41.5

Became a new person

28.6

Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

In general, therefore, people felt that their experience had had a positive impact on their attitudes and personality, although they did not necessarily see these changes as transformative. African respondents were most positive about the impact on their levels of tolerance, open mindedness and patience.

In what ways did your experience change you?

The objective measure of increased tolerance provided by the cultural tolerance scale scores was supported by the subjective assessment of the participants themselves. Those who felt they had become more tolerant were also those who were most likely to have the highest increases in cultural tolerance scores. However, there was a much lower subjective rating of the impact of the trip on levels of personal trust, in spite of the evidence of change provided by the objective trust ratings.

The total benefits that people felt they had gained, expressed in terms of an aggregate index of all benefit questions, indicated that the benefits depended to some extent on the origin and destination of the travellers. In general, long-haul trips (which also tend to be longer) generated more benefits, and it might also be suggested that greater cultural distance also increases the perceived benefit.

What factors influenced attitude changes?

Those people reporting the most benefits of travel in terms of broadened horizons, open-mindedness, flexibility, confidence, tolerance and improved decision making skills tended to be those who had experienced: •

More contact with local people;

•

reported feeling more comfortable with local people;

•

experienced friendliness from local people;

•

were treated like locals;

•

experienced love and/or affection from local people.

The importance of contacts with local people is clear from the relationship between the total benefits gained and the degree of contact with local people.

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Table 4.12 Benefit index according to level of contact with local people, 2005 Contact with local people

Total benefit index

Very little

34.4

Some

38.4

Quite a lot

38.4

A great deal

43.2

Total

40.1

NB: Maximum score 50 Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

Those who gained most from their trips were also more likely to have overcome any problems they did experience. Those who reported the highest total benefits from their trip were generally those who had managed to overcome the barriers they faced.

Table 4.13 Benefit index by barriers tackled, 2005 Did you tackle barriers encountered?

Total benefit index

Yes, most of these barriers

43.4

Yes, a few of these barriers

38.6

No, I didn’t tackle any of these barriers

37.9

Total

40.3

NB: Maximum score 50 Source: WYSE Travel Confederation research on the impacts of long stays abroad on the values of young people

The feelings of trust that people developed as a result of their travel were also related to specific ‘critical incidents’ that occurred during their trip. Those reporting negative critical incidents, such as being robbed or lied to, had lower levels of trust post-trip than respondents who had not reported such incidents. In particular, being lied to tended to reduce levels of trust. Interestingly, however, in spite of the fact that a large number of travellers reported problems of various kinds, these were not generally related to a reduction in the perceived benefits of the travel experience. This indicates that most people were able to see such incidents for what they were – isolated events, unrelated to the trip as a whole.

Conclusions It is clear that travel experience has a range of impacts on people participating in work and study exchanges. The differences in pre and post-visit responses indicate that in general people feel they became more tolerant and trusting and derived a range of personal benefits from their travel. These subjective assessments are corroborated by objective measures of levels of trust and cultural tolerance.

Travel aims Young people undertake study and work exchange trips primarily to increase their knowledge of the world and to encounter and learn about other cultures. They are particularly interested in the cultural and social benefits of travel, and see any periods of work undertaken during their trip as a way of supporting their travel, rather than the main purpose of the trip. In preparing for travel, the Internet, family and friends and guide books are the main sources of information.

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Youth Travel Matters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Expectations The expectations that travellers have of the destination before travel are based in large part on common stereotypes. These stereotypes also seem to be relatively unaffected by previous experience of the destination, as there were relatively few differences in expectation between those that had previously visited and other respondents. What people expect depends to a large extent on their origin country and the destination. For example, those travelling from countries with relatively weak economies to relatively strong ones tended to emphasise the economic richness of the destination, whereas those from richer countries tended to emphasise cultural aspects more strongly.

Experiences The experience of the host country was generally very positive, with relatively few travellers experiencing serious problems. For those respondents participating in work abroad programmes, only 20% changed their employment during their stay, and even fewer cut their trip short. Experiences with local residents and work colleagues were overwhelmingly positive, with almost 90% of travellers reporting that they felt comfortable with their hosts. Specific problems of rudeness and unfriendliness were relatively rare, and travellers generally felt that they were treated as a member of the local community. There were also relatively few barriers met in terms of language problems and cultural differences. Only 20% of participants reported experiencing such problems often.

Although the majority of participants experienced some kind of negative event during their trip, this rarely had a significant impact on their attitudes towards their hosts. About a quarter of travellers reported a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;critical incidentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; which they felt had affected their attitudes, but these were mainly personal or work problems, and therefore were generally seen in isolation from the positive experience of the trip as a whole. Those reporting critical incidents did end up feeling that they had benefited less from their experience, but this feeling was not directly related to their evaluation of the destination.

Changes in attitudes When the pre and post-visit attitudes of travellers are compared, it is clear that the majority of travellers had a more positive experience than they expected. These positive experiences were in turn translated into greater feelings of interpersonal trust and higher levels of cultural tolerance.

The greatest level of personal and professional challenge was likely to be experienced by a respondent coming from Latin America, Africa and Eastern Europe. Levels of challenge experienced were however relatively independent of the destination region. This suggests that what is experienced as challenging is more dependent on the home culture than the host culture visited. This also indicates that cultural distance does play an important role in the adjustment to a new host culture.

Those travelling further afield and travelling for a combination of work and leisure motivations were more likely to benefit from their trip than those travelling within their own region or travelling just to work.

Positive changes in personal development and attitudes were generally found to be correlated with greater and better contacts with the host population. This indicates that the benefits of exchange experiences could be increased by maximising local contacts and increasing pre-trip preparation to avoid potential negative incidents and problems of cultural differences, as these tended to diminish the beneficial impact of travel.

Overall conclusion The beneficial effects of travel on young people are evident after a period of study or work exchange abroad. After returning, travellers are more tolerant of other cultures, more trusting of other people and have gained a wide range of personal development benefits. These benefits are largely independent of the length of trip, destination or type of work or study undertaken. Most importantly, the subjective

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47

self-assessment of the positive impacts of travel is corroborated by the objective measures of cultural tolerance and trust, which show a significant post-travel increase. The overall conclusion seems to be that travel not only broadens the mind, but makes people more tolerant and sensitive to other cultures, as well as developing communication and interpersonal skills. It is not surprising, therefore, that work and study exchange participants value the cultural and social aspects of their trip more highly than the work experience or educational benefits.

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Chapter 5 Profile of the Global Youth Accommodation Industry

In spite of the importance of youth accommodation in the global travel industry, relatively little research has been conducted so far on youth accommodation market supply or demand. For this reason, WYSE Travel Confederation decided to undertake a study to quantify the size and significance of the youth accommodation market and identify key trends and future challenges. The sources of data incorporated in this study included: •

A review of previous studies and reports on youth accommodation;

•

collation of statistical data from major youth accommodation providers, reservation companies and national statistical offices;

•

a specific survey of independent hostels, carried out via an Internet poll.

In particular, valuable information for the study was contributed by the International Youth Hostel Federation (IYHF – which represents more than 90 Youth Hostel Associations in over 80 countries, operating over 4,000 hostels) and Hostelworld (the leading hostel reservations company, featuring almost 10,000 hostels worldwide). This summary presents some of the key findings of the 2006 study.

Market Trends On the basis of previous studies and market reports, a number of key trends can be identified in the youth accommodation sector, among which the most important are: •

Growing market demand, particularly in emerging regions such as Asia and Latin America;

•

an extended concept of ‘youth’, with young travel habits extending into the 30s;

•

blurring boundaries between youth accommodation and other sectors, particularly budget hotels;

•

increasing professionalism to meet the needs of a more demanding clientele;

•

emergence of new market segments, such as work experience, international students and language travel;

•

more women travellers, leading to the provision of customised facilities;

•

falling trip duration and the emergence of ‘flashpackers’;

•

a growing role for budget airlines, again stimulating a trend towards fewer, shorter trips.

Market Size The youth accommodation market has traditionally been divided into two major sectors, the non profit sector (which basically covers official youth hostels) and the independent hostel sector. Estimates of the total volume of the market have been made on the basis of figures obtained from the IYHA and Hostelworld, which together cover both sectors, supplemented by additional data from other statistical sources and the independent hostel survey (see below). © 2008 World Tourism Organization – ISBN 978-92-844-1239-6

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Youth Travel Matters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

An estimate of accommodation supply was made for different world regions and by different types of accommodation. These indicate that there were a total of 1.6 million beds in youth accommodation establishments worldwide in 2005, which means that youth accommodation would account for about 4% of total global accommodation supply (38.8 million estimated by UNWTO). Youth hostels and similar establishments (mainly backpacker hostels) account for the bulk of all beds available in youth accommodation.

Table 5.1 Youth accommodation supply, 2005 Accommodation type

Units

Youth/backpacker hostels Budget hotels Other (guesthouses, apartments, campsites, etc.)

Total

Beds

Occupancy (%)

Nights (million)

Nights (%)

7,884

1,047,863

32

123

50

11,596

468,138

65

112

44

9,602

121,773

31

12

6

29,082

1,637,774

42

247

100

The total volume of youth commercial accommodation use is therefore provisionally estimated to be about 247 million bednights in 2005. This is likely to be a conservative estimate, as data could not be obtained for all the different sectors of the global youth accommodation market, for example the YMCA/ YWCA hostels.

The regional distribution of demand can be extrapolated initially from average occupancy levels in each type of accommodation for each world region.

Table 5.2 Regional distribution of youth accommodation bednights, 2005 (million) Region/subregions

Youth Hostels

Budget hotels

Other

Total

19.2

20.4

0.8

40.4

7.5

7.7

0.5

15.7

Australia/Pacific

11.6

1.9

0.4

13.9

Europe

70.9

68.3

9.0

148.2

Latin America/Caribbean

5.0

6.2

0.9

12.1

Middle East

0.5

0.5

0.0

1.0

North America

8.2

7.4

0.4

16.0

122.9

112.4

12.0

247.3

Asia Africa

Total

Estimating the value of the youth accommodation market To establish the total economic value of the youth accommodation market, some assumptions have to be made about the average cost per bednight. Taking the expenditure figures from the Independent Traveller Survey and other sources, it seems reasonable to assume that the average spend per bednight would be about US$ 20 in the case of hostels and around US$ 25 in the case of budget hotels, resulting in a weighted average of US$ 22 per bednight. On the basis of a global market of 247 million bednights, this gives a total expenditure of almost US$ 5.4 billion on accommodation alone.

Figures from youth hostels indicate that the average additional spend per bednight (from food, drink and other ancillary services) is about 20%, which would raise the total expenditure estimate for the youth accommodation market to over US$ 6.5 billion. This is still likely to be a relatively conservative estimate of the whole market, since some elements of youth accommodation (such as the YMCA/YWCAs) are not taken into account.

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Profile of the Global Youth Accommodation Industry

51

Future Market Growth Based on UNWTO’s projections of world tourism growth (estimated annual growth of 4.1% on international tourist arrivals through 2020 according to UNWTO’s Tourism 2020 Vision), we can estimate that the total number of youth tourism bednights will grow from 247 million in 2005 to almost 451 million by 2020.

Figure 5.1 Projected youth accommodation bednights (million) ��� ���

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These figures show that the youth accommodation market is a significant and dynamic element of the global tourism industry.

Independent Hostel Survey 2006 In order to find out more about demand in the independent hostel sector, a specific study was conducted during the summer of 2006. The aim of the survey was to assess the current business profile and development trends in the independent hostel market. A total of 216 responses were received, covering 235 hostels in 56 countries.

The average hostel capacity for all reporting hostels was 92 beds. In general, larger hostels are found in Western Europe and Australasia, and the smaller hostels tend to be located in Asia, Africa and Central and Eastern Europe.

Table 5.3 Average number of beds per hostel, 2005 Region/subregion

Average number of beds

Africa

49

Asia

36

Australasia

110

Latin America

41

North America

65

Central and Eastern Europe

46

Western Europe Average Source: Independent Hostel Survey, 2006

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

177 92

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Youth Travel Matters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Despite differences in hostel size and location, bed occupancy rates were fairly consistent across world regions. In general, the highest occupancy levels were found in Australasia, Western Europe and North America, and lower levels in Africa and Asia.

Table 5.4 Average bed occupancy, 2005 (%) Region/subregion

Average bed occupancy

Africa

53.5

Asia

54.4

Australasia

66.3

Latin America

55.4

North America

60.1

Central and Eastern Europe

55.4

Western Europe

62.4

Total

58.7

Source: Independent Hostel Survey, 2006

The proportion of international guests averaged 72%, indicating the importance of this market to independent hostels. In general, the proportion of international business is relatively low in North America and Africa, and tends to be higher in Central and Eastern and Western Europe and Latin America. In terms of group bookings, the average proportion was just under 13%.

Table 5.5 Group bookings by region, 2005 (%) Region/subregion

Group bookings

Africa

18

Asia

12

Australasia

9

Latin America

9

North America

8

Central and Eastern Europe

10

Western Europe

17

Average

13

Source: Independent Hostel Survey, 2006

An Expanding Market Hostels were asked about any expansions they had made in the past year as well as those they planned to make in the coming year. Almost a third of respondents had expanded their capacity in 2005, and almost half planned to do so in 2006. This indicates increasing optimism across the industry as a whole.

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Profile of the Global Youth Accommodation Industry

53

Table 5.6 Hostel expansion, 2005 and 2006 (%) Did you expand the number of beds in your hostel(s) in 2005?

Have you expanded (or do you plan to expand) the number of beds in your hostel(s) in 2006?

Yes

31.6

49.6

No

68.4

50.4

Total

100

100

Source: Independent Hostel Survey, 2006

However, the optimism is not equally shared across all regions. Hostels in Australasia, for example, did not expand at all in 2005 or 2006. In contrast, hostels in Central and Eastern Europe grew strongly in 2005 and continued to do so in 2006. In North America, low capacity growth in 2005 has been replaced by strong growth in 2006.

Table 5.7 Expansion of beds by region (%) Region/subregion

Have you expanded (or do you plan to expand) your number of beds?

Yes, 2005

Yes, 2006

Africa

41.7

25.0

Asia

29.4

64.7

0

0

Latin America

41.7

62.5

North America

9.1

58.3

Central and Eastern Europe

47.6

66.7

Western Europe

26.2

42.9

Total

31.3

50.4

Australasia

Source: Independent Hostel Survey, 2006

One of the most noticeable trends in recent years has been the addition of smaller rooms and en-suite facilities to hostels. In total, about a third of the rooms in the reporting hostels are now en-suite.

Internet Bookings On average, hostels obtained about 29% of their bookings through their own website. This figure tends to be higher in Africa (almost 40%) and lowest in Australasia.

Table 5.8 Bookings via own website by region, 2005 (%) Region/subregion

Bookings via own website

Africa

37.4

Asia

29.6

Australasia

20.0

Latin America

34.6

North America

27.0

Central and Eastern Europe

25.7

Western Europe

26.8

Total

28.7

Source: Independent Hostel Survey, 2006 UNWTO, 2 June 2008

for WYSET

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Pricing Trends About half the hostels indicated that they had increased their prices in 2006 compared with 2005.

Hostels which increased their capacity in the past two years tended to have increased their prices more than other hostels, indicating that those areas with growing demand are also supporting higher price increases. In Australasia, where there was no capacity increase, average price rises were also the lowest, indicating a more competitive market environment.

Table 5.9 If you raised your prices in 2006, what was the average increase? (%) Region/subregion Africa Asia

Average price increase 4.4 12.4

Australasia

4.1

Latin America

7.8

North America

3.3

Central and Eastern Europe

3.4

Western Europe

4.1

Total

5.5

Source: Independent Hostel Survey, 2006

Conclusions A number of basic conclusions about trends in the youth accommodation sector can be drawn from the data presented in this report.

•

A significant market: this report underlines the fact that the youth accommodation sector is a large and significant travel market, which is likely to grow strongly in the future. The market currently accounts for almost 250 million bednights annually, and this is forecast to rise to over 450 million by 2020.

•

A rapidly growing market: there is clear evidence of a strong growth in youth accommodation supply in most parts of the world, and particularly in major backpacker hub destinations. In most cases, growth in the youth accommodation industry has outstripped growth in tourism in general.

•

A confident market: suppliers seem confident that growth will continue for the foreseeable future in most markets, and most are actively investing or planning to invest in the future.

•

Long stay, high impact business: youth travellers stay for relatively long periods of time in the destination and generate levels of total expenditure approaching those of other tourists, even if average daily spend is lower.

•

Increasing diversification: there is increasing evidence of diversification in the youth accommodation market, with new facilities being added to the hostel product and growing convergence between hostels and budget hotels. New accommodation formulas are also being developed, particularly to cater for the student market and work experience participants.

•

A maturing market: in many areas rapid growth in demand over the past few years has been met by significant increases in the supply of youth accommodation. In some cases, a maturing market is leading to slower rates of growth, and consequent problems of oversupply. This in turn may keep prices down and/or lead to more diversification.

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

Chapter 6 International Work Experience Programmes for Youth – Profile of Participants

As a recent report from the Youth Tourism Consortium of Canada stated: “The fastest growing segment of the global independent youth travel industry is young people who are combining travel and work experiences”. The report estimates that there are now 270,000 work experience participants in the United States of America and Canada alone. In Australia, the number of working holidaymakers rose from under 75,000 in 1999-2000 to almost 94,000 in 2003-2004, an increase of nearly 26%. New Zealand shows an even more rapid growth as visa restrictions have been eased, with a threefold increase in working holidaymakers between 1999 and 2004. Not surprisingly, work experience was identified as the most promising future growth area in youth and student travel in the 2004 WYSE Travel Confederation Industry Barometer.

In order to find out more about the expectations and experience of young people participating in work experience schemes, research was undertaken on work experience participants from different countries, as part of the cultural impacts of travel study (see chapter 4).

The survey collected information on travel characteristics, spending, information and booking channels and experiences abroad. This chapter provides information on work experience participants only, and concentrates on the characteristics, motivations and experience of these young travellers.

Profile of Work Experience Participants Many work experience programmes were originally conceived of as exchanges, but the idea of reciprocity is rapidly being replaced by much broader schemes. Even so, the origin and destination of work experience participants tends to be dominated by countries with well-established exchange schemes, particularly in North America, Western Europe and Australasia.

