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The 16 Model of American Congress
Congressional Research Service Report
The 16th Model of American Congress
Congressional Research Service Report PLVS VLTRA
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Table of Contents Preamble........................................................................................................................................ 4 Rules of Procedures….............................................................................................................6
Committee on Foreign Relations...........................................................................................13 First Topic: US Designated Terrorist Groups in the Middle East and Africa…................................16 Second Topic: South and East China Sea........................................................................................55
Committee on Finance...........................................................................................................75 First Topic: Drug Pricing….............................................................................................................. 77 Second Topic: US-China trade deficit........................................................................................... 95 Third Topic: Corporate Taxation.................................................................................................. 108
Committee on the Judiciary.......................................................................................................117 First Topic: Animal Testing...........................................................................................................120 Second Topic: Legalizing Marijuana.............................................................................................138 Third Topic: Hate Crimes..............................................................................................................151
Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs................................................. 172 First Topic: Gun Control...............................................................................................................175 Second Topic: Cyber Threats.......................................................................................................199 Third Topic: Puerto Rico...............................................................................................................217
Committee on Near Eastern and South and Central Asian Affairs............................................228
Preamble For 16 consecutive years, The Model of American Congress has been one of the leading simulation processes across Egypt’s universities. Moreover, it has and will remain the most distinctive model simulating the complete legislative process of the U.S. Senate in Egypt and the Middle East. Through these 16 years, The Model of American Congress has been able to change the lives of thousands of Egyptian students, providing them with the most indulging and strongest academic experience. This publication is a living proof that MAC’s indulging academic experience. The Model of American Congress simulates one of the most complex political systems in the entire world, as believed by many political analysts. However, we believe that this complexity is the factor that contributes in making the US political system, the most interesting and indulging political system across the globe. We believe that diversity is the cornerstone of any society. Only after being exposed to different ideologies and different personalities, a human can truly learn about himself and discover the extent of his potential. The Model of American Congress provides students with the most diverse academic experience in Cairo University, giving them the opportunity to open up to different communities and different political ideologies, and engage their minds and thoughts without any fear of prejudice or frustration. This vision could only be possible with a team of Secretariats that possess the talent to produce an environment where everyone gets the chance to learn, improve, develop and change to the best. Their huge potential, dedication, intelligence, diversity and love of each others are the reasons that made this year successful. This publication is dedicated to each and every person who has been part of this year, who allowed us to be in this position after all these years. To MAC’s Organizing Committee for their hard work throughout this year and their desire to always do their best. To the best Secretariats team whom we are always grateful for having them leading the path and giving their best throughout the year. To our delegates, the main beneficiaries of this publication and the very reason for MAC’s existence, they are the derivative for us to always do our best to provide them with the very best experience. To our ALUMNI and everyone who contributed to this year, even if they are no longer a part of it. MAC’17 High-Board
Presidential Board Menat-Allah Kamaledin – Mustafa Khaled
Head of Academic Committee
Head of Organizing Committee
Omar Saleh
Salma Aly Salem
Deputy Head of Academic Committee Ahmed Reda Samy
Deputy Head of Organizing Committee
Mostafa Sabry
Raguia Hassan Ahmed Reem Negm-Eldin
Supervised and Edited by: Omar Saleh Ahmed Reda Samy – Mostafa Sabry
Special thanks go to the Head of the Committee on Coordination Amr Aly for his extraordinary efforts during the process of printing this work.
Model American Congress Rules of Procedures
Section I: Parliamentary Authority -
These Rules shall be the official rules of The Model of American Congress No one may amend these by-laws except for the members of the committee
Section II: Senate Members and Officers First, the duties of the chairman/lady of each committee shall be:
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To declare the opening and closing of each committee meeting, To recognize all the speakers, To decide all points of order, To put questions to a vote and announce the results, To preserve order, decorum and to clear the floor of any disorderly persons.
Second, the duties of the Vice-Chair shall be:
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To chair the committee during the chairman/lady’s absence or when the latter yields the floor to him, To conduct the roll call at the beginning of each session, To assist in the counting of the votes, To make sure that there is a quorum present at all times during which business is being transacted.
Third, the duties of the Ranking Member shall be:
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To advise the Chairman/lady on the decision of any parliamentary questions, To direct the academic flow of the debate, To act as source of all academic materials that needed by the senators during the congressional meetings, To make sure that the committee bills are issued according to all technical and legal specifications, To read all bills.
Fourth, the duties of the Party Consultant shall be:
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To arrange each and every party factions and wings, To work on the formulation of the party statement, To assist the Ranking Member in providing the Academic materials, To act as source of information with regard to party stances, To read all amendments.
Fifth, the duties of the Senators shall be:
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To Work on the discussed committee topics, as well as issuing a bill on the discussed topics to be taken to the senate floor, To debate and negotiate according to their stances, To give speeches on the floor day to convince other senators with their stances, To assist the Chairman/lady in maintaining order and decorum.
Sixth, the duties of the Lobbyists shall be:
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To provide the senators with the academic materials and any technical or legal support, To work on the discussed committee topics, To lobby for or against the committee bills in the other committees and in the floor, To assist the Chairman/lady in maintaining order and decorum.
Section III: Standing Committees -
There shall be one chairman/lady and 20 senators for each committee. The committee on Rules and Administration shall consist of the Model of American Congress President, President Pro-Tempore, Deputy Heads of the Academic Committee and the Chairmen/ladies of the five committees.
Section IV: Agenda and Order of Business -
The agenda of the Senate floor and each of the standing committees shall be drawn up in advance of their respective sessions. The Vice Chairman shall see that each member of the committee has received a copy of the agenda. Bills passed in the committee shall be forwarded to the Committee on Rules and Administration, where they will be placed on the agenda of the Senate floor. In any committee, the main sponsor of the bill may make any changes in the bill by arranging with the Ranking Member before the markup session.
Section V: Rules of Order The following are various motions, which shall be used in the Senate. Only those points listed below will be recognized at The Model of American Congress. POINT OF PERSONAL PRIVILEGE A delegate may raise a point of personal privilege whenever there’s a request concerning his personal rights or the rights of the entire assembly. For example, it can be used to ask that a senator raises his voice, to open the window‌etc. Note: A point of personal privilege can only be raised when another delegates has the floor. POINT OF ORDER A point of order is used to raise other motions (including the suspension of rules, recess/adjournment and acclamation). Other purposes where a point of order is used are: caucuses, mark up sessions and congressional hearings. They require a 2/3 majority vote to pass. ACCLAMATION An acclamation preserves the bill before introducing any amendments so that in the case that the amended bill fails to pass, the original bill automatically proceeds to the floor. It requires a simple majority vote to pass.
SUSPENSION OF RULES This motion suspends the rules of the assembly for a specific purpose and for a specific period. Normally, this is designed to allow the lobbyists to partake in the debate. It requires a simple majority vote to pass. “I’d like to raise a motion to suspend the rules for…” RECESS/ADJOURNMENT A senator may call for a recess/adjournment of any meeting. A recess is meant for a specific period during the day (ex: coffee break) while an adjournment is done at the end of each day and at the end of the floor. It requires a simple majority vote to pass. “I’d like to raise a motion to adjourn this meeting until tomorrow” “I’d like to raise a motion to move to a recess for one hour” RESERVE A POINT OF ORDER This motion is used while amendments are being introduced to the bill. After an amendment is read, the delegate who presented this amendment has the right to “reserve a point of order” and clarify the amendment for 1 minute.
Section VI: Voting -
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Voting on any motion consists of yelling out ayes and nays on behalf of the senators, if the result is unclear then voting is done by show of hands. If this proves to be uncertain as well; then a roll call is taken. Both the simple majority vote and the 2/3 vote shall consist of the number of senators present. Once voting has begun, all motions are out of order. Abstentions are to be allowed only in the voting on the bill and amendments. It’s not permitted in voting on any motion.
Section VII: Debate Flow The Congressional Committee meetings: Chairman/lady: The Committee will come to order. We are meeting today to consider our congressional agenda the "….”, the "….", and the "…." Chairman/lady: <Opening statement> I will now yield the floor to the honorable Ranking Member to give his/her opening statements and read the congressional agenda. Ranking member: Thanks honorable Chair, <opening statement> and then reading the congressional agenda
Thanks honorable chair. Chairman/lady: Thanks to the honorable Ranking Member. With a quorum (10) being present, the committee will now proceed the consideration of the declared agenda for this congressional meeting, and now the floor will be yielded to the Vice Chairman to have the roll call, senators attending should reply as present. The Vice Chair: Thanks honorable chair, <Conducts roll call>, thanks honorable Chair. Chairman/lady: The honorable senator…..of….. is recognized for two minutes. Chairman/lady: Other members may submit opening statements comments for the record (The opening statements start by the leader of Democrats and his team then the leader of Republicans and his team) Chairman/lady: Honorable senators wishing to speak should raise their placards high and keep them high. Chairman/lady: The honorable senator…of….. is recognized for two minutes. Senator: Thanks honorable chair,<speech for two minutes> thanks honorable chair. Senator: Point of order chairman/lady: Honorable….of……what's your point? Senator: I'd like to raise a motion to move to a hearing session for…minutes. Chairman/lady: Honorable senator that’s in order, there’s a motion on the floor to move to a hearing session for…Those in favor say "aye" <pause> those against say "nay" <pause> (If only nays or ayes are heard then the voting had a consensus result whether yes or no. But the case that both nays and ayes are heard then a raising hands motion takes place) Chairman/lady: With…ayes and…nays, this motion clearly passes/fails.
The Mark up Session: Chairman/lady: The Committee will come to order. We are meeting today to consider S.111 the"…..bill title…..", a bill to….. Ranking member: Clarifying statement. Chairman/lady: With a quorum (10) being present, the committee will now proceed to the consideration of S111 the "…..bill title….” I'll now yield the floor to the ranking member to read the bill. Ranking member: <Reads the bill>. Thanks honorable chair. Senator: Point of order. 10
Chairman: Honorable….of……what's your point? Senator: I’d like to raise a motion to move to an acclamation procedure on this bill. Chairman/lady: Honorable senator that’s in order, there is a motion on the floor to move to an acclamation procedure on this bill. Those in favor say "aye" <pause> those opposed say "nay" <pause> Chairman/lady: With…ayes and…nays, this motion clearly passes/fails. Chairman/lady: Now the floor will be opened for 10 minutes for having amendments, the party consultant will record the amendments. Chairman/lady: The time for recording S111 amendments has elapsed, now the floor will be yield to the honorable party consultant to read the first amendment. Party consultant: Thank you honorable chair. < Reads the amendment> Thank you honorable chair. After finishing reading the amendment if the member raised "reserve a point of order" at this time then he\she would be recognized for 1 minute. Chairman/lady: Honorable Senator you’re recognized for 1minute in the support of the amendment. Senator: <Explains the amendment> Chairman/lady: Honorable Senator your time has expired, since there is no further discussion, the question is on agreeing to the amendment offered by the honorable Senator. Those in favor say "aye"<pause>, those opposed say "nay" <pause> Chairman/lady: With…ayes and…nays, this amendment clearly passes/fails/ And so on the amendments are discussed and voted on. Chairman/lady: Hearing no further amendments, the question now occurs on the adoption of the amended bill. All those in favor say "aye"<pause> all those opposed say "nay"<pause> All those in favor say "aye" <pause> all those opposed say "nay" <pause> in the opinion of the chair, the Ayes have it and the motion is agreed to. Chairman: With…ayes and…nays, this bill clearly passes/fails. Senator: Point of Order. Chairman/lady: Honorable….of……what's your point? Senator: “I move that we recess until…. ”or “I move that we adjourn” Chairman/lady: Honorable senator that’s in order, there is a motion on the floor to adjourn/recess for…..Those in favor say "aye" <pause> those opposed say "nay" <pause>
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Chairman/lady: Withâ&#x20AC;Śayes andâ&#x20AC;Śnays, this motion clearly passes/fails.
Section VIII: The Floor -
The floor of MAC will involve the 100 senator as speakers, while the secretariats and the lobbyists are not recognized. However, the lobbyists conduct their task informally. Bills pass by simple majority, whereas treaties require a 2/3 vote. All the committee rules and motions are in order.
Committee on Foreign Relations
- Prepared by: Chairlady Jidaa Muhammed Vice Chairman Omar Asim Ranking Member Ghadir Yahya Party Consultant Chayma Magdy
To the bleeding souls in the bleeding heart of the world. To the lives spent under the mercy of war and terror. To the courageous and undying hearts. To those who experience hardships every day, yet laugh is the face of casualties and sorrow. To the fighters. To claiming the right to be. To the determination of seeking justice everywhere. To the shared memories, good and bad, happy and sad. To the undeniable experiences, past and future of an ever-lasting committee. To everyone who contributed in building our glory, to the extended family, and to those who got us to where we are today. Most notably, to the most wonderful, resilient delegates of the Committee on Foreign Relations. Do not throw away your shot!! CFRâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;17 Secretariats Team
About the Committee History The Senate Foreign Relations Committee was established in 1816 as one of the original ten standing committees of the Senate. Throughout its history, the committee has been instrumental in developing and influencing United States foreign policy, at different times supporting and opposing the policies of presidents and secretaries of state. The committee has considered, debated, and reported important treaties and legislation, ranging from the purchase of Alaska in 1867 to the establishment of the United Nations in 1945.
Jurisdiction The Committee holds jurisdiction over all diplomatic nominations. Through these powers, the committee has helped shape foreign policy of broad significance, in matters of war and peace and international relations. Members of the committee have assisted in the negotiation of treaties, and at times have helped to defeat treaties they felt were not in the national interest.
Subcommittees: 1. Subcommittee on African affairs. 2. Subcommittee on East Asian and Specific Affairs. 3. Subcommittee on European Affairs. 4. Subcommittee on international development and foreign assistance, economic affairs and international environmental protection. 5. Subcommittee on international operations and organizations, human rights, democracy and global women's issues. 6. Subcommittee on Near Eastern and South and Central Asian affairs. 7. Subcommittee on Western hemisphere, Peace Corps and global narcotics affairs.
Chairmanship: Chairman
Bob Corker
Ranking Member
Ben Cardin
First Topic: US designated terrorist organizations in the Middle East and Africa Islamist groups:
The Islamic state in Iraq and Syria…............................................................................18 Rise……………………………………………………………………………………… Funds……………………………………………………………………………………. Controlled areas…………………………………………………………………………. Operations………………………………………………………………………………. Recruitment……………………………………………………………………………... Operations ……………………………………………………………………………… Affiliate groups…………………………………………………………………………. Humanitarian crisis……………………………………………………………………… US Policy………………………………………………………………………………..
Al Qaeda...........................................................................................................................28 Rise……………………………………………………………………………………… Funds……………………………………………………………………………………. Countries of activity…………………………………………………………………….. Operations ……………………………………………………………………………… Recruitment……………………………………………………………………………... Relations with Taliban…………………………………………………………………... Relations with the government………………………………………………………… Affiliate groups………………………………………………………………………… Human rights violations………………………………………………………………… US policy………………………………………………………………………………
Hezbollah..........................................................................................................................40 Rise……………………………………………………………………………………… Controlled areas…………………………………………………………………………. Operations………………………………………………………………………………. Relations with Iran……………………………………………………………………… Political involvement……………………………………………………………………. US and Israel policy……………………………………………………………………
Hamas................................................................................................................................43 Rise……………………………………………………………………………………… Leadership………………………………………………………………………………. Conflict with Fath………………………………………………………………………..
Al Qassam Brigates……………………………………………………………………... US and Israel Policy……………………………………………………………………
Non Islamic Groups:
PKK...................................................................................................................................47 Rise……………………………………………………………………………………… Controlled areas…………………………………………………………………………. Operations………………………………………………………………………………. Networks in Germany…………………………………………………………………... Conflict with Turkish government……………………………………………………… Relations with other Kurdish Parties……………………………………………………. US policy………………………………………………………………………………...
Lord’s Resistance Army *Disclaimer: The group is no longer designated as a terrorist group but still accused of major human right violations*..................................................51 Rise……………………………………………………………………………………… Joseph Kony…………………………………………………………………………….. Active regions…………………………………………………………………………… Human rights violations…………………………………………………………………
Terrorism, as defined by the US’ Foreign Relations Authorization Act, is “Premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by subnational groups 1 or clandestine agents." In accordance with that definition and based on the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), the Secretary of State has the jurisdiction to designate Foreign Terrorist 2 Organization (FTOs) . After an organization acquires that status, the US can target its source of funding inside the US. They can penalize any person inside the US or under the jurisdiction of the US that provides “material support or resources” to such organizations. The US financial institutions must also retain any financial possessions related to terrorist organizations. In addition to that, any member or representative of designated organizations is not allowed entry to the US. At least 190,000 were killed by terrorist attacks between the year 2006 to 2015 and millions have been displaced. Terrorism has been contributing to a refugee crisis of around 21 million refugees among which over half are children. Syria produces the largest number of refugees, it 3 also comprises the largest number of internally displaced people followed by Iraq.
The Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS):
In recent years, the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) has been proclaimed as the most sought after terrorist group in history due to its rapid rise to power and continuous flow of attacks all over the world. The group was established in 2002 under the name “Jama’at al-tawhid w al-Jihad”, under the leadership of Abo Musaab Al Zarqawi. At that time, its goal was to drive the US led occupation coalition forces out of Iraq. In 2004, the group swore allegiance to Al Qaeda and renamed itself “Al Qaeda in Iraq”. One of the reasons for the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 was the idea of a linkage between Saddam Hussein, Al-Zarqawi, and Al-Qaeda. After taking down Saddam Hussein from power, Paul Bremer, an American diplomat in charge of the occupation in Iraq, took a costly decision of 1
"Foreign Relations Authorization Act, Fiscal Years 1988 And 1989: Terrorism Definition". 2017. 2001-2009.State.Gov. https://20012009.state.gov/s/ct/rls/fs/08/103401.htm. 2 "Foreign Terrorist Organizations". 2017. U.S. Department Of State. https://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/des/123085.htm. 3 "‘Unprecedented’ 65 Million People Displaced By War And Persecution In 2015 – UN". 2017. Addressing Large Movements Of Refugees And Migrants. http://refugeesmigrants.un.org/%E2%80%98unprecedented%E2%80%99-65-million-people-displaced-war-and-persecution-2015%E2%80%93-un.
dismantling the Iraqi Army which was composed of 250,000 well trained men, and took the legislative rights away from the Baathists (Saddam Hussein’s party that ruled Iraq till 2003). This decision drove thousands of well-trained commanders out of service and many of them joined what has become known as the Islamic State, as well as the Baathists who are still allied with ISIS. A new government took control in 2006, which was the first Iraqi government to take control after the interim government of 2005, led by Nouri Maliki. It caused a stir between different Muslim groups in Iraq as Maliki started to limit the powers of Sunnis and Kurds in favour of his Shiite party “Islamic Dawa”, and handed disproportionate benefits to Shias. Zarqawi capitalized over this controversy and exploited it to his advantage by inducing a sectarian war between the Sunnis and Shias. On June 2006, a US airstrike managed to kill Zarqawi, but his beliefs and ideology would remain and stand firm with the leadership of Abu Bakr Al-Bughdadi Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi used the same methods and techniques of sectarian violence to gain momentum and power over Iraq. He continued to pursue Zarqawi’s goal of creating an Islamic state or a Caliphate for Muslims, a goal that was the fuel behind the group’s domination over th territory in Iraq and Syria. His moment of history came on the 4 of July 2014 when he captured 4 the city of Mosul in Iraq. He then announced himself the caliphate of the Islamic state. Whereas in Syria, after the breakout between El Assad government and the rebellions, AlBaghdadi sent Al-Julani, one of AL-Baghdadi’s top lieutenants in Iraq and Al-Nusra front’s current leader, there to lead Al-Nusra front. After the great success of both campaigns in Iraq and Syria, Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi wanted to merge the two groups into his group (ISIS), but AlJulani disapproved thinking that he wasn’t legitimized by Al-Qaeda. Al-Baghdadi rebuffed his claims and declared that he got the confirmation from Ayman Al-Zawahiri, Al-Qaeda’s leader, to initiate his plans in Syria. These claims led to the recruitment of many fighters of Al-Nusra to ISIS. Using his new founded powers and exploiting the weaknesses of Al-Julani in leadership, Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi started attacking the bases of Al-Nusra, which caught the attention of AlZawahiri. In February 2014, Ayman El Zawahiri officially declared ISIS’ split from Al Qaeda which seemed to be an accumulation of many conflicts between both Al Qaeda and ISIS leaderships. The peak of the conflict was Abu Bakr AL-Baghdadi’s attempts to expand his control over Syria and put Al Qaeda’s main local branch Al-Nusra Front under his command. Abu Bakr AlBaghdadi’s defiance to Al-Zawahiri as well as their strategic and ideological differences 5 accelerated the split and made it inevitable.
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Funds:
Cassman, Daniel. 2016. "The Islamic State | Mapping Militant Organizations". Web.Stanford.Edu. http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/1. 5 Laub, Zachary. 2016. "The Islamic State". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/iraq/islamic-state/p14811.
The main source of funding ISIS uses is oil refineries in the territory it has control over. ISIS smuggles oil and sells it in a cheap price to many benefactors including countries like Turkey, Iran and the Syrian government itself. The money estimated to be gained from such acts is around 23 million dollars a month. ISIS’ funds are also based of ransoms, taxes over the cities they control and robberies. When ISIS took control of the city of Mosul, it robbed the money present in its central bank. ISIS also gains money from sex trafficking and through donors or the wealth of some fighters that are 6 recruited by the group.
Controlled areas:
Figure 1.This map shows IS controlled areas in both Iraq and Syria till the 20th of February 2017
In July 2014, it overran Al Mosul, Iraq making it the first but not last city to fall into their hands. After taking control of Al Mosul, ISIS fighters moved to Baghdad, the Capital of Iraq and spread terror among people of different religions and ethnicities. Since 2014, ISIS started spreading beyond Iraq and Syria, to fulfil its goal “The Islamic Caliphate”. The Islamic state is now believed to be operational in 18 countries across the world such as Libya, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Algeria, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Egypt (Sinai Peninsula) aside of Syria and Iraq. They have taken over the Syrian city of Kobane, which have been recaptured later by the Kurdish fighters in 2015, and many other cities like the city of Ramadi in which the Iraqi government took control of the city in January 2016, after 8 months of ISIS’ governance. The city of Palmyra in Syria was also recaptured by the Syrian army in March 2017. The Iraqi forces are currently in the process of recapturing Mosul; they have fully liberated the Eastern part of the city and have started their operations to recapture Western Mosul.
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Shatz, Howard. 2014. "How ISIS Funds Its Reign Of Terror | RAND". Rand.Org. http://www.rand.org/blog/2014/09/how-isis-funds-its-reign-ofterror.html.
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ISIS is losing territory; it has lost almost 45% of the territory it has once controlled at the 7 height of its power in August 2014 in Syria, and over 50% of its controlled territory in Iraq.
Operations:
In 2013, ISIS’ attacks were mainly directed towards Iraq, then it expanded its operations in nearly 20 countries including; Turkey, Indonesia, France, Belgium, the US and Bangladesh. Since June 2014, ISIS has been responsible for over 70 terrorist attacks in 20 countries, not including Syria and Iraq. From its most significant operations: 1) Bombing two Houthi mosques in San’aa in March 2015 during prayers in midday causing the death of 142 and the injury of 351. 2) An Attack on western tourists in Sousse in June 2015 causing 38 deaths and 39 injuries. 3) Targeting and attacking military check points in Sheikh Zweid, Sinai in July 2015, causing the death of 21 soldiers and the injury of 9. 4) Bombing a “Labor, Peace and Democracy” rally in Ankara in July 2015, in which 104 died and over 500 were injured (ISIS did not claim responsibility for this operation but Turkish officials declared their connection to the operation). 5) Taking down the Metrojet plane flying from Egypt to Petersburg in October 2015 causing the death of all the 224 passengers and crew members on board. 6) They were responsible for the “Paris attacks” in November 2015 taking the lives of 130 and injuring 368. 7) A bomb targeted El Syyida Zeinab mosque, Syria, in February 2016, in which 83 were killed and 178 were injured. 8) They have attacked Ataturk airport, Turkey, in June 2016 causing the death of 45 and the injury of 239 (ISIS did not claim responsibility for this operation but Turkish officials declared their connection to the operation) 9) A man who pledged loyalty to ISIS was responsible for a mass shooting in a nightclub in Orlando, Florida causing the death of 49 and the injury of 53, making this the deadliest terrorist attack executed inside the US since 9/11 10) They were responsible for a series of attacks in Niece, France in July 2016 that resulted 8 in 86 casualties and 434 injuries. 11) A truck driven by an ISIS member drove into a Christmas market in Berlin in December 2016, killing 12 people and injuring 56. 12) They were behind a mass shooting in Istanbul nightclub during new year’s celebrations in January 2017 causing the death of 39 and the injury of 70. 13) In February 2017, they have been responsible for Sehwan suicide bombing in Pakistan inside the shrine of Al Shahbaz Qalander in which nearly 100 were killed and 7
"Islamic State And The Crisis In Iraq And Syria In Maps - BBC News". 2017. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east27838034. 8 Cassman, Daniel. 2017. "The Islamic State | Mapping Militant Organizations". Web.Stanford.Edu. http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/1.
