Circularity in the Binckhorst

Circularity in the Binckhorst What were the main factors in the historical development of the Binckhorst and what is the role of circularity in the past, present and future?

Lodewijk Luken 4098358

AR2A010 – Architectural History Thesis Fall semester 2015-2016

Tutor: Carola Hein

The idea of a circular economy is often presented as a new, environmental friendly alternative for the linear systems that are developed since the industrial revolution. Before that, circular systems were unconsciously already applied, driven by locality and scarcity.

The Binckhorst is an industrial area in that has undergone many changes since it became part of The Hague in 1906. A gas factory and many different industries are part of the history. When analyzing the historical energy and material flows in the Binckhorst, only a few examples of circularity can be recognized. In general, the main incentive was the economical advantage of it. Idealism and the advantage of a greater resilience of a circular system hardly played a role.

The role of the infrastructure became apparent as a major factor of importance for the development of the Binckhorst, as there is a strong relation between material flows and infrastructure. The functional infill is largely influenced by the availability of infrastructures.

Nowadays, in 2016, a proper interregional infrastructure is still lacking. The Binckhorst should be seen as a great opportunity to develop a circular, local system, according to the principles of the Blue Economy. A network of many small scale businesses that are all related to each other in such a way that a resilient ecosystem is developed, (re)using as many local materials as possible. The example has been given already by the collaboration of a beer brewery and a bakery. The idealism and progressive mindset of entrepreneurs should turn scarcity (of proper infrastructure) in the Binckhorst into an example of how a smart, circular system can be set up.

TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture

Department of History of Architecture and Urban Planning

Preface During this fall semester of 2015, I combine writing this history thesis with a four day internship at Superuse Studios. Superuse Studios researches, designs, builds innovative products, interiors and buildings and develops strategies for smart urban transformations, according to the principles of the blue economy. My interest in this way of circular thinking, designing and researching finds its origins in a period that I have been living in an ecocentre in Brazil, where we applied the principles of permaculture by producing our own food, using local, natural materials for the construction of housing and avoiding waste production.

The content of this thesis on circularity is connected with the history of an industrial area in The Hague that is constantly in development, the Binckhorst.

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Contents Preface .................................................................................................................................................... 2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 4 Chapter 1: Thoughts on circularity ......................................................................................................... 5 Reinventing the thought of circularity ................................................................................................ 5 Theories on the circular economy ...................................................................................................... 5 Positioning the theories on circularity .............................................................................................. 10 Chapter 2: The history of the Binckhorst .............................................................................................. 13 Until 1907: polder ............................................................................................................................. 13 1907-1929: Tweede Gemeente Gasfabriek and industrial activities along the Trekvliet ................. 14 1929-1950: New industries in the polder, WOII and revival ............................................................ 14 1950-1970: Economic growth in the fifties and the end of the Gasfabriek ..................................... 15 1970-2001: Downturn and modernization ....................................................................................... 16 2001-present: from high top-down ambitions to a realistic bottom-up approach .......................... 18 Chapter 3: The relation between infrastructure and flows .................................................................. 19 1. Infrastructures .............................................................................................................................. 20 2. Energy flows .................................................................................................................................. 22 3. Physical flows (industries) ............................................................................................................. 25 4. Conclusion: What’s the relation between the infrastructure and energy and material flows in the Binckhorst? ................................................................................................................................. 28 Chapter 4: Remarkable examples of circularity in the Binckhorst........................................................ 30 Benefitting byproducts in the gas factory......................................................................................... 30 Reusing rubble after WOII ................................................................................................................ 30 City heating in 2001 .......................................................................................................................... 30 Beer and bread.................................................................................................................................. 31 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 32 Table of figures ..................................................................................................................................... 34 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 34 Appendix ............................................................................................................................................... 36

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Introduction ‘The linear model turned services into products that can be sold, but this throughput approach is a wasteful one. (…) In the past, reuse and service-life extension were often strategies in situations of scarcity or poverty and led to products of inferior quality. Today, they are signs of good resource husbandry and smart management.’ (Stahel, n.b.)

The industrial revolution has led to globalization and linear processes: from extraction and production (flowing in) to waste (flowing out). However, in contemporary city planning many developers, architects and designers call for a different approach. Rather than the conventional linear system, they argue for circular systems as alternative approaches in city planning. Various different concepts and names are developed, but they have in common the idea of making sustainable connections between certain flows (materials, food, water, heat, etc.) in order to get to a circular system. Walter Stahel describes the ‘Loop Economy’, Gunter Pauli speaks of the ‘Blue Economy’, and Janine Benyus defines a ’biomimetic future’. Locality, self-sufficiency and resilience are other keywords that characterize these ideas.

De Binckhorst in The Hague is an industrial area that is currently in (re)development. Over history, many different functions were located here: a gas factory, offices, the car industry and many other industries. To serve these functions, many different flows have been and are still present. What kinds of flows can we define? What flows in and out exactly? What other factors of importance need to be considered? And what can we conclude from having this knowledge, towards future development of De Binckhorst? Can we possibly make connections to come to a circular, more sustainable system? In short: What were the main factors in the historical development of the Binckhorst and what is the role of circularity in the past, present and future?

This thesis aims to link the historical development of the Binckhorst with the present theories about circularity, by analyzing former and present flows from historical reports, former city plans and maps and placing them into the context of the present ideas about circular systems. The first chapter will provide an overview of what is written about circularity. Seven theories on circularity will be described and positioned relative to each other. The second chapter will contain description of the historical development of De Binckhorst, followed by an analysis of the main flows in chapter three.

Although there is some data available about the flows, the information is not complete. The chapter will only provide a rough, overall view on how the flows developed over time. The systematic categorization and labeling of the flows is supported by the theory of the first chapter. In the fourth chapter several examples of circularity that have appeared in the Binckhorst will be described.

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Chapter 1: Thoughts on circularity Reinventing the thought of circularity Before the industrial revolution many examples of circular approaches were appied to production processes, waste management, etc. Rather than an idealistic or environmental mindset, these thoughts were driven by locality, due to a lack of telecommunication and transportation possibilities.

In the Netherlands, for example, the classic windmill is a good example. Wind energy was cleverly used and directed downwards in the tower, where the grain was processed. The tower was designed with separate floors devoted to grinding grain, removing chaff and storing grain, but also selling the end products in a shop on the ground floor and living on one of the floors for the miller and his family.

Later, when upscaling became more efficient and profitable in a world that was globalizing, these and many other integral, local production principles fell into disuse. All different parts of production processes take place in many different countries. For example: the extraction of the raw materials, the processing of the raw materials, the production of the end products and the distribution of the final product. A linear system, in which products are created by using resources from nature By now, in 2015, many initiatives are taken and theories are presented that oppose the current industrial, linear system. Already in the seventies the first ideas and concepts came up. In the theories that are known by now, nature is often seen as the striking example of how the system of consumption and using products should work.

As a theoretical foundation under the reflections in this case study of the Binckhorst in The Hague, a selection of these theories will be described.

Theories on the circular economy In this chapter several approaches towards the circular economy will be discussed. Many ideas and concepts were developed over time, often parallel to each other. Although terminologies in the approaches are often different, in this thesis they are all considered under the title of the ‘circular economy’.

Walter Stahel: loop economy Already in 1976 Walter Stahel sketched the vision of an economy in loops and its impact on job creation, economic competitiveness, resource savings and waste prevention. In 1982 this was followed by the paper ‘The Product Life Factor’, in which he defined utilization instead of goods as the ultimate sustainable business model of a loop economy (Stahel, 1982). In 2012 he explained: ‘Managing existing physical stocks will provide resource security for enterprises and nations, under conditions that we consider the goods of today as the resources of tomorrow at the resource prices of yesterday. The business model to do that is selling goods as services. This enables economic actors to retain the ownership of their goods and embodied resources and does contribute to their own future resource supply as well as it gives their nations recourse security for the future.’ (Stahel, 2012)

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1.1 Alternative life-cycles of an industrial product and intensities of labor and energy inputs in the procuction phases (Stahel, 1982)

The circular economy is about: -

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Loop economy: the smaller the loop, the more profitable and resource efficient. Maintaining value, quality and performance of the goods and materials is needed to optimize the loop (stock management). The loop has no beginning and no end.

Regional job creation: Substitution of manpower for energy, as in the (re)manufacturing phase roughly three quarters of the total labor needed for a product is spent and only one quarter of the total energy needed is used. (Against the opposite in the raw material phase.)

