Ruj2014

Rajarata University Journal

Established in 2013

Editor-in-Chief D.J. Weilgama BVSc, MVSc, PhD Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences Rajarata University Journal is a multi-disciplinary, peer reviewed, biannual journal published by Rajarata University of Sri Lanka.

ISSN 2362-0080 Š Rajarata University of Sri Lanka All communications should be addressed to: The Editor-in-Chief, Rajarata University Journal Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. researchjournal.rusl@yahoo.com

Editorial Board A. Balasuriya BSc, MPhil, PhD Faculty of Agriculrure T.C. Bamunuarachchige BSc, PhD Faculty of Applied Sciences N.K.A. Silva MBBS, MPhil Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences A.S. Siriwardana BA, MSSc Main Library W.P. Wijewardhana BCom, MBA, PhD Faculty of Management Studies

Layout and Design N.K.A. Silva MBBS, MPhil Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences

C.R. Withanachchi BA, MA, MSLCA Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities

Editorial Assistance Cover Photo Main administration building of Rajarata University of Sri Lanka.

Photo credit: R. K. Deepal

W. B. Herath - Convener Harshani Kumarasinghe - Editorial Assistant

Official Journal of Rajarata University of Sri Lanka

Message from the Vice Chancellor

I am pleased to send my warmest greetings to the inaugural issue of Rajarata University Journal. A dream and a long felt need has been fulfilled and I extend my gratitude to the panel of editors, contributors, reviewers, secretarial assistants and well wishers for making the publication a reality.

I am aware of the opportunities that this journal offers to the academics of this university, covering the disciplines varying from agriculture, sciences both biological and physical, management, social sciences and humanities to medicine. Great opportunities lie in this, yet unexplored part of the country, for interdisciplinary research and it’s my fervent wish that all academics from diverse fields would help in the deliverance of worthwhile products.

I congratulate the authors who have been successful to publish their research findings in this first journal of Rajarata University of Sri Lanka.

I wish the journal long years of publication.

Prof. Ranjith Wijewardene Vice Chancellor - Rajarata University of Sri Lanka

Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 1-2

1

EDITORIAL

Towards a new era...

It’s with great pleasure and expectations that I write these few lines to the inaugural issue of Rajarata University Journal. The university established in 1996 comprises of five faculties, Applied Sciences, Management Studies, Social Sciences and Humanities, Agriculture and Medicine and Allied Sciences. The former three along with the main administration unit are situated in historic Mihintale whilst the latter two are sited, a few kilometers away, at Puliyankulama and Saliyapura respectively.

The total student enrollment now stands around 4500 with all faculties conducting undergraduate and postgraduate courses. In few faculties diplomas and certificate courses too are conducted. All faculties are reasonably well equipped and boast of well qualified academic and competent non academic staff. Although the university is not the leading institution in research, significant and relevant research contributions had emanated from the faculties through various media and fora. A significant achievement in this aspect was the holding of the first all university research sessions in 2010 at the premises of the faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences. This is now an annual event with the second and the third being held at the faculties of Applied Sciences and Agriculture in 2011 and 2012 respectively. The fourth would be held towards the end of this year.

A vision of Rajarata University is to produce virtuous, intellectual and competent citizens for the needs of the twenty first century. Under such a vision research is deemed to play an integral part in the development of the university. Developing a research culture thus becomes an absolute necessity for the progress of the university. Research and experimental development has been defined to comprise of creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humanity, culture and society and the use of this knowledge to devise new applications1. In reading about research culture I found this argument which I like to share. It says that ‘people, on talk-back radio, have opinions but in academia we don’t. Instead we have positions arrived at by careful evidence

based argument and furthermore these positions can change in the face of further evidence’. This is learned behavior, a culture.

Research can be hampered due to organizational constraints on research, lack of finances, lack of time and also lack of human resources. In the university, a strong leadership at the level of the Dean has been shown to be crucial in developing a research culture. Quality assurance and assessment play important roles in the research community.

In quality assurance it is implied that the product had gone through rigorous checks and that it is above the quality threshold .In a research environment, however, there is no guarantee that the findings and conclusions are always correct and unchallengeable2. Drastic scrutiny or challenge would help in refining knowledge and even in challenging the findings. On the contrary assessment could be defined as a process or means of evaluating academic work.

An important aspect of research is the dissemination of research findings. Dissemination could be a planned process that involves consideration of target audience and settings, where research findings are to be received. In the absence of dissemination there is no knowledge building, theory confirmation or benefits to clients. Dissemination is diffusion or spread of ideas to others who can use them.

Dissemination of research findings has been noted to be a biased process although the actual impact of such bias depends on specific circumstances. In a study done on dissemination and publication of research findings it had been noted that studies with significant results tend to be published earlier than those with non significant results3.

Research findings can be disseminated through formal publications, institutional communication channels, digital academic repositories, face to face engagement and social and digital media. Press releases have been noted to be one of the most effective ways to disseminate information. But this is best done after a manuscript had been accepted for publication. Peer reviewed journals come under formal publications. Among others are books, chapters in books, monographs and pre print.

Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 1-2 In the last format articles appear before being peerreviewed and edited for publication.

Research culture is a sine qua non for academic advancement and in this sense the establishment of this journal should prove to be an inducement for research and a portal for dissemination of the research findings of the academia, especially of those of this university. Anuradhapura being the cradle of Buddhist civilization and with agriculture the main stay of economy in the region, infinite opportunities abound for basic and for interdisciplinary research that would impact on the livelihood of the populace. Add to this the plethora of medical problems that exist requiring in depth study, thereby throwing challenges for those who venture. I wish to end this note placing the onus on the academics of this university to sustain the journal, periodically raising the bar, to be in par with other acclaimed journals.

D. J. Weilgama Editor-in-Chief

2 References 1. Proposed standard practice for surveys on research and experimental development (Manual). Paris: OECD, 2002; http://www.oecd.org/ document/6/0,2340,en 2649 34451 33828550 111, 00.html. (Accessed on: November 2013).

2. Research Information Network. Quality assurance and assessment of scholarly research. A guide for researchers, academic administrators and librarians. May 2010; www.rin.ac.uk/quality assurance (Accessed on: November 2013.)

3. Song F, Parekh S, Hooper L, Luke YK, Ryder J et al. Dissemination and publication of research findings: an updated review of related biases. Health Technology Assessment 2010; 14: 1-193.

Amrasekara et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 3-9

3

REVIEW

Implementation of Soil Conservation Policies and Enactments in the Upper Mahaweli Catchment, Sri Lanka – A review.

M.G.T.S. Amarasekara1*, N.D.K. Dayawansa2 and Ranjith Premalal De Silva2 Department of Soil and Water Resources Management, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka *Corresponding author: thusithaamarasekara@yahoo.com 2 Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

1

Abstract: The Accelerated Mahaweli Development Project is the largest multi-purpose river basin development project ever implemented in Sri Lanka. The Upper Mahaweli Catchment Area (UMCA) covers 3118km2 of the mid and up country of Sri Lanka and feeds four reservoirs to generate over 54% of the country’s power requirement and irrigate about 300,000 ha of agricultural land. Soil erosion and siltation in the water bodies are the major causes leading to the degradation of land and water resources in the UMCA. Hence, this study was attempted to analyze whether the present and proposed land management policies are strong enough to address the existing issues in the UMCA. It was found that soil erosion and consequent degradation of land and water resources are mainly attributed to the limitations in the existing institutional set-up, regulatory framework, property right system and poverty. Hence, the enforcement land management policies with strong political will is urgently needed to ensure the protection of land and water resources, not only in the UMCA, but all over the country.

Key words: Soil erosion, Land enactments, Soil conservation, Upper Mahaweli Catchment

Introduction Soil erosion is regarded as the main cause of the widespread land degradation in the Upper Mahaweli Catchment Area (UMCA). This has been accelerated in the early 19th century with the introduction of plantation crops such as coffee and tea. Large-scale clearing of forests began in the 1880’s in all parts of the central highlands, and most of these lands were situated in the UMCA. Even after independence, land clearing has been continued for the establishment of human settlements and for the cultivation of tobacco and exotic vegetables1. The erosion rates under different agricultural land uses have been estimated in several studies. Maximum Potential Erosion Rate (MPER) for selected locations in Sri Lanka were estimated based on Universal Soil Loss Equation2. A study conducted in tea lands confirmed that the mid country intermediate zone is mostly vulnerable to soil erosion3. Soil erosion hazards under different land uses in the UMCA were assessed. According to that, market gardens, poorly-managed seedling tea areas, chena and tobacco cultivations are the most vulnerable land uses for soil erosion . Nearly 80% of the total soil loss due to farming in the UMCA is caused by these three land use systems3.

Degraded patana and scrub jungles also account

for 18% of the total soil loss in the area. Thus soil erosion has been closely associated with the land use systems. In addition, many interrelated socio-economic factors such as fragmentation of lands due to increase in population, neglected and poorly-managed tea lands due to low income, and encroachment of sensitive crown lands have also contributed to soil erosion4.

Policies and legislations required to protect the land resources in the country have been introduced since after independance. However, poor implementation of these legislations under the present institutional set-up at national, provincial and local levels is one of the key constraints to land resources management in Sri Lanka. In addition, inadequacies in the existing legislations to meet current issues in the land sector, lack of coordination among institutions, duplication and gaps in responsibilities have adversely affected the management of land and water resources in the country 5.

Therefore, this paper reviews the proposed land and water policies in Sri Lanka and analyze their impacts on land resource management in the UMCA under the existing institutional set-up.

The paper also discusses the problem of degradation of land and water resources in relation to the

Amrasekara et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 3-9 existing policies, legislations and institutional setup, describes major issues in land degradation in the UMCA, evolution of legal frameworks related to land management, capacity of the existing institutional network to implement Soil Conversation Act.

Major Issues Related to Land Degradation in the UMCA Erosion removes top soil, causing the depletion of plant nutrients and organic matter that are present in the soil. It also decreases soil depth and water availability of crop lands. Continuous growing of crops on steep slopes without having proper soil conservation, may lead to washing off fine soil particles which help retention of plant nutrient in the soil, thereby reducing the crop yield. However, most of the farmers are reluctant to accept this natural phenomenon and attempt to enhance soil chemical fertility by applying over doses of fertilizers and manure6. Many studies revealed that most of the vegetable growers in the entire up country area apply inorganic fertilizers 2-3 times higher than the doses recommended by the Department of Agriculture7,8. Moreover, farmers tend to apply poultry and cattle manure at the rates of 10 – 20 t/ha/year, because of the high profits obtained from this farming system. Adding over doses of fertilizers and manure into intensively cultivated lands which are highly vulnerable to soil erosion eventually remove nutrients with sediments and accumulate them in surface water bodies, causing severe environmental problems such as deterioration of water quality by contamination with chemicals and sediments while reducing productive capacity of the crop lands.

4

under forest or chena. The colonial government quickly realized the importance of such lands and brought in legislation imposing the requirement of legal titles for chena lands. The Ordinance defined the crown or state land and declared that “all forest, waste, unoccupied or uncultivated land was the property of the crown unless the contrary thereof was proved�. The presumption in favour of the crown enshrined in this ordinance enabled the colonial government to gain control of vast tracts of land which were then sold cheap to those investing in export crops, principally coffee at that time9. It is estimated that more than 1.1 million acres of crown land were sold during the period of 1833 to 1886, and of this, nearly 230,000 acres were sold during the four years from 1840 to 1843, whereas less than 80,000 acres had been sold before 184010. The lands that were taken over consisted of homesteads, village pasture lands, chena lands and forests, and were estimated to be about 500,000 acres11. Since plantation sector was developed rapidly, the demand for land appeared insatiable. Then the Waste Land Ordinance of 1897 was introduced to make more lands available to plantation interests. As a result, approximately 80% of the land in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) was owned by the state, while a large percentage of population remained landless. This situation closely linked with poverty among people, which in turn led them to unlawfully encroach state lands, often in ecologically sensitive places.

Then, the forest ordinance was introduced by the colonial administration at the turn of the century (1907), to prevent encroachment of the remaining natural forest in the island. However, 75% of the dense forest cover that existed at the turn of the century had decreased to 20% by the year 2000, indicating a rapid depletion even within the period that the Forest Ordinance had been in force.

Evolution of Legal Enactments Related to Land Management.

However, the growing pressure due to landlessThe legislations enacted during colonial period Major laws related to land use, soil and water conservation and time line of their evolution over past 200 years are illustrated in Figure 1. The most striking point of the legislations introduced from 1840 to 1947 was focusing them on the change of the ownership of lands from traditional system to colonial property. The enactment of the Crown Lands Encroachment Ordinance in 1840 paved the way for the rapid expansion of the area under coffee and tea. Most of the lands suitable for coffee and tea were located on the hill slopes which were

ness and the political changes that took place in the 1920s forced government to alienate some extent of lands to establish settlement schemes. As a result, the first Land Commission was appointed in 1927 to address the issues developed in the peasant sector due to growing landlessness and increased pressure on limited land resources. Based on its recommendations in 1929, the Land Development Ordinance of 1935 was enacted. It was a landmark piece of legislation that set the pattern for the future course of land development in the country9,12.

State Land Ordinance of 1947 deals with the power of the state to grant, lease, sell or dispose of state

Amrasekara et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 3-9 lands. This clearly reflects the government policies in the alienation of state lands. This is an ordinance which provides unrestricted power to the president of the country in the alienation of state lands.

It also gives powers to local authorities to alienate the land for landless community in respective territories. However, the rationale of providing such grants has not been defined clearly.

As illustrated in Figure 1, the legislations enacted from 1840 to 1947 period mainly dealt with transformation of the ownership of the state lands. A part of the lands acquired through Crown Land Ordinance was alienated at the latter part of the colonial administration. Even though Forest Land Ordinance was introduced, the other legislations had little concern on land and water resources conservation.

Legal enactments on land management during post independence After independence, realizing the importance of soil and water conservation, the then governments passed several acts to establish strong legal framework. Soil Conservation Act of 1951 was introduced to control soil erosion. It also paved the way for the establishment of Soil Conservation Division of the Department of Agriculture in 1953.

The Act attempted to take care of soil resources in three different ways. First step was to get an assessment of the nature and extent of soil erosion.

Then, the erodible areas were declared by government gazette notification. Finally, regulations and guidelines were established to control soil erosion.

However, despite the soil conservation act, many other socio-economic factors forced people to encroach protected lands. Further, the institutional set-up that existed was not adequate for effective implementation of the Act. The Land Reform Laws of 1972 and 1975 could be considered as the most important piece of legislation enacted in the post independence period. They set a ceiling on private ownership of land, at 25 acres for paddy land and 50 acres for other lands.

Land in excess was expropriated and vested in the hands of state-run organizations. As a result, the ownership of the large-scale plantation sector was transferred to the government. Nearly 60000 ha of tea lands in the UMCA came under the ownership of government enterprises, causing drastic change of the management. The State Agriculture Corporation Act of 1972 was introduced to establish “National Agricultural Diversification and Settle-

5

ment Authority” (NADSA). The main task of the NADSA was environmental protection. through land and water resources conservation. NADSA was later on renamed as “HADABIMA Authority”.

However, rapid degradation of tea lands was observed during two decades following the reform, mainly due to inherent inefficiency of the state management system. The extent of unproductive marginal tea lands in the UMCA was increased as a result. It clearly indicates that the Soil Conservation Enactments were not properly implemented even in tea estates under state ownership.

The Land Development (Amendment) Act of 1981 permitted granting certain extent of land holding to the allottees through a system of leasing, according to the concept of a free land market. However, the perpetuated land leasing system was replaced later on with grants called “Swarnabhumi” and “Jayabhumi” which provided more land security to the owner. It was another land mark of the evolution process of the land policy because secured land tenure system is positively associated with the adoption of soil conservation measures.

National-level policy-based approach emerged during the last two decades, aiming at sustainability of natural resources through participatory management. Three draft policies, namely, National Water Management Policy, National Land Use Policy and National Water Resources Policy, were presented during this period and were subjected to lengthy discussions in different fora. The objectives of these policies were to encourage integrated land and water resources development and management to ensure the sustainability of natural resources through soil and water conservation, preservation of forest and increasing forest cover in sensitive areas of catchments.

It is believed that land tenure security is one of the factors that encourage investment on soil conservation to upgrade the quality of lands. However, proposed policies have not considered it seriously.

Hence, landlessness will remain, making people poorer in the long run. In the absence of alternative employment opportunities, state lands continue to be encroached by peasants who do not have incentives or resources to manage it in a sustainable manner13. Present policies do not stipulate efficient ways and means for capacity building of poor to move up on the economic ladder. Lack of political will and inefficiencies of the agencies at the ground level often hinder the implementation

6

Amrasekara et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 3-9 of laws and regulations, especially on natural resources management. So far, the policies of successive governments have failed to address these issues. Since most of these issues directly link with poverty, a strong policy framework to overcome

poverty and to remove barriers to empower the society have become urgent needs.

1840 Land ownership act

1840

Crown Land Encroachment Ordinance

1840

Irrigation Ordinance

1856 1897

Forest Ordinance

1907

Land Development Ordinance

1935

The Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance

1937

Conversion of state lands to crown property Prevention of the encroachments Commencing of the land alienation Less concern on the ecology

State Land Ordinance

1947

Soil Conservation Acts No25 &29

1951

Soil Conservation Special Regulations

1953

Agrarian Service Act

1959

Secure on land tenure

Water Resources Board Act

1964

Providing services

The State Agricultural Corporation Act

1972

National Water Supply and Drainage Board Act

1974

Land Grant special Provision Act

1979

The Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka Act

1979

National Environmental Act

1980

The National Heritage Wilderness Act

1988

Soil Conservation (amended) act No24

1996

National Watershed Management Policy

1996 to

National Land Use Policy

2005 National Water Resources Policy

Conservation of natural resources

Concern on the productivity

Concern on the sustainability of natural resources Participatory approach on resources management Amalgamation of statues to develop comprehensive policy framework

2005 Figure 1. A time line indicating the evolution of the legal framework in land and water conservation in Sri Lanka Figure 1. A time line indicating the evolution of the legal framework in land and water conservation in Sri Lanka

Amrasekara et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 3-9 Soil Conservation Act No.25 of 1951 and 29 of 1953, 1956 revision and 1996 amendment The major limitation observed in this act was that it deals only with the problem of soil erosion, and does not consider other aspects related to land degradation, such as over use of pesticides and fertilizers, inappropriate agronomic practices and non-agricultural human activities, including construction of roads, houses, etc. Therefore, the Act was amended in 1996 to make provisions to deal with a wide range of aspects in relation to the land degradation. Accordingly, the title of the act was changed as follows: “An Act to make provisions for the enhancement and sustenance of productive capacity of the soil; to restore degraded lands for the prevention and mitigation of soil erosion; for the conservation of soil resources and protection of land against damage by floods, salinity, alkalinity, water logging and drought.” In addition, several new sections were inserted to strengthen the capacity of the Act 14.

Soil Conservation Board

Establishment of Soil Conservation Board was proposed in the 1996 amendment. The functions of the Board shall be coordinating research and other activities related to the enhancement and sustenance of the productive capacity of the soil, the restoration of the productive capacity of land which has been degraded due to the lack of proper conservation measures, conservation of water and watersheds and the prevention of soil erosion resulting from non agricultural activities. According to the Act, the Board should consist of Secretaries and Director Generals of relevant ministries and institutions. There are 12 ministries and 5 institutions named to represent the Board. The Secretary to the Ministry of Agriculture and the Director General of Agriculture were appointed as the Chairman and Secretary of the Board respectively. This seems to be a novel approach to enhance the coordination among line ministries and institutions. It is also useful to reduce the overlapping of responsibilities and focus more towards a common goal. Further, it provides opportunities for sharing of knowledge and resources to make the process more efficient. However, the Soil Conservation Board has not been established yet. The main reason is practical difficulty to meet all the members at once because of their busy schedules. One limitation of the Act is that no provisions have been given for the other authorized persons to represent the

7

members of the board. The amended Act further makes provisions for the establishment of “Soil Conservation Fund” to defray any expenditure incurred by the Director General of Agriculture in exercise of functions and duties under this Act. Apart from the government funds, any donation or grant from local or foreign sources can be allowed for the proposed Soil Conservation Fund.

However, the Soil Conservation Fund can be established only after the establishment of Soil Conservation Board. Therefore, lack of funds is one of the major constraints to implement the Act in the field level.

Institutional set up and power devolution of the Soil Conservation Act The flow diagram in Figure 2 shows the power devolution of the Soil Conservation Act. The Natural Resources Management Centre (NRMC) of the Department of Agriculture of Sri Lanka is the institution responsible for the implementation of the Soil Conservation Act. Soil Conservation Board can play a significant role by delegating powers to line ministries and relevant institutions to implement the act more efficiently at field level. In addition, the section 5a in the amended Act makes provisions to delegate the powers to Divisional Secretaries as well.

Agricultural Instructor is the officer who has technical competence to implement the Soil Conservation Act in the field level. They are attached to the Provincial Department of Agriculture which is under the purview of the Provincial councils.

However, NRMC comes under the central government of Sri Lanka. Since these two institutions are functioning in two different administrative frameworks, incompatibilities/controversies can occur in the implementation of the Act. With respect to the UMCA, there are very limited number of Agricultural Instructors to cover whole catchment which has an extent of about 3118km2. The Environmental Officers attached to the Divisional Secretariats are another category of officers who can be deployed to implement the Act in the field.

In addition, the service of Agricultural Research and Development Assistants (ARDA) can also be obtained, if the Soil Conservation Board is properly established. ARDAs are attached to the Agrarian Services Department which has no direct link with the NRMC. Apart from that, priority should be given to build up the capacity of the NRMC by increasing human and physical resources.

8

Amrasekara et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 3-9 Another important aspect is the establishment of Soil Conservation Fund which can provide financial support for soil conservation research and other activities.

Conclusion The degradation of land and water resources in the UMCA has been a multi-dimensional issue. Current issues related to this problem in the UMCA have been resulted from the weaknesses in the policies adopted in the country during the last few decades.

Many of the legislations related to natural resources management have bright objectives, but their implementation processes are not very much clear.

Though soil conservation act was initially introduced in 1951, even after 50 years, its impacts are not satisfactory. The existing institutional set-up is not adequate to implement the Act in the field level, hence capacity building of the institutions with strong political will can be a promising measure for preventing the land and water resources from further degradation.

Ministry of Agriculture

Natural Resources Management Centre of DOA (Central government)

Soil Conservation Board

Provincial Council

Provincial DOA

Divisional Secretariat

Relevant Ministries

Field officers 

Figure 2. Devolution of powers of the soil conservation act

Acknowledgement The financial support given by the Crossing Boundaries Project of the PGIA, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, is greatly appreciated.

References 1. Madduma Bandara CM. Adverse impact of land use and improper land management practices on slope stability and landslides. Proceedings of National Symposium of Landslides. NBRO, Sri Lanka 1996.

2. Krishnarajah P. “Soil erosion and conservation in upper Mahaweli watershed” Joachim Memorial Lecture. Journal of Soil Science Society of Sri Lanka 1983; 1-15.

3. Stocking MA. Soil erosion in UMC forest land use mapping project. Technical Report No.14. Environment and forest conservation division, Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, Polgolla 1992.

4. Nayakakorale HB. Human induced soil degradation status in Sri Lanka. Journal of Soil Science Society of Sri Lanka 1998;10: 1-35.

5. Amarasekara MGTS, Dayawansa NDK, De Silva WPRP. Institutional aspects of implementation of land and water policies in the Upper Mahaweli Catchment, Sri Lanka. International Conference on Water Resources Policy in South Asia. Colombo, Sri Lanka. 2008.

6. Rajakaruna RMP, Nandasena KA, Jayakody

Amrasekara et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 3-9 AN. Plant nutrient contamination of shallowgroundwater in intensive vegetable gardens of Nuwara Eliya. Tropical Agricultural Research 2005;17:80-92.

7. Gunawardane ERN, Rajapakse U, Nandasena KA, Rosier PTW. Water quality issues in the up country of Sri Lanka. In: Gunasena HPM (Ed). Proceedings of the final workshop of the University of Peradeniya – Oxford Forestry Institute Link Project University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, 1998: 37-74.

8. Wijewardane JDH. Agriculture and water pollution in Sri Lanka. In:Dayawansa NDK, De Silva RP, (Eds). Proceedings of the Water Professionals’ Day Symposium on Water Resources Research in Sri Lanka, 2011: 3-17.

9. Jogarathnam T. Plantation Agriculture and Economic Development in Ceylon. In: Dixey RN, (Ed). International Exploration of Agriculture

9

Economics, Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1964.

10. Vanden Driesen I. Some Trends in the Economic History of Modern Ceylon. The Ceylon Journal of Historical and Social Studies 1960.

11. Land Commission of Sri Lanka. Report of the Land Commission-1987. Sessional Paper No.111, Colombo: Government Press, 1990.

12. Farmer BH. Pioneer Peasant Colonization in Ceylon. USA: Greenwood Press, 1957.

13. Gamage D, Mohamed A. Economic and social factors affecting land degradation in UMC, Environment Action Project. Sri Lanka: Ministry of Forestry and Environment, 1998.

14. Soil Conservation (Amended) Act 1996. Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka: 1996.

Adikari et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 10-14

10

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Haplotype structure and variation of telomerase reverse transcriptase (turTERT) gene in turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) A. M. J. B. Adikari1*, W. A. D. Nayananjalie1, J. Xu2, and E. J.Smith2 Department of Animal and Food Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. *Corresponding author: adikari2000@yahoo.com 2 Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.

1

Abstract: Telomerase is a specialized ribonucleoprotein enzyme complex that adds telomere repeats (5’-TTAGGG-3’) to the end of chromosomes. Mutations in telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) gene leads malfunction of telomerase enzyme which causes short telomeres and associated with age-related diseases. A total DNA sequence of 28 kb including the turTERT gene was screened by re-sequencing for structural variation based on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and haplotypes using a diversity panel of turkeys. Seven SNPs, including four and three SNPs were identified in the introns 7 and 8 respectively. The minor alleles ranged in frequency from 0.05 to 0.30 with the observed heterozygosity from 0.09 to 0.42.Most of the SNPs did not follow the Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium (P<0.05). Linkage disequilibrium among the SNPs ranged from 0.46 to 1.00. A total of 15 haplotypes were identified and assembled into 4 haplogroups. The haplogroups frequencies ranged from 0.10 to 0.38 in the diversity panel of turkeys. The most frequent haplogroup was turTERTHap3 with a frequency of 0.38. Of the haplogroups, Royal Palm had a unique haplogroup of turTERTHap1 as expected while most of Commercial, Bourbon Red, Blue Slate and Spanish Black birds had another unique haplogroup of turTERTHap4. Most of wild turkeys were laid within the haplogroup of turTERTHap3. The haplotype groupings of TERT gene variations of turkeys confirmed that Royal Palm and wild turkey birds possess unique genetic groups.The genomic reagents gathered in the present study will be useful for future genotype: phenotype evaluation studies between turTERTand traits in the turkey using a candidate gene approach.

Key words: Telomerase reverse transcriptase, SNPs, haplogroups, diversity panel

Introduction Telomeres, located at the end of eukaryotic chromosome, are composed of tandem DNA repeats of the sequence 5’-TTAGGG-3’ in vertebrates1.

Telomere plays a critical role in protecting chromosome integrity by differentiating chromosome ends from DNA breaks and also overcome the end replication problem2. Telomerase is an enzyme that adds telomere repeats onto the telomere, thereby it controls the cellular replicative capacity and senescence3. Telomerase also has other important functions such that maintenance of telomere length 4. Telomere length is maintained for the given organism at a constant length. There are many processes including end replication and nuclease activity, which shorten telomeres. This shortening process is balanced by adding de novo telomere repeats from telomerase5. The primary mode of telomere restoration is through an enzyme, telomerase which consists of two essential components, a catalytic protein subunit telomerase reverse

transcriptase (TERT) and a template RNA subunit (TR). TERT and TR together reconstitute telomerase activity6. Mutations in TERT gene lead to malfunction of telomerase enzyme which causes short telomeres and which is associated with agerelated diseases including heart disease, hypertension and dementia as well as risk factors like insulin resistance and obesity in humans7.

In humans, numerous reports suggest that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located in human TERT (hTERT) locus are associated with exceptional longevity7, coronary artery disease8, pulmonary fibrosis9, several cancers10and breast cancer11.

Though many studies of TERT gene mutations and its association with aging and diseases have been carried out in humans, very few studies have been done in poultry. Therefore, it is important to understand the mechanism of TERT gene and its association with aging and diseases in poultry.

Adikari et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 10-14 Moreover, the recently released turkey genome sequence offers an opportunity to characterize and define the role of some genes that affect turkey performance and productivity. As a proof of concept, we evaluated the structural variation of TERT gene in turkeys (turTERT). The objective of the study was to screen the turTERT gene for structural variation based on SNPs and haplotypes using a diversity panel of turkeys consisting of birds from heritage (native), commercial and wild varieties.

Materials and Methods Animals and DNA Extraction A diversity panel including 42 birds from heritage, commercial and wild turkey varieties were used for the analysis.Blood samples were used to isolate genomic DNA using a salting out procedure 12. Purity and quantity of the DNA was checked using a NanoDrop 1000.

Gene Sequences and Primer Design The turTERTgene sequences in the genomic database were amplified and re-sequenced from a diversity panel of 42 turkeys. Four overlapping primer pairs to scan the turTERTgene, were designed for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using Primer3 software (Table 1)13. Each amplicon was purified using DiffinityRapidTips, and sequenced using an ABI Genetic Analyzer 3730 with BigDye Terminator Version 3.1. Sequences for turTERT gene from 42 birds included in the study were analyzed with Phrap (for assembly of the sequences), Polyphred (for scanning the traces), and Consed (for viewing the analysis) to detect nucleotide variation as described by Guan et al14.

PCR Amplification Long range PCR using Takara Taq Polymerase was performed. The reaction parameters were as follows: 30 s at 940C, 1 min at 60 – 63.30C, and 6 min at 720C for a total of 30 cycles in a GeneAmp, PCR System 9700.

Statistical Analysis Pairwise linkage disequilibrium (LD) among loci was evaluated and Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) was tested with locus by locus option using the software package Arlequin ver3.515. Haplogroups were manually determined based on the output from Visual Haplotype (VH1) software (http://pga.gs.washington.edu/VH1.html).