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over 200 injured.
Recruitment:
ISIS has adapted with modern day technology and used it for increasing the numbers of its fighters. It posts a propaganda magazine; called “Dabiq”, aimed at recruiting jihadists, the magazine is attractive, smartly produced and is printed in several languages. It shows ISIS as a glorious group aiming for the restoration of the Islamic golden age and creating back the “Caliphate” boasting about their victories. They exploit the deteriorating economic conditions in some Arab countries by offering jobs as teachers, fitness trainers, and oil refiners. They have used the political changes and the emergence of factions that denies the legitimacy of the government to gain more power over their followers. What’s more, the retroactive education and 9 the spread of Wahhabi thought, which was inserted in the minds of some since their childhood, made them an easy target. The increase in the number of foreign fighters could be related to them losing the feeling of belonging to their states as they might feel alienated in their own state. The fact that most of ISIS leaders are young adds an advantage to them with youth recruitment. They offer them the hopeful ambition of jobs, money, appreciated prestige and of course belonging to a family, a nation and an imagined state. The U.S. policy towards ISIS: Ever since its emergence and later its breakthrough, ISIS has been a threat to the United States and the world, but no significant powerful steps were taken until 2014. In 2014, the Congress 10 proposed multiple authorizations for the use of force against ISIS , and the United States led a coalition against ISIS that included Germany, France, Turkey, Canada, Australia, Bahrain, Jordan, 11 KSA, UAE, Qatar and Morocco. The coalition set five principles under which it will operate in order to resist ISIS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Military support for all allies against ISIS. Preventing the flow of foreign fighters. Stopping ISIS' fund. Addressing the humanitarian crisis. 12 13 Exposing ISIS’ true nature.
During the Obama administration, Obama expanded the “Authorization for the Use of 14 Military Force” act (AUMF) to include ISIS under the category of “associated forces” to Al 9
th
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Refers to an Islamic extremist movement that developed in tribal areas of Eastern Arabian Peninsula in the 18 and 19 century and was led by Mohamed Ibn Abdel Wahhab. 10 An act enacted right after 9/11 in the Bush administration and gives the president to use force against those responsible for the 9/11 attack which are mainly al Qaeda and Taliban. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/AUMF_authorizations_commentaries_speeches.pdf 11 M. Blanchard, Christopher, and Carla E. Humud. 2017. "The Islamic State And U.S. Policy". FAS. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/R43612.pdf. 12 J. McInnis, Kathleen. 2016. "Coalition Contributions To Countering The Islamic State". FAS. https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R44135.pdf. 13 "The Global Coalition To Counter ISIS". 2017. State.Gov. Accessed March 20. https://www.state.gov/s/seci/.
Qaeda without the consent of the Congress. This caused criticism especially as the two groups are currently fighting each other and ISIS wasn’t technically founded before 2012. It has also raised the question of the extension of the president’s power during the following administrations.15 The White house released a statement in September 2014, mentioning the successful conductance of 150 airstrikes against ISIS, and assuring its support for the Iraqi government 16 against ISIS to provide a safe atmosphere in the Middle East and the United States. The Department of State announced that as of June 2016, the U.S. led coalition conducted 13,470 airstrikes against ISIS; more than 9000 of them in Iraq, and 4000 in Syria, succeeding in 17 destroying 26,374 targets. In July 2016, the Secretary of defence announced that the U.S. will be sending extra 560 18 military personnel to Iraq to fight ISIS , raising the number to 4,650 U.S. personnel in Iraq. Two months later in September, Barack Obama authorized the deployment of another 600 troops to Iraq 19 raising the number of troops to almost 5000. During the current president, Donald Trump’s, campaign; he talked about his intentions to cooperate with Russia to defeat ISIS, which has been criticized at that time due to the lack of common objective in Syria, as well as the fact that the US intelligence and military capabilities are superior to that of Russia. When Donald Trump took office, he issued a memorandum that demanded from his Secretary of Defence to formulate a plan for the defeat of ISIS. So consequently, the plan has been formed by the Secretary of Defence John Mattis. The plan is expected to have an increase in ground troops in Syria, which currently amount to 5000 troops helping in operations to take control over Raqqa. The preliminary plan does not include any sort of mention to cooperation with Russia, many believe that Trump’s past intentions of making that cooperation happen is getting more impossible in the current moment with all the accusations of his advisors’ connections to Russia. The plan is, mainly, to speed up the fight by providing more for the operations and preventing further more groups or the group itself from gaining strength. ISIS affiliate groups:
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An act that was enacted right after 9/11 in the Bush administration and gives the president the authority to use force against those responsible for the 9/11 attack which are mainly al Qaeda and Taliban 15 Bertrand, Natasha. 2016. "Obama Quietly Expanded The US' War On Terror — And Many Fear It Could Give Trump More Power". Business Insider. http://www.businessinsider.com/obama-aumf-trump-al-shabab-2016-11. 16 "FACT SHEET: Strategy To Counter The Islamic State Of Iraq And The Levant (ISIL)". 2014. Whitehouse.Gov. https://www.whitehouse.gov/thepress-office/2014/09/10/fact-sheet-strategy-counter-islamic-state-iraq-and-levant-isil. 17 J. McInnis, Kathleen. 2016. "Coalition Contributions To Countering The Islamic State". FAS. https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R44135.pdf 18
"IS Conflict: US To Send 560 More Troops To Iraq - BBC News". 2016. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36766417. Cooper, Helene. 2016. "U.S. To Send 600 More Troops To Iraq To Help Retake Mosul From ISIS". Nytimes.Com. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/29/world/middleeast/obama-troops- iraq.html? action=click&contentCollection=Politics&module=RelatedCoverage&region=EndOfArticle&pgtype=article. 19
1. Boko Haram: The group was founded in 2002 by the Islamic fundamentalist Mohammed Yusuf in Maiduguri, Bornu state in Northeast Nigeria. It was designated as a terrorist organization by The US in 2013. The group’s objective was to establish a fully Islamic state in Nigeria by implementing Sharia law in criminal courts across the country even in the Christian south as a 20 way to end injustice and corruption. At the beginning, the group didn’t resort to violent means to enforce its ideology. A turning point in the group’s strategy was in 2009, when a famous confrontation with the government took place. The members violated the law by refusing to wear motorbike helmets, the police utilized violence against them and arrested some of the members leading to an uprising in the North city of Bauchi. The protesters were suppressed by the army in clashes that resulted in the death of 800 people. The group leader Yusuf and other members were shot outside the police headquarters in 21 extra-judicial killings . A new leader “Abubakr Shekau” came in charge, he was a proponent for using violent tactics, and since then Boko Haram started to perform suicide bombings throughout 22 the country, as well as assassinations and prison breaks. Since the rise of the new leadership the organization appeared to join an international network of terrorist organizations, as they announced their alliance with Al Qaeda, which provided them with training and weapons to strengthen their capacity to perform operations. th
On 26 August 2011, they executed their first attack over international facilities as they attacked the UN headquarters in Abuja. In 2013, they conducted bombing attacks and shooting sprees in Kano targeting police stations and killing 187 people. In November 2014, they were able to attract more global concern when they kidnapped more than 300 school girls between the ages of 16 and 18. They claimed to have forced them to convert to Islam and married them off, some to Boko Haram fighters. Before 2015, the group conducted attacks in northern states of 23 yobe, Jano, Bauchi, Borno and Kaduna. They pledged allegiance to ISIS in 2015 and since then, they shared tactics and procedures. This allegiance caused an increase in the number of Boko Haram’s recruits. In the same year, they reached the peak of their attacks; raiding cities, kidnapping and suicide bombing. In January, they increased their activity in Nigeria and Chad, they burnt over 3720 buildings in
20
"Boko Haram Funding Operations / Boko Haram Financing | TRAC". 2017. Trackingterrorism.Org. http://www.trackingterrorism.org/article/boko-haram-coffers-and-coffins-pandoras-box-vast-financing-options-boko-haram. 21 Deliberate killing performed by the government without Judicial proceedings or legal process. 22 Cassman, Daniel. 2016. "Boko Haram | Mapping Militant Organizations". Web.Stanford.Edu. http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/553?highlight=boko+haram https://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/boko_haram.html. 23 Aly Sergie, Mohammed, and Toni Johnson. 2015. "Boko Haram". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/nigeria/bokoharam/p25739.
Baga and Doron Baga towns in Nigeria. In August 2016, they killed civilians and raped women 24 in Kuburvwa village. Nigerian officials have claimed multiple times that they took down the leader of Boko Haram Abubakr Shekau, but he seemed to appear in video recordings each time after their claim. ISIS and Boko Haram recently share a struggle over leadership as the self-proclaimed ISIS caliphate announced Musab el Barnawi the new leader ousting Shekau. ISIS wants the group to attack Christian villages instead of Shekau’s vision of attacking Muslim villages who won’t join Boko 25 Haram. This caused division between Boko Haram’s militants and resulted in two factions one under the leadership of Shekau and the other under the leadership of Barnawi, weakening their 26 strength on the battlefield. The Nigerian government was blamed on multiple occasions for the rise of Boko Haram. It was accused of marginalization and impoverishment of Muslims in Northeast Nigeria. It was also accused of slow response regarding the school girl’s incident as it responded only after the global attention towards it. After the election of a new Nigerian president in 2015, Buhari, there were high hopes for the defeat of the group as it was on top of the regime’s policies. In 2015, a regional coalition between Nigeria, Chad and Niger was formed to fight Boko Haram causing it to lose almost all the towns they controlled and retreat to the Sambisa forest in Northeast 27 Nigeria. 2.
ISIL in Libya:
ISIS was able to expand its flag from Syria and Iraq, to a powerful existence in Libya. The 28 official presence of the group in Libya was announced in October 2014 . It all started with the chaos accompanying the Arab Spring when it bloomed in Libya in 2011. During the first civil war in Libya at the beginning of 2011, between 1000 to 3000 Libyan civil war veterans travelled 29 to Syria in order to fight against Bashar Al Assad regime and many of them joined ISIS. In 2012, they formed Al-Battar Brigade and pledged their loyalty to ISIS. They returned back to Libya in 2014. In the same year, a new ISIS caliphate –Abu Bakr AL-Baghdadi- was announced and Al-Battar Pledged their loyalty to him and since then they have been identified as 30 the ISIS branch in Libya.
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Dearden, Lizzie. 2016. "Isis Is Increasing Co-Operation With The 'World's Most Horrific Terrorist Group'". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/isis-increasing-co-operation-with-boko-haram-the-worlds-most-horrific-terrorist-groupa6994881.html. 25 Joscelyn, Thomas. 2016. "Osama Bin Laden’S Files: Boko Haram’S Leader Wanted To Be ‘Under One Banner’ | FDD's Long War Journal". FDD's Long War Journal. http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/03/osama-bin-ladens-files-boko-haram-leader-wanted-to-be-under-onebanner.php. 26 C. Onuoha, Freedom. 2016. "Split In ISIS-Aligned Boko Haram Group". Studies.Aljazeera.Net. http://studies.aljazeera.net/en/reports/2016/10/split-isis-aligned-boko-haram-group-161027113247008.html. 27 MELLGARD, EMILY. 2016. "What Is Boko Haram?". Centre On Religion & Geopolitics. http://tonyblairfaithfoundation.org/religiongeopolitics/commentaries/backgrounder/what-boko-haram. 28 Lister, Tim. 2015. "ISIS Atrocity Shows Growing Reach In North Africa". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2015/02/16/africa/isis-libya-northafrica/. 29 Walt, Vivienne. 2015. "How ISIS Sprung Up In Libya". Time.Com. http://time.com/3721927/isis-libya-establishment/. 30 WEHREY, FREDERIC, and ALA’ ALRABABA’H. 2015. "Rising Out Of Chaos: The Islamic State In Libya". Carnegie Middle East Center. http://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/59268?lang=en.
ISIL in Libya has been actively attacking military check points and attacking civilians using the city ‘Derna’ as their first headquarter. Their most famous operation was the beheading of 21 31 Coptic Egyptians in February 2015, after abducting them in November 2014. The most recent base for ISIS in Libya was the city of Sirte. In August 2016, Libyan military with the aid of the U.S. was able to make progress towards limiting the power of the group over 32 the city, it was reported that ISIS Libya might relocate after the damage. 3.
Ansar Bayt al Maqdes:
Ansar Bayt Al Maqdes is one of the very few active groups in Egypt, it’s a Salafist Jihadist group and it has been operating from Sinai since 2011. It pledged its loyalty to ISIS in 2014 and 33 is now also known as ISIS Sinai province. When the group was first established, its sole goal was to demolish Israel and their first major operation was in 2012 when they attacked an Egyptian gas pipeline exporting gas to Jordan and 34 Israel. For the rest of 2012 up until 2013, all their operations were directed towards Israel, 35 attacking their borders and cities until the occurrence of a major change of events in Egypt. After the military took over power with what they believed to be a Coup d’état, Ansar Bayt al Maqdes started directing their focus towards Egypt’s military and police. They claimed responsibility for a failed attempt to assassinate Mohammed Ibrahim, who was the Minister of 36 Interior, and many operations in Sinai targeting civilians. In August 2016, the Egyptian military claimed that they were able to kill the Leader of the 37 group, Abo Duaa Al-Ansari in an airstrike in Al-Arish, Sinai. Humanitarian
Crisis: Iraq: Citizens in Iraqi cities are under siege as the battle between ISIS and local national forces (backed by US forces) continues. Around 4.1 million have been displaced since the beginning of the conflict. In the city of Mosul as the battle continues and as the Iraqi force press ISIS forces to
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Lister, Tim. 2015. "ISIS Atrocity Shows Growing Reach In North Africa". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2015/02/16/africa/isis-libya-northafrica/. 32 "Libyan Forces Say They Have Captured Isis Base In Sirte". 2016. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/10/sirtelibya-forces-capture-university-isis-islamic-state. 33 "Sinai Province: Egypt's Most Dangerous Group - BBC News". 2016. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-25882504. 34 Cassman, Daniel. 2016. "The Islamic State - Sinai Province | Mapping Militant Organizations". Web.Stanford.Edu. http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/557. 35 Pike, John. 2016. "Ansar Bayt Al-Maqdis (ABM)". Globalsecurity.Org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/abm.htm. 36 "National Counterterrorism Center | Groups". 2017. Nctc.Gov. Accessed March 20. https://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/ansar_bayt_al_maqdis.html. 37 "Egypt's Army Announces Killing Of Ansar Beit Al Maqdis Leader - Politics - Egypt - Ahram Online". 2016. English.Ahram.Org.Eg. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/236950/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Army-announce-killing-of-Ansar-Beit-Al-Maqd.aspx.
the western part of the city, 750 thousand are currently trapped in Western Mosul. The siege left 38 the people in need of food, water and fuel. The United Nations reported that almost 50% of the casualties from the battles against ISIS are civilians. One of the contributing factors to the death of civilians is that ISIS uses citizens as human shields. Another implication which defines ISIS, is violations against minorities, Christian minorities in Bakhdida (Qaraqosh) were forced to leave their homes, or convert to Islam, or if they were lucky pay a tax. Even though Shia Muslims represent the majority group in Iraq, huge numbers of them have been killed by the Islamic State. ISIS has labelled them as infidels and targeted them. They have bombed Shiite gathering places in Baghdad and other majority Shiite cities in order to depose the Shiite-led government in Iraq. Syria: Syriaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s refugee crisis is getting worse as 13.7 million are displaced, almost 6 million are internally displaced and 4.7 million are refugees to countries like Jordan, Turkey, Germany, Egypt and others. The death of many civilians has been reported in Syria, especially through Russian airstrikes and bombing raids. The number of civilian deaths caused by Russia is said to be a minimum of 3500 death as their raids sometimes target civilian infrastructure and markets. The US led coalition on the other hand, was responsible for the death of 900 civilians, since the beginning of 39 the fight against ISIS. From March 17 to 23 2017 the coalition have allegedly caused the death 40 of 200 civilians in multiple locations in Syria. Among Iraq cities, Raqqa and Deir Al Zour are examples of ISIS controlled cities that have witnessed public executions and human rights abuses. The number of daily executions can reach 5 executions per day. In these cities, ISIS uses patrols to make sure people are following their rules. The patrols make sure that citizens follow the Islamic attire. They force women to wear black from head to toe and whoever violates the rule gets arrested, punished and humiliated. In ISIS controlled cities, Yezidi women that were captured, have been subject to systematic sexual violence and slavery. The human trafficking of women is rampant amongst the group. One of the groupâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s source of funding is selling women to be sexual slaves, they sell younger 41 women, including little girls, with higher prices. The number is estimated to be around 5000. Nigeria: 38
"Humanitarian Crisis In Mosul Could Outlive Iraqi Military Operations, Senior UN Official Warns". 2017. UN News Service Section. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=55948#.WOAPM_mGPIV. 39 "Syria". 2016. Usaid.Gov. https://www.usaid.gov/syria. 40 Balkiz, Ghazi, and Angela Dewan. 2017. "US-Led Strike Caused Civilian Deaths In Mosul, Iraqi Official Says". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2017/03/26/middleeast/iraq-mosul-us-airstrikes-civilians/index.html. 41 Jha, Supriya. 2015. "ISIS Horror: Girls Get Peddled Like Petrol Barrels, Says UN Envoy". Zee News. http://zeenews.india.com/news/world/isispamphlets-with-sex-slave-price-list-in-circulation-un-envoy_1641860.html.
The fight against Boko Haram in Nigeria and the group’s violence caused the displacement of million Nigerians, among which 1.5 million are children. Boko Haram has also been known for targeting women and girls, and it has been reported that around 7000 women are subjected to the group’s violence. Moreover, the country is witnessing a humanitarian crisis as 7 million are in need of humanitarian aid to fulfil their basic needs like food, clean water and medicine.
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Al Qaeda
It started off as an organization called “Mektab el khidmat” (The service office) in 1984 in Peshawar; an Afghani town on the borders with Pakistan. It was responsible for recruiting and training Muslims from all countries to fight against the soviets during the Soviet-Afghan war (1979-1989) in the cold war era. It was nurtured by the inter-service intelligence agency in 43 Pakistan and by the CIA as part of its covert operations to fight the soviets (operation cyclone) . They were supported in fund mainly by Saudi Arabia, some Gulf countries and the CIA. Maktab el khidmat was run by Abdallah Azzam and Osama Bin Laden; Azzam directed the office while Bin Laden was responsible for the funds as a charity front. It opened offices in 30 US cities 44 collecting funds from US Muslims to help in the Afghan war . The funds amounted to 600 million dollars a year. After the Soviet invasion was over, Al Qaeda decided to capitalize on their victory and expand their Jihad globally. It was officially founded in 1988 and after the death of Azzam in 1989 by a bomb in Peshawar, Bin Laden took the lead. The organization operated from Pakistan and was headquartered from Sudan from 1991 till 1996. After Taliban took over the government, their base was shifted to Afghanistan. Al Qaeda tried to unify small jihadist groups under its umbrella providing them with a range of weapons, logistical support, training and money. They regarded the western world as their enemy, particularly the United States, making it as a target for their attacks. They also targeted Jews and Arab regimes they regarded as corrupt. Their hostility increased after the Gulf war as they opposed the presence of US troops on the holy Saudi Arabian lands. The US also arrested many of Al Qaeda’s members.
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"About The Crisis | OCHA". 2017. Unocha.Org. http://www.unocha.org/nigeria/about-ocha-nigeria/about-crisis. http://www.academia.edu/2897792/Operation_Cyclone_1979-1989_A_Brief_Analysis_of_the_U.S._Involvement_in_the_Soviet-Afghan_War 44 "Maktab Al-Khidamat (MAK) | Terrorist Groups | TRAC". 2017. Trackingterrorism.Org. Accessed March 31. http://www.trackingterrorism.org/group/maktab-al-khidamat-mak. 43
Bin laden was killed in March 2011 by US forces in Pakistan, the death of the charismatic leader who many fighters pledged loyalty to is said to have weakened Al Qaeda’s influence especially after the death of many other lieutenants and commanders. The loss of many of the top commanders forced the group to focus on defense strategies by cutting some of its communication and focus more on counter intelligence. Because of that, Ayman el Zawahiri, the new leader of Al Qaeda and who was Bin Laden’s deputy, is facing a challenge to keep the influence of Al Qaeda after Bin Laden’s death. Since Bin Laden’s death, Al Qaeda became more decentralized but continued the terrorist actions. Moreover, there were many splits in Al Qaeda lines including the split of Al Qaeda in Iraq that gave rise to ISI (the Islamic state in Iraq), which have a prominent disagreement with Al-Qaeda 45 over operations in Syria . Al Qaeda transformed into an ideological movement rather than a 46 hierarchical organization. ISIS and Al Qaeda’s disagreement caused rivalry between the two groups with ISIS trying to have more control in Afghanistan topping Al Qaeda’s success and attracting more recruits.
Funds:
The main source of Al Qaeda’s funding is financial facilitators who collect money through individual donations and whose main source was mainly the Gulf countries, especially Saudi Arabia and Qatar. Some of the donors knew exactly where their money is going and others didn’t. The money was also collected through corrupt charity organizations and through Mosque Imams who give the money to Al Qaeda as part of Zakat. There were some allegations that Al Qaeda raised money from drug trade and illicit diamond trade but nothing has been proved or denied. Al Qaeda’s funds decreased after some of their major facilitators were killed or captured.
Countries of activity:
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Al Qaeda and US policy middle east and Africa. Carla E. Humund. (2016, August 11). Retrieved from https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/R43756.pdf 46 Five Years After bin Laden's Death, al-Qaeda Lives On. Kathy Gilsinan. (2016, May 2). Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/05/al-qaeda-bin-laden-death/480801/
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Figure 2.The above map shows Al Qaeda’s territory and joined territory with ISIS up until 2015.
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Operations:
The most famous operation ever launched by Al-Qaeda or attributed to Al-Qaeda was the th September 11 , 2001 attacks, in which two planes crashed into the twin towers of the World Trade Centre and a third plane crashed into the Pentagon, killing more than 3000 people. But this was not the first attack on the World Trade Centre, in fact in 1993; a bomb was planted in the garage of the World Trade Centre leading to 6 deaths and 1,500 injuries. Nonetheless, their first operation goes way back to 1992 in Aden, Yemen, an operation known as Yemen Hotel 48 Bombings targeting U.S. troops. It was estimated that Al-Qaeda launched more than 15 operations in the 1990s and more than 40 between 2000 and 2005. Their operations weren’t restricted to a certain geographical area but 49 they always targeted U.S. troops or personnel. In 2007, there were two suicide bombings in Algeria, and one of them targeted the U.N. office. Many of the operations performed took place in Iraq, in January 2010, a suicide bombing took place in Baghdad, 9 months later; there was an attack on a church also in Baghdad. In January 2011, Al Qaeda performed suicide bombings for three days straight killing tens of 50 people every day. In 2016, there were two major attacks that Al-Qaeda was claimed to be responsible for, in January at least 30 people were killed in an attack on a hotel in Burkina Faso, and in March at
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"A Global Strategy For Combating Al Qaeda And The Islamic State". 2015. https://www.aei.org/publication/a-global-strategy-for-combatingal-qaeda-and-the-islamic-state/. 2 48 Schanzer, Jonathan. 2004. "Yemen’S War On Terror". Washington Intstitute. https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/opeds/4224cd7e95ec5.pdf. 49 "Al-Qaida Timeline: Plots And Attacks". 2017. Msnbc.Com. http://www.nbcnews.com/id/4677978/ns/world_news-hunt_for_al_qaida/t/alqaida-timeline-plots-attacks/#.WBpHRy197IU. 50 "Osama Bin Laden Dead: Timeline Of Major Al Qaeda Attacks". 2011. The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/05/02/alqaeda-attacks-timeline-_n_856528.html.
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least 16 were killed by Al-Qaeda North Africa in an attack at a beach resort in Ivory Coast, 51 Grand Bassam.
Recruitment and points of strength: One of the main strengths of Al Qaeda is that it has established an infamous reputation of Global Jihad, they use this reputation to attract regional jihad start-ups to operate under their name. They also have the funds, donors and the global network needed to sustain their presence 52 in major countries. They target people with little knowledge about Islam and believe they are repenting their sins by sacrificing their lives for Allah. They exploited the hostile sentiment against the US as a point of attraction to appeal for Anti-Westerners especially after the invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan 53 (Al Qaeda used the invasion as an evidence for the US’ animosity towards Arabs). They also target people with financial crisis by supporting them financially in exchange for asking them to deliver messages or collect information about someone or something. Drug addicts or persons of weak morale and personality are considered the best recruits and the easiest to use in suicide bombing operations. It is easy to shape their minds about Islam the way they want and fill their heads with wrong beliefs and statements that don’t exist in Islam but only use it to serve their ideology. What differentiates Al-Qaeda from its other competitors, like ISIS, is their approach towards Muslims. Unlike ISIS, Al-Qaeda believes in convincing people rather than suppressing or threatening them which helps deliver the message they believe in and gain the support of people despite the violent methods that they choose to use. This type of approach helped them take hold 54 of Afghanistan and utilise the government the way they want.