Preventing CO2 emissions and greenhouse gas emissions.

Stahel summarizes: ‘A circular economy increases the future resource security, creates regional jobs of all scale levels and reduces greenhouse gas emissions. Especially the small loops reuse, remarket, repair, remanufacture. A sustainable tax policy (not taxing labor as a renewable resource) is a powerful lever to accelerate the development of a circular economy with positive impacts on the three pillars of sustainability: the economy, the environment and the social welfare (jobs).’ (Stahel, 2012) Cradle to cradle The phrase ‘cradle to cradle’ was popularized by William MacDonough and Michael Braungart in 2002, but already introduced by Walter Stahel in the seventies. Like the other theories on the circular economy, the Cradle to Cradle approach rejects the one-way manufacturing flow, here described as the ‘cradle to grave’ lifecycle. Rather than seeking solutions to minimize the harm we cause (such as reduce, reuse and recycle products, or energy saving), Cradle to Cradle reframes design as a beneficial, regenerative force. The basic concept is to use the same strategy as nature does: a material is a nutrient and can be returned to the environment or recycled without a loss of quality. The system should be eco-effective, rather than eco-efficient.

In this system, two categories are defined: biological metabolism (for products that are consumed, like shampoo) and technical metabolism (products that are not consumed, but only used as services, like buildings and cars). Biological nutrients are biodegradable and will easily return into nature.

Technical nutrients will continuously circulate in closed-loop industrial cycles as pure materials, without loss of value. The concept of waste is eliminated (McDonough & Braungart, 2002).

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1.2 Cradle to Cradle: The technical and biological nutrient cycle (EPEA Intl.Umweltforschung Gmbh Taiwan Branch, n.d.)

The following five principles apply to the Cradle to Cradle theory (McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry, n.d.). To be considered, for example, for the production component in the diagram above.

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Use renewable energy, such as wind energy, hydro energy, solar energy and energy from biomass.

Water stewardship: clean water output Social responsibility: positive impact on the community Material reutilization: maintain recyclability or compostability Material health: value materials as nutrients for safe, continuous cycling

Gunter Pauli: The Blue Economy The idea of the Blue Economy started in 2004 with a project to find 100 of the best nature-inspired technologies. The Blue Economy as business model was presented in a book in 2010 by businessman Gunter Pauli, with new ways to tackle issues that cause environmental problems (Pauli, 2010b). With the idea that human production and consumption are no longer sustainable, a shift in thinking is necessary to find the way out. Instead of using rare and high-energy cost resources, solutions can be found using simpler and cleaner technologies.

The Blue Economy rejects the reckless use of green, natural products such as organic food, biodegradable soap and solar energy. These alternative products that have the pretention to save the environment are expensive and are actually not that good for nature. Organic food is transported all over the world, for biodegradable soap palm oil from plantations that destroy the rainforest is used and solar energy depends on subsidies (Pauli, 2010a). An opposing strategy of this green economy is the Blue Economy: Connecting scientific solutions (based on systems common in the natural world) with environmental problems has potential benefits. The Blue Economy stands for new ways of designing business: where the waste of one product becomes the input to create a new cash flow. Doing this, the environment will be less polluted, while jobs are created, income rises and social capital is built.

Regarding practice and implementation of the Blue Economy, six basic principles are defined (Blue Economy platform, n.d.):

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local (use what you have) efficient (substitute something with nothing) systemic (mimic nature) profitable (optimize & generate multiple cash flows) abundant (satisfy all basic needs) innovative (create change, seize opportunities)

What distinguishes the model of the Blue Economy from other ideas about a circular economy is that it has a greater resilience, as it relies on many actors and innovations. The loss of one actor in the circular process (due to bankruptcy for example) does not lead to a collapse of the entire system.

Industrial ecology The idea of industrial ecology was launched in 1989 by Frosch and Gallopoulos. It is focused on industrial processes: it rejects the linear system in which raw materials from the environment are used as input, to generate products and waste and then discharges the waste as output. Instead, it pleads for a system in which the consumption of energy and materials is optimized, waste generation is minimized and outflows of the process serve as raw materials for another process. The industrial ecosystem would function as an analogue of biological ecosystems. By means of manufacturing processes a circulating stock of materials can be transformed from one shape into another. This won’t be an ideal system, due to unavoidable generation of wastes and by-products in this process. But it’s much less harmful than the linear system (Frosch & Gallopoulos, 1989).

In order to identify and then implement strategies to reduce the environmental impact of a product or process, a system tool is developed. A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) quantifies the inputs (raw materials) and outputs (emissions) across the product life cycle­from raw material extraction to manufacture to use and to recycling and disposal. Although the LCA-methodology is evolving, there are three distinct components. In the inventory analysis the use of energy and resources and the environmental release to air, water and land is quantified. Secondly there is the impact analysis.

Here the consequences on the environment are characterized and assessed. And third the improvement analysis: the evaluation and implementation of opportunities to reduce environmental burden (Garner & Keoleian, 1995).

1.3 Industrial ecology: an example of the flow of materials and energy from the earth, businesses and people (Local Hazardous Waste Management Program, n.d.)

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Biomimicry The idea is that a sustainable world already exists. The solutions we are looking for in the technical world, is often lying in nature. Learning from nature, by for instance looking how a leaf gathers energy and how a fiber is woven by a spider (Benyus, 2002). An earlier example is the study of birds to enable human flight.

Janine Benyus defines four steps to a biomimetic future: -

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Immerse ourselves in nature: realizing that there is no membrane separating us from the natural world.

Interview the fauna and flora of our planet: not only observing the species on earth, but also understanding their role in the great web of things.

Encourage biologists and engineers to collaborate, using nature as model and measure: matching nature’s designs and processes to the needs of technologists and engineers who design the shape, feel and flow of our products, materials and systems.

Preserve life’s diversity and genius

Biomimicry relies on three principles: nature as model (learn from forms, processes, systems and strategies), nature as measure (judging the sustainability of innovations using an ecological standard) and nature as mentor (don’t look at nature as a source of extraction, but as a source where we can learn from).

Biobased economy The biobased economy is about an economy that runs on biomass as resource. Different kinds of biomass can be used as a substitute for fossil-fuel based resources, like oil, coal and gas: from fossilbased to bio-based. Not only for food, but also for non-food applications such as materials (biodegradable plastics for example), fuel and electricity (Biobased Economy Secretariaat, n.d.-a).

A major difference with Cradle to Cradle is that the Biobased Economy presents a situation in which everything is substituted by biobased product, as visible in the illustration below. The Cradle to Cradle approach clearly defines a technical and a biological cycle, the Biobased Economy only a biological one.

1.4 Cycle of the Biobased Economy (Biobased Economy Secretariaat, n.d.-b)

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Permaculture The term ‘permaculture’ was first introduced by David Holmgren and Bill Mollison in 1978 and originates from ‘permanent agriculture’. It is about working with, rather than against nature (Mollison, 1996).

The underlying foundations are the ethics earth care, people care and fair share. These ethics are not new, but as found in most traditional societies. Then, twelve design principles are defined, such as observing nature, avoiding waste production, using and value diversity, using small and slow solutions and catching and storing energy. The permaculture thinking is applied to seven domains, as visible in the illustration below (Telford, n.b.).

1.5 Permaculture flower: seven domains with three ethics and twelve design principles as foundation (Holmgren, n.b.)

Although also permaculture seems to have the pretention to be an all-embracing theory, the practice of permaculture appear mostly in several communities around the world (mainly Australia), often called ‘eco-centres’. Natural building, agrofloresty, rainwater harvesting and sheet mulching are the most common practices here. Because it’s applied mainly in these alternative, specific places, permaculture seems to exist apart from society. In this sense, permaculture represents what is called ‘the green economy’ by the theorists of the Blue Economy.

One of the main differences between Permaculture and Biomimicry is how nature is used as a source: in permaculture nature is often physically present by using nature’s materials as the only alternative (in construction for example, using only natural materials and rejecting the use of cement for instance), where in Biomimicry nature is a source of inspiration, of ideas.

Positioning the theories on circularity Many different ideas about a circular system are described. Shouldn’t the initiators work all together? The Ellen MacArthurfoundation was launched in 2010 and has the aim to inspire to rethink and redesign through the theories on circular economy. Many of the concepts described earlier in this chapter are mentioned as ‘schools of thought’ and some people behind those ‘schools of thought’ are part of the advisory panel. Apart from the focus on education the foundation, the

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aim is to catalyze business innovation. Connections with big companies like Google, Philips, H&M and Renault are established (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, n.d.).