11

Results and Discussion Amplicons produced by the four primer-pairs spanned a 28kp region that included the turTERT gene (Table 1). A total of 7 SNPs were detected and validated. The complete list of the SNPs, the sequence contexts, alleles, and GenBank identification (dbSNP) are presented in Table 2. Of the 7 SNPs identified, four and three SNPs detected in introns 7 and 8 respectively. The seven putative SNPs discovered in the current study have not been published earlier in the dbSNP, NCBI. Though as expected, most of the SNPs were C T transitions while two were transversions (A-T/ A-C). Within the 42 birds screened, the minor allele frequency (MAF) for 7 SNPs ranged from 0.05 to 0.30 with the observed heterozygosity from 0.09 to 0.42. A significant fraction of the SNPs deviated from HWE (P<0.05) (Table 2). Table 3 summarizes the extent of linkage disequilibrium (D´) among SNPs in turTERT gene for a diversity panel of turkeys. Across all SNPs, D´ ranged from 0.46 to 1.00. The correlation coefficient (r2) for the SNPs ranged from 0.02 to 0.84. The average gene diversity over loci was 0.36 ± 0.22 while overall gene diversity was 0.82 ± 0.02. A total of 15 haplotypes were identified and assembled into 4 haplogroups (Figure 1). The haplogroups ranged in frequency from 0.10 to 0.38 in the diversity panel of turkeys (Table 4). The most frequent haplogroup identified in the studied group was turTERT Hap3 with a frequency of 0.38. In addition, turTERT Hap1 and turTERT Hap4 had frequencies of 0.24 and 0.28, respectively (Table 4).

Of the haplogroups, Royal Palm turkey had a unique haplogroup of turTERT Hap1 as expected while most of Commercial, Bourbon redand Spanish black turkeys had another unique haplogroup of turTERTHap3. Most of wild turkeys were placed within the haplogroup of turTERTHap4 (Figure 1).

When haplogroups are compared, Hap1 where Royal palm belonged, consisted of four different rare alleles which were absent in other haplogroups.

Similarly, Hap4 where most of the wild turkeys placed, had onerareallele which was not observed in other haplogroups (Figure 1). The BLAST analysis of turTERT gene sequence against the chicken and Zebra finch genome revealed 93 and 86 % sequence identity respectively. SNPs have been reported in the TERT gene of chicken and Zebra

Adikari et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 10-14

12

Table 1. Primer sequences, the expected sizes of amplicons and PCR characteristics for the turTERTgene.

Table 1. Primer sequences, the expected sizes of amplicons and PCR characteristics for the turTERTgene.

Primer Primers1

Sequences

Tm2(0C)

ID

Product size (bp)3

TERT1 For(34986462) Rev(34977884)

5’-GGCTTTTAAGTTTGTTAAAACTCCTTTATT-3’

5’-CCAAGTTCTGTAGAGATTAGTATTTGTAGT-3’

Rev(34970119)

5’-GTTTAACTACCGTAAAATAAAGTTAGTCTC-3’

Rev(34968006) TERT4 For(34968271) Rev(34956117)

8500

61.0

8000

63.3

2500

61.0

9000

5’-GCTATTTTGTTAGACTAATATCATTAAGACAG-3’

TERT2 For(34978396)

TERT3 For(34970502)

60.0

5’-GTAGATACATAACCTTCATTTAGAGCTTCAG-3’ 5’-CCAATAAATCCTGTTAAGAGACAGATCATAG-3’ 5’-GAACTTAAGAAACCAAGATTCAGAAGAG-3’ 5’-ATCTTTATCCCATATATCTTGCTAGACG-3’

For, forward primer; Rev, reverse primer. Primer-binding sites in the turkey genome are presented in parentheses.

The1For, optimized annealing temperature at whichPrimer-binding a single amplification of the the expected size wasare obtained. forward primer; Rev, reverse primer. sites in turkey genome presented in parentheses.

3 Length in base pairs (bp) of the expected amplification based on the binding sites of the forward and reverse primers.

1 2

2The

optimized annealing temperature at which a single amplification of the expected size was obtained.

3Length

in base pairs (bp) of the expected amplification based on the binding sites of the forward and reverse primers.

Table 2. Characteristics of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) identified in the turTERT gene in a diversity panel of turkeys comprising heritage, commercial and wild birds. 

SNP ID

Location

Nucleotide position1

Sequence context of SNP2

dbSNP Identification3

turT-1

Intron 8

34968046

CTTTT(T/A)AAAGC

rs271791588

turT-2

Intron 8

34968178

AAAGG(A/C)CAAAT

rs271791589

turT-3

Intron 8

34968454

GCCTC(T/C)CAAAA

rs271791590

turT-4

Intron 7

34970042

CTAAA(C/T)GCTAG

rs271791591

turT-5

Intron 7

34970289

CTCCT(C/T)TGTAA

rs271791592

turT-6

Intron 7

34970355

TTATA(T/C)TTTTA

rs271791593

turT-7

Intron 7

34970401

AGTTT(T/C)ATTTT

rs271791594

Genoty pe A/A A/T T/T C/C C/A A/A C/C C/T T/T T/T C/T C/C T/T C/T C/C C/C C/T T/T C/C C/T T/T

Genotype Frequency (%) 73.8 4.8 21.4 69.0 7.2 23.8 76.2 0.0 23.8 64.3 11.9 23.8 90.5 9.5 0.0 66.7 7.1 26.2 66.7 7.1 26.2

MA HW F4 E5 0.19 0.00*

0.27 0.00*

0.24 0.00*

0.30 0.00*

0.05

NS

0.30 0.00*

0.30 0.00*

Position of the SNP in Ensembl on the forward strand of chromosome 3 of the Meleagris gallopavo genome sequence.

Within each sequence context, alleles at the SNP locus appear in parentheses. The minor allele is italicized in the parentheses.

3 rs prefix indicates novel SNPs detected here and assigned numbers in dbSNP, NCBI. 4 Minor allele frequency (MAF) of 7 SNPs markers.

5 Significance of deviation from Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) for the 7 SNPs. NS indicates non-significant (P> 0.05) while * refers to significance 1 2

at P< 0.05.

finch. However, SNPs in turTERT gene have not been reported yet and these 7 SNPs which are located in the TERT gene of turkeys became the

novel SNPs.In Summary, the haplotype groupings in terms of TERT gene variations of turkeys confirmed that Royal Palm and wild turkeys possess

13

Adikari et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 10-14 Table 3. Linkage disequilibrium as measured by D´ and r2 between the 7 segregating SNPs in the turTERT gene.

SNPs1

turT-1

turT-1

turT-2

turT-3

turT-4

turT-5 turT-6

turT-7

1.00

0.46

0.48

0.67

0.57

0.50

1.00

0.86

1.00*

1.00

1.00

1.00

0.66

1.00

1.00

0.63*

0.82

0.82

0.64

0.64

turT-2

0.12

turT-3

0.19

0.13

turT-4

0.15

0.13

0.75

turT-5

0.07

0.02*

0.06

0.04*

turT-6

0.24

0.16

0.83

0.60

0.05

turT-7

0.18

0.16

0.84

0.61

0.05

0.89 0.79



SNP identification (see Table 2). * indicates non-significant (P> 0.05) D´ and r2 values.

D´ values are listed in upper right section, and r2 values are listed in lower left section.

1

Table 4. turTERT haplogroups diversity and their frequencies. ____________________________________________ ID N1 Haplogroups Frequency2 ____________________________________________ turTERT Hap1 10 -A*-C-T-C-T*-T-T- 0.24 turTERT Hap2 04 -A*-C-C-T*-T*-C*-C*- 0.10 turTERT Hap3 16 -A-A*-C-T*-T-C-C- 0.38 turTERT Hap4 12 -A*-A*-C-T-T-C-C- 0.28 ____________________________________________

RP: Royal palm SB: Spanish black BR: Bourbon red BS: Blue slate C: Commercial turkeys W: Wild turkeys

Number of haplotypes within the haplogroups.

Frequency was calculated in a total of 42 diversity panel of turkeys.

The variant nucleotide within each haplogroup is represented by

1 2

*Alternate alleles are shown in Table 2.

unique genetic groups. The information gathered in the present study, would be useful for future genotype:phenotype evaluation (association mapping) studies between turTERT and economically important traits in the turkey using a candidate gene approach.

Acknowledgement We are grateful to Virginia Agricultural Council, Virginia Tech, USA for financial support given during the study.

References 1. Griffith JD, Comeau L, Rosenfield S, Stansel RM, Bianchi A, et al. Mammalian Telomeres End in a Large Duplex Loop.Cell 1999;97: 503-14.



Figure 1. Visualization of haplogroups using Visual Haplotype (VH1) software. (http://gvs.

gs.washinton.edu/VH1.html).

Adikari et al. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 10-14

14

2. Maser RS, Depinho RA. Telomeres and the DNA damage response: why the fox is guarding the henhouse.DNA Repair2004; 3: 979-88.

variant in TERT with susceptibility to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Journal of Medical Genetics 2008; 45: 654-56.

3. O’reilly M, Teichmann SA, Rhodes D. Telomerases.Current Opinion in Structural Biology 1999;9:56-65.

10. Alfred T, Ben-Shlomo Y, Cooper R, Hardy R, Cooper C, et al. Absence of association of a singlenucleotide polymorphism in the TERT-CLPTM1L locus with age-related phenotypes in a large multicohort study: the HALCyon programme. Aging Cell 2011; 10: 520-32.

4. Dong CK, Masutomi K, Hahn WC. Telomerase: regulation, function and transformation.Critical Reviews in Oncology/ Hematology 2005; 54: 85-93.

5. Hemann MT, Strong MA, Hao LY, Greider CW. The Shortest Telomere, Not Average Telomere Length, Is Critical for Cell Viability and Chromosome Stability. Cell 2001; 107: 67-77.

11. Savage SA, Chanock SJ, Lissowska J, Brinton LA, Richesson D, et al. Genetic variation in five genes important in telomere biology and risk for breast cancer. British Journal of Cancer 2007;97: 83236.

6 Weinrich S L, Pruzan R Ma L, Ouellette M, Tesmer V M, Holt S E, et al. Reconstitution of human telomerase with the template RNA component hTR and the catalytic protein subunit hTRT. Nature Genetics 1997; 17: 498-502.

12 . Smith E, Shi L, Drummond P, Rodriguez L, Hamilton R, et al. Development and characterization of expressed sequence tags for the turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) genome and comparative sequence analysis with other birds. Animal Genetics 2000;31: 62-67.

7. Atzmon G, Cho M, Cawthon R M, Budagov T, Katz M, et al. Genetic variation in human telomerase is associated with telomere length in Ashkenazi centenarians. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2009; 1-8.

13. Rozen S, Skaletsky HJ. Primer’3 on the WWW for general users and for biologist programers.Bioinformatics Methods and Protocols: Methods in Molecular Biology 2000; 365-86.

8. Matsubara Y, Murata M, Watanabe K, Saito I, Miyaki K, et al. Coronary artery disease and a functional polymorphism of hTERT. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 2006; 348: 669-72.

9. Mushiroda T, Wattanapokayakit S, TakahashiA, Nukiwa T, Kudoh S, et al. A genome-wide association study identifies an association of a common

14. Guan X, Geng T, Silva P, Smith E J. Mitochondrial DNA sequence and haplotype variation analysis in the chicken (Gallus gallus)’. Journal of Heredity 2007;98: 723-26.

15 Excoffier L, Lischer H E L. Arlequin suite ver 3.5: a new series of programs to perform population genetics analyses under Linux and Windows.

Molecular Ecology Resources 2010;10: 564-67.

Gunasinghe & Karunaratne, Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 15-21

15

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Mechanical Properties of Ancient Clay Bricks of Jethawana Sthupa M.P.R.N.Gunasinghe, B.A. Karunaratne* Faculty of Applied Sciences, Rajarata University of SriLanka. *Corresponding author: anandaxrf@yahoo.com

Abstract: Sthupas which are also called Dagabas are huge brick structures built to honor Lord Buddha. They are in different shapes and different sizes. Jethawana sthupa which was built by King Mahasen in 269 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 296 AD is the largest sthupa in Sri Lanka. It is the third tallest and the largest brick structure in the world. The bricks and the plasters that have been used to construct the sthupa should have excellent mechanical and physical properties, since they survived for more than 1700 years.

For mechanical properties, the compressive strength, modulus of rupture, critical stress intensity factor and the material removing rate of ancient bricks were studied and compared with those properties of modern bricks.

The three point bending method was used to determine the modulus of rupture of the bricks. Single edge notch beam was used in three point bending configuration to find out the critical stress intensity factor of the bricks.

Density of the material and the porosity of the bricks were also investigated. Material removing rate of the bricks was calculated by studying the material removing by a silicon carbide wheel. Ferrous and ferric ion concentration present in the ancient bricks and modern bricks were found by a titration method. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis has been carried out for the ancient bricks and the modern bricks of Jethawana sthupa.

Modulus of rupture and critical stress intensity factor of the ancient bricks were nearly two times higher than those of modern clay bricks. However, compressive strength of the ancient bricks did not show a much difference from that of modern bricks. Material removing rate of the ancient bricks was one tenth of the value of modern bricks indicating that the hardness of the ancient bricks was very much higher than that of modern bricks. The density and the porosity of the ancient bricks and modern bricks did not show a marked difference.

Enhancements of the mechanical properties of the ancient bricks even with having nearly the same physical properties as in the modern bricks may be due to some other factors such as qualitative and quantitative difference in the chemicals presents in the ancient bricks and thermal treatment.

Key words: Mechanical properties, Compressive strength, Modulus of rupture

Introduction Sthupa/ Dagaba Sthupa/Dagaba is a monumental structure built to honor Lord Buddha. They are venerated by the Buddhists and their imposing, yet simple, features give one a feeling of stability, strength, nobility, and grandeur 1.

Those constructions are always related with Buddhist temples. Dagabas contain sacred relic of Lord Buddha or they are constructed to mark the sacred spots where some important events connected with the religion had taken place.

The construction of Buddhist sthupas started while Buddha was alive and they are not tombs but a memorial which symbolizes the supremacy of the Lord Buddha and his dharma or teaching.

Architecture of Sthupa Sthupas are solid structures mostly made up of burnt clay bricks. The main components of a sthupa2 are shown in Figure 1.

Dome is the main and the biggest component of a sthupa. It lies on two or three cylindrical terraces called basal rings. It contains the relic in a relic chamber. Dome carries the square chamber at its top. It is a solid structure but there are some square chambers which have hollow structure.

One or more cylinders called abode of gods lie on the top of the square chamber. Conical spire is a solid one. At top of the conical spire there is a crystal set on a gift mineral 3.

Some sthupa contain an umbrella on the top or some other small sthupa is surrounded by another structure with a roof that is called Vatadaage.

Gunasinghe & Karunaratne, Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 15-21

16

shown in Figure 2.

7.32 m 14.63 m 10.06 m 70.70 m

23.17 m

47.70 m

99.06 m 1.37 m 1.45 m 2.05 m 111.86 m Figure 2. Dimensions of Jethawana sthupa

Figure 1: Main components of a sthupa

Figure 2. Dimensions of Jethawana sthupa

(1, 2 and 3. Basal rings, 4. Dome, 5. Square Chamber, 6. Abode of God, 7. Conical Spire, 8. Mineral, 9. Crystal.) Reproduced from Ranaweera 2

The total height of the remaining structure is 70.7 m. But earlier the height of the complete structure was 121.9 m 3. At that time it was the third tallest structure in the world, surpassed only by the two great pyramids in Giza, Egypt 6. Jethawana sthupa is the largest brick building in the world and its volume is about 233,000m3. The dome of the sthupa is in paddy heap shape.

These structures are for protection of sthupa and both umbrella and Vatadaage are exceptional cases.

With the passage of time and the sthupas becoming larger in size, some other extra components were added to the structure like; a small separate structure with tables to offer flowers and a plinth for the dome.

All large sthupas and some small sthupas were also provided with a projection called Vahalkada or frontispieces. One may contain 2 or 4 frontispieces.

All those are ornamental structures for a sthupa 3.

Bricks, Plaster and the Mortar in the Sthupa The main building block of the sthupa is burnt clay brick (Figure 3). The bricks in the sthupa are different in sizes. The ancient bricks used to build the sthupa are much larger than modern clay bricks.

Bricks of different sizes have been used for different parts of the sthupa 7, larger ones for the basal rings and dome, and much smaller one for the spiral.

According to the shape of dome sthupas can be categorized into six groups 4. Most common shapes are The mortar used in Jethawana sthupa construction the bell shape and then the bubble shape. But the is very thin and fine butter clay like slurry (Figure most stable shape is the paddy heap shape since the stresses on the structure are mostly compressive 5. Pot and lotus shaped domes are rare and there are no existing examples of the ‘Nelli fruit’ shape.

Jethawana Sthupa History and the Dimensions of the Sthupa The Jethawana sthupa was built by king Mahasen (269 – 296 AD) and the construction was completed by his son king Kithsirimewan I (303–331 AD)3. The dimensions of the Jethawana sthupa are

4). The thickness of the mortar is about 5 mm. With this thin mortar, the bricks essentially sit one on top of the other, the slurry filling the gaps. This gives a strong brick work unlike the modern brick works which uses a thick mortar which can weaken the brick work.

The outer surface of the brick work is water proofed using a thick (thickness - 1.5 cm) plaster (Figure 5).

Stresses Applying on the Sthupa The building materials of the sthupa should be in

Gunasinghe & Karunaratne, Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 15-21 good quality and the bricks should have good compressive strength (the main loading on the sthupa is its self-weight).Most parts of the sthupa are under compression 5,8,9,10.

17

at the base center 7.

Figure 5. Outer plaster of the square chamber of Jethawana sthupa.

Figure 3. Bricks used to construct the spiral of Jethawana sthupa.

It is also reported that the square chamber of Jethawana sthupa also has some tensile regions at the top.

Some mechanical properties of Jethawana bricks recorded2 are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Some mechanical properties of Jethawana sthupa bricks Property Compressive strength Tensile strength Youngâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s modulus Poissonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ratio

Figure 4. Mortar used in the square chamber of Jethawana sthupa (reddish colour area is the mortar which is used for the conservation).

Few tensile zones are present in the square chamber and the spiral and at the outer surface of the dome having shapes other than the paddy heap shape. It is reported that in the paddy heap shaped dome of Jethawana, the largest sthupa ever built the maximum compressive stress occurs at the centre at foundation level and its value is 839 kPa 4 . Hoop and radial stress in Jethawana dome are also compressive, having a maximum of 280 kPa

value 8500 kPa 850 kPa 4.5 GPa 0.25

Aim of the Study Most bricks, mortar and plasters in Jethawana sthupa are under compressive stress and had survived for more than 1700 years having being opened to weather changes. This study was undertaken to investigate chemical phases available and the mechanical properties such as; compressive strength, modulus of rupture, critical stress intensity factor, and the material removing rate as well as some other relevant physical properties of the bricks.

Materials and Methods Brick samples were cut from the original brick by using metal cutting blades (slow speed cutting

18

Gunasinghe & Karunaratne, Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 15-21 was used). The average dimensions of a cut sample were; length 5 cm, width 2.5 cm and height 1.5 cm.

Investigation of Modulus of Rupture of the Bricks (MOR) MOR of a material gives an idea about how much load it can bare without any failure. The MOR of a material can be found out by using either 3 point bending method or 4 point bending method. Three point bending method was used to investigate MOR of the bricks.

Investigation of the Compressive Strength Compressive strength gives an idea about how far a material can bear compressive stress on it without any failure. Sample was kept on the cross head of the testing machine and then the cross head moved against the load cell. The load was noted down at the time when the sample failed.

Investigation of Critical Stress Intensity Factor (KIC) KIC gives an idea about how much the material would resist to propagate a fracture. To find KIC three point bending method was used. Surfaces of the cut sample were polished by using a sand paper in order to remove deep flaws on the surface of the sample. A notch was put on the sample by using a metal cutting blade (Figure 6). The average depth of the notch was 5 mm.

KIC was calculated using;

KIC =

3Pda½ [1.93 -3.07(a/w)+13.66 (a/w)2] bw2

P

a

W

b

L

Figure 6. Single edge notch beam specimen for 3 point bending method

Investigation of Material Removing Rate (MRR) of the Brick Samples MRR of the brick samples was found in order to have an idea about the hardness of them. One sample was taken from each brick. The initial mass of the sample was noted. The sample was then moved against a rotating silicon carbide wheel. The time was noted and the final mass of the sample was measured. MRR was calculated using; MRR =

IMS - FMS rpm X DM X time

IMS: Initial mass of the sample FMS: Final mass of the sample DM: Density of the material Investigation of the Density of the Bricks and the Plasters By immersing the brick samples in mercury, the density was measured. The porosity was measured by immersing the samples in distilled water, Fe2+ and Fe3+ concentration in the brick samples were measured using a chemical method.

Results and Discussion There was no significant difference in the value of the densities of the ancient brick and new bricks (Figure 7).

Porosity of the bricks in foundation, second basal ring, outer cover of the dome, outer cover of the square chamber and the third basal ring is lower than that of the modern bricks. Porosity of the bricks in first basal ring, inside the square chamber and the brick from the site area is greater than that of the modern bricks (Figure 8).

MOR value of ancient bricks was found to be higher than that of new bricks used for reconstruction except those ancient bricks collected from the first basal ring and ancient bricks collected from the site area (exact position of the brick is unknown).

Highest MOR values were shown for the bricks which were collected from the foundation from the second basal ring and from the third basal ring (Figure 9). Even after exposing to weather changes, and mechanical forces for more than 1700 years still they show a higher value for MOR than for modern bricks.

Maximum compressive strength was shown for

19

Gunasinghe & Karunaratne, Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 15-21 Ancient BricksAncient Bricks 2500

Ancient Brick Ancient Bricks Modern Brick Sample 1 Modern Brick Sample 2

M odern Brick sample 1

M odern 2500Brick sample 1

M odern Brick sample 1

2500

M odern Brick Sample 2

M odern Brick Sample 2

M odern Brick Sample 2 2000 MO R ( kPa)

2000 1500

Density (kg m-3)

Density (kg m-3)

2000

1000

500

1500

1500

1000

1000

500

JB JB X SB R II JB FB R JB II FB R I JB ID

JB O S JB C SB R I JB IS C JB 4F I JB I 4F JB I TB R JB O D

0

500

0 JB4F I

JBSBR

JBFBR

JBOD

JBOSC

JBISC

JBTBR

JBX 



Figure 9. Modulus of rupture of the bricks in Jethawana sthupa (JB) in kPa showing high MOR value for ancient bricks.



JB JB X SB R II JB FB R JB II FB R I JB ID

Figure 7. Density of the bricks of Jethawana sthupa (JB).

JB JB X SB R II JB FB R JB II F JB BR O I S JB JBI C SB D R I JB IS C JB 4F I JB I 4F JB I TB R JB O D

4F- 120 cm Below the Ground surface, SBR II – Second Basal Ring, FBR I – First Basal Ring, OD – Outside of Dome OSC – Outside of Square Chamber, ISC - Inside of Square Chamber, TBR - Third Basal Ring, X –Jethawana Bricks unknown

JB C SB R I JB IS C JB 4F I JB I 4F JB I TB R JB O D

OSC – Outside of Square Chamber, SBR – Second Basal Ring, 0 ISC - Inside of Square Chamber, 4F- 120 cm Below the Ground surface, TBR - Third Basal Ring, OD – Outside of Dome, X –unknown, FBR – First Basal Ring, ID- Inside of Dome



Ancient Bricks M odern Brick sample 1 Ancient Bricks

Ancient Brick Ancient Bricks

2500

M odernSample Brick Sample M odern Brick 2 1 2500

40

Modern Brick Sample1 Modern Brick Sample 2

M odern Brick sample 1

M odern Brick Sample 2

M odern Brick Sample 2 30

Compressive Strength ( kPa)

35

2000

Density (kg m-3)

20 15 10 5

1500

1000

1500

1000

500

0

JB4F I

JB X

JB TB R

JB IS C

JB O D JB O S C

JB ID

JB 4F I JB FB R II JB SB R I JB SB R II JB FB R I

0

500

JBOD

JBOSC

JBISC

JBTBR

JBX

4F- 120 cm Below the Ground surface, SBR II – Second Basal Ring, FBR I – First Basal Ring, OD – Outside of Dome OSC – Outside of Square Chamber, ISC - Inside of Square Chamber, TBR - Third Basal Ring, X –Jethawana Bricks unknown 

JB JB X SB R II JB FB R JB II FB R JB I O S JB C JB ID SB R I JB IS C JB 4F I JB I 4F JB I TB R JB O D

Figure 8. Porosity of the bricks of Jethawana sthupa (JB).

JBFBR



4F- 120 cm Below the Ground surface, FBR I – First Basal Ring, SBR II – Second Basal Ring, ID- Inside of Dome, OD – Outside 0 of Dome, OSC – Outside of Square Chamber, ISC - Inside of Square Chamber, TBR - Third Basal Ring, , X –Jethawana Bricks unknown

JB C SB R I JB IS C JB 4F I JB I 4F JB I TB R JB O D

JBSBR



the bricks from the foundation, from the outer cover of the dome and from the third basal ring (Figure 10). Compressive strength of ancient bricks from other places did not show much difference from the values of the modern bricks. This may due to the weathering of the bricks and exposure to high compressive forces for long time. Almost all the ancient bricks showed very high value for critical stress intensity factor than for modern bricks.

Most bricks from the places like foundation, outer

JB JB X SB R II JB FB R JB II FB R I JB ID

Porosity (%)

25

2000

Figure 10. Compressive strength of the bricks of Jethawana sthupa (JB).



cover of the dome and the third basal ring showed KIC value twice that of new bricks (Figure 11) (Only the brick from first basal ring shows a lower value than new bricks). Optical microscopy revealed many sand particles in ancient bricks of different sizes and of different shapes. This may be the reason for showing high values of KIC in ancient bricks than in the modern bricks because those sand particles may reduce the propagation of crack inside the brick. Material removing rate for the ancient

20

Gunasinghe & Karunaratne, Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 15-21 Ancient Brick

M odern Brick Sample 2

M odern Brick Sample 2 450 400

350

Anceint Brick Ancient Bricks

M odern Brick Sample 1

300

250

200

M odern BrickMsample 1000 odern Brick1Sample 2

150

M odern Brick Sample 2

100 50

500

0

JB4F I

JB4F II

JBFBR

JBOD

JBOSC

JBISC 

Figure12. Material removing rate of the bricks of Jethawana sthupa showing low MRR for the ancient bricks.

150

0 100

JBSBR

50

JB JB X SB R II JB FB R JB II FB R I JB ID

200

JB O S JB C SB R I JB IS C JB 4F I JB I 4F JB I TB R JB O D

Critical Stress Intensity Factor (kPa m-1/2)

250

M odern Brick sample 1

500

MRR (X 10-9 m3)

Density (kg m-3)

bricks is very low than that of the modern bricks 2500 (Figure 12) and it is nearly one tenth of that of the modern bricks. This is not valid for the ancient bricks which were collected from the site area 2000 (the exact place where it was in the sthupa is unknown). Ancient bricks are much more resistance to wear than the modern bricks. 1500

M odern Brick Sample 1 Ancient Bricks

tenth of that of the new bricks. It implies that the resistance to wear is ten times greater than that of new bricks. Therefore, it can be speculated that the hardness of the ancient bricks was very much higher than that of the modern bricks. Although it was observed that the compressive strength of most of the ancient bricks. It implies that the resistance to wear is ten times greater than that of new bricks.

Therefore, it can be speculated that the hardness of the ancient bricks was very much higher than that of the modern bricks. Although it was observed that the compressive strength of most of the ancient bricks were slightly higher than that of new bricks, the difference was not significant. 

0 JB4F I

JBSBR

JBFBR

JBOD

JBOSC

JBISC

JBTBR 

JB JB X SB R II JB FB R JB II FB R I JB ID

JB IS C JB 4F I JB I 4F JB I TB R JB O D

4F- 120 cm Below the Ground surface, SBR II – Second Basal Ring, FBR I – First Basal Ring, OD – Outside of Dome OSC – Outside of Square Chamber, ISC - Inside of Square Chamber, TBR - Third Basal Ring

Figure 11. Critical stress intensity factor of the bricks of sthupa, showing high KIC value for the ancient bricks.



It was observed that Fe2+ was not present in a detectable concentration level whereas Fe3+ concentrations were 0.003 mol dm-3 for ancient bricks and 0.002 mol dm-3 for modern bricks.

XRD patterns of the ancient bricks and the modern bricks revealed the two samples to have similar components. Both brick samples contain SiO2 and (FeMn)PO4. The amount of NaAlSi3O8 and SiO2 present in the modern bricks are nearly the same.

The peak corresponding to NaAlSi3O8 was not prominent in the XRD pattern of the ancient brick sample whereas peak corresponding to KAlSi3O8 was prominent. TiO2 and mullite were present only in ancient bricks whereas Ca4Fe9O17 is present in modern bricks.

Conclusion As far as the mechanical properties of the ncient bricks are concerned MOR and KIC are nearly two times higher than those of the new bricks. The material removing rate of the ancient bricks is one

Mechanical properties of the ancient bricks are better than that of the modern bricks. However, there was no significant difference in the density and porosity values of ancient and modern bricks.

According to the XRD analysis of the ancient and modern brick samples SiO2 (quartz), (FeMn) PO4, and Fe2O3 are present in both bricks where as NaAlSi3O8 is present only in the modern bricks.

Instead of NaAlSi3O8, KAlSi3O8 is present in the ancient bricks.Ca4Fe9O17 is present in the modern bricks, while, TiO2 and mullite are present in the ancient bricks. The peak height of NaAlSi3O8is nearly equal to the peak height of SiO2 present in the modern bricks. But SiO2percentage of the ancient brick is very much higher when compared with the SiO2 present in the modern bricks. It is concluded that the better mechanical properties should have a direct affect from the quarts (SiO2) percentage of the bricks.

Gunasinghe & Karunaratne, Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 15-21 Enhancement of the mechanical properties of the ancient bricks and ancient plaster may be due to the difference in chemical composition of the materials. Sand particles present in the old bricks in different sizes results in composite material giving a high modulus of rupture and high critical stress intensity factor values for the ancient bricks.

It is of prime importance to perform a quantitative and qualitative chemical analysis to elucidate the toughening mechanisms in ancient bricks and to investigate how the ancient techniques can be used in modern brick production.

References 1. Paranavitana S. The Stupa in Ceylon. Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon. Vol V. Colombo: National Museum, 1946.

2. Ranaweera MP. Ancient Stupas in Sri lanka â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Largest Brick Structures in the World. http://www. stupa.org.nz/imagine/CHSPaper.pdf (Accessed on: 01/11/2005) 3 Wikramagamage C. In: Smither J (Ed). Architectural Remains, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1994.

4 Godakumbure CE. Architecture of Sri Lanka.

Colombo: Department of Cultural Affairs, 1976.

21

5. Ranaweera MP. Stresses in Stupa of Different shapes. Proceedings of the Annual Research Sessions, University of Peradeniya, 1998.

6. de Silva KM. History of Sri Lanka. London: Oxford University Press, 1981 7. Parker H. Ancient Ceylon. New Delhi:Asian Educational Services, 1909.