Overall, the most popular destinations for survey respondents were North America and Northern Europe, but the flows to various regions differed by origin country. The vast majority of North Americans went to Northern Europe or Australasia, Southern Europeans tended to travel to Northern Europe and Eastern Europeans went predominantly to North America. Other world regions currently seem to have relatively small flows of work experience participants.

Table 6.1 Respondents by region of destination, 2005 (%) Destination region/subregion

Respondents

Northern Europe

33.1

Southern Europe

9.7

Eastern Europe

6.5

Central and South Africa

0.2

North America

42.6

Central America

0.2

South America

0.8

Australia and New Zealand

6.2

© 2008 World Tourism Organization – ISBN 978-92-844-1239-6

UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

56

Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Destination region/subregion

Respondents

South East Asia

0.1

Indian Subcontinent

0.2

China and Japan

0.4

Total

100

This pattern matches the work experience market in general, with the United States of America estimated to be the biggest single destination country worldwide.

The average age of the respondents was 22, with those coming from Northern Europe tending to be slightly younger than average, and those from Latin America slightly older. Almost 60% of respondents were female, echoing the increase in female participation noted in other youth travel surveys.

Figure 6.1 Work and study patterns by region of origin, 2005 (%) �� �� �� ��

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Most participants tended to be in full time education, although particularly in the Americas there was a tendency to combine study and work. This also meant that American respondents had higher average incomes than European respondents, although the median income for the whole sample was still around US$ 5,000 per year. For the Eastern European respondents in particular, work experience was viewed as a means of earning money.

In general, work experience participants tend to be well travelled, having taken an average of six long trips outside their region of residence.

Figure 6.2 Number of previous trips outside region of origin, 2005 ��

(Number of trips)

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UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

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International Work Experience Programmes for Youth – Profile of Participants

57

Motivations for Undertaking Exchange Visits People participate in exchange programmes for a large variety of reasons, many of which are related to the specific circumstances of the individual. Given the nature of study and work exchange programmes, one would expect the basic motivations to relate to education or career development. In fact, the participants see the trip more as a broad experience which contains many elements, which include personal development, cultural and social interaction and creativity. One key difference between the motives for work experience trips and other types of youth and student travel is a stronger desire to interact with local people and experience everyday life in the destination.

The immediate catalyst for deciding to travel tended to be the peer group, with over 60% of respondents having been influenced by their friends. The presence of formalised exchange schemes at school is also an important influence. On the other hand, promotion by travel agents seems to have relatively little effect in stimulating this market (although the possibility of socially desirable answers to this question has to be considered).

Figure 6.3 Reason to go on work experience, 2005 (%) ���������������������� �������������������������� ��������������������� ��������������������� �������� ������������������������������� ��������� ������������������������������ ����� �

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Information Sources The major source of information used in prior to travel was the Internet. This matches the findings of a number of recent surveys on information sources, particularly among young travellers. It should be recognised that the level of Internet use is likely to be higher in a survey population approached by email. However, it is significant that the Internet has now supplanted friends and family members as the single most frequently used source of information for this group. In the final analysis, personal sources of information may be more trusted, but travel products have more chance of being found if they are online.

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Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Figure 6.4 Information sources consulted prior to departure, 2005 (%) �������� ��������������� ����������� ������������ �� ����������� ������������������� ���������� ������� ������� ������������� �

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Guidebooks are also extremely important for this group, perhaps because many are planning to go travelling after they have finished studying or working, and therefore see a guidebook as a good tool for trip planning. The level of guidebook use is much higher than the average recorded in the Independent Traveller Survey (see chapter 3).

Expected Trip Duration The average expected trip length was just over 200 days, or just under seven months. This underlines the relatively long duration of such trips, compared with an average duration for main youth and student trips of about two months (Global Nomad Survey, 2007).

The average trip length was greatest for those going to Northern Europe and Australasia, while trips to North America averaged 170 days, probably due to visa restrictions.

Figure 6.5 Length of stay by age, 2005 �� ��

(Months)

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In general, those aged 18 or younger and those over 25 had significantly longer trip durations than those between the ages of 19 and 25. This indicates the restrictions that particularly full time study may place on trip duration. Those studying full time at home tended to take the shortest trips and those combining study and work took the longest trips.

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International Work Experience Programmes for Youth â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Profile of Participants

59

Travel Budget The average expected total budget for the trip was almost US$ 4,800 (including travel and expenditure in the destination), which given the relatively low incomes of most respondents is a considerable investment. This sum is also much higher that the expenditure recorded in the WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey in 2007, although for a much longer average stay.

No doubt this relatively high budget figure is at least partly based on the expectation of earning money during the trip. On average, the respondents expected to earn just over 40% of the total cost. This still implies a net investment of almost US$ 2,800 per person. The expectations of earning money through work varied substantially by world region, with those going to North America, Australasia and Japan having considerably higher earning expectations than other destinations. This reflects the ease of getting working visas for these countries and the ready availability of work, particularly for English speakers.

Table 6.2 Expenditure and earnings by region of destination, 2005 Region of destination

Total budget for trip (US$)

What do you expect to earn abroad? (% of the total budget)

Northern Europe

6,576

19

Southern Europe

5,125

13

Eastern Europe

3,519

15

Central and South Africa

4,195

0

North America

3,446

74

Central America

2,619

27

South America

1,295

11

Australia and New Zealand

5,909

41

South East Asia

6,045

0

Indian Subcontinent

3,184

40

China and Japan

2,978

37

Total

4,784

42

Looking at some of the biggest nationality groups in the survey, it is perhaps surprising that the Mexicans intended to spend the most on their trips.

Table 6.3 Expenditure and earnings by nationality, 2005 Nationality

Total budget for trip (US$)

Number of days

What do you expect to earn abroad? (% of the total budget)

Canadian

5,719

306

45

Czech

1,727

137

86

German

6,315

307

4

Mexican

7,563

197

32

The Czechs were not only intending to spend the least, but also expected to cover almost their entire budget by working. Czech respondents also planned relatively short trips without much time for leisure travel. This reflects the relatively low travel budgets they have. In net terms, the biggest spenders are the Germans, who have a relatively large budget, but expect to earn hardly any of this amount on their trip.

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Youth Travel Matters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

One of the biggest factors influencing total expenditure seems to be whether people are planning to extend their trips to other countries. Over 60% of respondents said they were planning to visit other countries during their trip. For those making a multi-country trip, the projected budget was US$ 5,300, compared to under US$ 3,900 for those just visiting one country. Those travelling to more than one country were also aiming to earn a lower proportion of their total budget while abroad. This seems to indicate that those who primarily see the trip as a money-making opportunity will be less likely to spend the money they earn on travel. The higher expenditure of the avid travellers underlines the added value that can be achieved by generating more extensive travel.

The Experience in the Destination The survey looked at a number of different aspects of the participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; experience in the host country, including their attitudes, feelings, contacts with locals and other travellers and their image of the country compared with their expectations.

In general, the respondents experienced a lot of curiosity and excitement, as might be expected during a visit to a new country. Relatively few people indicated that they experienced periods of boredom or disorientation, although there might be an element of social desirability in not wanting to admit to such problems. Homesickness was also not a serious problem for most people.

Table 6.4 To what extent did you experience the following during your trip?, 2005 (%) Frequency

Curiosity

Excitement

Boredom

Disorientation Homesickness Empowerment

Never

0

0

17

15

24

7

Hardly ever

2

1

41

38

39

17

Sometimes

16

16

37

40

31

44

A lot of the time

48

50

4

6

5

25

All of the time

34

33

1

1

1

7

100

100

100

100

100

100

Total

Long trips abroad are often seen as a challenge by participants, who wish to develop their skills and test their abilities in new situations. In general, people found their experience to be quite challenging or extremely challenging. The challenges faced were likely to be personal rather than professional (which is perhaps not surprising given the level of employment of many respondents) and more mentally challenging than physically challenging.

Table 6.5 How challenging did you find your trip?, 2005 (%) Personally Not challenging at all

Professionally

Physically

Mentally

5

27

24

11

A bit challenging

22

29

36

34

Quite challenging

41

31

27

37

Extremely challenging

30

13

13

18

100

100

100

100

Total

The highest levels of challenge were likely to be experienced by respondents from Latin America, Africa and Eastern Europe. They tended to face a higher level of personal and professional challenge than people coming from Western Europe or North America. This indicates that cultural distance does play an important role in the adjustment to a new host culture.

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International Work Experience Programmes for Youth – Profile of Participants

61

Interestingly, the levels of challenge experienced were relatively independent of the destination region.

This suggests that what is experienced as challenging is more dependent on the home culture than the host culture visited.

When asked about what they had gotten out of their trip, the development of friendships and having a good time with friends were considered to be the most important benefits. Experiencing everyday life and interacting with local people were also seen as important outcomes of the trip. Cultural benefits, such as heightened appreciation of local culture and of cultures in general were also rated relatively highly. Relatively few people felt that they had managed to learn a language, although this is perhaps not surprising given the relatively short length of stay and the fact that visitors to the United States of America already had a command of English. Earning money was also not rated as an especially important outcome of the trip, even though earnings contributed to making the trip possible.

Figure 6.6 Experiences on the trip, 2005 (%) ���������������������������� ����������������������������� ��������������������� ������������������������� ���������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������� �������������������������������� ������� ����������������������������� ��������������������������������� ������������������� ���������������������� ��������������������������������������������� ������������ ���������������������� ���������������������������������������� ������������ ������������������������������������������� ����������������� �

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When asked about the ways in which the experience had changed them, respondents were particularly likely to emphasise their increased thirst for travel, a finding that reflects the results of the WYSE Travel Confederation Independent Traveller Survey in 2002. In addition, they felt that they had broadened their horizons and become more confident, open-minded and flexible. They were far less likely to say that they had become a new person, or that they were more trusting as a result of their travel. In general, therefore, people felt that their experience had had a positive impact on their attitudes and personality, although they did not see these changes as particularly large scale.

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62

Youth Travel Matters – Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Figure 6.7 Benefits gained from the trip, 2005 ���������������������������������� ��������������������� ��������������������� ����������������������� �������������������� ������������������������������������ �������������������� ��������������������������������������������� ������������������� �������������������� ������������������� �

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Scale 1=low, 5=high

Experience at Work Not surprisingly, the relatively short duration of most work experience trips meant that relatively few participants filled high level positions. The most common types of work undertaken were food and beverage and sales and service positions.

Table 6.8 What type of employment did you take up during your trip?, 2005 (%) Sector

Type of employment

Food and beverage

41.5

Services and sales

23.2

Reception (hotel/events)

8.8

Clerical/administration

8.2

Construction

6.6

Technical work

6.5

Marketing and research

5.2

Total

100

Almost 80% of respondents stayed in their original job for the duration of their working time. Of those changing their placement, the most common reason was problems with the job, although it was almost as common for people to switch jobs after having received a better employment offer. Just over 1% were fired by their employers. Given the types of employment involved, these turnover rates are relatively low. Over an average stay of just over seven months, just over 20% changed their job, or an effective annual turnover rate of just over 33%. In comparison, normal hotel and catering job turnover rates were estimated to be over 60% in 2005 in the United Kingdom (CIPD 2005 Recruitment, Retention and Turnover). This indicates that work experience participants tend to be relatively committed employees, with lower than average rates of labour turnover.

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Table 6.9 Reason for changing employment, 2005 (%) Reason Didn’t like the job/bad work atmosphere

5.5

Better job offer

4.9

Short term jobs

4.4

Low wages

3.2

Travel

2.1

Got fired

1.3

Total

21.4

Specific problems at work which stimulated a change of job included poor relationships with the boss, a feeling of being exploited, and less frequently, cultural differences. Canadians (60%) and Russians (40%) were most likely to have changed their employment. Job changes were also particularly likely in Australia (52%) and New Zealand (61%), where visa regulations also encourage such changes. In Australia, for example, ‘working holidaymakers’ are not allowed to spend more than three months in any one job, while the average length of stay was almost 8 months.

Barriers Encountered During the Trip In general, relatively few people felt that they had encountered serious barriers during their stay. The most significant barriers tended to be cultural ones, particularly for respondents coming from Africa or Latin America. Respondents from these regions were also more likely to have problems with language and to feel they were treated differently from locals. In terms of destination, the biggest barriers were encountered by visitors to Eastern Europe, where language problems and cultural differences tended to be greater.

Table 6.10 To what extent did you encounter the following barriers?, 2005 (%) Frequency

Don’t know

Language

People not understanding my attitudes or beliefs

Cultural differences

Being treated differently to locals

1

1

0

2

Not at all

48

40

19

26

Seldom

28

34

34

40

Sometimes

13

17

27

17

Often

7

6

13

10

A lot of the time

3

2

7

5

100

100

100

100

Total

In general, however, people were able to tackle the barriers they faced. Over a third of respondents indicated that they had managed to overcome all of the barriers they faced, and a further 44% said they had tackled most of these barriers. The ability to tackle barriers did not vary by nationality or destination region.

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64

Youth Travel Matters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Understanding the Global Phenomenon of Youth Travel

Personal Attitudes There was also evidence of change in other areas. Respondents indicated that they were most likely to be thinking about their career goals and personal relationship while they were away. These were also the areas in which a change in attitudes was most likely to take place. Respect for other cultures was also an area in which existing views were more likely to be re-evaluated, although the majority said that travel had reinforced their existing views.

It was far less likely that respondents would consider changing their behaviour as a result of their experience. This was most likely to happen in the case of personal relationships and career goals.

Table 6.11 Impact of trip on personal views, 2005 (%) Personal views

Reinforced existing views

Have re-evaluated my views

Plan to change my behaviour

Didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t think about this

Total

Career goals

28

33

17

22

100

Respect for other cultures

54

26

10

10

100

Political views

39

19

7

35

100

Personal relationships

34

34

20

12

100

Environmental sustainability

37

16

14

33

100

Attitudes to poverty

38

16

10

34

100

Attitudes to global peace

44

17

7

32

100

Attitudes to religion

39

15

6

40

100

Conclusions Taken together, the survey results provide substantive evidence that young people are changed by their work experience trips abroad. They return home more open minded, tolerant and with less stereotypical attitudes than when they left.

Work experience abroad is seen not just as an opportunity for career advancement and personal development, but also as an opportunity to explore other cultures, meet new people and experience everyday life in another country.

Work experience trips are generally quite long, with an average duration of almost seven months. The majority of participants combine working and travelling, using the money they earn abroad to finance at least part of their travel. About 70% of the time is spent working and the rest was devoted to travelling.

The average total budget was almost US$ 4,800, implying a considerable economic impact for the host community. Total trip spending was highest for those visiting Western Europe, closely followed by South East Asia and Australasia. On the other hand, earning potential was highest in North America and Australasia.

When asked what they had gained from their trip, respondents were most likely to emphasise the social benefits, such as making new friends and mixing with local people. Work experience participants generally felt themselves to be part of the local community, with frequent contacts with local people both inside and outside the workplace. In general, such contacts were positive, and few people suffered serious problems with language, homesickness or cultural adjustment in general.

As a result of their experience, the participants generally felt that they had improved their personal and professional skills. This subjective perception was confirmed by objective measures showing that the participants had become more trusting of other people, more tolerant of cultural differences and more

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open in their attitudes to issues of race and immigration than before the trip started. This shows that well organised periods of work experience can have a positive impact on the individual and their attitude towards others, as well as wider issues such as global peace and intercultural relations.

Respondents were less likely to feel they had benefited from the trip if they were subject to negative critical incidents such as robbery or physical assault. In such cases, respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions of the host culture as well as their attitudes towards other people were also more likely to be negative.

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Chapter 7 Global Directions in Language Travel

Language travel is another dynamic sector of the youth and student travel industry. A 2005 British Council report 1 indicated that demand for international student places in the ‘main English speaking destinations’ is expected to grow from one million in 2003 to 2.6 million by 2020. The WYSE Travel Confederation/UNWTO study of youth tourism policy (see chapter 3) indicated that many countries are now actively developing language tourism as a major incoming market.

The Association of Language Travel Organisations (ALTO) has 188 members from 40 countries, representing both language travel agents and language schools. This chapter presents a brief summary of the 2006 edition of the report Global Directions in Language Travel, compiled through a survey of ALTO Member Agents and Schools. Copies of the full report can be downloaded from www.altonet.org.

ALTO Members The distribution of survey responses and the ALTO membership as a whole show that the survey is fairly representative of membership location.

Table 7.1 Geographic distribution of survey sample and actual ALTO membership, 2005 (%) Regions/subregions

Sample

Actual membership

Europe

63

61

North America

19

16

South and Central America

8

9

Asia Pacific

8

11

Africa and Middle East

2

3

Responding schools enrolled a total of 60,987 students and responding agents sent 33,190 students on language courses in 2005. The average number of students sent by each agent rose to over 1,800 in 2005 and the average number of students enrolled at responding schools fell slightly (see table below).

Because agents send students to many different schools, and schools recruit from different sources, there is no exact match between the number of students at schools and those reported by agents.

Table 7.2 Average number of students at respondent organisations in 2004 and 2005 Agents

Number of students

Schools

2004

2005

2004

2005

1,734

1,844

2,497

2,064

The significance of language travel in ALTO member’s turnover increased between 2004 and 2005, with schools in particular showing a strong growth.

1

Vision 2020: Forecasting International Student Mobility, 2005

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Table 7.3 Language travel products and services’ share of total turnover in 2004 and 2005 (%) Share of turnover 2004

2005

Agents

58

61

Schools

76

86

Language Student Profiles The ALTO surveys indicate that average student ages are falling. In 2004, less than half (45%) of outbound students were under 21 years old. In 2005, the balance had shifted so that 57% of students sent by agents were under 21 years old. Compared with young independent travellers in general (see chapter 2) language travellers tend to be slightly younger.

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The average duration of study for language travellers is between five and six weeks, although about half take courses of less than four weeks duration. The average duration of study reported by schools rose slightly between 2004 and 2005, indicating a slightly different trend from the rest of the youth travel market. As these figures only cover the actual study period, the total length of stay by language students in the destination country is likely to be significantly longer, as many will also spend some of their time travelling, just as many work experience participants do (see chapter 6).