Many underlying ideas of all theories described are shared. Apart from the idealistic thought of changing the world to a more sustainable one, a parallel is that all concepts refer to nature as a source of inspiration. Overlooking all the theories described, these key elements can be defined: -

product-life extension/long-life goods restructuring activities waste prevention energy from renewable resources

There are also some differences to be distinguished. Where Stahel (loop economy), Pauli (Blue Economy) and Cradle to Cradle pretend to have developed a concept that are close to perfection (rejecting waste completely, for example), the theory of the industrial ecology is more humble: it doesn’t have the pretention of a completely closed circle. In the diagram of an example of the flow of materials and energy, terms such as ‘minimal waste’ and ‘fewer resources’ are visible. On the other hand, this approach seems to be closer to reality and ready to apply, by means of a tool: the Life Cycle Assessment.

In the diagrams below the different theories are positioned related to each other. One sets out the relation between the ambition and the applicability of the theories, the other the relation between ecology and efficiency.

1.6 Positioning seven theories on circularity: efficiency vs. ecology (own illustration)

Roughly we can distinguish three groups. All linear approaches belong to the first group, together with industrial ecology. That is because industrial ecology still has the linear economy as its starting point: the ambition is to make the current systems more sustainable. This makes it less ambitious, but probably better applicable than all other ideas about circularity. The second group consists of the loop economy, blue economy and cradle to cradle. These theories are way more ambitious and

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require a new way of thinking that is now, in 2016, definitely not a shared, common mindset (yet).

Apart from a ‘biological cycle’, a ‘technical cycle’ is an elemental part of the approaches. This is different from the third group (biomimicry, biobased economy and permaculture), that has nature as the only reference. This makes these theories more alternative and unrealistic to be applied on a larger scale.

Definition of flows From chapter three onwards, there will be an inventory inventory of the physical and energy flows of the Binckhorst in The Hague. To be able to categorize the different flows that will be distinguished, the fourteen types of flows ‘that define the ecosystem of a city’, determined by Jan Jongert, as published in an article in a magazine with the title ‘De stad als ecosysteem’ (Jongert, 2013).

1.7 Fourteen flows that define the ecosystem of a city (Jongert, 2013)

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Chapter 2: The history of the Binckhorst The Binckhorst is an industrial area in The Hague of about 130 ha. Over time, it has gone through many changes and (re)developments. By now, in 2015, this process hasn’t come to an end yet. Many plans for interventions and redevelopments are being prepared at the moment. De Binckhorst is named after the castle that was constructed in 1076, Kasteel De Binckhorst.

The boundaries of the Binckhorst are defined by railroads and canals. In the northwest and the northeast the Binckhorst is limited by two railroads: one connecting Amsterdam and Rotterdam (built in 1843) and the other connecting The Hague with Utrecht (1869). In the southeast the boundary is defined by a canal called the Broeksloot, which was dug in 1560. From 1907, this became also the municipal boundary between The Hague and Voorburg. In the southwest is another canal, called the Trekvliet.

This chapter provides an overview of the historical development of the Binckhorst. The main source is ‘De Binckhorst, bedrijventerrein in beweging’, published in 2012. A complete overview of the history is provided (Havelaar & Albers, 2012). Based on the main events (both internal and external), economic developments and turning points, the overview is subdivided into six timeframes. Each timeframe is described in one paragraph, which includes a schematic map, based on historical material retrieved from the Haagse Beeldbank.

Until 1907: polder The construction in the Binckhorst was the castle called ‘De Binckhorst’ which was in approximately 1076 the first building activity in this area. It was constructed on one of the sand barriers that run parallel to the coast line. In between those sand barriers, there was only wetland.

The main activity in the Binckhorst was the extraction of peat, starting in the 11th century. This led to the necessity to construct a windmill in 1446, in the northwest of the Binckhorst, right next to the Trekvliet. After the construction of a quay (Bovenkade) straight through the Binckhorst, another windmill needed to be built in 1461 in the southern part of the Binckhorst, close to the castle. The Trekvliet (where the water was pumped to) was already dug in 1345 as water drainage for the canals in The Hague.

2.1 Binckhorst 1906, own illustration (Vormer, 1906)

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1907-1929: Tweede Gemeente Gasfabriek and industrial activities along the Trekvliet To be able to keep growing, the municipality of The Hague wanted to annex several pieces of land around the city that were owned by other municipalities. The Binckhorst, owned by Voorburg, was very suitable for trade and industry, due to the great transportation possibilities by means of the railroads and the Trekvliet. Because of resistance of the municipality of Voorburg, it took until 1907 to annex the Binckhorst.

In the Binckhorst, the municipality of The Hague wanted to construct a second gas factory (de Tweede Gemeente Gasfabriek, which became necessary because of the rapid growth of The Hague.

The northwest of the Binckhorst was a good location: close to the inhabited districts of The Hague and access to two railroads and the Trekvliet. During the first years after construction in 1907, the city gas was mainly used for lighting. From 1917 this started to change: The Hague was the first municipality in the Netherlands that changed the streetlights from gas to electricity. This led to a decrease of the demand of gas. On the other hand, cooking on a gas stove became popular.

In 1924 the first gas factory of The Hague was closed, so from then the entire gas production of The Hague and neighboring areas came down to the Tweede Gemeente Gasfabriek at the Binckhorst.

Parallel to the development of the Gasfabriek, many companies were established along the Trekvliet, after the annexation of the Binckhorst in 1907. Although the municipality had been working really hard to annex the Binckhorst, it did not start making an urban plan for the Binckhorst.

It permitted companies to settle if they wanted to. The great accessibility of the Binckhorst was the main reason that companies got attracted.

Another new function in the Binckhorst that was permitted but not planned was the cemetery that opened in 1920.

2.2 Binckhorst 1927, own illustration (Holkema, 1927)

1929-1950: New industries in the polder, WOII and revival In 1919, planmaking for the Binckhorst started. The focus was on improving the infrastructure, by means of a new harbor in the southern part. Also, some new streets were planned. It took until 1938

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before the first canal of the new harbor became ready. Then, the business activity started to move from the area along the Trekvliet towards the area in the polder right behind it. The first big companies settled in the Binckhorst.

Also the Tweede Gemeente Gasfabriek continued developing these years. It became one of the most innovative gas factories in the Netherlands.

From 1940 the growth of the Binckhorst stagnated, due to WOII. Continue running the main industry (production of gas) became difficult. Oil products like petroleum, gasoline and fuel oil were not available anymore. Until October 1944 the production of electricity and gas could continue by using coal. After a strike at the railway company, the delivery of coal stopped completely. Thanks to a substantial amount of coke gas that was stocked, the gas delivery to selected institutions (such as bakeries) could continue. After the war, it took until 16 June 1945 before the gas production could resume. Until major changes in the gas industry in the fifties, gas was produced the way it was done before WOII. Another effect of WOII was that the digging of the new harbor stopped. Only in 1948 the decision was made to continue digging the canals for the new harbor.

After the clearance of the neighbourhood Bezuidenhout, that was bombed during World War II, 110.000 m3 rubble was dumped in the Binckhorst. This rubble was reused in coarse concrete to construct housing, shortly after WOII. Another application was in so called ‘Vibro-bricks’, produced by the company Vibro, that settled in the Binckhorst to produce the bricks. Despite of these applications, still 30.000 m3 remained. This needed to be moved, before they could continue digging the new Binckhorst harbor.

2.3 Binckhorst 1948, own illustration (Dienst der stadsontwikkeling en volkshuisvesting, 1948)

1950-1970: Economic growth in the fifties and the end of the Gasfabriek The fifties were a period of great success for the Binckhorst. During these years, many companies wanted to move out from the city centre of The Hague. The municipality of The Hague started constructing industrial buildings in the Binckhorst in 1950, to facilitate this shift and rent them out to companies. In total, 6500 m2 was constructed at the Komeetweg, Orionstraat and Siriusstraat.

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Thanks to the economic growth this was very successful, so in 1954 plans were made to realize even more industrial buildings. This time, 12.500 m2 was constructed on the terrain enclosed by the Zonweg, Melkwegstraat and Saturnusstraat. These halls were finished in 1956 and became as successful as the first industrial buildings built by the municipality.

