IntraGlacial

intra glacial

The year is 2045, and 70% of the planet’s accessible mineral resources have been exhausted.

Economic pressure pushes mankind to search for the last unexploited mineral reserves on Earth, located kilometers beneath the Antarctic ice cap.

Over the past 50 years, escalation of resource consumption has been paralleled by society’s concern for the environment. Originally protected under the Madrid Protocol, Antarctica was opened to mining in 2041 under the condition that the pristine surface remained unaltered.

Mining corporations tunnel deep into the ice caps, creating an interglacial network of spaces to reach remote mineral reserves.

Subjected to subzero temperatures, isolated from sunlight; with no direct access to the surface and constantly unpredictable shifting surroundings, this is Intra-Glacial.

Lucas Koleits Future Now Studio C , Semester 1, 2014 3

Contents Research Site Environment Geology

Optical Phenomena

Antarctic Treaty system

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5 23 37 47 57

Design Development

Intra-glacial network

Ice model

Network section

Thick 2D

Section callouts

Casting model

73 82 105 116 133 153

Mining Machinery

161

Appendix

190

Site research

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Antarctic Stations Antarctica has only been occupied for around 100 years, and even then, in no truly permanent capacity. Before the 1900s, there were a handful of whaling stations established on sub-Antarctic islands, which eventually led to claims of the continent by countries such as Russia and Norway. Now there are hundreds of stations on the Antarctic continent, and islands around the Antarctic Peninsula. These range from small, temporary stations to large operations of more than 2000 people.

Stations are operated by a variety of countries, and each antarctic program utilises a different approach to living in Antarctica. The US, Russia, Australia, UK, Argentina, Chile, India, China, Japan, Korea and New Zealand have the largest Antarctic operations, and the greatest presence on the continent.

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Comadante Ferraz (Brazil) 40/12 Machu Picchu Station (Peru) 28/0 Arctowski Station (Poland) 40/12 Carlini Station (Argentina) 100/20 King Sejong (Korea) 70/18 Artigas Station (Uraguay) 60/9 Bellingshausen (Russia) 38/25 Eduardo Montalva (Chile) 161/80 Great Wall Station (China) 40/14 Risopatron Station (Chile) 8/0 Arturo Prat Station (Chile) 15/9 Maldonaldo Station (Ecuador) 22/0 Camara Staion (Argentina) 36/0 Juan Carlos I (Spain) 25/0 Ohridsk Station (Bulgaria) 36/0 Guillermo Mann (Chile) 6/0 Deception Station (Argentina) 65/0 Gabriel de Castilla (Spain) 25/0

ic t c r a t An

6째 6 cle r i C

Esperanza Station (Argentina) Bernando (Chile) 90/55 44/16

Petrel Station (Argentina) 55/0 Marambio Station (Argentina) 150/55 Johann Gregor Mendel (Czech Republic) 20/0 Primavera Station (Argentina) 18/0 Matienzo Station (Argentina) 15/0

Mechior (Argentina) 36/0 Gabriel Gonzalez (Chile) 9/0 Brown Station (Argentina) 18/0

Palmer Station (USA) 43/12 Vernadsky Station (Ukraine) 24/12

ANTARCTIC PENINSULA Rothera Station (UK) 130/22

San Martin (Argentina) 20/20 Luis Caravajal (Chile) 30/0

Fossil Bluff (UK) 6/0

PALMER LAND 7

Abandoned Stations The pole of Inaccessibility is considered to be the most remote place on earth. It is located on top of the antarctic ice cap, over 1000 km from the nearest open water. It was here that the Soviet antarctic expedition set up a weather monitoring station in 1958. This base suffered in the coldest average temperatures of any location on earth, and was abandoned after less than a year of operation due to the dangers of isolation. The base consisted of a communications hut, electrical hut, and accommodation for four people. Atop the accommodation hut held a bust of Lenin, facing towards Moscow.

When the station was abandoned, nothing was taken. This is not uncommon once antarctic stations outlive their use or become too dangerous to operate. The cost of dismantling the stations and moving the remains far outweighs their worth. The result is a collection of hauntingly eerie abandoned stations, such as Oasis base (Soviet), Shackleton’s hut, Ross’ hut, Grytviken whaling station, and many more. The station at the Pole of Inaccessibility is one of the prime examples, although the snowfall over the antarctic ice cap is quickly consuming the structures.

Today, not much more than the bust of Lenin can be seen at the site.

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Abandoned Russian station, Prydz Bay, Antarctica 9

Operation Deep freeze The largest antarctic station is the American operated McMurdo station, located on the coast of the Ross sea. This station operates more like a small town than a research station, with up to 2,500 personnel calling this site home over the summer period. It is also a base of operations for many research expeditions and transport operations in Antarctica.

Ensuring that McMurdo has all the resources to function requires a mammoth logistical effort.

The first efforts to resupply such a large station were referred to as “Operation Deep freeze� and involved the use of ice breaker fleets to move food, equipment and fuel onto the continent.

Today US Coastguard icebreaker, along with C-17 and Hercules LC-130 planes are utilised to ensure the annual operation Deep freeze is a success.

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Hercules LC-130 landing on a skiway at McMurdo station (Source: www.antarctica,gov,au 11

Logistics The Australian Antarctic Division uses the vessel Aurora Australis to resupply its four main stations, Casey, Mawson, Davis and Macquarie Island. As well as a resupply vessel, the Aurora is used as a personnel carrier and open water research vessel. It has a limited ice breaking ability, which can lead to problems when resupplying stations that are often frozen in by sea ice year round.