8. Ranaweera MP. A Finite Element Study of the Stresses in a Stupa. Proceedings of the Fourth East Asia-Pacific Conference on Structural Engineering and construction, Seoul, 1993.

9. Ranaweera MP. Some Structural Analyses Related to the Conservation of Jetavana Stupa. Proceedings of the Engineering Jubilee Congress, University of Peradeniya, 2001.

10.Ranaweera MP. Stress Analysis of an Ancient Stupa in Sri Lanka in Connection with its Conservation. Proceedings of the STREMAH 2001Seventh International Conference on Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Historical Buildings, Bologna, 2001.

11.Dunkeld M. CHS Newsletter. http:// con structionhistory.co.uk/upload files/CHS_70.pdf.

(Accessed date 01/11/2005)

Wijewardene & Lakmali. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 22-26

22

RESEARCH ARTICLE

A study of the disclosure level of Cash Flow Statement W.P. Wijewardene* , P.L.A.Y. Lakmali Department of Accountancy and Finance, Faculty of Management Studies, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka *Corresponding author: percywpv@yahoo.com Abstract: This study empirically investigates the factors influencing the disclosure level in Sri Lankan companies and provides evidence of factors associated with the level of disclosure requirement. The factors examined were, company size, profit after tax, cash and cash equivalents, cash flow from operating activities, investing activities and financing activities of the statement of cash flow. For this purpose, a disclosure index was developed representing the provisions given in Lanka Accounting Standard (LKAS)-07; Statement of cash flow. Annual reports of eight public companies in the plantation sector were examined against the disclosure index. The data gathered were statistically analyzed by refereeing to the content of disclosures. The findings of this study indicate that Sri Lankan companies have better disclosure level. The analysis indicates R-square value of 0.55 for overall disclosure level, despite the fact that independent variables show a low R-square value. Therefore, the level of disclosure can be regarded as favorable in terms of information needs of various interested parties of the companies.

Key words: Disclosure Cash flow statement, Stakeholders

Introduction Accounting is the process of identifying, measuring, and communicating economic information to permit informed judgments and decisions by interested parties. The definition of accounting implies of having two stages, identifying and measuring economic information and communicating economic information. The latter aspect of accounting process is accomplished by financial reporting and by maintaining consistency. It could be defined as the communication of financial and related information of an entity to its various stakeholders, particularly the external parties. Therefore, the term financial reporting does not include only the information communicated through financial statements. Thus, financial statements are a central feature of financial reporting, among the many means of communicating information, about an organization to its stakeholders. On the other, framework for the preparation and presentation of financial statements helps improve the quality of financial information. The framework of accounting is created for achieving the objectives of financial reporting. This framework is a theoretical endeavor with the practical aim of clarifying the objectives of financial reporting, and how alternative practices are likely to achieve those objectives. On the other hand regulatory framework includes Government legislation, Accounting Standards, Stock Exchange Regulations and Tax laws. Framework for the preparation and presentation of financial

statements provides the conceptual foundation for these regulations. Framework needs to assist in the development of new standards and review of existing standards and to assist auditors assessing an opinion, as to whether financial statements confirm with Lanka Accounting Standards (LKASs) to assist in promoting harmonization of regulation, accounting standards and procedures relating to financial reporting.

Sri Lanka has a strong legislative and institutional framework governing accounting and auditing practices of firms, which represents an assortment of government intervention and self-regulation to prepare financial reports in a way of proper standard. Sri Lankaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s accounting and auditing systems have been directly influenced by the British systems due to the British rule in Sri Lanka and more recently by international practices, particularly the international accounting and auditing standards .Accounting standards deal mainly with financial measurement and disclosures used in producing a set of fairly presented financial statements. They draw boundaries within which acceptable conduct lies. The financial reporting process and its ultimate objective, disclosure, are guided to a greater extent by the legislative and institutional framework governing accounting and auditing practices of the entities.

Each accounting standard provides disclosures according to the relevancy of the standard.

Wijewardene & Lakmali. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 22-26 American Accounting Association (AAA) defines disclosures ‘as the movement of information from the private domain into the public domain’. Both financial and non-financial disclosures are included. According to the Sri Lankan context there are mandatory disclosures and voluntary disclosures.

This study discusses the mandatory disclosures of the LKASs. Mandatory disclosures highly assist all stakeholders in each company towards the decision making, with regards to the company.

Stakeholders have different kinds of informational needs. But all these needs cannot be fulfilled through the information that are reflected from the annual reports.

Though, they are recommended as mandatory disclosures, there is a difference in the level of disclosure among the companies. This is due to the type of industry, company size, leverage, liquidity, profitability, type of auditor and company age1.

This study was narrowed down for the Conceptual Framework related to Financial Reporting, LKAS 01-presentation of Financial Statements and LKAS 07-Statement of Cash flows. According to the Sri Lanka Accounting Standard, LKAS 01- of cash flows, accounting policies and explanatory notes practices are included. Accordingly, while the comprehensive income statement and statement of financial position are usually presented as the two major financial reports, the cash flow statement is considered necessary to provide a more complete representation of an entity’s financial position and operating performance. The framework of financial reporting is different from one country to another country. Hence, the disclosure requirement level is also different for each country. As such we cannot predict the disclosure requirement of a country by using the research based on another country.

Though Accounting Standards present the theoretical background for financial reporting, there are deviates between accounting theory and practices. The disclosure level of annual reports mainly focused on the stakeholders of the company. Employee group, equity investors including existing and potential, loan creditor group, the analyst, business contacts, the government and the public can also be identified. The problem statement of this study is, “ what is the existing level of disclosure level”. By addressing the above problem the following objectives were identified, since even with the current disclosure requirement level l,

23

satisfying the informational requirement of stakeholders, there are still unsolved questions about disclosure level in annual reports. The objectives, therefore, in the current study were (a) to measure the disclosure levels in plantation sector in Sri Lanka, (b) to identify the deviates of accounting standards practice and (c) to see to what extent Sri Lankan listed companies comply with the LKASs.

Methodology This study measures level of disclosures by referring to mandatory requirements as per LKAS 07.

Therefore, the study basically focuses on the cash flow disclosure requirement. LKAS requires cash flows to be mainly categorized into three activities namely, cash flows from operating activities, cash flows from investing activities and cash flows from financing activities. Therefore these activities are taken as variables of this study and the level of disclosure is measured there on.

Population and Sample The study population comprised of companies, listed on the CSE as at 31st March 2012. According to the CSE website, total number of companies listed on the CSE is 287. These companies are categorized into 20 industrial sectors. In the process of sample selection, except plantation sector companies, other sectors were excluded. Therefore, in this research only plantation sector companies were included and the sample was limited to 8 companies.

Sample period and data collection All data used to develop the model of this study were secondary data extracted from audited annual reports published in CSE website for the financial year 2011/2012. The selection process was done by using purposive sampling method.

Variables The variables used were operating activities, financing activities and investing activities. The amount of cash flows arising from operating activities is a key indicator of the extent to which the operations of the entity have generated sufficient cash flows from normal business activities during the accounting period. Separate disclosure of cash flows arising from financing activities is important because it is useful in predicting claims on future cash flows by providers of capital to the entity.

Separate disclosure of cash flows, arising from investing activities, is important because the cash

Wijewardene & Lakmali. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 22-26 flows represent the extent to which expenditures have been made for resources intended to generate future income and cash flows. Content analysis was used to measure these variables. Content analysis is a technique for making replicable and valid inference from data to their context2. Using this technique, the amount of information disclosed can be measured per category by counting the data items.

24

disclosure. Cash flow disclosure is a part of overall disclosure level. Therefore, from the relationship between cash flow disclosure and overall disclo sure, one can identify the disclosure level of each company. Further it is assumed that the disclosure level is controlled by the company size, profitability, cash and cash equivalent.

Research Model In this study, content analysis (Anatomy analysis) and E-views 6 versions, a statistical computer application package was used with multiple regressions to analyze the impact of disclosure level and the firm variables. The following regression models were to be fitted to the data in order to assess the effect of each variable on the disclosure level.

Development of Disclosure Index Disclosure index refers to the degree or level of disclosure made by each company calculated by dividing the number of actually disclosed items in the company’s annual report by the required applicable items or the number of average items disclosed by the company. The equation used to D L LOp = a + βb1 Size + bβ 2 PAT + βb 3 CCE calculate the disclosure for each company is

D L L In = a + βb1 Size + β b 2 PAT + βb 3 CCE

DI=AD/AvD. D L LFi = a + βb1 Size + β b 2 PAT + βb 3 CCE Where:

DI=the disclosure index for a company.

D L L T = a + βb1 Size + βb 2 PAT + βb 3 CCE

AD=the number of items a company actu

ally disclosed.

AvD=the average number of items for the Where; DLOp = Disclosure level of operating activities, DLIn = Disclosure level of investing

sampled companies. activities, DLFn = Disclosure level of financing Using this procedure, a disclosure level index was activities α=Constant, β1 Size= Size of the company computed for each item in the checklist for all the (Total Assets), β2 PAT= Profit after Tax, β3 CCE= companies. The total disclosure level was calcu- Cash and Cash equivalents, DLop= Disclosure level of operating activities, DLIn= Disclosure lated using the equation. level of investing activities, DLFi= Disclosure level of financing activities, DLT= Overall disclosure D L L = ∑ (x1 + x2 + x3 + ....xn ) level.

Conceptual Framework The following is the conceptual framework to show the operationalization of the study variables. Cash flow disclosure consists of three main components namely operating, financing and investing activities (Figure1). Aggregation of these disclosures under three activities determines the cash flow

Results and Discussion This represents the regression results related to the independent variables of operating activity, financing activity and investing activity in determining the level of disclosure. Size, profitability and cash and cash equivalents are the dependents of independent variables. Table 1 reports regression results of the study that

Firm Size

Operating activity Financing activity

Disclosure Level

Investing activity Figure1. Conceptual framework

Profitability Cash & Cash Equivalent

25

Wijewardene & Lakmali. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 22-26 represents good model to some extent. The multicollinearity shows that there is no material relationship among independent variables.

This does not hold statistically significant relationship. The coefficients of size, profitability and cash and cash equivalents indicate that the size of the company is positively associated with the disclosure level of operating activities but statistically insignificant. Both variables of profitability and cash and cash equivalents are negatively associated with disclosure level and also statistically insignificant.

With respect to the regression analysis of disclosure level in relation to financing activities, the R-square value was not significant. The multicollinearity is sufficient value to test the data. The coefficient and significance level of cash and cash equivalents indicates that cash and cash equivalents is positively associated with disclosure level, but still statistically insignificant. Profitability and size of the company show a negative association. However the association is statistically insignificant.

The results of the regression analysis in relation to financial activities are given in Table 3.

Table 1. Regression analysis for operating activity model

Table 3. Regression analysis for financing activity model

Variable

Variable

Coefficient

Probability

CCE* -2.60 0.84 PAT+ -1.50 0.32 Size!

14.10 0.34 R-Square 0.20 Multicollinearity 1.19

CCE* PAT+ Size!

R-Square Multicollinearity

15.15 -0.16 -5.72 0.24 0.20

0.3750 0.9272 0.7458

*Cash and Cash equivalents, +Profit after Tax, !Size of company

*Cash and Cash equivalents, +Profit after Tax, !Size of company

The output of the regression analysis in relation to investing activities is given in Table 2. The Rsquare value indicates that it is not a strong model.

However, the multi co linearity indicator shows that there was no strong interrelationship among the independent variables. The coefficients of cash and cash equivalents and profit after tax indicate that both cash and cash equivalent and profit after tax are positively associated with the disclosure level, though not statistically strong. With respect to the size of the company, the coefficient and significance levels imply that investing activities and size of the company are negatively associated with each other, even though the relationship is statistically insignificant.

The regression model for overall disclosure model generates a R-square carrying a high explanatory power. The R-square (0.55) is considered to be satisfactory and supported by similar studies3,1. The multicollinearity among dependant variable was 2.12.

Coefficient

Probability

Table 2. Regression Analysis for investing activity model Variable

Coefficient

CCE* PAT+ Size!

R-Square Multicollinearity

12.82 0.69 -3.52 0.18 1.35

Probability 0.36 0.63 0.80

*Cash and Cash equivalents, +Profit after Tax, !Size of company

Table 4 reveals that coefficients of the size and cash and cash equivalents are overall disclosure level.

However this positive association with overall disclosure level was not statistically significant. Earlier studies1,4,5.also have revealed that there was a positive association between company size and the level of disclosures. With respect to profitability, the coefficient and significance levels were - 0.97 and 0.59 thus showing a negative but insignificant association with the overall disclosure level. However, it was noted that profitability had a positive association with the disclosure level of investing activities. Overall, analysis reveals that company size and cash and cash equivalents (liquidity position) are positively associated with overall disclosure level compared to other models which were tested in relation to disclosures on cash flows from each type of activities.

Wijewardene & Lakmali. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 22-26 Table 4. Regression Analysis for Overall Disclosure Model Variable

Coefficient

Probability

CCE* PAT+ Size!

R-Square Multicollinearity

25.38486 -0.968172 4.853576 0.549703 2.127751

0.1601 0.5872 0.7808

26

in the model, no indication was found to attributes of a satisfactory model. However, the overall disclosure level model showed qualities of a satisfactory model but the model is statistically insignificant. However these findings were in par with the findings of similar studies1,3.

*Cash and Cash equivalents, +Profit after Tax, !Size of company

In conclusion, it can be stated that plantation sector companies have a satisfactory disclosure level but it does not imply the attributes of a better financial reporting in Sri Lankan companies listed on the CSE.

Conclusion

References

The results reveal that the average disclosure level by all the companies tested were above the standard level of disclosure requirement in relation to each of operating, investing and financing activities When the average overall disclosure level was considered, it was found that the actual disclosure level was more than the required standard level. This reveals that companies have adequately disclosed the information pertaining to all the aspects of cash flows. Data analysis revealed that company size and cash and cash equivalents are positively associated with the disclosure level though profit after tax, is negatively associated with the disclosure requirement level in relation to operating, investing and financing activities. When considering the individual activities, there is some variations with company size, profit after tax and cash and cash equivalents. Overall disclosure level is adjusted as discussed above. Furthermore,when considering the separate independent variables

1. Al Mutawa A. Disclosure level and compliance with IFRSs: An empirical investigation of Kuwaiti companies. International Business and Economics Research Journal 2010; 9: 33-50.

2.Krippendorff K. Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology. Newbury Park, Calif: Sage.

3. Hossian M. The extent of disclosure in annual reports of banking companies: the case of India. European Journal of scientific Research 2008; 23: 659-680.

4. Owusu-Ansah S, Yeoh J. The effect of legislation on corporate disclosure practices.Abacus 2005; 41: 1-19.

5. Al-Shammari B, Brown P, Tarca A. Development of enforcement mechanisms following adoption of International Accounting Standards in the Gulf Cooperation Council Member States. (Working paper) University of Western Australia, 2007.

Fernando & Wijayanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 27-32

27

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Knowledge and understanding about cervical cancer, risk factors and prevention, among rural women in Anuradhapura, North Central Province of Sri Lanka: A questionnaire based survey.

T. R. N. Fernando1*, A. N. Wijayanayake2.

Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Faculty of Medicine, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. *Corresponding author: romaniefernando@yahoo.com 2 Department of Industrial Management, Faculty of Science, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka.

1

Abstract: This study was designed to assess the knowledge and understanding of cervical cancer, risk factors and prevention among women between 20 to 70 years in the Anuradhapura District (AD). A cross-sectional, questionnaire based survey was conducted during October 2011 - January 2012. Convenience sampling was applied.

A total of 700 women participated and analysis was done on 676 completed data sheets. Majority (89.6%) of the women were between 20–49 years. Majority (>88%) had secondary or higher education and correlation between education level and knowledge and understanding about cervical cancer was highly positive (r=0.9384).

Although majority of the women in this study sample had a high literacy rate, their awareness about cervical cancer risk factors and its prevention was poor. Almost 97% of the sample had heard about cervical cancer and 90% knew that it could be prevented. Nearly 86% of the sample was unaware about the risk factors for cervical cancer. Only 8% were aware of the correct risk factors. More than 50% were aware about the Well Women Clinics (WWC). Majority of women had mentioned television as their main source of information.

Cervical cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths among women in Sri Lanka. At the end of year 2007, the coverage of screening of the target age group was only 18% in Sri Lanka. Therefore, a greater effort to improve the awareness among women of reproductive age would result in their seeking preventive care for cervical cancer voluntarily.

Key words: Cancer of the cervix, Cervical cancer prevention, Psychosocial issue, Awareness about cancer

Introduction Cervical cancer is preventable if diagnosed early.

Cancer cervix is the second commonest cancer among women worldwide. Worldwide cervical cancer amounts for about 500,000 new cases diagnosed per year, and 250,000 deaths occur worldwide annually of which 80% occur in developing countries1. In Sri Lanka the second most commonest cause of deaths due to cancer among women is cervical cancer, first being breast cancer. There were 881 documented deaths due to cervical cancer with a crude rate of 8.9 per 100,000 population in Sri Lanka in 20052.

Cervix is easily accessible to histological or cytological investigations. Pre- cancer stage (cervical intra epithelial neoplasia -CIN) has a long latent period easily recognizable before development of cancer. Cervical cancer is curable if detected in an early stage as effective treatment is possible in CIN stage. “Screening” for cervical cancer consists

of examining asymptomatic women with the aim of diagnosing the disease at an early stage when a cure is possible. A cervical cancer screening programme was introduced in UK in 1988 and has resulted in reductions in cervical cancer incidence and mortality within a decade of introduction, causing an overall drop in mortality rates by 42% from 1987 to 1997 in UK 3.

World Health Organisation (WHO) in 2002 has acknowledged that cervical cancer screening is the most effective approach for cervical cancer control at present in developing countries1. However, in many countries, including most middle-income developing countries, the existing programmes are failing to achieve a major impact on prevention of cervical cancer deaths1. To achieve an impact on reducing cervical cancer incidence a screening programme needs a high level of coverage of the target population. Women in the target population need to seek preventive care. For this they have to

Fernando & Wijayanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 27-32 be aware about screening for cervical cancer and its potential benefits.

Well Woman Clinic (WWC) services were established in 1996 in Sri Lanka, mainly to overcome the burden of cervical cancer4. Family Health Bureau is the central coordinating body of the programme while services are provided mainly by the Public Health staff island wide. A total of 70,986 attended the 482 functioning Well Womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Clinics during 2006. At the end of year 2007, 611 WWCsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; were functioning in the country4. There were 14 WWCs functioning in Anuradhapura district in 20054. The percentage of women screened in the age groups 35 years -65 years was only 18% in 2007 in Sri Lanka4. High coverage of the target population is essential for a screening programme to make a major impact on cancer prevention. To improve coverage of the target population there should be strategies.

One of the most important aspects is the awareness about cervical cancer, its prevention and the knowledge where to seek preventive care.

Materials and Methods A cross-sectional, self-administered, questionnairebased survey was conducted during October 2011 - January 2012 in Anuradhapura district. Questionnaire was validated by a pilot study. Women between 20 years to 70 years were included. The questionnaire had three main components, knowledge and understanding about cervical cancer detection in early stage, where to seek cancer screening and risk factors for cervical cancer. For each of the above components the source of information was sought. The survey was conducted among university students, school teachers, unskilled labourers, non-academic staff of a university and

28

among community people of different social strata in Anuradhapura district. Therefore, convenience and snowball sampling techniques were applied.

Oral consent was obtained. Ethical clearance was obtained from Ethics Review Committee, Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka.

Results A total of 676 participants satisfactorily completed the questionnaire. Majority of women (88%) had secondary or higher education (Table 1). Correlation between education level and awareness about cancer was highly positive (r=0.9384). Almost 97% of the study population had heard about cancer.

Also 90% knew that the cancer can be prevented if diagnosed in the pre cancer stage (Table 2).

Majority (89.6%) of the women were between 2049 years. Knowledge and understanding about cancer varied with age and education. Women 60 years of age and older were least knowledgeable of cancer, risk factors and detection methods.

Almost 91% of the sample had heard about cervical cancer (CC) (Table 3). Only 65% of them knew that the early stage of the cervical cancer could be detected by attending a WWC (Table 3). Nearly 57% had heard about cervical cancer through TV programmes, 45% through newspapers, another 33% from the general public (Table 4).

Majority of women (85% ) were unaware about the risk factors for cervical cancer (Table 5). Of the 15% who believed that they knew the correct risk factors, only 8% had mentioned correct risk factors.

Table 1. Cross analysis of the age and the level of education of women who participated in the survey in Anuradhapura district.

Age group None Primary Upto O/L Upto A/L Higher

Education 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 Total %

Total

11 3 2 -

5 18 16 11 6

66 96 43 20 12

116 86 49 17 1

40 48 7 3 -

238 251 117 51 19

16 2.37

56 8.28

237 35.06

269 39.79

98 14.50

676

% 35.21 37.13 17.31 7.54 2.81 100.00

Fernando & Wijayanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 27-32

29

Table 2. Knowledge and understanding of cancer among women in Anuradhapura district Education:

Heard of cancer

No

Yes

Total Yes(%)

None Primary Upto O/L Upto A/L Higher education Total

2 12 3 4 0 21

14 44 234 265 98 655

16 56 237 269 98 676

*among who were aware of cancer

cancer can be prevented in early stage*

87.5 78.5

98.7

98.5

100

96.8

Yes

Yes(%)

7 28 214 253 92 594

50 63.6 91.4 95.4 93.8 90.6

Table 3. Knowledge and understanding of cervical cancer (CC) and its prevention among women in Anuradhapura district Education:

None Primary Upto O/L Upto A/L HE Total

Heard of CC No 9 22 21 8 1 61

Yes 7 34 216 261 97 615

HE - Higher Education

CC can be prevented*

Total Yes(%) 16 56 237 269 98 676

43.75 60.71 91.14 97.03 98.98 90.98

Yes 7 30 214 253 92 596

WWC to detect early stages

Yes(%)

No

100.00 88.24 99.07 96.93 94.85 96.91

13 27 71 93 32 236

Yes

Yes(%)

3 29 166 176 66 440

18.75 51.79 70.04 65.43 67.35 65.09

* Among who were aware of cancer

Table 4: Sources of obtaining information about cervical cancer by women* in Anuradhapura district Education News paper TV programmes

None 3

1 Primary 11

25 Upto O/L 80 128 Upto A/L 149 168 HE 63 66 Total 306

388 % 49.76 63.10 HE - Higher Education

Doctors 1 6 64 81 26 178 28.94

General Public 13 70 106 35 224 36.42

Others

1 33 48 20 102 16.58

*Analysis of 615 participants

Discussion Incidence and mortality of invasive cancer have dramatically declined in Western Europe and North America since the introduction of cytologi-

-cal screening in the late 1960s. Cytological screening programmes have not been always successful in the developing countries including Sri Lanka. They failed to affect the incidence of mortality from the disease due to limited coverage,

Fernando & Wijayanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 27-32 Table 5. Knowledge and understanding of risk factors for cervical cancer among women in Anuradhapura district Education

No

Yes

Total Yes (%)

None Primary Upto O/L Upto A/L HE Total

14 50 207 221 85 577

2 6 30 48 13 99

16 56 237 269 98 676

12.5 10.71 12.65 17.84 13.26 14.6

HE - Higher Eduction

poor quality Papanicoloau smears, lack of adequate follow up, unavailability of resources and unawareness among high risk women.

Family Health bureau report on cervical cytology screening states that, in 2006 almost three fourths (73.5%) of the women who attended the WWCs were subjected to cervical visualization. Of them, 91% had a Papanicoloau smear taken. However the results were reported only in 75% of the smears and this percentage has further decreased to 58% in 2007 4. There are no published data on awareness among target population for cervical cancer screening and its prevention in Sri Lanka.

This study highlights the fact that knowledge and understanding about cervical cancer and the Well Women Clinics is closely associated with educational level of the woman. There was a highly positive correlation between the level of education and awareness about cervical cancer. The main sources of information were television and newspapers.

This questionnaire did not include how womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attitude or culture could affect their seeking for cancer screening. The aspects of attitudes and cultural beliefs too should be looked into for a cancer prevention programme to become successful. The attitudes and cultural beliefs may differ in oriental cultures like in Sri Lanka from western cultures.

The preventive programmes should essentially have a wider coverage of high risk populations seeking preventive care on their own. Therefore we should modify our strategies to be more sensitive towards different cultures, beliefs and attitudes in our local communities.

30

The aetiology of cervical cancer is strongly associated with Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) infection. Other risk factors include low socioeconomic class, multiple sexual partners and smoking. Of 99 women, who stated that they knew the causes for cervical cancer only 58 knew the correct causes for cervical cancer. It is interesting to note that only two women mentioned HPV as a risk factor for cervical cancer. Only 6% of the women mentioned multiple sexual partners as a risk factor. Majority of this study population was unaware that cervical cancer is caused by a HPV which is sexually transmitted. Coming to know that cervical cancer is sexually transmitted may itself become a social stigma to some. More than 92% of the respondents either didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know the correct risk factors or have mentioned incorrect risk factors. There were 78 responses with incorrect risk factors mentioned, such as poor hygiene factors, induced abortions, drugs, family planning, injections, menstrual disorders, herpes, and obesity or inherited as causes for cervical cancer. Thus, it can be concluded that, on the whole, most women possessed either incorrect or inaccurate information. Since the sources of information were basically television or from the general public, the information is likely to be inaccurate or incomplete. Television programs by health professionals structured to appeal to the local populations of women, might prove to have a high impact.

This questionnaire did not include the awareness about HPV vaccination and attitude towards vaccination. There were few studies published regarding awareness of cervical cancer screening in under resourced countries. One study done in Nigeria, surveyed 195 female health workers and concluded that screening uptake was very poor due to a combination of inappropriate beliefs, misapprehension, and deficient knowledge5. Another study done among 401 Cameroonian healthcare workers concludes that creating awareness among healthcare workers on risk factors and current methods for cervical cancer screening, is a necessary step towards implementing effective prevention programs6. A study published in United Kingdom in 2003 among 1032 women attending WWC concludes that, in a relatively well educated sample, awareness and knowledge of HPV were poor and suggests that public education is urgently needed7.

Recently many have explored the potential for cervical cancer prevention in under resourced countries. These efforts have identified that

Fernando & Wijayanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 27-32

31

massive human and financial investments are needed to implement a cervical cancer screening and treatment programme effectively in underresourced countries8. World Health Organization consultative report in 2002 on cervical cancer screening programme in a developing country recommends ensuring high levels of coverage of the target population, offering high quality, caring services, developing and monitoring good referral systems that ensure good patient followup and ensuring that the patients receive appropriate, acceptable and caring treatment in the context of informed consent1. This report further states that the target population will have to be educated about screening for cervical cancer, and the health professionals who serve them may need education and re-training. Sri lanka thus should think seriously about introducing through the mass media, extensive awareness programs conducted by well trained health professionals.

been very successful in Sri Lanka. The need for political will, funding and commitment of health care professionals are needed to see that cervical cancer prevention is successful. A successful cancer prevention programme will reduce the cervical cancer deaths and disease incidence in the next decade in Anuradhapura and in Sri Lanka as a whole.

Cervical cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths among women in Sri Lanka. At the end of 2007, a total of 611 WWCs were functioning in the country4. However, the target age group coverage had been only 18% island wide4. Majority of the sample (65%) was aware that WWCs provide cervical cancer preventive care. Although in this study sample majority of the women were of high literacy level and majority were aware of cervical cancer, their awareness about cervical cancer risk factors and its prevention was poor. Having heard about cervical cancer did not ensure accurate knowledge. Strategies for communicating accurate information about HPV transmission, prevention, detection and availability of screening for cervical cancer are needed. There should be greater effort to improve the awareness among women of reproductive age, in Anuradhapura district, so that they will seek preventive care for cervical cancer.

References

Conclusion Why should women continue to die when cervical cancer is curable if diagnosed early? It is imperative that Sri Lanka’s cancer prevention programme should be more committed to take the message of this curable cancer to the target population. A target group that should be considered to be educated about cervical cancer prevention are the girls of secondary schools and at adolescent clinics. It is encouraging to note that many preventive programmes of communicable diseases and HIV had

Acknowledgement We thank Dr. BGS Jayaratna and Dr. EKC Lankeshwara, Temporary Lecturers, Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences for assistance in collecting data. We also acknowledge the efforts taken

by Mr.Upul Weerasinghe Technical Officer, Mrs. HD Dharmasinghe Computer Applications Assistant and Ms. KCK Jayasinghe Lab Attendant, of the Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Faculty of Medicine and Allied Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, in the extraction of data.

1. World Health Organization. Cervical cancer screening in developing countries. Consultation Report. Geneva: WHO, 2002.

2. Cancer Registry. Cancer Incidence Data: Sri Lanka Year 2001-2005. Colombo: National Cancer Control Programme. (http://www.health.gov.lk/ cancer.htm) Accessed on: 01.10.13 3. Cuzick J, Sasieni P. Cervical screening in UK. Hong Kong Medical Journal 1999; 5:269-71.

4. Family Health Bureau, Ministry of Health Care and Nutrition. Annual Report on Family Health Sri Lanka 2006 – 2007. Colombo, Sri Lanka. 21-23.

5. Gharoro EP, Ikeanyi EN. An appraisal of the level of awareness and utilization of the Pap smear as a cervical cancer screening test among female health workers in a tertiary health institution. International Journal of Gynaecological Cancer 2006; 16: 1063–68.

6. McCarey C, Pirek D, Tebeu PM, Boulvain M, Doh AS, Petign P. Awareness of HPV and cervical cancer prevention among Cameroonian healthcare workers. BMC Women’s Health 2011; 11:45.

7. Waller J, McCaffery K, Forrest S, Szarewski A, Cadman L, et al.. Awareness of human papillo

Fernando and Wijayanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 27-32 mavirus among women attending a well woman clinic. Sexually Transmitted Infections 2003; 79: 320â&#x20AC;&#x201C;322.

8 . McGregor D ,Olaitan A. Global perspective fighting cervical cancer in under resourced countries. The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist 2010; 12:49â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

32

Nanayakkara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 33-37

33

RESEARCH ARTICLE

.=jkaúÿ,sfhys udOHuh m%n,;djka ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõokfhys ,d Ndú;lsÍu ms<sn| úuiqula fiak kdkdhlaldr udkjYdia;% wOHkdxYh, Y%S ,xld rcrg úYAjúoHd,h. senananayakkara@gmail.com

Evaluation of the use of Radio in Development Communication Process Sena Nanayakkara Abstract: The radio media has passed more than nine decades after it was introduced to the world and by now it has become a very popular media among the public. But, currently it has shown a minor decline in its popularity due to the arrival of new media such as visual technology. Another reason for this decline is that radio broadcasting is an auditory communication system which depends only on sounds. But the experts accept that, radio media consists of very powerful potentials to change social, economic, political and cultural situations of the society.