Apart from these industrial activities facilitated by the government, many other companies also settled in the Binckhorst. The car industry came up and found its place in the Binckhorst. Because of these developments in the fifties, there was suddenly a lack of space. Remarkable is that the cemetery was able to buy terrain from the municipality, although the municipality had planned new industrial activity here. Interference by the state caused this decision.

Besides all the companies that settled, also the Gasfabriek flourished in the fifties. It specialized in the distribution of refinery gas, on a regional scale (rather than serving only The Hague). The Gasfabriek remained very innovative and employed over 1000 people. The decline started in 1959 though, when a huge amount of natural gas was discovered in Slochteren, in the northeastern part of the Netherlands. This meant the end of the local and regional gas factories in the Netherlands. In 1967 the production of city gas stopped and later the Gasfabriek was closed.

2.4 Binckhorst 1969, own illustration (Gemeentelijke dienst van de volkshuisvesting, 1969)

1970-2001: Downturn and modernization After the period of great success of the Binckhorst in the fifties, the situation changed in the end of the sixties and in the seventies. There was less interest from companies to be settled in the Binckhorst. The main reason was the bad accessibility over land via roads. The Binckhorstlaan was the most important connection, but it required major changes to increase its capacity. Plans to improve the situation were never realized.

These developments, together with the end of the Gasfabriek in 1970, marked the downturn of the Binckhorst. Rather than a demand for space for new industries, now space became available without having a destiny. Although a part of the terrain of the Gasfabriek became in use as gas receiving station, the rest (10 of the 17 hectares) was left over. It became public space owned by the municipality, which started to sell lots to companies. For this, many facilities (such as gas holders and the railway connection) were deconstructed. A factor of importance in this is that during the

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seventies became clear that the terrain where the former Gasfabriek was located was much polluted. For this reason and the fact that cleaning the ground by digging was not an option, only business activity could be planned there for future development of the Binckhorst.

The Binckhorst started changing from a dynamic industrial area into a place with a wide variety of different functions and activities. Remarkable is that the municipality of The Hague (again) remained very passive. There was no priority to stop the developments, as they didn’t lead to social unrest or a high unemployment rate.

This changed in the eighties. In the years before the development plan of 1989 was approved, the planmaking was mainly focused on the accessibility of the Binckhorst and the definition of several subareas with their own function and identity.

The great demand for office buildings in The Hague in these years led developers to the Binckhorst.

Offices became more prominently part of the Binckhorst, because it was simply cheaper to settle there than in the city. Initially, this new trend was undesired by the municipality. By means of legislation it attempted to hold developers back from realizing their plans. But the market persevered, so in the final development plan of 1989 a mixed zoning for industries and offices was implemented. Since then, many new office complexes were realized of a much bigger scale than the Binckhorst was used to.

The downside of these developments also emerged. Office buildings built in the eighties became vacant and there arose a strong contrast between the old industrial buildings that were still present and the new, shiny offices. And there was still the issue of mobility. This was not only in the case in the Binckhorst, but also in the city centre. To improve the accessibility, plans were made to enlarge the northern part of the Binckhorstlaan towards the city centre and the western part of the Mercuriusweg towards the Laakkwartier.

2.5 Binckhorst 2001, own illustration (Gemeentelijke dienst stadsontwikkeling, 2001)

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2001-present: from high top-down ambitions to a realistic bottom-up approach After the annexation of Ypenburg and Leidschenveen, new opportunities arose to connect The Hague with the highway to Rotterdam via an interlocal road, avoiding Voorburg by constructing a tunnel: the Rotterdamsebaan. As a result, the Binckhorst came in the picture as an inner urban area, rather than an industrial part of the city. The very ambitious masterplan ‘Nieuw Binckhorst’ was developed: the Binckhorst would turn into a mixed residential area in which a minimum of 5000 dwellings would be realized before 2020, together with new office buildings, a shopping mall and many other facilities. Many objections arose (financial problems, difficulties with ownerships, protests against the displacement of the heavy industries from the Binckhorst to new locations) and on top of that the crisis emerged in 2008.

A change of course was the logical result. Many architects and entrepreneurs projected their vision on the Binckhorst. They shared the idea of rejecting the top-down approach: instead the existing situation with its present qualities was taken as the starting point. Also the municipality of The Hague saw that is was impossible to realize the plans on a short term, so it changed its attitude from ‘leading’ to ‘guiding’. The marked should come up with private initiatives. For this, the focus is on the realization of a favorable investment climate, by planning improved infrastructures (the Rotterdamsebaan). This should be finished in 2019.

Initiatives by entrepreneurs (from the creative industry, mainly) led to the successful revitalization of places such as Bink36 in the north and the Cabellerofabriek in the south. New initiatives from the market are essential. In 2011, 140.000 m2 office space was vacant and there were 9 wastelands.

Now, in 2015, the Binckhorst is still in development. With its new (bottom-up) approach it has the potential to become an example in city revitalization.

2.6 Binckhorst 2014, own illustration (Kadaster, 2014)

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Chapter 3: The relation between infrastructure and flows In this chapter, the history of the Binckhorst will be analyzed more extensively on three topics: infrastructure, energy flows and material flows. The choice for these topics is based on the previous chapter, in which became apparent that they had the greatest significance in the historical development of the Binckhorst. In the appendix, the described developments (and flows) are mapped, using six reference years. The system of Jongert (as described in the first chapter) is used to categorize the flows. Note: the graphics display the flows only roughly, as exact figures are not fully available for the entire history of the Binckhorst. Where available, numbers were used to indicate the flows as accurately as possible.

This way, the ‘ecosystem’ of the Binckhorst is described, although the analysis doesn’t have the pretention to be complete. As mentioned, the focus is only on the topics that seemed to be the most significant for this case study. To conclude, the relation between the infrastructure and flows will be discussed: What is the relation between the infrastructure and energy and material flows in the Binckhorst?

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1. Infrastructures Infrastructures vs flows (energy, fysical and value): what was the relation between the state and availability of physical infrastructures (such as roads, railways, waterways and pipelines) and physical, energy and value flows?

Until 1907 As cars and paved roads were not available yet, transportation over water was the most important.

The Trekvliet was already dug in 1345 as water drainage for the canals in The Hague. It also enhanced the transportation possibilities of goods and people with cities like Voorburg, Delft and Leiden. It was a very good alternative for the low quality intercommunal roads.

1907-1929 The gas factory was constructed right after the Binckhorst was annexed in 1907. The main reason for choosing the Binckhorst was the great accessability: two railroads in the direction of Amsterdam, Rotterdam and Utrecht and a waterway, the Trekvliet. This was necessary for the supply of raw materials. 175.000.000 kg of coal was used per year. A connection of the gas factory with the railway was established.

After the annexation, also companies saw the potential of being settled in the Binckhorst. The location was perfect: close to the city and a great accessibility over water. A lack of planmaking for the Binckhorst by the municipality was visible: companies could move to the Binckhorst if they wanted and the state of the main road (Binckhorstlaan) was really bad and remained unpaved until the late thirties. The potential of the Trekvliet to attract economic activities was clear.

1929-1950 In the context of the recent developments, the planmaking for the Binckhorst started in 1919. The focus was on the construction of a new harbor, considering the great success of the Laakhaven, outside of the Binckhorst. Although transportation over land was emerging, water was still the most important for transportation. It took until 1929 before the plan was approved. Only the infrastructure was planned: a harbor located in the south of the Binckhorst, with two canals parallel to the boundary with Voorburg. Furthermore a new layout for the streets was drawn. After approval of the plan, the digging started and the first 430 meter long canal was ready in 1938. The business activity started to move from the area along the Trekvliet towards area in the polder right behind it.

The first big companies settled. Due the Second World War the digging of the new harbor stopped.

Only in 1948 the decision was made to continue digging the canals.

1950-1970 In the years after WOII not much changed in the infrastructure. Only the earlier plans for digging a harbor were completed. In the years shortly after WOII this was seen by the municipality as a crucial condition for the further growth (and industrialization) of the Binckhorst. Many companies that wanted to settle in the Binckhorst required the availability of accessible waterways.

The fifties were a period of great economic prosperity. Many companies settled in the Binckhorst.

The availability of much more space than in the city was the motivation for companies to move to the Binckhorst (and not the great transportation possibilities over water, like before WOII). Even though the municipality played an important role in facilitating this (by constructing industrial

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buildings), a solid plan for renewing the infrastructure according to the current needs lacked. The result of this didn’t become apparent yet.