Relationship with Taliban:
What helped sustain Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan was the support and protection it received from the Taliban government before the US-Afghanistan war in 2001. Taliban had an ideology that ruled Afghanistan with a rigid and extreme Islamic system. This was a catalyst for getting the support from terrorist organizations. Taliban would secure safe havens and justify Al-Qaeda attacks in Afghanistan for exchange of support and funds for the government. 55
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Wonogo, Drew. 2016. "Al Qaeda Attacks In Burkina Faso Kill At Least 30". WSJ. http://www.wsj.com/articles/operation-ends-at-burkina-fasohotel-seized-by-al-qaeda-1452936866. 52 Galen Carpenter, Ted. 2001. "Terrorist Sponsors: Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, China". Cato Institute. https://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/terrorist-sponsors-saudi-arabia-pakistan-china. 53 IBRAHIM, RAYMOND. 2008. "How Al-Qaeda Recruits". Jihadwatch.Org. https://www.jihadwatch.org/2008/10/how-al-qaedarecruits.https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/al-qaedas-ma-strategy/ 54 L. Byman, Daniel. 2015. "Comparing Al Qaeda And ISIS: Different Goals, Different Targets | Brookings Institution". Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/testimonies/comparing-al-qaeda-and-isis-different-goals-different-targets/. 55 Riedel, Bruce. 2015. "The Taliban Affirm Their Alliance With Al-Qaida: Afghan Peace Talks In Doubt | Brookings Institution". Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2015/08/20/the-taliban-affirm-their-alliance-with-al-qaida-afghan-peace-talks-in-doubt/.
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Soon after the 9/11 attacks, the United States launched an attack and invaded Afghanistan based on Taliban refusal to turn in the leaders of Al-Qaeda. Afterwards, the power shifted to a more moderate government of Hamid Karzai, the interim president in 2002. Since then, the relationship between Taliban and Al Qaeda deteriorated and the connections left were mostly related to money. 56
Relationship with the current government:57
After the fall of the Taliban government in Afghanistan, Al-Qaeda was left alone fighting the US military without any support from the locals. Things even got worse for them after the new interim government announced its support and help to the United States in fighting terrorists, especially Al Qaeda. A strategy and a plan were set to attack and deter Al-Qaeda. This strategy began with establishing an independent national security force in Afghanistan. This force was given aid and training by the US government. At the beginning, the strategy seemed to go as planned but eventually problems occurred and Al-Qaeda managed to execute attacks in major cities in Afghanistan, which showed that the government is still not strong enough to combat the group. In 2015-2016, the National forces together with the Afghanistan government worked on establishing a strategy consisting of three main lines to pressurize on Al-Qaeda and Taliban. These lines were the enhancement of the national security, rebuilding the afghan forces, and always gaining the initiative in the attack. This campaign was supposed to be implemented but it faced challenges due to the short duration to execute the plan and the strong initiative insurgence of Al-Qaeda. Many plans and strategies were devised to counterattack the insurgencies of Al-Qaeda and Taliban but they did not reach their expected level of success.
Al Qaeda’s affiliate groups
1- Egyptian Islamic Jihad: It was founded in 1979 by Mohamed Abd el Salam Farag, a former member of the Muslim brotherhood. The organization’s main objective was to topple the regime and form an Islamic state but their main objective changed after they joined Al Qaeda’s network to be aligned with their vision of global jihad. Their ideology is anti-western, anti-secular and carry the “Takfiri” 58 belief that all non-Sunni Muslims are infidels. Their most prominent operation in 1981 was the assassination of the Egyptian president Mohamed Anwar El Sadat as a rejection of the 1979 peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. Their domestic operations have since been limited compared to their global operations. Al Qaeda’s network grew in part out of Egyptian radical groups, Ayman El Zawahiri and Mohamed 56
Barrett,, Richard. 2009. "The Al-Qaeda-Taliban Nexus". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/pakistan/al-qaeda-talibannexus/p20838. 57 2016. http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/Enhancing_Security_and_Stability_in_Afghanistan-June_2016.pdf. 58 "Egyptian Islamic Jihad". 2015. http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/401.
Atef joined Al Qaeda out of Egypt Islamic Jihad and were said to be the brains behind the 9/11 59 attacks. 2- Al-Nusra front (Al Qaeda in Syria) The group follows a Salafi-Jihadism religious ideology. Its main goal is believed to be overthrowing Al Asaad’s regime, and establishing an Islamic state ruled by Islamic Shariah law. The U.S. State Department has designated Al Nusra Front as a terrorist group in 10 December 2012. Moreover, 11 other countries have designated the group as a terrorist organization, including Russia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, France and the United Kingdom. The group was founded months after the outbreak of the Syrian crisis in March 2011, it swore an oath of loyalty to ISIS and broke from it in 2013. After that, it swore allegiance to Al Qaeda and since then, it has been referred to as “AlQaeda in Syria”. It exploited the instability and the chaos happening in Syria to seize control over a large area of the Syrian-Turkish border 60 including the city of Idlib . Their first attack was in December 23, 2011 when two of Al-Nusra’s suicide bombers attacked th military intelligence facilities in Damascus. They also released a video in March 27 2014, showing one of their members getting ready to execute two Saudi fighters. The United Nations human rights investigators released a report considering Al Nusra Front responsible for blockading 45,000 people in two Shiite towns in Aleppo, a Syrian province. In November 16, 2015 Al Nusra front claimed responsibility for a suicide bombing that killed top leaders in the ISIS-affiliated Yarmouk Martyrs Brigades. They were blamed for launching 2 rocket attacks in the southern Syrian town of Baath City, killing civilians in mid-July 2016. Al Nusra Front depends in its funding on taxation, fines, ransoms, tariffs, oil sales, international donations, smuggling and looting. Taxes and tariffs are believed to be their most stable source of fund, they also impose fines on locals within their territory. The group changed its name to “Jabhat Fatah Alsham”, and changed its flag’s colour from black to white. Their leader, Abo Mohamed Al Julani, announced, in his first televised appearance without a mask that the group has split from AL Qaeda saying that this new organization has no affiliation with any external entity. Analysts believe that the group’s decision to end its affiliation with Al Qaeda was just an attempt to increase the group’s appeal within 61 Syria, and that these changes don’t mean that they have changed their ideology. 3- Jund Al-Aqsa: Jund Al-Aqsa is a split group from Al-Nusra Front; it was founded by Abu Abdul Aziz AlQatari and was a sub-unit from Al-Nusra from 2012 to 2014 before the split due to various 59
Fletcher, Holly. 2008. "Egyptian Islamic Jihad". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/egypt/egyptian-islamic-jihad/p16376. "Profile: Syria's Al-Nusra Front". 2013. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18048033. Cassman, Daniel. 2017. "Hay'at Tahrir Al-Sham (Formerly Jabhat Al-Nusra) | Mapping Militant Organizations". Web.Stanford.Edu. http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/493. 60 61
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reasons but most importantly, clashes with ISIS. The group is a haven for many foreign fighters and operates in northern Syria, Idlib; their position from the Syrian civil war is the fight against Bashar. In 2014, Jund Al-Aqsa was responsible for a massacre in Maan, Hama along with Ahrar AlSham resulting in the death of 40 civilians, who were reported to be Alawites. In February 2016, they attempted to capture Rasm El Nafal village causing the death of 237 in confrontations with 63 the Syrian Army. The group was designated as a terrorist group by the U.S. Department of State in September, 64 2016. 4- Ansaru: The name is short for Jama'atu Ansaru al Muslimina Fi Biladis Sudan or "Vanguards for the Protection of Muslims in Black Africa". Ansaru was a part of the terrorist group Boko Haram, but in January 2012, they split and formed an independent group, labelling themselves as the humane alternative of Boko Haram. Ansaru was designated as a Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO) by the United States in 2013. Even though it originated from Boko Haram, it’s reported that Ansaru was affiliated with Al65 Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb. Their most significant operation was kidnapping English and Italian men in 2011 before the official birth of the group. They were both killed in March 2012; their murder was followed by the murder of a German citizen in May 2012 after kidnapping him in January 2012. In November 66 2013, a French man was able to escape being held hostage by Ansaru for an entire year. In April 2016, the Nigerian military claimed that they succeeded in arresting Khalid al67 Barnawi, the leader of Ansaru, but those claims were denied by the group and its supporters. 5- Al Shabaab: The group evolved as the military wing of an organization called “The Islamic Courts Union” (ICU). This organization rose to power in Somalia in 2006 to claim the government. As in Afghanistan, this government applied the fundamentalist teachings of the Wahhabi ideology. Their acclamation to power installed fear into neighbouring countries such as Ethiopia. It reacted by invading Somalia and ousting the government off the capital, Mogadishu. Afterwards the 62
Hussein, Tam. 2014. "Why Did Jund Al-Aqsa Join Nusra Front In Taking Out 'Moderate' Rebels In Idlib?". The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/tam-hussein/nusra-front_b_6112790.html?utm_hp_ref=uk-news. 63 "Jund Al-Aqsa | Terrorist Groups | TRAC". 2016. Trackingterrorism.Org. http://www.trackingterrorism.org/group/jund-al-aqsa. 64 "U.S. Sanctions Jihadist Syrian Rebel Group Jund Al-Aqsa". 2016. Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-jund-alaqsa-idUSKCN11Q1LH. 65 Chothia, Farouk. 2013. "Profile: Who Are Nigeria's Ansaru Islamists? - BBC News". BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa21510767. 66 Pike, John. 2016. "Ansaru". Globalsecurity.Org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/ansaru.htm. 67 "Leader Of Ansaru Jihadist Group Arrested In Nigeria". 2016. The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/03/leader-ofansaru-jihadist-group-arrested-in-nigeria/.
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group split into factions one of which was Al Shabab, which became an independent organization in 2006. Al-Shabab was enraged by Ethiopia’s intrusion, which was encouraged by the transitional government in Somalia at that time. Accordingly, the group started to use violent 68 tactics aiming at establishing power over land by excessive force. In 2012, Al-Shabab, led by its former leader Ahmed Abdi Gudane, pledged loyalty to AlQaeda and its leader Ayman Al-Zawahiri in a joint video. There are also reports linking the group with Al-Qaeda in Morocco and Boko Haram in Nigeria. Some recent reports state that factions in the group were arguing to switch allegiance to the Islamic State but the group refused 69 the idea, leading to the split of a small faction from the group. Al-Shabab executed large scale operations after their designation as a terrorist organization by the US in 2008. Their attack on Westgate shopping centre In Nairobi took the lives of at least 70 people in 2013. Their most significant attacks were in 2015 in Nairobi, Kenya, one of which, was the Garissa University shooting causing a massacre that was considered one of the bloodiest terrorist attacks. The incident took around 150 people’s lives, most of them were Christian 70 students. One of the factors that help Al-Shabab maintain their strength in Somalia despite the repeated attacks from the African Union (AU) force is their recruitment network. They use modern ways to reach a wide platform of recruits through twitter accounts and releasing propaganda videos. The group managed to reach out to jihadists with creative new means of delivering messages through inserting hip hop music in their videos and producing reality TV style videos. They were even able to recruit foreign fighters from around the globe especially from the Somali American 71 community in Minnesota. 6- Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula The organization was formed in 2009 after merging the branches of Al Qaeda in Yemen and Al Qaeda in Saudi Arabia. It was designated as a terrorist organization on January 2010. Al Qaeda in Yemen’s powers became weaker after the US drone strikes over Al Qaeda’s branch in Yemen, which killed their leader Abu Ali Al-Harithi in 2003. In 2006, 27 powerful terrorists escaped from a high security prison in San’aa, Yemen. This, together with the crackdown of the Saudi government over the remainder of Al Qaeda members in Saudi Arabia, led them to flee to Yemen and to unite with Al Qaeda jihadists in Yemen. The unity of these factions led to the powerful existence and formation of the group known now as Al Qaeda in the Arabian 72 Peninsula. 68
Masters, Jonathan, and Mohammed Aly Sergie. 2015. "Al-Shabab". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/somalia/alshabab/p18650. 69 "Who Are Somalia's Al-Shabab? - BBC News". 2016. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-15336689. 70 Rollins, John. 2011. "Al Qaeda And Affiliates: Historical Perspective, Global Presence, And Implications For U.S. Policy". https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/R41070.pdf. 71 Yan, Holly. 2015. "What Is Al-Shabaab, And What Does It Want?". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/02/world/africa/al-shabaabexplainer/. 72 Cassman, Daniel. 2015. "Al Qaeda In The Arabian Peninsula | Mapping Militant Organizations". Web.Stanford.Edu. http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/19.
The group sees Saudi Arabia’s alliance with the United States as unholy. The group is hostile 73 against the West especially the United States and is in opposition with Houthis in Yemen. They 74 regard them as the allies of Iran who aim at spreading the Shiite thoughts in Yemen. The group controls the southern and central provinces in Yemen. The high poverty and unemployment rate in Yemen together with the security vacuum and the politically fractured Yemen paved the way for the group. AQAP uses propaganda in order to recruit its fighters, and aims at attracting foreign fighters through propaganda magazines; “The echo of Battles” Arabic magazine and “Inspire” English magazine. They show Jihad as the only way to solve the struggles faced by Arabs in countries tormented by poverty and instability. Their source of funds are ransoms, robberies, corrupted charity organizations and donations from wealthy personnel including Saudi Arabians. Their most highlighted operations are a 2009 assassination attempt of the Saudi Arabian Prince Mohamed Bin Naïf through a suicide bombing, a 2010 suicide bombing attack over a military parade in San’aa that left 96 dead and 75 300 wounded and attacking Charlie Hebdo’s magazine in Paris leaving 12 dead in 2015. At the beginning of March 2017, The United States started conducting new airstrikes over the group in Yemen, which is targeting the group’s networks and infrastructure. The airstrikes amounted to more than 30 and aroused a controversy due to reports of civilian deaths and the death of a Navy Seal officer.
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7- Ansar el Sharia: The group exists in Libya and has a counterpart in Tunisia. They were both formed after the 2011 revolutions in both countries and both designated as terrorist organizations in 2014. In Libya, it was formed as a faction that contributed in the Libyan revolution. After el Quaddaffi’s death it started to gain more power exploiting the security deterioration in Libya. The group fights Libyan security forces for control and attacks western facilities. Its main aim is to apply shari’a law and promote global Jihad. The group is most active in Benghazi, Darnah, Site, and Ajdabiya in Northeast Libya. The group originated from Eastern Libya which is where the vigorous opposition for Qhadafi’s regime was present, due to the drastic economic and social 77 conditions the East faced in his era.
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They are a Shiite faction whose name comes from Hussein Badr El-Dein El Houthi, who led an uprising in 2004 that called for the independence of some Yemeni provinces from Sunni rule. 74 Pike, John. 2017. "Al-Qaeda Organization In The Arabian Peninsula / Al Qaeda In The Arabian Peninsula [AQAP]". Globalsecurity.Org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/al-qaida-arabia.htm. 75 "AL-QA'ida IN THE ARABIAN PENINSULA (AQAP)". 2015. Nctc.Gov. https://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/aqap.html. 76 "Al-Qaeda In The Arabian Peninsula (AQAP)". 2015. Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/yemen/al-qaeda-arabian-peninsulaaqap/p9369. 77 "Ansar Al-Sharia In Libya (ASL) | Terrorist Groups | TRAC". 2012. Trackingterrorism.Org. https://www.trackingterrorism.org/group/ansar-alsharia-libya-asl.
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They propagate for their ideologies and objectives through a newsletter and twitter activity, they also acquire more support through their social and economic programs. They have been responsible for the attack over the US embassy in Benghazi in December 2014 that resulted in the death of the US ambassador “Christopher Stevens” and another 3 US citizens. Before that, they were accused of being responsible for the death of many foreign personnel including an American teacher in 2013. The group’s current leader is Abu Khalid el Madani who was announced to be the leader in June 2015 after the previous leader Mohamed El Zawahi was 78 killed fighting in Benghazi. In Tunisia on the other hand, the group was formed by Abo Iyad Eltunesi. He had the idea of forming the group in prison in 2006 together with some of his prison inmates. After he was released during the prison breaks accompanying the 2011 Tunisian revolution, he was able to 79 establish the group. They operate in Sousse, Sidi bouzid and Tripoli. They reach out to members through their Facebook page and a foundation called AL Qaerawan resulting in a membership count of between 40000 and 50000 members. The group had a relation with the political party Al Nahda but they grew apart after the party came to power. The group’s current leader is unknown, as their former leader Abo Iyad Eltunesi also known as Seifallah Bin Hassine died in 2015 by a US airstrike in Libya. Among their famous operations; attacking the US embassy in Tunisia in 2012 in which four were killed and 29 were wounded. They have also killed 2 left wing politicians in 2013; Chokri Belaid and Mohamed Brahmi. In 2014, they killed 14 in an attack on Tunisian military checkpoints on the borders with 80 Algeria.
Human right violations:
Al-Qaeda and its affiliates were responsible for major human rights violations; those violations are mainly mass killings, abductions and executions. According to the National Counterterrorism Centre (NCTC), between 2004 and 2010 Al-Qaeda performed 9,810 terrorist operations in Africa leading to a number of casualties that reached 3,346 deaths, 6,022 injuries, and 447 kidnappings. Mass Killings targeting civilians and diplomats: The 9/11 attacks in 2001 caused the mass murder of around 3000 civilians. A year later, AlQaeda was behind the bombing of a nightclub in Bali resulting in the death of almost 200 81 Australians. They also executed bombings and mortar attacks in Iraq in 2006 causing 215 78
Joscelyn, Thomas. 2015. "Ansar Al Sharia Libya Fights On Under New Leader". FDD's Long War Journal. http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/06/ansar-al-sharia-libya-fights-on-under-new-leader.php. 79 "ANSAR AL-SHARIA". 2014. Nctc.Gov. https://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/ansar_al_sharia.html. 80 Cassman, Daniel. 2016. "Ansar Al-Shariah (Tunisia) | Mapping Militant Organizations". Web.Stanford.Edu. http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/547. 81 "2002 Bali Bombings | Terrorist Attacks, Indonesia". 2014. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/2002-Bali-Bombings.
deaths. In 2015, Al Shabab -Al-Qaeda affiliate- conducted a terrorist operation in Kenya where they attacked a university campus in Garissa, killing 148 people. 82 There were numerous other incidents of mass killing, all in addition to other attacks directed towards the West in the Middle East including the assassination of the United States' diplomat Laurence Foley in Jordan, and the bombing of a foreign compound in Saudi Arabia in May 83 2003. Executions: Al-Qaeda also performs public executions, many of which were on "spies" as they claimed. In 2012 in Abyan, Yemen, Al Qaeda crucified a man after accusing him of being a CIA spy. The man was killed then crucified, and then his body was left to rot. Later they executed another man in a public square, this time accused of spying for Saudi Arabia. Sorcery was also classified as a 84 reason for execution for Al-Qaeda. Kidnappings: One of their abduction targets are journalists who criticize the group, as they use abduction as an act of intimidation. They also target children, one of the incidents was Al Shabaab - Al Qaeda’s affiliate in Somalia’s – detention of children in a “terrorist school”, they chained them to their beds in order not to escape and for them to learn the group’s ideology. The group also abducts minorities, including Kurdish minority in Sheikh Maqsoud, Syria, as well as Christian priests.
US Policy:
After the 9/11 attacks, the US had made deterring Al Qaeda its top objective. The Bush administration enacted “The Authorization for the Use of Military Force” Act (AUMF) right after 9/11, which gives the president the power to use force against those responsible for the 9/11 attacks, who are mainly Al Qaeda and Taliban. This Act was the Bush administration’s legal ground to wage wars to combat Al Qaeda, to detain suspects without court order and to keep the Guantanamo prison in Cuba open. Unlike the current US policy against ISIS, the US’ first choice was to wage war over Afghanistan in 2001 to destroy the group. They cracked down on Al Qaeda’s base in Afghanistan, nonetheless Osama Bin Laden, AL Qaeda’s leader, was able to escape. The US plan afterwards was to build up Afghanistan, it sought the support of a moderate government in Afghanistan and sent aid to it, whether humanitarian or military aid. It started training Afghanistan’s local forces and maintained its troop presence there to fight terrorism and support
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"Kenya Al-Shabab Attack: Security Questions As Dead Mourned - BBC News". 2015. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa32177123. 83 "Saudi Official Blames Riyadh Attacks On Al Qaeda". 2003. Edition.Cnn.Com. http://edition.cnn.com/2003/US/11/08/saudi.explosion/. 84 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/12/04/world/meast/yemen-amnesty-report/
the local forces, around 68000 troops were in Afghanistan in 2009 during a Taliban insurgency and the number reached its peak in 2011 to reach 100 000 troops. Afterwards, Obama declared his intention to withdraw from Afghanistan and later announced a withdrawal plan that includes the withdrawal of the US troops by the end of 2016. The plan was changed to decreasing the number to 5500 troops in Afghanistan until the end of his term in 2017, but the actual number as he left office was around 8400 troops. The US performs special operations against Al Qaeda leaders, try to crackdown on their sources of fund, executes airstrikes on their strongholds and tries to cut their networks. This is also through the help of its allies through reginal coalitions especially after the decentralization 85 of the group and the absence of a coherent centre.
Points of difference between ISIS and Al Qaeda:
Although both groups regard the current regimes in the Middle East as apostates and aim at toppling those regimes, to establish an Islamic regime based on Shari’a Islamic law, they differ in their strategies and targets. Al Qaeda on one hand, follows a “Far enemy” strategy in which its primary aim is attacking the United States and its personnel in the Middle East. They believe that by targeting the US they would eventually cease to support the regimes in the Middle East, which would weaken the regimes and make it vulnerable for attacks from within. ISIS on the other hand, follows a “Near enemy” strategy in which its primary goal is attacking Arab regimes and the US forces in battle grounds in Syria and Iraq. They believe that their attacks would eventually lead them to control the governance in Arab countries and to form an Islamic State with a powerful army under their control. Based on the strategy of both groups and by examining the targets of their operations, it is observed that Al Qaeda tends to perform large scale operations against the US in general and foreign facilities in particular, like the 9/11 attacks. Whereas, ISIS depends on “lone wolves” in its attacks on US grounds in which they use propaganda and depend on social media platform to influence the attackers. Another major difference is that although Al Qaeda regards Shiites and other Muslim faction as apostates but they don’t target them. They also oppose ISIS’ targeting of Sunni Muslims and believe in using propaganda to convince their followers rather than forcing them to follow their lead. ISIS target the factions they perceive as enemies including Shiites, Yazidis, Kurds, Christians and also Sunnis. They also use sectarian conflicts as a way to creep in, weaken
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Ignatius, David. 2013. "U.S. Policy Toward Countering Al-Qaeda 2.0". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/davidignatius-us-policy-toward-countering-al-qaeda-20/2013/01/30/59801b98-6a5b-11e2-95b3- 272d604a10a3_story.html? utm_term=.ea08f8cb0d5a.
regimes and take control of territory. They use intimidating methods to force the people in the 86 cities under their control into submission.
Hezbollah:
Hezbollah is a Shiite group operating in Lebanon and was designated as a terrorist organization by the US in 1997. It was established as a counter reaction towards the Israeli’s invasion of Lebanon. Trained and funded by Iran, Hezbollah adapted the ideologies of Khamenei, Iran’s supreme leader and top ideologue. They are working on basing the rule in 87 Lebanon on Islamic Shiite Sharia. The group established itself as one of the main fighting groups against Israel and western colonization of Lebanon. Hezbollah was first founded around the year 1983 under the leadership 88 of Abbas Musawi , who managed to execute a series of suicidal bombings and kidnappings of high profile American and Israeli officials. Their leader was assassinated by Israel in 1992, which was a turning point in the group’s history. Sayed Hassan Nasrallah then took over the leadership and managed to keep the notoriety of the group by causing more havoc and damage to western corporates and Israeli facilities.
Controlled areas:
Figure 3. The areas in which Hezbollah has the most influence.
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L. Byman, Daniel. 2015. "Comparing Al Qaeda And ISIS: Different Goals, Different Targets". https://www.brookings.edu/testimonies/comparing-al-qaeda-and-isis-different-goals-different-targets/. 87 "The Evolution And Rise Of Hezbollah Politics Essay". 2015. Ukessays. https://www.ukessays.com/essays/politics/the-evolution-and-rise-ofhezbollah-politics-essay.php. 88 "Timeline: Hezbollah's Rise". 2013. Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-hezbollah-timeline-idUSBRE98P0BF20130926.
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Operations:
Ever since it was first formed in 1982, following the official declaration of the group’s presence in 1985, Hezbollah has launched several operations, mostly directed towards Israel. The most significant ones go as follows: In 1982, a car exploded in Tyre city, Lebanon next to a building used by the Israeli military, killing 75 Israeli soldiers In 1983, Hezbollah attacked the US embassy in Beirut causing the death of 63. In 1985, Hezbollah hijacked TWA flight 847 that took off from Cairo, Egypt as a negotiation card to release Shiite prisoners from Israel. In 1992, they bombed the Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires causing 29 deaths and over 200 injuries. In 1996 they bombed Khobar towers in KSA targeting military officers who were there at the time. 19 were announced dead. 89 90 In 2005 they were accused of assassinating the Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri. In 2006, Hezbollah initiated a 33 days long war with Israel after killing 8 Israeli soldiers. The war continued until a ceasefire in August initiated by the UN was applied, after more 91 than 1000 civilians were killed in the actions. Hezbollah is strongly involved in the Syrian conflict and are fighting on the regime's side. In 2013, the Syrian National Council announced that Hezbollah was attacking civilians in 92 AL-Qusayr near the Lebanese borders and other attacks in Homs province. Till the end of 2016, Hezbollah has been fighting opposition groups with the Syrian army, such as; Al Nusra Front, the Free Syrian Army, Ahrar Al Sham as well as the Islamic state.