Figure 7.2 Duration of study, 2005 (%) �� �� �� �� �� �� � ���������

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Global Directions in Language Travel

69

Origin and Destination Countries Japan was identified as the most important source market for language schools in 2005, followed by Spain and Germany. In comparison with 2004, the United States of America declined sharply, whereas Switzerland and Spain increased their position in the rankings considerably in 2005.

In terms of future growth, however, France, Republic of Korea and Brazil were identified as the markets with the largest expected growth for 2006.

Figure 7.3 Main source markets for language students, 2005 (%) ����� ����� ������� ����������������� ����� ������ ����������� ������ ������ ������������������������ �������������� ������������������ ����������� ����� �

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In terms of destinations, almost 80% of agents listed the United Kingdom as their most important destination. The dominance of English as the major language is underlined by the fact that the United States of America was ranked second and Canada fourth. Of the top eight destinations, six are Englishspeaking countries.

Figure 7.4 Main destination countries, 2005 (%) �������������� ������������������������ ����� ������ ������ ��������� ����� ����������� ����� ������ ������� ������� �

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English-speaking countries also dominated the list of countries with the highest expected growth for 2006.

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Table 7.4 Expected growth for major destination countries in 2006 (%) Destination

Expected growth

United Kingdom

24

Australia

21

United States of America

21

Canada

15

Spain

15

France

14

Malta

14

Over the next three years, however, respondents expected to see some changes in the balance of language travel destinations. In particular, Australia is most often expected to grow in popularity, no doubt encouraged by active government measures to attract students (see chapter 3). China is also expected to grow significantly albeit from a relatively small base.

Table 7.5 Respondents expecting growth for major destination countries over the next three years, 2005 (%) Destination

Respondents expecting growth

Australia

20

United States of America

15

China

13

Spain

10

Canada

8

United Kingdom

8

Brazil

5

Russian Federation

5

Argentina

3

Costa Rica

3

France

3

Germany

3

Italy

3

Mexico

3

New Zealand

3

Trends In terms of the types of courses which the industry thinks will be more important in future, the highest expectations were listed for online courses and business language courses. More than half of the respondents believed that these two types of courses would increase in popularity.

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Figure 7.5 Products and services expected to become increasingly popular in the language travel industry (%) ����������������� ����������������������������� ������������

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One of the important trends in the language travel sector, as in other sectors of the youth travel industry in general, is the tendency towards diversification. In particular, language travel providers see important areas of convergence between their products and other youth travel sectors, such as work experience, adventure travel, cultural experience and volunteering. The link to work experience was seen as particularly important, and there was a large increase in the number of respondents viewing this as a major growth area compared with 2004.

Figure 7.6 Areas of future diversification (%) �������������������������� �������������������������� ��������� ���������� �������� ���������� �������������������������������������� ���������������������� ��������������������������������������� ������������������ ��������������� ������������������� ������������������ �

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As with the previous three editions of the survey, respondents were asked to forecast market growth rates for the next three years. These figures indicate a continued optimism in the future of the industry, with predicted growth rates well above tourism market growth as a whole. In the 2006 survey, agent respondents forecast average growth between 2006 and 2009 of 10% per annum, while schools anticipated growth during this period of 7% per annum.

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Recruitment International agents are cited as by far the most important source of student recruitment for language schools. Agents accounted for almost 70% of business in 2006, and have increased their market share over 2005, partly at the expense of Internet.

Figure 7.7 Sources of recruitment for language schools, 2005 (%) �������������������� ������������������� ����������������������� ��������������� ����� ������������������ �

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Agents themselves report a decline in Internet recruitment, from 35% in 2005 to 26% in 2006. The main source of students remains referrals, but there is some evidence of diversification in the growing number of ‘other’ sources.

Figure 7.8 Sources of bookings for agents, 2005 (%) ����� ������������������ ���������������� ����������������� ��������� �

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Conclusions The ALTO study indicates that language travel, like other sectors of the youth and student travel market, is a dynamic industry which is undergoing considerable change, particularly through globalisation, diversification and professionalisation. As with other sectors, language agents and schools expect strong growth rates in the future, and the development of new markets. Although the current global languages such as English and Spanish now dominate the flows of language students, the growing importance of China is already evident from the future expectations of ALTO members.

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Chapter 8 The Future of Youth Travel

The different facets of youth and student travel reviewed in this report illustrate the dynamism, diversity and growth potential of this important global market. The research undertaken by WYSE Travel Confederation and its partners in recent years has confirmed youth and student travel to be a major component of global tourism and a positive influence on the personal and social development of young people.

In Sum, this Volume Reveals Youth and Student Travel to Be: An important industry This report provides hard evidence to support the often-quoted assumption that youth and student travel accounts for about a fifth of all global tourism. It also shows that although younger travellers are often seen as ‘budget’ travellers, their tendency to stay longer in the destination means that their total spend is often greater than that of other tourists.

A rapidly growing industry The Profile of the Young Independent Traveller survey shows that young people are travelling and spending more than they were five years ago, surpassing growth rates in the global travel market as a whole.

An industry with tremendous growth potential Estimated figures as presented in this report indicate that youth and student travellers are still underrepresented relative to their share of the population in many areas of the world – including many of the regions experiencing strong outbound tourism growth rates at present. It is little wonder that all of the youth and student travel sectors surveyed in this report display considerable optimism about future growth. The youth market also tends to be relatively impervious to the kind of external shocks which have affected tourism in recent years.

An industry with new challenges The creation of WYSE Travel Confederation is a response to the rapidly changing global environment of youth and student travel. The industry is facing a number of major opportunities and challenges which require increasing professionalism and cooperation if individual sectors and operators are to maximise their potential. These include: •

Globalisation;

•

diversification;

•

the role of new media;

•

growing professionalism;

•

increased competition.

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Youth and student travel is therefore a complex industry which touches many sectors of the travel industry, as well as different aspects of people’s lives, including personal mobility, cultural exchange and intercultural communication, personal development, education, skill development and social interaction.

A neglected industry Most governments have traditionally dismissed the youth and student market – incorrectly – as low budget and have therefore largely ignored its potential. However, the policy survey presented in this report indicates that attitudes are beginning to change. Many national tourism administration (NTAs) are now recognising the growth potential of youth and student travel, and are taking active steps to develop and promote youth and student travel.

A beneficial industry The increased attention paid to youth and student travel stems from the raft of benefits which can be generated by tapping this market: •

Economic: youth and student travel has considerable growth potential, generates more direct economic impact and has significant lifetime value.

•

Social: youth and student travel produces educational outcomes, generates income for the education system, and has an important role in the socialisation of young people.

•

Cultural: youth and student travel has a vital role in intercultural exchange, building tolerance and trust between different people and generating cultural understanding.

•

Personal: young people gain more confidence and self-awareness from their travel experiences.

•

Sustainable: because young travellers tend to live and interact closely with the communities that they visit, they invest more of their tourism spend with local community-run operations, thus contributing to sustainable tourism and poverty alleviation.

In many cases, all of these benefits will be encapsulated in the long trips taken by young people, as WYSE Travel Confederation studies show that, more than ever, young people will mix their travel ambitions with study, work, volunteer placements, adventure, relaxation and socialising.

A Vision for the Industry The mission of the WYSE Travel Confederation is “to increase international understanding through the promotion of travel and educational opportunities for students and youth”. To support this mission, and in order to realise the potential of the youth and student travel industry, it is important to promote collaboration and professionalism throughout the sector. WYSE Travel Confederation’s vision for the future of youth and student travel is founded on the belief that: •

This is a unique market that must be understood for its specialist needs;

•

that the industry needs to work together to meet these needs;

•

governments must be engaged and encouraged to promote youth travel opportunities.

WYSE Travel Confederation is working to achieve these ends by: •

Representing the core social value and massive economic importance of this sector to the tourism industry;

•

promoting the personal, social, economic and cultural benefits of youth travel, student travel and international education;

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•

contributing to responsible travel habits and sustainable tourism, for example through its Travel 2 Explore, Travel 2 Live, Travel 2 Respect, Travel 4 Peace public education campaign;

•

providing platforms and events for members to share knowledge, trade and engage governments and other players in facilitating travel opportunities for young people;

•

undertaking and supporting research to better understand the ever changing characteristics, motivations, and needs of young travellers. The Confederation gathers, analyses and shares important research data and market intelligence with its members, academics, corporate and government decision-makers, and the general travelling public;

•

supporting the development and success of student and youth travel specialists, and the critical role they play in a major global niche industry. This includes the development of specialist sector associations to provide a range of valuable services and products for young travellers around the globe including Student Identity Cards, Language Travel Experiences, Work Exchange and Au Pair Programmes, Student Flights, Surface Transport and Travel Insurance;

•

developing innovative travel and educational products and services for youth and students, such as the International Student Identity Card (ISIC), language study programmes, and work abroad experiences;

•

supporting WYSTC, the World Youth and Student Travel Conference (<www.wystc.org>), the leading conference and gathering for professionals active in the youth travel, student travel, cultural exchange and international education community.

Working Towards the Future WYSE Travel Confederation is building on its position as the global network for the youth and student travel community by forging links and partnerships with other international organisations. The historic Cooperation Agreement between WYSE Travel Confederation and UNWTO signed on 1 February 2007 stands out in this regard. As a result of this and other partnerships, WYSE Travel Confederation will be working on a number of fronts to secure a dynamic and prosperous future for the sector by: •

Encouraging governments to work on a policy of providing information about opportunities that exist, and most importantly, to integrate these policies in order to facilitate the diverse and holistic ambitions of young travellers. This involves integrating work and study visas, involvement of the educational sector and support for specialist organisations that provide opportunities for young travellers;

•

continuing to support the most comprehensive global research programme on youth and student travel. This will include data on the behaviour of youth travellers and the impact of youth travel experiences on attitudes and values, as well as a survey of youth and student tourism policy worldwide. This information will be used to encourage governments to actively support and market youth tourism products and services;

•

monitoring the use of new technologies and developments such as Web 2.0, applications which enrich information content and empower young consumers with a collective wisdom about the market. Such changes also provide suppliers and governments with new tools to connect with young ‘web-savvy’, ‘travel-hungry’ consumers;

•

organising seminars and events for government officials, national tourism authorities, educational specialists and commercial sector leaders to increase awareness of the importance of youth and student travel niche market;

•

promoting responsible travel habits and practices, within the spirit of sustainable tourism development.

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Where Can I Find out More?

More information about WYSE Travel Confederation, its activities and partners can be found on the website: www.wysetc.org. This includes links to research and publications in the youth and student travel field.

UNWTOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s website www.unwto.org provides a wide range of publications, research and statistics on tourism in general, as well as a number of specific publications relating to various tourism products and segments.

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Bibliography Annotated Bibliography of Research Studies on Youth and Student Travel (WYSE Travel Confederation Student and Youth Travel Bibliography, 2007)

This is the third edition of the WYSE Travel Confederation Student and Youth Travel Bibliography. The fist version was produced in January 2004, and the second in September 2005. The rapid increase in youth and student travel literature in recent years has necessitated a further update for this bibliography. The 2004 version of the bibliography contained 71 sources, while the current version lists 127.

It should be noted that this bibliography only covers general studies of youth and student travel, and does not cover detailed studies of more specific niches, such as backpacker travel. The backpacker literature has also grown rapidly, and is covered in more specialised publications, such as the ATLAS Backpacker Research Group publication, The Global Nomad (Richards and Wilson, 2004). A second volume on the topic from the ATLAS group is due to be published in late 2007 (Hannam and Ateljevic, 2007).

Some of the main reports listed here are online, many accessible through the WYSE Travel Confederation portal: www.wysetc.org. Many of the articles listed in this bibliography are also now available for downloading from the Internet, for example through sites such as www.ingenta.com or www. sciencedirect.com. If you do not have a journal subscription, you can usually download individual articles with a credit card payment from these sites.

Abdel-Ghaffar, A. (1992), ‘Youth Tourism’, Annals of Tourism Research, 19 (4), pp. 792-794

This article was a conference report of the first World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) conference on youth tourism, held in Delhi (November 1991). The report was prepared by Amr Abdel-Ghaffar and Mano Handy in collaboration with Jafar Jafari, Lee Kreul and Francis Stivala, the World Tourism Organization, Spain, University of Wisconsin-Stout, United States of America, Purdue University, United States of America and the National Student Travel Foundation of Malta.

Adler, J. (1985), ‘Youth on the Road: Reflection on the History of Tramping’, Annals of Tourism Research, 12, pp.

335-354

Tourism is conventionally traced to the eighteenth century Grand Tour of aristocratic youth which, it is then suggested, was gradually democratized and adopted in modified form by the middle classes. In such a perspective, the road culture of contemporary youth travellers would simply represent one form of this democratized elite tradition. This paper argues instead that contemporary road culture is better seen as an upwardly rather than downwardly mobile cultural form. Tramping originated as a well-institutionalized travel pattern of working class youth. Despite its instrumental functions, it always had tourism components, serving as the young workingman’s Grand Tour. When, in the course of the nineteenth century, it declined as a labour institution, it was romanticized and adopted by middle class youth for exclusively tourist purposes.

Babin, B. J. and Kuem Lim, K. (2001), ‘International Students’ Travel Behavior: A Model of the Travel-related Consumer/Dissatisfaction Process’, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 10 (1), pp. 93-106

A study was conducted to explore a consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction (CS/D) process among international college students (n=153) at a mid-sized US university. The two primary objectives of this study are: to explore travel-related factors that create value and satisfaction for international students; and to explore the usefulness of personal value perceptions in explaining consumers’ travel-related activities. A structural model is explored that shows how characteristics such as perceived safety, fun, and educational benefits create travel satisfaction through their impact on personal hedonic and utilitarian travel value perception. It is suggested that hedonic and utilitarian travel values are key facilitators, or mediators, of the relationships between key travel factors and CS/D. Results show that value perceptions appear to be key mediators of travel consumers’ satisfaction ratings.

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Bonvecchio, C. (1991), ‘The New Needs and New Aims of Youth Tourism in International Markets/I nuovi bisogni e le nuove motivazioni del turismo giovanile sui mercati internazionali’, Affari Sociali Internazionali, 19 (1), pp. 161-165

The motives and needs of young people (14-28) travelling as tourists are examined. The role of the scout movement in preparing young people for travel is mentioned. The suitability of youth hostels to answer current demands is questioned; a survey in the German Democratic Republic suggests the accommodation offered is considered uncomfortable, regimented and unsuitable. Aspects of provision of facilities for young people are introduced: these must include opportunities for meeting others, cultural, artistic, sports or environment-related events and proper regard for the young people’s requirements. The Erasmus Project is mentioned: this enables young people to study at institutions of higher education in other countries. Tourism provision for these students should be considered.

Bos, W., ‘International Summer Language Courses: Their Role in Learning to Appreciate Multiculturalism and Developing a Sense of ‘Europeanness’, In Reflections on Educational Achievement, Münster: Waxmann, available: www.waxmann.com/fs/bos.pdf (1995)

International Summer Language Courses are offered at many universities throughout Europe. There is no doubt that they achieve a general improvement in foreign language skills. However, there has been very little research as to how effective they are in helping students to live in a multicultural environment and, thus, what role they play in furthering the process of European integration. A pilot study has been undertaken with the aim of establishing how open to other cultures the participants at two summer language courses at Nottingham Polytechnic, United Kingdom, are. Data were collected by means of questionnaires and participatory observation, then, through a Latent Class Analysis for ordered categories, analysed in order to determine the courses’ level of success. The results highlight the positive aspects of a multicultural learning environment and how its role in successful foreign language acquisition, the main objective of such courses, can be of use in the context of setting the objectives of language holidays, assembling foreign language teaching materials and the training and supplementary education of teachers who teach their ‘mother tongue as a foreign language’.

Butts, F. B., Salazar, J., Sapio, K. and Thomas, D. (1996), ‘The Impact of Contextual Factors on the Spring Break Travel Decisions of College Students’, Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing, 4 (3), pp. 63-70

The college student is a major factor in the tourism success or the failure of many destination resort communities during the spring break season. This study examined the contextual marketing factors utilized by a successful coastal tourism community and their impact on the student’s travel destination decision. This particular community utilized marketing factors in an attempt to discourage the label of a college spring break host.

The influence that 16 community specific marketing factors exerted on the travel destination choices of 178 college students attending one of three universities in Alabama and Mississippi were identified and studied.

The research found that factors other than the contextual marketing factors utilized by the host community may be the overriding influence in the deterrence of college students. Such factors may be related to traveller motivation and situation rather than a community’s claimed marketing success.

Bywater, M. (1993), ‘The Youth and Student Travel Market’, EIU Travel and Tourism Analyst, 3, pp. 35-50

Measurement of the youth and student travel market is difficult; although there is no doubt that it is a multimillion dollar business. Among the major origin markets are the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States of America, Spain, Austria and Ireland, with a sharp increase in youth travel from Eastern Europe in recent years. In terms of destination trends, the United States of America is a major attraction for travellers from Europe, the United Kingdom is rated highly by continental Europeans and there has been a general increase in long haul travel. Air travel has taken an increasing share of the market, particularly at the expense of the railways. This report looks at the two organizations which dominate the international scene, the Federation of International Youth Travel Organizations and the International Student Travel Confederation, and at five of the major suppliers in the business. Most organizations have their roots in the student movement, academic institutions or government, and they still see their core business in this clearly defined market. However, the reality is that these companies are competing with the rest of the travel and tourism industry and their strategies have to reflect the same commercial concerns if they are to remain competitive.

Canadian Private Language Schools (CAPLS), Preliminary Report, Student Profile Survey, available: http://www. capls.com/en/industry/_docs/capls_student_profile_survey_report.pdf (November 2004)

A report based on a survey of almost 1,500 language students at 73 CAPLS member schools. The survey provides information on student profile, reasons for coming to Canada, duration of study, visa status, financial support,

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employment status, career ambitions, travel behaviour and satisfaction. The study shows that international language students make a significant contribution to the Canadian economy, spending an average of C$ 1,054 a month on school fees and C$ 743 on accommodation.