Vital to the operation of science, resupply and rescue in Antarctica is the helicopter resources.

AS350 BA Squirrel helicopters are used for science, ship to shore resupply as well as search and rescue and recreational operations. They are vital to the efficient operation of projects in extreme conditions.

The use of helicopters and other aircraft such as twin otter and basler craft can be supplemented by ground vehicles as well. Hagglunds vehicles are common, due to their versatility in extreme cold and icy conditions. Russian stations use large ‘Snowcat’ vehicles for long journeys across the icecap to resupply landlocked stations.

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The AAD resupply vessel, the Aurora Australis, parked in sea ice at Davis station, 2011 13

AS350 BA Squirrel chopper on science operation, Ellis narrows, 2012 14

Rush snowcat fuel transport, Progress station, 2012 15

Science in the Antarctic Science is the reason we occupy Antarctica.

Antarctica is a near pristine ecosystem, that has been barely impacted upon by human occupation. Research about how local and global human driven processes are affecting Antarctica is being conducted at many stations around the continent.

The few areas of Antarctica which are ice free have very little soil, so most of the geology is exposed, which makes it of particular interest to geologists. The glacial processes of the continent have created a great variation in the types of rocks found exposed, and can give clues to the sort of geology found underneath the ice.

Being such an isolated, extreme location, Antarctica is also the site of many psychological and medical research, much centered around long term isolation and travel, conditions that would be experienced during space travel.

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Marine science sample collection, Ellis narrows, 2011 17

Davis station portable marine experimental laboratory, 2011 18

Elephant seal tracking device attached to a juvenile, Davis station, 2012 19

LIDAR The atmospheric conditions are the clearest in the world, which makes Antarctica is best location for LIDAR (Light detecting and ranging equipment) investigations of our atmosphere.

A LIDAR generates a strong laser, projecting it into the sky. Extremely sensitive photon detectors on the ground can detect the small amount of back scatter from certain parts of the atmosphere, giving us information about the conditions of the upper atmosphere.

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Aurora over Davis station, with LIDAR in background, 2012 21

LIDAR laser room, Davis station, Source: www.antarctica.gov.au 22

Environment

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Katabatic Winds Antarctica experiences the highest wind speeds on earth. This is due to the effects of katabatic wind systems. Katabatic winds occur when supercooled air slides off the sloped contours of the Antarctic ice cap. At very cold temperatures, the air is denser than other air on the surface, and moves quickly to the lowest point. This means great masses of cold air moves across the ice cap of Antarctica, reaching speeds of 327 km/ hour. These winds can be extremely dangerous for people working on the continent, and can combine with heavy snowfall to create intense blizzards.

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Satellite photograph of katabatic winds flowing off continent (source: www.antarctica.gov.au) 25

Sea Ice Between summer and winter, the ocean surrounding Antarctica goes through radical changes. The ocean freezes over, creating ice that can reach thicknesses of around 2-3m. This allows for research stations and airfields to be built temporarily. In 2010, the Antarctic winter produced 19.47 million square kilometers of sea ice, which is one of the highest amounts ever recorded. This means the continent effectively double its surface area in a matter of months.

As summer arrives, the sea ice begins to weaken, and eventually will break up, disperse and melt. But this process can take months, with chunks of sea ice being shuffled around by tides and currents around the coast of the continent. These ice floes can be incredibly dangerous for people operating on the water, as a sudden change in tides can send millions of tons of ice in your direction with the potential of isolating you from base and or crushing your craft.

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200 56

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200 56

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Changes is sea ice coverage from summer to winter seasons.

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Icebergs Icebergs form as a result of glacial ice flowing off the Antarctic continent, into the Southern Ocean. The glacial ice begins to break apart or calve, forming icebergs. Due to the immense scale of glaciers and ice shelves in Antarctica, this region produces by far the largest icebergs in the world. The largest iceberg ever recorded, named B-15, calved from the Ross ice shelf in March, 2000. It was 295 kilometers long and 37 kilometers wide, or roughly 11,000 square kilometers, which makes it larger than the island of Jamaica.

Icebergs come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes, colours and textures, due to differing conditions during their formation. Jade icebergs are a particularly rare form of iceberg, which have a green-blue opaque appearance. These icebergs form as a result of glacial meltwater flowing to the base of an ice shelf, close to the interface with the sea floor. There the freshwater freezes rapidly, trapping large amounts of minerals, soil and algae from the sea floor. Thousands of years later, the ice shelf may calve and deposit a Jade iceberg.

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Satellite photograph of iceberg B-15, 2000. (Source: wikicommons) 29

Medium sized iceberg grounded 7km off Davis station, 2012 30

Jade iceberg, grounded approximately 9 km off Davis station.

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Wandering South Magnetic Pole The south magnetic pole is the point where the earth’s magnetic field meets the surface. It is currently migrating at a rate of roughly 10km per year towards north north west, but can fluctuate by up to 80 km each day. Recently, this rate has sped up to 50km per year, and this has taken the pole off the coast of Antarctica, heading for Western Australia. At this rate of movement, and at this current direction, the south magnetic pole may be located close to Perth in the year 2098. Scientists believe that this increased fluctuation of the magnetic pole may be a sign of an imminent flip of the magnetic poles, with the south pole suddenly becoming the north pole and vice versa. This had occurred before, 780,000 years ago, and scientist speculate that it could happen again in the next millennium.