Relations with Iran: Hezbollah is a powerful Shiite group, backed by Iran due to their religious and ideological connection. Hezbollah considers Iran’s supreme leader Khamenei an ideological directory for the group. Iran leads a coalition called the “Axis of Resistance” which is composed of Hezbollah, Syria and Iraqi Shiite militants aimed at fighting the US and Israel’s influence in the Middle East. Iran supplies its allies with weapons, logistical support and training, and has been said to be the 93 source of military advancement of Hezbollah.
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Masters, Jonathan, and Zachary Laub. 2014. "Hezbollah (A.K.A. Hizbollah, Hizbu'llah)". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/lebanon/hezbollah-k-hizbollah-hizbullah/p9155. 90 "Timeline Of Major Hezbollah Operations Since 1982". 2015. The Daily Star Newspaper - Lebanon.
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http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2015/Jan-29/285671-timeline-of-major-hezbollah-operations-since-1982.ashx. 91 Urquhart, Conal. 2008. "Israel Planned For Lebanon War Months In Advance, PM Says". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/mar/09/syria.israelandthepalestinians. 92 "Hezbollah Fighters, Syrian Rebels Killed In Border Fighting". 2013. English.Alarabiya.Net. http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2013/02/17/266843.html. 93 "The Hezbollah Connection In Syria And Iran". 2013. Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/iran/hezbollah-connection-syriairan/p30005.
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Iran guarantees a strong ally in Lebanon through the ongoing sectarian conflict. Iran has always supplied Hezbollah with its stockpile of weapons through Syria with the support of Al Assad’s regime. Iran is one of the few countries that openly supports Bashar Al-Assad’s regime and consequently, so does Hezbollah. The group, with the support of Iran, has been helping Syrian forces with training and in combat operations to take over major Syrian cities Qusayr and 94 Aleppo.
Political involvement:
Hezbollah has a political party called “Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc”. The party competed in the parliamentary elections for the first time in 1992 and won 8 seats in that elections. Since then they win steadily 10 percent of the seats. In 2008, there were tensions between Hezbollah and the national government after the government decided to dismantle their telecommunication networks, which led to Hezbollah taking over parts of Beirut. The Arab league issued a settlement between Hezbollah and the Lebanese government called “El Doha” agreement which gave Hezbollah the veto power against cabinet decisions in return of the prohibition of the use of weapons in domestic 95 disputes. Hezbollah has been responsible for toppling Saad el Hariri cabinet in 2011. El Hariri’s party, which was the majority party in the parliament, refused to nominate any other figure to form the government. Hezbollah on the other hand, rejected him taking such position. There was a 29 months’ vacuum in the Lebanese government as the parliament reached a deadlock two years ago, st and couldn’t consent on electing a new president paralyzing the government. In October 31 2016, The Maronite Christian Michel Aoun was elected as president which was considered as a victory for Hezbollah. He has been an ally to Hezbollah since 2006 when his party “The Free Patriotic Movement” signed a memorandum with Hezbollah declaring both parties as political allies. They reached a compromise for Al Hariri to be prime minister as a representative for the 96 Sunnis and the speaker of the parliament shall be a Shiite.
US and Israel policy:
Israel and the US have always considered Hezbollah a threat. During the Lebanese war against it in the 1980s, Israel aimed at destroying Hezbollah’s leadership. Till 2000, Israel maintained a strong military presence in southern Lebanon but it wasn’t politically supported so they had to back down from Lebanese lands. Israel tried to decrease the popular support for 97 Hezbollah by punishing the Lebanese through throwing artillery barrages on their villages. Their strategy backfired as the group started gaining more support. Since the war in 2006, in 94
Grace, Robert, and Andrew Mandelbaum. 2006. "Understanding The Iran-Hezbollah Connection". United States Institute Of Peace. http://www.usip.org/publications/understanding-the-iran-hezbollah-connection. 95 Cassman, Daniel. 2016. "Hezbollah | Mapping Militant Organizations". Web.Stanford.Edu. http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/81. 96 Perry, Tom. 2016. "Here Are Some Facts About Lebanon's New President And Hezbollah Ally Michel Aoun". Business Insider. http://www.businessinsider.com/facts-about-lebanons-new-president-hezbollah-ally-michel-aoun-2016-10. 97 "Israel-Hezbollah". 2016. Internationalrelations.Org. http://internationalrelations.org/israel-hezbollah/.
which Hezbollah attacked Israel, the US tried to disarm Hezbollah and guarantee that the Lebanese government has full control over its land. The US’ attention towards the group was minimized; due to other threats like ISIS and Al Qaeda which are considered more of a priority for the US. The US policy now revolves around cracking down their financial network and using 98 diplomatic coercion to hinder their influence. Since the start of the civil war in Syria and Hezbollah’s backing of Al Assad’s regime by sending fighters to fight against the opposition, Israel has been in a direct confrontation with Hezbollah’s fighters on the Syrian grounds. Israel has been carrying air strikes in Syria targeting Hezbollah’s commanders and in May 2016 they killed Mustafa Badreddein who carried one of the highest ranks among the commanders. Hezbollah is building its military stockpile, provided by Iran, in order to extend its reach to cities like Haifa, Tiberius, Afula, Nahariya and Safed in Israel, while on the other hand, Israeli army officials has been preparing civil defense drills in the 99 country.
Hamas
Hamas grew out from the Muslim brotherhood in 1987 as a political arm in Palestine, with a goal to expel Israel out of the Palestinian state and form an Islamic society that comprises all of Palestine’s historical land. Hamas is an acronym for “Haraket el mqawma el islamya” or “Islamic Resistance Movement”. The group is known for introducing suicide bombing which was first performed in 1993. They were designated as a terrorist organization by the US in 1997 After the cease fire with Israel in 2005, Hamas started participating in the political life in Palestine, and in 2006 they won the elections of the Palestinian Parliament (Palestinian Legislative Council) which were the last elections to be held for the Palestinian Parliament. Ismail Haniyeh formed a unity government with Fatah, the opposing major party, as the prime 100 minister. Hamas took the lead in the Parliament but the executive power was held by Mahmoud Abbas, the Palestinian president, of Fatah. Since the two parties adopt different ideologies that 98
Samaha, Nour. 2016. "Hezbollah’S Crucible Of War". Foreign Policy. http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/07/17/hezbollahs-crucible-of-war/. "Hezbollah: Counter-Terrorism And U.S. Policy | Party Of God". 2015. Rampages.Us. https://rampages.us/hezbollahpartyofgod/2015/07/31/counterterrorism-and-u-s-policy/. 100 "Profile: Hamas Palestinian Movement - BBC News". 2014. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13331522. 99
are translated into rivalry, the violence escalated rapidly in 2007 between the two parties and Hamas took control over Gaza. Mahmoud Abbas then dismissed Hamas’ government, a decision that was overlooked by Hamas. This led to a division between the West Bank and Gaza, and Hamas forming a parallel rival government to that of Fatah and the Palestinian National 101 Authority in Gaza. In 2012, Hamas was able to rise to political power again when a Hamas government started ruling Gaza by the approval of the Hamas members of parliament in the Palestine legislative 102 council. Hamas was proving to be a double-edged weapon for its civilians. The entire world was indecisive on the way to help the residents of Gaza without helping Hamas gain more power and 103 fight Israel. Israel has been constantly attacking the lands controlled by Palestinians especially that of Hamas. Hamas maintained the reputation of a fighting force against Israel. This reputation was 104 the main motivation for people’s support during the elections in order to form a government.
Leadership:
The co-founder or the first actual leader of Hamas was Sheikh Ahmed Al-Yassin. He was assassinated in March 2004 by Israel and was followed by Abdel Aziz Al-Rantisi who was also a co-founder of the group. Only one month later, Al-Rantisi was assassinated also by Israel; this was an indication of a huge danger that threatens any leader or spokesman of Hamas, so Hamas decided to keep the identity of its leader as a secret. This was not the case for long as there was a cease fire agreement in 2005 between Hamas and Israel, also later Hamas took over the political environment in Palestine and Ismail Haniyeh was announced the Prime Minister of Hamas and took leadership along with Mahmoud Zahar. Hamas has both a political and a military wing; each branch has its own leader. The current leader of the political wing is Khaled Mashaal and he operated from Damascus then moved to Qatar, and the current leader of the military wing known as Al-Qassam Brigades is Ahmed A105 Jabri.
Hamas-Fatah conflict:
The conflict between Hamas and Fatah has its roots since 1993 Oslo peace accord with Israel. Hamas rejected an agreement between Fatah’s leader, Yasser Arafat and Israel as it would mean giving Israel a formal recognition. As Hamas and Fatah are the main political movements in Palestine, their conflict resulted in the split of the Palestinian Authority in 2007. 101
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Laub, Zachary. 2014. "Hamas". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/israel/hamas/p8968. al-Naami, Saleh. 2012. "Hamas Seeks To Enter The World Of Diplomacy". Web.Archive.Org. https://web.archive.org/web/20121205170941/http:/www.asharq-e.com/news.asp?section=1&id=30949. 103 Zanotti, Jim. 2014. "The Palestinians: Background And U.S. Relations". https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL34074.pdf. 104 Laub, Zachary. 2014. "Hamas". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/israel/hamas/p8968. 105 Pike, John. 2017. "HAMAS Leadership". Globalsecurity.Org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/hamas-leaders.htm.
In mid-90s, the tensions between both movements increased, right after Hamas’ bomb attacks on Israel. However, tension between Hamas and Fatah eased right after the eruption of the second Palestinian Intifada in 2000, as both started launching armed operations against Israel. In 2004, Yasser Arafat died and Mahmoud Abbas was elected as Palestine’s new President. Hamas boycotted this election and cited their disapproval of the Oslo agreements that led to the establishment of the Palestinian Authority (PA). Hamas participated in student and local council elections, breaking its boycott and trying to have a seat in the government winning a majority of seats on the Palestinian Legislative Council. After 13 years of Fatah’s overseeing the PA, Hamas felt singled out. Police offices and many different Palestinian security agencies has always been under Fatah’s control, but after Hamas got elected, things started to change and those powers were revoked. Hamas preached Fatah for its collaboration with Israel and the United States. On the other hand, Fatah blamed Hamas for the international blockade that led Israel to stop the transfer of taxes and funding for the PA. By 2006, the dispute became more and more violent and after that the “Prisoner’s document” was established, which is an agreement that was reached after some efforts of the Palestinians prisoners in Israeli jails. The document called for the Independence of Palestine as a sovereign state based on the 1967 borders. This document was endorsed by the president Mahmoud Abbas and rejected by Hamas as it would mean Israel’s recognition as a state. Many violent clashes in Gaza caused the unity government that was formed in March 2007 and was recognized by Norway to fall apart. There are now effectively two Palestinian cabinets, one in Gaza and one in Ramallah. There has been attempts to form unity governments since June 2014 but Hamas objects on government formation and the reshuffles done by president Mahmoud Abbas. As the attempts for the formation of a unity government continue, Hamas still rules over Gaza strip.
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Al Qassam Brigates:
It is the military wing of Hamas which was founded during the first Palestinian Intifada. It was officially formed in 1991, the year it became known as the armed branch of Hamas. In 1984, it began acquiring weapons for the resistance against Israelis but they failed as they got arrested, but in 1986 sheikh Mahmoud Shehada was able to form a resistance group that targeted the Israeli troops called “Al Mujahedoon el Filistinion”. It operates mostly in Gaza where it is predominant and partially in the West Bank. Its objective is to end the Israeli occupation and form a Palestinian State that includes Gaza, the West Bank and Israel by using military tactics in 107 the process. 106
2009. Jmcc.Org. http://www.jmcc.org/fastfactspag.aspx?tname=13.
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"Ezzedeen Al-Qassam Brigades". 2017. Accessed April 1. http://www.qassam.ps/aboutus.html.
The group strikes Israel with rockets, executes mortar attacks, kidnaps and kills Israeli soldiers and citizens and performs large scale suicide bombings but they have never declared having interest in performing attacks over a country other than Israel. They have been reported to have killed 500 during more than 350 operations they have performed. Among their most significant operations, the kidnap of 10 Israeli civilians between 2009 and 2014. They have kidnapped an Israeli soldier “Gilad Shalit” in 2006 and swept him with 1027 Palestinian prisoners. According to Israel’s security agency, 2327 rockets were launched over Israel in 2012 and 63 in 2013. During an armed conflict between Israel and Hamas in 2014, Israel claims that 4700 missiles, mortars and rockets were fired by Hamas on Israeli towns and 108 cities which reached 80 miles beyond Gaza.
US and Israel policy:
Israel has always been in a military conflict with Hamas, Israel conducts airstrikes over Hamas, mostly claiming the airstrikes to be a response to Hamas’ attacks over Israel. Palestinian civilians can be victims of these attacks. Israel has always been blamed and criticized for the Palestinian civilian losses, and the disproportionate response as well as the use of excessive force during the conflict. In response, Israel declares that it has always warned citizens whether through sirens or flyers. The most recent noted conflict was in 2014 when Israel killed about 1462 Palestinian civilians including 550 children. Israel has been illegally building settlements in the West Bank, it has built 560,000 settlements in the West Bank supplying them with all the services, it has also been displacing and demolishing the homes of Palestinians in the West Bank. The US and Israel are seeking to disarm Hamas by imposing economic sanctions over Palestine, and had the idea of offering Hamas a tradeoff between economic relief and its abandonment to the use of violence against Israel. Some Politicians in Israel are calling for a grand ground operation which aim is taking down Hamas, but this demand may lead to Israel’s occupation of Gaza once again. Negotiations have been going with the PA for a two-state solution, resolutions have been issued before in the UN that supports a Two- state solutions. There has also been multiple summits and peace talks that also involved the US, as well as a peace initiative proposed by Saudi Arabia in the Arab league. Israel refused multiple times to discuss peace initiatives, the US’ position varied multiple times between acceptance and denial of the solution and multiple 109 peace summits failed without reaching a definite agreement.
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"Hamas' Izz Al-Din Al-Qassam Brigades Australian National Security". 2017. Nationalsecurity.Gov.Au. Accessed April 1. https://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/Listedterroristorganisations/Pages/HamassIzzal-Dinal-QassamBrigades.aspx. 109
"Hamas". 2014. Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/israel/hamas/p8968.
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The Kurdish workers party (PKK):
In the 1970s in Ankara, Turkey, Abdullah Ocalan founded the “Kurdish Workers Party” (PKK) that adopted a Marxist-Leninist ideology. Their objective was the creation of a separate socialist Kurdish state in Southeast Turkey and parts of Iraq and Syria. This objective has recently changed to seeking the autonomy of Kurdish people within Turkey, the country with the most number of Kurdish population. The Kurds are the largest population of stateless people in the world and they comprise about 20% of the population in Turkey and Iraq, and a smaller 110 percentage in Syria and Iran. Its violent methods and excessive use of power and weapons led them to be designated as a terrorist group by many countries including the United States. On August 1984, the PKK launched its armed insurgency, with armed attacks on several places including organizing attacks on diplomatic offices in Europe and on Turkish governmental and military installations, kidnapping foreign tourists in Turkey and suicide bombing. In 1991, President Turgut Özal agreed to negotiate with the PKK. Apart from the fact that Özal himself was half-Kurdish, very few Turkish politicians liked to get into these peace talks with PKK. The negotiations led to the PKK cease-fire declaration in 1993. His death in 1993 111 with a heart attack hindered the continuation of such peaceful negotiations. The turning point in the Turkey-Kurdish conflict was in 1999, when Abdullah Öcalan, leader of the PKK was arrested in the Greek embassy in Kenya and brought to Turkey. Ocalan was forced to leave Syria after Turkey threatened war with Syria over the PKK so he sought asylum in countries like Italy, and after being denied he ended up in the Greek embassy in Kenya where he was arrested. This resulted in major protests by the Kurds where many protesters were shot dead. After the detention of the PKK leader, it declared a unilateral cease-fire in an attempt to rebrand itself away from its image as a violent terrorist organization. It only lasted until 2004 as the group failed to restructure its image returning to its guerrilla operations. Despite his imprisonment, Ocalan still managed to organize the party and execute many attacks from behind
110
Bruno, Greg. 2007. "Inside The Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK)". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/turkey/inside-kurdistanworkers-party-pkk/p14576\. 111 "Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) | Australian National Security". 2017. Nationalsecurity.Gov.Au. Accessed April 1. https://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/Listedterroristorganisations/Pages/KurdistanWorkersPartyPKK.aspx.
bars, as he was able to communicate with the group and establish some guidelines for their 112 operations through his lawyers. In 2009, Turkish officials and PKK leaders held secret peace talks and negotiations but there was obviously no progress resulted. In 2013, PKK’s members released 8 Turkish hostages, while Öcalan announced his support to a ceasefire agreement. In 2015 and after two year-long peace negotiations, conflict between Kurds and Turkish government broke out. Peace failure can be associated with the suspected ISIS-Turkish retaliation as the PKK accuses the Turkish government of turning a blind eye to ISIS’ operations against the Kurds at the Syrian borders. The PKK held the Turkish government responsible for a massacre in Suruc executed by the Islamic state and they killed two Turkish officers in revenge of the attacks. The Turkish government also started to conduct operations on both ISIS and the PKK in Iraq and Syria through operations like Martyr Yalçın, Arslan Kulaksız and Hamza Yıldırım (against the Kurdish Democratic Union party, PYD in Kobani, Rojava) and so many other operations have been in action, resulting in the death of people from both the PKK and the Turkish government.
Active regions:
The PKK aims towards achieving a land that provides independence from Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran. They control some key cities that help them provide a strong stance against countries that oppose this autonomy. They use the current situation in Syria and their relations or alliance with the Kurdish democratic Union party (PYD) to have more influence and control over cities with Kurdish majority. The PYD takes over cities in Syria on the borders with Turkey, legitimized by the international support of them fighting ISIS in these cities. 112
"Abdullah Öcalan | The Kurdish Project". 2017. The Kurdish Project. Accessed April 1. http://thekurdishproject.org/history-andculture/famous-kurds/abdullah-ocalan/.
One of these key cities is Rojava, which hold a great economical and positional significance. Rojava holds major oil lands that could help the Kurds financially to support itself to form its own state. Also, it is on the borders with both Syria and Turkey and extends all the way to the Mediterranean Sea which will enhance the Kurds’ political position and provide the adequate land for them to form an autonomous state. The main barrier between the Kurds and their independence is Turkey as they don’t acknowledge Kurdistan to be a self-ruling country. Besides, the PKK has been attacking and targeting Turkish civilians and officials. Thus, the fight 113 seems to be endless between Turkey and the PKK.
Networks in Germany:
To enable the ongoing fight with Turkey over independence, the PKK had to find other resources and funds away from the local ones. They used the European countries as a way of increasing their funds to fight the national security of Turkey. One of these countries that has been heavily involved in this conflict is Germany. Germany has been accused of helping the PKK indirectly through overlooking its actions of drug dealing, tax exploitation, and sex trafficking in its country. Germany responded with denial to these allegations by Turkey. Many of the Kurdish population in Germany is either a member of the PKK or sympathizing with the party. This condition helps the PKK to conduct its operations by easily gaining funds and 114 support. This issue also crumbled the relationships between Germany and Turkey .115 Germany and Turkey are negotiating in order to reach a deal on the topic of refugees and Turkey’s role would be to control the entrance of refugees to Turkey. Turkey’s cooperation would be unlikely if 116 Germany did not hold strict measures against the PKK.
PKK operations:
The PKK attacks are concentrated in the East and South of Turkey mainly in the provinces of Diyarbakir, Sirnak and Hakkari in addition to their occasional attacks in Ankara and Istanbul. The conflict between the PKK and the Turkish government has resulted into casualties estimated to be between 30,000 and 40,000 people since 1984. The PKK attacks police related facilities and personnel, diplomatic offices, security forces, civilians who wouldn’t cooperate with the group and kidnap western tourists. During the peak of the fight between them and the Turkish 117 forces, many villages were destroyed in southeastern and eastern Turkey.
113
Balanche, Fabrice. 2016. "Rojava's Sustainability And The PKK's Regional Strategy". Washingtoninstitute.Org. http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/rojavas-sustainability-and-the-pkks-regional-strategy. 114 Sanderson, Sertan. 2016. "European PKK Ban Could Undermine Turkish Democracy". DW.COM. http://www.dw.com/en/european-pkk-bancould-undermine-turkish-democracy/a-36512730. 115 http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/the-u.s.-interest-in-addressing-germanys-pkk-problem 116 Schwarz, Peter. 2016. "German Chancellor Boosts Anti-Refugee Deal In Visit To Turkey". Wsws.Org. https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2016/05/26/merk-m26.html. 117
"Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) | Australian National Security". 2017. Nationalsecurity.Gov.Au. Accessed April 1. https://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/Listedterroristorganisations/Pages/KurdistanWorkersPartyPKK.aspx.
Among their operations, a car bomb attack in August 2012 over a police station in Gaziantep killing 8 officers. They attacked military convoys and posts and bombed a gas pipeline in Agri province, Hakkari province and others in south eastern Turkey between August and October 2012. They abducted 25 teenagers in April 2014 in the district of Diyarbakir. Their attacks since then have been focused on killing and kidnapping police and military officers, targeting infrastructure and attacking military bases. In 2016, The PKK has been claiming responsibility for numerous operations and bombings in Turkey, including Ankara bombings in March, targeting a bus carrying civilians in which 37 118 people were killed and nearly 125 were injured.
PKK relations with Turkish government:
The Turkish government has been oppressing the Kurds for so long, as an ethnic minority. The government forces conduct operations against the Kurds who live in south eastern Turkey and call for autonomy. Very little is said about the relations between both sides in the western media, and that’s mainly due to Erdogan’s government denying foreign journalist and independent Turkish 119 reporters access to the area. In 1920, an agreement was reached and it led to the treaty of Sevres, that gave the Kurdish people the right of autonomy, but this treaty was never implemented. The only thing that changed, was the that the ban on Kurds speaking Kurdish language was lifted, but any other expressions of their culture is restricted. Turkey has been criticised by human rights organizations as it was reported that they execute operations to take down those who seek or defend the autonomy of the Kurds. Many of their activist sympathisers are in prison under the accusation of terrorism. Turkey also bans any 120 expression of Kurdish cultures including language schools and TV stations.
PKK’s Relations with other parties:
The PKK and the Kurdish democratic Union (PYD) in Syria are allies to the extent that the PYD is considered the PKK’s “branch” in Syria. The PYD’s regional expansion in Syria is considered a crucial step on the road to independence, as both parties seek controlling as much territory as they can in order to have a stronger stance. The PKK’s relations with the Kurdish democratic government (KDP) in Iraq is more competitive. The KDP wants to share power with the PKK and the PYD in controlled cities in Syria and considers its denial of power a betrayal especially when it comes to the city of Rojava. The KDP seeks more influence and is rather in competition over the rule of Kurdish cities 118
Mandıracı, Berkay. 2016. "Turkey’S PKK Conflict: The Death Toll". http://blog.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/2016/07/20/turkey-s-pkkconflict-the-rising-toll/. 119 "Kurds | Human Rights In Turkey". 2017. Humanrightsturkey.Org. Accessed April 1. https://humanrightsturkey.org/tag/kurds/. 120 "Turkey". 2016. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/country-chapters/turkey.
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outside Iraq rather than cooperation. Despite that, the PKK and the PYD are supporting the 121 122 Peshmerga forces in Iraq and joins them in their fight against ISIS.
US foreign policy:
The US designated the PKK as a terrorist group, it is also believed that Syrian Kurds and the PKK, or the Kurdistan Workers Party, are not the same. “And we’ve also been very clear that we view the PKK as a foreign terrorist organization, and as such, we work with Turkey on combating them,” US State Department spokesman Mark Toner said. Turkey sees no difference between both the PKK and the YGP (Syrian Kurdish forces of the People’s Protection Units) but the US administration opposes this and perceives them differentially. Turkey has big concerns about Kurdish forces operating in Northern Syria, as the US supports these forces and thinks they’re capable of combating ISIS and remove it from its foothold. Nevertheless, the US doesn’t want to underplay Turkey role in the coalition fighting ISIS. The U.S. has aided Turkey in its anti-PKK efforts. U.S. intelligence enabled the capture of PKK leader Abdullah Ocalan in 1999. In 2012, legislator Joseph Lieberman of Connecticut sponsored a Senate Resolution condemning the PKK’s terrorist attacks, propaganda, associated drug importation activities and reaffirmed the United States’ commitment to serving an end to 123 PKK acts of terrorism.
Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA)
It is a group that caused horror to most African countries, operating from Uganda. What differentiate this group from the other terrorist groups is its ideology and religion. The group was designated as a foreign terrorist organization in 2001 and was removed from the list in 2011. The Lord’s Resistance Army started in 1983 with a different name called the Holy Spirit movement. The Holy Spirit movement was defeated and its leader was sent to exile. But that didn’t stop a man called Joseph Kony from claiming the leadership of the movement and change the name to the Lord’s Resistance Army. At first, Joseph Kony couldn’t gain the support of the people although he promised to overthrow the government and rule the country. Resentment 121 122
The military forces of the autonomous Kurdish region in Iraq Foley, Aaron. 2016. "The YPG-PKK Connection". Atlantic Council. http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/the-ypg-pkk-connection.