1970-2001 This situation changed in the end of the sixties and in the seventies. There was less interest from companies for in the Binckhorst. The main reason was the bad accessibility. Where the Binckhorst always had a great accessibility over water and railroads, transportation on the road became more important. In this matter, the Binckhorstlaan was the most important connection, but it required major changes to increase its capacity for transportation. Plans were made by the municipality of The Hague to enlarge both the Binckhorstlaan and the extension of it through Voorburg, to connect it with the highway. Nevertheless this never happened, due to protests by the municipality of Voorburg. Also plans for a connection in the opposite direction (to the Laakkwartier towards southwest and to Voorburg towards northeast) were never realized.

This changed in the eighties. In the years before the development plan of 1989 was approved, the planmaking was mainly focused on the accessibility of the Binckhorst (and the city centre of The Hague). Plans were made to enlarge the northern part of the Binckhorstlaan towards the city centre and the western part of the Mercuriusweg towards the Laakkwartier. Very typical for the shift from transportation over water to transportation over land, is the fact that in the development plan of 1989 the Trekvliet and the harbor were not mentioned as defining structures.

Another infrastructure of importance is the network of pipelines (Benjamins, 2009). Obviously, the Binckhorst was already connected with The Hague via a gas pipe since gas was produced in the Binckhorst and later also on a regional and national scale (for the delivery of refinery gas from Pernis and natural gas from Groningen). And in 1996, the Binckhorst was also connected with the city heating system of The Hague, thanks to the realization of a gas expansion project.

2001-present: from high top-down ambitions to a realistic bottom-up approach Now, in 2015, there are still no substantial improvements realized in transportation by road. But after the annexation of Ypenburg and Leidschenveen, new opportunities have arisen to connect The Hague (via the Binckhorst) with the highway to Rotterdam via an interlocal road, avoiding Voorburg by constructing a tunnel: the Rotterdamsebaan. This should be finished in 2019.

Although the gas expansion project stopped in 2001, the connection with the city heating system remains.

Conclusion Where the Binckhorst was initially a favorable site for industries close to the city of the Hague because of its great accessibility, the area has now changed into an inner urban part of the city in which the availability of a harbor is hardly benefited and where no connections with the railways are in use.

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2. Energy flows In the previous chapter became apparent, that the gas factory plays an important role in the history of the Binckhorst. For this reason, the second part of this chapter is dedicated to energy, with the focus on the gas factory. How did the energy supply and production develop? What local factors, such as infrastructure, mattered? Did circularity ever play a role?

Historical context Apart from specific, local developments in the Binckhorst, there is one development that cannot be ignored: the global developments on the source of energy supply, which means the discovery of fossil fuels. The graphic below shows the development of the consumption of different kinds of energy sources in the Netherlands in the twentieth century (Schot & Albert de la Bruhèze, 2000).

3.1 Consumption of different kinds of energy sources in the Netherlands (Schot & Albert de la Bruhèze, 2000)

For the development of the physical (built) environment, this plays an important role. For example: peat and coal need to be transported by boats, trucks or trains, but gas requires no more than a pipeline.

Apart from this, there were the First and Second World War. Both affected the supply of raw materials, which led to a decrease of the amount of gas that could be produced. In the following historical overview this will be discussed further.

Until 1907 Although there were not many (economical) activities in the Binckhorst until 1907, the energy industry was already active in a certain way. Not by means of the gas factory, but because of the extraction of peat, where the land was mainly used for.

1907-1929 After the annexation of the Binckhorst in 1907, the municipality of The Hague could build a new gas factory. The location played an important role in choosing the Binckhorst for this purpose.

In the early years, gas was produced by using coal. A great supply of this raw material was necessary, so the presence of the Trekvliet was of great importance. Colliers could transport 600.000 kg coal per day to the Binckhorst. 70.000 m3 city gas could be stored, enough for six hours in winter.

During the First World War, the supply of coal stagnated and the municipality of The Hague decided to change all the street lights to electricity. As a result, the first gas factory was closed in 1924, so from then the entire gas production of The Hague and neighboring areas came down to the gas factory at the Binckhorst.

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1920-1950 The Tweede Gemeente Gasfabriek was developing rapidly these years. Under the leadership of director Jan Rutten the Gasfabriek became one of the most innovative gas factories in the Netherlands, learning from techniques that were developed abroad, using chamber furnaces, generator gas and water gas. Several byproducts were extracted: coal tar for road paving, herbicides (sold to the national railway company), ammoniac and fertilizers.

Coal was still a valuable resource for the Gasfabriek, but oil products like petroleum, gasoline and fuel oil came up as new resources for the gas production. Yearly, 175.000.000 kg coal was used, to produce 80.000.000 m3 city gas. Also electricity from the municipal power company was used, but the Gasfabriek also started producing its own electricity, by using some of the byproducts (cokes).

Apart from the Trekvliet as the most important access to transportation, the railway located right next to the Gasfabriek became useful. The Binckhorst remained a perfect location for the Gasfabriek.

Due to WOII the growth of the Binckhorst stagnated. Continue running the main industry (production of gas) became difficult. The oil products were not available anymore. For this reason both the Gasfabriek and the Gemeentelijk Electriciteits Bedrijf (power company) only had coal available. With this resource the production of electricity and gas could continue, but only until October 1944. After a strike at the railway company, the delivery of coal stopped completely. Thanks to a substantial amount of coke gas that was stocked, the gas delivery to selected institutions (such as bakeries) could continue. Although a delivery of 10.000 - 12.000 m3 per day was sufficient, 30.000 m3 was produced because of the damaged gas network and illegal tapping. After the war, it took until 16 June 1945 before the gas production could resume. Until major changes in the gas industry in the fifties, gas was produced on the way it was done before WOII. 1950-1970 From 1950, the structure in the gas delivery and production industry in the Netherlands changed.

Many gas companies stopped producing their own gas. Instead, they bought and distributed the gas that was produced in big gas factories, like the Gasfabriek in the Binckhorst. This caused a regional approach towards gas distribution, rather than a local one.

The two types of gas that became prominent these years were natural gas (that was discovered in the northeastern part of the Netherlands in these years) and refinery gas. The Gasfabriek in the Binckhorst specialized in the distribution of refinery gas, which was made out of hydrocarbons such as hydrogen and methane. Those were leftovers from the refinery in Pernis, close to Rotterdam.

These gases could be transported over long distances, which made it possible to produce on a regional scale, rather than on a local scale. Collaboration with Rotterdam, Delft, Leiden, Gouda and Schiedam was established and in 1953 the first refinery gas was supplied.

In the factory the refinery gas needed to be mixed with other gases, in order to become suitable for use as city gas. For storing the refinery gas, a new gas holder with a volume of 60.000 m3 was constructed in 1957. The Gasfabriek remained very innovative and employed over 1000 people.

The decline started in 1959, when a huge amount of natural gas was discovered in Slochteren, in the northeastern part of the Netherlands. This meant the end of the local and regional gas factories in the Netherlands. The power company and the gas factory were merged into one energy company. In

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1963, the system of the Gasfabriek was converted to natural gas, which lasted until July 1967. In 1965 the production of gas using coal as raw material stopped and in 1967 also the production of city gas stopped. In 1970 the Gasfabriek was closed.

1970-2001 After the period of great success of the Binckhorst in the fifties, the situation changed in the end of the sixties and in the seventies. There was less interest from companies to be settled in the Binckhorst. The main reason was the bad accessibility. Where the Binckhorst always had a great accessibility over water and railroads, transportation on the road became more important. In this matter, the Binckhorstlaan was the most important connection, but it required major changes to increase its capacity for transportation. Over water only really rough raw materials such as sand, gravel, concrete and fuels were transported.

Plans were made by the municipality of The Hague to enlarge both the Binckhorstlaan and the extension of it through Voorburg, to connect with the highway. Nevertheless this never happened, due to protests by the municipality of Voorburg. Also plans for a connection in opposite direction (to the Laakkwartier towards southwest and to Voorburg towards northeast) were never realized.

After the end of the Gasfabriek in 1970, a part of the terrain of the Gasfabriek became in use as the main gas receiving station in The Hague, as part of the national gas network. From here, the natural gas from Groningen was distributed over The Hague.

In 1996 a power company (Eneco) starts with the realization of a gas expansion project. The lowering of pressure in the process of gas expansion is benefitted to produce electricity, by using a generator.

In this process, the lowering of temperature must be compensated with heat. This was an opportunity to connect the terrain of the former Gasfabriek, together with the entire Binckhorst, with the city heating network. This way, 12.000.000 kWh (equal to 5000 houses) was generated (Kanneworff, 2011).