Carr, N. (1998), ‘Gendered Differences in Young Tourists’ Leisure Spaces and Times’, Journal of Youth Studies, 1 (3) pp. 279-294

This paper studies the use of leisure spaces and leisure times by young men and women tourists. It is based on information collected about the behaviour of young tourists during their holiday in the beach-oriented resort of Torquay, in Southwest England. This work is required because of the importance of the young beach-oriented tourist to the tourism industry and the paucity of previous research on this subject. The need to study gendered differences is related to the suggestion that such differences exist in the leisure behaviour of people in their home environment. The study found relatively few gendered differences, in terms of use of leisure spaces and times, group composition, or perception of atmosphere in the holiday environment.

Carr, N. (1998), ‘Gendered Leisure Spaces: A Case Study of the Young Tourist’, Tourism Management Working Paper Series, No. 4, University of Hertfordshire, p. 14

Information collected from a survey of three female and five male tourists during their holiday in the beachoriented resort of Torquay, United Kingdom [date not specified] examined the use of leisure spaces by young men and women tourists in both their home and holiday environments. The study found relatively few gendered differences, in terms of use of leisure spaces, group composition or perception of atmosphere in either the holiday or home environment. This appears to be related to the fact that although both the men and women realized the potential for personal danger neither gender was willing to allow this prevent them from doing what and going where they wished. However, the unwillingness of some of the respondents to into certain areas within their place of origin suggests the behaviour of young men and women may still be influenced by preconceived mental maps and external sources of information. The apparent preference for both the men and women for going into leisure spaces and leisure times in groups may be linked to a combination of the social nature of the group and the perceived safety it offers.

Carr, N. (1998), ‘The Young Tourist: A Case of Neglected Research’, Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 4 (4), pp. 307-318

This paper reviews the state of the young tourist population and the research that has been conducted on the young tourist. It shows that despite the number of young people taking vacations they have generally been neglected by researchers. The separate and heterogeneous nature of this market segment is described. Its current size, economic significance, and potential for the future is highlighted. The lack of a standardised definition of what constitutes a young tourist and the implications of this for research are also discussed. Finally, it is suggested that a wide variety of research on the young tourist is still required.

Carr, N. (1999), ‘A Study of Gender Differences: Young Tourist Behaviour in a UK Coastal Resort’, Tourism Management, 20 (2), pp. 223-228

This paper studies the leisure activities of young men and women tourists. It is based on information collected about the behaviour of young tourists during their holiday in the beach-oriented resort of Torquay, in Southwest England. This work is required because of the importance of the young beach-oriented tourist to the tourism industry and the paucity of previous research on this population. The need to study gendered differences is related to the suggestion that men and women engage in different leisure activities in their home environment.

The study found very few gendered differences, in terms of the leisure activities of young tourists.

Carr, N. (2001), ‘An Exploratory Study of Gendered Differences in Young Tourists Perception of Danger within London’, Tourism Management, 22 (5), pp. 565-570

This paper studies young tourists’ perception of danger within the urban holiday environment of London.

The study of perceived danger is important not only in its own right, but also because of the influence it may have on use of leisure spaces and times. This research assesses gender and group composition differences in perception of danger, addressing the relatively neglected issues of men’s perception and the relationship between the genders. For the purpose of this paper ‘danger’ was assessed by studying how safe, relaxed, vulnerable, threatened, and at risk people felt while in London. The study found a number of similarities and differences between the men and women studied, in terms of how they perceived danger and their group

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composition during the day and night time. These results indicate that gender may not be the only influence on perception and behaviour, and that men and women should not be regarded as homogenous cohorts.

Carr, N. (2002), ‘A Comparative Analysis of the Behaviour of Domestic and International Young Tourists’, Tourism Management, 23 (3) pp. 321-325

This paper provides a comparative analysis of the behaviour of young, single, British international and domestic tourists during their holidays. The research was located in Torquay, on the Southwest coast of the United Kingdom and Cala Millor, on the Northeast of Mallorca. These locations represent two of the most popular destinations for young British tourists on domestic and international vacations, respectively. The findings of this research suggest that young, single, British tourists on domestic vacations behave in a different manner compared to those holidaying at the international level. Indeed, compared to domestic tourists, young people on international vacations tended to behave in a more passive and hedonistic manner.

Carr, N. (2002), ‘Defining Young Tourists Visiting Beach-oriented Resorts: A Behavioural Analysis’, Anatolia, an International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 13 (1), pp. 49-62

This paper provides a chronological definition of young tourists visiting beach-oriented resorts based on behavioural patterns within the holiday environment. The study on which the paper is based took place in the beach-oriented resort of Cala Millor, on the northeast coast of the Spanish island of Mallorca. The need for this study is related to the lack of a universally agreed definition of the young tourist. The study found tourists between 16 and 24 years old were the most likely to behave in the passive/hedonistic manner that is generally associated with young tourists staying in beach-oriented destinations. In contrast, tourists aged 30-35 years old were less likely to behave in this manner. However, the overlap in behaviour between the sub-age groups and the differences within them suggests that chronological boundaries cannot be used in isolation to accurately define young tourists who take vacations in beach-oriented resorts.

Carr, N. (2002), ‘Going With the Flow: An Assessment of the Relationship Between Young People’s Leisure and Holiday Behaviour’, Tourism Geographies, 4 (2), pp. 115-134

This study compares how young people behave while they are on vacation (i.e. holiday behaviour) and in their place of origin (i.e. leisure behaviour). Data were collected using a series of in-depth interviews and recall diaries. Comparing behaviour in the holiday and home environments provides an analysis of the relationship between tourism and leisure, which is currently a matter of debate (Colton, 1987; Ryan, 1994; Moore et Al., 1995). Consequently, this research explores the relationship between leisure and tourism theories. The results of the study suggest that while they are on vacation the people interviewed tended to behave in a more liberal and hedonistic manner than when in their place of origin. However, this holiday behaviour seems to be an extension of their leisure behaviour, rather than separate from it. This may support the hypothesis that tourists’ behaviour is influenced by a combination of socio-cultural norms and values, and personal motivations that are present in both the home and holiday environments.

Carr, N. (2003), ‘University Student’s Holiday Behaviour: A Case Study from New Zealand’, C. Michael Hall (ed), Introduction to Tourism: Dimensions and Issues, 4th ed., South Melbourne, Pearson Education

This chapter provides an analysis of the holiday behaviour of 464 New Zealand university students and includes a detailed review of academic and market-based literature on student and youth travel. Information about the students’ holiday decision-making and purchasing processes; holiday destinations, timing, and duration; motivations; and behaviour was collected using a questionnaire, incorporating and building on the strengths of previous studies. A likert scale was used to examine motivations for travel. Findings show that on average, the New Zealand students studied took 2.4 holidays each during the survey year, with most holidays being taken within New Zealand (although the most popular international destination was Australia). The majority of the students’ holidays lasted between one and seven days. Package tour options were not favoured, demonstrating a higher use and trust of informal sources of holiday information. While the students mainly rely on their own savings, they often gain money from their parents and through loans to help pay for their vacations. Main motives for travel were a combination of passive, social, and hedonistic desires, and their holiday behaviour reflects these motivations. Unstructured behaviour was also favoured while on holiday. Conclusions emphasise the large scale of the university student holiday market and highlight challenges for the tourism industry in terms of providing holidays that cater to the needs/wishes of university students and encourage packages (although this may be difficult given the apparent preference of students to engage in unstructured activities).

Another challenge noted is the need for the tourism industry to persuade students to use more formal sources of

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information and feel that they can trust them – especially the case for the Internet, which is currently the least used and trusted source of holiday information among the students despite their relatively easy and often free access to Internet-based information.

Carr, N. (2003), ‘University Students’ Tourism’, in B. W. Ritchie, Managing Educational Tourism, Clevedon, Channel View Publications

Despite the fact that the majority of university students may be chronologically defined as belonging to the youth population (18 to 30 years old) they are actually a distinct population with different age, socio-cultural, educational, and economic characteristics. It is clear that this population has a preference for independently organised travel and vacation arrangements. Therefore, while recognising the existence of overlaps with the youth population, this chapter focuses exclusively on university students. The chapter is well contextualised within the existing literature on student and youth travel and the importance of various organisations in the youth travel sector (such as the WYSE Travel Confederation) in promoting and facilitating youth tourism is evaluated. Tourism as an educational component of the university experience, the variously spontaneous (e.g. independent trips) and organised (e.g. the EU Erasmus programme) nature of student mobility as well as travel for field trips during university. Finally, conclusions are drawn as to the future of tourism by university students, noting the issues of increasing student numbers and the growing accessibility of international travel experiences, as well as the increasing incidence of students graduating with debts.

Carr, N. (2003), ‘Use and Trust of Tourism Information Sources Amongst University Students’, in B. Ritchie, Managing Educational Tourism, Clevedon, Channel View Publications

This chapter studies the types of information sources utilised by university students when planning a vacation and the levels of trust they ascribe to them. The data on which this paper is based was collected using a combination of a questionnaire survey and a series of in-depth interviews. The students were all enrolled at the University of Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom at a variety of undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The need for this study is related to the fact that without a clear understanding of how students gain information about potential holiday destinations it is impossible to accurately market products to them. In addition, although university students represent a separate and significant part of the tourist population there is a paucity of research on the holiday experiences of this population. While students in tertiary education may have relatively small amounts of income, they have proportionally high levels of discretionary income and free time to spend on leisure pursuits, including vacations. Although most university students may, in chronological terms, be defined as part of the youth tourism market, there are a number of differences between the student and youth populations that prevent the use of research on the latter to understand the students. These differences include the socio-economic structure of the two populations, the presence of mature students in tertiary education, and the different socio-cultural norms and values that influence young people in general and university students.

The results of the research on which this paper is based indicate that the least utilised source of information was the Internet, with approximately one-quarter of the students claiming never to have used it to find out about possible vacations. The most trusted sources of information were informal ones such as previous visits, friends and relatives, although it was recognised that these can sometimes provide biased information. In contrast, the least trusted sources were formal ones, including the TV/radio and travel agents. However, a lack of trust in formal sources did not necessarily mean that the students did not use them. Instead, they tended to use other sources to confirm what formal sources claimed, or restricted their use to price guides.

Carr, N. (2005), ‘Poverty, Debt, and Conspicuous Consumption: University Students’ Tourism Experiences’, Tourism Management, 26 (5), pp. 797-806

According to the media and student unions, the student population in the United Kingdom is living in a state of poverty where it is difficult for them to afford basic needs. Consequently, students claim they have been forced to seek employment during university term-time and vacations. It may be hypothesized that the financial problems facing students place fiscal constraints on their holiday experiences. To assess the validity of this hypothesis the results of a survey and a series of in-depth interviews conducted with students at the University of Hertfordshire are studied in this paper. On average, students took almost two holidays, which lasted 16.7 days, during a 12-month period in 1999-2000. The students paid for these vacations by using a combination of personal savings, money from their parents, and bank/student loans. The study shows that spending by students on vacations represents a significant proportion of their income. Overall, the data indicates that despite the deteriorating financial position of students, students are very active in tourism pursuits.

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Carr, N. (2007), ‘Australian University Students Use and Trust of the Internet as a Tourism Information’, in C. Michael Hall (ed.), Introduction to Tourism in Australia: Development, Issues and Change, 5th edition, Frenchs Forest, Pearson Education

This case study analyses the types of information sources utilised by university students when planning a vacation and the levels of trust they ascribe to them. The results suggest that the Internet is amongst the least used and least trusted source of holiday information by university students. This indicates that the tourism industry has a significant amount of work to do to encourage students to use and trust formal sources of information, because as travel experiences increase students will use more informal sources for holiday information.

Carr, N. (2007), ‘Gender Differences/Similarities in University Students Holiday Behaviour’, in C. Michael Hall (ed.), Introduction to Tourism in Australia: Development, Issues and Change, 5th edition, Frenchs Forest, Pearson Education

This case study shows that a risk and bodily pleasure-oriented behavioural continuum exists with university students engaging in all types of these activities very frequently at one extreme and others never engaging in any of this behaviour at the opposite end. Some young women engage in this type of behaviour just as frequently, or even more so, than men. This supports the claim that young women are becoming more risky and bodily pleasure oriented, assuming behavioural traits that have previously been associated with men. Conversely, the lack of risk and bodily pleasure-oriented behaviour by some men conforms more to the traditionally restrained image of socially expected women’s behaviour. The results indicate that there is a blurring of behavioural boundaries between the genders.

Chadee, D. and Cutler, J. (1996), ‘Insights into International Travel by Students’, Journal of Travel Research, 35 (2), pp. 75-80

Although research on international travellers abounds the literature, international travel by students remains a neglected area. A study reports the findings from a survey of 370 university students in New Zealand. The survey identified student motives for undertaking international travel, the planning process, and the preferred destinations and methods for two important aspects of international travel by students. In addition, the study also included cross-cultural comparisons of travel behaviour. The findings indicate that students travelling overseas represent a distinct market with specific needs and preferences. Travel behaviours vary significantly for different cultures and it is shown that it is possible to model such behaviours.

Chhetri, P., Arrowsmith, C., and Jackson, M. (2004), ‘Determining Hiking Experiences in Nature-based Tourist Destinations’, Tourism Management, 25 (1), pp. 31-43

This paper presents research on the underlying dimensions influencing visitor experiences through natural landscapes. This paper uses the generic term ‘experience’ to cover a wide range of subjective meanings such as moods, emotions and feelings of individuals moving through natural landscapes. The study has conceptualised and empirically created constructs that underpin the character, magnitude and attributes of visitor experiences in natural landscapes. In situ measurements of feelings and experiences were determined via a questionnaire administered to a group of university students hiking along the Pinnacle walking track in the Grampians National Park in western Victoria, Australia. The study has applied two commonly used multivariate techniques, multidimensional scaling and principal components analysis to create constructs that model the nature and magnitude of the visitor experience in natural settings.

Clarke, J. A. (1992), ‘Marketing Spotlight on the Youth ‘Four S’s’ Consumer’, Tourism Management, 13 (3), pp. 321–327

This article considers the nature of the demand-supply relationship between the large-scale or mass market inclusive tour operators geared to the youth market and the United Kingdom youth target market for holidays abroad: the ‘Four S’s’ Consumer’. It is argued that this youth segment is significantly different from the youth market for independent travel and specialist niche products, on which previous research has largely been focused. The reasons for the success of the mass tour operator in the youth market are considered against the general characteristics of young people. Evidence for the consumer profile is drawn from data analysis of the once leading youth mass tour operator, and three youth sub-segments are shown to emerge from the dominant profile. Threats to the youth operators are identified and possible moves towards product diversification are briefly discussed.

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Cloesen, U., ‘A Survey of Tertiary English Language Students in New Zealand’, e-Review of Tourism Research (eRTR), 4 (2), available: http://ertr.tamu.edu (2006)

The New Zealand Government, recognizing the value of export education, changed the law in 1989 to allow State institutions to recruit international fee paying students. Data for foreign fee paying student’s tourism expenditure and travel habits did not feature in New Zealand’s Domestic Travel Survey or Provisional Tourism Satellite Account. A sample survey was administered to 100 tertiary English language students, studying at CPIT, Christchurch, New Zealand’s ESOL Department. Students tended to engage in considerable travel activity, and almost a third were visited by friends or relatives from abroad during their stay. Levels of expenditure were also found to be twice as high as the average for domestic tourists in New Zealand.

Cohen, E. (1973), ‘Nomads from Affluence: Notes on the Phenomenon of Drifter-Tourism’, International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 14 (1-2), pp. 89-103

This article was one of several seminal pieces by Cohen in the 1970s developing a typology of tourist roles around a major distinction between institutionalised and non-institutionalised travellers. Institutionalised roles are typified by the organised mass tourist displaying a preference for being confined to the ‘Western cultural bubble’ in which decisions are made on behalf of the traveller and needs are met by the tourist infrastructure.

Institutionalised roles also feature the individual mass tourist who makes arrangements for transportation and accommodation through an agency and chooses low risk, familiar situations when planning itineraries. Noninstitutionalised roles identified by Cohen include the ‘explorer’ and the ‘drifter’. The primary shared values of these groups were novelty, spontaneity, risk, independence, and a multitude of ‘off the beaten track’ options.

The primary distinction between these two is base around the drifter’s lack of a fixed itinerary and a more limited budget, but also reflects the more socio-political stance of a counterculture. These earlier forms of nomadic travel reflected the social structure of the period, just as Cohen’s description of the drifter reflects the emergence of affluent middle classes of the West. The economic background of drifters suggests their need to experience ‘real life’ beyond familiar economic security, but attention is also paid to their ability to travel for extended periods through careful budgeting and skilled financial management.

Dalziel, L., Speech to Backpacker Accommodation Councils of New Zealand Annual Conference, 12 August 2000, available: www.beehive.govt.nz/ViewDocument.aspx?DocumentID=8270 (2000)

This speech provides an overview of national tourism policy in New Zealand, and the role of youth and backpacker tourism. There is a particular focus on the increased scope of the working holidaymaker scheme.

Desforges, L. (1998), ‘Checking out the Planet: Global Representations/Local Identities and Youth Travel’, in T. Skelton and G. Valentine (eds), Cool Places: Geographies of Youth Culture, Routledge, London, pp. 175-192

Focusing on the role of travel in contemporary youth culture(s), this book chapter looks at global representations and local identities in youth travel, exemplifying the developing interest in youth and student mobility as a global postmodern phenomenon. The notion of identity in youth travel is set in the context of the practice of ‘collecting places’ as a way in which travellers relate to the ‘other’. Markers of authenticity for independent young travellers centre on the absence of both the travel industry and other tourists. The chapter argues that the travellers themselves determine which places are brought into and excluded from the tourist economy, and that they determine the terms by which people and places are included in mainstream tourist trade. It is argued that this economic power serves to reshape cultures, employment practices and economies which are all part of tourism’s role in the production of place. Travel is also discussed as a mechanism that (as a sign of distinction, c.f. Pierre Bourdieu) enables travellers to gain access to a given social class and its privileges.

Éditions Touristiques Européenes: S.A.R.L (2003), Tourisme des jeunes (16-25 ans), ÉTÉ (Les cahiers espaces n.