This study, therefore, is an important and a fruitful investigation targeting the social development, because the main objective of this study is to examine the communicative contribution played by the radio based on the said potentials in respect of the development communication process.

The methodology adopted in this study is mainly based on the literature survey of contemporary archives on the print media in respect of history of sound broadcasting. Further, the study has investigated many kinds of strengths of the media through listening to radio programs.

This study identified and concluded that the radio media has very extensive feasibilities in respect of development communication. In this connection, promptness, multiplicity, transgression of social varieties, simple technology and flexibility, ability of expansion of imagination, consequential profitability and attractive communication patterns play a major role. The most significant fact revealed by this study is that radio is the most usable instrument for the development communication process in developing countries. m¾fhaIK ixIsma;h .=jkaúÿ,sh udOH f,dalhg y÷kajd § fï jk úg oil kjhlg jeä l,la .;ù we;s w;r, th ck;dj w;r jvd;a ckm%sh udOHhla njg m;aj we;’ kuq;,a woH;k rEmudOHfha kj ixl%uKh fya;=fldg f.k tys ckm%sh;djfha u| wj.ukhla fmkakqï flf¾. .=jkaúÿ,sh y`v muKla uq,afldg.;a Y%e;f.dapr udOHhla ùu ta i|yd jQ B<`. idOlhhs. tfiajqjo” th iudc, wd¾Ól, ixialD;sl yd foaYmd,ksl wdia:dkhka fjkia l< yels YlH;d iys;, jvd;a n,mEïiy.; udOHhla f,i úfYaI{fhda ms<s.ks;s. tneúka, fuu wOHhkh iudc ixj¾Okfhys ,d b,lal fldg.;a jvd;a jeo.;a fukau, M,odhS úu¾Ykhla fjhs. ta wkqj fuys m%uqL;u woHdYh jkqfha ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõok l%shdj,shg wod<j Wla; YlH;djkaf.a ikaksfõokuh odhl;ajh .eUqßka úuidne,Su h’. ld,dkqrEmj f.dvke.=K= idys;Hh mßYS,kh fuys m%uqL;u l%ufõoh f,i .efka .=jkaúÿ,sh udOHfha b;sydihg wod< uqøs;udOHh tys§ m%uqL fjhs. ta iu.u ixj¾Ok úIhfCIa;%hg wod< úúO .=jkaúÿ,s jevigyka wOHhkh lsÍfuka tys YlH;d y÷kd.ekSu o Wla; l%ufõohg we;=<;afldg .eKsk’. .=jkaúÿ,sh jQ l,S ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõok l%shdj,sfhys ,d mq`:,a YlH;d iys; udOHhla nj fuys§ ks.ukh flf¾. CIKsl;ajh, nyq,SlrKh, iudc m%fNao;d iu;sl%uKh, kuHYS,S ir, ;dCIKh, mßl,amkh mq`:,a l< yelsùu, idfmaCI ,dNodhS nj yd úÑ;%dx.uh ikaksfõok rgdj o fï flfrys ,d m%uqL fjhs’ ta wkqj zixj¾Okh fjñka mj;akd rgj, ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõok l%shdj,sfhys ,d jeä jYfhkau Ndú; fldg.; yels udOHh .=jkaúÿ,sh hsz hkak fuu wOH kfhka fy<sorõ flfrk iqúfYaI;u ks.ukhhs.

ye¢kaùu .=jkaúÿ,sh Y; j¾Ihlg wdikak È.=ld,Sk b;sydihla iys; m%lg úoHq;a udOHhlss. f,dj fndfyda rgj, th ckm%sh;u ckudOH f.dkafkys tla udOHhla f,i mej;sh o, fï jk úg isÿfjñka mjkakd úúO iudc wd¾Ól yd foaYmd,ksl fukau ;dCIK úp,H;d úiska tys WÉPdjpkhka fmkakqï lrhs. .=jkaúÿ,sh jQ l,S y`v muKla uq,a fldg.;a Y%e;f.dapr ikaksfõok udOHhla ùu Bg uQ,sl fya;=jhs. ´kEu ikaksfõok udOHhla ck wjOdkhg ,la flfrkqfha o, tlS udOHfhka úirKh flfrk ixfoaYhka

ck.; flfrkqfha o, iudc m%.ukfhys fyda wj.ukfhys ,d tajd n,meje;afjkqfha o úúO miqìï ldrKd /ila mokï fldgf.k h. udOHfhys m%n,;ajh, ld,Sk nj, wod< ck fldÜGdifhys ú[aØKuh iajrEmh yd Wmfhda.s;dj wdÈh ta i|yd fjfiiska mokï fjhs. kQ;k rEm udOH fha ;dCIKuh ydialï f,dj my< jkafka fï w;r;=r§ h’ uq,ska ;snQ Y%jHf.dapr iajrEmh fjkqjg miqld,Skj th Y%jHoDYH iajremhla jQfha ta neúks. lKska wid is; mskjd.;a Y%djlfhda, weiska n,d mxfÉkaøshu mskjd.; yels fm%aCIlhska njg m;ajQfha ta wkqj h’.

Nanayakkara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 33-37

tfiakï tn÷ ;dCIK úp,H;djla uOHfha .=jkaúÿ,sh n÷ Y%jH udOHhla ixj¾Ok ikaksfõok l%shdj,sfhys ,d Ndú; l< yelafla fln÷ m%n,;djla mokï fldgf.k o hkak .eUqßka úuid ne,sh hq;a;ls. fuu wOHhkfhys m%uqL;u wOHdYh jkqfha tlS m%n,;d úuiqug ,lalsÍuhs.

l%ufõoh .=jkaúÿ,sh udOHhg wod< kHdhhsl yd m%dfhda.sl iajrEmhka fuys§ úu¾Ykh l< hq;=h. tneúka, Bg wod<j f.dvke.=Kq uqøs; idys;H mßYS,kh;a, ld,dkqrEmj f.dvke.=Kq, úúO iudcM, úuiSu;a m%uqL l%ufõohla f,i fuys§ wkq. ukh fldg we;. ckudOH wOHhkfhys fjfiiskau mokï fldg.efkk hï hï iudcuh isoaêoduhka jeo.;a o;a; f,i i,ld nef,kqfha tneúks.

idlÉPdj kQ;k rEmudOH ;dCIKh (Modern Visual Media Technology) wo f,dalh mqrd w;sYh m%p,s; f,i jHdma; jQ jvd;a n,mEï iy.; u ckudOH m%jK;dj njg m;a j we;. ie;mqï oyia .Kklg Tífnka jQ isoaêuh jd¾;dlrKhla tflfkys u iÔj f,i .%dylhd fj; ióm lrjkakg ;rï jQ w;sYh ishqï udOHuh ;dCIK m%n,;d fuys§ lemS fmfka. y`v muKla foijkg m%fõY lrjk ir, Y%e;f.dapr ikaksfõokh (Auditory Communication) fjkqjg iuia; mxfÉkaøsh u .%yKh fldg.; yels rEmuh ikaksfõokh (Visual Communication) wo jvd;a m%n, ù we;af;a tneúks. tfyhska u, y`v fyj;a Yíohg muKla iSud jQ ikaksfõok l%fudamdhhka l%ufhka kQ;k udkj iudcfhka wE;ajkakg ;a, ta flfrys mj;akd ck wjOdkh YS>%dldrfhka CIh jkakg ;a mgkaf.k we;s nj iuyre woyia m< lr;s. kuq;a, iuia; udkj iudcfha bosrs.uk ;SrKh lrkq ,nk ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõokfhys ,d bka m<flfrk YlH;dj ir, j fyda úuidne,Su w;HjYH fjhs. jvd;a ÈhqKq ;dCIK iudchlg wod< j, tys tla;rd i;H;djla m%lg jqj o ÈhqKq fjñka mj;akd ;=kafjks f,dalfha rgj,g idfmaCI j kï th yqfola l,ams;hla muKla u jkq we;ehs hkak wmf.a ye`.Su hs. ta wkqj, ÈhqKqfjñka mj;akd iudc, wd¾Ól yd foaYmd,k miq;,hkag wkqj, Yío úldYk l%ufõo (Strategies of Sound Broadcasting) uq,a fldg.;a .=jkaúÿ,sh udOH (Radio Media) ms<sn| kj ±laula yd o¾Ykhla iys; kj wjOdkhla fhduq l< hq;= j we;. tys ft;sydisl YlH;d kQ;k iudc wjYH;djkg wkql+, f,i uqjy;a lr.ekSfuka th isÿl< hq;=j we;. f,dalfha úúO rgj, ls%hd;aul flfrk ixj¾Ok l%shdoduhg yjq,a ù isák udOHfhda /ila fj;s. ta w;r .=jkaúÿ,sh udOHhg ysñjk ;ek fln÷ o@ tlS ;;a;ajhka flfrys ,d Rcqj u n,mdk .=jkaúÿ,sh udOH iqúfYaI;d fyj;a m%n,;d, W!k;d fukau iSudjka o fuys§ úuid ne,sh hq;= h. ta ukaoh;a, wm idlÉPd lrk ixj¾Ok l%shdoduh ;a, .=jkaúÿ,sh ;a w;r wka;¾l%shdj,Ska ;SrKh flfrkqfha tlS m%n,;d, W!k;d fyda iSudjka mokï fldg f.k neúks.

34

.=jkaúÿ,shg u iqúfYaI jQ udOHuh YlH;djka ms<sn| újdohla ke;. tys mj;akd Rcq nj yd CIKsl nj fuka u ir, nj o úiska tlS udOHh iuia; .%dyl iuQyhd fj; olajk iómia: nj mila lrjkq ,nhs. ud¾I,a uelaÆyka jeks m%lg ikaksfõok úoHd`{hska fmkajdÿka úYaj .ïudk ixl,amfha moku ilia l< uQ, idOl fuys wka;¾.; jk neõ b÷rdu lsj yels h. tkï, f;dr;=re iïmdokh jQ l,S .=jkaúÿ,sfha uQ,sl wruqKq j,ska tlla ùu hs. fulS ixl,amh iïmQ¾Kfhka u ksjerÈ jQj;a, fkdjQj;a óg jeä f,i mdol jkqfha ÈhqKq pkaøsld mKsjqv ;dCIKh ;a, ta yd iïnkaê; rEmjdyskS ld¾hNdrh ;a neõ meyeÈ,s h. kuq;a ;=kajk f,dalfha oshqKqfjñka mj;akd rgj, fkdÈhqKq m%dfoaYSh ;;a;ajhka hgf;a jvd;a jeo.;a jQ ;a, úYsIag jQ ;a ld¾hNdrh ord isákakd jQ udOHh .=jkaúÿ,sh hs. wm l;dlrk woH;kfha mjd tjeks rgj,a ;=< .=jkaúÿ,sh udOHh úiska lrkq ,nk fufyjr woaú;Sh neõ úúO wOHhkhkaf.ka fy<sjk lreKls. f;dr;=re iïmd olhl= yd wOHdmk ldrlhl= f,i ls%hd;aulùu fukau fm<Uùïldrlhl= yd úfkdaodiajdo iïmdolhl= f,i .=jkaúÿ,sh udOH úiska lrkq ,nk fufyjr jQ l,S fuys§ wm úuiqug mdol fldg .kakd ixj¾Ok l%shdoduh flfrys ,d n,mj;akd uQ, idOlfhda h. ixj¾Ok ld¾hh bÈßhg mj;ajdf.k hdu w;ska b;d jeo.;a jkafka thg iïnkaO woyia úákaúg ld¾h idOl mokula u; .%dylhd fj;g iïfm%aIKh lsÍu hs. wm fuys§ m%ia;=; lr.kakd ixj¾Okh jQ l,S f,dalfha nyq;r .%dóh m%cdj yd flfrk iïnkaêldrl l%shdúfYaIhla fjhs’ tkï, ÈhqKq fjñka mj;akd rgj, fjfik nyq;r .%dóh m%cdjf.a Ôjk ;;a;ajh kxjd,Sfï ld¾hh wod< jkqfha tlS nyq;r .%dóh m%cdjg u fkdfõ o@ w;sYh ÈhqKq úoHq;a udOHhla jqj o, iq`:;r jQ kd.ßl ckfldgilg iSudjQ rEmjdyskshg muKla, wNsfma%; ixj¾Okh lrd wm <`.dlrúh yels o@ ;=kajk f,dalfha rgj, fuh iqúfYaI jeo.;alula ork m%Yakhls. nyq;rhla jQ .%dóh È<s`ÿ ck;dj yd w;aje,a ne|.kakd udOHhl wjYH;dj fuys§ l=`:.ekafjhs. tkï Tjqkaf.a Wjukd tmdlï yd iïm;a fukau yelshdjka o wod< fldg.; yels udOH Ndú;hl wjYH;dj hs. .=jkaúÿ,sh udOHhg fjiia ;eka ysñjkqfha fuys§ h. f;dr;=re iïmdok pkaøsld, rEmjdysksh, iskudj fukau mqj;am; o bgqlrk ld¾hNdrh w;r .=jkaúÿ,sfha ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõok l%shdj,sh úYsIag jkqfha flf,il o@ ta flfrys ,d bÈßm;a l< yels idCIs yd idOl wmuK h. úYajjHdma; .eñ m%cdj flakaø fldgf.k fï fj; wjOdkh fhduqlsÍfï§ ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõok l%shdj,sh Wfoid .=jkaúÿ,sh udOHfha úoHudk myiqlï iy ta yd iïnkaO iudÔh jeo.;alï o wms fuys§ úuid n,uqq 1,2. uq,ska wm i|yka l< Rcqnj iy CIKslnj fuys§ lemS fmfkk .=Kdx.h ls. úia;SrK .%dyl fCIa;%hla flfrys tlajru mKsjqvhla ksl=;alsÍfï yelshdj ;=< l=`:.ekafjk nyq,SlrK’ YlH;dj o jeo.;a fldg ie,lsh hq;= h. ixj¾Ok l%shdoduh w;r;=r m%;spdrlhd w;r f.dvke.sh hq;=j we;s iduQysl;ajh ms<sn| ixl,amfha§ fulS yelshdj

Nanayakkara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 33-37 lÈu msgqjy,la jk nj lsj yels h. tkï, jvd;a mq`:,a j jHdma;jkakdjQ ;=kafjks f,dalfha rgj, úYd,jmißhlska hq;a N+ñ Nd.hka yd tys m%cdj flfrys CIKsl ±kqj;a lsÍï ;=<ska fulS ld¾hh bÈßhg /f.k hdfï myiqj hs. udrdka;sl frda., jix.; yd CIKsl fN!;sluh úm¾hdihka, ydkslr jQ foaY.=Ksl yd ld,.=Ksl ;;a;ajhka ms<sn| flfrk CIKsl f;dr;=re iïmdokh ksoiqka h. tmuKla fkdj, idCIr;djfhka f;dr .%dyl fldÜGdi flfrys .=jkaúÿ,sh udOHh olajk iómia:Ndjh úYsIag h. tkï, .=jkaúÿ,sh jQ l,S W.;a kQ.;a fNaohlska f;drj myiqfjka u .%yKh fldg.; yels fmdÿ udOHh ls. wod< .%dyl fldÜGdifha wl=re yelsshdj fuys§ jeo.;a fldg fkdie,fla. fulS udOHfha l%shdldÍ;ajh Wmfhda.S lr.kakd ixj¾Ok ld¾hhg tlS W!k;dj ndOdjla fkdfõ. fuh b;d ir, ldrKhla jkafka ta ms<sn| kso¾Yk iq,n neúks. uydpd¾h fla’ tia’ iS;drdï úiska bkaÈhdkq ck iudch weiqfrka mj;ajk ,o m¾fhaIKhka yd tys ks.ukhka ms<sn| i,ld ne,Sfï§ fuh jvd;a meyeÈ,s flf¾’ bkaÈhdkq ck iudch jQ l,S ixj¾Okh fjñka mj;akd rgj, iuia; udkj j¾.hd ksfhdackh flfrk iudc fldÜGdihla hehs is;Su ksjerÈ hehs yef`.a. Bg fya;=j iuia; f,dalh ;=< jHdma;j mj;skakd jQ iudc, ixialD;sl yd foaYmd,ksl iajrEmhkays il,úO yev;, tys ksrEms; neúks. ta ksid u ta iïnkaO m¾fhaIK yd ks.uk uq`Muy;a ;=kajk f,dalhg u fmdÿ jQjla neõ Wml,amkh lsÍu wmyiq ke;. uydpd¾h iS;drdï f.a m¾fhaIK u`.ska wkdjrKh l< yels jQ jeo.;a ks.uk fol ls3.

1. .eñ ck;dj ;=< ±kqu yd wjfndaOh mq`M,a lr.ekSu i|yd bjy,a jk m%uqL;u ksfõokd;aul udOHh .=jkaúÿ,sh nj.

2. È.=ld,Sk jYfhka .=jkaúÿ,shg ijka fokq ,nk wl=re lshùfï yd ,sùfï yelshdj ke;s .%dylhd ;=<, wl=re lshùfï yd ,sùfï yelshdj we;s tfy;a .=jkaúÿ,shg ijka fkdfok mqoa.,hkag jvd ld,Sk m%jD;a;s ms<sn| we;s wjfndaOh mq`M,a nj. fuhska meyeÈ,s jkafka l=ula o@ ixj¾Ok ld¾hh i|yd wjYH wjfndaOh iy ±kqj;a nj fiiq udOHhkag jvd .=jkaúÿ,sh udOHh u`.ska fõ.j;a j fukau mq`M,aj o nyq;r iudc fldÜGdi w;r jHdma; l< yels nj h. fuu ks.uk ms<s.ekSug wm jeä wE;l hd hq;= ke;’ Y%S ,xldfõ u msysgqjd we;s m%dfoaYSh .=jkaúÿ,s uOHia:dk yd Bg wkqnoaO m%cd .=jkaúÿ,s fiajdjka u`.ska l=`M.kajk m¾fhaIK ks.uk Bg m%udKj;a idCIs imhhs. Y%S ,xld .=jkaúÿ,sfha rcrg, reyqK yd uykqjr fiajdjkq;a, Bg wkqnoaO fld;auf,a yd .srd÷refldaÜfÜ we;=`M m%cd .=jkaúÿ,s ixj¾Ok ikaksfõok l%fudamdhhka ta w;r lemS fmfkhs4. rgj,a 24 lska hqla;j ;snQ wdishd Ydka;slr .=jkaúÿ,s ix.ufha m%Odk f,alïj isá Y%Su;a pd,aia fudaiia f.a m%ldYhla wmf.a ks.uk yd ii|d n,uq. iuyr wdishd;sl rgj, ck.ykfhka 70% lg muK wCIr {dkhla fkd-ue;. fuu ,CI ixLHd; ckldh iajNdIdfjka u flfrk .=jkaúÿ,s m%pdr yereKq úg fiiq udOHj,ska wE;a ù isá;s. ixj¾Okh fjñka mj;akd rgj, ienE wd¾Ól yd idudÔh m%.;sh we;slsÍu i|yd ta rgj, uq`Muy;a m%cdju

35

iïnkaO lrjd .ekSu wjYH nj ms<s.ksuq kï ta i|yd újr j we;s tl u udOHh .=jkaúÿ,hhs2. udOH Ndú;h i|yd .%dylhdg úfYaI mqyqKqjla wjYH fkdùu o óg u iïnkaO fya;=ldrlh ls. th jvd;a ir, h. udOHh weiqre lsÍu Wfoid wejeis iqÿiqlï ir, yd ,sys,a jQ ;rug u ta i|yd jk .%dyl iyNd.s;ajh yd M,odhs nj m%Yia; ùu m%dfhda.sl i;Hh ls. ´kEu iudc fldÜGdihl wd¾Ól yelshdj fyda fkdyels hdj u; ieliqKq .=jka úÿ,s hka;%h yd iïnkaO wvqñ, l%uh, ld,Sk iudc wd¾Ól rgdjkg fl;rï ÿrg .e,fma o@ th .%dylhd ,nk úYsIag myiqlula fkdfõ o@ fjk;a ckudOHhla weiqre lsÍu i|yd ffoksl j jeh l< hq;= uqo, fjkqjg fyda tljr jeh l< hq;= OkialkaOhla fjkqjg wvqñ,g ,nd.;a l=vd .=jkaúÿ,s hka;%hlska Tjqka ,nk m%;s,dNh fldmuK o@ th lsrd, uek ;lafiare lsÍu Wlyghehs is;ñ’. ;=kajk f,dalfha fkdÈhqKq rgj,a w;r wo jkúg Ndú; flfrk .=jkaúÿ,s hka;% m%udKh, rEmjdyskS hka;% m%udKh fuka oi .=Khls’ ksoiqka f,i, 1992 j¾Ifha Y%S ,xldfõ Ndú; rEmjdyskS hka;% m%udKh 850,000 ^wg ,CI mkia oyila& jqj;a n,m;a iys; .=jkaúÿ,s hka;% m%udKh muKla úismka ,CI yegyh oyils5 rEmjdyskS hka;%hg jvd n,m;a rys; .=jkaúÿ,s hka;% ,CI .Kkla ±kqÿ Ndú; lrk neõ m¾fhaIK j,ska fy<sfjhs. tfiakï wm uq,ska lS ;=kafjks f,dalfha .=jkaúÿ,s yd rEmjdyskS hka;% m%udKh jQ 10:1 wkqmd;h wmg;a j,x.= fõ. tneúka .=jkaúÿ,sh fuys m%uqL;u ixj¾Ok ikaksfõok ldrlhd úh fkdyels o@ fuys úfYaI;ajh l=ula o@ rgl ixj¾Ok ld¾hhg mokï jk .%dyl fCIa;%h jQ l,S fndfydaúg trg isák .%dóh m%cdj hs. tfyhska u, yqfola iq`:;rhla jQ kd.ßlhd w;r mßyrKh flfrk rEmjdyskshlg fyda mqj;am;lg fyda fjkhï ckudOHhlg jvd jeä n,mEï, nyq;rhla jQ .eñhd w;r mßyrKh flfrk .=jkaúÿ,sh u.ska isÿflfrk nj wújdofhka ms<s.; hq;= h. rgl ixj¾Ok ls%hdoduh flfrys ,d .=jkaúÿ,sh udOHh ufydamldÍ ùug n,mdk ;j;a b;d jeo.;a idOlhla fjhs. tkï, udOHh ;a, .%dylhd ;a w;r f.dvkef.k m%Yia; jQ ióm iïnkaO;dj hs. fjk;a lsisÿ ckudOHhlg jvd jeä YlH;djla fuys§ fulS udOHh úiska mila lrjkq ,nhs. ck;d iyNd.S;ajhla ke;s wêm;sjd§ ksfõokd;aul udOHhkaf.ka ksl=;a l< ks,ksfõok ms<sn| ie,ls,a,la fkd±lajQ .%dylhd, wo ;uka iómhg meñK we;s udOH iylrejd ms<sn| jeä wjOdkhla fhduq lrhs. m%dfoaYSh uÜgfï ixj¾Ok l%shdoduhla jHdma; lsÍfï§ yels;dla ÿrg ck;dj iyNd.s lrjd .; hq;= h. fï u.ska ck;d úYajdih f.dvke.Su ;a iu`.u Tjqka i;= m%dfhda.sl ±kqu, ish nqoaêh yd ie`.jqKq l=i,;dj wdÈh t<s±laùug bv m%ia:dj ielfia. ta ;=<ska isÿjkafka l=ula o@ mdrïmßl j Tjqka ;=< mj;sk ñ:Hd úYajdi yd iïm%odhhsl woyia wdÈh tlS ixj¾Ok l%shdoduhg WÑ; jk mßÈ fjkia lr.ekSug yelshdj ,eîu hs. .%dyl flakaøSh iyNd.S;aj ikaksfõok l%fudamdhhl6 wjYH;dj u;=jkafka fuys§ h.

Nanayakkara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 33-37 fï jkúg w;sid¾:l f,i Ökh we;=`: rgj,a lsysmhl u l%shd;aul flfrk .=jkaúÿ,s ixj¾Ok wdlD;sh óg ukd ksoiqk ls. Y%S ,xldfõ l%shd;aul flfrk m%dfoaYSh .=jkaúÿ,s fiajdjka fuys§ bgqlrkqfha iqúfYaI ld¾hNdrh ls. m%dfoaYSh .=jkaúÿ,s fiajdjla (Regional Network) wod< N+f.da,Sh yd iudc mßirhg .e,fmk f,i ish ixj¾Okuh lghq;= m%uqL;ajfhys ,d i,lhss7. thg úfYaI jkqfha tlS foaYfha ck;djf.a woyi, Woyia, mrud¾:, wruqKq yd Bg ne£ mj;sk mßirh hs. m%cd .=jkaúÿ,s fiajdjlska (Community Radio) bgqflfrk fufyh o óg iudkqmd;sl jqj o8, tlS wruqKq yd l%shdl,dmhka fjfiia iajrEmhla .kS. meyeÈ,sj u wod< Y%jK l,dmh ;=< ck;djf.a Ôjk ;;A;ajh k.d isgqùu fuys uQ,sl u wOHdYh hs. wod< ck;djf.a is;=ï me;=ï, wdl,am yd iudc ;;a;ajhka y÷kdf.k jevigyka bÈßm;a lsÍu ;=<ska jvd;a myiqfjka fuys wNsfm%a;d¾: idOkh fjhs. fuys§ mKsjqv bÈßm;a lsÍu ;=<ska jvd;a myiqfjka iduQysl idlÉPd we;slsÍu yd m%dfhda.sl iyNd.S;aj jevigyka, l%urgdjla Tiafia l%shd;aul lrùu;a miq úuiqï ld¾hh bgqlsÍu;a isÿfjhs’ tfia fkdfõ kï, .%dóh m%cdj w;r p¾hdfjys fyda wdl,amfhys fjkialï we;s lsÍu jvd;a ÿIalr h. w.aksÈ. wdishdkq l,dmh m%uqL;ajfhys ,d i,lñka 1984 § fkamd,fha lrkq ,enQ m¾fhaIK lsysmhlska u fy<s flrefka m%cd iyNd.S;ajhlska f;drj ixj¾Ok ikaksfõok l%shdj,sh id¾:l j Èh;a l< fkdyels njhs9. lDIs .=jkaúÿ,sh (Farm Broadcasting) Bg lÈu úi÷ula f,i i,lk m¾fhaIlfhda úúO uxfm;a Tiafia tys M,odhs nj ikd: lr;s. fkamd,h m%uqL w.aksÈ. wdishdkq l,dmSh f.dú ck;djg lDIs f;dr;=re yd Bg wod< wjfndaOh ,nd§u ;=<ska Tjqkaf.a m%Yakj,g ueÈy;aùug ;a, udOHh ms<sn| úYajdikSh;ajhla f.dvkexùug ;a .=jkaúÿ,shg we;s yelshdj ta u.ska m%dfhda.sl j iaMqg fldg we;.

tialema (ESCAP) ixúOdkh u.ska ±kg Èh;a lrkq ,nk m%dfoaYSh iyfhda.s;d lDIs .=jkaúÿ,s jHdmD;s. (Regional Co-operation in Project of Farm Broadcasting) rdYshla ms<sn| jQ jd¾;djlska o10 fï ms<sn| wjYH lreKq ±laúh yels h. ixj¾Ok l%shdj,sfha§ .=jkaúÿ,sh olajk m%dfhda.s l YlH;dj m%lg l< fuu jHdmD;sh fldgia follg fnosks.

I. wdishdkq l,dmSh jHdmD;sh ^Y%S ,xldj, bkaÈhdj, ;dhs,ka;h, fldßhdj, ms,smSkh, nx.a,dfoaYh, úhÜkduh, bkaÿksishdj, fkamd,h, Ökh, cmdkh, mlsia;dkh iy ´iafÜ%,shdj hk rgj,a óg wh;a h.& II. Ydka;slr l,dmSh jHdmD;sh ^fid,uka ¥m; m%Odk fldg.;a rgj,a rdYshla ;=<& 1988 fkdjeïn¾ 2 jeksod nexfldlays§ mj;ajk ,o lDIs .=jkaúÿ,sh ms<sn| ieisjdrhl jd¾;d yd ,sms f,aLk óg mokï fldg.efka. ta ta rgj,g WÑ; ixj¾Ok l%shdoduhla Wfoid ufydamldÍ úh yels mßÈ .=jkaúÿ,sh u.ska nyq;r .%dóh m%cdjg wjYH wjfndaOh ,ndoSug, WmfoaYl;ajh, ixúOdkh, ie,iqïlsÍu, iyNd.S;ajh, ckudOH mßyrKh

36

yd M,odhS;d we.hSu jeks úIhhka flfrys fuys§ ±ä wjOdkh fhduqfldg ;sìKs. .%dyl iyNd.S;ajh flakaøfldg.;a .=jkaúÿ,s l%ufõohl úYsIag M,odhs;dj fï u.ska l=`: .ekajqKq m%uqL;u ks.ukh hs. h:drEmS ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõok l%shdud¾. flf¾ .%dylhd fmd<Ujd .ekSu flfrys,d jvd;a jeo.;a jkafka mqoa.,dka;r ikaksfõok l%shdj,sh hs (Inter-personal Communication). wm fuys§ i,ld n,k m%cd.=jkaúÿ,sh ;=< fï flfrys ,d ie,fik bvlv wmuK h. tys wfmaCIs; wruqKq úiska u tlS ldrKh ikd: lrhs. i. Tjqkag wjYH wOHdmkh yd ffO¾hh ,nd§u (Educate and encourage them) ii. Tjqka i;= oCI;d j¾Okh lr.ekSug iydhùu (Help them to develop their talents) iii. m%cdjf.a Ôjk ;;a;ajh kxjd,Sug iydh ùu (Help to improve the quality of life of the community) iv. udOHh iy m%cdj w;r úYajdih f.dvke.Su (Build up credibility among media and community) v. ixialD;sl Wreuhka /l.ekSug yd j¾Okh lr.ekSug Tjqkag iyhùu (Help them to promote and preserve their cultural heritages) vi. m%cdj w;r iduh, iduodkh, iu`.sh yd iduQysl;ajh ;r lr.ekSug iyhùu (Help to developing peace, order, harmony and

solidarity among the people) mqoa.,dka;r ikaksfõokh .=refldg.;a iduQysl idlÉPd uh jevigyka u.ska flfrk fm<Uùfï yd m%cdkkSh yelshdj (Ability of motivation and perception) fuys§ jvd;a jeo.;a fõ. ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõokfha yqÿ isoaOdka;uh kshdhka fyda jdÑl Í;Ska fjkqjg tajdfha m%dfhda.sl l%shd;aul iajrEmh m%cd .=jkaúÿ,sfha Ndú;h úúO l%fudamdhhka Tiafia isÿflfrhs11.