2001-present After the annexation of Ypenburg and Leidschenveen, new opportunities arose to connect The Hague with the highway to Rotterdam via an interlocal road, avoiding Voorburg by constructing a tunnel: the Rotterdamsebaan.

In 2001, the gas expansion project was stopped. The profit was disappointing, due to the low prices of electricity. It became apparent that there were better ways to take benefit of the connection with the city heating network.

Conclusion What has happened in the Binckhorst is exemplary for how the energy market has developed in the twentieth century. To provide The Hague with gas, the Binckhorst was a good location as it was relatively close to the city. Later, the gas production was scaled up so that the energy could be distributed on a regional scale. While other, local factories needed to close, the gas factory in the Binckhorst fulfilled this role on a regional scale until the discovery of natural gas in the sixties. From then, it only functioned as a gas distribution station for the city of The Hague.

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3. Physical flows (industries) What were the main influences on the (circularity of) physical flows? Infrastructures, war, economic situation‌ Until 1907 The main industrial activity before 1907 was the extraction of peat. Furthermore the Binckhorst was used for animal husbandry, as agriculture was not possible. Furthermore, there was the company Soetens that produced asphalt-granite and artificial lead, with bitumen and tar as the main resources. Soetens settled in the Binckhorst in 1842. These economic activities were relatively small in a predominantly rural area.

1907-1929 After the annexation of the Binckhorst many companies established along the Trekvliet, parallel to the development of the Gasfabriek. The location was perfect: close to the city and a great accessibility over water. Many different types of companies were established, mainly the construction sector. Some of the companies that established became very big, others left already soon after settling.

Among other companies, a stone factory, a vegetable hair factory, a woodworking company and a nail factory settled. The importance of the presence of the Trekvliet as infrastructure is shown by the fact that the stone factory even invested own money in digging a harbor connected with the Trekvliet. A company that settled right next to it is contractor Nedam, which became one of the most prominent companies in the Binckhorst.

1929-1950 After the completition of a new harbor in the Binckhorst in 1938, the business activity started to move from the area along the Trekvliet towards area in the polder right behind it. The first big companies settled: Hoek in 1938 (production of oxygen and nitrogen), Van der Heem in 1939 (radios and other electronic devices) and Alta in 1939 (window- and doorframes). Mainly Van der Heem was seen by the municipality as a pioneer in the new harbor of the Binckhorst.

In these years, also the first problems with the poor infrastructure over land emerged. Nedam complained about the bad state of the Binkhorstlaan in the direction of the city, but the municipality did not really take any action to start paving and widen it. Together with another contractor, BAM, Nedam represented the construction sector, which was still the most dominant sector in the Binckhorst. In these prewar years, these companies were very innovative and experimented with new techniques (such as prefabrication in concrete), trying to upscale and rationalize the building process. But it took until the fifties before these innovations really detached from its experimental phase to a new, widespread approach in construction and industrial manufacturing.

1950-1970 In the fifties many companies wanted to move out from the city centre of The Hague. In the years after WOII, the municipality of The Hague became very conscious of the fact that it could play an important role in facilitating developments of upscaling and industrialization that would emerge in the fifties. Apart from the rush to finish the new harbor as soon as possible, it started constructing industrial buildings in the beginning of the fifties and rented them out to companies. In total, 6500 m2 was constructed at the Komeetweg, Orionstraat and Siriusstraat and 12.500 m2 on the terrain

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enclosed by the Zonweg, Melkwegstraat and Saturnusstraat. Apart from these industrial activities facilitated by the government, many companies also settled in the Binckhorst in other buildings.

The great interest in the Binckhorst became clear in the many applications for industrial space. Big firms that applied were Beers (trucks), Laurens (cigarettes), Coca-Cola, Ontsmettingsdienst, Servo Balands (weighing scales) and Beuger. Furthermore there were some smaller companies, such as Vibro, a company that produced bricks, reusing the rubble that was dumped in the Binckhorst after WOII. Characteristic for the Binckhorst in these years was the great diversity of companies. The construction sector, the production of oxygen, the manufacturing of machinery for many different purposes, the production of electronic devices, the car industry and even offices had their place in the Binckhorst.

The car industry was a new sector that came up, because of the attendance of the car as the main transportation method and the fact that the industry couldn’t be deployed in the city due to the need for space. The first car dealer in the Binckhorst was Autopalace, followed by many more, such as Praank, Marten Rosier, Beers (trucks) and a coachwork company.

A result of this new upcoming market was an increasing amount of car wrecks that needed to be processed. The company Pametex specialized in this and rapidly started applying techniques to produce a substantial amount of cars. In 1970 40.000 kg metal could be produced per day.

1970-2001 In the end of the sixties and in the seventies there was less interest from companies to be settled in the Binckhorst. The Binckhorst started changing from a dynamic industrial area into an area that with a wide variety of different functions and activities that has lost its cohesion and identity. The car industry was the most dominant and visibly present sector, also because of the presence of scrap dealers like Pametex.

In the eighties and nineties offices became more prominently part of the Binckhorst, because of the increasing demand for office space. The Binckhorst was a cheaper place to settle than the city. In the final development plan of 1989 a mixed zoning for industries and offices was implemented. Since then, many new office complexes were realized in a much bigger scale than the Binckhorst was used to.

The downside of these developments appeared: office buildings built in the eighties became vacant and there emerged a strong contrast between the old industrial buildings that were still present and the new, shiny offices and the still present industries in open air.

In 1997 a new waste transfer station was opened on the former Gasfabriek terrain. It had a capacity of 440.000 tonnes per year.

2001-present: from high top-down ambitions to a realistic bottom-up approach In these years, much office space became vacant: 140.000 m2 in 2011. Also nine wastelands were counted in this year. Ambitious plans from the municipality to recreate the Binckhorst to a mixed residential area didn’t progress. Other developments emerged: bottom-up initiatives by entrepreneurs (from the creative industry, mainly) led to the successful revitalization of places such

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as Bink36 in the north and the Cabellerofabriek in the south. For the creative industry, the Binckhorst became an inspiring and attractive location. Now, rather than big industries or big offices, smaller businesses and entrepreneurs characterize the current economic situation of the Binckhorst.

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4. Conclusion: What’s the relation between the infrastructure and energy and material flows in the Binckhorst?

The state and availability of the infrastructure in the Binckhorst had a major impact on the flows in the Binckhorst. In the case of energy supply, the availability of rail- and waterways was the main factor to establish the gas factory in the northwest of the Binckhorst. Leaving the negative impact of the First and Second World War aside, the gas factory was very productive and successful until it was closed in 1969. Where an external factor (the discovery of natural gas in the northeast of the Netherlands) meant the end for the gas factory in the end of the sixties, the decline of the economic prosperity of the industrial activities in the Binckhorst was caused by the bad state of the infrastructure in the same period.

The impact of politics on historical development Remarkable is the role of the municipality of Voorburg in the historical development of the Binckhorst. First in the beginning of the twentieth century, when the Binckhorst (former part of Voorburg) could be annexed by the municipality of The Hague, after a long period of negotiating.

Only then a new gas factory and new industries were possible.

In the seventies, when the municipality of The Hague wanted to improve the infrastructure of the Binckhorst, again a political decision played an important role. The municipality of Voorburg did not allow a new interregional road on its property, avoiding a major improvement of the infrastructure.

What would have been the situation in the Binckhorst now, 40 years later, if the new road would have been built? Would the same decline in economic prosperity have occurred, or would the Binckhorst have kept on flourishing? Would the car industry still be dominating?

The relation between infrastructure and energy flows As discussed earlier, the presence of the great infrastructure in the Binckhorst was one of the main reasons to start producing energy there. Until the shift to refinery gas instead of using coal and oil, this remained very important. But from then, the presence of good roads, water- and railways became unimportant, as only a pipeline is sufficient for the supply of energy.

The relation between infrastructure and spatial development and material flows Looking at the spatial development of the Binckhorst, it is interesting to follow the example of Carolyn Steel. She describes the relation between food and cities. Food routes its way into the city: ‘If you look at the map of any city built before the industrial age, you can trace food coming into it.

It’s actually visible how it’s physically shaped by it.’ (Steel, 2009) So the spatial development of the city was largely influenced by the infrastructure that needed to facilitate food coming in.