77), Paris

This volume contains a wide variety of chapters on many aspects of tourism by young people aged 16 to 25. Contributions range from demand studies and behavioural analyses of youth tourism to youth hostelling, backpacking and language exchanges as forms of youth mobility. Other contributions examine the roles of organizations involved in the youth and student travel sector. Case studies presented include experiences of and aspirations for youth tourism in Paris and the Île de France, Alsace, Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur and London.

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Fantini, A. E. and Tirmizi, A. (2007), Exploring and Assessing Intercultural Competence, available: www. experiment.org

This research project involved two sending and one receiving volunteer organisations in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and Ecuador, and aimed to assess intercultural competence through a survey questionnaire and personal interviews. The data supported a range of assertions about the impact of volunteer travel experiences, including the fact that intercultural experiences are life-altering, that people are changed in positive ways as a result of this experience and that intercultural experiences impact on the specific life choices, life partners, life styles, values and jobs of volunteers.

Field, A. M. (1999), ‘The College Student Market Segment: A Comparative Study of Travel Behaviors of International and Domestic Students at a Southeastern University’, Journal of Travel Research, 37 (4), pp. 375-381

This article focuses on a study that examined the college market segment in the United States of America by comparing recess vacation travel of Clemson University foreign students to that of domestic students.

FIYTO (2000), FIYTO’s Youth Travel Celebration: Official Report, FIYTO/UNWTO/Messe, Berlin

A collection of presentations to a special meeting at ITB Berlin to celebrate 50 years of the Federation of International Youth Travel Organisations (FIYTO). The report includes contributions from FIYTO, UNWTO and the British Tourist Authority. It is argued that youth tourism accounted for 20% of international tourist arrivals in 2000, and forecasts this would rise to 25% in the near future.

Fleenor C. P., Toh R. S. and Arnesen D. W. (2003), ‘Research Note: Student Study Tours: Impact on Tourism’, Tourism Analysis, 7 (3-4), pp. 277-281

In the summer of 2000, Seattle University’s business school organized a student study tour of Vietnam and Singapore. Group expenses were almost twice as high in Singapore as in Vietnam, reflecting the respective costs of living in the two countries. This also was true for diary records of individual expenses, because more shopping was done in Singapore. Surprisingly, individual spending was largely unaffected by demographics, but was instead destination specific. It concluded that student study tours are a form of sustainable tourism that can make a substantial economic impact on host countries.

Frost, F. and Shanka, T. (1999), ‘Asian Australian Student Travel Preferences: An Empirical Study’, Asian Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 42 (2), pp. 19-26

A sample of 1,083 students comprising students from Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Hong Kong, China, and studying at a university in Perth, Australia were surveyed to determine their international travel experience during the previous two years. The information requested included primary destination, length of stay, type of accommodation and purpose of visit. In addition, information was sought on the reasons for choosing destinations, and how they planned their trips. Other issues included the influence of various marketing elements on the decision process, and funding related considerations. The research indicated preferences for various destinations based on a range of pre-selected criteria. In particular, the research focused on preferred travelling options, role of the family and funding related issues in terms of the various nationalities.

Significant outcomes in terms of such preferences of travelling were noted. This research has shown a clear opportunity for the travel industry to better target this market.

Gallarza, M. G. and Gil Saura, I. (2006), ‘Value Dimensions, Perceived Value, Satisfaction and Loyalty: An Investigation of University Students’ Travel Behaviour’, Tourism Management, 27 (3), pp. 437-452

Both marketing practitioners and academic researchers have traditionally recognised the major influence that perceived value has on consumer behaviour. Tourism and hospitality research have recently shown an interest in value; especially, when investigated with quality and/or satisfaction. The present study has two primary objectives. First, to investigate the dimensionality of consumer value in a travel-related context (students’ travel behaviour), adopting Holbrook’s typology, and combining it with negative inputs of value. Second, to explore the relations between consumer perceptual constructs such as perceived value, satisfaction and loyalty. This dual objective is undertaken by providing an LISREL model. The results confirm the existence of a quality-valuesatisfaction-loyalty chain and illustrate the complexity of value dimensions that have been shown to be highly sensitive to the tourism experience.

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Garibaldi, M. and Rebora, L. (1995), ‘El turismo de jóvenes en México’, BITS Información, 120, pp.10-13

The Mexican tourist industry is a growing force in the international tourism economy. Increasing numbers of Mexicans are taking holidays. In 1994, the number of Mexican travellers reached the order of 39 million or 46% of the total population. This article (Lourdes, pp. 10-13) examines trends and developments in youth tourism.

Mexico has a huge young population who are increasingly willing to travel abroad to different countries. It is estimated that some 50,000 young people travel abroad each year. Mexico is only just beginning to promote this type of tourism and does not yet have the infrastructure, organizations or programmes with which to fully develop it. However, in order to respond to growing tourism demand among young people, a special agency has been set up and several projects are currently being developed.

Gmelch, G. (1997), ‘Crossing Cultures: Student Travel and Personal Development’, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 21 (4), pp. 475-490

This paper is concerned with what students do and learn when they travel abroad. First, the behaviour and daily routines of American college students travelling in Europe, while on a term abroad, are examined through their journals and travel logs and the researchers observations. What the students learn about other cultures is often superficial, yet the experience is found to be educational in ways that were unexpected. Much of the personal benefit of travel comes not from what students learn about the places or cultures they visit, but from the need to continuously make decisions and deal with the demands of daily life in new and unfamiliar settings. It is suggested that these experiences foster personal development in several ways.

Graham, B., ‘The Impact of International Student Employment’, Education New Zealand Trust, available: www. educationnz.org.nz/indust/researchreports/R4.pdf (2005)

This report includes research on working holidays in New Zealand (see also Newlands, 2005). The study found that working holidaymakers take low-paid, short-term and often seasonal jobs in areas where there are large numbers of tourists. It is estimated the 20,604 working holidaymakers in 2003-2004 took approximately NZ$ 176 million out of the economy via paid employment in the equivalent of approximately 7,000 fulltime jobs annually. They spent approximately NZ$ 309 million during their stay in New Zealand. The report concludes that the very presence of working holidaymakers generates a net increase in jobs.

Hannam, K. and Ateljevic, I. (2007, eds.), Backpacker Tourism: Concepts and Profiles, Clevedon, Channel View, available: www.multilingual-matters.com (note: due to be published late 2007)

Papers from the second expert meeting on backpacker tourism organised by the ATLAS Backpacker Research Group. Contains papers on travel styles, backpacker enclaves and hostel development.

Hartmann, J. et al. (1992), ‘Future Forecasts: Youth Tourism’, Sociologia Urbana e Rurale, 38, pp. 377-411

The final sections of this article focus on possible future developments in tourist behaviour, attempting to throw some light on the topic by observing current tourist behaviours among the young. The piece draws on evidence from Sweden and Italy in discussing patterns of demand and travel behaviour among young people.

Hashimoto, A. (2000), ‘Young Japanese Female Tourists: An In-depth Understanding of a Market Segment’, Current Issues in Tourism, 3 (1), pp. 35-50

Since the launch of the government’s Ten Million Program in 1986, the number of Japanese outbound tourists has steadily increased even during the post-bubble economy period. Many destination countries have recognised the importance of the young female market segment as having a rapid growth rate and high spending power.

This article investigates the socio-cultural background of the female tourist by exploring Japanese values on life and women, sex and sexuality and changing values in the younger generations. Based on the findings, this paper discusses the significance of the Young Female Japanese tourists as a potential market in the near future, and also the importance of understanding the socio-cultural background of the target market segment.

Hecht, J. A. and Martin, D. (2006), ‘Backpacking and Hostel-Picking: An Analysis from Canada’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18 (1), pp. 69-77

This research analyses the characteristics of backpackers staying at hostels in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), Canada, and their service preferences. Interviews were conducted with 20 experienced backpackers from

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seven countries. The study identified 15 critical backpackers’ requirements which were then used to design a questionnaire. In total, 385 backpackers from 35 countries completed the questionnaires. The research shows that backpackers cannot be treated as a homogeneous group, and there are differences due to demographics of gender, age and country of origin. The traditional youth tourist backpacker (15-25 years old) viewed backpacking as more a social and cultural experience than the transition backpacker (26-29 years old) or contemporary backpacker (30 years old and older). As age increased, so did the backpacker’s desire and willingness to pay for privacy. Asian and North/South Americans required more hotel type services than Australians and Europeans.

Heung, V. and Leong, J. (2006), ‘Travel Demand and Behavior of University Students in Hong Kong’, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 11 (1), pp. 81-96

University students represent an emerging market for the travel industry. This paper reports the findings of a study on the travel behaviour and travel patterns of Hong Kong, China, university students. Using a questionnaire, a survey was conducted to identify student travel motives, their travel planning process and travel preferences. A total of 264 university students in Hong Kong, China, were interviewed and data analyzed. The results indicate that to ‘Experience new and different styles’, ‘Take it easy and relax’, ‘Go to places I haven’t been before’ and ‘Outstanding scenery’ were perceived as important motives in students’ travel decision-making. Four factors with 24 attributes were identified. These factors were ‘Social relationships’, ‘Obtain new experience’, ‘Relax and enjoy’ and ‘Cost of travel’. Based on the findings of the study, it was suggested that modifications to the existing tourism products and services and new product development were necessary in order to meet the demand of this emerging market.

Hickey, R., ‘Youth Tourism in Ireland – The Cinderella of Irish Tourism’, Submission from Ireland Unplugged to the National Tourism Policy Review Group, available: http://www.tourismreview.ie/submissions/ prodyouthtourism/IrelandUnplugged.doc.pdf (2003)

This analysis of the Irish youth tourism industry indicates that a total of 2.2 million bednights were spent in Irish hostels in 2002, with the average guest spending € 15.90 per night on accommodation and about € 40.00 per day on other items. This makes hostel tourism worth about € 123 million per annum to the Irish economy.

Hobson, J. S. P. and Josiam, B. (1992), ‘Spring Break Student Travel – An Exploratory Study’, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 1 (3), pp. 87-97

The US college ritual of the spring break has developed into a uniquely North American tourism phenomenon.

While numerous studies have focused on student travel, none have focused on spring break travel patterns. The aim of the study reported here was to investigate the characteristics of the spring break student market. A survey was administered to a sample of 384 students at the University of Wisconsin-Stout, United States of America in late March, 1991. A response rate of 95% was obtained (n=570). The findings show that the majority of students were not tourists over spring break. Only 10.7% of students surveyed went to one of the renowned US and international spring break destinations. Details of how the spring break was organized, main modes of transport used, the total cost of the holiday, and who paid for the trip are given. A subsequent study by the same authors also exists – Hobson, J. S. P. and Josiam, B. (1996), ‘Spring Break Student Travel: A Longitudinal Study‘, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 2, pp. 137–150. A summary was unavailable at the date of publication.

Holecek, D. F., Warnell, G. R., Langone, L. A., Bristor, T. F., Latkova, P. and Nicholls, S., Characteristics, Scale, and Economic Importance of Independent, Overnight Group Travel by 12-18 Year Olds in the United States, available: www.sytri.msu.edu/research.htm (2006)

This survey of domestic trips by US 12-18 year olds indicated that over 60% had taken an independent overnight, group trip in 2005. Estimates extrapolated to the total population of 12-18 year olds indicate that this market produced almost 25 million trips in 2005 and nearly US$ 10 billion in total expenditures. Parents are the main source of trip funding (83.8%), although children often (23.2 % of the time) contribute to trip costs.

Over half of trips are school related and organized sports are the leading primary purpose of trips. Nearly 60% of children stayed overnight in a hotel or motel and the average trip included four nights away. These statistics confirm that this component of the student and youth travel market is significant in both its scale and economic importance.

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Horak, S., Crnkovi, S. and Míkaci, V. (1989), ‘Development of Youth Tourism in SR Croatia’, Problemy Turystyki, 12 (2), pp. 51-61

The development of youth tourism in Croatia is analysed from the Second World War to the present, and looking forward to the year 2000. An examination of the past shows that youth tourism reached the height of its popularity in Croatia in the late 1950s; later years saw it lagging behind commercial tourism. An outline of the present situation as regards tourism facilities for young people in Croatia leads to the conclusion that the conditions of organized youth tourism in the area are inadequate both in terms of number and structure of facilities. This situation signifies a considerable social loss due to the fact that an important part of youth education is neglected. Research into the possibilities of youth tourism development in Croatia bases planned expansion of facilities on estimated demand to the year 2000. The funds required for realization of the suggested development programme are ten times the size of those set aside by society today. In order to resolve this problem, the adoption of special long-term systematic solutions is suggested for financing the Croatian Ferial Association, the leading youth tourism organization in the country.

Horak, S. and Weber, S. (2000), ‘Youth Tourism in Europe: Problems and Prospects’, Tourism Recreation Research, 25 (3), pp. 37-44

Youth tourism represents a specific market segment within tourism. It has a long tradition in Europe and its significance is increasing. On the basis of existing available sources and knowledge, this paper attempts to elaborate the concept of youth tourism, describe its characteristics, and then analyse the mobility and expenditure of this dynamic tourism market in more detail. Youth hostel accommodation capacity and travel flows in European countries are analysed and the main features of tourism products intended for young travellers are identified. Finally prospects for development of youth tourism in Europe are emphasized based on important key factors.

Hsu, C. H. C. and Sung, S. (1997), ‘Travel Behaviors of International Students at a Midwestern University’, Journal of Travel Research, 36 (1), pp. 59-65

The focus of this study was to identify the travel behaviours and demographic characteristics of international students travelling in the United States of America. A simple random sampling method was used to select 600 students from a large Midwestern university, of which 278 were returned (46.3% response rate). Findings indicate that international students prefer touring activities when travelling. Automobiles, hotels/motels, and fast-food restaurants were used most often by respondents, although differences were identified by age, marital status, and income level. The development of targeted marketing campaigns is required to utilize this potentially lucrative segment of the population. All inclusive tours and better detailed maps/itineraries would be one way of appealing directly to this sector. This study was later replicated by Shoham et al. (2005).

Hudman, L. E. (1990), ‘Student International Travel’, Tourism Recreation Research, 15 (2), pp. 41-45

There are over 750 semester, year long, or short summer study abroad programmes offered by colleges and universities in the United States of America. The airlines provide special rates and guidebooks are written specifically for the young traveller. The hospitality segment of the industry has developed a large infrastructure of facilities such as hostels directed at student travel. A survey of travel of Brigham Young University students in Utah, United States of America indicated that 10% of international travellers from the United States of America are students. In addition, student travel is relatively more diverse. The impact of the university on student travel is significant.

Jagusiewicz, A. (1991), ‘Programmatic Principles of German Youth Tourism to Poland’, Problemy Turystyki, 14 (1/2), pp. 43-56

German youth travel has a well established post war tradition. Following a cultural exchange agreement between Poland and the former West Germany in 1970, visits to Poland grew rapidly and young tourists played a prominent role. Any discussion of German youth travel to Poland is hampered by the lack of research/ statistical data available. The article attempts to describe the trends which have characterized this form of travel.

A specific form of Polish-German tourism is the so-called no-currency exchange programme which provided for children and youths to travel between the two countries between 1987 and 1990. These visits were intended to help develop personal relations between participants, and usually took the form of volunteer work camps and various summer camps. The scheme now involves the whole of unified Germany and about 11,000 youths and 7,000 school pupils. The social and cultural assumptions central to the exchange programme are discussed.

General suggestions are made as regards the service infrastructure and reception facilities.

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Jarvis, J. and Peel, V. M. (September 2005), ‘Study Backpackers: Australia’s Short-stay International Student Travellers’, Paper presented at the ATLAS Backpacker Research Group Meeting, Bangkok

In 2003, Australia’s International Visitor Survey identified the arrival of nearly 460,000 ‘backpackers’ into the country, strengthening Australia’s position as a leading destination in terms of backpacker development. This growth highlights questions about the nature of the term ‘backpacker’ within a market clearly comprised of diverse types of independent travellers. The issue is addressed in this study through the segmentation of the broadly acknowledged Australian backpacker market according to purpose of visit. Three distinct typologies are identified; travellers, working holiday makers, and study backpackers.

Study backpackers are defined as international visitors whose chief motivation for travel is one or two semesters of study at Australian higher educational institutions interspersed with independent touring either during the semester breaks, and/or prior to or at the conclusion of their studies. The rapid growth of this market in Australia is examined over time as are the driving factors behind its development, which include political, social and economic factors both in Australia and in the major source markets. Specific attention is focused on the role of the international marketing of Australian Universities abroad using specific examples from the key markets of Scandinavia and North America.

This paper is based on a quantitative research study of over 800 international exchange and study abroad students attending university in Melbourne, from 1998-2004. The study examines their travel behaviour both in Australia and within the Asia and the Pacific region, the information sources they used to plan their trip, their motivations to study/travel abroad and within Australia and their economic contribution to their host city and the broader backpacker industry. Additionally the paper explores the response of the university sector to the phenomena, via the development of specific courses and theme based study tours.

Jefferson, A. (1991), ‘Demographics, Youth and Tourism’, Tourism Management, 12 (1), pp. 73-75

The purpose of this report is to look at the impact of youth on tourism and the tourist industry, not just as travellers but also as employees. Alan Jefferson, International Marketing Director and Deputy Chief Executive of the British Tourist Authority, considers demographic trends which have implications for tourism and demonstrates the importance of the youth segment for the United Kingdom’s incoming tourist industry. In Europe, the proportion of young people is declining and more must be encouraged to pursue higher education as the demand for professional workers increases.

Jong, P. de and Seekings, J. (1997), ‘The Young Traveller: A Marketing Adventure. Part 1: The Youth Travel Market’, Youth Travel International (May), pp. 13-14

The characteristics of the youth travel market are examined to provide guidelines for tourism marketers. It is argued that this market is an important segment for tourism, as it constitutes the future mass market. A three tier approach to the youth market is adopted: the under 10s; the 10-20 (or teens); and the 20-30 (twentysomethings) represent the segments whose travel choices are: controlled totally by the parents; exercising significant control over parental choice; and almost complete independence respectively. Also described are the changing youth travel marketing scene, and the marketing role of the Federation of International Youth Travel Associations (FIYTO). This segment is being taken increasingly seriously by many destinations and several surveys into the youth travel market have been conducted. FIYTO has been leading an international programme to educate the travel industry by drawing attention to the many hidden benefits of youth travel, not least of which is its role in opening up new destinations and products.