újD; .=jkaúÿ,sh (Open Broadcasting) WmfoaYd;aul .=jkaúÿ,sh (Instructional Broadcasting) .=jkaúÿ,s lDIs idlÉPd (Agricultural Discussion) wkqlrK .=jkaúÿ,sh (Radio Animation) .=jkaúÿ,s mdi,a (Broadcasting School) .=jkaúÿ,s kdgHfõoh (Strategy of Radio Drama) udOHfha m%uqL;ajh;a iu`.u mqoa.,dka;r ikaksfõokh wE\.;a l%shdldÍ iyNd.S;ajh, wNsfm%arKd;aul iómia:Ndjh iy .eñhdg yqre udkisl m%fõYh hk úYsIag;d fuys§ jvd;a l=`:.ekafjhs. ta w;r u udOHh i;= ir, nj ;=<ska ±lafjk ;dCIKsl iqLkuHNdjh o fuys§ uy`.= msájy,la fjhs. tkï, ndysr má.;lsÍï (Out Broadcasting) iy iÔj m%pdrhka (Live Broadcasting) Wmfhda.S fldgf.k ixj¾Ok mKsjqv yd l%shdud¾. m%cd.; lsÍfï§ olajk YlH;dj iy ld,Sk jYfhka jeo.;a CIKsl jevigyka iïmdokh lsÍfï we;s yelshdj hs. ;=kafjks f,dalfha È<s÷ rgj,g fulS l%ufõohka jvd;a jeo.;a jkq we;. fjk;a udOHhla yd fulS l%ufõohka .,md.ekSu jvd;a ixlS¾K fukau w;sYh ÿIalr lghq;= ld¾hh ls. ta yer

Nanayakkara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 33-37 úhoï, kv;a;=, md,kh, ixúOdkh, l<ukdlrKh, l%shd;aul lsÍï, fjkia lsÍï yd ta ta iudcj,g .,md .ekSï jeks lghq;=j,§ ±lafjk ir, nj o fiiq udOHj,g idfmaCI j jvd;a jdis iy.; h. tmuKla fkdj, uQ,sl ksfõokd;aul iajrEmh fjkqjg Ndú; l< yels ix.S;uh, ixjdouh yd kdgHuh ;;a;ajhka tlafldg.;a úÑ;%dx.uh jevigyka ieliSu we;s yelshdj o fuys m%n,;ajh m%;srEmKh lrhs. idudkH foaYkhlg ijka§ug jvd ix.S;hg kdgHlg fyda úÑ;%dx.hlg we¨ï lsÍu .%dyl iajrEmh ;=< ±lafjk fmdÿ úfYaI;dj ls. ú,shï iaàjkaika úiska y÷kajd fok ,o ikaksfõokfha úfkdaodiajdok iïmdok l%fudamdh’ (The Play Theory of Communication)fuys§ mokï fjhs8. ir, úfkdaodiajdoh w.h lrk nyq;r .eñ ck;dj ckudOHh flfrys fhduqlrjd .ekSug fulS l%ufõoh ufydamldÍ fjhs. wk;=rej udOH ;=<ska ,nk wjfndaOh, ish Ôú; w;a±lSï fldg .ksñka wNHka;rfhka u kj m%fndaOhla we;sfldg h:djfndaOh mila lrkqfha fu;ek§ h.

ks.ukh .=jkaúÿ,sh udOHh jQ l,S ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõokfhys ,d M,Þhs f,i Ndú; l< yels YlH;d /ila iys; udOHhla fjhs. udOHuh uQ,O¾óh ;;a;ajhkag wkqj;a, fN!;sluh Ndú;hkag wkqj;a i,ldn,k l, tajd jvd;a jdisiy.; idOkSh;d f,i y`ÿkd.; yels h. fmdÿ .=jkaúÿ,sh ;=<ska fukau fiiq ish¨ .=jkaúÿ,s l%ufõohka ;=<ska o ta nj Tmamq flf¾. fï wkqj, ksYaÑ; Y%jK l,dmhla ;=< jk m%cdjf.a woyia Woyia, wruqKq, p¾hdjka, NdIduh yd iodpdruh ;;a;ajhka o ie,ls,a,g .ekSug m%dfoaYSh fyda m%cd .=jkaúÿ,shg we;s yelshdj wk,am h. fï ish,a, ;=< ms<sìUq flfrkqfha wod< Y%jK l,dmSh .%dylhdf.a ú[a[dKuh ;;a;ajh ;a, yd;ami fN!;sl iajNdjh ;a h. fulS wxYoajh ms<sn| udOHlrejd ,eìh hq;= wjfndaOh jvd;a iqúfYaI jQ w;HjYH idOlhls. m%dfoaYSh fyda m%cd .=jkaúÿ,shla Bg f.dapr jk uxfm;a fy<sfmfy<s lrhs. úpdr nqoaêfhka f;drj wre;a iqka idïm%odhhsl;ajfhys u muKla we,S .e,S isák iuyr

37

.eñ ck fldÜGdihkays ú[a[dKh ch.kakg udOH lrejdg yelsjkqfha fulS ia:djrh u; h. ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõokh flfrys ,d .=jkaúÿ,sh udOHfha wNsfm%a; idOk ld¾hh ta ;=<ska bgq flfrk neõ wjOdrKh l< yels h. wdY%s; lD;s 1. Keating R. Grass Root Radio: A manual for field workers in family planning and other areas of Social and Economic development. London: University Press, 1977.

2. Misra L.K. Communicating through Radio: A hand book. Rome: FAO, 1986. 3. lreKdkdhl tka. .=jkaúÿ,sh iy ixj¾Okfhys ,d tys ld¾hNdrh. ixj¾Ok .=jkaúÿ,s Ys,amh. fld<U: .=jkaúÿ,s ixia:dj, 1986, 4.

4. Compendium of Audience Research: (1982 – 1988), Colombo: S.L.B.C. 5. iudc wd¾Ól o;a; igyk, fld<U: Y%S ,xld uy nexl=j, 1992.

6. kdkdhlaldr tia. ixj¾Okd;aul ikaksfõokh, f;jk uqøKh, fld<U : tia f.dvf.a ifydaorfhda, 2012: 110-112.

7. Bittner J R. Mass Communication and Introduction.

4th ed, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1986.

8. Watson J, Hill A. A dictionary of Mass Communication and Media Studies. New Delhi: Universal Book Stall, 1989.

9. Farm Broadcasting in Nepal: An evaluation of the Farm Broadcasting. Rome: FAO , 1983.

10. Farm Broadcasting in Asia and the Pacific Region, New York: ESCAP,1989.

11. fïÈia mS. .=jkaúÿ,shhs m%cd ixj¾Okhhs. fld<U: Y%S ,xld mokï wdh;kh. 1985, 10-28.

Gunaratne & Kumari. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 38-44

38

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Rainfall trends in Anuradhapura: Rainfall analysis for agricultural planning M.H.J.P. Gunarathna*, M.K.N. Kumari Department of Soil and Water Resources Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. *Corresponding author: janaka78@rjt.ac.lk Abstract The agriculture based economy at Anuradhapura district is suffering from water scarcity. Since traditional tank based systems are not sufficient to fulfill the water demands, it is vital to develop a crop plan, which can optimize the use of rainfall to reduce the water demand from tanks. An analysis was carried out in Anuradhapura for better management of surface water resources and to maximize the usage of rainfall for agriculture.

Annual, seasonal, monthly and weekly rainfall trends were analysed with the Mann-Kendall statistical test and simple linear regression methods. The south west monsoon showed a decreasing trend in rainfall and number of rainy days. The Yala season also recorded decreasing numbers of rainy days. Ten year moving average rainfall values showed increasing trends of rainfall in Anuradhapura. First inter monsoon showed insignificant variation of rainfall while south west monsoon showed decreasing trend of rainfall. As a result, the Yala season showed a decreasing rainfall trend. It is alarming that, cropping calendars need to adjust for early cultivations to maximize the utilization of rainfall and avoid crop failures due to less rainfall during the latter part of the growing season. Rainfall in Maha season showed an increasing trend due to increasing trends of rainfall in both second inter monsoon and north east monsoon. Therefore proper planning and management of reservoirs can help to save more water for the next Yala season. Mann Kendall statistical test and simple linear regression analysis showed quite similar results in rainfall trend analysis and both methods could be successfully used to estimate rainfall trends.

Key words: Mann Kendall statistical test, Simple linear regression, Trend, Moving average, Seasonal rainfall

Introduction Agriculture mainly depends on availability of water resources, and it is increasingly threatened by increasing water demands for domestic and industrial uses. Therefore it is vital to move forward with water saving cultivation practices to ensure food security of the country. In this context, water has become a prime concern in any development and planning of agricultural activities and scientists give their utmost attention to maximize the usage of rainfall for agricultural activities. With the effect of global warming and climate change, it should be carefully planned to safeguard the crops against the water shortages. Therefore study of long term rainfall data to understand about rainfall trends is vital.

With evidences from 1971 to 2005 rainfall data, significant decreasing of southwest monsoon rainfall and significant increasing of post monsoon rainfall was recorded in Kerala, India1. A study about long term rainfall data (1971 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2010) proved that significant increase of rainfall in some months

while significant decrease of rainfall in some months in Cuttack District, Orissa2. Rainfall data from 1965 to 2004 showed, decreasing trend of mean annual rainfall in Kalu Ganga basin in Sri Lanka3.

Anuradhapura district includes 10% of total paddy land of Sri Lanka and around 50% of population is involving in agricultural sector4.

Agriculture in Anuradhapura mainly depends on traditional tank based system. Today, traditional tank based system is not sufficient to fulfill the water requirement of crops grown in Anuradhapura district; therefore it is vital to develop a crop plan, which can optimize the use of rainfall to reduce the irrigation water demand from tanks. The objective of this study was to investigate long-term precipitation trends, in order to have better management of surface water resources and maximize the usage of rainfall for agricultural activities in Anuradhapura.

Gunaratne & Kumari. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 38-44 Materials and Methods Anuradhapura is geographically located in 08°20’ N and 080°25’ E. In agro ecological zoning map, the area is categorized under DL1b. To study the temporal distribution of rainfall and rainfall trends in Anuradhapura, daily rainfall data over 40 years (1971 - 2010) of Anuradhapura metrological station were collected from Meteorological Department of Sri Lanka, Colombo.

Features of rainfall Mean annual, seasonal, monthly and weekly rainfall were calculated using arithmetic mean method.

Annual, seasonal, monthly and weekly dependable rainfall values at 75% probability level were also calculated. Annual, seasonal and monthly number of rainy days were also calculated. In seasonal calculations, a year was divided into 4 rainy seasons as, first inter monsoon (FIM) rainy period (March – April), southwest monsoon (SWM) period (May – September), second inter monsoon (SIM) rainy period (October – November) and northeast monsoon (NEM) period (December – February)5. In sense of agriculture, understanding of seasonal rainfall as Yala (Dry) and Maha (Wet) seasons which are the major cultivation seasons in Sri Lanka is vital.

Thus seasonal rainfall as Yala season (March to September) and Maha season (October – February) were also calculated. In weekly rainfall analysis a year was divided into 52 standard weeks. Annual and monthly calculations were done considering as calendar year and months.

Rainfall (mm)

Rainfall trends Simple linear regression analysis (SLR): Annual, seasonal (FIM, SWM, SIM, NEM, Yala and Maha), monthly and weekly rainfall trends using simple linear regression analysis were done using Micro 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0

39

soft Excel data analysis tool pack. Since mean annual rainfall shows high variation, 10 year moving average values were also tested to understand the trends of rainfall. Annual, seasonal and monthly trends of number of rainy days using simple linear regression analysis were also estimated.

Mann Kendall Statistical test (MKST): Non parametric MKST which is being successfully used to studying the trends of hydro climatic data series was used to study the rainfall trends. Annual, seasonal (FIM, SWM, SIM, NEM, Yala and Maha), monthly and weekly rainfall trends were estimated using a computer program developed for the Kendall family of trend tests6. Ten year moving average values were also tested to understand the trends of rainfall. Annual, seasonal and monthly trends of number of rainy days using MKST were also estimated.

Results and Discussion Rainfall features Mean monthly, seasonal and annual rainfall, standard deviation (SD), coefficient of variation (CV), percent contribution to the annual rainfall (AR) and 75% probability dependable rainfall (DR) values of Anuradhapura are listed in Table 1. The mean annual and annual dependable rainfall at 75% probability level were 1255 and 1075 mm respectively.

Contribution of rainfall in Yala and Maha seasons were 37% and 63% respectively. SIM is the highest contributor (38%) to the annual rainfall with lowest coefficient of variation, indicating that major contributor to the annual rainfall is much stable compared to the other contributors. February recorded the highest coefficient of variation (203%) followed by June (181%). Monsoonal rains recorded quite higher coefficient of variation

Average weekly rainfall

1

4

7

10

13

16

19

22

25 28 31 34 Week Number

37

40

43

46

49

52 

Figure 1. Average weekly rainfall of Anuradhapura during the period 1971-2010.

Gunaratne & Kumari. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 38-44

40

Table 1. Monthly, Annual and Seasonal mean rainfall and rainy days in Anuradhapura during the period 1971-2010.

Rainfall (mm) Rainy days

Month/ Mean SD CV DR % of No. SD CV % of

season (%) AR (%) AR

January 75.8 75.9 100.0 13.1 6.0 7.5 4.9 65.4 7.2

February 44.7 90.7 203.0 0.0 3.6 4.1 4.1 100.1 3.9

March 68.0 65.8 96.8 17.3 5.4 6.1 3.7 60.6 5.8

April 158.3 68.0 42.9 113.8 12.6 13.4 4.1 30.6 13.0

May 78.8 68.0 86.3 24.2 6.3 6.6 4.0 61.4 6.3

June 17.0 30.7 180.7 0.4 1.3 3.1 2.7 88.5 3.0

July 34.0 44.4 130.7 1.6 2.7 3.4 2.7 78.5 3.3

August 35.9 46.3 128.8 0.1 2.9 3.4 2.9 87.4 3.3

September 71.6 54.7 76.4 27.1 5.7 6.8 3.5 51.6 6.6

October 232.3 116.5 50.2 134.9 18.5 15.5 5.6 35.9 14.9

November 245.8 104.2 42.4 162.4 19.6 18.4 5.3 28.9 17.8

December 193.3 123.9 64.1 88.8 15.4 15.5 4.9 31.3 15.0

Annual 1255.4 244.6 19.5 1075.1 100.0 103.8 12.8 12.3 100

FIM 226.3 87.0 38.4 168.8 18.0 20.3 5.1 25.3 19.6

SWM 237.2 126.6 53.4 114.1 18.9 23.3 7.0 30.3 22.5

SIM 478.1 160.9 33.7 372.0 38.1 33.9 8.4 24.7 32.8

NEM 313.7 174.4 55.6 154.1 25.0 27.1 8.4 31.1 26.2

Yala 463.6 126.9 27.4 375.3 36.9 43.6 7.7 17.7 42.1

Maha 791.9 222.7 28.1 604.2 63.1 61.0 12.2 20.0 58.9

values (SWM – 53%, NEM – 56%) compared to inter monsoonal rains (FIM – 38% and SIM - 34%).

It reveals that inter monsoonal rains were quite stable than monsoonal rains.

The mean annual rainy days in Anuradhapura is 104 with a standard deviation of 13. Distribution of rainy days in Yala and Maha seasons are 42% and 59% respectively. As similar to the mean rainfall, number of rainy days in monsoonal periods recorded quite higher coefficient of variation values (SWM – 30%, NEM – 31%), compared to inter monsoonal periods (FIM – 25% and SIM – 25%) confirming that inter monsoonal rains were quite stable than monsoonal rains. SIM was the highest contributor (33%) to the number of annual rainy days in Anuradhapura with lowest coefficient of variation, indicating that major contributor to the annual rainfall is bit stable compared to the other contributors. Figure 1 shows the average weekly rainfall for the period of 1971 – 2010. Highest average rainfall in Yala and Maha seasons were 40 mm (15th week) and 72 mm (43rd week) respectively.

Lowest average rainfall of 1 mm was recorded

in the 26th week.

Rainfall trends estimated using observed data Annual, seasonal and monthly trends of rainfall in Anuradhapura and their significance calculated using simple linear regression (SLR) analysis and Mann Kendal statistical test (MKST) are listed in Table 2. SWM showed a decreasing trend of rainfall which was significant MKST as Y =303.92 – 3.13 X, where Y is rainfall and X is number of year starting from 1971 (ie. 1971 = 1, 1972 = 2). January showed significantly increasing trend of rainfall, which was confirmed by MKST. May showed a significantly decreasing trend of rainfall which was confirmed by MKST and SLR. Second and seventeenth weeks showed significantly increasing weekly rainfall trend (Figure 2) and 29th and 38th weeks showed significantly decreasing rainfall trend. In SLR analysis, 17th week showed significantly increasing trend and 37th week showed significantly decreasing rainfall trend.

41

Gunaratne & Kumari. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 38-44 Results of trend analysis of annual and seasonal rainy days in Anuradhapura (Table 3) revealed that, SWM showed decreasing trend of number of rainy days which was significant in both MKST

and SLR. Number of rainy days in Yala season showed a significant decrease which was confirmed by MKST.

Table 2. Monthly, Annual and Seasonal rainfall trends in Anuradhapura during the period 1971-2010.

SLR MKST Season

Relationship Significance Relationship

Significance

January February March April May June July August September October November December Annual FIM SWM SIM NEM Yala Maha

S (p = 0.02) NS (p = 0.54) NS (p = 0.66) NS (p = 0.17) S (p = 0.03) NS (p = 0.92) NS (p = 0.23) NS (p = 0.74) NS (p = 0.15) NS (p = 0.94) NS (p = 0.14) NS (p = 0.49) NS (p = 0.15) NS (p = 0.11) S (p = 0.04) NS (p = 0.29) NS (p = 0.08) NS (p = 0.57) NS (p = 0.15)

Y =47.97 + 1.36 X Y =47.51 – 0.14 X Y =52.67 + 0.74 X Y =135.30 + 1.12 X Y =115.98 - 1.81X Y =12.81 + 0.20 X Y =50.44 - 0.80 X Y =37.12 - 0.06 X Y =78.00 - 0.31 X Y =235.41 - 0.15 X Y =199.46 + 2.26 X Y =181.85 + 0.56 X Y =1194.5 + 2.97 X Y =187.97 + 1.87 X Y =294.36 – 2.79 X Y =434.87 + 2.11 X Y =277.33 + 1.78 X Y =482.33 – 0.92 X Y =712.20 + 3.89 X

NS (P=0.19) NS (P=0.91) NS (P=0.41) NS (P=0.23) S (P=0.05) NS (P=0.63) NS (P=0.19) NS (P=0.92) NS (P=0.68) NS (P=0.93) NS (P=0.11) NS (P=0.75) NS (P=0.38) NS (P=0.12) NS ( P=0.11) NS ( P=0.35) NS ( p=0.46) NS ( P=0.60) NS (p=0.21)

Y = 19.37 + 1.48 X Y = 12.9 + 0.73E-1 X Y = 47.53 + 0.28 X Y = 125.71 + 1.23X Y = 101.54 – 1.54X Y = 6.75 + 0.00 X Y = 20.09 – 0.17 X Y = 11.30 + 0.00 X Y = 81.01 – 0.92 X Y = 212.49 + 0.28 X Y = 184.90 + 2.29 X Y = 143.58 + 1.00 X Y = 1080.2 + 5.55 X Y = 183.55 + 1.75X Y = 303.92 – 3.13 X Y = 391.42 + 2.46 X Y = 222.24 + 3.50 X Y = 467.02 - 0.94 X Y = 657.84 + 5.03 X

Weekly rainfall trends

3

z Value

2 1 0 -1

1

4

7

10

13

16

19

22

25

28

31

34

37

40

43

46

49

52

Week No

-2 -3

Significant at p<0.05

Not Significant at p<0.05 

Figure 2. Weekly rainfall trend in Anuradhapura estimated using the Mann Kendall test.

42

Gunaratne & Kumari. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 38-44

Table 3. Trends of changing annual and seasonal rainy days in Anuradhapura during the period 19712010.

SLR MKST Season

Relationship Significance Relationship Significance Annual FIM SWM SIM NEM Yala Maha

Y = 104.8 – 0.06 X Y =20.23 + 0.00 X Y =27.23 – 0.19 X Y =31.84 + 0.10 X Y =26.35 + 0.04 X Y =47.46 – 0.19 X Y =58.19 + 0.14 X

NS (P=0.72) NS (P=0.95) S ( P=0.04) NS ( P=0.38) NS ( p=0.76) NS ( P=0.07) NS (p=0.42)

Rainfall trends estimated using ten year moving average data Annual, seasonal and monthly trends of rainfall in Anuradhapura were estimated using ten year moving average values of rainfall data, over the period 1971 – 2010, which were calculated using SLR analysis and MKST (Table 4). Results of trend analysis revealed that, annual rainfall in Anuradhapura was significantly increasing. According to the SLR analysis, trend can be explained as Y =1190.6 + 1.90 X, where Y is rainfall and X is number of year starting from 1971. MKST also proved that the increasing trend as Y = 1180.7 + 2.12 X. FIM showed insignificant variation of rainfall while SWM showed significantly decreasing trend of rainfall which was confirmed in both methods.

Similar to SWM, Yala season showed significantly decreasing rainfall trend which was confirmed in both methods. Both SIM and NEM showed significantly increasing trends of rainfall which was confirmed in both methods. As a result of that, Maha season rainfall was significantly increasing. January, April, June, November and December

Y= Y= Y= Y= Y= Y= Y=

104.9 + 0.00 X 19.00 + 0.00 X 29.63 – 0.25 X 31.76 + 0.00 X 24.50 + 0.00 X 48.56 - 0.22 X 58.72 + 0.00 X

NS (p = 0.82) NS (p = 0.77) S (p = 0.01) NS (p = 0.37) NS (p = 0.49) S (p = 0.04) NS (p = 0.09)

recorded significantly increasing trends of rainfall while months of May, July and September recorded significantly decreasing trends of rainfall which were confirmed in both methods.

Figure 3 shows the trends (z value) of 10 year moving average weekly rainfall. Seventeen weeks showed significantly increasing trends and 13 weeks showed significantly decreasing rainfall trends. In simple linear regression analysis, 18 weeks showed significantly increasing trends and 15 weeks showed significantly decreasing rainfall trends. Trends of changing annual and seasonal rainy days in Anuradhapura estimated using 10 year moving average data over the period 1971 – 2010 are shown in Table 5. Results of trend analysis revealed that, SWM and Yala seasons showed decreasing trend of number of rainy days which was significant in both MKST and SLR. Annual, SIM, NEM and Maha seasons recorded significantly increasing of number of rainy days which were confirmed by both MKST and SLR.

Weekly rainfall trends of 10 year moving average rainfall values

8 6

z Value

4 2 0 -2 -4 -6

1

4

7

10

13

16

Significant at p<0.05

19

22 25 28 Week Number

31

34

37

40

43

46

49

52

Not Significant at p<0.05

Figure-83. Ten year moving average rainfall (weekly) trend in Anuradhapura estimated using MKST. 

43

Gunaratne & Kumari. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 38-44

Table 4. Monthly, Annual and Seasonal rainfall trends of 10 year moving average rainfall in Anuradhapura during the period 1971-2010.

SLR MKST Season

Relationship Significance Relationship Significance January February March April May June July August September October November December Annual FIM SWM SIM NEM Yala Maha

Y =24.90 + 2.16 X Y =48.78 – 0.01 X Y =78.53 – 0.60 X Y =119.99 + 1.31 X Y =131.51 - 1.95 X Y =5.534 + 0.55 X Y =55.78 - 0.82 X Y =34.31 - 0.17 X Y =102.97 – 1.27 X Y =226.97 - 0.16 X Y =217.99 + 1.26 X Y =143.37 + 1.28 X Y =1190.6 + 1.90 X Y =198.51 + 0.71 X Y =330.11 – 3.65 X Y =444.96 + 1.42 X Y =217.05 + 3.43 X Y = 528.62 – 2.95 X Y =662.01 + 4.84 X

S (P=0.00) NS (P=0.98) NS (P=0.15) S (P=0.00) S (P=0.00) S (P=0.00) S (P=0.00) NS (P=0.15) S (P=0.00) NS (P=0.72) S (P=0.00) S (P=0.01) S (P=0.03) NS (P=0.09) S ( P=0.00) S ( P=0.04) S ( p=0.00) S ( P=0.00) S (p=0.00)

Y = 38.38 + 1.97 X Y = 50.99 - 0.26 X Y = 87.54 - 0.88 X Y = 119.49 + 1.31X Y = 135.72 – 1.81 X Y = 4.89 + 0.49 X Y = 54.31 – 0.84 X Y = 35.62 - 0.20 X Y = 97.94 – 1.22 X Y = 231.13 + 0.00 X Y = 221.85 + 1.25 X Y = 141.58 + 1.39 X Y = 1180.7 + 2.12 X Y = 215.28 – 0.09 X Y = 327.44 – 3.64 X Y = 462.54 + 1.15 X Y = 245.63 + 2.90 X Y = 523.91 - 3.16 X Y = 665.56 + 4.83 X

S (p = 0.00) NS (p = 0.52) NS (p = 0.12) S (p = 0.00) S (p = 0.00) S (p = 0.00) S (p = 0.00) NS (p = 0.13) S (p = 0.00) NS (p = 0.97) S (p = 0.00) S (p = 0.01) S (p = 0.02) NS (p = 0.80) S (p = 0.00) S (p = 0.02) S (p = 0.00) S (p = 0.00) S (p = 0.00)

Table 5. Trends of annual and seasonal rainy days in Anuradhapura using 10 year moving average data

SLR MKST Season

Relationship Significance Relationship Significance Annual FIM SWM SIM NEM Yala Maha

Y = 99.50 + 0.15 X Y =19.44 + 0.02 X Y =27.94 – 0.18 X Y =30.80 + 0.13 X Y =22.15 + 0.19 X Y =47.38 – 0.16 X Y =52.95 + 0.32 X

S (P=0.02) NS (P=0.47) S ( P=0.00) S ( P=0.00) S ( p=0.00) S ( P=0.00) S (p=0.00)

Conclusion Mean annual rainfall, dependable annual rainfall at 75% probability level and average number of rainy days of Anuradhapura over the period of 1971 – 2010 are 1255 mm, 1075 mm and 104 days respectively. FIM, SWM, SIM and NEM contribut-

Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

= = = = = = =

99.63 19.80 27.88 31.55 21.71 47.49 52.90

+ 0.16 X + 0.00 X - 0.15 X + 0.11 X + 0.19 X - 0.16 X + 0.30 X

S (p = 0.04) NS (p = 0.93) S (p = 0.00) S (p = 0.00) S (p = 0.00) S (p = 0.00) S (p = 0.00)

-e 18%, 19%, 38% and 25% respectively to the mean annual rainfall in Anuradhapura. Coefficient of variation values showed that inter monsoonal rains are quite stable than monsoonal rains.

Yala season showed significantly decreasing rainfall trend. It is alarming that, cropping calendars

Gunaratne and Kumari. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1:38-44

need to adjust for early cultivations to maximize the utilization of rainfall and avoid crop failures due to less rainfall during the latter part of the growing season. Maha season rainfall was significantly increasing, therefore, proper planning and management of reservoirs can be of help to save more water for the next Yala season.

Mann Kendall statistical test and simple linear regression analysis give quite similar results in trend analysis and both methods could be successfully used to estimate rainfall trends.

References 1. Krishnakumar KN, Prasada Rao GSLHV, Gopakumar CS. Rainfall trends in twentieth century over Kerala, India. Atmospheric Environment 2009; 43:1940–44.

2. Mondal A, Kundu S, Mukhopadhyay A. Rain-

44

-fall trend analysis by Mann-Kendall test: A case study of North-Eastern part of Cuttack district, Orissa. International Journal of Geology, Earth and Environmental Sciences 2012; 2 : 70-78.

3. Ampitiyawatta AD, Guo S. Precipitation trends in the Kalu Ganga Basin in Sri Lanka. The Journal of Agricultural Science 2009; 4:10–18.

4. Central Bank of Sri Lanka. Annual Report Statistical appendix. Colombo: Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2010.

5. Climate in Sri Lanka [Internet]. [updated 2012 May 2; cited 2013 Mar 25]; Available from: http:// www.meteo.gov.lk/ 6. Helsel DR, Mueller DK, Slack JR. Computer program for the Kendall family of trend tests. US Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report – 5275, 2005;1-4

Egodawatte & Senanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 45-50

45

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Effect of low-phosphorus-containing legume residues on Bray-1 extractable phosphorus in reddish brown earth soil in dry zone of Sri Lanka W. C. P. Egodawatta1* , R. L. Senanayake2 Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka.

Agronomic Division, Field Crop Research and Development Institute - Mahailluppallama, Sri Lanka *Corresponding author: egowcp@gmail.com 1.

2.

Abstract: Experiments were conducted to study the dynamics of extractable P (P extracted by Bray-1-extracting solution) of reddish brown earth amended with or without green manure (GM) residues of contrasting P concentrations in the absence of growing plants. In two separate experiments, GM residues of Crotalaria juncea and of Gliricidia sepium with varying P concentrations were added to anacidic soil amended with Eppawala rock phosphate (ERP) or triple superphosphate(TSP). P concentration of the residues added varied, while lignin and C: N ratios were approximately similar. Changes in soil extractable Bray-1-P were measured at the end of the incubation period (60 or 80 days). In the aerobic soils, extractable P in the combined ERP+GM and TSP+GM treatments were significantly lower than in the ERP- or TSP- treated soils. The amendment with GM residues alone significantly increased Bray-1-P over the un-amended control in the case of the inorganic P-fertilized GM residues. The trend in extractable P was similar in the soils incubated under anaerobic conditions. However, in the case of ERP, concentrations of P extracted by Bray-1 solution did not significantly change in the presence or absence of GM. The results suggest that the incorporation of GM residues with low P concentration does not lead to a net P release in upland or lowland soils. These results have implications for phosphorus nutrient cycling, mainly in farming systems in dry zone of Sri Lanka, as most of the soils are poor and very low in available P. Key words: Bray-1, Crotalaria juncea, Extractable phosphorus, Green manure, Gliricidia sepium

Introduction Application of legume green manure (GM) is suggested to be effective in increasing the availability of native soil phosphorus (P) and the dissolution and utilization of rock phosphate (RP)-P by food crops.Resource poor farming is a major livelihood activity in rural regions of Sri Lanka, where many farmers seeking alternative for high cost mineral fertilizers. GM is a solution that they use widely, though without knowing the true scientific background. Indigenous knowledge of these subsistence farmers in the dry zone of Sri Lanka relies on organic inputs, including GM to sustain soil fertility. Studies have shown that GM residues incorporated into the soil are effective in increasing the availability of native soil phosphate and the dissolution and utilization of phosphate rock (PR-P) by subsequent crops1-3. It is hypothesized that organic acids produced during decomposition of the residues by the micro-faunal population prevent precipitation of phosphate by iron (Fe) and Aluminium(Al) oxides out of the soil solution4,

and as a result, phosphorus (P) concentration in the equilibrium solution increases. Competition for P-sorption sites between P and the released organic acids as well as complexation of Fe and Al oxides/hydroxides by organic acids have been suggested as the key factors controlling reduction of soil P-sorption capacity and P availability in soil solution5. The author reported that decomposition of Tithonia diversifolia residues reduced the P sorption and increased the available-P pools of an acid soil over a 16-week period. However, plant P availability does not always increase following GM incorporation. However, magnitude of the effect of GM on soil test P availability may depend on the organic residues quality, especially the C: P ratio6.