123
Cook, Steven. 2016. "Who Exactly Are 'The Kurds'?". The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/02/kurdsturkey-pkk-ypg/470991/.
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slowly grew towards Joseph Kony as he started kidnapping young children as a mean of recruitment. Abduction was not the only aspect that showed how brutal the group was, but also massacres, robberies and raping women of all ages; justified by Joseph as way of defying the government in Uganda. Over the course of history, the ideology of the group shifted a lot and took many forms to justify the violence in Africa. Their primary declared goal was to fight the government of Museveni who, by their beliefs, was leading against a major ethnic group in Uganda, the Acholi. But then after the negotiations between the Acholi and the Museveni government, Joseph Kony changed his direction and started aiming his attacks on the Acholi thinking that they betrayed him by having an agreement with the government. Using the cover of the ten commandments in the bible and blaming the Acholi on their failure to gain their right, their ideology gradually changed under the leadership of Joseph Kony who transformed the group from defying the government to a group that justify its massacres as part of God’s plan. Joseph Kony is condemned of crimes against humanity and has been identified as a warlord. But he is yet to be 124 found.
Human rights violations by the LRA: The Lord’s Resistance Army has committed a massive amount of human rights violations against civilians, and those acts can be classified into two categories The first is mainly the violations that happen randomly in widely distributed areas, and these violations includes; looting, armed robbery, kidnapping and abduction of children, and sexual violence. The second category is systematic and organized military attacks against civilians. The goal of these attacks is to terrify and threaten the people in the attacked villages and to cause a huge displacement of population. They abduct children, recruit them and force them to work in the army. Children are forced to torture those who try to escape. The estimate for the number of abducted children is 10,000 children who are being used as sex slaves, burglars and soldiers. During combat, children are placed in the front lines, because they are easy to control, those kids are forced to kill others who try to escape. Even children who are not used in combat witness war violence on a daily basis. On the Christmas of 2008, LRA massacred 400 civilians in the northern eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. They were violently tortured and hacked into pieces. The LRA also tried to kill two young girls, by twisting their heads off. Shockingly, most of the victims of the 125 Christmas massacre were killed by young children.
Forced displacement 124
Cook, Steven. 2016. "Who Exactly Are 'The Kurds'?". The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/02/kurdsturkey-pkk-ypg/470991/. 125 "Profile: The Lord's Resistance Army". 2014. Aljazeera.Com. http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/10/2011101418364196576.html.
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The series of attacks done by the LRA has forced about 16,454 refugees to flee to Sudan and the Central African Republican, and this is according to the UN high commissioner of Refugees. The repeated attacks in the districts of Haut-Uélé and Bas-Uélé have led to a massive displacement of civilians.
Operations It was reported that 1,200 people were killed in various attacks done by LRA between 2008 and 2009 On November 2008, at least 17 people were murdered in the city of Kiliwa (Dungu territory). Some of the children that have escaped LRA attackers reported to The United Nations Joint Human Rights Office (UNJHRO) members that more than 10 civilians abducted by LRA were killed one day after being captivated. These children described how scary it was, being there and hearing the screams of those people tortured and then hearing silence. On 17 September 2008, 14 people were killed at Madoro. Those who survived from this attack reported that they witnessed the killing of two people at Namama. Another survivor said that on 21 September 2008 he witnessed the execution of 15 men at Kpaika and saw many dead bodies. Between mid-September and early November 2008, the witnesses interviewed stated that LRA members had carried out executions in 11 other localities within a radius of 112 km around Dungu. A list of 189 people were murdered in relation to the massacres around Dungu territory, while another list of 103 people killed in the city of Faradje and its surroundings was obtained by 126 the UNJHRO in 2008 and early January 2009.
Future Scenarios: How would the US strategy in combating terrorist organizations change under the new administration? How can the US prevent terrorism from reaching its grounds? To what extent would the US assist the Iraqi force in imposing their control over ISIS claimed territory? What would the US strategy be in dealing with international actors involved in the conflict like Russia, Turkey and Iran? How would the US influence the war against multiple terrorist allies in Nigeria, Somalia, Libya, Tunisia, Yemen and Egypt? What’s the future US strategy against terrorist propaganda that inspires attacks on its land? Would the US policy change in dealing with organizations that pose a threat to the security of Israel like Hamas and Hezbollah? How would the US deal with different Kurdish parties in Syria, Iraq and Turkey including the PKK and how would that shape the US-Turkish relationship?
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"History Of The War | Invisible Children". 2014. Invisible Children. https://invisiblechildren.com/challenge/history/.
Second Topic: China Sea conflict China Sea conflict:
South China Sea dispute..............................................................................56 South china sea Geography...............................................................................................56 The value of the sea (economically, strategically ….).......................................................56 Maritime zones..................................................................................................................57 History of the conflict........................................................................................................59 China’s claim......................................................................................................................60 - Interests……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. - Strategy and actions………………………………………………………………………………………………. Other conflicting countries (claim, interests, relations between them and China)..........62 - Philippines ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. - Vietnam…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. - Taiwan…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… - Malaysia………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… - Japan……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… - Brunei……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. US involvement..................................................................................................................67 - US actions and strategy…………………………………………………………………………………………… - Security Treaties between the US and conflicting countries…………………………………….
East China Sea............................................................................................68 East china sea geography and value of the sea…………………………………………………………. History of the conflict……………………………………………………………………………………………….. Conflicting countries claims……………………………………………………………………………………… - China…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… - Japan……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Sino Japanese relations………………………………………………………………………………………… - South Korea………………………………………………………………………………………………………… US Policy…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
US concerns..............................................................................................72 Scenarios and solutions.............................................................................72
China’s claims in the South China Sea have been causing international tensions among East Asian countries on one side and the US on the other. The competing territorial and jurisdictional disputes in both the South and East China sea have put the world on its toes for fear of military escalation between world powers. China, on one hand, historically claims 90 percent of the South China sea against major countries which are the Philippines, Vietnam, Taiwan, Malaysia, Brunei and Japan. On the other hand, China’s claims in the East china sea have put it in further confrontation with both Japan and South Korea. The dispute also continues over the determination of the exclusive economic zone that would allow each country to freely exploit the seas resources. With the vast amount of natural resources in the sea, the advancement of China’s military power and the UN arbitration denying China’s rights, the conflict started heating up. The conflict has put the US in a position of confrontation with China defending the right of freedom of Navigation in the China sea with China denying the right of US military vessels and navy’s passage in its claimed EEZ. The US has also declared that it abides by international treaties including the mutual defence treaties between the US and both Japan and the Philippines. This means that a military escalation of the conflict that involves these two countries shall lead to a military confrontation with the US.
South China sea Geography: It is located in southeast Asia in the Pacific Ocean with an area of over 3 and half millionsquare kilometre. It is positioned south of China and Japan, west of Philippines, east of Malay peninsula and Vietnam and north of the island of Borneo which is shared by Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei. It is considered the connecting linkage between the Pacific Ocean and the Indian 127 Ocean by the Taiwan Strait Luzon strait and the strait of Malacca. The sea has over 250 islands, cays, shoals, reefs, atolls and sandbars; some of them are submerged or partially submerged. The most famous are the Spratly islands, the Paracel islands, the Pratas islands, the Scarborough reef, the Macclesfield shoal and the Truto shoal. The sea also has got artificial islands built by countries like China and Vietnam from reefs and rocks. In general, the islands are on a shallow continental shelf except the Spratlys whose floor changes in 128 depth.
The value of the sea:
Trade and strategic importance:
It is one of the world’s busiest ports linking between the Indian and the Pacific Ocean. Third of the world traffic passes through the South China sea through the strait of Malacca, Sunda and 127
"Geography – South China Sea Think Tank". 2017. Scstt.Org. Accessed April 2. http://scstt.org/tag/geography. C. LaFond, Eugene. 2007. "South China Sea | Sea, Pacific Ocean". Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/South-China-Sea. 128
Lumbok. It was estimated that almost 5.3 Trillion dollars’ worth of goods pass through the South China sea each year which amounts to 30 percent of the world’s maritime trade. The volume of oil exports that pass to East Asia through the South China sea is triple the amount that passes 129 through the Suez Canal and fifteen times that passes through Panama Canal.
Resources:
The US Energy information agency declared that the sea has 11 billion barrels of oil reserves and 190 trillion cubic feet of natural gas reserves. It’s also estimated that the sea has yet undiscovered hydrocarbon reserves which are estimated to be between 7 billion and 22 billion additional oil barrels and between 70 and 290 trillion additional cubic feet of natural gas. The undiscovered resources could even be greater as there are still unexamined areas to the extent that the South China sea could contain oil more than any other place on Earth except for Saudi Arabia. It should be noted that the matter of extracting the reserves is questionable as most of 130 them are in deep water and need expensive technological advances.
Fishers:
The South China sea is considered the marine equivalent of the Amazon forest when it comes to biodiversity; it has 3365 species of fish. Fisheries in the sea provide jobs for nearly 3.7 million people in 10 countries bringing in Billions of dollars. The yearly catch is estimated to be around tons of fish. The dispute caused competition among fishermen leading to overfishing especially by the Chinese fishermen to the extent that some valuable fish like Tuna and 131 grouper are becoming scarcer.
Maritime zones: The United Nations Convention on the laws of the seas (UNCLOS) was signed in 1982 and came into effect in 1994. It was ratified by all the countries involved in the dispute except the United States and Taiwan which is not a member of the UN. It divided the sea into six zones called the Maritime zones which are the internal waters, the territorial sea, contiguous zone, the exclusive economic zone (EEZ), the continental shelf and the high seas. Natural islands according to law are bound to maritime zones that belong to the country it is present under its sovereignty while rocks do not have an EEZ
The internal waters:
It is the waters between the countries landward and the baseline. The baseline is the point from which the territorial sea and other maritime zones are measured.
129
Fensom, Anthony. 2016. "$5 Trillion Meltdown: What If China Shuts Down The South China Sea?". The National Interest. http://nationalinterest.org/blog/5-trillion-meltdown-what-if-china-shuts-down-the-south-china-16996. 130 "South China Sea - International - Analysis". 2013. Eia.Gov. https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/regionstopics.cfm?RegionTopicID=SCS.96 131 Bale, Rachael. 2016. "One Of The World's Biggest Fisheries Is On The Verge Of Collapse". http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/wildlife-south-china-sea-overfishing-threatens-collapse/.
The internal waters include the harbours, piers and marinas of coastal countries. It also includes all the waters before the baseline like bays and historical waters. The countries’ sovereignty over internal waters is the exact same as its rights over its land territory; no country is allowed to enter the internal waters without a direct permission from the sovereign country. Only commercial fleets (not military fleets) in the cases of extreme emergencies are allowed access to internal waters.
The territorial sea:
It’s the next zone after the internal waters which extends to 12 nautical miles (22.2 Km) from the baseline. The ships that pass through the territorial sea are bound by the principle of innocent passage in which the passage must be continuous and expeditious. The country has sovereignty over its territorial sea; over the seabed, the subsoil and the extends to the airspace above. The UNCLOS did not specifically specify if the innocent passage rule applies for warships or not, but by examining the Geneva treaty of 1958 and the direction the UN is inclined to, warships are allowed innocent passage, but some countries have the right to demand to be notified as a condition for allowing warships to take such action.
The contiguous zone:
It extends to 24 nautical miles (44.8 Km) from the baseline (12 nautical miles from the territorial sea). The country can exercise the control necessary to prevent the violation of its customs, immigration, sanitary and fiscal laws beside its regulations in its territorial sea.
The exclusive economic zone:
It extends to a maximum of 200 nautical miles from the baseline. Conflicts arise over determining the EEZ as in many cases there can be an overlap between countries after measurement; in that case a median line is set and calculated from the baseline. Determining the economic zone is crucial as countries who have sovereignty over it has the right to exploit and explore its natural resources whether living or non-living and any other economic activity related to exploiting the zone like energy production from water, currents and winds. The country also has the right to establish and use artificial islands as long as they don’t hinder the usage of naval passages and conduct scientific researches. The exercise of the country to its rights over the EEZ must not violate the right of Freedom of Navigation determined by international law. Countries should also declare its intentions of establishing any artificial islands and is obliged to protect natural resources from over exploitation.
The continental shelf:
It is the sea bed and the soil of the sea and is considered a continuation of the state’s territory. It can extend to a maximum of 200 nautical miles. Countries have exclusive rights to resources 132 in this area.
The High seas:
It includes the areas that are not included in the EEZ, the territorial sea or the internal waters. This part should be ruled by the rights of freedom of navigation, overflight, construction of 133 artificial islands, fishing and scientific research.
History of the conflict: China is trying to expand its sovereignty over 90% of the South China sea violating the EEZs of numerous conflicting countries. Most of those countries also have competing claims over a number of nearby islands, primarily the Paracel and Spratly islands. China declared the Spratly islands as a part of its province in 1946 and began its strong enforcement of its claims back in 1974 when it killed dozens of Vietnamese troops in the range of Paracel islands and captured the islands. In 1991, there were navy battles between Vietnam and China near the Spratlys leading to the death of 70 Vietnamese sailors, and in 1995, China captured Philippines’ military instalments although they were in the EEZ of the Philippines as set by the UNCLOS. The US and Vietnam began participating in joint naval drills in 2011 following the tensions caused by China and in the same year a giant oil field was discovered by Vietnam in the area claimed by China. In 2013 Philippines submitted for the UN arbitration regarding the claims in the South China sea. In 2014 China enforced rules over most of the South China sea that require permits for nonChinese fishing boats to enter the islands. In 2016, Obama lifted Vietnam's 50-year arms embargo. In the same year, the new president of Philippines, Duterte, declared his intention to enter new talks with China after the 134 arbitration. In 2017, US declared the detection of buildings that could house missiles located on reefs of the Spratly islands. China also declared its opposition to the US routinely naval patrols in disputed waters. 132
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"Maritime Boundary Definitions - Geoscience Australia". 2017. Ga.Gov.Au. Accessed April 2. http://www.ga.gov.au/scientifictopics/marine/jurisdiction/maritime-boundary-definitions. 133 "PREAMBLE TO THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA". 2017. Un.Org. Accessed April 2. http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part7.htm. 134 ROBLES, RAISSA. 2017. "Duterte Plays A Dangerous Game In The South China Sea". South China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com/weekasia/geopolitics/article/2073858/duterte-plays-dangerous-game-south-china-sea.
Figure 4.The red line represents China's nine-dash line
China’s claim (The Nine Dash Line): A virtual line set by the People's Republic of China’s maps since 1947, claiming its historical 136 territory in the Sea, and it encompasses most of the South China Sea.
China’s interests:
China stated that its core interest in the dispute is protecting its sovereignty and strengthening its marine military presence. Controlling the sea would also provide a safe base for developing a nuclear deterrent for China and host its nuclear-powered submarine, and thus, enhancing its 137 military power. Also, controlling this vast area of the South China Sea including Spratly Islands, Paracel Islands and Scarborough Shoal, would guarantee China’s control over most of the marine-life, 138 coral reeves, energy resources and trading routes in the Sea.
Chinese strategy and actions taken: “We do not make trouble. We do not create trouble. But we are not afraid of trouble,” ― Chinese General, Fang Fenghui China assures that it will pursue peaceful measures to assure its sovereignty, but will not hesitate to take proper actions in order to ensure its proclaimed territorial property. 135
"Timeline: Disputes In The South China Sea - The Washington Post". 2012. The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpsrv/world/special/south-china-sea-timeline/. 136 "Maritime Claims In The South China Sea". 2014. https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/234936.pdf. 137 Kotani, Tetsuo. 2011. "Why China Wants South China Sea". The Diplomat. http://thediplomat.com/2011/07/why-china-wants-the-southchina-sea/. 138 French, Howard. 2015. "What’S Behind Beijing’S Drive To Control The South China Sea? | Howard W French". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/28/whats-behind-beijings-drive-control-south-china-sea-hainan.
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In order to ensure its dominance over the South Sea, China has adopted the following strategies: Cabbage Strategy: Just like leaves of cabbage are wrapped, China wrapped the islands under dispute with its forces in the form of layers. The first layer formed of local fishing boats then government fishing ships, Coast guard ships and last layer is of Navy ships. This layered structure ensured the protection of Chinese fishermen and the protection of the islands under China's rule. Salami Slicing Strategy: Slicing salami is done in very thin layers, which is exactly what China does to the territory on which it wants to expand its command. The strategy depends on taking small unrecognizable steps towards controlling larger areas of the Sea which will -on the long term- change the status 139 quo of involved countries in favor of China which opposes the laws of UNCLOS. Creeping invasion: China would be engaged in political negotiations while spreading its control over part of the island or the Sea in parallel. This strategy's aim is to draw the attention away from its actions. One of the actions taken was building an artificial land in the Sea by adding concrete and sand to 140141 the coral reef around the Spratly islands and other islands in the Sea.
Several actions were also taken by China to secure its territorial control: In 2008, China started conducting Yaogan remote sensing satellite launches. Those satellites can survey lands for resources and carry full analysis needed for future use and reclamation of the land. In 2012, the Chinese National Offshore Oil Corporation added blocks near the coast of 142 Vietnam and said it was under the jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China. In 2012, China introduced its first Aircraft carrier that conducted operations in both East and South China Seas. In 2013, China started launching more satellites used in data monitoring and in scientific experiments. In order to use its weapons safely and silently, China has always used low-observation technology that allows it to conceal the signals emitted by the weapons. In 2013, China started updating its technology so that it would reach minimum or possibly zero level of detection when on radars for the weapons’ signals. An integrated air defense system in the aim of defending the Chinese borders and proclaimed territory was developed. The system comprises various weapons that vary from short-range 143 SAMs to long-range SAMs, sea-based SAMs and Air Defense Artillery. 139
Haddick, Robert. 2012. "Salami Slicing In The South China Sea". Foreign Policy. http://foreignpolicy.com/2012/08/03/salami-slicing-in-thesouth-china-sea/?wp_login_redirect=0. 140 "China Building 'Great Wall Of Sand' In South China Sea - BBC News". 2015. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-32126840. 141 O'Rourke, Ronald. 2016. "Maritime Territorial And Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Disputes Involving China: Issues For Congress". https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R42784.pdf. 142 "Limits In The Seas". 2014. https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/234936.pdf.
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On September 2016 China started its military exercises with Russia.
Philippines’ claim and Arbitration: The most important features claimed by the Philippines are the Spratly islands and the Scarborough shoal. The Philippines claims the islands based on geographical proximity, as the 144 Spratly islands are closest to them and they base their claim on the UNCLOS. nd
In the 22 of January 2013, the Philippines filed a case against the People’s Republic of China 145 in “The permeant court of arbitration in The Hague” seeking a declaration that the claims in the South China sea shall be complied by the UNCLOS. The Philippines wanted to gain a legal ground for its claims, refute China’s nine-dash-line claim, a declaration that the maritime features occupied and controlled by China are not islands but reefs and rocks and to gain a permit to operate inside its exclusive economic zone and exercise its rights on its continental shelf without China’s harassment. The Philippines also sought rulings on the violation of China to marine and fishing environment and also sought the illegality of its construction of artificial islands. China refused to admit that the court has any jurisdiction and that it had no right to determine any questions regarding sovereignty. It has also declared that bilateral talks should be the only way to solve the dispute and has depended on the signing of the 2002 ASEAN-China declaration of conduct for parties in the South China sea, to fortify its objection, in which it was stated that in the cases of dispute countries should “enhance favourable conditions for a peaceful and durable solution of differences and disputes among countries concerned.” . Vietnam issued a statement that mentions Vietnam’s claims in the sea and for the court to pay attention to the legal rights of Vietnam. China on the other hand refused to take part in the arbitration and missed the deadline for submitting any official response to the claims to the court. th
On October 2015, the court declared that the case lies under its jurisdiction. On the 12 of July 2016, the court ruled in favour of the Philippines in 7 of the 15 submissions presented by the Philippines. The court has ruled the invalidity of the “nine-dash- line” as a historical claim as there is no evidence saying that China has exclusively exercised control over the waters, the court refuted China’s actions in the South China Sea including building artificial islands as it has built an artificial island on the Mischief reef that lies in the exclusive economic zone of the Philippines, declared that China has caused “irreparable harm” to the marine environment, has interfered with 146 and endangered Philippines fishing and oil exploration ships.
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"Military And Security Developments Involving The People’S Republic Of China 2016". 2016. http://www.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2016%20China%20Military%20Power%20Report.pdf. 144
"DECLARATION ON THE CONDUCT OF PARTIES IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA - ASEAN | ONE VISION ONE IDENTITY ONE COMMUNITY". 2017. Accessed April 2. http://asean.org/?static_post=declaration-on-the-conduct-of-parties-in-the-south-china-sea-2. 145
The court is an intergovernmental organization that provides its service to solve disputes between states, it provides a permanent framework for arbitral tribunals constituted to resolve specific disputes including Maritime disputes, human rights and sovereignty issues. 146
Accessed April 2. https://pca-cpa.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/175/2016/07/PH-CN-20160712-Press-Release-No-11-English.pdf.
Although the court’s decision is legally binding but there are no ways of enforcing it or to oblige China to abide by it. China has refused the rule of the arbitration calling it a “puppet” for 147 external force and vowed to do everything in its power to protect its sovereignty over the sea.
Vietnam’s claim: Vietnam’s biggest claim is the Paracel islands and it claims that it has officially documented its th th right to the island back in the 17 century which is before all China’s claims that started in the 19 century. This dispute has led to number of invasions and battles between China and Vietnam. In the 70s and 80s, China battled Vietnam twice over the islands, causing the death of more than a hundred soldier and sailor in total, then in 2012 China created an administrative body in the Paracel islands, disregarding Vietnam and the Philippines. Two years later, they began drilling for oil in Vietnam disputed area. The hostile actions taken by China created a strong sense of conflict between the Southeast Asian countries, and even with the U.S. diplomatic intervention, China is not willing to subdue to any of the conflicting countries’ claims. China refused to enter negotiations with Vietnam since they took control of the islands in 1974 and many think that Vietnam should follow Philippine’s path in pursuing UN arbitration. Vietnam has control over the most number of Spratlys islands. The country is hesitant to enter in a direct conflict with China over its other claims for fear that the conflict would end in unfavourable results. Although it gains a lot from the court’s verdict the country has been silent 148 over the matter of the arbitration results which is speculated to be due to pressure from China.
Taiwan’s claim: The Republic of China, also referred to as Taiwan, claims sovereignty over the area claimed by the People’s republic of China in the South China sea. The claim is also based on the ninedash line which China’s claim is based upon. Taiwan’s difficult situation lead to a non-ending debate in Taiwan over what should be the legal official position in the Spratlys; whether it should join the People’s Republic of China in refuting others claimants. Taiwan administers Taiping island in the Spratlys since 1956, and is fighting Vietnam, particularly, over the claims of the island. Taiwan being diplomatically isolated and having an inadequate power further complicates South China sea policy’s dilemma, and makes its position in the dispute even more difficult than other countries. Taiwan is not a member state of the UN, as the UN declared it will only 147
"China Vows To Protect South China Sea Sovereignty, Manila Upbeat". 2016. Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-southchinasearuling-stakes-idUSKCN0ZS02U. 148 Clark, Helen. 2016. "Vietnam Careful, Not Jubilant After South China Sea Ruling Against China". The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/helen-clark1/vietnam-south-china-sea-ruling_b_11022864.html.
recognize one China which is the People’s Republic of China run by the government in Beijing. It is not allowed to take part in any UN treaties or has been invited as a concerned party at the arbitration. Taiwan’s position, since 2005, has been adjusted to include the land features and islands in the South China Sea instead of the whole waters. In 2015, it has proposed the South China Sea (SCS) peace initiative with the Philippines which regulated law enforcement matters related to fisheries in the SCS.
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Malaysia’s claim’s: Malaysia claims seven islands or rocks in the Spratlys, four of which are administered by Malaysia, 2 by Vietnam (Amboyna Cay and Barque Canada Reef) and the last one by the Philippines (Commodore Reef). Malaysia is playing it safe in approaching China about the territorial claims and securing its maritime zones. Malaysia’s stance is ambiguous, yet they have a clear goal to come out of this dispute a winner by securing part of the sea and keeping a friendly relationship and securing economic ties with China, Malaysia’s chief economic partner. What complicates Malaysia’s stance is the discordance of its government in responding to issues arising from China and its interference in the Malaysian water. In a 2014 incursion from China, two bodies responded in contradiction to each other. The Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency (MMEA) released a statement declaring the incursion of China in the Malaysian waters, which of course upset the civilians in Malaysia. At the same moment, the Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN) released a statement that disproof any claims of incursion happening. Some political analysts suggest that the reason for such contradictory can be summed up in a domestic conflict of interests between the different bodies and ministries of 150 government. However, Malaysia still chooses peaceful negotiations to solve the dispute
Japan’s claim: As China’s presence in the region became hard to ignore, Japan started to take some actions after the escalation of the South China Sea dispute. Both Vietnam and Philippines are considered China’s biggest challengers when it comes to their claims over the South China Sea and their attempts to vocalize their sovereignty. Tokyo announced its involvement in a joint training exercise with both Vietnam and Philippines; it also offered 10 coast guard boats in the area ahead of, what is supposed to be, the first joint exercise between Japan and the Philippines in upcoming months. 149
Kim, Jiye. 2016. "Where Does Taiwan Stand On The South China Sea?". The National Interest. http://nationalinterest.org/blog/thebuzz/where-does-taiwan-stand-the-south-china-sea-16099. 150
Han, David. 2016. "Malaysia’S South China Sea Policy: Contradictions Or Domestic Confusion?". https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wpcontent/uploads/2016/04/CO16088.pdf.