The magnetic south and north poles are the points where our magnetosphere intersects with the surface of our earth. The magnetosphere, the magnetic field that is generated by our planet’s core, protects us from a variety of charged particles an bursts of cosmic radiation from the sun and outer space. This protection is altered at the north and south magnetic poles, which allow some charged particles to enter our atmosphere (See Aurora Australis).

Changes in the magnetic pole will affect aurora activity around the globe. The closer one is to a magnetic pole, the more aurora activity you will experience, which can include disruptions to ground based communications equipment, as well as disruptions to communications satellites.

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Charged Parti cles

Magnetosphere

Magnetosphere

South Magnetic Pole

Diagram of the Earth’s magnetosphere.

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WILKES LAND

ROSS SEA 1760

1610 1660

1710

1810

1890

TERRE ADELIE 1910

OATES LAND

1990

GEORGE V LAND

Tracking of the south magnetic pole location over the past 400 years 34

2010

Climate Change Climate change is having a varied impact on the environment of Antarctica. Some areas, such as the Antarctic peninsula, are being highly impacted by deglaciation and temperature increase. However, East Antarctica is seeing a net increase in terrestrial and sea ice mass and a slight decrease in temperature. This is due to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, a strong deep oceanic current circling the continent. This creates a stable, very cold environment over East Antarctica. Predictions of the effects of climate change show that the Antarctic Peninsula will be at risk of significant ice loss and warming, as will isolated parts of East Antarctica.

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Predicted change in ice coverage by 2050 (Blue indicates a net gain, red a net loss) 36

Predicted change in surface temperature by 2050 (Blue indicates a decrease, red an increase)

Geology

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Continental Compression Antarctica’s ice sheet contains roughly 26.5 million cubic kilometers of ice, and at some points is over 3800m deep. This amounts to around 24 million tonnes of weight pushing down on the antarctic continent. If the entire antarctic ice cap were to melt, the continent would experience a glacial isostatic adjustment. The crust has an elastic upheaval once the weight of the ice has been removed. After the initial elastic reaction, magma in the mantle beneath the crust will begin a slow viscous flow, further pushing the continent upwards.

This process takes tens of thousands of years to occur, and is currently occurring in parts of Northern Europe and North America. These regions are elevating due to relief from the last glaciation period. The upward movement in some areas, such as parts of Sweden and Finland, can be at a rate of almost 1cm per year. Is is expected for this process to take at least another 10,000 years to complete, with the resulting change in elevation potentially reaching an increase of several hundred meters.

NASA’s operation ice bridge and the Bedmap 2 project sets out to model the antarctic continent free of ice. In this scenario, parts of the continent would be under sea level. But we must consider the unprecedented glacial isostatic adjustment that would result from the loss of Antarctica’s ice.

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Ice Sheet

Continental Crust

The process of elastic reaction from relief of continental compression from the ice cap.

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Minerals in the Antarctic Currently any kind of activity to do with mineral exploitation, such as surveying for oil, or drilling is banned my the 1991 Madrid Protocol. However, some scientists speculate that Antarctica may be incredibly resource rich. Even though mineral surveying is banned, and only 1% of the geology of the continent is exposed, there are signs of antimony, chromium, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, tin, uranium, zinc, cobalt, manganese, oil and coal and diamonds present in different areas. The theory of continental drift also suggests a mineral rich Antarctica.180 million years ago, South America, Africa and Australia were connected to Antarctica forming the super continent Gondwana. Resource rich areas within these continents may correspond to areas in the antarctic as well.

Despite the possibility of large mineral reserves in the antarctic, the biggest obstacle, along with legislation, is the extreme environment in which these minerals are found. Much of these reserves are found under ice caps kilometers thick. The oil reserves identified under the ocean off the continent are surrounded by extremely large icebergs that scour the sea floor to great depth, potentially damaging any sea floor installations.

The economic potential of Antarctica is a politically charged topic; many countries have been very vocal about thinly veiled attempts at mineral surveying in the past, but in this current climate, and with the Madrid protocol up for review in 2041, this will become an increasingly relevant issue.

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Gondwana, 180 million years ago

Known mineral reserves

Projected mineral reserves

Africa India

South America Australia Antarctica

Antarctica Peninsula

Projected mineral deposits from the configuration of super continent Gondwana 41

Cu, Te, Ti Ni, Cr, Co

Fe U

Au, Ag Fe

Cu

Cu

Zn, Pb, Coal Mb

Mn

Oil Mb

Currently identified mineral deposits in Antarctica 42

Glacial Movement The icecap of Antarctica is constantly moving. As snow falls towards the center of the continent, gradually hardening and compressing to ice, the weight begins to push the ice beneath it outwards, towards the ocean. This results in a constantly shifting landscape, with some parts of the ice cap moving at speeds of up to 10 metres each year.

This process gives rise to the generation of crevasse fields, glaciers and the calving of icebergs once the ice reaches the coast. It is the strongest process influencing the physical environment of both the surface and sub-glacial environment of Antarctica.

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ENDERBY LAND

-47

KEMP LAND

Dome Fuji 3786 m

Glacial flow of the ice cap occurs towards the edge of the continent, 44

PRINCE CHARLES MOUNTAINS

A glacial moraine in the Vestfold hills, Antarctica, 2012 45

Aerial photograph of glacial movement across the surface of Antarctica 46

Optical Phenomena

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The Aurora Australis The aurora is caused by charged particles carried by solar wind being directed towards the magnetic poles by the earth’s magnetic field. These particles collide with oxygen and nitrogen atoms in our atmosphere, which release energy in the form of light, creating an aurora. 2013 was an unprecedented year for auroras due to high solar flare activity. The increased amount of charged particles heading towards earth due to a solar flare can overload the electronics on satellites orbiting the earth.