Jong, P. de and Seekings, J. (1997), ‘The Young Traveller: A Marketing Adventure. Part 2: Youth Travel Marketing’, Youth Travel International (September), pp. 9-19

Following on from part 1, which examined the youth travel market, this paper shows how segmentation by age group has enabled tour operators to successfully market themselves to young people. The scenarios in France, Austria, Germany, and the United Kingdom are presented, to demonstrate the differences in approach and to highlight the similarities each distinctive market share. In conclusion, the role of the Federation of International Youth Travel Organizations, in bringing like minded youth travel organizations together and to help them work together is described.

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Josiam, B. M., Clements, C. J. and Hobson, J. S. (1994), ‘Travel in the USA: Understanding the Spring Break Market’ in A. V. Seaton, (ed) Tourism, The State of The Art, John Wiley, Chichester, pp. 322-331

The aim of this study was to investigate the characteristics of the US spring break student market. As such, the chapter provides a comprehensive overview of student spring break travel in the United States of America, including details of trip organising behaviour, main modes of transport used, the total cost of the trips and who funds the travel of these students.

Kak-Yom, K. and Jogaratnan, G. (2002), ‘Travel Motivations: A Comparative Study of Asian International and Domestic American College Students’, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 13 (4), pp. 61-83

This article compares the travel motivations of both Asian and domestic American college students. A review on the psychological motivations of travel for college students is provided, giving impetus to the differences in the students’ travel motives. Finally, implications for tourism marketing are discussed.

Kale, S. H., McIntyre, R. P. and Weir, K. M. (1987), ‘Marketing Overseas Tour Packages to the Youth Segment: An Empirical Analysis’, Journal of Travel Research, 25 (4), pp. 20-24

Owing to its size, affluence, and spending habits, the 18 to 35 age group is a viable segment for packaged tours marketing. This study examines the travel preferences of the youth segment and compares these preferences to representative tour offerings targeted to the 18 to 35 age group. It is concluded that the current emphasis on the activities component in a tour package for the youth segment is misplaced; potential travellers in this age group place a higher value on free time, flexibility, exposure to the local culture, and the opportunity to visit scenic attractions.

Kim, K. Y. and Jogaratnam G. (2003), ‘Activity Preferences of Asian International and Domestic American University Students: An Alternate Basis for Segmentation’, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 9 (3), pp. 260-270

Though the student market constitutes a significant portion of revenues in the travel industry, it has received little attention in tourism research. The primary purpose of this paper is to offer an alternate approach to segmentation and to subdivide the student market on the basis of travel activity preferences of Asian and domestic university students. When a division based on ethnicity is adopted, the study findings suggest that the travel activity preferences of Asian and domestic college students are surprisingly similar. Subdividing this market by means of a factor-cluster segmentation methodology, however, yielded two cluster groups that were significantly differentiated by variables such as gender, age, source of income, length of stay, marital status and travel group size. The ability to segment this market in terms of descriptors other than ethnicity allows marketers to focus their efforts differently in their attempts to target these groups.

Kim, K. Y. and Jogaratnam, G. (2002), ‘Travel Motivations: A Comparative Study of Asian International and Domestic American College Students’, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 13 (4), pp. 61-82

The purpose of this study was to assess and compare the travel motivations of both Asian and domestic college students. A comprehensive review of the literature was used to identify psychological motivations for travel and these were further assessed in terms of their importance and performance. Data were collected over a period of eight weeks beginning in May 2001. Based on survey responses from 525 students enrolled at three universities in the US Midwest, there seem to be many similarities as well as some clear differences in the students’ travel motives. The importance-performance technique is used to assess the relative significance of attributes and satisfaction with the fulfilment of needs. Implications for marketing decision makers are suggested.

King, R. and Beeton, S. (2006), ‘Influence of Mass Media Coverage of Adventure Tourism on Youth Perceptions of Risk’, Tourism Culture & Communication, 6 (3), pp. 161-169.

Perception is a complex construct that is influenced by a number of factors, including the mass media, which can produce a distorted view of reality. This is of significance to adventure tourism businesses because a persons perceptions of adventure, risk, and safety are what determine whether they will participate. Research was undertaken to examine how the mass media coverage of adventure tourism accidents influences youth perceptions of risk. It was found that the news media increases the perceived risk associated with an activity, but instead of discouraging youth participation it actually encourages future participation intentions.

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Koskinen L. and Tossavainen K. (2004), ‘Study Abroad as a Process of Learning Intercultural Competence in Nursing’, International Journal of Nursing Practice, 10, pp.111-120

The aim of this research was to describe an international student exchange programme as a context of learning intercultural competence in nursing. Twelve Finnish nursing students who had participated in an exchange programme in the United Kingdom participated. The data consisted of group interviews, learning documents, background questionnaires and research diary notes, and the method of inductive content analysis was used.

Study abroad as a process of learning intercultural competence consisted of three ethno-categories: transition from one culture to another, adjustment to the difference and gaining intercultural sensitivity. The exchange programme as a context of learning intercultural competence was characterized by a problematic orientation phase, a study abroad phase that involved stressful but rewarding adjustment to the intercultural differences and an inadequate re-entry debriefing phase. In order for the international experience of nursing students to have an impact on their understanding of diversity, they need assistance in each phase of the programme. Particularly, the students need intercultural tutoring and mentoring to venture into encounters with local people, including direct client contacts, during their study abroad.

Lam, T. and Ching, L. (2007), ‘An Exploratory Study of an Internship Program: The Case of Hong Kong Students’, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 26 (2), pp. 336-351

This study investigates the difference between expectations and perceptions of over 300 hospitality students towards their internship program, and assesses the relationship between the difference and overall satisfaction.

The results show that on the one hand, students had high expectations of broadening work experience, developing technical skills, and acquiring good opportunities for future career development in the same company. On the other hand, students’ perceptions were high for broadening work experience, being able to develop technical skill, and interesting and challenging work. Overall, students’ expectations were unmet.

The three factors of ‘superior’, ‘team spirit and involvement’, and ‘autonomy and help from superior’ were the influential factors in predicting students’ satisfaction towards internship. Among these three factors, ‘team spirit and involvement’ was the most important factor in the prediction, followed by ‘autonomy and help from superior’, and ‘superior’.

Li, W. S. (1995), ‘Youth Tourism and Recreation in China’, World Leisure and Recreation, 2, pp. 6-9

With the increasing demands of Chinese youth for tourism products and recreation programmes, the industry faces a number of challenges. Firstly, it is of vital importance to understand the risks that youth confront when participating in their favoured activities and planning for those risks. Secondly, products and amenities should be of high quality, at low cost, and with easy accessibility. Thirdly, the imposition of regulations and laws should aim to ensure the safety of youth, by the prevention of fire, food poisoning, theft and violent crimes, while enforcing a ban on gambling, prostitution and drugs.

Loker-Murphy, L. and Pearce, P. (1995), ‘Young Budget Travellers: Backpackers in Australia’, Annals of Tourism Research, 22, pp. 819-843

This paper examines young budget travelers in the context of the ‘backpacker’ phenomenon in Australia. The origin of this form of travel is discussed and a contemporary social definition of backpackers is proposed.

The definitional elements (a preference for budget accommodation, an emphasis on meeting other people, an independently organized and flexible travel schedule, longer rather than brief holidays, and an emphasis on informal and participatory holiday activities) are supported using two data sources. Data from Australia’s International Visitor Survey, as well as a backpacker-specific study with 690 respondents, indicate that these young budget travellers exhibit characteristics which differentiate them from other visitors and that they are of economic importance to Australia’s tourism industry.

Lonely Planet Traveller’s Pulse, available: www.pata.org/patasite/fileadmin/news_pata/Travellers_Pulse_Public.pdf

A survey of Lonely Planet website visitors, with over 33,000 responses in 2006. This summary report covers traveller profile, behaviour and favourite destinations. The latest survey indicates an increasing trend towards short breaks and gap years, indicating a divergence between short and long trips in the youth market.

Lyons K. D. (2004), ‘Examining the Impact of Working Holidays Upon Future Careers’, E-Review of Tourism Research, 2 (1), available: http://ertr.tamu.edu/pdfs/a-54.pdf

This paper discusses research being undertaken in Australia that examines the impact of working holidays upon the career and life trajectories of participants. An initial qualitative research study has been completed that

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examined the experiences of a group of 72 young Australians who worked at summer camps throughout the United States of America. This study found that the intense nature of this experience had an important impact upon participants and provided clarity to their career interests. This initial study has provided a foundation for a larger research project about to be conducted that examines the impact of working holidays upon the clarity and intensity of individuals’ ‘career anchors’.

Maksay, A. (2007), ‘Japanese Working Holiday Makers in Australia: Subculture and Resistance’, Tourism Review International, Volume 11, pp. 33-43

This article explores the experiences of Japanese youth in Australia on working holiday visas. Unlike previous studies, which have concentrated on the structural effects that Working Holiday Makers (WHMs) have on employment and tourism, this study adopts an approach that focuses on individual working holiday makers.

The research was qualitative and aimed to reveal junctures for understanding and theorizing Japanese WHMs. The main hypothesis is that as a group, Japanese WHMs form a distinctive subculture within Australia. In relation to subculture, they form and maintain social links and a strong sense of collective identity with other Japanese WHMs. In particular, the trip around Australia is understood as the central ritual as well as the context within which the subculture is formed.

Masgoret, A. M. (2006), ‘Examining the Role of Language Attitudes and Motivation on the Sociocultural Adjustment and the Job Performance of Sojourners in Spain’, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30 (3), pp.

311-331

This research examines the interrelationships of a number of variables relevant to the functioning of individuals making cross-cultural transitions, and the relationship of these variables to indices of sociocultural adaptation and job performance. The study examined 127 British university students who worked as English instructors for short-term intensive English as a foreign language program, known as Enjoy English, which takes place in Spain. The British instructors were assessed initially during the training period and again at the end of their 4-week teaching assignment. The instructors completed a personal profile on their demographic characteristics, along with a questionnaire composed of measures assessing various affective attributes related to the language and culture of Spain, reasons for accepting employment in Spain, contact with Spanish speakers, job-related attitudes, perceptions regarding differences between the cultures of Spain and Britain, and sociocultural adaptation. At the end of the program the supervisors, who are Spanish teachers of English (n=49), were asked to assess the British instructors on measures of job performance (i.e., teacher effectiveness). The results provide evidence suggesting that previous experiences with the culture and communicative competence can facilitate the successful sociocultural adaptation of sojourners to foreign cultural environments, but that this is not necessarily indicative of effective job performance. These results revealed a number of important relationships relevant for individuals who are employed abroad as foreign language instructors, for others planning to travel abroad and take up temporary employment and/or those faced with the task of training and selecting potential employees.

Mather, K. (2004), ‘Reimagining Africa: What American Students Learn in South Africa’, Tourism Review International, 8, pp. 127-141

This article explores how travel influences American attitudes to South Africa and Africa. It draws on long-term ethnographic relationships with American study abroad students in Cape Town, South Africa. Travel is often assumed to be an ideal way of changing how the ‘other’ is perceived, but most research on travellers shows only how the traveller is changed. This article is a rare contribution to discussions of what travellers can learn about their destinations. Africa tends to be imagined in the United States of America as a homogeneous entity either good in its primitiveness and wildness or bad in its violence, poverty, and disease. These perceptions colour the expectations of students travelling to South Africa and frame their experiences there. Some of their preconceptions are shaken, especially the assumption that racial categories are the same everywhere. The students frequently assert, “South Africa is not Africa”. They also learn through their volunteer work, and conversations with South Africans, that poverty is not necessarily a homogenizing, debilitating force and that despite lack of material possessions, poor South Africans have ambitions and pride. The students’ image of Africa is disturbed by the combination of their cosmopolitan experiences in South Africa and this unsettling of their preconceptions about poverty.

Méréo, S. (1992), ‘Youth Tourism: an Expanding World Market / Tourisme des jeunes: un marché mondial en pleine expansion’, Cahiers Espaces, 117, pp. 19-36

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be explained by greater targeting of this market segment by tour operators and increasing standards of living and levels of education worldwide. Young tourists no longer fit the traditional image of groups of friends who go hitch-hiking. Instead, they have a wider variety of needs than ever before and are increasingly selective in their choice of holiday, transport, accommodation and activities. The dossier, containing four articles, examines these trends, looking firstly at the world market over the last ten years, and then at the European market which appears to mirror the world trend, and considers the place of France in this expanding market, and youth tourism policy and projects, including the role of a visitor exchange scheme (EST) where young people are invited to stay with families in Eastern European countries. (For chapter 1 of this report see Smedt, J. P. de, 1992).

Michael, A., Armstrong, A. and King, B. (2003), ‘The Travel Behaviour of International Students: The Relationship Between Studying Abroad and Their Choice of Tourist Destinations’, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 10 (1), pp. 57-66

This paper examines why international students opt for their chosen study destination. It also investigates their behaviour as tourists while studying, whether they hosted visits from friends or relatives and their overall economic contribution. The sample consisted of 600 international students studying in higher education institutions in Melbourne, Australia of which 219 responded. A stratified random sampling method was used with the key variables identified as country of origin, gender and university attended. Key questions included: “What were the factors that prompted students to study in Australia?”, “How did they become familiar with destinations and tourist attractions during the course of their studies?”, “What tourist attractions and activities were most popular?”. It was discovered that word-of-mouth was the most significant medium of communication in the selection of educational destination. Most travel undertaken during the period of enrolment was for private purposes. The most popular Melbourne attraction was the Queen Victoria Market and The Great Ocean Road was the most popular attraction state-wide. The study also found that tourism related activities undertaken by overseas students contributed approximately AU$ 8.2 million to the economy of the state of Victoria. The figure more than doubles to approximately AU$ 17.2 million if the expenditures of visiting friends and relatives (VFRs) are included.

Mignon, J. M. (1992), ‘The Evolution of the Youth Travel Market and Youth Tourism Flow in the World / L’évolution des marchés et des flux touristiques des jeunes dans le monde’, Youth Travel International, 2, pp. 10-12

Since the middle of this century, tourism in general, and youth tourism in particular, have increased more than ever. In 1950, there were 25 million international tourist arrivals, by 1990 this figure had risen to 443 million.

Youth tourism increased by 7.3% each year over the last 10 years, its development being much faster than international tourism in general, which grew at 4.4% annually during the same period. This article reviews the factors that promote youth travel. They include: the opening of borders and end of the cold war; more leisure time, at least in developed countries, the need, especially in European countries to know foreign languages for professional success, and the tendency to postpone marriage and start a family at a later age. Major youth tourism flows in Europe, the Americas, Asia/Pacific and Africa over the last 10 years are described. Predictions regarding future youth tourism trends are made.

Mintel (1991), ‘Independent Travel – A Bias Towards Youth’, Leisure Intelligence, 1, pp. 1-32

This report looks at a number of issues connected with youth travel. It concentrates on the incidence of independent travel among young British people. The survey’s findings show that the most popular destination for independent youth travel is Europe, with 23% of 15-34 year olds having travelled there in the past five years. However, 29% of this age group has never travelled independently and 30% have never travelled abroad.

The perception of independent travel as compared with package holidays among young consumers was very positive. A high percentage of young people regarded the former to be cheaper, more adventurous and exciting and as providing more freedom than the packaged variety. Some 8.6 million United Kingdom residents travelled abroad on holiday in 1989, with this number expected to have risen to 8.9 million in 1990. In 1989, an estimated 5.2 million people aged 15-34 holidayed abroad independently and this is expected to rise to 5.4 million in 1990 at a value of £ 1,900 million.

Mintel (2000), Independent Travel, Mintel Market Intelligence, Mintel International Group Limited, London

This report by Mintel Leisure Intelligence looks at independent travel. Sections focus on the independent travel market factors, the size of the market, market segmentation, the supply structure and distribution of independent travel, and the consumers. Future scenarios are also debated and forecasts are presented.

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Mintel (2001), Student Travel, Mintel Market Intelligence, Mintel International Group Limited, London

This report by Mintel Leisure Intelligence looks at student travel. Sections focus on the student travel market factors, the size of the market, market segmentation, the supply structure and distribution of student travel, and the student consumers. Future scenarios are also debated and forecasts are presented.

Mintel (2004), Youth Travel Market – Europe, London, Mintel available: www.mintel.com

Report on the European youth travel market, including market size, characteristics and segmentation and trip planning and booking methods (drawn mainly from the ISTC Independent Traveller Survey, 2002). It includes profiles of European youth travel organisations.

Mintel (2005), Gap Year Travel International, London, Mintel, available: www.mintel.com

This report divides gap year travel into three main markets: pre-university gaps, career gaps and pre-retirement gaps. Pre-university gaps are the most common, as many students in the United Kingdom take a year out before beginning their university course. Mintel estimates that the global gap year travel market comprises between 1 million and 1.5 million trips per year, with a total spend of £ 5 billion. The United Kingdom gap year market accounts for about 1% of all United Kingdom outbound trips and around 10% of expenditure.

Mintel (2006), Study Tourism International, London, Mintel. available: www.mintel.com

In 2004, approximately 2.5 million tertiary level students were studying outside their home country, and by 2025 the expectation is that this number will rise to 8 million. This report provides an overview of the main study tourism flows and destinations, largely based on the UNESCO Global Education Digest (see UNESCO, 2006).

Mintel (2006), Youth Travel Market – International, London, Mintel, available: www.mintel.com

Report on the international youth travel market, including market size, characteristics and segmentation and trip planning and booking methods (drawn mainly from the ISTC Independent Traveller Survey, 2002 and the Lonely Planet Travelers’ Pulse). It includes profiles of Gap Year Tourism, Study Tourism and International Trade Organisations and Companies.