Unlike the East China Sea, Japan hasn’t vested interest in the South China Sea. But Japan’s involvement keeps increasing. The Japanese defence minister Tomomi Inada said that “Japan is planning on upping its activities in the South China Sea through joint training patrols with the United States and exercises with regional navies”. Japan’s Minister of Defence supports the US' plan to allocate 60% of its Navy and Air Force assets to the Asia Pacific region by 2020. China has been urging Japan not to intervene in the South China sea conflict.
Brunei’s claim: Brunei’s main claim is the Louisa reef; the country argues over the sovereignty of the reefs and the right of an exclusive economic zone. The Louisa reef, which can be classified as a rock on low tide, is crucial to determine the geographical description of the reef to specify the country’s territorial tights. Brunei claims the reef against China and Vietnam but the country hasn’t officially filed an objection on its claims. Brunei has the strongest claim over the reef but stayed low on the 151 subject.
The United States in South China Sea dispute: Due to its alliance with multiple countries in the area, the United States was strongly involved in the conflict. But alliance is not the only cause of involvement, the United States wants to assure the Freedom of Navigation rule. According to international law ships raising the flag of any country should be allowed to freely navigate the sea without interference from another state. The US had the Freedom of Navigation program since 1983, which aim is to assure the right application of the international law. What is more, the value of the trade that passes through South China is estimated to be $5 trillion annually, and the dispute over the islands and growing 152 tension is putting all that profit at risk.
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Roach, J. Ashley. 2014. "Malaysia And Brunei: An Analysis Of Their Claims In The South China Sea". https://www.cna.org/CNA_files/PDF/IOP2014-U-008434.pdf. 152 S. Glaser, Bonnie. 2015. "Conflict In The South China Sea". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/asia-and-pacific/conflict-southchina-sea/p36377.
U.S. actions and strategy:
Figure 5. A map that shows the positions of the 5 US bases in the Philippines.
The United States ensures its presence in the sea either through the projection of its own military power or the military support to its allies in the South China sea. The Department of Defence (DOD) in its mission to achieve a resolution in the dispute, said that it would increase joint military drills and activities with allies to maintain Freedom of Navigation, also the DOD 153 will seek building allied and partner capacity. The US signed a deal called “Enhanced defence cooperation agreement” with manila in March 2016 in order to deploy five bases in the Philippines, and for the first time in years to send conventional forces to the country. The US started to improve its relations with Vietnam by lifting the 50-year-old arms embargo to facilitate arms sales to it. Moreover, for the first time since the end of the Vietnam War, the US in October 2016 made a warship naval visit to Cam Ranh bau port in Vietnam, a strategically important South China Sea port. The US had also been taking part in joint military exercises with the Philippines that amounted to 28 exercises a year, before president Duterte put these plans on hold. The US has been engaged in joint military drill with Vietnam since 2011 and has strong military ties with Malaysia that involves military training and joint exercises. In July 2016, The United States announced that it will keep operating and will keep its military presence in South China Sea, later that year; the US supported Japan’s decision of having Patrols in the South China Sea, even though Japan is not strongly involved in the dispute 154 of the South. The US conducts Freedom of Navigation operations in the disputed waters claimed by China, in general, and around the disputed islands, in particular, against China’s constant objections. 153
O'Rourke, Ronald. 2016. "Maritime Territorial And Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Disputes Involving China: Issues For Congress". https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R42784.pdf. 154 Jozuka, Emiko. 2016. "Japan To Join US In South China Sea Patrols". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2016/09/15/asia/japan-south-china-seapatrols/.
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During the Obama administration, the US completed 3 freedom of Navigation operations last of 155 which passed through the Paracel islands. President Trump vowed to take a stronger stance towards China and the United States in February 2017 started aircraft carrier routine patrols in 156 South China sea.
Security Treaties between the US and conflicting countries:
The US has solid security ties with the Philippines and Japan based on mutual defense treaties. In 1951, the US and the Philippines has signed a mutual defense treaty in which both countries may jointly develop the capacity to resist attacks but the debate was over the interpretation scope 157 of the defense treaty and if it covers the disputed lands. In 1998, both countries signed the “Visiting Forces Agreement" which allows both countries to exercise mutual military exercises. In 2014, they also signed the “Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement” (EDCA) which increases the military presence of the US in the Philippines, its assistance in maritime operations, the use of some of its bases by the US and building facilities. In 1960, the US signed the “Treaty of Cooperation and Security” with Japan in which the US is to build military bases in Japan, and on the other hand, the US will defend Japan in the situation 158 of any attack. The US acknowledges the presence of the Senkaku (Diaoyu islands) under the Japanese administration, thus covered by the treaty, although the US hasn’t taken any stance regarding sovereignty.
ASEAN Agreements Like most of its members, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) tends to look at this problem peacefully and negotiate its way out of the problem. Many countries of the association believe an agreement between China and the organization can reduce the tensions and mitigate any armed confrontation. Besides, the ASEAN have many ties with China that could be of risk to take any sudden actions against China without hurting these ties and agreements. The ASEAN have asserted that the dispute will never change the nature of these economic ties between them. Recently, the ASEAN countries have signed a deal with China to adopt mechanisms and solutions away from armed confrontations. Both sides agreed on implementing 159 communication protocols to handle emergency or unplanned encounters in the region. 155
Head, Mike. 2017. "US Conducts Show Of Force In South China Sea". Wsws.Org. https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2017/02/20/scsef20.html. 156 Ansari, Azadeh, and Brad Lendon. 2017. "US Carrier Starts 'Routine' Patrols In South China Sea". http://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/19/us/uscarrier-south-china-sea/. 157 "Avalon Project - Mutual Defense Treaty Between The United States And The Republic Of The Philippines; August 30, 1951". 2008. Avalon.Law.Yale.Edu. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/phil001.asp. 158 Xu, Beina. 2014. "The U.S.-Japan Security Alliance". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/japan/us-japan-securityalliance/p31437. 159 "China & ASEAN To Sign Deal To Avoid Clashes In South China Sea". 2016. Southfront.Org. https://southfront.org/china-asean-to-sign-dealto-avoid-clashes-in-south-china-sea/.
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East China sea: History of the conflict: The conflict aroused between China and Japan over the sovereignty of the inhabited islands which are called “Senkaku” in Japan and “Diaoyu” in China. Tensions in the Sino-Japanese relations over the islands have always been present but it started to ignite in 2012. In March 2012, Japan illegally detained 7 Chinese nationals over the Senkaku (Diaoyu) islands. In September 11, tensions started to further escalate when the Japanese Prime Minister announced Japan’s intention to nationalize three of the five islands under dispute as they were believed to be privately owned by the Japanese businessman “Kunioki Korihara”. The Chinese, reminded by the Sino Japanese conflict wounds, started to demonstrate in objection as they were moved by their nationalist sentiment. The conflict led to a boycott of Japanese products in China 160 and a setback in Japanese business was a result. Fears of armed conflict began to escalate when a Chinese reconnaissance aircraft entered Japanese airspace above the islands undetected, and a second time the aircraft was sent with fighter jets but never entered the Japanese air. In November 2013, China announced the establishment of an air defense identification zone that covered the disputed areas in the East China sea and overlaps with Japan’s claim of air space defense which affected the security 161 relations with Japan. Tensions further rose after the Japanese Prime Minister visited the Yasukuni shrine in December 2013. China regarded this action as a disrespectful move to honor war criminals involved in the Japanese invasion of China. At the end of 2014, both countries agreed to improve relations but that was far from reality. In the last years, China has stepped up its military activity around the disputed islands from conducting military drills with Russia to sending hundreds of fishing and government ships around the disputed area. It has also increased the strength of its navy by increasing its ships numbers and improving its technology of anti-ship missiles, nuclear submarines and aircraft carrier. It is believed that these actions are to match the US navy presence and technology as a Japanese ally. Japanese and Chinese jets had a confrontation in the airspace over the disputed areas in June 2016. China has also performed live fire navy drills in the East China Sea by firing dozens of missiles during the exercise in August 2016.
Geography and value of the sea: It is located in the Pacific Ocean and is North of the South China Sea and connected to it by Taiwan strait. It is also connected to the Sea of Japan through the Korea strait. It is 750 square 160
Singh, Teshu. 2012. "China & Japan: Tensions In East China Sea (IPCS Issue Brief#198, October 2012)". Institute Of Peace & Conflict Studies-. http://www.ipcs.org/issue-brief/east-asia/china-japan-tensions-in-east-china-sea-198.html. 161
"China, Japan Clash Over Disputed Waters In East China Sea". 2016. Cbc.Ca. http://www.cbc.ca/amp/1.3664712.
kilometers and mostly shallow with an average depth of 350 meters. It is bordered by People’s Republic of China from the west, the Republic of China (Taiwan) from the south west, Japan from the east (Japanese Rekuku islands) and South Korea from the north. East China Sea is very crucial when it comes to economy; its strategic location between China, Japan and South Korea made it the main trade route between China and Japan after the passage through the South China Sea. The sea also hosts 8 uninhabited islands including Senkaku (Diaoyu) islands which have been a subject of dispute between China and Japan since mid-1990s. Controlling the islands means 162 controlling a huge part of the Sea’s resources. East China Sea is rich in natural resources and marine-life. Fishing comprises a big percentage of the activity of the sea where China, Japan and South Korea, each usually fish in their water by 163 local boats. Energy sources were also discovered in the Sea; petroleum and natural gas are one of the main 164 reasons behind the East China Sea conflict due to the huge economic benefits. It also has submerged reefs among which Socotra rock is a subject of conflict between the China and South Korea due to the EEZ dispute.
China’s claims The islands in dispute have raised animosity between China and its neighbouring countries like Japan, the current ruler of the islands, and South Korea. China claims that the islands belong to them based on historical inheritance that goes way back to the Ming dynasty and that Japan took these along with Taiwan during the Sino Japanese war. China won’t give up the fight on these islands and will remain a tough contestant on the possession of these islands. The legal claims were further complicated by World War II. The 1943 Cairo Declaration stated that Japan would “restore to the Republic of China all the territories Japan has stolen from the Qing Dynasty of China such as Manchuria, Formosa, and the Pescadores” China argues that this agreement proves that Japan returned the island after the world war, Even if Japan had taken the island from China after the Sino-Japanese war and even if the islands were not explicitly mentioned. However, Japan still maintains that it acquired the islands through international law, and thus these treaties do not matter. This disagreement is the basis for the conflict today.
Japan’s claims 162
E. Manyin, Mark. 2016. "The Senkakus (Diaoyu/Diaoyutai) Dispute: U.S. Treaty Obligations". http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R42761.pdf. LaFond, Eugene. 2007. "East China Sea | Sea, Pacific Ocean". Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/East-China-Sea. 164 "East China Sea Facts, Information, Pictures | Encyclopedia.Com Articles About East China Sea". 2016. Encyclopedia.Com. http://www.encyclopedia.com/places/oceans-continents-and-polar-regions/oceans-and-continents/east-china-sea. 163
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Japan establishes its claims of the islands on historical proofs. Moreover, it bases its claim for the Senkaku islands based on international law on the premises of the EEZ and jurisdictional claims. Japan claims that after it surveyed the islands in the 19th century, it was found that the islands were uninhabited, and that according to the Shimonoseki Treaty in 1895, it gained sovereignty over the islands. Thus, Japan claims to have acquired the islands through the international legal principles of terra nullis, a term that means “land belonging to no one”, which has been used by Japan to urge that China has never controlled the Senkaku islands. It is true that Japan renounced the islands in the San Francisco Treaty after WWII but the islands came under the Trusteeship of the United States in 1951 and were returned back to Japan in 1971 by the United States under the Okinawa Reversion deal. Japan also says that China only started to claim the Islands after oil resources were discovered. On the other hand, China disputes this claim and doesn’t recognize Japan’s action through international law. Because of the complex economic and political relations between Japan and 165 China, the East China Sea dispute has the potential to be a flashpoint for war
Sino Japanese relations
The rivalry between China and Japan roots back to the Sino-Japanese war in 1894-5, their relations were normalized in 1972 after long years of instability. Over the years, both China and Japan have been fighting over the East China Sea and Taiwan. Japan defeated China in the first Sino-Japanese war and took over Formosa, which is now Taiwan. It invaded Northeast China in 1931 and swept South in 1937, the year which marks the beginning of the second Sino Japanese War. In The city of Nanjing China, Japanese soldiers went on a frenzy of murder and rape, it was estimated that they have killed 300,000 people and raped 20,000 women taking many women as sexual slaves. They have also experimented chemical and biological weapons on Chinese civilians. Both countries signed a treaty of peace and friendship in 1978. Furthermore, both countries Have substantial economic relations and have been trading partners since the end of World War II and political tensions are jeopardizing this relation. China still holds bitterness towards Japan since the era of the second Sino Japanese War and World War II. The Japanese prime minister’s visit to the Memorial of the Fallen Soldiers in Japanese Wars ignited controversy between both countries, as China considers them war criminals that were responsible for China's long suffering. Hostility can be observed as both countries are increasing their military spending and build-up in preparation for any case of military confrontation.
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"How Uninhabited Islands Soured China-Japan Ties - BBC News". 2014. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-11341139.
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In 2014, Japan and China during bilateral talks issued a “four-point consensus” that promise to restore the bilateral relations. The consensus constituted having relations based on common strategic interests, facing history and looking forward to the future. Most importantly agreeing that each have different viewpoints regarding the islands. Despite that, Japan still does not 166 recognise that the islands are also claimed by China.
South Korea’s claims: Despite having joint development with Japan in the upper part of the sea, South Korea can be considered a fresh contestant in the dispute. South Korea’s claims have been tied with suggestions that the disputed islands and waters overlap with the continental shelf of South Korea. These claims have complications regarding the three countries, but mainly South Korea is entering a fierce dispute with their claim because part of this continental shelf claim by South Korea will overlap with the EEZ of China and part of the sea where agreements regarding fishing has been made between Japan and South Korea. Still there’s no backing from the world to the 167 South Korean government regarding its claim.
US policy, East China sea: Though the U.S. administrations have made it crystal clear that the United States takes no side or position in any of the territorial disputes, it has been the United States policy since 1972 that the security treaty of US-Japan covers the islands. The “Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security” between United States and Japan stipulates in article 5 of the treaty that in the case of any attack on Japan or the United States on territories administered by Japan, both countries will act to face the respective danger. Japan uses the United States Military Defence Force and depends on it in case of raging war against rival Nations as it does not use own self-defence forces. Most of the US forces are located in that island of Okinawa. The Japanese constitution states that Japan cannot build traditional military forces (offensive forces) and instead the US promises to defend it. This can also be related to the mutual defence treaty between Japan and the United States which was signed shortly after World War II. President Obama has assured in 2014 that the islands are covered by the treaty. Japan's prime minister was the first world Leader to visit president Donald trump. President Trump and the Prime Minister of Japan have both signed statement that declares that the Treaty is effective when it comes to the islands and that the United States is willing to defend Japan using nuclear and conventional military capabilities. The US declared its rejection to any 168 unilateral actions that can undermine the Japanese administration of the islands. 166
Wang, Zheng. 2014. "History Education: The Source Of Conflict Between China And Japan". The Diplomat. http://thediplomat.com/2014/04/history-education-the-source-of-conflict-between-china-and-japan/. 167 Acheson, Chris. 2011. "Disputed Claims In The East China Sea". Nbr.Org. http://www.nbr.org/research/activity.aspx?id=159. 168 "Trump Opposes Undermining Japan's Control Of Disputed Islands: U.S. Official". 2017. Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usatrump-japan-summit-idUSKBN15O2FM.
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The Congress inserted within the National Defence Authorization of the year 2013, a resolution stating, among alternative things, that “the unilateral action of a 3rd party won't have an effect on the United States’ acknowledgment of the administration of Japan over the Senkaku Islands”. Furthermore, the National Defence Authorization Act for the fiscal year 2015 expressed the Sense of Congress welcoming Japan’s recent security reforms, including collective selfdefence, and reaffirming the U.S. commitment to defend territories under the administration of 169 Japan
US concerns in the China sea conflict: The US is involved in both conflicts by the means of a mutual defence treaty with the Philippines and Japan which may lead the US into a major military confrontation in the case of violent escalations. In the case of East China, in particular, despite China and Japan refraining from forcibly establishing control over the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands, unauthorized action by local commanders could result in an unintended escalation of events. The United States might have more interest in preserving relations with China, being its largest trading partner. China is the third largest export market for the US and is the first import market, which means that each country has an economic stake in the prosperity of the other. The two countries are even negotiating a bilateral investment treaty that should permit the US to expand 170 in the Chinese market . China also gains US assistance on the issues of global environmental protection and climate change. Both countries share relations that address proliferation concerns in Iran and North Korea and their nuclear program. China has been an important player in the nuclear program in North Korea and has been a main supplier of the materials for North Korea to build its facilities. 171
Scenarios and solutions There are four main scenarios: Scenario 1 The scariest scenario is the armed conflict between the countries in dispute. An armed clash between the countries in dispute whether it was in the South or East Sea would be destructive as most Southeast Asian countries may be dragged in the dispute. Due to the U.S. involvement in East China sea, and joint military exercises with China and statements that assure defending Japan in case of aggression, the situation might escalate from a 169
E. Manyin, Mark. 2016. "The Senkakus (Diaoyu/Diaoyutai) Dispute: U.S. Treaty Obligations". https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R42761.pdf. "Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT)". 2017. Uschina.Org. Accessed April 2. https://www.uschina.org/advocacy/bilateral-investment-treaty. 171 Jianmin, Wu. 2016. "Here's What's On The Table For The China-U.S. Relationship This Year". The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/wu-jianmin/china-us-relationship-2016_b_9568060.html. 170
cold war to an armed conflict in the case of a clash between Japan and China, the United States would have to decide whether to support Japan militarily and considering the treaty, it is more likely to get involved and if it didn't it would be a blow to the United States Japan Alliance. A similar case in the South China sea as the treaty holds between the US and the Philippines but in this case, there has been disagreements over the interpretation of the treaty and if it covers the disputed islands. In the case of a major war, it should be put in consideration that both the US and China are both nuclear States so if the situation ever reached large-scale war nothing is predictable. But let's consider the less extreme scenario in which the Geographic scope of the conflict was limited to the area around the islands, each would try to sustain occupation forces on the islands and enforce air and water control over them. In this case, the question is whether the US will risk war 172 with China. Scenario 2 The second scenario which can be an adequate solution for this conflict is diplomacy, multilateral negotiations and that countries will peacefully reach an agreement over the islands as well as the issues of the exclusive economic zone and the overlap of territories. They may also reach an agreement regarding economic resources present in the area. China and its neighbouring countries could reach a joint agreement to explore and exploit these islands mutually by sharing their exploration sites, fisheries, gas, and petroleum. However, the road to resolving the issue through diplomatic means would require Japan to admit former historical violations and seize from visiting the Japanese war shrine â&#x20AC;&#x153;Yasukuniâ&#x20AC;?. It should also initially recognise the presence of a sovereignty dispute. In this case, external parties like the U.S might only play the role of a mediator that facilitate the agreement or encourage 173 proceeding towards peaceful actions. Scenario 3 There is a solution that was proposed and has been implemented by the international tribunal law of the sea and International Court of Justice which is arbitration or bringing the dispute to legal bodies to confer and reach a solution. This solution was executed by the Philippines when it filed an arbitration case questioning the legality of the territorial claims of China towards the sea. But sometimes nations are hesitant regarding the entrance of a third party in the matter. This solution is also not viable for Taiwan which is also involved in the conflict and is not recognised as a state by International law. 172
"China's Maritime Disputes". 2017. Cfr.Org. http://www.cfr.org/asia-and-pacific/chinas-maritime-disputes/p31345#!/?cid=otrmarketing_use-china_sea_InfoGuide. 173 Smith, Sheila. 2013. "A Sino-Japanese Clash In The East China Sea". Council On Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/japan/sino-japaneseclash-east-china-sea/p30504.
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Scenario 4 The last option can be economic, in which regional partners can impose economic sanctions over exports or boycott each other’s goods. Such action has been implemented by China in 2012, when protesting Chinese citizens boycotted Japanese goods as they demonstrated against Japan’s claim of the Senkaku islands causing losses to Japanese industries. The US can also sanction the flow of Chinese goods as well as Chinese financial transactions, and China can do the same against US exports. However, economic actions against China must be reconsidered before 174 implementation due to China’s respective economic power and influence.
174
"China's Maritime Disputes". 2017. Cfr.Org. http://www.cfr.org/asia-and-pacific/chinas-maritime-disputes/p31345#!/?cid=otrmarketing_use-china_sea_InfoGuide.
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Committee on Finance
Prepared by: Chair-man Mahmoud Abdelrazek Vice Chairlady Mai Samir Ranking member Shehab Mostafa Party consultant Youssef Ayman
“This is for you, the delegates of Committee on Finance. Because of you this passed, this is happening, and this will continue. We shared a lot through this year, and through mutual respect we managed to build a family with memories of fun, benefit, and knowledge. We delegates and secretariats joined this place with a different perspective, and will leave with a deeper one. When you read this later on we hope you remember it with joy and pride, just as we do, and remember that you rocked this conference. Coming together was a beginning; keeping together was progress; working together was success.” Finance’17 Secretariats Team
Jurisdiction The U.S. Senate Committee on Finance is one of the original committees in the Senate, and was first established on December 11, 1815. The Committee concerns itself with matters relating to taxation and other revenue measures and those relating to the insular possessions; bonded debt of the United States; customs, collection districts, and ports of entry and delivery; health programs under the Social Security Act and health programs financed by a specific tax or trust fund; national social security; reciprocal trade agreements; tariff and import quotas; and the transportation of dutiable goods. In addition the Committee has extensive oversight powers. It has authority to investigate, review and evaluate existing laws, and the agencies that implement them. Due to its wide authority, it is considered to be one of the most powerful committees in Congress.
Subcommittees: 1- Subcommittee on Energy, Natural Resources, and Infrastructure. 2- Subcommittee on Fiscal Responsibility and Economic Growth. 3- Subcommittee on Health Care. 4- Subcommittee on International Trade, Customs, and Global Competitiveness. 5- Subcommittee on Social Security, Pensions and Family Policy. 6- Subcommittee on Taxation and IRS Oversight.
Chairmanship: Chairman:
Sen. Orin Hatch (Rep. –Utah)
Ranking member:
Sen. Ron Wyden (Dem. - Oregon)
First Topic: Drug Pricing I.
II.
III. IV.
V. VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX. X.
Introduction......................................................................................................................78 A. Overview B. Comparison between the same drugs in different countries The Food and Drug Administration (FDA)...................................................................79 A. What is FDA? B. How do drug companies get FDA approved? Brand Name Vs Generic Name.......................................................................................82 Drug Patents.....................................................................................................................82 A. Definition of Patents B. Factors that affect the patent duration C. Impact on pricing Setting Drug Prices..........................................................................................................83 Drug Market Regulations................................................................................................85 A. Canada B. The United Kingdom C. India D. Egypt Effect of Drug Regulations.............................................................................................88 A. How will the drug regulations affect the drug companies? B. Cost vs. Quality C. How will the drug regulations affect the U.S. economy? Insurance and Drug Companies....................................................................................90 A. Governmental insurance programs B. Rivalry between insurance companies and drug companies Drug Pricing Laws and Regulation................................................................................92 Conclusion........................................................................................................................94
I.
Introduction A. Overview
Having a good healthcare system is essential for any country as it is considered an indication for the country’s development. For the United States, healthcare problems come as one of the top ten issues facing the country lately. On the other hand, a recurrent headache for the United States’ legislatures is the high prescription drugs. Americans are finding it much more difficult to procure prescription drugs and the insurance companies aren’t helping. Many U.S citizens are viewing this issue as unacceptable especially when compared with other well developed countries that provide health care coverage The significance here is that a drug is as important as food. It is an essential need as some patient’s life is drug-dependent. In a recent study, researchers found that one in each five American patients -which is equivalent to almost 35 million- is not able to get their prescribed drugs because the patient is unable to afford them. This raises one of the most controversial questions regarding this issue. What good is a drug if the patient cannot afford it? Being a controversial issue throughout the years with voices calling for actions, made this topic of few topics in which both parties agree upon the need for solving it. Yet, they both are offering different solutions and the fingers of accusation for such prices are being raised to different sectors and organizations. The questions being asked for such drug prices are: ● Is it because of the FDA and having high standard criteria for approving drugs? ● Is it because the market is not competitive; or because the U.S. has an unregulated market when it comes to prescribed drugs? ● Is it because of the insurance companies? ● Is it because the pharmaceutical companies are avaricious; or these prices allow them to be more innovative with their drugs allowing them to have better curative advantages than other countries? Questions are being asked with no clear answers or solutions, which is why voices are being raised louder day after day and such a topic is present in the Congress with solutions expected to be proposed as soon as possible. B. Comparison between the same drugs in different countries: To get to understand the severity of the situation more we will have to review the same drug and difference in selling price in the U.S. and other countries. Name of drug United States United Switzerland Spain South Africa Kingdom
Xarelto
292 $
126 $
102 $
101 $
48 $
Humira
2669 $
1362 $
822 $
1253 $
552 $
Harvoni
32114 $
22554 $
16861 $
18165 $
----------------
Truvada
1301 $
689 $
906 $
559 $
----------------
Tecfidera
5089 $
663 $
1855 $
1399 $
----------------
Avastin
3930 $
470 $
1752 $
1534 $
956 $
Oxycontin
265 $
590 $
95 $
36 $
84 $
*Data from 2015 data from the International Federation of Health Plans*
So as seen from the prices mentioned, the U.S. is ranked as the highest in six drugs and ranked second highest in one drug â&#x20AC;&#x153;Oxycontinâ&#x20AC;?, which shows the need for immediate and decisive reform.