Antarctic skies are the clearest in the world, so scientists at Davis station take advantage and use a LIDAR (Light Detecting and Ranging instrument) to take measurements of different parts of our atmosphere by shining a very powerful laser into the sky and carefully measuring the back scatter.

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Magnetic Field Line

+

Charged particles

- + React with Oxygen Green and Red Light

-

+

React with NitrogenGreen and Blue Light

+

Physics behind the aurora 49

Aurora over Davis bay, 2011 50

Aurora at Davis station, 2012 51

Aurora time lapse, 25/02/2012, Davis Station 52

The Infinite Horizon If one was to stand at sea level and stare across the ocean towards the horizon, they would see roughly 5 kilometers before the curvature of the earth hid the rest behind the horizon. This can vary for different locations, depending on the elevation and the topography of the area. But in Antarctica, the uniquely uniform topography of the ice cap greatly increases the distance to the horizon. This creates the illusion of an indeterminate, even infinite horizon.

If you combine this with other optical phenomena, such as ice fog (the rapid condensation of water over very cold surfaces) and the fata morgana, the edge of the horizon is all but impossible to determine, disappearing somewhere in the haze between white ice and blue sky. This makes visual navigation impossible on the Antarctic ice cap.

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5 kilometres

Curvature of the Earth

8 + kilometres

Ice Sheet Antarctic

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Curvature of the Earth

Photograph taken on the edge of the Antarctic ice cap, 2012 55

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The Antarctic Treaty System

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Antarctic Politics The countries coloured in blue are nations that maintain bases in Antarctica. The darker the blue, the more involved the country is in Antarctic politics. The Antarctic treaty system, first instated in 1959, created a unique, unprecedented political situation on the continent.

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Cape Town

Punta Arenas Ushuaia

Hobart

Christchurch

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Territorial Claims The Antarctic Treaty of 1959 froze all territorial claims on the antarctic continent. At the time, there were 7 nations with claims to territory in Antarctica. Australia claimed the largest proportion, with roughly 42% of the continent. The UK, Argentina and Chile have disputing claims in the Antarctic Peninsula region, while there is a significant amount of unclaimed territory over Marie Byrd Land in West Antarctica.

The treaty left this claims in a suspended state, where no nation can make a new claim while the treaty is in effect, while countries can nominate the right to claim in the future (the US and Russia reserve this right). But while the treaty is in effect, claims are not officially recognised and are not considered sovereign territory of the claimants.

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Disputed Territories

Norwegian Claim Argentinian Claim

UK Claim

Chilean Claim Australian Claim

Unclaimed Territory

French Claim Australian Claim New Zealand Claim

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The Cold War

Concerns for NUCLEAR WAR

1957/58 International Geophysical Year.

Unprecedented international scientific co-operation

Antarctic Treaty 1960 - Original signatories: United Kingdom, South Africa, Belgium, Japan, USA, Norway, France, New Zealand and Russia

Article 4: Territorial Claims 4.1 No prior claims to territory will be renounced 4.2 Nations can reserve the right to claim territory 4.3 No acts while the treaty is in place constitute a territorial claim

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Article 5: No Nuclear detonation

Article 1: Antarctica to be used only for peaceful purposes, no military activity Article 7: No Military Activity on the continent

Article 2: Protection of the freedom of scientific investigation

Australia and France refuse to sign, CRAMRA does not get ratified.

UN resolution calls for equitable sharing of Antarctic mineral resources

CRAMRA Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activity, allows mineral prospecting

1987-1991 Greenpeace protests against mineral exploitation in the Antarctic

2001 - Russia sends a ship to the Antarctic to survey potential mineral deposits

Madrid Protocol Proposed in 1991, placed into effect in 1998. Open to review in 2041.

2041 Madrid Protocol due for review...

Article 7: Any activity realting to mineral resources, other than scientific research, shall be prohibited.

The Antarctic Treaty System 63

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Political Time line The Madrid Protocol of 1991 was one of the most influential pieces of legislation that has shaped the way we interact with Antarctica today. While the Antarctic Treaty proclaimed the continent as a reserve for science, the Madrid protocol explicitly banned the mining of mineral resources to ensure the environment remained pristine.

This was set for a period of 50 years, and in 2041, when the Madrid Protocol is up for review, we have to make a decision about the future of the continent. It is forecast that by the year 2041, many natural resource reserves will be completely depleted in other parts of the world.

There could be intense economic pressure to begin mining in Antarctica in 2041.