The same happened in the Binckhorst shortly after the annexation, when new industrial buildings were constructed along the main ‘flow carrier’: the Trekvliet. The material flows have a major impact on the spatial development of the site. The potential of infrastructure to facilitate economic growth became clear, so a new harbor was constructed.

Later, roads became the most important infrastructure for material flows. Especially when the car industry came up and many companies in this sector settled in the Binckhorst. Then the spatial development also reacted on the infrastructural situation, but with another result: a decrease of industries that demand great possibilities to facilitate their material flows. Together with a great demand for (cheap) office space that came up, this led to a remarkable mix of different functions:

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scrap dealers that still benefitted the railway connection with brand new offices that hardly result in material flows. And in the beginning of the twenty-first century until now also the creative industry and many small businesses have joined, that took benefit of empty buildings that were available.

There has been a strong relation between economic activity and the infrastructure in the Binckhorst.

In the beginning of the ninetieth century the availability of good infrastructure has led to economic activity, in the sixties economic activity has required a certain infrastructure. A discrepancy between the development of the economic activities and the available infrastructure emerged, when the infrastructure didn’t fit to what was required. An important condition for economic prosperity of companies that work accordingly to the principles of the conventional, globalized linear economy, is a match between the infrastructure and the needs of the economic activities and vice versa.

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Chapter 4: Remarkable examples of circularity in the Binckhorst Over the years, several examples of circularity have appeared in the Binckhorst. Those will be described in this chapter.

Benefitting byproducts in the gas factory A strike at the railway company during WOII led to the stop of the delivery of coal, which impeded the gas production. Remarkable is the resilience of the gas factory in this situation. By taking benefit of a byproduct (coke) the gas factory was able to continue the gas supply. Here, the gas factory has shown an example of how a circular idea has been applied. Rather than a reckless focus on creating as much of an end product out of the raw materials, also the potential of byproducts is monitored and put into practice.

The knowledge was already acquired in the twenties and thirties, when the factory was under the leadership of Jan Rutten. He saw the potentials of the byproducts and commercialized them. Coke was reused in the factory and electricity was generated for own use. Coal tar for road paving, herbicides, ammoniac and fertilizers were sold. The incentive was economical: reusing the byproducts led to earnings a reduction of the costs (Havelaar & Albers, 2012).

Reusing rubble after WOII After the clearance of the neighbourhood Bezuidenhout, that was bombed during World War II, 110.000 m3 rubble was dumped in the Binckhorst. This rubble was reused in several different applications, shortly after WOII. For the construction of roads, as coarse concrete to construct housing and in so called ‘Vibro-bricks’, produced by the company Vibro, that settled in the Binckhorst to produce the bricks. Here an entrepreneur saw the potential of a waste product that was locally available: producing bricks was a profitable business model (Havelaar & Albers, 2012).

City heating in 2001 As described earlier, the gas expansion project by Eneco was benefitted the connection of the Binckhorst to the city heating network. This way, Eneco was able to reuse waste heat and apply it in the power generation. Although the project was executed in the Binckhorst, it is not an example of circularity that is specifically related to any other development there.

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Beer and bread Another example of circularity is the reuse of a waste product from the beer factory for a bakery; where after the stale bread is reused for the production of biogas, which can benefit both companies. This example of circularity is very different from the connection to the city heating network. Rather than a top-down decision on bigger scale, this is an initiative of waste reuse on a very small scale, taken by the entrepreneurs themselves.

4.1: Using a waste product of a beer factory for the production of bread (Superuse Studios, 2015)

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Conclusion What were the main factors in the historical development of the Binckhorst and what is the role of circularity in the past, present and future?

Incentives of circularity Different incentives for applying a circular system can be distinguished. Using byproducts from the gas factory was a pure economical consideration. And during WOII, scarcity (of raw materials) was the reason to practice the circular system. After WOII, the starting of a business that produced bricks reusing rubble was also caused by economic motives. And this is was also a very pragmatic idea. The cause for the most recent examples of circularity is twofold. On one hand scarcity played a major role: the scarcity of proper infrastructure and thus the impossibility of material to flow. On the other hand there is the idealism of the entrepreneurs that apply circular systems in their businesses to create a better, more sustainable world.

Three incentives of circularity that can be distinguished are: -

Profit Scarcity Idealism

Although the application of a circular system can be driven by both idealism and scarcity, the economical component (profit) is decisive whether the alternative is viable or not.

The role of infrastructure in the Binckhorst There has been a strong relation between economic activity and the infrastructure in the Binckhorst.

The economic activity shapes itself to the infrastructure, because that is the ‘flow carrier’ of materials. Great industries that work accordingly to the linear, globalized system are dependent on the infrastructure, in that sense. There is a strong relation between economic activity, material flows and infrastructure (‘flow carrier’).

Resilience and locality A circular, local system leads to more resilience. That is one of the main advantages of circularity.

This was proved during WOII in the gas factory, when gas production could resume, even though the supply of raw materials stopped. The (circular) practice of benefitting byproducts made this possible.

A factor of importance to consider is locality, when speaking about resilience. Working with circular systems is proven to be a good, resilient system when the (interregional) infrastructure fails.

Obviously, this becomes invalid if the scale of the circular network becomes too big, as all the resilience is gone again in case of failure of the infrastructure. Then the driving motivation to apply circularity becomes invalid.

In conclusion, we can state that there is a strong relation between resilience and locality. A local approach is essential for achieving one of the main advantages of circularity: resilience. Referring to the theories on circularity, here the Blue economy distinguishes itself from other circular systems.

The greater resilience is considered as an important factor, as it relies on many actors and innovations. The loss of one actor in the circular process does not lead to a collapse of the entire system.

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According to the Blue economy theory, this means for the bakery in the Binckhorst that it should go after more alternatives for (local) raw material supply then only the beer factory. If the beer factory then suddenly stops producing, the source of a raw material is gone. A greater, local network with many small scale businesses is more resilient.

Towards the future With what we have learned about resilience and locality, the lack of a proper infrastructure can be seen as a great opportunity to develop a circular system in the Binckhorst. A network of many small scale businesses that are all related to each other in such a way that a resilient ecosystem is developed, (re)using as many local materials as possible.

The example has been given already by the collaboration of the beer brewery and the bakery.

Scarcity of proper infrastructure can commence a more local and circular approach. Now the question arises: what will be the result of the prospective interventions in this infrastructure? These interventions will largely improve the quality of the infrastructure as a ‘material flow carrier’. Will this lead to a return of the big industries with a conventional linear, global scope? And will this then wipe out any possibility for creating a circular system?

The idealism and progressive mindset of entrepreneurs should turn scarcity (of proper infrastructure) in the Binckhorst into a great example of how a smart, circular system can be set up.

‘The linear model turned services into products that can be sold, but this throughput approach is a wasteful one. (…) In the past, reuse and service-life extension were often strategies in situations of scarcity or poverty and led to products of inferior quality. Today, they are signs of good resource husbandry and smart management.’ (Stahel, n.b.)

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Table of figures 1.1 Alternative life-cycles of an industrial product and intensities of labor and energy inputs in the procuction phases (Stahel, 1982) ........................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Cradle to Cradle: The technical and biological nutrient cycle (EPEA Intl.Umweltforschung Gmbh Taiwan Branch, n.d.) ............................................................................................................................... 7 1.3 Industrial ecology: an example of the flow of materials and energy from the earth, businesses and people (Local Hazardous Waste Management Program, n.d.) ........................................................ 8 1.4 Cycle of the Biobased Economy (Biobased Economy Secretariaat, n.d.-b) ...................................... 9 1.5 Permaculture flower: seven domains with three ethics and twelve design principles as foundation (Holmgren, n.b.) ................................................................................................................. 10 1.6 Positioning seven theories on circularity: efficiency vs. ecology (own illustration) ....................... 11 1.7 Fourteen flows that define the ecosystem of a city (Jongert, 2013) .............................................. 12 2.1 Binckhorst 1906, own illustration (Vormer, 1906) ......................................................................... 13 2.2 Binckhorst 1927, own illustration (Holkema, 1927) ....................................................................... 14 2.3 Binckhorst 1948, own illustration (Dienst der stadsontwikkeling en volkshuisvesting, 1948) ....... 15 2.4 Binckhorst 1969, own illustration (Gemeentelijke dienst van de volkshuisvesting, 1969) ............ 16 2.5 Binckhorst 2001, own illustration (Gemeentelijke dienst stadsontwikkeling, 2001) ..................... 17 2.6 Binckhorst 2014, own illustration (Kadaster, 2014) ....................................................................... 18 3.1 Consumption of different kinds of energy sources in the Netherlands (Schot & Albert de la Bruhèze, 2000) ...................................................................................................................................... 22 4.1: Using a waste product of a beer factory for the production of bread (Superuse Studios, 2015) . 31

Bibliography Benjamins, M. (2009). Plangebied Nieuw Binckhorst, gemeente Den Haag : bureauonderzoek archeologische waarden. Den Haag :: Afdeling Archeologie Dienst Stadsbeheer, gemeente Den Haag.