Nash, R., Thyne, M., and Davies, S. (2006), ‘An Investigation into Customer Satisfaction Levels in the Budget Accommodation Sector in Scotland: A Case Study of Backpacker Tourists and the Scottish Youth Hostels Association’, Tourism Management, 27, pp. 525-532

This research note reports a summary of the results of a survey carried out with the support of the Scottish Youth Hostel Association (SYHA). The focus of this research was to gain a better understanding of the requirements of budget accommodation users in Scotland, the characteristics associated with their accommodation choice and the levels of importance and satisfaction associated with the main Scottish provider of budget accommodation (SYHA). The research reported in this note is part of a wider study which focuses on a particular tourist segment commonly known as ‘backpackers’ who are also defined in the specialist literature as ‘independent travellers’, ‘youth/budget tourists’ and ‘uninstitutionalised tourists’.

Newlands, K. J., The Modern Nomad in New Zealand: A Study of the Effects of the Working Holiday Schemes on Free Independent Travellers and Their Host Communities, Master of Business (Tourism) thesis, Auckland University of Technology, available: http://repositoryaut.lconz.ac.nz/theses/346/ (2006)

The research focuses on the characteristics of a sample of Working Holidaymakers. The thesis is supported by a small case study that explores the schemes from the perspectives of host communities and employers. During the period that the research was undertaken the number of countries involved and the number of working holiday visas increased significantly. During 2005, 36,000 visas were made available to suitable applicants from twenty-five countries. The growth in the numbers of Working Holidaymakers suggests that it is time to review the policy formation about Working Holiday Schemes and challenge the traditional definition of a tourist as a non-worker. Recommendations are made for improving the schemes, contributing to policy decisions and to for a wider interpretation of the term tourist.

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Newlands, K. J., ‘Working Holiday Policy: Expanding Opportunities for, or Exploitation of Backpackers?’, paper presented at the ATLAS Backpacker Research Group Meeting, Bangkok, September 2005, available: www.tourismresearch.govt.nz/Bibliography/ViewResearchItem.aspx?ID=1587 (2005)

The working holiday schemes permit eighteen to thirty year olds, from seventeen preferred countries to holiday, study, and gain incidental work in New Zealand for up to a year. The schemes are usually reciprocal for young outbound New Zealanders. Research in Australia suggests that Working Holiday Makers comprise a viable market segment worthy of study, which bring considerable benefits to industry experiencing labour shortages and host communities. The New Zealand schemes, begun in 1985 with Japan, have grown to approval for 31,000 visitors per annum. Approval exists for “an additional 5,000 places per annum from 2005-2006, up to a maximum of 40,000 places”. This approval was subject to research on the occupations of Working Holiday Makers whilst in New Zealand and their effect on local labour markets. Coincidentally research into the schemes had already begun. This initial work involving Working Holiday Makers was triangulated with responses from employers and community members from Tongariro National Park. The results suggested that the schemes were meeting the objectives of the programme, particularly for the sampled location, but that further research was warranted. The research was expanded threefold over the summer of 2003-2004 to provide both quantitative and qualitative data from over 220 responses from the majority of participating countries. Suggestions are made for changes to the schemes in the context of recent policy decisions.

Nicholls, S. and Latkova, P., The United States as a Travel Destination: Perceptions and Behaviors of United Kingdom College Students, The Student and Youth Travel Research Institute, available: www.sytri.msu.edu/ research.htm (2005)

This survey of 230 United Kingdom undergraduate students looks at travel behaviour and images of the United States of America as a travel destination. 44% of respondents had visited the United States of America before, mainly with their parents. The events of 9/11 appear to have had no impact on visitation rates of students. Most visited for entertainment/sightseeing, visiting friends or relatives, and outdoor recreation. Recommendations of friends or colleagues and previous experience with the same destination were the two primary information sources. Over 40% of respondents booked through a travel agent. The most popular states were New York, Florida, California, Washington, DC, Nevada, and Massachusetts. The main activities were shopping; city sightseeing; attending historical sites and museums; visiting national and state parks; and, visiting amusement/ theme parks. Students saw the United States of America as a good place for shopping, outdoor recreation, with many interesting places to visit and outstanding scenic beauty. They also saw the United States of America as an inexpensive, relaxing and safe destination with a clean environment which offers good value for money.

Obenour, William, Patterson, Michael, Pedersen, Paul and Pearson, Lynn, (2006), ‘Conceptualization of a Meaningbased Research Approach for Tourism Service Experiences’, Tourism Management, 27, pp. 34-41

This paper explains the meaning-based research approach to improve quality of tourism services. The article includes a discussion on tourism quality, information-processing approach (IPA), meaning-based approach (MBA) as an alternative to the IPA, and a case study to illustrate the MBA and strategies to improve service quality design. The MBA is based on an alternative set of assumptions about the tourist that enables managers and researchers to gather in-depth customers’ perceptions of the service environment and improve service quality design. According to the evidence gathered in the case study, the three narrative themes for the backpackers were social interaction with other backpackers including differences between solitary and travel partners, independence, and the symbols of a distinctive backpacker’s accommodation. Evidence is drawn from interviews with hostellers staying at Hostelling International (HI) properties. The research suggests the HI could do more to foster social interaction which would increase service quality, including: (a) providing a larger kitchen, (b) allocating dorm rooms according to the size of the travel party, and (c) developing smaller programming units by floor and assigning rooms based on the travel party (i.e., solitary or partnerships).

O’Reilly, C. C. (2006), ‘From Drifter to Gap Year Tourist: Mainstreaming Backpacker Travel’, Annals of Tourism Research, 33 (4), pp. 998-1017

Long-haul, long-term independent travel – here backpacking – has become increasingly common over the last few decades. Once considered a marginal activity undertaken by society’s drop-outs, it has gradually entered the tourism mainstream. Based on interviews and internet material and ethnographic field research, this article considers where this growth in interest has come from, and how transformations in the perception of backpacking have taken place. Focusing on the travel imagination, it examines socioeconomic and cultural ‘incitements to travel’. As backpacking has become more mainstream its ‘alternative’ standing has diminished, but it continues to be a potentially status-enhancing activity.

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Parfitt, J. and Chinneck, A. (1991), ‘Developments in Youth Tourism in Recent Decades and Their Impact on the Youth Hostel Movement in Europe’, Proceedings of the Seminar on Travel and Tourism in Transition: The Research Challenge, Dublin, 29 - 31 May 1991, pp. 73-86

The Youth Hostel movement had become worldwide by the 1960s. It had at this time a near monopoly of organized international budget youth tourism. At some time in the 1970s there occurred a significant change in the needs and attitudes of the young with regard to how they spent their recreational time away from home.

Market research revealed the gap between demand requirements and supply, and over the period 1976-1989 a framework of changing trends, indicating the strong and weak points of youth hostels, was conducted. The paper illustrates the trends in Western Europe which include changing social expectations and attitudes of young tourists, priorities in planning travel, holiday accommodation preferences, the nature of secondary holidays taken and interest in outdoor recreation activities. The actions taken by the Youth Hostel Association in England and Wales to redress the situation are outlined.

Pearce P. L. and Son A., ‘Youth Tourism Markets in Australia: Comparing the Travel Behaviours of International English Language Students and Backpackers’, Tourism, 52 (4), pp. 341-350, available: www.iztzg.hr/ turizam/52_04.htm#4 (2004)

This study explored select youth tourism markets in Australia by assessing differences and similarities in travel behaviours for international English language students and backpacker travellers. These two markets were compared in relation to tourist destinations visited, travel activities, and travel patterns including party size, type of transportation and accommodation. Both primary and secondary data were considered. Both groups were likely to emphasise experiencing the Australian natural environment, they wanted to understand Australian culture and its lifestyle and they did participate in a wide range of activities. It was also found that there were substantial differences between the travel patterns and preferences of the two groups. International English language student travellers were more likely to travel with a large group of people and had a strong tendency to use public hotel or motel accommodation. The results of the study also indicated that compared to backpackers, international students were more likely to be interested in city-based travel activities. The findings of this comparative study could provide subtle guidelines to help attract different components of the international youth traveller market.

Pritchard, A. and Morgan, N. (1996), ‘Sex Still Sells to Generation X: Promotional Practice and the Youth Package Holiday Market’, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 3 (1), pp. 69-80

This article discusses the current tourism promotional activities targeting the youth package market. It argues that marketing messages which use sexual imagery are an example of the successful targeting of Generation X. The marketing strategies of the United Kingdom youth tourism operator Club 18-30 form the case study, although the discussion is relevant for all tourism marketers interested in appealing to the youth market segment. The article briefly discusses market segmentation and then reviews some of the recent literature which highlights the lifestyle characteristics of today’s young consumers. Its main focus, however, is to highlight the role of sexual imagery in tourism marketing and to assess the success of a particular campaign which clearly uses sex to sell tourism products. It concludes that this is an effective campaign aimed at younger consumers, especially in view of recent arguments that many marketers, particularly in the United States of America, are not effectively targeting this market.

Reisinger, Y., Mavondo, F. and Weber, S. (2001), ‘The Australian and Croatian Youth Travel Markets: Are They Different?’, Tourism, Culture and Communication, 3 (2), pp. 61-69

The purpose of this study is to assess whether there are differences in the psychographic makeup of the international youth travel market. First, the article examines the relationships between major psychographic factors such as lifestyle, preferences for activities, travel motivation, personality, and cultural values. A path model is developed, separately for two youth travel markets: 424 Australian and 338 Croatian students. Second, the equivalence of the model structure is tested. Finally, comparisons are made to test whether the regression coefficients are invariant across the two groups. The results suggest that the model is conceptually equivalent in Australia and Croatia. However, the regression parameters are significantly different. The article concludes by discussing implications for future studies.

Reisinger, Y. and Mavondo, F. (2002), ‘Determinants of Youth Travel Markets Perceptions of Tourism Destinations’, Tourism Analysis, 7 (1), pp. 55-66

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and Australia. A path model was developed, separately for each market, to test for these relationships and to assess the similarities and differences between both models. 708 randomly selected respondents from the United States of America and Australia were surveyed in 2000. The results suggest that in both samples there is a significant association between the importance of destination attributes and internal and external motivation, which also have significant associations with perception of destination attributes. The importance of destination attributes influences perception of destination attributes through the mediating effects of travel motivation. The study implies the need for tourism researchers to test the developed model across different international tourist markets.

Reisinger, Y. and Mavondo, F. (2003), Gender Differences in the Psychographic Profiles of The Youth Travel Market, TTRA, available: http://ttra.com/applications/DocumentLibraryManager/upload/Gender%20 Differences%20in%20the%20Psychographic%20Profile.pdf (4-3-2007)

The purpose of this paper is to explore the differences in the psychographic make-up of the female and male youth travel market. First, the paper reviews literature on the differences in travel behaviour between female and male. Second, the paper briefly contextualises the importance of psychographic research in tourism and then reports on the relationships between major psychographic factors of tourist behaviour such as cultural values, personality, travel motivation, preferences for activities and lifestyle. A path model is developed, separately for two youth travel markets, American female and male.

Reisinger, Y. and Mavondo, F. (2004), ‘Exploring the Relationships among Psychographic Factors in the Female and Male Youth Travel Market’, Tourism Review International, 8 (2), pp. 69-84

This article explores the differences in the relationships among cultural values, personality, travel motivation, vacation activities, and lifestyle in the female and male youth travel markets. A path model is developed separately for the US female and male market. The equivalence of the model across the two markets is determined. The significant differences in the relationships between factors across the two groups are explored. The results suggest the same model holds in the two samples and both models had acceptable fit measures. However, there are significant differences in the strengths of the relationships between the factors. These findings suggest that gender-specific issues cannot be ignored in developing and planning tourism and marketing programs. The implications of the study for academics and practitioners are discussed.

Richards, G. (2006), ‘ISTC/UNWTO Survey on Student and Youth Tourism among National Tourism Administrations/ Organizations’, UNWTO Tourism Market Trends, 2005 Edition, World Overview & Tourism Topics, UNWTO Madrid, pp. 95-123

A report on the survey of National Tourism Organizations and their attitudes towards youth tourism (also reported in chapter 3 of this publication).

Richards, G. and King, B. (December 2003), ‘Youth Travel and Backpacking’, Travel and Tourism Analyst, 6, p. 23

Based on UNWTO estimates youth travel now accounts for between 20 and 25% of all international tourist arrivals. The market is growing, though with falling birth rates in much of the developed world, this is not as a result of demographic change. Growth has been prompted by increased participation levels in tertiary education, labour mobility and overseas study programmes, the emergence of backpacking as an element of global youth culture and changing concepts of youthfulness. The blurring of distinctions between work, study and travel are leading to a hybridisation of youth travel motives. The cultural aspects of youth travel and backpacking including the desire to mix with other like-minded people is an aspect of the market that merits particular attention by destinations interested in this market.

Richards, G. and Wilson, J. (2003), Today’s Youth Tourists: Tomorrow’s Global Nomads? New Horizons in Independent Youth and Student Travel, Amsterdam, International Student Travel Confederation and Arnhem: Association of Tourism and Leisure Education, available: www.aboutwysetc.org

This report, and it is summary version, highlights the main findings of a major transnational survey on independent youth and student travel, undertaken by the WYSE Travel Confederation and the Association of Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS). The aim of the survey was to gather consistent and detailed transnational information on the youth and student independent traveller market, combining data on the social and cultural aspects of young travellers (their backgrounds, motivations and experiences) with data on travel purchases, information gathering, destinations and previous travel experience. It focuses on different dimensions of the last

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major trip made by youth and student respondents, who were contacted via WYSE Travel Confederation’s global network of student travel organisations. Responses have been drawn from 2,300 young people and students from Canada, the Czech Republic, Hong Kong, China, Mexico, Slovenia, South Africa, Sweden and the United Kingdom. It is the first specific study to cover all aspects of the youth and student travel experience, or the ‘whole journey’; from trip planning and booking through to the trip itself.

Richards, G. and Wilson, J., The Global Nomad: Backpacker Travel in Theory and Practice, Clevedon, Channel View Publications, available: www.multilingual-matters.com (2004, eds)

The explosion of international youth travel in recent decades has been led by backpackers, who have become the new global nomads. The contemporary culture of mobility, the expansion of travel networks, the search for experience, rising affluence and fashion have attracted backpackers to the remotest corners of the globe, bringing banana pancakes, economic development and cultural change in their wake. As youth travel has changed, so have the participants – the hippy ‘drifters’ of the 1960s have been replaced by ‘backpackers’, ‘travellers’ or ‘tourists’ with different aspirations and expectations than their predecessors. This study examines the behaviour, attitudes and motivations of the young global nomads themselves, as well as tracing the growth of the ‘backpacker industry’ that has expanded with them; developing enclaves of backpacker culture across the globe. It also provides the first international overview of the backpacker phenomenon, drawing on a major global survey of young travellers, case studies of individual destinations and theoretical insights from sociology, geography, anthropology, economics, management and marketing. This book will be of interest to students, researchers and practitioners of global youth tourism and youth cultures and the impact it has on the places visited.

Richards, G. and Wilson, J. (2004), ‘The International Student Travel Market: Travelstyle, Motivations, and Activities’, Tourism Review International, 8 (2), pp. 57-67

One sign of the growing interest in student travel both from the tourism industry and academic researchers is the global independent travel survey conducted by the WYSE Travel Confederation and the Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS). The survey, conducted in 2002, covers the profile and travel behavior of 1,630 students booking travel from student travel organizations in eight countries. This article reports the initial results of this research. The survey showed that students are frequent travel consumers with extensive previous experience of relatively long trips outside of their own world region. Most students see their travelstyle as that of ‘traveler’ but a significant proportion of the market characterized their travel as ‘backpacking’. Motivations reflecting a desire for experience are prevalent with student travelers, particularly in terms of exploring other cultures. Motivations tend to be differentiated by destination region and travelstyle and are distinct between students and other young travelers. In spite of these differences in motivation, however, the activities actually engaged in showed little differentiation between students and others. The most frequently mentioned activities were visiting historical sites, walking, sitting in cafés and restaurants, and shopping, which were practiced by over 70% of respondents. In this and other respects, the article argues that comparisons of motivation and actual activities indicate a gap between the ideology and practice of travel.

Richards, G. and Wilson, J. (2005), ‘Youth and Adventure Tourism’, in Buhalis, D. and Costa, C. (eds) Global Tourism Trends, Oxford, Elsevier, pp. 40-47

This chapter looks at trends in youth and adventure tourism, including the factors driving market growth.

Includes a case study on the development of backpacker enclaves in Asia and speculation about future demand and supply trends in the market.

Richards, G. and Wilson, J. (2005), ‘Youth Tourism – Finally Coming of Age?’, in Novelli, M. (ed.) Niche Tourism: Contemporary Issues, Trends and Cases, Oxford, Elsevier, pp. 39-46

Includes an analysis of previous studies of youth tourism, including the 2002 ISTC Independent Traveller Survey, and draws some management implications for the industry of the market trends identified.

Riley, P. J. (1988), ‘Road Culture of International Long-Term Budget Travelers’, Annals of Tourism Research, 15 (2), pp. 313-328

This paper describes the subculture of the contemporary international budget traveler. From personal observations, interviews and mail questionnaires, it portrays individuals who have been a part of ‘road culture’ for a year or more. It argues that such travelers are neither ‘heroes’ nor ‘deviants’ and that earlier depictions of them as hedonistic, anarchistic ‘drifters’ is no longer accurate. The average traveler prefers to travel alone, is educated, UNWTO, 2 June 2008 for WYSET

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European, middle class, single, obsessively concerned with budgeting his/her money, and at a juncture in life.

Many are recent college graduates, delaying the transition into the responsibilities associated with adulthood in western society, or taking a leave between jobs. Their status is achieved on the road by experiencing hardship and non-touristic experiences, and by ‘getting the best value’.

Ritchie, B. W. (2003), Managing Educational Tourism, Clevedon, Channel View

This book outlines the main forms of educational tourism, their demand and supply elements, as well as their marketing and management implications. The book has restricted the concept of educational tourism to the following segments: general education tourism with an emphasis on ecotourism and cultural heritage tourism (for both the youth and adult markets); adult and seniors’ educational tourism; international and domestic schools’ tourism; and international and domestic university/college students’ tourism. The book draws examples from around the world, including the United States of America, Canada, Europe, Australia and New Zealand.