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1960 - 61 Antarctic Treaty 1957-58 International Geophysical year

1950

66

is signed by Uk, South Africa, Belgium, Japan, USA, Norway, France, NZ, and Russia

1960

1972 Convention for the conservation of Antarctic Seals

1964 Measures of Flora & Fauna Act

1970

1990 Vostok ice drilling commences

1983 China and India sign the Antarctic Treaty

1980

1987 - 1991 Greenpeace protests in the Antarctic

1985 UN charter for equitable division of Antarctic mineral resources

1991 The Madrid Protocol,

2001 Russia sends a mineral surveying ship to Antarctica

banning mineral exploitation in Antarctica is signed

1990 1989 Australia and France refuse to sign CRAMRA

2000 1998 The Madrid Protocol comes into effect

2002 UN backs the Antarctic Treatly System

1988 CRAMRA convention is tabled

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2014 2019 Zinc reserves expire

2010

2012 Russian drilling reaches Lake Vostok

2023 Gold, Sivler and Lead reserves expire

2020

203 2021 Titanium reserves expire

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2029 Chr

2026 Hafnium reserves expire

2040 Nickel reserves expire 2029 Chromium reserves expire

2040

2030

expire

2041 Madrid Protocol reviewed

2035 Copper reserves expire

2032 Tin, Uranium and Oil reserves expire

2048 Platinum reserves expire

2050 2046 Natural Gas reserves expire

2038 Antimony reserves expire

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Mineral Consumption At current rates of consumption, much of the world’s mineral reserves will be depleted before the year 2041. The graphic opposite shows the countries which are a greatest producers of minerals in 2014. Perhaps is it no coincidence that each of these nations are heavily involved in Antarctic politics. Australia has the largest territorial claim, Chile has a disputed claim but several operating stations, Russia and the US reserve the right to claim territory, but still are the most active nations on the continent. India and China, as they continue to develop their homelands, are aggressively increasing their presence in Antarctica.

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Cu Au Fe Zn U Oil Cu Au Fe Zn U Oil [5700]

[5000]

Cu Au Fe Zn U Oil

is equivalent to 100,000 metric tonnes / 100,000 L oil production per year.

Source: www.usgs.com

The world’s greatest mineral producers for copper, gold, iron, zinc, uranium and oil.

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An intra-glacial network To allow mining in Antarctica while still maintaining a pristine environment, tunnels are carved out of the ice to reach valuable minerals. Not only will minerals need to be extracted, but there is a need for machinery, personnel and resources to be moved in and out of this sub glacial network.

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Former Mine Site Open Pit Mine

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Safety Chamber Cargo Transport

Fe Fe Cu

Fe

Ti

Cu

Fe

Ni

Ni U

Co

Ni

Fe

Co

Fe

Au

Zn

Ni

Syowa Mine Entrance

Co

U

Hailey Mine Entrance

Co

U

Ti

Mb

Cu

Ti

U Fe

Fe

Cu

Cu

Fe

Mb

Au

Cu Zn

U

Cu Zn

Druzhnaya Mine Entrance

Ag Ag Pb Cu

Mb

Cu Mn

Zn

Mn

Zn Pb

Pb

Sn Pt

Cu Mb

Au

Zn

Cu

Pd

W

Cu

Fe Mb

Zn

C

Pb Mn

Zn

Ag

Casey Mine Entrance

Pb McMurdo Mine Entrance

Mn Mn

Mb Mb

Antarctica, Today

Sn

Mn

Pt

Antarctica, 2045

Mb Pd

Pt

W

Mb Pd

Mb

Mb

Construction of the first subglacial mine begins at McMurdo Station Mineral suveying reveals reserves of Platnium and Palladium under the ice cap in the Oates Land region of Antarcitca

Antarctica, 2052

The McMurdo Subglacial Mine (MSM) extends to nearby platinum and palladium reserves.

Signifcant surveying of geology beneath the ice sheet reveals significant mineral reserves Subglacial mines begin constrcution at Casey station, Hailey Base, Syowa Station and Druzhnaya station.

West Antarctica shows first signs of geological destabilisation due to deglaciation

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Fe

Fe

Au

Ni

Syowa Mine Entrance

Fe

Au

Zn

Ni

Fe

Mb

Cu

U

Mb

n

Sn

Fe Pt

Pd

RE

W

Au

Zn

Cu

Fe

W

Pb

Fe Mb

Zn

W

Au

Sn

Fe

Zn

Cu

Pt

Pd

Cu Mn

Mn

Zn

Ag

Mb

Sn

Pt

Pd

Antarctica, 2114

ca, 2052

ying of geology beneath the ice sheet reveals significant mineral reserves begin constrcution at Casey station, Hailey Base, Syowa Station and n. shows first signs of geological destabilisation due to deglaciation

Casey Mine Entrance

Sn Mn

Mb

Sn

W

Mb Mb

Mb

ubglacial Mine (MSM) extends to nearby platinum and palladium

Mn

Zn

Ag McMurdo Mine Entrance

Sn

W

Mb Pd

Pb

Pb

Mn

Mb Mn

Pt

Cu

Pb

McMurdo Mine Entrance

Sn

Casey Mine Entrance

Pb

Pb

Fe

Mn

Pb

Pb

Casey Mine Entrance

W

Zn

Mn

Zn

Druzhnaya Mine Entrance

Au Ag

RE Pb

W

U

Au Ag

Sn

Zn

Druzhnaya Mine Entrance

Fe

Mb

Au

Cu U

U

Fe

Mb

Zn

Druzhnaya Mine Entrance

Fe

Ti

U

Au

Cu

U

Fe

U

Syowa Mine Entrance

Hailey Mine Entrance

Co Ti

Fe

Au

Zn

U Cu

Ti

Mb

Cu

Syowa Mine Entrance

Hailey Mine Entrance

Co

U

Fe

Ti

Mb

Cu

Ti

MSM greatly expands scope, as does the Casey, Syowa, Hailey and Druzhnaya Mines.

Mineral deposits in central east antarctica accurately mapped for the first time West Antarctica is classified unsafe for mining operations due to continental instability.

