Paradigms of Research
Paradigms Frames of reference we use to organize our
observations and reasoning.
Often implicit, assumed, taken for granted. Become entrenched, resisting change Shift requires revolutionary change in view New paradigms proposes unique ways of seeing and explaining things that then take hold
Macrotheory and Microtheory Macrotheory deals with large, aggregate entities
of society or even whole societies.
Struggle between economic classes, international
relations, interrelations among major institutions
Microtheory deals with issues of social life at the
level of individuals and small groups.
Social interactions, collective deliberation, social
perceptions, sense-making
Positivism View that science would replace religion (belief)
and metaphysics (logic) by basing knowledge on observation through senses
All social research descends from Comte’s view
that society could be studied scientifically. Coined the term “sociologie” - study of society
Coined the term positivism, in contrast to what he
regarded as negative elements of his age.
Social Darwinism Influence of Darwin’s Origin of Species Process of evolution through natural selection Scholars began to apply Darwin’s ideas to changes
in the structure of human society.
Shift to progressively “fitter” forms of society. “Survival of the fittest” - Herbert Spencer Arguably a misapplication of biological theory
Conflict Theory Karl Marx asserted social behavior could be seen
as the process of conflict
To dominate and avoid being dominated.
Focus on struggle among classes Social Relations of Production Capitalism and Alienation Class Struggle and Hegemony
Symbolic Interactionism Interactions revolve around the process of
individuals reaching understanding through language and other systems - Mead & Cooley
Meaning - Definition Language - Symbol System Thought - Negotiation
Can lend insights into the nature of interactions in
ordinary social life, and help understand unusual forms of interaction.
Structural Functionalism A social entity, such as an organization or a whole
society, can be viewed as an organism.
A social system is made up of parts, each of which
contributes to the functioning of the whole, each serves a purpose.
This view looks for the “functions” served by the
various components of society.
Feminism Focuses on gender differences and how they
relate to social organization
Attend to women’s oppression in societies, as well
as other kinds of oppression
Critique of patriarchal structure Critique of dominant social order and norms
Social Cognition Study of mental processes underlying social
perception, judgment, and influence
Human perception and judgment prone to
systematic biases and distortions
Conceive of the social world based on “what is at
the top of our heads”
Schemata - categories of knowledge These categories structure understanding
Group Exercise Get in groups of three and discuss what paradigm you
would use to study the relationships between news media and advertisers… Be sure to explain what insights this paradigm would provide Five minutes and then collective discussion
Traditional Model of Science Four elements: theory, conceptualization
operationalization, and observation. Develop a Theory. Conceptualize it components
Develop operational definitions that specify the process
involved in measuring a variable. Observe and measure of what is seen.
Generating Theories Theory: A “generalizable” explanation An organized framework of knowledge
Identifying: Antecedent factors and processes Consequent factors and processes Contingent conditions
Hypotheses Testable statements derived from theories Observations used to test hypotheses Hypotheses “supported” or “not supported” Not “proven” or “disproven”
When hypotheses are not supported: Theory is considered falsified (not useful)
Purpose of Systematiziation Designed to yield “objective” knowledge Different researchers using the same procedures would
produce:
A. Similar results B. Similar conclusions
Known as “inter-subjectivity”
Importance of “Control” Control in scientific observation: Isolating cause and effect Controlling for extraneous factors
Removing the biases of the observer Clear conceptual and operational definitions
Knowledge Accumulation Identifying, defining, refining concepts: Operating on two levels: 1. Concrete empirical observations 2. Abstract, generalizable terms: E.g., “social conflict,” “social capital,” or “social status” E.g., “attitudes,” “motivations,” or “perceptions”
Integration of the concrete and abstract
Nature of Scientific Evidence 1. Gathered under controlled conditions Specified conditions of observation, procedures Permits replication by other scientists
2. Evidence considered tentative Results could have occurred by chance Statistics used to estimate probability that results occurred by
chance
Margin of error and confidence intervals
3. Evidence describes patterns that are generalizable Evidence yields inferences to other situations
Frankfurt School Critique of Social Science 1. Inappropriateness of mechanistic approaches “Hard” science approach adapted to human behavior Humans not as predictable as molecules
2. Some important concepts hard to measure: E.g., intelligence, social class, class struggle
3. Focuses only on what currently exists Ignores possibilities of what could be
4. Instrumental nature of knowledge collected
Knowledge may reinforce rather than critique existing relations of
power in society