Rundstrom Williams, T. (2005), ‘Exploring the Impact of Study Abroad on Students’ Intercultural Communication Skills: Adaptability and Sensitivity’, Journal of Studies in International Education, 9 (4), pp. 356-371

This study answers a need for outcome assessment in study abroad by exploring the intercultural communication skills of study abroad and on campus students. Through a pre-test and post-test of two specific skills, intercultural adaptability and intercultural sensitivity, study abroad students were compared to students who stay on campus to measure their change (if any) during the course of the semester. Using the Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory and the Intercultural Sensitivity Index, the two student groups individually assessed their strengths and weaknesses through a self-reported inventory at the beginning and end of the fall 2002 academic semester.

Results confirmed the hypothesis that students who study abroad exhibit a greater change in intercultural communication skills after their semester abroad than students who stay on campus. Results also indicated that exposure to various cultures was the greatest predictor of intercultural communication skills.

Schönhammer, R. (1992), ‘Youth Tourism as Appropriation of the World: A Psychological Perspective’, Phenomenology and Pedagogy, 10, pp. 19-27

The article is based on two studies which aimed to determine how young backpack tourists in Europe experience the freedom of unorganised youth tourism, with emphasis on the unorganised aspect (i.e. youth tourism that leaves behind all forms of adult control). The findings of the studies make sense as an expression of the adolescent drive to expand the ‘region of free movement’. It concludes that the widening of the ‘life space’ in youth tourism involves not only hitherto unknown geographical areas but also unknown, strange social situations. A rough schema of the typical life space of adolescents is put forward to facilitate understanding of the ‘topology’ of youth tourism.

Seekings, J. (1998), ‘The Youth Travel Market’, Travel and Tourism Analyst, 5, pp. 37-55

A definitive understanding of the youth travel market is presented in this article. The main segments of the market do not correspond closely with neatly defined age limits, even in the case of young people below schoolleaving age. The lack of reliable statistics has hindered effective marketing and has undoubtedly discouraged would-be suppliers from entering the market. If this trend is to be reversed, far greater cooperative efforts are required, at national and international levels, to address the needs of young travellers and develop appropriate products and services.

Sellars, A. (1998), ‘The Influence of Dance Music on the United Kingdom Youth Tourism Market’, Tourism Management, 19 (6), pp. 611-615

Today’s young people are influenced by a variety of factors when considering a holiday. During the late 1980s and 1990s we have witnessed a rise in recreational drug use and the move in music taste towards repetitive rhythms of re-mix DJs creating their music from synthesized tunes on records and CDs. The ‘Big Name’ DJs such as Sasha, Pete Tong, Danny Rampling, etc. are superstars within today’s youth culture and receive wages to match their status. During the past 5-10 years, we have also witnessed a move towards young people taking holidays to pursue their interest in Dance Music and to follow their favourite DJ to wherever in Europe, or the world, they may be playing. Often the established night-clubs within countries will seek to attract these DJs, but sometimes special holidays are packaged by tour operators with a distinct Dance Music theme, highlighting famous ‘superclubs’ such as Cream and Ministry of Sound. Radio stations are also becoming involved, especially London’s well known Dance Music station ‘Kiss FM’ who, in conjunction with a tour operator, offer a distinct Dance Music tourism experience.

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Shaw, S. and Thomas, C., ‘Social and Cultural Dimensions of Air Travel Demand: Hyper-Mobility in the United Kingdom?’, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol. 14(2), pp. 209-214m, available: www.cate.mmu.ac.uk/ documents/Publications/SUStainable_aviation.pdf (2006)

Depth interviews with United Kingdom students were used to analyse their international travel behaviour. The study showed that students are attracted to the idea of being permanently ‘on the move’ and that expectations of increased mobility will be hard, perhaps impossible, to reverse. It did not suggest a rising tide of environmental protest by young adults against expansion of air transport. To the respondents, further growth seemed inevitable, and cheaper air travel offered many personal advantages.

Shoham, A., Schrage, C. and van Eeden, S. (2005), ‘Student Travel Behavior: A Cross-National Survey’, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 17 (4), pp. 1-10

Tourism has become a large (and growing) industry in many countries – both the number of trips and the amount of money spent by US travelers have increased consistently. Moreover, tourism marketing is an everevolving industry (Hsu & Sung, 1997). However, relatively little is known about travel preferences of college students. Our study replicates the Hsu and Sung study, but assesses student travel preferences in three different countries: the United States of America, South Africa, and Israel. We identify numerous differences between the three groups of students. These differences are used to derive research and managerial implications for scholars and practitioners in the travel and leisure industries.

Simpson, K. (2005), ‘Dropping Out or Signing Up? The Professionalisation of Youth Travel’, Antipode, 37 (3), pp.

447-469

Leaving school and dropping out of employment or further education was once an act of rebellion by cohorts of young people expressing anti-establishment sentiments. Now it has become a neoliberal market place in the United Kingdom. Over the last five years the ‘gap year’ has changed from a radical activity, dominated by charities and inspired by the travel of the hippie generation, to an institutionally accepted commercial gap year industry which helps form new citizens for a global age. This transformation has seen the dramatic growth in commercial gap year companies and in the numbers of young people in the United Kingdom taking gap years. Such growth, taking place under an increasingly engaged public gaze, has led to the professionalisation of the sector and to profound changes in its underlying values. Drawing on a range of empirical sources, this paper examines how the transformation of the gap year through the neoliberal market place has involved the application of corporate values and rhetoric to youth travel. Becoming ‘professional’ has entailed a shift from collective idealism to the infinitely more saleable values of individual career development. While professional values give legitimacy to the gap year industry, its professional gaze is also proving to be relatively myopic – it has yet to be turned on the volunteer development projects through which many companies in the industry make their names, and money.

Sirakaya, E., Sonmez S. F. and Choi H. S. (2001), ‘Do Destination Images Really Matter? Predicting Destination Choices of Student Travellers’, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 7(2), pp. 125-142

The purpose of the study was to identify images that are likely predictors of destination choices of college students considering travelling to Turkey in a probabilistic model when two measurements of the dependent variable were involved. Five hundred surveys were distributed to geographically dispersed universities across the United States of America. Based on a response rate of 65.4%, the study results indicated that travellers can compartmentalise their mental pictures and evaluate each image component according to its importance in choice decisions. Moreover, familiarity with the destination can be considered as a moderator variable in decision-making models. Implications for destination marketing and management are discussed in light of the study findings.

Smedt, J. P. de (1992), ‘Youth Tourism: The Opportunities for France (2nd part) / Tourisme des jeunes: la chance de la France (2ème partie)’, Cahiers Espaces, 118, pp. 19-43

Despite recession, youth tourism has become, particularly in developed countries, a new and significantly expanding market. Increasingly, its needs and characteristics are diverse and difficult to determine. No longer can young tourists be correlated with the image of the young travellers or globetrotters of the 1960s-1980s.

Today, they are more selective, demanding and discerning in their tastes and choice of holiday and destination, and have a wider variety of needs. Within this growing world youth travel market; France has been making great efforts to maintain its importance, attraction and reputation as a leading destination for young tourists.

According to an EC survey conducted in 1989, for example, Paris was chosen as the preferred city for young

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visitors from among the main destinations of 11 other countries. Following a brief overview of the world youth tourism situation, the report examines the strengths and weaknesses of the youth tourism market in France. It examines trends and statistics relating to supply and demand, the role of and difficulties faced by youth hostels in this changing market, the position of Paris within these developments, and the role and activities of tourist offices and tour operators in promoting and targeting the youth tourism market. (For the Introduction of this report see Méréo, S. (1992) above).

Son, A. (2003), ‘International Students in English Language Programmes: Their Images of Australia and Travel Behaviour’, International Journal of Tourism Research, 5 (3), pp. 235-238

This paper reports on an ongoing study that aims to examine international students’ images of Australia as a destination, the factors influencing these images, and the overseas students’ travel behaviour while in Australia.

A questionnaire survey yielded 365 usable responses.

Sung, S. and Hsu, C. H. C. (1996), ‘International Students’ Travel Characteristics: An Exploratory Study’, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 5 (3), pp. 277-283

The focus of this study was to identify travel characteristics of international students in general and the longest trip taken in the last 12 months, along with demographic characteristics. Information sources among international students were also studied. Results indicated the majority of international students travelled during their study in the United States of America, and they planned their trips in advance. Maps, family/friends, and past experiences were the most often used travel information sources. This study was exploratory in nature.

Findings of the study may stimulate further investigation of this fast-growing market segment.

Ten Have, P. (1974), ‘The Counter Culture on the Move: A Field Study of Youth Tourists in Amsterdam’, Mens en Maatschapij, 49, pp. 297-315

This article focused on young tourists in Amsterdam. In particular their activities and consumption behaviour are examined, for example in terms of their use of soft drugs, as well as other aspects of what the author describes as a counter cultural movement subscribed to by young visitors to the city.

Theuns, L. (1992), ‘The Significance of Youth Tourism: Economic Dimensions / Znacaj omladinskog turizma: Ekonomske dimenzije’, Acta Turistica, 4 (2), pp. 165-187

Youth tourism is a dynamic and growing sector in the tourism movement today. The share of youth tourist arrivals in total tourist arrivals worldwide has increased as have youth tourist expenditure and consumption.

Modern youth tourism is different from conventional youth tourism in that it does not use the pre-arranged services of a tour operator and in that group size is more limited. Conventional youth tourism tends to be more of an organized mass movement. The article, based on Vogt’s theory and the World Tourism Organization’s definition of the tourist, examines youth tourism today and assesses its impact from an economic and scientific viewpoint. International trends and regional variations are covered, as are potential markets and youth tourism’s potential future development.

Thyne, M., Davies, S. and Nash, R. (2004), ‘A Segmentation Analysis of the Backpacker Market in Scotland: A Case Study of the Scottish Youth Hostel Association’, Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality and Tourism, Vol. 5, (3/4), pp. 95-120

The purpose of the research outlined in this article is to provide a travel lifestyle segmentation analysis of one particular tourist group, commonly known as ‘backpackers’, who reside in Scottish Youth Hostel Association hostels. This research was undertaken due to the lack of understanding and knowledge of this market, specifically their needs, wants and motivations. Five cluster groups were uncovered in total: Typical Backpackers, Discoverers, Outdoors, Family Ties, and Routine Travellers. The aim of this article is to provide a wider understanding beyond the demographics of the backpacker and thus provide useful marketing and promotional advice for suppliers to the backpacker market. It also aims to contrast the Scottish backpacker market with findings in Australia, to determine whether cluster groups uncovered are similar in both countries.

TNT (2004), International Students Uncovered, available: www.tntmagazine.com.au/pdf/student_june2004.pdf (2004)

The report is based on a survey of 970 international students at 17 higher education and English-language institutions across Australia. The survey covered demographics, student profile, course of study, lifestyle and

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travel patterns. Over three quarters of respondents were Asian, and 80% were aged between 18 and 26% of respondents arrived in Australia on student visas. Almost 70% of respondents were studying on university courses, and 30% on English-language courses. About 90% were planning to travel while in Australia, with an average trip length of approximately 3 weeks. Most travelled in small groups, and the preferred form of accommodation was hotels or motels (55%).

TNT Magazine, Backpackers Uncovered, TNT, Australia, available: www.tntmagazine.com.au/pdf/ResearchResults2006.pdf (2006)

This is the 2006 edition of several reports based on a market research programme by TNT Magazine in Australia and New Zealand. The project is in its eighth year and consists of surveys with backpackers. The objective of the project is to produce clear and usable market research to the backpacking industry. The October 2003 survey had a sample size of 1,025 respondents and included questions on many aspects of backpacking from trip details to motivations and behaviour.

Tourism Australia, Backpacker Factsheet, available: www.tourism.australia.com/content/Research/Factsheets/Backpacker_July_2004.pdf (2005)

Provides a basic profile and information on backpacker tourism in Australia.

UNESCO, Global Education Digest, 2006: Comparing Education Statistics Across the World, Paris, UNESCO, available: www.uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/pdf/ged/2006/GED2006.pdf (2006)

This is a general report on global education trends, but includes data on internationally mobile students in tertiary education by host country and region of origin and international flows of mobile students at the tertiary level.

Visit Britain, ‘Inbound Study Visits’, Foresight, Issue 19, May 2005, available: www.tourismtrade.org.uk/ Images/2005%2005%20Poland%20Czech%20Republic%20%26%20Hungary_tcm12-14351.doc (2005)

In recent years there has been a steady decline in the number of inbound study visits, with the provisional figure for 2004 suggesting that there were 578,000 such visits (that is 2% of all visits), a fall of 19% since 1999.

However, those coming to Britain on study visits stay a long time relative to all other journey purposes, the typical figure for recent years has been close to six weeks. Such visit longevity more than makes up for a low average spend per day (around £ 40), meaning that in 2004 study visits generated an estimated £ 1 billion for the United Kingdom economy, equivalent to 8% of all inbound visitor spend. The report looks in more detail at the English as a Foreign Language market, those studying for qualifications and the role of the tourism industry in study tourism.

Vogt, J. W. (1976), ‘Wandering: Youth and Travel Behaviour’, Annals of Tourism Research, 4 (1), pp. 25-41

The phenomenon of wandering youth, their travel experiences and resulting impact on the visited culture, is explored. The primary motivation is the quest for personal growth, which is achieved through autonomy in decision-making stimulation in daily life, learning through exposure and detachment, and transient yet intense interpersonal relationships. The impact of wanderers is felt mainly at centers of congregation, identified as gathering and resting places. Some suggestions are made as to areas of application and further research.

Wearing, S. (2001), Volunteer Tourism: Experiences that Make a Difference, CABI, Wallingford

Volunteer tourism describes a field of tourism in which travellers visit a destination and take part in projects in the local community. Projects are commonly nature-based, people-based or involve restoration of buildings and artefacts. Contemporary volunteer tourism has tended to suffer from a lack of differentiation from other forms of tourism or volunteering, falling into areas such as alternative tourism, international volunteering, social work and conservation corps work. The aim of this book is to provide it with a more specific identity.

This book provides an overview of the phenomenon of volunteer tourism, its sources and its development as a concept and a focus on the potential positive social and environmental benefits of volunteer tourism, and the prerequisites for a successful experience.

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Weaver, D. B. (2004), ‘Introduction: Special Issue on Tourism and Students’, Tourism Review International, 8 (2), pp. 55-56

Travel by students, including trips taken for extended periods to pursue degrees and other formal educational opportunities, may account for as much as one fifth of all international and domestic ‘tourist-days’, and a similar proportion of all tourism-related expenditures. Yet, even though the World Tourism Organization clearly identifies the pursuit of such opportunities as a legitimate form of tourism, and the sociocultural benefits of such tourism have been widely touted, academics have paid relatively little attention to this phenomenon. The lack of an intuitive association between tourism and formal education is one reason for this dearth of attention, as is the almost universal neglect paid to the formal educational component of student travel by national, provincial, and municipal tourism organizations and by the tourism industry more generally. Fortunately, this situation is slowly beginning to change. In recent years, the Australian national tourism organization, for example, has included education fees as a separate tourist expenditure category, thereby exposing this hitherto hidden component of tourism-related revenue. Recent specialized academic books on the subjects, such as Ritchie (2003), have served a similar publicity role by disseminating theoretical and empirical information on the perceptions, behaviour, and impacts of student-tourists.

Wheatcroft, S. and Seekings, J. (1995), Europe’s Youth Travel Market, European Travel Commission

This report is based on a series of analyses of the European youth travel market with the aim of informing the travel industry about this sector. It is based on data derived from the European Travel Monitor as well as ATI’s own research. A global overview of the youth travel market is presented at the start of the report, which is followed by sections on intra-European, overseas and European domestic youth travel. Subsequent sections focus on growth forecasts, suppliers, intermediaries and institutions in the youth tourism sector. The report closes with a strategy for raising awareness of the potential value of youth tourism for the travel industry and proposes an action plan containing specific suggestions for the sector.

World Tourism Organization (1991), International Conference on Youth Tourism, New Delhi, India: Final Report, 18-21 November 1991, UNWTO, Madrid, p. 13

This document is the final report of the International Conference on Youth Tourism. The conference, which took place in India in 1991, brought together representatives of government agencies and administrations, youth tourism organizations, the tourism sector, universities, research institutions, international non-governmental and intergovernmental organizations to discuss the theme of youth tourism. The specific objectives were to analyse the nature and importance of the youth tourism market, defined as encompassing those aged 15-29; examine the policies, services, products and facilities destined for this market; investigate the role and functions of governments, the operational sector and other organizations and agencies concerned with the development and promotion of youth tourism; examine the special needs of developing countries in this sector; and formulate practical policies and directives for the development and marketing of youth tourism at national, intraregional and interregional levels. The findings and conclusions of the conference on each of these issues are presented, and 26 specific recommendations are made. The growing importance and dynamics of the youth tourism market which, with an annual growth rate of 7.3% far exceeds the 4.4% growth rate of international tourism as a whole, is highlighted by the conference.

World Tourism Organization (2002), Youth Outbound Travel of the Germans, the British and the French, UNWTO, Madrid, p. 48

A study was conducted on the international travel behaviour of young people (15-25 years old) from three generating markets: Germany, United Kingdom, and France. The study uses data (n=400,000 interviews in 2000) from the European Travel Monitor based on representative opinion polling in more than 30 European countries. The study deals with many practical aspects of youth travel such as length of stay, expenditure, preferred travelling season, booking patterns, accommodation, type of transport used, Internet use in organizing and booking trips. It also deals with the personal profile of young travellers, such as sex, age, socioeconomic background, employment status, and area of residence.

Youth Tourism Consortium of Canada, Youth Tourism in Canada: A Situational Analysis of an Overlooked Market, available: www.omca.com/resource/document/Youth-Travel-Consortium-of-Canada-Report-FINAL. pdf?category-id=4 (2004)

This report provides a profile of youth travellers in Canada, including group and independent travel. The Canadian youth tourism market is defined as: ‘young people 30 years of age and under, who are travelling

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outside the family unit, not for business, and not primarily to visit friends or relatives, and whose travel includes at least one overnight stay.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; The report analyses youth tourism expenditures, which were estimated to total C$Â 12.3 billion in 2002, or 23% of the tourism industry expenditures in Canada that year. The report also analyses major trends in youth tourism in Canada and worldwide, including demographic changes, working holidays and the impact of technology. The report concludes with a number of recommendations for the youth tourism industry.

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