Pt

W

Mb Pd

Mb

Antarctica, 2164

Subglacial mines greatly extend to reach some of the central east antarctic mineral reserves. Competition between Russians, Americans and Chinese for the access to Rare Earth Metals in Central and West Antarctica.

Illegal mining operations in West Antarctica begin.

As mineral reserves are discovered across the continent, mine networks are constructed to reach them. The further we carve into the ice caps, the more resources we locate under the surface. This leads to the formation of an extensive network threading its way under the ice. With different nations exploiting these minerals, there stands to be competition as the resources begin to run out.

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First Design The first network aimed to synthesise the needs of the occupants, and the efficient extraction of resources, into a spatial configuration. The method of tunnel boring, basic mine operation and off continent transport were considered here. This system did not completely isolate itself from the pristine surface. While disruptions to the surface were minimal, they were noticeable and were removed in later iterations of design.

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Tunnel boring method. The ice is first treated with calcium chloride solution, which begins the melting process and weakens the ice. The second stage involves a tunnel borer removing solid ice to create a tunnel.

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The open pit mine, processing plant, living quarters and transport marshaling areas are placed close together, yet in separate ice chambers to ensure the control of pollutants. There is direct ventilation to the surface, approximately 1200m above.

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The only evidence of these mines on the ice cap are the entrances to the ventilation shafts, which are dotted around the surface.

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The port area is the only entrance and exit to the mine network. To best disguise the infrastructure here, an enormous framework is designed to collect the snow blown off the continent by katabatic winds, which compact into ice. Over time, an enormous hollow iceberg will form over the port. This concept was further explored through ice models.

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Ice model To explore the way ice behaves as a structure, a framework was constructed based on the geometry of an iceberg. This was then covered in muslin cloth, soaked in water and placed in a freezer. The structure was sprayed with water every 2-3 hours for 5 days. The result drove the aesthetic for spaces inside the network.

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Icebergs, having formed from a solid sheet of ice breaking apart, have a unique geometry. Here, this geometry is mapped as reference for the construction for the ice model framework.

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The frame is made of boxboard offcuts, glued into a triangular geometry that follows the mapping of iceberg structures.

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The frame is covered in muslin to give the ice crystals a greater surface to attach to.

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Ice development after 3 days.

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Ice development after 5 days.

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Interior of the ice model.

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Melting Experiments To investigate the most effective way of creating space within a glacier, experiments were conducted to ascertain which was the most effective way of melting ice. Initially, sodium chloride (NaCl) was applied to ice slabs and the effect recorded. This process was slow and ceased once the salt was sufficiently diluted. Further investigation of chemicals showed that calcium chloride (CaCl2) was far more effective in both melting speed and longevity of reaction. This substance was selected as the mode of melting to be used in the sub glacial network.

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Ice melting after applying 5g of calcium carbonate 90

Resin cast of calcium chloride melt channels 91

Resin cast of calcium chloride melting into an ice block 92

System Diagrams The next step in the design process was to fully understand the requirements of the system.

The objective is to extract ore from the Antarctic continent without destroying the pristine nature above the ice. The relationship between process was explored by laying out how these interact with each other and what sort of flow on effect may occur.

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Surface

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Living Quarters Ventilation Crushers Distribution Nodes Mine

Submarine Port

Transport Scrubbers

Resfuse Pits Filtration Centres Drilling Station

The 94 first iteration of mapping relationships within the system

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Pollutants, Soil and Waste

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Calcium Chloride Salts

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Air Supply

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Contaminated Water

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Personnel and Equipment

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Clean Water

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Ore Product

Proposed Systems Schemaic Subglacial Mining System, Antarctica 2062

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Living Quarters Ventilation Shafts

Crushers

Transport Marshalling

Distribution Nodes

Mine

Submarine Port Marine Outflow

Scrubbers Drilling Station

Filtration Centres

Off Continent

Resfuse Pits

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The second iteration of system analysis.

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3D Visualisations After mapping out the relationships within systems, analysis moved to three dimensional visualisations of the system to gain a greater understand of how they system will operate in space.

After several iterations and experiments with tunnel volumes, connections and formats, a spatial configuration was selected that reflected the process of calcium chloride melting used to create these spaces.

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Transport node

Living quarters Processing Off-continent transport

Refuse pits Mine Tunnel melting

3d visualisations of a mining system contained within the ice.

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Living quarters

Refuse pits

Transport node

Mine Processing

Off-continent transport

Tunnel melting

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Alternative tunnel shapes and sizes 99

Volume experiments 100

Mine site (open pit mine) volume experiment 101

Mine

Living quarters

Processing

Refuse pits

3d visualisation of a mining system contained within the ice.

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Off continent transport facility 103

Further volume experiments, referencing experiments with calcium chloride 104

Network Section Once the basic spatial configuration of the node was determined, the processes explored in the systems diagrams are integrated into the space. Features such as mining, ore crushing, processing, waste management, air purification and living conditions were integrated by designing in section. This also gave scale to the structure.

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Air filtration Water purification Living quarters

Transport

Waste management

Processing

Mine access

Elaborated volume experiment, color coded for different functions 106

The first section drawing 107

Living quarters area 108

Processing areas 109

Mine entrance 110

Water filtration and power generation 111

Waste management 112

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Thick 2D To give the drawing more depth and definition, it was decided to construct a thick 2D drawing.

This was achieved by layering several drawings over each other. This was done with 2mm clear perspex, which not only gives an icy aesthetic, also allows for multiple layers of information to be read at different depths. The previous section drawing was elaborated and edited in CAD and Rhino. The images were hatched, etched and cut into layers of perspex, which were then glued together an mounted in a frame. To highlight the details, strip led light were wired into the base and directed through the perspex. The perspex refracts the light, picking up the details in the model.