Benyus, J. M. (2002). Biomimicry : innovation inspired by nature. New York :: Perennial.

Biobased Economy Secretariaat. (n.d.-a). Over BBE. Retrieved 7 January 2016, from http://www.biobasedeconomy.nl/wat-is-biobased-economy/over-bbe/ Biobased Economy Secretariaat. (n.d.-b). Schema Kringloop BBE. Retrieved 7 January 2016, from http://www.biobasedeconomy.nl/wat-is-biobased-economy/over-bbe/ Blue Economy platform. (n.d.). The principles of the blue economy. Retrieved 5 January 2016, from http://www.blueeconomy.eu/page/the-principles-of-blue-economy/ Dienst der stadsontwikkeling en volkshuisvesting (Cartographer). (1948). Gemeente 's-Gravenhage.

Retrieved from http://www.haagsebeeldbank.nl/beeldbank/indeling/detail/start/5?f_collectienaam_facet= Kaarten&f_year_facet%5B0%5D=%5B1940+TO+1949%5D Ellen MacArthur Foundation. (n.d.). Schools of Thought. Retrieved 7 January 2016, from http://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/circular-economy/schools-of-thought/ EPEA Intl.Umweltforschung Gmbh Taiwan Branch. (n.d.). Cradle to Cradle. Retrieved 25 December 2015, from http://www.c2cplatform.tw/en/c2c.php?Key=1 Frosch, R. A., & Gallopoulos, N. E. (1989). Strategies for Manufacturing. Scientific American, 261(3), 144-152.

Garner, A., & Keoleian, G. A. (1995). Pollution Prevention and Industrial Ecology.

Gemeentelijke dienst stadsontwikkeling. (2001). Den Haag en omgeving.

Gemeentelijke dienst van de volkshuisvesting (Cartographer). (1969). Gemeente 's-Gravenhage.

Retrieved from

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http://www.haagsebeeldbank.nl/beeldbank/indeling/detail/start/1075?f_collectienaam_fac et=Kaarten Havelaar, K., & Albers, E. (2012). De Binckhorst, bedrijventerrein in beweging : voorgeschiedenis en ontwikkeling van het grootste Haagse industrieterrein. [Den Haag] :: De Nieuwe Haagsche.

Holkema, V. W. (Cartographer). (1927). 's-Gravenhage. Retrieved from http://www.haagsebeeldbank.nl/beeldbank/indeling/detail/start/2?f_collectienaam_facet= Kaarten&f_year_facet%5B0%5D=%5B1920+TO+1929%5D Holmgren, D. (n.b.). Permaculture flower. from http://permacultureprinciples.com/flower/ Jongert, J. (2013). De stad als ecosysteem. Stedebouw & ruimtelijke ordening, 6, 18-25.

Kadaster. (2014).

Kanneworff, L. (2011). De ‘organische’ transformatie van bedrijventerrein de Binckhorst: De Haagse Hogeschool.

Local Hazardous Waste Management Program. (n.d.). Industrial Ecology Process. Retrieved 27 December 2015, from http://www.hazwastehelp.org/BHW/industrial-ecology.aspx McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry. (n.d.). Cradle to Cradle: Beyond Sustainability. Retrieved 25 December 2015, from http://www.mbdc.com/cradle-to-cradle/c2c-framework/ McDonough, W., & Braungart, M. (2002). Cradle to cradle : remaking the way we make things. New York :: North Point Press.

Mollison, B. C. (1996). Permaculture : a designer's manual. Tyalgum, Australia :: Tagari Publications.

Pauli, G. (2010a). The Blue Economy. from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1af08PSlaIs Pauli, G. (2010b). The blue economy : 10 years, 100 innovations, 100 million jobs. Taos :: Paradigm Publications.

Schot, J. W., & Albert de la Bruhèze, A. A. (2000). Techniek in Nederland in de twintigste eeuw / Dl. 2, Delfstoffen, energie, chemie.

Stahel, W. R. (1982). The product life factor. An Inquiry into the Nature of Sustainable Societies: The Role of the Private Sector (Series: 1982 Mitchell Prize Papers), NARC. Stahel, W. R. (2012). Walter Stahel on the Performance Economy. from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PhJ-YZwDAVo Stahel, W. R. (n.b.). Circular economy: an overview. Retrieved 20 December 2015, from https://kumu.io/ellenmacarthurfoundation/educational-resources#ce-general-resourcesmap/key-for-general-resources-map/circular-economy-an-overview Steel, C. (2009). Carolyn Steel: How food shapes our cities. from https://www.ted.com/talks/carolyn_steel_how_food_shapes_our_cities?language=en Superuse Studios. (2015). Using a waste product of a beer factory for the production of bread.

Superuse Studios.

Telford, R. (n.b.). Permaculture principles. from http://permacultureprinciples.com/ Vormer, G. B., C. (Cartographer). (1906). Plattegrond van 's Gravenhage en Scheveningen. Retrieved from http://www.haagsebeeldbank.nl/beeldbank/indeling/detail/start/5?f_collectienaam_facet= Kaarten&f_year_facet%5B0%5D=%5B1900+TO+1909%5D

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1906

1915

1940

1960

2001

2014

spatial development

infrastructure quality: road railway ++ waterway -

IN

E/

CK

Voorburg

Voorburg

Rotterdam

Rotterdam

Rotterdam Laakhaven

Laakhaven

Utrecht

Rotterdam

Rotterdam Laakhaven

Laakhaven

Laakhaven Utrecht

Utrecht

Utrecht

Voorburg

Voorburg

infrastructure

T

Voorburg

Voorburg Voorburg

Laakhaven

RG

RS

RG

The Hague

Voorburg Rotterdam

BU

HO

BU

T

T

RG

RS

BU

RS

The Hague

N

BIN

G

IO

The Hague

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OR

CK

EH

L/ NA IO DS AT LAN

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HO

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The Hague The Hague

OR

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The Hague

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L/ NA IO DS AT LAN

TH

Amsterdam

infrastructure quality: road railway ++ waterway gas pipeline ++ city heating ++

Amsterdam

ER

The Hague

L/ NA IO DS AT LAN ER

L/ NA IO DS AT LAN

E/

CK

The Hague

G

OR

BIN

AG U

T NE ER TH N

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The Hague

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IN

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infrastructure quality: road railway ++ waterway gas pipeline ++ city heating ++

Amsterdam

VO

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BIN

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L/ NA IO DS AT LAN

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The Hague

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The Hague

infrastructure quality: road railway ++ waterway gas pipeline ++

IN

VO

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T NE ER TH N

N

AG U

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The Hague

EH

Amsterdam

infrastructure quality: road railway ++ waterway gas pipeline ++

IN

ER

TH

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Amsterdam

infrastructure quality: road railway ++ waterway gas pipeline ++

Amsterdam

Voorburg

Voorburg

Utrecht

Utrecht

Voorburg

Slochteren

Voorburg

Slochteren

Pernis

Rotterdam (via highway)

Rotterdam (via highway) Rotterdam/ Leiden

Rotterdam/ Leiden

Rotterdam/ Leiden

Rotterdam/ Leiden

Rotterdam/ Leiden

Rotterdam/ Leiden

energy flows physical flows

users

nature

food & other organics

inorganic material

traffic

water & other liquids

air & other gases

electricity & other power

heat

light

sound

data, information & knowledge

Own illustrations. Sources: Haagse beeldbank; Havelaar, K., & Albers, E. (2012). De Binckhorst, bedrijventerrein in beweging; Schot, J. W., & Albert de la Bruhèze, A. A. (2000). Techniek in Nederland in de twintigste eeuw / Dl. 2; Kanneworff, L. (2011). De ‘organische’ transformatie van bedrijventerrein de Binckhorst; Benjamins, M. (2009). Plangebied Nieuw Binckhorst, gemeente Den Haag : bureauonderzoek archeologische waarden

money

culture