II.
The FDA
A. What is FDA? FDA is an abbreviation for Food and Drug Administration, which is a federal entity under the Department of Health and Human Services. It is responsible for the safety and protection of food and drugs, in other words, they are the ones that make sure that food and drugs manufactured, 175 grown and imported are safe for the consumer to use. B. How do drug companies get FDA approved? First to understand the problem and try to assess the solutions, the knowledge on how a drug gets approved including the process should be explained.
â&#x2014;? First step: Initially the drug company starts picking a disease or a condition as a target in order to find a cure or better solution for it. In other words, the first step is to identify a target, the target here refers to a virus, bacteria, a cancer cell, an enzyme, etc. 1
http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/HowDrugsareDevelopedandApproved/
● Second step: After the decision of the type of drug needed, researchers begin the process of its development, the drug could either be: 1. Derived from nature. This means that the drug is obtained from an enzyme secreted by a plant or from an animal. 2. A “De novo drug” meaning the compound is new, or not available in nature. This type of drug is developed in a lab. 3. A High-Throughput Screening (HTS), which is a technique utilizing robotics and computers that recognize a huge number of molecules quickly and efficiently. The technology used here is new, so these drugs will only be taken into consideration if found to be useful. Tests will 176 be done on molecules or compounds to prove activity against needed target. ● Third step: After the target is decided and a potential drug compound is found, researchers start their tests to prove its efficiency. In this phase, they use living cells, animals and computer modules. Points of assessment are: 1. The absorption of the drug in the body. 2. The distribution of the drug throughout the body, or in other words its transfer from one location to another within the body. 3. How and where it is metabolized, which means the breakdown of the drug into effective molecules to be usefully used. 4. How a potential compound is excreted from the body. This is called pharmacokinetics which is the study of the movement of a compound or a drug within the body. This phase is the trials phase, whereas aforementioned animals and computer modules are used to assess the results of a large number of drugs. Drugs that show potential failure face elimination, while the drugs that pass this phase move to human trials. Before a drug company starts human trials, an approval to start should be acquired. The drug company is obligated to file for an Investigational New Drug application (IND), after which the FDA reviews the new proposed drug to make sure that the drug will pose no threat to the human subjects whom the trials will be held on assuring their protection. This process keeps the drug company on hold for 30 days waiting for the response of the FDA with an approval or not.
176
https://www.fda.gov/ScienceResearch/SpecialTopics/RunningClinicalTrials/default.htm https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/SmallBusinessAssistance/default.htm
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● Fourth Step: In this step the human trials start. It is considered as the most crucial phase in the drug approval process. This step is divided into three phases: Phase 1: Researchers start by reviewing the pharmacokinetics results of the drug on 20-80 patients who should be healthy patients except for cancer patients, as they are tested when they are in a poor health condition and not responding to their current cancer medication. After the pharmacokinetics is reviewed, any side effects encountered are recorded. This phase is mainly to see what the drug’s side effects are, and how it is excreted and metabolized.
177 178
Phase 2: This phase only starts if there were no unexpected toxicity or side effects in the previous phase. This time it is done on patients carrying the disease. Researchers’ main aim is to know how the drug works to cure the disease alongside its effectiveness. After the results are collected, the 179 FDA and the sponsors’ site discuss on what scale phase 3 is going to be. Phase 3: Finally, the results needed by the FDA are collected after an average number of 3000 test subjects. This marks the end of the process and by then the drug company files for a New Drug Application (NDA). The NDA is a file which includes all the information about the animal tests and the human trials done. It also comprises how the drug reacts in the body and its side effects. 180
Eventually, the FDA looks at all the information and it takes them 60 days to decide whether they would review their drug or not. If the FDA approved it, it will start its review which requires a period of 10 months to provide the final results. After the drugs are approved, the drug companies introduce it to the market; the FDA still requires them to submit post market surveillance. In other words, they keep reviewing the drug 177
http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/HowDrugsareDevelopedandApproved/ https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/HowDrugsareDevelopedandApproved/CancerDrugApprovals/def ault.htm 179 https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/HowDrugsareDevelopedandApproved/ApprovalApplications/Abb reviatedNewDrugApplicationANDAGenerics/default.htm 180 https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/SmallBusinessAssistance/default.htm https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/HowDrugsareDevelopedandApproved/CancerDrugApprovals/defaul t.htm 178
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for long term side effects, in addition to the consumersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; complaints regarding the drug. Due to these regulations, companies have faced difficulties introducing a drug to the market, which made them complain that such obstacles are not really necessary as it doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t help them providing more drugs for patients. Also as a matter of fact, all these regulations cause the drug companies to spend more money thus increasing the price of drugs. Yet, the presence of such regulations by the FDA ensures the safety of the product and its efficacy as by this; the quality of the drug is maintained.
III.
Brand Name vs. Generic Name
Brand-name drugs are the ones that are initially introduced to the market with no substitutes being present at the time, while generic-names are exact copies of brand-names with exactly the same dose, use, mechanism of action, curative effects, side effects, etc. When a pharmaceutical company first invents a new drug to be used medically, it is initially sold under a brand name by which the clinicians can have it prescribed for use by patients. The drug is covered under patent protection, which means that only the pharmaceutical company that is considered the creator of the patent is allowed to manufacture, market the drug and eventually make profit from it. No generic-name drug is allowed to enter the market unless the patent protection expires.
181
IV. Drug Patents A. Definition of Patents: A patent, or otherwise stated as a copyright, is a belonging right issued by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) to the creator in order to exclude others from using, making, offering for sale, or selling the creation throughout the United States or the product entering the U.S. for a limited time, in exchange for public revelation of the drug when the patent is granted.
182
Generally, the grant of a patent to a new drug is of 20 years period following the date the company files an application for it. They apply for it through the USPTO at any convenient timing during the development of a safeguard drug and not particularly after its creation. However, variable factors play a role affecting the duration of patent approval procedure duration. 181 182
https://patient.info/health/generic-vs-brand-name-medicines https://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/developmentapprovalprocess/smallbusinessassistance/ucm447307.pdf
https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/ucm079031.htm
B. Factors that affect the patent duration: Sometimes the patent term is extended for reasons of national interest. For example, in some European Countries, policies provide extension of the term for patents divulging new drugs for human use, thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s in order to make it up for patent term lost while the patentee is unable to sell a product because government approval is still pending. If the arousal of a patent is delayed due to interference proceedings such as disputes of copyrights, a secrecy order, or in other limited circumstances as delays in patent office handling, the term of the patent can be extended for the period of delay, up to a total of five years. Also the term of the patent can be reduced for any period of time decided by the USPTO during which the applicant did not act with due persistency, such as replying in timely fashion to a patent examiner's question or office action. C. Impact on pricing: Patents can have a drastic effect on access to medicines as they are used to prevent competition. A drug company that holds patents on a medicine has the legal right to prevent others from manufacturing or selling it and therefore can charge an artificially high price due to the lack of competition. The inability of purchasing a medicine is becoming a question of life and death in countries such as the U.S., as the prices are not governmentally regulated and drugs are bought out of the citizensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; own pockets. It is considered a cornerstone of capitalism that competition reduces profits on established products; enterprises will try to invest in innovation to earn higher profits from new products. law governing pharmaceutical markets empowers that principle and gives every new drug a long-term monopoly that prohibits competition.
V. Setting Drug Prices In order to understand to a greater extent why prescribed drug prices are so high, more understanding of how companies set their prices should be obtained as it differs according to the circumstances of each product. â&#x2014;? Initially, the company considers what the market will bear (WTMWB). This is a very important aspect in setting the price of a product. They begin by assessing what the market of their product will tolerate, in other words, the companies try to understand the financial state of the target audience. This can be figured out by reviewing the minimum wage, and average wage in the country in addition to the social bracket they are aiming for. Now this strategy is
good if their product is unique or desirable because it puts the highest price the market can 183 184 withstand.
Other companies use the gross profit margin target (GPMT). This strategy is also much renounced. The company calculates its cost of goods sold and then assigns a GPMT. It is represented by the equation (p-c)/p where p is price and c is cost of sales. Usually manufacturers aim for a 50% profit where wholesalers aim for 10% to 15% and the retailer usually needs about 30% to 50%. There are some other factors to consider while pricing their product like their prices after taxes, also they must put in consideration the competitors’ 185 prices, since people will usually buy the cheaper version if the products are purely similar.
● Companies use the equation: admin cost + distribution cost + marketing cost + production cost = net selling price ❏ Admin cost is the profit earned if you put your money in the bank. ❏ Distribution cost is the amount of money you need to send the product to the distributer and wholesaler. ❏ Marketing cost is the amount of money used to market your product to the consumer. ❏ Production cost includes all the amount of money needed to produce the product 186 including the Research & Development and the money used in the FDA approval.
Research Spending Per New Drug Total R&D Spending 19972011 ($Mil) 58,955
183 184
R&D Spending Per Drug ($Mil) 11,790.93
Number of drugs approved
Ticker 5 AZN
AstraZeneca AZN -1.37% GlaxoSmithKline GSK 1.47%
81,708
8,170.81
10 GSK
63,274
7,909.26
8 SNY
85,841
7,803.77
RHHB 11 Y
Roche Holding RHHBY +% AG
108,178
7,727.03
14 PFE
Pfizer PFE -0.47% Inc.
Sanofi SNY +%
http://www.businessinsider.com/3-powerful-pricing-strategies-businesses-should-always-consider-2013-10
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16597582 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16597582 186 http://www.devicepharm.com/2013/02/pharma-marketing-strategies-technology/ 185
Company
88,285
5,885.65
15 JNJ
Johnson & Johnson
50,347
4,577.04
11 LLY
Eli Lilly & Co.
35,970
4,496.21
8 ABT
67,360
4,209.99
16 MRK
Merck & Co Inc
45,675
4,152.26
11 BMY
Bristol-Myers Squibb Co.
83,646
3,983.13
21 NVS
Novartis AG
33,229
3,692.14
9 AMGN
Abbott Laboratories
Amgen Inc.
Sources: InnoThink Center For Research In Biomedical Innovation; Thomson Reuters Fundamentals via FactSet Research Systems
VI. Drug Market Regulations: United Statesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; major problem in prescribed drug prices was mostly blamed on having an unregulated market which has always put it in a comparison with other countries where the drug market is regulated allowing it to have much cheaper prices for the exact same drugs. Weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll list examples of countries with such regulations. A. Canada: Unlike the United States, Canada has a regulated market when it comes to prescribed drugs through the Patented Medicine Prices Review Board (PMPRB). The PMPRB is a governmental agency which is responsible for new patented drugs coming to the country. One of its jurisdictions is price control. This takes place through several steps: 1. Regulatory Process: The Drug manufacturer is asked to present a price and sales information list about their drug, and an update every two years about different strengths of all dosage forms present like tablets, injections, etc. 2. Scientific Review: The therapeutic effect of the drug is assessed, and later on, the price is based upon it. 3. Price Review: On an ongoing basis the prices of all patent drugs are reviewed to make sure that drug companies are sticking to the guidelines set. At some point, the PMPRB might find some drugs with prices that exceed the guidelines set by them. Investigations within the board then start to take place. They could then: 1. Find out that they were wrong and the price was within the guidelines. 2. Have a Voluntary Compliance Undertaking. This is a commitment written by the manufacturer that they will stick to the guidelines that were set by the board through reducing the prices again and offsetting the excess revenues done.
3.
Have a public hearing and if the prices were proven to be excessive, they will have orders to reduce the prices and offset the excess revenue back to the government, which then is 187 pumped back to the economy.
Effect of regulations on pharmaceutical companies: Even though the prices are regulated, some see that the Canadian market has a huge lack of innovative medicine industry due to the increased jurisdictions of the PMPRB over the 188 pharmaceutical companies. B. The United Kingdom: In the United Kingdom, all the pharmaceutical companies form a trade association known as Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry (ABPI). The ABPI and the UK Department of Health have the Pharmaceutical Price Regulation Scheme(PPRS) as an agreement between them to ensure that the National Health Service(NHS) –The British healthcare system- have access to drugs with high quality and reasonable prices. The PPRS was first introduced in 2009 and worked until 2014 when a new agency was initiated. The main objectives of the PPRS were: ● Deliver Value for Money: In other words make sure that the NHS is efficient through effective drugs with affordable prices for the public. ● Encourage Innovation: Create the atmosphere for pharmaceutical companies to gain reasonable profit and grow strong allowing it to invest and sustain its research 189 and development for future improved medicine. Pharmaceutical price regulation scheme 2014 This scheme is the 5 year agreement between the ABPI and the Department of Health. It was created on the 1st of Jan. 2014 and was updated on 21 December 2015. It is simply an amendment to the 2009 scheme due to the continued dispute, trying to reach solutions. Effect of regulations on pharmaceutical companies: Even though the PPRS helped connect the ABPI and the Department of Health, it shows throughout the years a lot of dispute between the two sides, as the Department of Health wants what will be in favor of the NHS, while companies want more revenue. This conflict of interests 187
Canada: Patented Medicine Prices Review Board, Government of Canada; derived from: http://www.pmprbcepmb.gc.ca/en/regulating-prices/regulatory-process , and http://www.pmprb-cepmb.gc.ca/about-us 188 Penny S Boner, Who’s Who Legal, Feb. 2010; derived from: http://whoswholegal.com/news/features/article/27744/pharmaceutical-pricing-reimbursement-canada-overview-innovativedrug-manufacturers 189 Pharma Times Online, 11 Sep 2015; derived from: http://www.pharmatimes.com/news/dh_consults_again_on_uks_statutory_drug_pricing_scheme_971879 Department of Pharmaceutics, Government of India; derived from: http://pharmaceuticals.gov.in/dpconppa
led to a lot of changes causing amendments to be done to the scheme sending out negatives vibes 190 to the public. C. India India is known to be one of the cheapest countries in the world when it comes to prescribed drugs. In India, they have National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA). The NPPA is a governmental organization responsible for the price fixation of new drugs, as well as revision for current drugs. Also they are responsible for the availability of medicine in the Indian market. When a new drug is introduced, they do all the systematic paperwork for the new drug by preparing cost statements and revision of all technical parameters until an estimated cost is 191 finalized. Effect of regulations on pharmaceutical companies: Regulations in India would cause the pharmaceutical companies to reduce profits massively. This would cause huge international companies to stop investing in Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s domestic markets to spend less on their research and development department. However, the drugs are affordable for 192 Indian citizens. D. Egypt: The Egyptian Drug Authority (EDA) is the pharmaceutical regulation authority in the country. They are part of the Ministry of Health, and everything related to drugs such as prices, efficacy, quality, safety, etc. are part of their job description. They are also responsible for policy making and planning in the whole sector. The price fixation is done under the pricing committee within the EDA, but the criteria upon which the prices are set are not fully announced.
193
Below is a chart comparing the prices of a hepatitis C drug called â&#x20AC;&#x153;Harvoniâ&#x20AC;? across these countries:
190
Pharmaceutical price regulation scheme 2014, Government of UK; derived from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/pharmaceutical-price-regulation-scheme-2014 191 National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority, Government of India; derived from: http://nppaindia.nic.in/ Pricing Authority, Government of India; derived from: http://nppaindia.nic.in/ 192 Monadaq, 9 April 2013; derived from: http://www.mondaq.com/india/x/231726/Life+Sciences+Biotechnology/The+Critical+Analysis+Of+The+New+Drugs+Pricing+Pol icy+Pros+And+Cons
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193
Egypt:Egyptian Drug Authority, Ministry of Health; derived from: http://www.eda.mohealth.gov.eg/Articles.aspx?id=4
87
Hepatitis C Society; derived from:http://esofosbuvir.com/harvoni-cost-in-usa-canada-europe-egypt-india/
VII. Effect of Drug Regulations A. How will drug regulation affect the drug companies? The goal of drug pricing regulation is to make drugs more affordable by reducing its price, but that has also had a negative impact on the companies since the reduction in prices will affect the profit earned by these companies. A decrease in revenue will obligate companies to cut their expenses. This will decrease spending on: â?? The Research and Development (R&D) department. Considering that some of the company's revenue is allocated there, so any fall off in profits will affect R&D negatively. This means the lack of innovation on current drugs, in addition to a declined possibility in creating new 194 drugs options. â?? The quality of healthcare that will be compromised by the regulations. As companies experience decrease in profit, they will try to compensate such losses by cutting costs through delaying introduction of new better drugs. Moreover, less money would be spent on speedy transportation for drug delivery, drug coating, drug storage, etc. All this will have 195 undesirable consequences on the quality of these drugs.
194
Kelvin Chan, Unraveling Healthcare; derived from: https://medium.com/unraveling-healthcare/drug-pricing-part-2-thepharma-vs-health-insurance-showdown-c71eb683eb13#.ud4y5dmzr and https://medium.com/unraveling-healthcare/fromshkreli-to-sanders-why-are-drugs-so-expensive-the-role-of-pharma-79d67c727b68#.an8j8zl1a 195 http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/reprints/2009/RAND_RP1381.pdf http://trade.gov/td/health/phRMA/PhRMA%20-%20ANNEX%20C.pdf
88
B. Cost vs. Quality: In other words, the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pharmaceutical regulations will have huge effects on the price and quality of the products the customers can get. Having a regulated market means cutting prices to lessen the consumerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expenditure. Accordingly, having lower fund flows for the pharmaceutical industry. Such procedures can affect the cost and quality directly, by having customers use existing drugs with low prices, and indirectly, by reducing the engagement in 196 research and development (R&D). Second, diminished investment in R&D leads to having fewer innovative drugs. Hence, regulated prices systems tend to battle innovated drugs. This will lead to having a less costeffective care. Such occurrence would lead to having more savings in health care that would exceed the reduction induced on drugs, in the shape of higher mortality rates and other forms of health care.
197
C. How will drug regulation affect the U.S. economy? The effects on the economy are highly debatable. Few opinions state that lower drug prices not 196
Kelvin Chan, Unraveling Healthcare; derived from: https://medium.com/unraveling-healthcare/drug-pricing-part-2-thepharma-vs-health-insurance-showdown-c71eb683eb13#.ud4y5dmzr and https://medium.com/unraveling-healthcare/fromshkreli-to-sanders-why-are-drugs-so-expensive-the-role-of-pharma-79d67c727b68#.an8j8zl1a 197 http://trade.gov/td/health/phRMA/PhRMA%20-%20ANNEX%20C.pdf\
89
only translates to less profit to drug companies, but also less taxes paid to the government, which means mutual loss for both. Other opinions state that even though such reduction of prices may decrease revenue taken in the form of taxes by the government, but may reduce the health expenditures as the government will pay less for drugs through public insurance programs as Medicaid and Medicare.
198
Even though, pricing regulation will definitely harm the drug company's income, it proved throughout the years and in several countries to have both pros and cons that are still debatable until this very moment.
VIII. Insurance and Drug Companies In the United States, government or social insurance programs like Medicare-Medicaid are present alongside other private insurance companies. These insurance companies, in addition to many other responsibilities, are responsible to pay for prescribed drugs that are needed by patients whom they collaborate with, and in an open market like the United States this has created a huge rivalry between the insurance companies and pharmaceutical companies. A. Governmental Insurance programs: Medicaid: is a federal governmental social program created to provide medical services for lowincome American citizens. In order to be qualified for such program, an individual should meet certain federal and asset standards and fit into specific eligibility. Medicaid first started as a program for needy unemployed people. It then extended to cover the disabled, aged, singleparent families, blind, etc. However, over the years it was developed to cover more people like children, families with unemployed parents and pregnant women who have certain income 199 limit. Medicare: is also a federal governmental health insurance program for citizens who are 65 or older, disabled, or suffering from End Stage Renal Disease (a fatal permanent failure of the kidneys) as this condition requires dialysis or kidney transplantation. The program is divided into several parts which are: â&#x2014;? Medicare Part A (Hospital Insurance): Which covers inpatient hospital stays, hospital care, care in a nursing facility, and some home health care. â&#x2014;? Medicare Part B (Medical Insurance): This covers certain doctorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; services, outpatient care, medical supplies and preventive 198
http://www.fda.gov/downloads/drugs/resourcesforyou/consumers/buyingusingmedicinesafely/understandingover-thecountermedicines/ucm093550.pdf 199 https://www.medicaid.gov/ http://www.myflfamilies.com/service-programs/access-florida-food-medical-assistance-cash/medicaid
services. ● Medicare Part C (Medicare Advantage Plans): This part is offered by a private company that contracts with Medicare to provide patients with all Part A and Part B benefits. If a person is enrolled in this plan, most Medicare services that are covered are not paid for under Medicare. Most Medicare Advantage Plans offer prescription drug coverage. ● Medicare Part D (Prescription Drug Coverage) This part adds prescription drug coverage to Original Medicare services. Some through Medicare Cost Plans, Medicare Private-Fee-for-Service Plans, or Medicare Medical Savings Account Plans. These plans are offered by insurance companies and other private companies 200 that contracted with them. B. Rivalry between insurance companies and drug companies: Like any other company, the main goal of the insurance company is profit, and with the United States having the highest prescribed drug prices in the world, a huge dispute with the pharmaceutical companies is raised due to conflict of interests. This dispute affects the patient in a negative manner. Insurance companies try to ensure maximum profit by trying their best to guarantee that they’ll not have to cover much for the clients they are working with and this happens through: ❏ Accepting only the healthy individuals and neglecting any person with any history of illness. By this way, they’d decrease their chances of signing contracts with clients who’d force them to pay for medical expenses later on. ❏ Increase difficulty of access to drugs. To make this simpler let’s give an example for a car insurance companies. When an accident takes place the car insurance company will overload you with requirements to report the car damage like police reports, witnesses, pictures, etc. They do so to make it difficult for the client to access the insurance and reduce their chances of having to cover the damage expenses. The same thing happens with the health insurance companies; they’ll have to make sure the patient needs the drug and will try their best to recommend a cheaper generic name option if available. ❏ Also some insurance companies ask for incentives or what is called “Co-pay” where the patient will be asked to pay part of the drug’s cost. In this case, they’ll give him the option of co-pay for a generic drug or a brand name. Most of the patients will then go for the generic drug which is the cheaper option, and by this reduce expenses paid by the company. ❏ They also have the right to refuse to pay for a new drug which is overpriced in their point of view. This takes place mostly as a pressure on the pharmaceutical companies to reduce the drugs’ prices.
200
https://www.medicare.gov/
91
Insurance companies sometimes try to challenge the pharmaceutical companies to try to push them to decrease prices, as they could: ❏ Doubt the curative effect of the drug. They start collecting data from their clients and compare the pharmaceutical results before and after using the drug. They would then benefit from their studies to pressure the pharmaceutical companies to reduce prices. ❏ Force their clients to use other generic drugs if the pharmaceutical companies didn’t abide to 201 their terms in reducing prices. With the U.S having an unregulated open market, it is an endless battle between the two sides as no restrictions are set for them. However, even with the continuous pressure from insurance companies, the drug prices are still high because of the presence of a lot of insurance companies with no solid unity. This prevents them from having stronger negotiations with the pharmaceutical companies. Also when there are no generic competitors to a patent drug in the market, and it is of great medical importance to the patients, the insurance companies possess minimum power as they have no edge for negotiation. Still, the insurance companies have an upper hand on pharmaceutical companies in certain situations, which are: ● There are a lot of competitors in the market. ● When it is not used for a serious medical issue. ● When the clients are on their side. Neither Medicare nor Medicaid is allowed to directly negotiate with pharmaceutical industries, as being a governmental social program they depend entirely on the negotiations of the private insurance companies. Here the high prices cause another issue which is that the funding to the Medicare and Medicaid are from the taxes, in other words, they would increase government expenditure.
IX. Drug pricing Laws and Regulations: The United States Congress represents the power of lawmaking, which is the only legit power that can help the U.S. citizens overcome such high prices and have the market regulated more to stop the consumer’s exploitations. Despite the public outcry and the presidential candidates’ proposals, Congress has actually paid little or no attention to and spent adequate time on such issue in recent years. That can be clear when we take an overlook on congressional attention to prescription drugs in the form of bill 201
Kelvin Chan, Unraveling Healthcare; derived from: https://medium.com/unraveling-healthcare/drug-pricing-art-2-thepharma-vs-health-insurance-showdown-c71eb683eb13#.ud4y5dmzr and https://medium.com/unraveling-healthcare/fromshkreli-to-sanders-why-are-drugs-so-expensive-the-role-of-pharma-79d67c727b68#.an8j8zl1a
https://www.medicare.gov/sign-up-change-plans/decide-how-to-get-medicare/whats-medicare/what-ismedicare.html
introductions during the period 1993-2015.