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Processing area, layered 117

Living quarters area, layered 118

Mine entrance area, layered 119

Transports in section, layered 120

The first two layers of perspex cuts 121

Peeling the backing from some of the smaller details 122

The panels are carefully cleaned and polished 123

Checking for imperfections on the layers 124

Gluing some of the finer details of the section 125

Wiring up the circuit for the LED light strip 126

Light traveling through the first few layers of perspex 127

Final section model 128

Processing detail of section 129

Transport detail of section 130

Mine entrance detail of section 131

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Section callouts

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Transporting equipment The movement of equipment is achieved through the use of gantry cranes. These cranes are frozen into the ice and span across the main shaft. To transport large pieces of equipment, like this crusher, platforms are suspended from gantries. The most challenging aspect is loading and unloading the equipment. To assist with this process, spikes that are capable of heating up and securing themselves in the ice are used to stabilise the platform.

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Melting vertical shafts To melt a vertical shaft thought the ice, calcium chloride is used. A salt that is highly disruptive to ice crystal structure, calcium chloride can be deposited on the area where the shaft is to be constructed. As the ice melts, the water produced is removed by a heavy duty pump and transported away from the network node. By replenishing the calcium chloride and constantly removing the water, the shaft will continue to melt downwards acting under gravity.

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Ore transport The processed ore is moved from the network node to the tunnel system using heavy duty good lifts. From here, the containers of ore are transferred to snow cat trailers, and transported through the network to the main submarine port. The conditions in the tunnel network are incredibly dangerous - toxic fumes and pollution from snow cats accumulate, making it essential for workers to wear personal breathing apparatus.

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Storage of provisions Snow cat rigs remove ore from the network, but return with essential provisions for the workers. These are stored in caverns melted adjacent to the goods lift, for easy storage. Insulated containers are moved into place using gantry cranes and stacked to maximise space efficiency.

Food, communications equipment, mining gear, spare part and fuel are some of the provisions regularly supplied to the node. Due to the length of the journey to the node, it is impossible to transport fresh fruit an vegetables. The diet of the workers is supplemented by vegetables hydroponically grown in containers in the storage area.

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Worker accommodations Network nodes are constructed quickly, and out of cheap, easily accessible resources due to the short lifespan of the spaces. For accommodations, fiberglass shelters are used to provide basic insulation and shelter for workers. These are easily removed and reconstructed for reuse in other nodes in the future. The main living quarters houses the mess hall, the kitchens, food storage and a long area for social gathering of the workers. This is constructed from combining fiberglass panels from the smaller shelters to create a larger insulated shell around a steel frame structure.

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Space making Not all spaces in the node can be formed by melting a downward shaft. To create spaces for processing equipment, waste management operations and living spaces, hydraulic excavators are used to scrape away caverns in the ice. This is an ongoing process as operations in the node a constantly increasing. Working within the ice is extremely physically demanding, and workers need a specialised refuge from the sub-zero temperature working conditions.

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Machinery maintenance One of the most challenging conditions to work in the node is the moisture from the constant melting processes. Processes of melting a freezing are constantly occurring around the node, with often destructive effects. Meltwater often infiltrates machinery, and if left to drop in temperature will damage vital components as the water freezes. To repair the machinery, the ice is removed my applying small amounts of calcium carbonate.

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Gantry installation Gantry cranes are vital to the operation of the network node. They are the first pieces of infrastructure to be installed, allowing the construction for the rest of the node. Gantries are unitised, and each piece is installed by first drilling holes in the ice. The gantry ends are placed into the holes, which are filled with water and allowed to freeze. Once the supports are connected, the centre piece is placed.

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Scrubber maintenance

Scrubber remove pollutants from the air within the node. Without these, the environment would quickly turn toxic. Filters need to be changed regularly to ensure efficient operation. The process of changing filters is dangerous; often scrubbers are located in hard to access parts of the node. Ice screws and cables are used to stabilise scaffolding used by workers to reach the suspended scrubbers.

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Casting model

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Site Model To properly represent the extensive network of tunnels under the ice, a scale model of the Sub glacial network was created by casting resin. Molds we made of clay, and coated in cling wrap for a clean removal, which had the added effect of providing an icy texture to the material.

These casts were glues together, and suspended to create a three dimensional map of the sub glacial network throughout the ice cap.

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Tunnel molds are made in modeling clay 155

Cling wrap is gently teased into the molds, creating a barrier between the clay and the resin.

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Clear casting resin is prepared by adding catalyst to form a 1% v/v solution 157

The prepared resin is poured into the tunnel casts, ensuring there is minimal spill over.

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The resin is left in a dry place for 48 hours to ensure it has set sufficiently.

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Once removed, the tunnel pieces are cut and glued together to form the tunnel network 160

Mining Machinery

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Crushers Ore crushers are used to reduce the particle size of the extracted earth to assist in the separation of the ore from the minerals. Mined ore will often go through many stages of crushing to ensure an optimal grade for separation in the hydrocyclone. Larger particles of undesired material, known as slag, are separated in this early process. Crushers can be fixed or mobile. In the sub glacial network, the crushers have been made mobile to assist in the quick set up of network nodes.