This soil incubation study was undertaken to determine the effects of GM residues varying in P content on extractable P in the soil amended with plant residues under simulated aerobic upland and anaerobic flooded conditions.

Egodawatte & Senanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 45-50

46

Materials and Methods

for comparison.

This experiment was conducted in January 2012 in the laboratory of Field Crop Research and Development Institute Mahailluppallama.

The GM residues used in the study were shoot biomass (stem + leaves) of Gliricidia sepium(upland tree legume) and Crotalaria juncea (annual fodder legume); before use, the residues were cut into small pieces (<0.25mm).

Soil used and its characteristics A subsample of Reddish Brown Earth (pH 5.2), deficient in P (4 mg kg–1 Bray-1 P) was used in the study (Table 1). A bulk surface sample (0-20 cm) from a natural fallow field was transported in sufficient quantity to laboratory; the soil was airdried, sieved (<2mm), and homogenized.

Sub sample of the soil was analysed for pH in water or 1N KCl (1:2.5), Bray-1-P (0.03 M NH4F + 0.025 M HCl) in a 1:7 soil to solution ratio7, organic C (Walkey-Black method)8 and total N (Kjeldahl distillation)9, cation-exchange capacity (CEC) and exchangeable base cations (1N NH4OAc, pH 7)10, and total P11(colourimetrically after digestion of soil with nitric and perchloric acid). Exchangeable acidity (Al3+ + H+) was measured by the titration method using non buffered, neutral salt (KCl).

Some physico-chemical characteristics of the soil are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Physico-chemical properties of soils used in the study.

Table 2. Selected characteristics of Eppawala Rock Phosphate used in the study.

Neutral ammonium As a fraction of total (%) citrate solubility (P2O5) P CaO MgO CO2 SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 2.1

Soil parameters Texture pH H2O (1:2.5) pH KCl Organic C (%) Total N (%) Available P (Bray 1) (mg kg-1) Exch. Ca (cmol (+) kg-1) CEC (cmol (+) kg-1) Exch. acidity (cmol (+) kg-1) %(Al3+ + H+) of CEC

Chemical analyses of GM residues Sub samples of the biomass were oven dried (700C) for 72 h, ground, and analysed for total N (Kjeldahl procedure)9, total P (by digesting the samples with a 2:1 (v/v) mixture of concentrated nitric and perchloric acid). The P concentration in the digests was analysed by colourimetry following the vanado-molybdate yellow-colour method12. Lignin content was measured using the acid detergent fibre-permanganate method13. The residues varied in P content, but lignin and C:N ratios were approximately similar (Table 3).

Loam 5.2 4.4 1.10 0.08 4.0 1.26 3.86 0.06 1.55

Fertilizer P and green manures The Eppawala Rock Phosphate (ERP) (finely ground <100 µm, 14.1% P) was used in the experiments. The chemical composition of theERP is given in Table. 2. Triple superphosphate (TSP) (45% P2O5) in the granular form was used as a reference

14.1 43 (33% P2O5)

0.19

2.2 0.80 2.20 12.2

Experimental procedure: Incubation study Green manure legume residues (air-dried, <0.25mm) with varying P contents were added at a rate of 5% (w/w) to 25g sample of air-dried soil in 100ml plastic bottles. Phosphorus fertilizer as TSP (granular) or ground (<100 µm) ERP was added to the mixture at a rate of 5% of soil (w/w).

Soil moisture in the plastic bottles was adjusted to field capacity of the soil (Experiment 1) or saturated with distilled water (Experiment 2) to simulate aerobic upland and anaerobic flooded conditions, respectively. The plastic bottles in the simulated upland condition were loosely covered, whereas those in the anaerobic system were capped airtight. The bottles were regularly weighed to maintain constant moisture condition throughout the incubation period. Distilled water was added as required, to maintain the moisture levels.

Egodawatte & Senanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 45-50

47

Treatments in either experiment included: Treatment 1: control (no GM and no P added to soil in plastic bottles); Treatment 2: GM1 grown in soil (fertilized with ERP) added alone to soil in plastic bottle (no P added); Treatment 3: GM2 grown in soil (fertilized with TSP) added alone to soil in plastic bottle (no P added); Treatment 4: GM1 grown in soil (fertilized with ERP) + ERP added to soil in plastic bottle; Treatment 5: ERP added to soil in plastic bottle (no GM added); Treatment 6: GM2 grown in soil (fertilized with TSP) + TSP added to soil in plastic bottle; Treatment 7: TSP added to soil in plastic bottle (no GM added).

Table 3. Chemical composition of legume residues used in the incubation.

In either experiment, all plastic bottles replicated three times and containing each of the seven treatments above, were placed in an incubator at constant temperature (25°C) using a randomized complete block design. The incubation period was 60 and 80 days under aerobic and flooded anaerobic conditions, respectively, and coincided in each case with the average time to maximum tillering in rice crop, corresponding to the peak in nutrient uptake.

Production of GM biomass with varying P contents Green manure biomass with different P contents was previously obtained (Table 3) by growing separately Gliricidia sepium (upland tree legume) and Crotalaria juncea (lowland field conditions), using various P-fertilizer sources. In the upland setup, G. sepium plants were fertilized with three P sources (no P and TSP, ERP applied at 60 kg P haâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;1) to obtain GM biomass with different P contents. In pots, C. juncea was grown using the same sources and rates of P fertilizers. The shoots of the C. juncea plants grown in lowland soils were harvested separately 8 weeks after sowing, at the onset of flowering and G. sepium was harvested 8 weeks after fertilizer application and 4 weeks after lopping.

Statistical analysis Normality and homogeneity of variances were tested before detailed statistical analysis. An ANOVA was performed using General Linear Model (GLM) (SAS institute, 2003). Contrast means were calculated to discriminate means, and means were declared as significantly different at p < 0.05.

Results and Discussion At the end of each incubation period, soil was

Legume residue N Total P C:N Lignin -1 -1 (%) characteristic (g kg ) (g kg plant) Crotalaria juncea(Lowland) No P fertilizer applied

26.2

1.4

17.0

8.0

Phosphate rock

33.3

1.7

16.8

7.9

Triple super phosphate

30.4

2.2

16.8

8.3

Gliricidia sepium (Upland) No P fertilizer applied

25.5

1.5

14.2

12.5

Phosphate rock

25.5

2.3

13.9

11.8

Triple super phosphate

28.0

2.5

13.9

11.5

extracted by a solution where the composition was 0.03 M in NH4F and0.025 M HCl. This extraction technique is referred to as the Bray-1 method and most suitable to assess P availability in acidic soils.

The soil used in the present study was acidic (Table 1). Significant treatment effects were observed in the extractable Bray-1 P at the end of each incubation period (60 or 80 d of incubation) (Table4).

The results indicated a significant reduction in extractable Bray-1 P, when P fertilizers regardless of the source, were combined with GM residue of low P contents. The changes in extractable Bray-1 P measured at the end of each incubation period are shown in Table 5.

Under the aerobic upland soil condition, soil Bray-1-extractable P in the combined ERP+GM or TSP+GM was significantly lower than that in treatments with ERP or TSP applied alone. Further, soil amendment with GM residues alone significantly increased Bray-1 P over the unamended control, only in the case of TSP fertilized GM residues (Table 5). Similarly, in the flooded anaerobic

Egodawatte & Senanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 45-50 conditions, addition of GM in combination with TSP significantly decreased extractable P, as compared with sole application of P. In the case of ERP, concentrations of P extracted by Bray-1 solution did not significantly change in the presence or absence of GM. In addition, soil amended only with residues from ERP- or TSP-fertilized GM had a higher Bray-1 P than the unamended control.

However, no significant differences were observed between the two sources of P. Table 4. Single degree of freedom contrast of means of P (mg kg soil-1) extracted by Bray-1 solution in soil amended with P fertilizers and green manure legume (GM) under aerobic and anaerobic incubation conditions.

Treatment contrast

Associated probabilities Aerobic (upland)

Anaerobic (lowland)

TSP vs ERP GM1 vs GM2 ERP+GM vs ERP TSP+GM vs TSP GM main effect P main effect GM x P interaction

<0.001 0.03 <0.001 0.027 0.22 0.59 0.035

<0.001 0.16 0.055 0.02 0.41 0.28 0.056

TSP, triple superphosphate ERP, Eppawala rock phosphate GM1 and GM2, green-manure legume fertilized with ERP or TSP, respectively

In general, extractable Bray-1 P was higher in the upland than in the lowland soil (Figure 1), reflecting differences in P behaviour under aerobic and anaerobic conditions14 However, assessment of the P status of the reduced soil by a chemical test conducted on air-dried soil, may not provide a reliable estimate of soil P availability after submergence Nonetheless, it is noteworthy that though the availability of P is influenced by flooding15, yet most of the practical aspects of P availability are done in air dried state for practical application of the results.

Conversely, in the case of ERP, a rise in pH upon submergence was possibly an additional factor that did not favour dissolution of ERP under reduced soil conditions. Nonetheless, the similarity of the responses under upland and lowland soil conditions clearly indicated that application of GM residues adversely affected soil extractable P

48

regardless of P source and soil water regime.

Little evidence of beneficial effects are available on resin-P of combined application of TSP with GM residues, as compared with sole application of TSP5. Using the 32P-isotope dilution technique,depressing effects of GM residues on P derived from the more reactive rock phosphate (RP) and the water-soluble TSP were illustrated6.

Using a broad range of RPs of variable reactivity characteristics and GM residues of contrasting chemical properties, these workers showed that the extent of the influence of GM in improving the solubility of RP and soil P availability was associated with the GM quality, especially its P concentration. Thus, whether net mineralization of P occurs in legume plant residues depends at least partly on the P content of the incorporated plant material.

Results of the present study could also be explained by examining the chemical composition of the GM residue used in the incubation study (Table 3). The P concentration in the residues was less than the critical level of 2.5 g kg–1 dry matter (DM)16 or the critical P concentration of 3 g kg–1 DM2, for net P release in soils amended with GM. It is noteworthy that the P concentration of GM residues used in the experiments6 ranging between 0.9 and 2 g kg–1 DM indicated the possibility of assessing mineralization of P. However, net P immobilization in soils amended with organic materials of P concentration as low as 0.9 g kg–1 has been reported17.On the contrary, increase in extractable soil Bray-1 P in potted soil planted for rice, under flooded conditions, with the combined application of P fertilizer and residues of Aschynomenea fraspera flood tolerant legume2. In the present study, Bray-1 P was used to monitor the changes in available P without effects of plants. InUltisols, soil-solution P concentrations in soil solution were too low15 unless fertilized with high P. It is then easy to pick-up small changes in Bray-1-extractable P. The results obtained in present study (Figure 1) was contradicted2, however in lined with a study on tropical Ultisols in 200714. The discrepancy might be attributed to the P-mobilizing capacity of the rice plants grown under anaerobic soil conditions in the former experiment. In fact, two studies18,19 suggested that rice plants growing in reduced soil, acidify their rhizosphere through the following mechanisms: (1) production of H+

Egodawatte & Senanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 45-50 during oxidation of Fe2+ by root-released O2 and (2) direct root release of H+ to balance excess uptake of cations due to the predominantly NH4 supply in N nutrition.

Table 5.Extractable soil Bray-1 P in seven treatments following incubation of the soil with GM under upland (60 d) and lowland (80 d)conditions.

Treatment

Control GM 1 GM 2 ERP+GM ERP TSP+GM TSP p S.E.

Extractable soil Bray-1 P Upland

Lowland

0.6f 1.6f 27.2e 53.4d 91.7c 203.0b 212.0a < 0.001 18.6

0.8d 4.1 d 4.5 d 35.5 c 39.9 c 158.7b 172.3a < 0.001 15.4

49

References 1. Kamh M, Horst WJ, Amer F, Mostafa H, Maier P. Mobilization of soil and fertilizer phosphate by cover crops. Plant and Soil 1999;211: 19-27.

2. Somado EA, Becker M, Kuehne RF, Sahrawat KL, Vlek PLG. Combined effects of legumes with rock phosphorus on rice in West Africa. Agronomy Journal 2003;95:1172-1178.

Means followed with the same letters are not significantlydifferent (Tukeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;sat 0.05). GM1 and GM2: GM fertilized with ERP and TSP,respectively, and solely applied. Control: no GM and no P wereadded to soil in plastic bottle. S.E. is standard error of the mean.

Acidification through production of H+ during oxidation of Fe2+ would then mobilize further ERP-P and bring about additional P into the soil solution in flooded soils. Likewise, rice grown in P-deficient aerobic soil is efficient in mobilizing P from soil through a different mechanism: excretion of organic anions by the roots20. The organic anion is considered to chelate metal ions (Fe, Mn, and Al), which would otherwise immobilize P by precipitation of soluble P.

Conclusion Under upland or flooded soil conditions, addition of GM residues to soil amended with ERP and TSP did not increase extractable Bray-1 P. This was attributed to the low P concentration of the incorporated residues. The general contention that GM application increases the availability of native soil P and promotes the dissolution and utilization of ERP, should be taken with caution. This study suggests that the soil P cycling is determined by the quality of the incorporated plant residues, especially their P concentration.

3. Egodawatta WCP, Sangakkara UR, Stamp P. Impact of green manure and mineral fertilizer inputs on soil organic matter and crop productivity in a sloping landscape of Sri Lanka. Field Crop Research 2012; 129: 21-27.

4. LeMare PH, Pereira J, Goedert WJ. Effects of green manure on isotopically exchangeable phos phate in a dark-red latosol in Brazil. Journal of Soil Science 1987;38:199-209.

5. Nziguheba G, Palm CA, Buresh RJ, Smithson PC. Soil phosphorus fractions and adsorption as affected by organicand inorganic sources. Plant and Soil 1998;198: 159-168.

6. Zaharah AR, Bah AR. Effect of green manures on P solubilisation and uptake from phosphate rocks. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 1997; 48: 247-255.

7. Olsen SR, Sommers LE. Phosphorus. In: Page, AL. (Ed). Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2. Agronomy Monograph V ol 9. Wisconsin 1982: 403 8. Olsen DW, Sommers LE. Total carbon, organic C and organic matter. In: Page AL, (Ed). Methods of Soil Analysis,Part 2. Agronomy Monograph Vol. 9. Wisconsin1982: 539-579.

9. Bremner JM.Total N.In Black CA, (Ed.). Methods of soil analysis. Part 2. Agronomy Monograph vol 9. Wisconsin 1965:1149â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1178.

10. Chapman HD.Cation exchange capacity. In Black CA (Ed). Methods of soil analysis. Part 2.

Agronomy Monograph Vol 9. Wisconsin 1965:891901.

11. MurphyJ. RileyJP. A modified single solution method for the determination of phosphate in natural waters. Analytica Chimica Acta 1962; 27: 31-36.

Egodawatte & Senanayake. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 45-50

12.Bhargava BS, Raghupathi HB. Analysis of Plant Materials for Macro and Micronutrients. In: Tandon HLS (Ed). Methods of Analysis of Soils, Plants, Waters and Fertilizers. Fertiliser Association and Consultation Organization New Delhi 2001: 49-82.

13. Van Soest PJ, Wine RH. Determination of lignin and cellulose in acid detergent fiber with permanganate. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 1967; 51:780-785.

14. Somado EA, KĂźhne RF, Sahrawat KL, Becker M. Application of low-phosphorus-containing legume residues reduces extractable phosphorus in a tropical Ultisol. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 2007; 170:205-209.

15. Narteh LT, Sahrawat KL. Influence of flooding on electro-chemical and chemical properties of West African soils. Geoderma 1999;87: 179-207.

16. Palm CA. Contribution of agroforestry trees to nutrient requirements of intercropped plants. Agriculture Systems 1995;30: 105-124. .

50

17. Iyamuremye F, Dick RP, Baham J. Organic amendments and phosphorus dynamics:1. phosphorus chemistry and absorption. Soil Science 1996;161: 426-435.

18. Kirk GJD, Tian-Ren Y, Choudhury FA. Phosphorus chemistry in relation to water regime, in IRRI: Phosphorus Requirements for Sustainable Agriculture in Asia and Oceania. Symposium proceedings, March 6â&#x20AC;&#x201C;10, 1989, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Banos, Philippines 1991: 211-223.

19. Kirk GJD, Saleque MA. Solubilization of phosphate by rice plants growing in reduced soil: prediction of the amount solubilized and the resultant increase in uptake. European Journal of Soil Science 1995;46: 247-255.

20. Kirk GJD, Santos EE, Findenegg GR. Phosphate solubilization by organic anion excretion from rice (Oryza sativa L.)growing in aerobic soil. Plant and Soil 1999;211: 11-18

Mendis & Weerasekara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 51-57

51

RESEARCH ARTICLE

mqrdK wkqrdOmqr kd.lÍlrK l%shdj,sh iïnkaO mqrdúoHd;aul úu¾Ykhla

;=is; uekaÈia1* ;siai ùrfialr2 1*

mqrdúoHd yd Wreul<ukdlrK wOHhkdxYh, Y%S ,xld rcrg úYAjúoHd,h *thus.mendis@gmail.com

2

udkjYdia;% wOHkdxYh, Y%S ,xld rcrg úYAjúoHd,h

An archeological investigation on urbanization process of ancient Anuradhapura T. Mendis, T. Weerasekara

Abstract: It had been assumed that the settlement urbanization process of ancient Anuradhapura was a result of the migration of king Vijaya and his colleagues from India. However, it is almost certain that a settlement cannot have a rapid urbanization process in a short period with the arrival of foreign migrants. Therefore, the urbanization of Anuradhapura could not be a sudden incident. It is essential that a settlement should contain the basic elements to gain the urban status and the social, economical, political and religious factors have to be developed simultaneously to have direct influence on it.

This article studied the early Iron age and protohistoric evidences, through archaeological sources and literature, before the arrival of king Wijaya to reveal the levels of the growth of simple villages and simple urban areas as well as the influence of the regional leadership in the periphery to the urban areas. m¾fhaIK ixIsma;h fuu rpkh u.ska idlÉPdjg n÷ka lr we;af;a wkqrdOmqr kd.ÍlrKh l%shdj,sh flfia wdrïN ù j¾Okh jqfha ±hs hkakhs’ úfYaIfhkau uQ,dY% j, i|yka jk wdldrhg úchf.a wud;Hjrfhl= jk wkqrdO keue;a;d úiska wkqrdOmqrh ckdjdi lsßfuka miqj wkqrdOmqrh kd.ÍlrKh jq njg i|yka jk uQ,dY% f;dr;=re jvd ksjerÈ fkdjk nj mqrdúoHd idOl j,ska fmfka’ úfYaIfhkau mq¾j ft;sydisl ixialD;sl wjêfha § wdrïNjk .%dóh ckdjdi l%ufhka wkqrdOmqr yd fÊ;jk m%foaYj, jHdma; fjñka ta Tiafia we;s jk foaYmd,k, wd¾Ól, wd.ñl yd iudÔh l%shdj,sh Tiafia wkqrdOmqrh kd.ÍlrKhg m;aùu ms<sn|j idlÉPd fldg we;.

ye¢kaùu

f.dv kef.kakd jQ iqúfYaI;ajhka thg n,md we;¡

Y%S ,xldfõ mqrdK kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,sh ms<sn| j l< wOHhkhkaysoS m%Odk jYfhka u kd.ÍlrKhg m;a jQ ia:dk lsysmhla fï jk úg;a mqrdúoHd{hka úiska y÷kd f.k ;sfí’¡ ta w;=ßka mqrdK hq.j, oS kd.rSlrKhg m;a jeo.;a ia:dk jYfhka wkqrdOmqrh, ;siaiuydrduh, yd iS.sßh fmkajdosh yels h’¡ YS% ,xldfõ mqrdK iudch ;=< kd.ßl moku ìyssùu i|yd m%d.a kd.ßl ;;a;ajhkaf.a iudc l%shdj,sh by< odhl;ajhka ,nd § ;sfí’¡ fuys oS kd.ßl l%shdj,sh i|yd iudch ;=<ska biau;= jk fm<m;a m%OdkSka fyda wd.u uq,a lr .;a kdhlhka ;SrKd;aul ld¾h Ndrhla bgq lrkq ,nhs1¡

kd.ßl l%shdj,sh wOHhkfhaoS ñksia iudch yd mßirh tlsfklg fjk;a foa f,i f;areï .kq ,nkafka kï tys t;rï f;areula ke;¡ iïm;a mßyrKh, úfYaIfhka u Lksc øjH Ndú;h, iudc miqìï yd iïnkaO fkdlrkafka kï tys f;areula fyda jeo.;alula fkdue;3¡ fuh jvd;a i;H jkafka wm lsishï iudchl yev.eiSï, hq.fha flfrk iïm;a mßyrKh .ek l;d lrk úgh¡ fndfyda úg fun÷ iudchkag iïm;a fj; <Õdùug¡ tajd fidhd.ekS ug, tajd w;am;a lr ksIalrKh lr .ekSug yd /f.k hdu l<hq;= jQfha l,ska ;snqKq oekqula fyda há;, myiqlïj, iydhla fkdue;sjh3¡ kd.ÍlrKhg m%úIag ùug m%:u uq,a ld,Sk iudchka yd tajdfha m%lD;s iajNdúl mßirh w;r jQ wfkHdakH meje;au i|yd w;HjYH jQ iycSjk iïnkaO;djh, udOHhka .Kkdjla ;=<ska l,t<s niajk ,os¡ tkï ;dlaIK Ys,amh, hemqï rgdj, iïm;a mrsyrKh yd mosxÑ ùfï fudaia;rh ;=<sks3¡ fuys m%;sM,h jYfhka øjHuh wka;¾ l%shdldß;aj l%shdoduh jQ udkisl m%;spdrh uqÿka meñfKkafka mq¿,a jYfhka iudcuh, wd¾:sl, foaYmd,kuh yd wd.ñl hkqfjka ye|skaúh yels wdh;k yev.eiSfuks1,3¡ ta wkqj b;sydifha lsishï kshñ; ld,hl fyda ia:dkhl mej;s iudc ixialD;sl mßirh fuu cjksldj uÕska by< ;,hlg Tijkq ,nkafka kd.rsl l%shdj,sh ;=<sks¡ úfYaIfhka u iudc m%jK;dj, wiuiu ixj¾Ok ;;ajhka fuys§ ie,ls,a,g .; hq;= h’s¡

kd.ÍlrKh (Urbanisam) hkak uQ,dY%h.; f;dr;=rej,g wkqj Wreufhka ,efnkakd jQ úYsIag Ndjhla f,i y÷kd.; yels h¡’ kuq;a kd.ÍlrK ls%hdj,sh foi mqrdúoHd oDIaáhlska ne,Sfï oS th m%d.a kQ;k wjêfha iudcfha l%shd;aul jQ tlsfklg fjkia iudc ;=< we;sjkakd jQ m%.ukhka Tiafia j¾Okh jk úfYAI m%d.=KH;djh u.ska we;sjk wd¾:sl l<ukdlrK l%shdj,shnj fmfka2¡ fï ;;a;ajh ld,h yd wjldYh u; f.dvkef.kakd jQ ;;a;ajhla jk w;r th f,dj lsis rgl f¾Çh f,i j¾Okh jknj fkdfmfka¡ úfYaIfhka u m%d.a kd.ßl ;;a;ajhkaf.a isg kd.ßl ;;a;ajh we;sùu i|yd iïNdjH hq.h ;=< fuu l%shdoduh lemS fmkk w;r ñksid iy mßirh w;r

Mandis & Weerasekara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 51-57

52

.%dóh ir, iudcfha isg ixlS¾K kd.ßl iudchla lrd jq .=Kd;aul jQ;A m%udKd;aul jQ;a mrsj¾;khka uÕska wdh;k yev.eiSu, kd.ßl wjidkfhysoS oS¾> ld,Sk ft;sydisl Wreufhka ,efnkakd jQ úYsIag Ndjhlaa f,i kd.ßl l%shdj,sh ìysùug n,mdkq ,efí’.

fN!;sl iïm;a Wmfhda.S lr .ekSfï rgdfõ j¾Okh iuÕ m%d.a iudc l%udkql+, j oshqKq iudc olajd jQ l%shdj,shlg mßj¾;kh ù we;¡ tysoS ;dlaIK Ys,amh hemqï rgdj, iïm;a mßyrKh fukau ckdjdi rgdj o jeo.;a ù ;sfí3¡

m%d.a kd.ßl l%shdj,sh ;=<oS yev .efiñka we;s iudc ta yd iïnkaO ;dlaIK Ys,amuh l%shdoduj, .uH;djh fndfyda jYfhka r|d mj;ajd.kq ,enqfõ m%dfhda.sl wkaoñka Lksc iïm;a yd wfkl=;a nyqúO iïm;a Wmfhda.S lr .ekSug uÕ mEÿ hï hï mQ¾j fldkafoais u;h3¡ iqfLdamfNda.S fyda wm fhdacH yd mqo mQcd i|yd fjka jQ NdKavhl ksIamdokh iy wuqøjH m%fhdackhg .ekSu b,a¨fuka we;s jQ fjkialï wkqj ;SrKh úh¡ fï fjkialï idOl .Kkdjla u; r|d mj;S3¡¡ ta idOl w;r we;s NdKavhl ld¾h noaO jákdlu, tu iudcfha øjHuh uÜgfï ixj¾Okh, - ;SrKd;aul iïm;a Rcq j fyda jl% j ,nd .ekSfï yelshdj, iïm;a ksIalrKh yd ksIamdokh i|yd fhda.H ;dlaIK l%uhla ;sîu, wuqøjH yd ksñ NdKav m%jdykhg myiq lrk yqjudre hdka;%Khla yd ud¾. cd,hla ;sîu hk lreKq kd.ßl iudchla olajd mrsj¾;kh úug uQ,sl jYfhka bjy,a fõ3¡

fuu uQ,sl ldrKd udkjhd úiska wdrïN lsÍu iuÕ tys B<Õ woshr ;=< kd.ßl l%shdj,shg wjYH foaYmd,k, iudc, wd¾:sl, wd.ñl hk wdh;k yev.efik nj fmfk6,3¡ 1960 ka miq f.davka phs,afâf.a kd.ÍlrKh iïnkaO l%shdj,sh úfõpkhg n÷ka jqjo Tyq bosrsm;a lr we;s ks¾kdhlhka Bcsma;=j, fufidfmdf;añhdj yd bkaÿ ksïkh wdY%fhka jQ kd.ßl l%shdj,sh i|yd hï ;rula ÿrg jeo.;a fõ4¡ phs,aâg miq j kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,sh ms<sn| j wOHhkh lrkq ,enQ W.;=ka fmkajdoS we;af;a tlsfklg fjkia N+ l,dm ;=< úúO iudc úiska ta ta ld,j, n,mj;ajkq ,enQ nyqúO ldrKd mokï lr .ksñka ld,h yd wjldYh ;=< kd.ÍlrKhg m;a ù we;s njh3¡

by;ska úia;r lrk ,o ;;a;ajhka Tiafia kd.ÍlrKh l%shdj,sh ms<sn| j wOHhkh lsÍug f,dj úúO rgj, mqrdúoHd{hka fm<fUkq ,nkafka 20 jeks ishji ;=< oS nj fmfka¡ úfYaIfhka u fndfyda W.;=ka fmkajdoS we;s ldrKhla jkafka m%d.aa ckdjdi moaO;Ska ;=< we;s jkakd jQ l%shdj,Ska tys iduQysl ;;aa;ajhka u; kd.ÍlrKhg m;ajk njh. f,dj kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,sh ìys jkafka l%s¡mq¡ 6000 3000 w;r ld,fhaoSh4¡ fuu iufhaoS ñksid f,day Ndú;h weröu, frdaoh Ndú;h, Ôú;hg wjYH úúO WmlrK ks¾udKh, Bcsma;=fõ, Ökfha, fufidfmdf;añhdfõ fuka u iskaÿ ksïkfha wdrïN lsrSu Tiafia tu ia:dkj, kd.ßl l%shdj,sh werfUk nj fmkajdoS we;¡ kd.ßl l%shdj,shla ´kEu iudchl weröu i|yd m%Odk jYfhka u lreKq 10 la n,mdk nj phs,aâ4 fmkajdoS ;sfí¡ tajd w;r, i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x.

ck f¾Lkfha m%idrKh uQ, Okh uOH.; ùu iaudrl yd fiiq f.dvke.s,s ìysùu ÿrl;r fj<|du f,aLkh weröu yd wlaIr Ndú;h úoHdjka ìysùu mka;s iudchla ìysùu úfYaI m%d.=KH;djhla iys; Ys,am fY%aKs ìysùu rdcH ms<sn| wdl,am we;sùu fi!kao¾hd;aul yd l,d risl;ajh we;sùu hk ldrKd m%Odk ù ;sfí¡

phs,aâf.a ckm%sh kd.ÍlrK u;jdoh i|yd bÈßm;a lrKq ,enQ ks¾Kdhlhkag (Criteria) úreoaO u;jdo o bosrsm;a ù ;sfí5¡ iuyr W.;=kaf.a u;h jkafka kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,sh ñksid yd iajNdúl mßirh w;r jQ l%shdj,shl m%;sM,hla nj h6¡ ta wkqj udkjhd úiska mßirh ;=< mj;skakd jQ

l%ufõoh fuu wOHhkh i|yd Y%S ,xldfõ wkqrdOmqr we;=`:mqrh yd bka msg; l,dmj, isÿlrk ,o mqrdúoHd leKsï u`.ska y\ qkd.kq ,enq fN!;sl ixialD;sl f;dr;=re yd uQ,dY%hj, wka;¾.; f;dr;=re fuka u foia úfoia úoaj;=ka úiska isÿ lrkq ,enq m¾fhaIKj, f;dr;=re Wmfhda.s fldgf.k wOHhk l%ufõoh iliafldg .kakd ,È’.