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Transportable Ore Crusher 163

Hydraulic Excavators A staple piece of machinery in mining sites, hydraulic excavators can be put to many uses. This versatility is pushed to the limits in the sub glacial network, with excavators used for carving away ice to make space for habitation, mineral movement, loading, deposition of calcium melting salts, and many more.

The extractors can be reduced in size and easily dismantled for transport through some of the smaller tunnels in the network.

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Hydraulic Extractor Zaxis200 165

Gantry Cranes Gantry cranes are used as the primary mode of transport of equipment and goods around the node site.

The triangular trusses of the cranes are unitized into 15 m spans for easy transport and installation.

Supports are drilled directly into the ice. A network of gantry cranes allows for the installation of most other pieces of equipment, and removes the ore from the mine to the start of the processing system.

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Gantry Crane 167

Loading Cranes A smaller crane with a shorter span, these cranes are used in spaces too small or to awkward for gantry cranes. They are secured into the ice using specialised thermal foundations. They are primarily used to move product from one stage of the processing system to another, or to dispose of larger pieces of refuse,

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12500

3350

Cumstomised Loading Crane SG56 169

Air Scrubbers Scrubbers are heavy duty air filters, that are capable of removing dust, dirt, and pollutants. The product removed from the air can be collected and disposed of in refuse pits. They are vital to the operation of many underground mines, but are even more vital to the sub glacial network. Because of the lack of ventilation in the site, the recycling of air is critical to the survival of the miners. Scrubbers are mounted at the top of caverns in key positions to ensure the most effective filtration of air. However, in some isolated parts of the network, the filtration is not sufficient and personal breathing apparatus is required.

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Mine Air Scrubber 171

Hydrocyclones After the mined product has been crushed, and the first stage of the slag removed, the ore is run through hydrocyclone, which uses water and centrifugal motion to separate the unwanted particles from the particles of ore. This process uses much of the water produced from melting within the caverns.

The mined product goes through several iterations of separation to isolate a pure product ready for packaging.

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Hydrocyclone centrifugal sorting unit 303 173

Desalination Units Space is melted in the sub glacial network using calcium chloride, and the immense volumes of water generated need to be handled within the site. Desalination units are used to remove the calcium chloride from the meltwater for reuse in creating more spaces and in other network nodes. Some of the desalinated water is piped back into the system within the node, for use in hydrocyclones, coolant for machinery, consumption and freezing of waste.

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3900 Localised Micro-Desalination Unit 175

Water Pumps One of the biggest challenges in a sub glacial network node is moving large volumes of meltwater.

Large pumps are continually operating, creating a deafening noise throughout the space. These pumps are positioned to remove water from the mine, from areas where melting is occurring, and to pump desalinate water back into refuse pits to seal in waste.

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8820

High Volume Heavy Duty Water Pump 177

Generators On site electricity generation is essential for the sub glacial network nodes. Diesel generators are the most economical and transportable option. Easily maintained, and durable, the major drawback of using these machines is the pollution created. To counter this, air scrubbers are installed next to the exhaust outflows to ensure the most efficient filtration of air.

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13800

12V Diesel Power Generator 179

Transformers Transformers are essential for the operation of the diverse array of machinery operating with in the network node. They convert the 12V current from the generators to 240V for use in the living quarters, and a variety of other voltages depending on the machinery being used.

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Heavy Duty Power Transformer 181

Hagglunds Transport Hagglunds transports are Swedish-made vehicles specially adapted for use in icy conditions. Designed with a towing capacity of 2 tonnes, Hagglunds are uses primarily for the transport of personnel. The operational range is 250km, which means the Hagglunds needs to stop a fuel stations throughout the network as it makes its way to the most distant nodes.

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8010

7680

Hagglunds BV206 Arctic Class 183

Snowcat Rig Snow cat vehicles are specialised for use in low temperature icy environments. The snow cat rig as the primary transport vehicle for machinery and ore product through the sub glacial cavern network.

Diesel engines produce toxic quantities of carbon monoxide in the cavern network, and due to the lack of scrubbers throughout the network, this makes the tunnels uninhabitable for humans.

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Cumstomised Snowcat Rig IT44 185

Igloo Satellite Cabins Colloquially known as ‘Apples’ and ‘Melons’ (if expanded) these are used as emergency shelters on the surface of Antarctica. They are made of fiberglass and spray on insulation, making them incredibly easy to assemble and transport. These form the majority of housing in network nodes. The fiberglass panels can be cumstomised and assembled into a larger structure, which forms the main living quarters of the node, where workers eat, gather and socialise. These cabins are secured into the ice using thermal foundations, that can be later heated for quick and easy removal from the ice, to be transported to another node under construction.

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Basic Igloo Satellite Cabin ‘Apple’ 187

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Expanded Igloo Satellite Cabin ‘Melon’ 188

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Appendix

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Reference images Included here are some of the images used as reference for textures, atmosphere, spatial organisation and aesthetics for the network node drawings. Unreferenced images indicate personal photos.

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Melon survival shelter, Trajer ridge, 2012 192

Davis station after snowstorm, 2012 193

Apple and Melon survival shelters, near Ellis narrows, 2012 194

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Bat river cave system, (source: www.cavepreserve.com)

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Glacial ice cave (source: www.nps.gov) 198

Commemorative Patch Each Antarctic voyage has a specific commemorative patch. These are collected and treasured by expeditioners. This tradition is continued into future expeditions to the continent, both above and below the surface. The patch designed features both an Orca, symbolic of pristine environment the sub glacial network is designed to protect.

The submarine signifies the mode of transport by which workers arrive to the network.

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