úu¾Ykh Y%S ,xldfõ kd.ÍlrKh ms<sn| idlÉPd lsÍfï§ thg mQ¾jfhka ol=Kq wdishdkq kd.ÍlrK ;;a;ajhka úuid ne,Suo jeo.;a fõ’. ol=Kq wdishdkq l,dmh .;a l< tys isÿ jQ uq,au kd.ßl l%shdj,sh bkaÿ ksïkh wdY%s; j isÿ ù we; 7,8 ¡ bkaÿ ksïkh iïnkaOj fuf;la isÿ l< m¾fhaIKj,oSS tys kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,sh i|yd m%d.a yrmamdkq .%dóh ixialD;ska uQ,sl moku ilia lr we;s nj y÷kdf.k ;sfí9¡ bkaÿ ksïkhg jhU foiska msysgkakd jQ n¨lsia:dka idkqj ;=< ia:dk.; j we;s lafõÜgd, wïß, kd,a, l=,a,s, fYdaí lsf,a.=,a fudfyduâ hk m%d.a yrmamdkq .%dóh ixialD;ska ;=< we;sjkakd jQ l%shdldrs;ajh bkaÿ ksïk kd.ßl YsIagdpdrh ìysùug moku ilid we; 9¡ we*a.ksia:dkfha uqkaäla f.dve,a, ;=< isÿlrkq ,enQ leKSïj,oS ckdjdi ia;r 10la y÷kdf.k we;s w;r tys 6 jk ia;rfha ld,ks¾Kh l%s¡mQ¡ 2625 - 3000 f,i ,eî ;sfí10¡ tfia u lafjÜgd m%foaYfha lsf,a.=,a fudfyduâ ^Kilegul Mohomad& ia:dkfha kjYs,d hq.fha isg ixpdrl tf`âreka Ôj;a jQ nj y÷kdf.k we;¡ i;a;aj .DylrKh yd oEle;s mdúÉÑ l< ñksiqka Ôj;a jQ njg idOl tys yuqjk w;r bkamiq l%udkql+, j oshqKqjg m;a jQ ixialD;sh ;=< meil fõ<k ,o ueá fuj<ïj, isg mq¿iaikq ,enQ j<x olajd mrsj¾;kh y÷kdf.k we; 10¡ fuhg wu;r j W;=re n¨lsia:dka rdkd>qkavdhS ^Ranagundai& ia:dkh wdY%s; f.dve,a, ;=< isÿ lrkq ,enQ m¾fhaIK j,ska fidaí ksïk YsIagdpdrhg wh;a f,day Ndú;h yd w¾O ixpdrl ck lKavdhï l,ska l,g tys mosxÑ ù isá njg idOl y÷kdf.k we; 9,10¡ tfia u fuu ixialD;sl wjêh ;=<ska fud,a,sh iys; .jhd (Bos indicus), neg¨qjd

Mendis & Weerasekara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 51-57 ^Ovis aries&, nQrejd (Equus asinus), wYajhd (Equus caballus) wdoS .DylrKh lrk ,o i;=ka ms<sn| j idOl yuqù ;sfí’ ta wkqj yrmamd k.r m%Njhg fndfyda l,lg fmr wYajhd Ndú;hg f.k ;snqK njgo idOl tysoS yuqùu w;sYhska u jeo.;a h9,10¡ fuu YsIagdpdr wdY%s; j oshqKq jq ueá fuj<ï l¾udka;h yd uQ¾;s ks¾udK ms<sn|j o idOl yuq fõ9¡ wïß YsIagdpdrh wdY%s; j isÿ lrkq ,enQ m¾fhaIKj,ska m%d.a yrmamdkq .%dóh ixialD;shla tys mej;=K nj y÷kdf.k we;¡ tfiau uqyqÿ wdY%s; fn,a,ka úYd, m%udKhla fuu ia:dkfha yuqjk neúka m%d.a yrmamdkq hq.fhaoS fuu ia:dkh fudahlg wdikak jQ ia:dkhla jYfhka y÷kdf.k ;sfí¡ wïß YsIagdpdrh ms<sn| j woyia olajd we;s ucqïod¾ m%ldYfldg we;af;a wïßh yrmamdjg jvd ksielju merKs ia:dkhla jYfhks¡ iuia;hla f,i wïß, kd,a, l=,a,s,fYdaí, lsf,a.=,a fudfyduâ wdoS .%dóh ixialD;Ska l%udkql+,j mßKduhù tys kd.ßl wjia:djjQ yrmamdkq kd.ÍlrKh iïnkaOù we;s wdldrh tys ueá n÷ka yd uQ¾;s ms<sn| j wOHhkhkag wkqj meyeos,s fõ¡ fuu ;;a;ajh ksid yrmamd YsIagdpdrh uq,§ bkaÿ ksïk YsIagdpdrh jYfhka o miqj iskaÿ ksïk YsIagdpdrh jYfhka úoaj;ayq ye|skajQy¡ kuq;a fuu u;hg wNsfhda. l< fyhskaiafudâ ^Heinezmod& jeks W.;=ka fuu YsIagdpdrh bkaÿ ksïkhg muKla fkdj bkaoshdfõ jhU os. m%foaYhg jHdma; jk neúka th wdos;u bkaoSh iNH;ajh jYfhka kïlrk ,os¡ miqld,Sk W.;=ka úiska fuu YsIagdpdrh uq,skau yrmamdfjka fidhd .;a ksid yrmamd iNH;ajh jYfhka kï lrkq ,eîh¡ yrmamd YsIagdpdrh iïnkaO m¾fhaIK l< wh w;r fcdaka udI,a m%uqLhl= fõ’ Tyq úiska Mohenjodaro and Indus Civilization kï udyeÕs lD;shla rpkd fldg we; 11¡ óg wu;r j ohdrdïIdks, ucqïod¾, ù,¾ wdoS W.;=ka úiska o m¾fhaIK isÿfldg tys kd.lÍlrK l%shdj,sfha moku ms<sn| woyia bosßm;a fldg we;¡ f*hd¾i¾úia bkaÿ ksïkfha iskaÿ .Õnv wdrïNjQ YsIagdpdrh wd.u yd fj<|du m%uqL fldg fj<| uOHia:dk njg m;a jQ kd.ßl ia:dkhla nj fmkajdoS we;10¡ kuq;a fcdaka ud¾I,a fmkajdoS we;s mßÈ iskaÿ ksïk kd.ÍlrKh i`oyd ;U fuj<ï iuÕ Ys,d fuj<ï Ndú;h, l=U,ail Ndú;h iq¿ l¾udka; yd l,d kss¾udK, rEmdlaIr, frdao iys; jdyk Ndú;h iskaÿ ksïkfha kd.lÍlrKhg n,md we; 11¡ tfia u ñirh yd fufifmdf;añhdj wdoS YsIagdpdr w;r hï hï in|;d o tys kd.ÍlrKhg n,md ;sfí12¡ fï wldrhg l%s¡mQ¡ 2500 ;rï wE; ld,hloS yrmamd kd.ßl YsIagdpdrh wdrïN j13¡ l%s¡mQ¡ 1750 oS muK th úkdY jQ nj ldnka ld,ks¾K uÕska y÷kd f.k ;sfí13¡ bkaoSh w¾Ooaùmh ;=< isÿjQ uq,au kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,shg miq j tys fojk kd.rsl l%shdj,sh .x.d ksïkh wdY%s; j l< t<s niskq oel.; yelsh14,15¡ .x.d ksïkfha we;s jkakd jQ fojeks kd.ßl wjia:djg moku oud ;sfnkqfha o yrmamd YsIagdpdrh ì|jeàfuka we;s jQ .%dóh ixialD;Ska nj fmfka¡ fuu .%dóh ixialD;skaf.ka o ;U whqO Ndú; l< ixialD;Ska .x.d ksïk kd.ÍlrKhg uq,aù we;s nj tu m%foaYj,ska fidhd .;a idlaIs wkqj ;yjqre fõ16¡ .x.d ksïkfhka yuqù we;s iuyr ;U wdhqO ngysr wdishd;sl wdhqO yd fuj<ï iuÕ iudk;d we;s nj msf.dÜ m%ldY fldg we; 9¡ kuq;a .x.d ksïk ;U wdhqO yd ngysr wdhqO w;r ksIamdokh, wuqøjH yd ;dlaIKh w;ska fjkialï

53

rdYshla mj;sk nj î¡î¡,d,a fmkajdoS ;sfí16. fï ms<sn| j jeä ÿrg;a woyia olajk ,d,a úiska rdcamQ¾ m¾iq ^Rajpur Parsu& ia:dkfha isÿl< leKSïj,oS ;U Ndck iuÕ m~qjka meye ueá n÷ka ^Ochre – Coloured Ware& yuqjk neúka fuu fN!;sl ixialD;sl f;dr;=re w;r iudk;djhla we;s nj fmkajd fohs’ tfia u fuu Ndck len,s yia;skdmqrfha leKSïj,ska o fidhd f.k we; 16 ¡ m~qjkameye fuj,ï ixialD;sh l%s¡mQ¡ 1200 fmr mej;=K .%dóh ixialD;shla nj ,d,a fmkajd§ we;16¡ Tyq jeäÿrg;a olajd we;s woyia wkqj m~qjkAmeye ueá fuj<ï ixialD;sh g miq j .x.d ksïkfha úÑ;% wdY=la, ^w¿meye n÷ka& ^Painted Gray Ware& ueá Ndck ixialD;sh l%shd;aul j ;sfí¡ fkdu| j mq¿iaid we;s fuu n÷ka ;=< f¾Çh rgd yd ;s;a rgd oel.; yels h16¡ yia;skdmqrfha úÑ;% wdY=la, fuj<ï (RLW) Ndú; ixialD;sh l%s¡mQ¡ 1100 oS m%Njh jQ nj ldnka ld,ks¾K uÕska ;yjqre fldg we;16¡ fuu n÷ka j¾.fha by< ld, mrdih tfia jqjo my< iSudj l%s¡mQ¡ 500450 w;r ld,hg wh;a nj ms<s.kq ,efí16¡ yia;skdmqrfha fuu ueá Ndck ixialD;sh l%s¡mQ¡ 800 oS wjika jk nj ,d,a fmkajd fok w;r ta i|yd c, .e,Sï n,md we;s nj m%ldYfldg ;sfí16¡ ñka miq wNsÉP;%, mkSm;a, bkaÿm;a, ks,am;, fidakam;a, Nd.m;a hk ia:dkj,ska úÑ;% wdY=la, ueá n÷ka ^Painted Gray Ware& yd W;a;r WoaoSma; ld, j¾K fuj,ï ^Nothern Black Polished Ware& y÷kd.kq ,enQ w;r thska NBPW ueá fuj<ï, PGW ueá fuj<ï j,g miq wjêhlg tkï l%s¡mQ¡300-200 ld,h g wh;a f,i ld, ks¾Kh ù we;¡ yia;skdmqrfhka o fuu Ndck ms<sn| j idOl yuqjQ neúka tuÕska meyeos,s jQfha PGW ixialD;shg miq ld,hg NBPW wh;a njhs17¡ PGW ixialD;sh iuÕ ,efnkakdjQ ;j;a jeo.;a idOlhla jkafka wYajhd ms<sn| idOl yuqùuhs¡ yia;skdmqrfhka wYaj wia:s jd¾;dù ;sfí’ úÑ;% wdY=la, ueá fuj<ï iuÕ hlv Ndú;h ms<sn| idOl w;arkacs fÄrdfjka l%s¡mQ¡ 1025 wh;a ia;rj,ska 16 WÊfchskays l%s¡mQ¡ 750-500 w;r ia;rj,ska hlv yd f,day WKq l< W÷ka o fidhdf.k ;sfí17¡ fl!iïìfhka o w,.ï.S¾mqrfhka o yia;skdmqrfhka o úÑ;% wdY=la, ueá fuj<ï Ndú;h yd hlv w;r iïnkaOhla we;s nj bka meyeos,sù ;sfí16¡ fï wkqj l%s¡mQ¡ 1100 isg l%s’mQ’ 500 olajd ld,h ;=< .x.d ksïkh wdY%s; j ;U yd hlv fuka u OCW (Ocher Coloured Ware), PGW (Painted Gray Ware), NBPW(Northern Black Polish Ware) ueá fuj<ï wdY%s; m%d.a kd.ßl .%dóh ixialD;Ska ixj¾Okhù fojk kd.ÍlrK wjêh olajd imeñK ;snqK nj meyeos,sù we;¡ tfia u fuu ld,hg idfmalaIj l%s¡mQ¡ 600-500 jk úg Y%S ,xldfõ wkqrdOmqr yd ;siaiuydrduh o kd.ÍlrKh ùu wdrïN ù ;snqK nj y÷kdf.k we;18,19¡ ol=Kq wdishdfõ fojk kd.ßl wjêh ;=< y÷kd.; yels iqúfYaI ,laIK jYfhkaa hlv ;dlaIKh, ÿr l;r fj<|du, oshqKq ikaksfõok l%u wdosh Ndú;h fmkajdÈh yels h20¡ wkqrdOmqr k.rfha wdrïNh ms<sn| i|yka lrk uydjxih th .%dóh uÜgfï isg oshqKq jq wdldrh úia;r fldgwe;¡ úfYaIfhka l%s¡mQ¡ 5 jk ishjfia muK wkqrdO.du kñka ye|skajQ .%duh l%s¡mQ¡ 4 jk ishji muK úg wkqrdOmqrh njg m;a ù we; 21¡ uydjxifha f,aLk.; fldg we;s úia;rj,g wkqj wkqrdOmqr k.rhla njg m;alrkq ,nkafka mKavqldNh rcq úisks21¡ wkqrdOmqrfha kd.ßlrK ie,iqï lghq;= Y%S ,xld fõ mqrdK idïm%odhsl k.rhl ie,iqu ms<sn| j uk(l,ams;

Mendis & Weerasekara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 51-57 Ñ;%hla wm fj; ,nd fohs’. mqrdK wkqrdOmqr kd.ÍlrKh

wkqrdOmqr kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,sh foi ne,SfïoS úfYaIfhka u th fm%dfgda ft;sydisl wkqrdO.duh .%dóh ;;a;ajhkaf.a isg l%ufhka yev.eiS j¾Okh jQ nj mqrdúoHd idOl wkqj y÷kd.; yels h’¡ fuysoS wm wjOdkh fhduq l<hq;= jkafka wkqrdOmqr yd ;odY%s; m%foaYfha m%d.a kd.ßl .%dóh ;;a;ajhkays j¾Okh flfrys h¡ hdkaTh yd l,d Th wdY%s; j ìys jkakd jQ mQ¾j ft;sydisl .%dóh ixialD;Skaf.a j¾Okh úfYaIfhka u wkqrdOmqr kd.ÍlrKh i|yd Rcq j n,md we;¡ mQ¾j ft;sydisl iufhaoS tys ixialD;sl l,dm;, fN!ñl l,dmhka w;r iumd;h m%Odk jYfhka olakg ,efnkqfha laIqø-Ôú mrsir l,dm iu.h3¡ fuu hq.fhaoS l,d Th, hdka Th yd u,aj;= Th wdY%s; j msysgqjd .kq ,nk m%d.a kd.ßl ckdjdi tu fN!ñl l,dmj, ia:dk .; jkafka wod< m%foaY wdY%s; j mj;skakd jQ iSñ; iïm;a lrK fldg f.knj fmfka¡ mQ¾j ft;sydisl wjêfha jdi N+ñj, Ôú mßir moku .ek m%Yak lrk úg meyeos,s jkafka ta ta fN!ñl lafIa;%j, oel.; yels iqúfYaI iïm;aj, msysàuhs¡ hdkaTh uOH ksïkfha ia:dk.; j we;s fldlatfí, .=re.,ayskak, jä.jej, ;ïuekakd f.dve,a,, osjq,a jej, rUEj wdoS mQ¾j ft;sydisl ia:dk msysgd we;af;a úh<s l,dmfha lDIs ld¾ñl mrsirhg wh;a jeõ rfÜ uOHfha fkdjk nj fmfka22¡ tfia u fï m%foaYh i,lk l, m%Odk jYfhka u ue.akghsÜ hmia ksê.; ù we;s iïm;a m%foaYhla f,i y÷kd.; yelsh23¡ fiarekqjr msysgk iajNdúl f,day mia fuu m%d:ñl .%dóh ixialD;Ska hf:dala; m%foaYj, ia:dk.;ùug n,md we;24¡ thg wu;r j leì;sf.d,a,Ej wdY%s; m%foaYfha uhsld ksê.;ù ;sîuo ie,lsh hq;=h25¡ by< l,dTh moaO;sh .;a l, ta wdY%s; j ckdjdi msysgqjd .ekSu my;a l÷lr m%foaY ;=<ska y÷kd.; yels h¡ fuu m%foaY wdY%fhka ckdjdi msysgqjd .kq ,nk mQ¾j ft;sydisl ck;dj tys ia:dk.;ùfï § by< l÷lr l,dmfha we;s iïm;aj, Wmfhda.S;djh flfrys ie,ls,a,la olajd we;s nj fmfka3¡ N+ úoHd m¾fhaIK wkqj ud;f,a osia;%slalfha isg by< l,dTh f;la ol=fKa isg W;=r n,d Èfjk WiaN+ñ jeáh ;=< rUia, ;srejdkd, f*,aâia*d¾, udn,a, khsia, ñksrka msysgd we; 25¡ Lksc iïm;a msysgd ;sfnk fuu m%foaYh yd by< l,dTh ksïkfha oUq,a, wdY%s; m%foaYh ksrka;rfhka u c,h .,k we< fod<j, c, m%jdyk rgd ks¾udKh jQ m%foaY úh3¡ wjdkla fuka me;sfrk l÷lrh ;=< jk ksïk wdY%s; ire mi mQ¾j ft;sydisl iufhaoS tkï l%s¡mQ¡ 7-4 ishjia w;r ld,fhaoS ckhd mosxÑ ù fï rgdjka ks¾Kh lrk m%Odk idOlhla úh3¡ oUq,a, yd wjg m%foaYhg uq,a whia iufha ;dlaIK ixialD;sl msrsia we;=¿ùu bínkalgqj, wdfklgdj, lkao,u, frdgjej, .f,afj, m%foaY wdY%fhka oel.; yels mQ¾j ft;sydisl l=àr j<,Eïj,ska ;yjqre fõ3,26¡ fï wdldrhg by< l,dTh moaO;sh, uOH hdkaTh, u,aj;=Th wdY%s; m%foaY weiqfrka oel.; yels mQ¾j ft;sydisl .%dóh ckdjdi l%udkql+, j wka;¾ iïm;a mßyrK l%shdj,sh Tiafia yqjudrej weröu iuÕ wkqrdOmqr m%Odk wd¾Ól uOHia:dkh f,i biau;= ùu isÿ fõ’¡ fuysoS nyq iïm;a hemqï rgdj l%shd;aul ùu iu`.u w¾: - ia:djr ck lKavdhï uÕska m¾hka; m%foaYj,ska ,nd

54

fokq ,enQ moku wkqrdOmqrh k.rhla f,i biau;= jkakg n,mE nj Wml,amkh l< yels h¡ úfYaIfhka u flakaøSh f,i wkqrdOmqrh j¾Okh ùfï§ m¾hka; m%foaYj, isÿ jQ iïm;a w;am;a lr.ekSu, ksIalrKh tajd fk<d .ekSu yd ksIamdok l%shdj,sh Tiafia NdKav yqjudrej isÿ fjñka tajd fnodyeÍu lsÍfïoS ;SrKd;aul f,i wkqrdOmqrh jeo.;aù ;sfí’. wkqrdOmqrh m%Odk fnod yeÍu uOHia:dkh njg mQ¾j ft;sydisl wjêfha m;aj ;snQ nj fiare kqjr uq,afldg .;a ;U iïm;a mßyrKh l%shdj,sh ;=<ska yd bkaÈhdfõ isg furgg wdkhkh lrk ,o ldkS,shka mn¿ fnod yeÍfï l%shdj,sh ;=<ska meyeÈ,s ù ;sfí27¡ AG 69 3 A ia;rfhka yuqjk (5b) j¾.fha ldkS,shka mn¿ yd mn¿ ksIamdok ld¾ñlfYaI fidhd .ekSfuka ;yjqre jkafka wkqrdOmqrfha ksIamdokh lrkq ,enQ ldkS,shka mn¿ bínkalgqj olajd mßjykh ù we;s nj h3,27¡ tfia u uOH l÷lrfha iïNjh ,nk weuf;ia;, ;srejdKd, wd§ mdIdK yd tajdhska ks¾udKh lrk ,o mn¿ j¾.o we;=¿mqrfha mQ¾j ft;sydisl ckdjdi ia;rj,ska yuqù ;sîfuka meyeos,s jkafka b;d iqúfYaIS f,i NdKav yqjudre l%shdj,sh wkqrd Omqrh flakaø.; fldg isÿù we;s njh27¡ wkqrdOmqr yd m¾hka; m%foaY w;r isÿ jkakd jQ fuu wka;¾ NdKav yqjud re l%shdj,sh mokï mQ¾j ft;sydisl wjêh ueo Nd.fhaoS tkï l%s¡mQ¡ 600-500 ld,fha§ wkqrdOmqrh k.rhla olajd ixj¾Okhg uÕ mdod we;s nj oerKsh., fmkajd§ we; 18 ¡ oerKsh.,f.a ú.%yhkag wkqj fuu ld,h ;=< we;=¿mqr ckdjdih fylaghdr 50l jmißhlska hqla;ù ;sfí18¡ fuu iuh jkúg nyq iïm;a hemqï rgdj, ck f¾Lkfha m%idrKh yd wlaIr Ndú;h we;=¿mqrh ;=<ska y÷kdf.k ;sfí28,29¡

we;=¿mqr ckdjdih l%udkql+, f,i k.rhla olajd j¾Okh ùfïoS tys yuqù we;s ueá NdKavj, fjkialïo ukd idlaIs imhk nj úoaj;=kaf.a u;hù ;sfí¡ úfYaIfhka u AG 69 3A ia;rh wh;a ld, mßÉfþofhaoS ld,rla; j¾K ueá fuj<ï (BRW), ir, r;=ÿUqre NdKav iuÕ yuqù ;sfí18¡ tajd l%s¡mQ oyjeks, kjjeks Y;j¾Ihg wh;a nj i,lkq ,efí¡’ w¿ meye;s n÷ka fuu ckdjdi ia;rj, yuq fkdjk w;r ld,j¾K ueá fuj<ï yuqfõ’. l%s¡mQ¡ 700-500 w;r ASW 1 ixisoaê wxl 89 yd AMP ixisoaê wxl 75 u.ska uOHu m%udKfha ueá ñY%K iys; wdkhkh lrk ,o n÷ka yuqù ;sfí30¡ fuu n÷ka mYapd;a ld,hg wh;a rEf,agâ ueá NdKavj,g iudkhehs Wml,amkh lr we;¡ AG 69 13 A(1) ffY,Sfha lemS fmkk ueá NdKav yia;skdmq¾ NBPW uÜgïj, 44 jk ffY,shg iyiïnkaO;djhla fmkajk nj oerKsh., m%ldYfldg we; 27¡ tu.ska fuu ld,mrdih ;=< W;=re bkaoSh iy iïnkaO;djh yd ^tu& wka;¾ foaYSh iïnkaO;d meyeos,s jk nj AG 69 3 A (ii) ueá NdKav u.ska ;yjqre fõ¡ fï wkqj l%s¡mQ¡ 700-500 olajd wkqrdOmqr ixialD;sfha m%Odk fjkiaùula fuuÕska fmfkk w;r W;a;r WoaoSma; ld,j¾K fuj<ï ^NBPW& l%s¡mQ¡ 4 jk Y; j¾Ihg wh;a nj AG 85 ixisoaê wxl 15 ;=<ska meyeos,s fõ¡ fuu ueá Ndck j¾.h ksIamdokh W;a;r bkaÈhdfõ .x.d ñáhdjf;a isÿù we; 18¡ fujeks fN!;sl ixialD;sl f;dr;=re ;=<ska l%s¡mQ¡ 4 jk Y; j¾Ifha isg .x.d ñáhdjf;a kd.ßl uOHia:dk iuÕ Y%S ,xldj iyiïnkaO;d mj;ajd we;snj meyeÈ,s fõ¡’

55

Mendis & Weerasekara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 51-57 l%s¡mQ¡ 4 jk Y; j¾Ifha wfYdal wêrdcHhg fmr W;=re bkaoshdfõ nqoaêuh iïm%odhkaj, jHdma;sh y÷kd.ekSug NBPW ueá NdKav iy oSma;sfhka wvq w¿ meye;s ueá NdKav Wmfhda.S jknj fmkajdfok oerKsh., tu.ska bkaoshdkq Y%S ,xld iy in|;djhka mej;s ld,hg miq ld,fhaoS uOHOrKS msÕka NdKavj, yd rEf,agâ msÕka NdKav jdksc mrud¾: fmroeßj ol=Kq fnx.d, ksIamdok uOHia:dkfha isg Y%S ,xldjg wdkhkh fldg we;s nj fmkajd § we;31¡ NBPW ueá fuj<ï l%s¡mQ¡ 4 jk ishjfia isg uq,a l%sia;= hq.h olajd mßyrKhù we; ^iqo¾Yka fifkúr;ak iuÕ isÿl< iïuqL idlÉPdjla weiqßks&’ tfia u rEf,agâ j¾.fha n÷ka l%s¡mQ¡ 2 jk ishjfia isg l%s’j fojeks ishjig wh;a ikao¾Nj,ska j¾;dù ;sfnk w;r31 tu.ska wkqrdOmqr k.rh ngysr rgj,a iuÕ iïnkaO;d meje;ajQ nj fuu msÕka NdKav uÕska y÷kd.; yelsh¡ l%s¡j¡ 2 jeks Y; j¾Ihg wh;a ASW 1 ixisoaê wxl 49 yuqjQ msÕka NdKav ngysr wdishdkq iïnkaO;djh uekúka lshdmdk idOlhla nj oerKsh., yd lksxyeï m%ldY fldg we; 18,29¡ wkqrdOmqr kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,sh wOHhkfha§ Ys,am ksIamdok lghq;= ms<sn| j ,efnk idOl o fnfyúka u jeo.;a fõ’¡ tu lghq;= w;r l%s¡mq¡ 500g fmr hq.hkays§ ks¾ñ; mn¿ j¾. we;=¿mqrfhka yuqù we;’ úksúo fmfkk r;= ùÿre mn¿ AG 85, 8a(iv) iy 8b(i) hk j¾. hgf;a y÷kdf.k we; 27¡ tfiau AG 69 Type 10b (i) iy 8b (i) f,i j¾.fldg olajd we;af;a l%s¡mQ¡ 6 jeks Y; j¾Ifha isg l%s¡mQ¡ 3 jeks Y; j¾Ih olajd ld,h w;r mßyrKh jQ mn¿ nj oerKsh., úiska fmkajd§ ;sfí31¡ fï wkqj wkqrdOmqr kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,sh hkq foaYSh yd úfoaYSh jYfhka we;sù ;snQ úúO iudc wd¾Ól ;;a;ajhka u; mekke.=KqQ isoaê oduhla nj fuu fN!;sl ixialD;sl f;dr;=re wkqj y÷kd.; yels h. wkqrdOmqr kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,sfha jvd j¾Okd;aul wjia:dj wmg y÷kd .; yelafla l%s¡mQ 3 jk ishjiska miqj nj fmfka¡ idys;H uQ,dY%hd.; f;dr;=re wkqj fuu ld,jljdkqj uyskaod.ukh u.ska fn!oaOd.u uq,anei .kakd ld,hg wh;a fõ33¡ fuu ld,mßÉfþoh ;=<§ wkqrdOmqr m¾hka; m%foaY wdY%s;j mej;s m%foaY.; nyqúO iïm;a m%fhdackhg .ekSu fmrgjvd ie,iqï.; j isÿfldg ;sfnknj y÷kd.; yels h’. nyq iïm;a mßyKh ksid flkaøSh f,i wkqrdOmqrh kd.ÍlrKfha WpÉp;u wjia:djg meñfKk w;r fï iuh jkúg laIqø yd id¾j m%foaYj, mßirh .ek jvd fyd| wjfndaOhla ;snQ nj fmfka. uq,a ft;sydisl wjêh ^Early Historic& ;=<ska y÷kd.;yels l%shdoduh f,i iïm;a fl,sskau ,nd .ekSu, ksIamdokh, fnod yeÍï lghq;= weröu nj fmkajdÈh yelsh’. fï i|yd ud¾. moaO;sh mq¿,a ùuo n,mdkakg we;ehs Wml,amkh l< yelsh’. tfia u fuu wjêfhaoS ìysjkakd jQ úfYaI

m%d.=KH;dj iys; Ys,am lKavdhïys biau;= ùu wkqrdOmqr kd.ÍlrKhg odhl;ajh ,efnk ;SrKd;aul lreKla fõ.’tysoS mreul, .ym;s, n;, nr;, wY fyda wi wdoS úfYaIK mo ;uka ye¢kaùu i|yd fhdod.;a mqoa.,hka W;=re ueo yd ;odY%s; m%foaYfha me,moshï ù l¾udka; Ys,amSka yd ksIamdok fnodyßkakka f,i l%shd fldg we;s wdldrh uq,a n%dyaó wNsf,aLk wkqj y÷kd.; yels h¡ iajNdúl iïm;aj, msysàu yd md,k tallj, wdrïNh iuÕ mqrd;k rdcHh yev.eiSu ms<sn| iyiïnkaO;djh bka f.dvkef.k nj m¾fhaIlhka úiska fmkajdoS ;sfí34¡ úfYaIfhka Y%S ,xldfõ iajNdúl iïm;a jk uq;=, ueKsla, hlv, ;U yd wfkl=;a N+.; iïm;aj, msysàu;a uq,a ft;sydisl hq.fha ckdjdij, ia:dk.;ùu;a w;r hï iïnkaO;djhla ;sfí35¡ fuu iajNdúl iïm;a uq,a ft;sydisl hq.fhaoS wkqrdOmqr g fl<skau yd jl% wdldrhg ,enqK nj wkqrdOmqr jgd msysá ia:dk wkqj meyeos,s fõ’. wkqrdOmqrhg kef.kysr m¾hka; m%foaYh ;=< isÿjQ f,day iïm;a mßyrKh fukau wkqrdOmqrh ol=Kska by< l,dTh yd uOH l,dTh ksïkh wdY%s;j uq,a ft;sydisl hq.fha Ôj;a jQ m%cdj l÷lr ÿ¾. ;=<ska tla mßir moaO;shl isg ;j;a mßir moaO;shlg NdKav yd iïm;a m%jdykh i|yd m%fõY ùfï ud¾. fhdod.;a nj m¾fhaIK j,ska ;yjqre lrf.k we;. úfYaIfhkau uq,a n%dyaó wNsf,aLkj, i|yka jkakdjQ lv hk jpkh uÕska N+ rEmK fyda iïm;a l,dm iuÕ iïnkaO jk ksYaÑ; N+ñ m%foaYh laIqø ;;a;ajhloS lv hkafkka jHjydr lr we;af;a lkaola fyda l÷ lfmd,a,la hk .uH w¾:fhks3¡ uq,a ft;sydisl hq.h jkúg tn÷ ia:dk iïm;a tl;= lsÍfï fyda Ndr .kakd uOHia:dk jYfhka l%shd l< ckmo njg mßKduh jkakg we;¡ ud;f,a isg oUq,a, olajd jQ uq,a ft;sydisl hq.fha tjeks lv ckmo .ek i|yka ù we; 3¡ tla mßir moaO;shl isg ;j;a mßir moaO;shlg NdKav iemhSu uÕska l÷lr m%foaY ;=<g ckmo l,dm jHdma;ùu muKla tuÕska woyia fkdfõ¡ thg wu;rj wd¾Ól jev lghq;= uÕska uq,a ft;sydisl wjêfha w¿;a ;dlaIKsl uQ,sldx. yd iudc ieliqï, w¿;aN+ñ yd mßir l,dmj,g we;=¿ lrkq ,eîh3¡ fuu mßir l,dmj,g we;=¿jQ m%cdj uQ,sl jYfhkau iajNdúl Lksc iïm;a iuÕ iïnkaOùu lemSfmfka3¡ foajdkïmsh;siai yd ÿÜG.dñKS rcq oji ;,d;= ñksrka, ßoS, ueKsla .,a yd r;a;rx imhd ÿka .sßlkav ms<sn|j jxil:dj, i|ykafõ32¡ úfYaIfhkau jxil;dlrejka tys§ wkqrdOmqrhg kef.kysr yd ol=Kq m%foaYfha ;sfnk iïm;a ms<sn|j idlÉPd lrwe;s wdldrh thska y÷kd.; yelsh’.

j.= wxl 1. wkqrdOmqrhg wdikak yd m¾hka; m%foaYj, iajNdúl Lksc iïm;aj, msysàu ±lafjk j.=j

ia:dkh

fmßhmq,shkal=,u, TÉpmamql,a¨uq;=.,, kqjr.ulkao kqjrlkao, rk.sruv, ;s;a;fj, f.dakj;a;, nUr., fndaj;af;a.,, fudÜghdlal,a¨, l,ajqvqfmd;dk, l=i,dkalkao, fiareú,

m<d; W;=reueo jhU uOHu kef.kysr

25, 23, 24

fN!;sl iïm;a uq;=, hlv, r;a;rx, uhsld hlv, uhsld hlv, ueKsla hlv, ;U

Mendis & Weerasekara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 51-57 uq,a ft;sydisl wjêfhaoS m¾hka; m%foaY ;=< fm<m;a m%OdkSka iïm;a msysá m%foaY fuka u tajd m%jdykh flfrkq ud¾.j,o md,k n,h i;= lr isá nj fmfka¡ kd,kao wi, foueo Tfhka fidhd .kq ,enQ uq,a n%dyaó wNsf,aLkhl upqäl keu;s rcq ms<sn| i|yka fõ35¡ Tyqf.a ks,OdÍka ueKsla iïm;a wdY%s; l%shdj,shg odhl jq nj fmfka3¡ fuysoS fudyq m%fhdackhg .kq ,enqfõ ueKsla .,a o, iaMál yqKq .,a o ;,d;= ñksrka o lshd meyeÈ,s j lsj fkdyel32¡ fï wdldrhg m%dfoaYSh md,k m%foaYj, isg .ï ^.du& msysgqjd .;a fudjqka k.r yd ksIamdok fnod yeÍï uOHia:dk j,g uyd mßudK wdldrfhka iïm;a ,ndfokakg we;¡ tu ksid u uq,a ft;sydisl wjêh ;=< W;=reueo m<d; ;=< fuu iïm;a yeisrjQ mreul, .ym;s, n;, nr;, wY$wh hkdÈ úfYaIK mo Ndú;d l< mqoa.,hkaf.a mq¿,a ia:dk.; ùula y÷kd.; yelsh¡ j.= wxl 2. uq,a ft;sydisl wjêfha W;=reueo m<d; ;=< cSj;a jQ úúO moú ±rejka msysgqjd we;s Ys,d ,sms m%udKh oelafjk j.=j35 mreul .ñl n; .ym;s nr; wi$wh

91 14 39 23 13 08

fuu mqoa.,hska ms<sn| j idlÉPd lsÍfïoS fudjqka úfYaI jdKsc lghq;=j, fhÿkdjQ;a, foaYSh iudc lKavdhï kdhlhka n÷ úfYaI{hska ksIamdok Ys,amSka, f;dgqm,j,a md,lhska nj fmfka. lDIsld¾ñl lghq;= yiqrjkakka yd úúO Ys,am ksIamdok lghq;= yeisrùu iïnkaO l%shdlrkakka f,i o Tjqka lghq;= lr we;s nj meyeos,s fõ3¡

56

York: Academic Press, 1979.

3. fifkúr;ak tia. m¾hka; m%foaYh yd wdka;sl m%cdfjda, Y%S ,xldfõ uq,a whia iufha øjH yd iudc ieÿï ms,sn| úl,am f;areï lsÍula lrd, fmardfoKsh úYajúoHd,h, mqrdúoHd wOHhk wxYh, 1996.

4. Child VG. The Urban Revolution. Town Planing Revew 1950; 21: 3-17.

5. Clark DL. Towns in the Developments of Early Civilizations. In: Analytical Archaeologist Collected papers of David Clarke edited by Colleages. New York : Acadamic Press. 1979.

6. Butzer KW. Archaeology as Human Ecology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

7. Agrawal DP. The Archaeology of India, New Delhi: Selectbook Service Syndicate, 1984.

8. Posshel G. Scientific dates for South Asian Archaeology, University of Pennsylvania, Asian Section, University Museum, Occassional Publications 1, 1990.

9. Piggott S. Pre historic India. London: Pelican,1961.

10. Fairservis WA. Excavations in the Quetta Valley, West Pakistan. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 1956; 45: 382-83.

11. Marshall SJ (Ed.). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931.

12. Dikshit MG. Beads from Ahichchatra U.P, in: Ancient India 8, 1952.

fuu ;;a;ajhkag wkqj wkqrdOmqr kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,sfhaoS uq,a ft;sydisl wjêfha ck lKavdhï kdhlhka úúO Ys,amSh ld¾hhka i|yd odhl;ajh W;=reueo l,dmh wdY%fhka ,ndoS we;s w;r Tjqkaf.a iudc ieliau tlsfklg noaO jQ mßir l,dmj, Ôj;a jQ wfkla ck lKavdhï kdhlhka iuÕ iïnkaO j ;snQ nj uekúka meyeos,s fõ¡ fï wkqj wkqrdOmqr kd.ÍlrK l%shdj,sh m%d.a wkqrdOmqr .%dóh ;;a;ajhkaf.a isg l%udkql+, j wdrïNù m¾hka; m%foaY wdY%s; j we;s jQ iïm;a mßyrKh yd úfoaYSh .kqfokq l%shdj,sh iuÕ j¾Okhg m;a jQ nj fN!;sl ixialD;sl f;dr;=re yd idys;H uQ.dY%hka fuka u wNsf,aLk idOl wkqj fmkajdÈh yels h’¡

13. Ghosh A. Indian Archaeology 1963-64: A Review.

India: Archaeological Survey of India, 1964.

wdY%s; lD;s

16. Lal BB. Excavation at Hastinapura and other explorations in the upper Ganga and Sutlej basins 1950-2 : New light on the Harappa Culture and the early historical period. Ancient India 1991;10: 5-151.

1.Whearley P. The Concept of Urbanism. In: Ucko PJ, Tringnam R. (Eds). The man Settlement and Urbanism.

London: Duckworth, 1972.

2. Renfrew C. Trance formation. In: Transformation: Mathematical Approaches to Cultural Change. New

14. Coningham RAE. The rise of cities in Sri Lanka. in the Archaeology of Early historic South Asia, Allchin,F.R.ed.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1955.

15. Allchin B. The end of the harappan Urbanism and It’s Legancy.in Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of cities and states Allchin, F.R & R.A.E Conningham, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1995.

17. Banarjee NR. The Iron Age in India, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharalal, 1965.

Mendis & Weerasekara. Rajarata University Journal 2013, 1: 51-57

57

18. Deraniyagala SU. The Prehistory of Sri Lanka; An Ecological Perspective. Colombo: Archaeological Survey Department, 1992.

27. Deraniyagala SU. The Citadel of Anuadhapura: Excavation in the Gedige area. Ancient Ceylon 1972; 2: 48165.

19. Somadeva R. Urban Origins in Southern Sri Lanka.

Sweden: Uppsala University, 2006.

28. Coningham RAE, Allchin C, Butt M, Lucy D. Passage to India Anuradhapura and the early use of the Brahmi Script. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 1996; 6: 73-97.

20. Chakrabarti DK. Concept of Urban Revolution and the Indian Context. In: Claessen HJM, Skalnik P (Eds.) Puratattva, 1973.

21. Mahavamsa .W.Giger, trans. London: Oxford University Press, 1912.

22. Seneviratne S. The Archaeology of the Megalithic - Black and Red Ware Complex in Sri Lanka, Ancient Ceylon No. 5, 1984; 237-305.

23. Herath JW. Mineral Resources of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Geological Survey Department, 1975.

24. Seneviratne S. The Ecology and Archaeology of the Seruwila: Copper Magnetite prospect North- East Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Journal of Humanities 1995; 11: 114-146.

25. Cooray PG. An Introduction to the Geology of Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Colombo: National Museums of Sri Lanka, 1984.

26. Bandaranayake S. The settlement of the Proto historic – early historic Interface Sri Lanka, Reflections on a Heritage. Colombo: Central Cultural Fund, Ministry of Cultural Affairs , 2000; 1-14.

29. Coningham RA. Anuradhapura.The British-Sri Lanka excavations at Anuradhapura Salgaha Watta. England: Hadrian Books Ltd, 1999 30. Deraniyagala SU. Radiocarbon dating of Early Historic Radio Carbon Chronology of Sri Lanka. Ancient Ceylon 1990; 12: 251-292.

31. Deraniyagala SU. Excavation in the Citadel of Anuradhapura: Gedige 1984 Preliminary report. Ancient Ceylon 1986; 6: 39-48.

32. uydjxih ^isxy, mßj¾;kh& ixia. yslalvqfõ Y%S iqux., ysñ iy fodka wkaøsia o is,ajd ngqjka;=vdfõ. kqf. af.dv: iSudiys; §mdks m%ldYk fm!oa.,sl iud.u, 1996.

33. Claessen HJM, Skalnik P. The Early State. Hague: Mouton Publication, 1978.

34. Gunawardana RALH. Irrigation and Hydraulic society in Early Medieval Ceylon. Past and present 1971; 53: 3-27.

35. Paranawithana S. Inscriptions of Ceylon Volume I, Colombo: Department of Archaeology, 1970.

Bandara. Rajarata University Journal 2013; 1: 58-63

58

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Indigenous practices of work management in ancient Sri Lanka (with special reference to Nuwarakalaviya) C.M.Y.S.S. Bandara

Department of Business Management, Faculty of Management Studies, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. yasho1982@gmail.com Abstract: Concept of management is acknowledged around the world as a means of achieving effectiveness and efficiency with scarce resources. Despite the universal acceptability of the concept of management on “what” to do, the successful applicability of identical management practices is frequently questioned. The argument on practices of management which explain “how” to do is often supported by the distinctive socio-cultural backgrounds which prefer unique ways of doing things. As such, exploring indigenous knowledge to utilize the local wisdom in present systems has become an emerging interest around the world. With a heritage of great civilization full of rich principles and practices of management, Sri Lanka possesses unique practices of management in her indigenous work culture. Yet a considerable gap can be noticed in relation to the knowledge of Sri Lankan indigenous practices of management derived from ancient systems. Thus, the aim of this study was to do a deep investigation on indigenous aspects of work management in ancient Sri Lanka, with special reference to Nuwarakalaviya area, identifying the indigenous practices of work management system and discussing its outcomes in a management point of view. Method adopted in this study, associates with comprehensive review of primary and secondary data. Work management system of ancient Nuwarakalaviya could be identified as a combination of three interrelated constructs i.e. work environment, work culture and work content, featured with unique characteristics. Both positive and negative outcomes could be identified with regard to this mechanism in management point of view. Contemporary managers can seek possibilities of developing new strategies, incorporating this traditional tacit knowledge to utilize the human resource in Sri Lanka through work management practices.

Key words: Indigenous Management, Work Management, Sri Lanka

Introduction In any civilization, management is not a totally strange practice since everywhere different methods and techniques were practiced in order to handle the resources to get the required results. But because of the successful achievements acquired by the industrialized countries, many developing countries tend to use those concepts, which are alien to them, in applying management practices in their countries without considering the unique environmental conditions.

Tayeb 1 suggested that the “what” question in Human Resource Management (HRM) might be universal (e.g., employee selection), but the “how” question is culture-specific (e.g., relying on ingroup networks vs. standardized tests). People in western industrialized countries have totally different cultures, life styles, working and thinking patterns compared to people in Asian countries.

Sethi, Namiki and Swanson 2 argued that the effectiveness of any management style, particularly

one that is being considered for adoption in an alien environment, can be understood only within the cultural, socio-political and economic frame work of the people who are managing or are being managed.

Accepting western solutions non critically to fill the void, often result in a crude reflection of the interests of owners, shareholders, or other vested interests and will not take a wider stakeholder view3.

Kanungo and Jaegar4 argue that the non critical adaptation of western HRM strategies is neither necessary nor desirable for managing organizations in developing and other undeveloped countries.

Sri Lanka is a country with a heritage of a great civilization, full of rich principles and practices of management. Only some of these ancient concepts are alive at present, which has come into operation in the form of customs and rituals. Although there is a considerable possibility of utilizing this tacit knowledge to a great extent in the present organizations, it is used to tightly adhere to the concepts introduced by the outsiders.

Bandara. Rajarata University Journal 2013; 1: 58-63 Some important areas of Sri Lankan tacit knowledge, such as indigenous medicine, irrigation, architecture, arts and rituals, have been deeply explored by researchers. But it is very rare to find that kind of an investigation in relation to the field of management. Only a few studies have been conducted in Sri Lanka on indigenous management practices. Since the native management practices are more familiar within the socio-cultural environment of the country, utilizing appropriate indigenous concepts will give us a reliable sustainability in successful management.

59

Accordingly 16 initial data collection points, representing the ancient Headmen Divisions were recognized as shown in Figure 1 and sample was expanded with the use of snowball method, identifying more and more knowledgeable persons whenever possible and required. Primary data were collected from the final sample which consisted of 152 persons who represented the 16 Koralas of the area, through informal interviews in a field survey.

This study is an effort of exploring the indigenous practices of work management in Nuwarakalaviya, in Anuradhapura district, and in analyzing the outcomes of these practices in a management point of view. Further, the study attempts to discuss the implications of such management practices in the present context.

Generally Nuwarakalaviya is known as the area within the triangle between Nuwarawewa, Kalawewa and Padaviyawewa; the giant water reservoirs in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. This area was one of the earliest Aryan settlements in Sri Lanka established in 3BC. The area is located in the dry zone of Sri Lanka, where most of the people were involved in agriculture. Evidences prove that even earlier, there were regular structures, systems and mechanisms which governed the work activities of the society. Still, the remains and shadows of the ancient traditional systems of managing work activities can be seen in rural areas of Nuwarakalaviya.

Materials and Methods Since this is totally an exploratory type of research, a pilot study was carried out to identify the dimensions which explained the nature of work management practices in ancient society. Along with the findings, professional work and communal work were identified as the basic factors which covered the scope. Data were gathered with regard to these aspects from both primary and secondary sources.

The population for the study can be referred to as all the people in Nuwarakalaviya who are well aware of the indigenous practices and systems.

Since it is impossible to interview the entire population in a single effort, data collection was started from the areas which represented the ancient headman divisions under the reorganization of 1938.

Figure 1. Map of Data Collection Paths and Initiating Points The interviews were based on a set of guide lines which were focused to reveal the nature of work arrangements within the ancient context. Text books, articles, reports, research publications and unpublished records provided the secondary data for the study. Method adopted in this study to capture the findings and arrive into conclusions, associates with comprehensive review of collected data through categorization, coding and memoing. Three major categories developed considering the information on work arrangement that is being gathered as professional work and communal work. The context was mainly identified under system features, organizational characteristics and organizational culture.

Bandara. Rajarata University Journal 2013; 1: 58-63 Results and Discussion The society of ancient Nuwarakalaviya In the time period considered, the society was structured well and it had performed as the base institution for all operations. Both social and economic activities were organized within unique structural arrangements and tightly attached to the provisions of the structure.

60

hierarchy, every caste was given the opportunity to develop and operate their own controlling system, making independent decisions to solve the problems within the boundary of caste. But at the same time this autonomy was mediated by the common values of the overall system.

The caste system was found as the basic statute which developed the systematic organization of the society. This system was strongly attached with the shared values of the society and voluntarily accepted by the members. Further it was recognized by the formal governing bodies that existed at the time.

Practices of work management in ancient Nuwarakalaviya Practices of work management that existed in ancient Nuwarakalaviya could be identified under two basic perspectives. The key foundation of arranging professional work activities of the society was the caste system. In addition there was a conventional system of managing communal work related to agriculture; the caste free occupation and irrigation.

In caste based system mechanism, the first and most important determinant of assigning and performing tasks, duties and responsibilities was the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;casteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Different caste groups were responsible to perform functions with regard to particular occupations as assigned by the traditional system.

Practices of Managing Professional Work Activities In the caste based system, people were assigned to perform specific functions according to their castes. Every individual of the society had a definite identity of caste from birth, with a responsibility of performing a set of particular duties.

People performed caste bound duties where they shared and exchanged the outcomes produced by the different stake holders of the society. To assure the proper functioning of the entire society, the contribution of all the groups were needed. The work activities were managed in a way which utilized the human efforts and performances towards a self sufficient society.

Table 1 summarizes the castes identified in the ancient society with the precise tasks, duties and responsibilities, associated with each.

Agriculture was a caste free occupation. A member of any caste could involve in agriculture in addition to the caste bound duty assigned to them. But a higher importance was given to the professional work because the required technical skills are not commonly available within the society.

In the area, generally, villages consisted of people belonging to one particular caste. Several villages occupied by different caste groups were located closely forming a cluster of villages. They fulfilled their economic and social requirements through interactions between the groups within the cluster. Number of such communities existed in the area which can be considered as mini states.

In each of this mini state there were superiors and subordinating groups.

Irrespective of the position held in the caste

The caste based system had produced occupational niches where there were strong limitations of access and transfer of information and involvement.

These occupational niches practiced, sustained and developed the knowledge regarding their own professions and as a result a higher degree of specialization was achieved.

The noticeable factor was that no caste was dishonored on the basis of the relative position of the caste in social hierarchy. Each caste had a certain position in the social hierarchy with a definite identity where the role of every person and his state of affairs appeared within the boundaries of this identity. Also every person was very careful not to exceed the boundaries of social identity of each caste. In every action and movement they ensured that the due recognition was offered and conveyed. Although friendly and caring in nature, the closer personal interactions between families belonging to different castes laid between these frames of identity.

Bandara. Rajarata University Journal 2013; 1: 58-63

61

Table 1. Traditional castes and the assigned duties in Nuwarakalaviya area in Anuradhapura

Caste

Traditional duties assigned

Vanni/ Radala

Management of Nindagam lands, working as the officers of the govern ment, involve in civil jurisdiction, handling grievances of the subordi nates, facilitating the government officers, teaching and learning

Govigama/ Ratakorale

Cultivation, dairy farming, assisting the regional chieftains in administra tion, rendering services in security forces

Rada/ Rajaka/ Peedi

Laundry or cleaning service, decorating at the ceremonial events, assist ing the administrators, representing ceremonial events as a figure head, providing cloths and dressing, performing rituals, collecting taxes

Hakuru/ Kanda/ Vahumpura

Carrying pingo, lighting the religious and customary events, blowing conch

Berawa/ Panikki

Drumming, entertainment

Dura

Construction and rehabilitation work of tanks, hunting, fishing and dis tilling toddy, assisting superiors in hard work, rendering services in secu -rity forces

Kumbal

Producing earthenware

Achiri/ Nawandanna

Achiri

Badahela

Performing the services of blacksmiths and goldsmiths Performing the services of blacksmiths

Rodee

Not assigned to perform any specific task

Performing the services of goldsmiths, art works of painting and draw -ing, collecting and handing over Kottal badu

Both high and low caste people needed the support and assistance of each other. Most of the inferior caste people were experts in technical services which were essential for the proper performance of the village life. People of the upper strata of the social hierarchy were well contented with wealth and power. To carry out the routine life smoothly each caste needed the support and assistance of the others. The entire system consisted of elements which were interdependent on each other.

Those who received the traditional caste bound services had to remunerate the service providers in the form of money, goods or other privileges. Inferior caste people lived in Nindagam lands and received their benefits through the privilege of occupying the lands where as others received their benefits

in money or in kind. Therefore these relationships can be interpreted as mutually beneficial ones.

Although the services were rewarded with money, materials and other privileges the system did not entirely depend on money. People had moral obligations to perform the duties assigned to them by the traditional system. The strength of the relationships between castes was decided by the obligatory nature of the duties performed by each party. Both parties to the relationship had an emotional bond to perform the assigned task to the benefit of the other party.

Practices of Managing Communal Work In addition to the activities directly associated with a particular occupation, all the members of the village community were assigned the duties and

Bandara. Rajarata University Journal 2013; 1: 58-63

responsibilities of performing public services, with regard to agricultural and irrigation activities, where the entire system was based on allocation of lands and therefore can be called ‘pangu system’.

According to Karunananda5 a panguwa (share) is the ownership of an extent of two ‘pelas’ of mudland. The effective member of the village community was the pangukaraya6. These members own cultivation lands which are irrigable within the village boundaries and they were responsible in performing a certain part of community work proportionately to the size of their land.

The ancient society that continued to be operated in this area was totally based on agriculture, where both paddy and chena cultivation were taking place at respective times. Some caste related duties were not full time and such occupations were not sufficient as means to earn an adequate living.

‘Ande’ is a system used in ancient Nuwarakalaviya to outsource the work of paddy cultivation. When a person is incapable of cultivating the whole land owned by him, may be due to lack of capacity or unavoidable circumstances, another with a sufficient availability of resources like time and energy will undertake the job of cultivating the land.

The maintenance of the tank was also the common responsibility of the village where the ideology that prompted all the members of the tank village to share the rights, duties and obligations of the village was the idea that the tank, the village and the jungle beyond it are the common property of people7. Traditionally much of the maintenance work on the tanks was carried out during the Rajakariya, the forty day period when every Sinhala villager was required to work free for the king.

Outcomes of indigenous work management practices The base for work management mechanism in the ancient society of Nuwarakalaviya could be identified as a combination of strong shared values, well established structure, and the common resource pool associated with collective ownership.

As such a considerable power distance had been created among the layers of the social structure, with a high group identity, where each group was recognized with its professional performances. Every member of the community was assigned with a clear role in both social and economic activities.

Due to strict boundaries of these occupational niches, the interdependence between groups was

62

essential for the proper performance of work.

At the same time, even with the high power distance, owing to the considerable autonomy given to member groups of the society, the independence experienced by these groups was also identified as high.

The above circumstances lead to a strong mutual trust and mutual benefits among the stake holders of the society. The performance of work was mainly based on group thinking with collective responsibility and accountability. Thus, in light of above facet, the features of work management system could be identified as division of labour and resulting specialization, task identity and significance, low variety of skill and task, less complexity and task interdependence. Figure 2 summarizes the nature of work management practices in ancient Nuwarakalaviya.

Conclusion In a broader sense, the work management system that existed in ancient Nuwarakalaviya could be identified as a mechanism that consisted of three strongly inter-related components; work environment, work culture and work content which consisted of professional and communal work. The work environment featured with, strong shared values, common resource pool with collective ownership, well established structure consisting of occupational niches, power distance, balanced autonomy, and group identity and role clarity.

The prominent facets held by work culture which stemmed within this environment included mutual trust and benefits, group thinking and performances, collective responsibility and accountability and obligatory performances. Content of professional work could be identified as a result of division of labour, specialization, task identity, task significance, low skill/ task variety, less complexity and task interdependence where collective efforts, personal commitment and value to tradition created the design of communal work.

With the traditional knowledge of work management practices, managers can develop more appropriate strategies to match the personal value systems of members with organizational requirements in contemporary organizations. They can incorporate balanced autonomy, participatory decision making, mutual trust and cooperativeness into their organizational work management



Bandara. Rajarata University Journal 2013; 1: 58-63

Features of overall system

63

Professional Work Characteristics of

Characteristics of

Work Environment

Work Content

Features of organization

Communal Work Professional Work

System features Strong shared values

Organizational characteristics

Characteristics of

Power distance

Work Culture

Specialization

Occupational niches

Well established Group identity structure Common resource pool and collective ownership

Division of labour

Mutual trust

Role clarity

Mutual benefits

Balanced autonomy

Group thinking Group performances

Task identity Task significance Low skill/ task variety Less complexity Task interdependence

Collective responsibility & accountability

Communal Work

Obligatory performances

Collective efforts Personal commitment Value to tradition

Figure 2: Summary of the nature of work management practices in ancient Nuwarakalaviya. systems, establishing a strong set of shared values accordingly. Managers can consider the inherited talents of employees, utilizing the caste as a source of specialization instead of a ground for discrimination.

References 1. Tayeb MH. ‘The Competitive Advantage of Nations: The Role of HRM and its Socio-cultural Context’, International Journal of Human Resource Management 1995; 6(3) 2. Sethi SP, Namiki N, Swanson CL. The False Promise of the Japanese Miracle. Boston: Piton, 1994.

3. Jackson T. The Management of People Across Cultures: Valuing People Differently. Human Resource Management 2002; 41: 451-55.

4. Kanungo RN, Jaegar AM. Introduction: The Need for Indigenous Management in Developing Countries, Management in Developing Countries.

London: Routledge Publications, 1993.

5. Karunananda UB. Nuwarakalaviya and the North Central Province under British Administration 1833 – 1900. Sri Lanka: Author Publication, 2005.

6. Pieris R. Sinhalese Social Organization: The Kandyan Period. Colombo: University Press Board, 1956.

7. Dissanayake JB. Water in Culture (The Sri Lankan Heritage). Sri Lanka: Ministry of Environment & Parliamentary Affairs, 1992.

Guidelines to authors About the Journal “Rajarata University Journal” is a multi disciplinary journal which publishes original research, review articles, brief reports and case reports in disciplines of Agriculture, Health Sciences, Information Technology, Management, Medicine, Physical and Biological Sciences and Social Sciences and Humanities.

The Journal would be published biannually, in June and in December.

Format Soft copies of the manuscript should be submitted in the following format.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Paper size A4 Left margin 3cm other margins 2.5cm Double Line spacing Font – Times New Roman; Font size 12 Manuscripts in Sinhala should follow font of FM Abaya and those in Tamil should follow Bamini font.

Page numbering at bottom right hand Paper should be in word processed in MS Word, preferebly 2007.

Medium Articles can be provided in English, Sinhala or Tamil. An abstract in English for articles in Sinhala or Tamil should be provided.

Layout Original research manuscripts should be in the following format: Title Page, Abstract, Introduction (with objectives), Material and Methods, Results, Discussion, Conclusion, Acknowledgements, References. Full papers should not extend beyond 10 pages inclusive of figures, tables and references.

Review articles: Review papers to be solicited by the Editorial Board and would be limited to one article per issue. Should include Title Page, Abstract, Introduction out lining the main points and text under brief sub headings and references. It should not exceed 3000 words.

Case reports: include a Title Page, Introduction Case report, and References. Text should be limited to 1000 words and should contain not more

than 3 tables or illustrations and a maximum of 10 references.

Brief reports (Short Communications): should be written under sub headings similar as for a research paper but should include only a few key references. Results and Discussion may be kept together. It may include a table or figure and should not exceed 2500 words.

Title Page The title page should contain the following.

Title: should be concise and reflect the study carried out. Title should be in bold letters and if scientific names of organisms are included they should be written in italics. If common or vernacular names follow the scientific name, these should be included within parenthesis.

Author(s) name(s) and Institutional affiliation(s) should be given. The initials should be followed by the surname (last name) or else the first name should be followed by the surname (last name).

Institutions listed should be the affiliations of the author at the time of study.

Authors included should have contributed significantly for the work in one or more areas such as conceptualizing, designing, analyses and interpretation and drafting of the manuscript. Mention the contribution of each author, in the title page.

Include name and mailing address of the author responsible for correspondence.

Key words: Maximum of five Acknowledgements: should be cited in the title page.

Abstract Abstract for full papers and reviews should not be more than 250 words. It should, in full papers, contain an Introduction, Material and Methods, Results, Discussion and a Conclusion. These should be structured into different paragraphs but without headings. Avoid using abbreviations.

Text Acronyms: Should be written in full the first time they appear in the text followed by the abbreviation in parenthesis.

SI Units: The metric system must be used and SI unit where appropriate. Generic names: the authors are requested to use generic names of drugs as far as possible.

Latin terms: Use italics for Latin terms.

Tables All tables must be typed double â&#x20AC;&#x201C; spaced. Tables should be numbered with Arabic numerals, in the order in which they are cited in the text. A table title should describe concisely the content of the table.

Illustrations All illustrations (Maps, Graphs, Drawings and Photographs) are considered as figures. Figures should be numbered with Arabic numerals, in the order in which they are cited in the text. Legends of figures should be concise and contain sufficient information to be understood without reference to text. Figures should be professionally drawn or prepared using a computer and high-resolution printer. Photomicrographs should have scale markers that indicate the degree of magnification.

Separate electronic files of the figures (only in .tiff, .jpg, .pdf, .doc, .docx, .xls), with a minimum resolution of 300 dpi, must be submitted to the journal, upon acceptance of an article.

References Vancouver system should be followed for citing of references. References to be numbered consecutively in order of appearance in the text in superscript. In the list of references cite the full name of the journal. See journal website for details.

Submission of Papers Forward an electronic copy of the manuscript to the e-mail account of the editor.

(researchjournal.rusl@yahoo.com) Deadline for submission of papers is 15th March for June issue and 15th September for December issue.

Ethical Responsibilities Where necessary authors should have obtained ethical clearance for the study from a recognized Ethical Review Committee. Statement to that effect should be made in the text under material and methods. Similarly if informed consent had been obtained ,where necessary, from subjects, patients or their relatives, it should be mentioned. All articles received for publication will be acknowledged to the corresponding author.

Each manuscript will be read by the editors to decide whether it should be further reviewed. Those selected for review may be sent anonymously to referees.