And below, we can find the most important and significant laws and regulations in US history that shaped the current drug market and pricing situation. 1984: Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act (Hatch-Waxman Act): Cheaper generic drugs are more reachable by allowing FDA to approve applications for generic versions of brand-name drugs without going through the same research that proved the safety and efficiency of the brand-name drugs. Therefore, the generic drug will not go through the difficult FDA approval procedure like the brand-name drugs. The Act also allowed brand-name companies to apply for up to five years additional patent protection for the new medicines they developed to make up for time lost while their products were going through FDA's approval process. 2002: The Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act: The drug maker is granted six months of selling their product without competition, if they perform studies for children to improve labeling for patented drug products used on children. 2010: The Affordable Care Act (Obamacare): It is a U.S. healthcare reform law signed by President Obama. It expands and improves access to care and curbs spending through taxes and regulations. Obamacare is the unofficial name for it. The Affordable Care Act includes: â&#x2014;? Offering American citizens a number of new rights, protections, and benefits in regards to their healthcare. â&#x2014;? Setting up a Health Insurance Marketplace (HealthCare.Gov) where Americans can purchase federally regulated and subsidized health Insurance during open enrollment. â&#x2014;? Expanding Medicaid to all adults in many states.
● Improving Medicare for seniors and those with long-term disabilities. ● Expanding employer coverage to millions of employees. ● Requiring most people to have coverage each month from 2014 in order to get an exemption, or pay a fee. ● Introducing new taxes and tax breaks, among other provisions. 2012: Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act (FDASIA): FDA authorities are increased to collect consumer fees from the industry to fund reviews of innovator drugs, medical devices, generic drugs and biosimilar biological products in order to promote innovation to speed patient access to safe and efficient products which leads to an 202 increase of stakeholder’s involvement in FDA processes.
XI.
Conclusion
Plenty of variables play a role in determining drug prices as aforementioned, meaning any change would have gigantic consequences on the market in terms of cost, quality, quantity and availability, so any action to be taken must be carefully studied and implemented. Even though the two parties are proposing solutions, but none of them yet have caused the difference that American citizens wish for. Affordable prescribed drugs are essential as it is considered a top priority for the patient’s well-being; therefore such an issue cannot be left unhandled.
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http://obamacarefacts.com/whatis-obamacare/ https://obamacare.net/
Second Topic: U.S. - China Trade Deficit I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII. VIII.
Introduction.....................................................................................................................96 A. Overview B. Trade C. Advantages of Trade D. Disadvantages of Trade Capitalism vs. Communism..........................................................................................97 A. Capitalism B. Communism U.S - China Political Relations.....................................................................................98 A. Containment B. Rapprochement C. Full Diplomatic Relations U.S. - China Economic Relations..................................................................................99 A. China’s International Trade Orientation B. US - China trade agreements history Trade Deficit….............................................................................................................100 A. Economic Point of View B. Statistical View C. Trade Deficit Effect on The U.S. Currency Manipulation...............................................................................................104 A. Definition B. Why would a country devalue its currency? C. How does China devalue its currency? D. China’s purchase of U.S. treasury bonds Cyber Attacks...............................................................................................................106 A. Cyber Security and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Issues Conclusion...................................................................................................................107
I.
Introduction: A. Overview
In the modern world, trade became a pillar of the international market affecting economies massively. The trade balance between different countries is one of the most crucial determinants of the value of any country’s currency. Trade deficit or what is also known as “net exports” is when there is a negative record in this trade balance, or in other words, it is when a country happens to bring in more imported products than send out exports. The numerical value for such deficit is calculated through subtracting the value of the imports from the exports. Moreover, the country that is experiencing the opposite by having a positive trade balance through sending out more exports than bringing in imports is called a trade surplus. The U.S. and China are the largest economies in the world right now, meaning that the trade between them is of great importance. China is the largest exporting country at the moment, and its top export destination is the U.S. The United States imports a lot of goods like clothing, electronics, and machinery, etc. Throughout the years the increase of U.S. imports caused a trade deficit. B. Trade: Before talking about the relations between two of the superpowers of the world at the moment, the concept of trade should be discussed. Trade is initially the exchange of goods or services between two sides for mutual benefits. This exchange takes place through “importing” or 203 receiving goods and services, and “exporting” sending out your goods and services. Why do countries trade? 1. When on their own, they don’t have the capacity or the resources to satisfy their needs for a certain product or service. 2. Better quality than small domestically produced products. 3. Less prices. C. Advantages of Trade: ● The specialization of a country in a certain product, which allows them to concentrate their effort and have more effective products with an increased quality, and in a world where most products are similar, companies must do their best to satisfy the consumer’s needs and gain a competitive advantage over their competitors like having a better customer service or more quality. ● Specialization will also allow higher volume of production which provides further benefits economically. As production is proportional to employment, specialization will need more manpower increasing employment rates. ● It increases competition, which means it will lower world prices. 203
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/trade_deficit.asp
● It breaks domestic monopolies, as now they are facing fierce competition. ● Competition also means more innovation from producers to try to have the edge; 204 thus, increased quality for consumers. D. Disadvantages of Trade ● It can result in over-specialization which could cause: ❏ Adding a higher risk, since if the consumer preference changed, this will cause a problem for the company as they will not be able to adapt to the customers preferences. ❏ Any unexpected changes in the market would create a risk of higher domestic unemployment rate. 205 ❏ Decrease of diversity of products over time. ● Over-competition which could cause: ❏ Certain domestic industries would suffer when they face established foreign firms with solid platforms. ❏ New establishments would find it difficult to start from scratch. ❏ Over time, the domestic market will diminish -meaning decreased diversity-.
II.
Capitalism vs. Communism
When discussing trade between two countries like the U.S, and China, the concept of communism and capitalism must be tackled. There is no true example of capitalism or communism in the world at the moment, but some countries are more under one than the 206 other. A. Capitalism: Capitalism is when individuals are allowed to own capital, land, etc. Countries that are under capitalism give individuals the right to purchase whatever they can afford, for example they can have their own houses, cars, businesses, etc., and all of these without any government interference. The U.S. is an example of a capitalist country. Also Canada, UK, and Sweden. B. Communism:
204
http://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/051515/pros-cons-trade-deficit.asp https://www.thebalance.com/trade-deficit-definition-causes-effects-role-in-bop-3305898 205 http://www.economicshelp.org/macroeconomics/bop/probs-balance-payments-deficit/ https://philadelphiafed.org/research-and-data/publications/business-review/2007/q1/br_q1-2007-1_trade-deficit.pdf 206 http://www.heritage.org/asia/report/the-complicated-history-us-relations-china http://www.cfr.org/china/us-relations-china-1949---present/p17698 http://www.heritage.org/asia/report/the-complicated-history-us-relations-china https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/china-mongolia-taiwan/peoples-republic-china https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c5700.html http://apjjf.org/2013/11/24/Dong-Wang/3958/article.html
Communism, on the other hand, is when the ownership of everything is not to a specific individual, but instead to the community or in other words the government. So here the government has full control over all the countries’ assets, and citizens are not allowed to own a house, car, a business, etc. China and Cuba are examples of communist countries –Although China is starting to take some steps towards capitalism-. Yet, no countries now adopt full 207 communism except North Korea. Even China has a private sector in its economy. III.
U.S. - China Political Relations
To describe the U.S. - Sino relations we should look back at the history between the two countries. Such relations are very important for both countries. The U.S. and China experienced three different phases of relations throughout history known as: 1. Containment: 1949-1969 2. Rapprochement: 1970-1979 3. Full Diplomatic Relations: 1979 to Present A. Containment (1949 - 1969): During this phase the United States had solid alliance with Asian countries like Japan, South Korea and Taiwan’s government forming the Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) which was joined by also Thailand, Philippines and South Vietnam. The United States at this point used these countries to maintain military bases and troops which helped them when they were involved in the war in Vietnam. The United States, then, believed that the communist government of China threatened their alliance with the aforementioned countries that were not communists. Being China’s neighbors, they always were afraid that they would be able to weaken this alliance in the area. During this period the U.S, did not permit their allies to enter into any diplomatic relations with China, and had a trade and travel embargo on China. B. Rapprochement (1970 - 1979):
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This phase was initiated by President Nixon’s visit to China in 1972. He then alongside the Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai signed the Shanghai Communique. It sought normalizing the relations between the two countries through increasing educational, trade and cultural contacts 208
http://www.heritage.org/asia/report/the-complicated-history-us-relations-china http://www.cfr.org/china/us-relations-china-1949---present/p17698 http://www.heritage.org/asia/report/the-complicated-history-us-relations-china 208 https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/china-mongolia-taiwan/peoples-republic-china https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c5700.html http://apjjf.org/2013/11/24/Dong-Wang/3958/article.html
even though no criteria was mentioned for such relations, but one of the most important deals at that time was the reduction of the U.S. troops from Taiwan. C. Full Diplomatic Relations (1979 - Present): Even though it took the U.S. a long time to cut formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan, in 1979 the U.S. and China had full diplomatic relations, but still the U.S. Congress passed the “Taiwan Relations Act” which is an act to recognize the informal relations between the U.S. and Taiwan. Such diplomatic relations helped China develop in several fields like trade and tourism with the West especially the United States. The two countries worked together to solve several disputes internationally such as the peace in Korea, yet, many issues between the U.S. and China remained unsolved raising American concerns and the political conflict continued, for example; 1. The South China Sea 2. China’s New Law Governing Foreign NGOs 3. Friction Over Membership in China’s Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank 4. Cybersecurity 5. Bilateral Investment Treaty IV.
U.S. - China Economic Relations:
Economic and trade improvements started in 1979. It has helped China to become one of the world’s fastest-growing economies. China’s economic growth and trade uplifting included comprehensive trade agreements made upon entering the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, which have led to a sharp expansion in U.S.-China commercial ties. Yet, The trade relations have become more and more strained in recent years over a number of issues, including a huge growing U.S. trade deficit with China, China’s impedance to appreciate its currency to market levels, China’s unreliable history on implementing its WTO obligations, violation of U.S. intellectual property, China also has a lot of industrial policies that appear to force new foreign firms to provide information that would put their firms at a disadvantage 209 compared to Chinese counterparts. A. China’s International Trade Orientation In the early 1980s, China changed its economic strategy from self-sufficiency to export orientation, or in other words not only produce for domestic consumption, but start exporting to the international market. Such a shift was crucial to the growth rate of China’s gross national 210
product (GNP) . At the same time, they started building their domestic consumer sector in order to have a strong and well-developed future domestic market. 209
Office of the Historians; derived from: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v17/d203 Asia from Educators; derived from: http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_us_china.htm 210 GNP is defined as the value of all finished goods and services produced in a country in one year by its nationals 209
China started joining a number of international economic organizations, becoming a member of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the Asian Development Bank, and the Multi-fiber Agreement. In 1982, China became an observer of GATT, while they formally applied for full membership participation in July 1986. After they started abiding to the policy of opening up to the outside world; China adopted unique measures to help promote their foreign economic relations, which helped maximize the role of exports, imports and foreign capital in their economic development. China then began to unilaterally open its market. B. U.S. - China Trade Agreements History Reestablishing the diplomatic relations in January 1979 caused the U.S and China trade relations to increase swiftly. ● A bilateral trade agreement was signed between the two nations on July 1979. ● A mutual most-favored-nation (MFN) treaty was agreed on at the beginning in 1980.The MFN means the country which is to receive such a treatment must have equal trade advantages as the "most favored nation" by the country granting the treatment. ● U.S. granting permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) to China on 16th of 211 November 1999. V.
Trade Deficit
Economists throughout the years argued upon whether a trade deficit is a negative influence on the economy of any country experiencing it, or whether it is normal, especially when other aspects are considered like the capital account. First, definitions that need to be known are: ● ● ● ●
Trade Balance: is the calculation of a country's exports minus its imports. Trade Deficit: when imports exceed exports. Trade Surplus: when exports exceed imports. Capital Account: an account used to record the cumulative amounts of income/earnings minus the cumulative distribution.
A. Economic Point of Views The causes of the U.S China trade deficit: ● Cheap labor means lower cost of production which will improve China’s ability to produce. ● Low currency exchange rate between the U.S. and China ● Outsourcing is a major contributor to the U.S China trade deficit, Due to cheap labor and low 211
https://piie.com/system/files/documents/macfarquhar20160929ppt.pdf https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-future-of-u-s-china-trade-ties/ https://www.uschina.org/reports/understanding-us-china-trade-relationship
100
currency exchange rate. U.S. businesses are moving their business to China. Many manufacturers are moving to China to lower the cost of production. This results in a decrease in U.S. exports and an increase in its imports, to further illustrate if Apple moves its factory to China this will mean that the U.S. will import back the iPhone which is an American product back to the U.S, thus increasing the imports and the trade deficit which means that outsourcing increases the amount of products you import since it adds products you used to 212 manufacture. Negative Impact: ❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
Some countries rely on borrowing money to be able to finance trade deficits especially if they aren’t experiencing a capital account surplus and this is an unsustainable long term solution as countries can be burdened with high interest rates and will not be able to repay such debts. This happened in 1998 with Russia and they were not able to pay back their debts. Other countries take the risk of having a trade deficit financed by a capital account surplus, which is a huge risk, as this way most of the capital in the country will be owned by foreigners. There is always a risk of losing the confidence of investors on the long run especially after sustained trade deficit combined by a payment deficit. Such a situation would cause depreciation in the value of the country’s currency. Trade deficits, even if, are not harmful themselves, but they are a reason behind the fall of domestic markets. The increase of imports increases the competition on small domestic businesses, and mostly they cannot handle such a competition. The US China trade deficit is causing the U.S citizens to lose jobs in the manufacturing sector, as it is shifting the jobs from the manufacturing sector to other lower paying jobs. That is due to the major company’s translocation of their factories to China for a lower cost of production.
Even though the previously mentioned effects on investors, employment, currency, etc. are believed to be true by many economists with real life examples, other economist believe the opposite and they as well have their proof. Negligible Impact: ❏ Some countries when they import products, they pay for it using their own currency; so for 212
https://www.cato.org/publications/congressional-testimony/americas-misunderstood-trade-deficit http://marketrealist.com/2017/02/inside-the-us-trade-deficit-with-china/ http://fortune.com/2015/05/05/trade-deficit-china/ http://www.tradingeconomics.com/china/balance-of-trade https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2013/beyond-bls/u-s-china-trade-deficit.htm
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example when the U.S. imports from China they pay for it using American dollars. Here China with the dollars they hold are only left with three options: 1. Use them to buy American exports. 2. Invest in the American assets like factories, real estate, stocks, etc. 213 3. Invest in buying U.S. treasury bonds 4. Reserve it to depreciate their currency which causes a negative effect since China’s control of U.S dollar means it can create a shortage of U.S. dollars in the market 214 thus appreciating the U.S dollar and increasing its value. For the first and second option the money is returned back to the country’s market. So here the trade deficit is a reflection of a capital account surplus proving it does not to cause any negative impact on the economy. A cycle where the U.S. gets their dollars back through investments for them to use it and buy more imports, as for the third option it is a double edged sword. As China is buying U.S. treasury bonds, it is increasing the demand on them, thus allowing the U.S. to decrease the interest rate basically the U.S. can borrow a lot of money with little interest to pay. China can also sell and stop buying U.S. treasury bonds thus increasing the amount of interest the U.S. has to pay thus creating a recession in the U.S. market. In regards to the fourth option the Chinese government could use the foreign currency to keep their currency price low by increasing the demand on other currencies; they keep their exchange rate low. A trade deficit can also be created as a country's economy grows more than the other trading partner country, meaning that a country has the financial ability to import from the international market while its partner does not, so they export more causing the more economically developed country to have a trade deficit while the other trading partner a trade surplus. For example in 1991 during the U.S. recession, the trade deficit witnessed a huge decrease. Another example is that the trade deficit is huge now in the U.S. after trade agreements with the Asian Pacific Nations. Still, that is not always the case as some countries are self-sufficient. ❏ Some believe that the presence of a trade deficit is also linked to the consumer’s own personal preferences to either purchase domestic or foreign products. So, if an American wants to buy a product which is made in China you can’t force him not to. ❏
What made the arguments here solid and credible is the negligible effect of trade deficits on the employment rates and on the GDP when dealt with correctly in terms of financing this trade deficit. In other words, how countries deal with such deficits is how it is defined as either dangerous or not. 213
Treasury Bond is a short-dated UK or US government security, yielding no interest but issued at a discount on its redemption price. 214
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33536.pdf http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/xw/t675646.htm https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33536.pdf http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/xw/t675646.htm
B. Statistical View Since U.S. and China re-opened their doors to each other in 1971 and the trade between them has witnessed an uneasy relationship. China used their low labor costs accompanied by their huge man power and lower taxes to flourish in terms of trade. At the moment, though Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy is second to the U.S., China is the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biggest exporter. Also, the U.S. is now their 215 largest export market. On the other hand, the U.S. is their second largest import market. Top Export Countries:
Top Import Countries:
South Korea
$174.6 billion
United States
$410.8 billion (18% of total China exports)
United States
$150.5 billion
Hong Kong
$334.3 billion (14.6%)
Other Asia
$131 billion
Japan
$135.9 billion (6%)
Japan
$131 billion
South Korea
$101.5 billion (4.4%)
Germany
$87.7 billion
Germany
$69.2 billion (3%)
Top Countries that China has a Trade Surplus with: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Hong Kong: US$321.5 billion (country-specific trade surplus in 2015) United States: $260.3 billion Netherlands: $50.8 billion India: $44.9 billion Vietnam: $41.3 billion United Kingdom: $40.7 billion Singapore: $25.6 billion 216 United Arab Emirates: $25.5 billion
Top Countries that China has a Trade Deficit with: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Taiwan: -US$99.9 billion (country-specific trade deficit in 2015) South Korea: -$73.1 billion Switzerland: -$38 billion Australia: -$33.5 billion Germany: -$18.5 billion
215
http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/exports-by-country-20-largest-exporting-countries.html http://www.worldstopexports.com/chinas-top-import-partners/ http://www.worldstopexports.com/chinas-top-import-partners/ 216
6. Brazil: -$16.9 billion 7. South Africa: -$14.3 billion The Trade Deficit Start between the U.S. and China (1981 - 1990):
VI. Currency Manipulation A. Definition Foreign exchange market intervention or currency manipulation is a monetary policy operation that occurs when a government or a central bank buys or sells foreign currency in exchange for their own domestic currency with the intention of influencing the exchange rate. To further understand how currency manipulation works and how China does it, we must first know how currencies sre valued: 1. Floating standard: This is when a currency price is set by forex market based on supply and demand for a currency compared to other countries. 2. Fixed standard: This is when your currency is pegged to another currency or gold reserves.(Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s currency is pegged to the U.S. dollar) 3. Managed float: the current international financial environment in which exchange rates fluctuate from day to day, but central banks attempt to influence their countries' exchange 217 rates by buying and selling currencies. 217
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/feb/24/trump-accuses-china-of-being-grand-champions-of-currencymanipulation http://www.cnbc.com/2016/12/29/what-it-means-if-trump-names-china-a-currency-manipulator.html https://www.forbes.com/forbes/welcome/?toURL=https://www.forbes.com/sites/johnmauldin/2017/01/12/chinese-currencymanipulation-could-become-a-global-problem-in-2017/&refURL=&referrer=
B. Why would a country devalue its currency? ● Boost its exports: A lower priced currency means cheaper products which will result in increased exports and would mean a decrease in imports since other currencies are more expensive. ● Increased investments: Many investors choose countries with lower exchange rates than their own to invest in due to lower cost of labor and products. ● Counties also devalues their currency in order to decrease the national debt, so as an example if a country owes a creditor 1 million and it devalues its currency to half then that would mean that the million is now worth half a million thus shrinking the debt. Also as we said a weaker currency means more exports and lower imports that would mean that currency manipulation is used to decrease or eliminate trade deficits C. How does China devalue its currency? 1. First Chinese firms sell products to the U.S thus receiving U.S dollars. Second, Chinese firms have to change the U.S. dollars to the Chinese yuan to pay their workers and to buy raw materials, and by law the only place you can change U.S dollars to Renminbi (Chinese currency) is in a state owned bank, then it is exchanged at the bank with an exchange rate that is lower than the actual rate. Meaning that China gets to have a dollar surplus. Third, since China now controls a large amount of dollars it can influence the supply and demand of the dollar and thus fixing its currency to the dollar and maintaining its currency cheap. 2. China mainly keeps buying a lot of foreign currencies in order to control the supply and demand on most currencies to keep its Renminbi depreciated. Since it owns most of the foreign currencies in the world it can print money according to the amount of dollars it has to 218 fix its Chinese currency to. D. China’s purchase of U.S. treasury bonds U.S treasury bonds are a written and signed promise to pay for certain sum of money on a certain date. In other words they are U.S debt instruments, and buying the U.S Treasury bond means the U.S owes you the amount you paid plus interest. This interest is based upon the supply and demand on that debt. If the demand on your treasury bonds is high, then you can choose to pay low interest but if the demand on your treasury bonds is low then you will have to increase the interest you have to pay in order to give an incentive for people to buy them. So why do countries issue bonds? Countries issue bonds instead of taking a loan. As for the United States it is a very credible debtor, so it can issue bonds when it needs money and pay a very low interest on these bonds 218
https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/54o2wn/eli5how_is_china_devaluing_their_currency_and/ http://www.investopedia.com/articles/forex/090215/chinese-devaluation-yuan.asp http://www.businessinsider.com/china-currency-devaluation-just-getting-started-2016-2
since everyone will buy them thus paying lower interest than taking a loan. China uses a lot of its foreign currency to buy U.S. treasury bonds and as the second largest country with U.S. treasury bonds, China has the power to influence the interest rates of the U.S treasury bonds. This is also considered a way to pressure the United States. Besides, China can sell the US treasury bond it owns which will lead to an increase in the U.S. interest rate, eventually leading to a recession.
VII.
Cyber Attacks
A. Cyber Security and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Issues: Cyber-attacks against U.S. firms have raised concerns over the potential large-scale theft of U.S. IPR and its economic implications for the United States. Many U.S. analysts and policymakers contend that the Chinese government is a major source of cyber economic espionage against U.S. firms. U.S. innovation and the intellectual property that is created by various activities have been cited by many economists as a critical source of U.S. economic 219 growth and international competitiveness. Lack of efficient and consistent protection of IPR has been cited by U.S. corporates as one of the most important problems they face while doing business in China. Other U.S. firms have shown their concern over pressures they usually face from Chinese governmental entities to share technology and IPR with a Chinese partner or a Chinese firm. Although China has shown to have a significant improvement to its IPR protection regime over the past few years, U.S. IP industries dissent about the piracy rates in China which continues to remain unacceptably high which leads to significant economic losses, as illustrated by studies and estimates made by several stakeholders. When China became a part of the WTO in 2001, it agreed that foreign firms would not be pushed by governmental entities to share technology with a Chinese partner as part of the process of doing business in China. However, many U.S. firms confirm that this is a common Chinese practice, although this is difficult to track because, most of the times, U.S. business representatives try to avoid negative publicity regarding the difficulties they encounter doing business in China due to fear of retaliation by the Chinese government. In addition, Chinese officials are confirmed to pressure foreign firms through oral communications to transfer technology and avoid putting such requirements in writing out of 220 concern of being accused of violating WTO rules. A 2011 speech by the U.S. Office of the Director of National Intelligence (DNI) stated: 219
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33536.pdf http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/xw/t675646.htm 220 https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33536.pdf http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/xw/t675646.htm
“Chinese actors are the world’s most active and persistent perpetrators of economic espionage. U.S. private sector firms and cybersecurity specialists have reported an onslaught of computer network intrusions that have originated in China, but the IC (Intelligence Community) cannot confirm who was responsible.” The report goes on to provide an example occurring on February 19, 2013 for a U.S. information security company called Mandiant which has issued a report documenting extensive economic cyber espionage by a Chinese group (which it designated as APT1) with declared links to the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) against 141 firms, covering 20 industries, since 2006.
IX.
Conclusion:
Many U.S senators believe that the increasing trade deficit and the currency manipulation used by China are hurting the economy, while others disagree with the negative effects of trade deficits. It is apparent that the U.S China trade deficit is somewhat hurting the economy and shifting manufacturing jobs overseas also increasing the leverage that China holds over the U.S and the fact that China’s currency manipulation is increasing China’s exports and decreasing the U.S’ imports is considered unacceptable by most U.S senators
Third Topic: Corporate Taxation I.
II.
III.
IV. V.
Introduction...................................................................................................................109 A. Historical Background B. Overview Types of Corporates......................................................................................................109 A. C Corporations B. S Corporations Taxation..........................................................................................................................111 A. Double Taxation B. Types of Taxation C. Statistical View D. Worldwide Taxation E. Territorial Taxation Loopholesâ&#x20AC;¦....................................................................................................................113 Conclusion......................................................................................................................116
I.
Introduction
A. Historical Background Taxes in general were being implemented since the beginning of civilization. The first taxes discovered were in Mesopotamia over 4,500 years ago, where people paid taxes once every year in the form of sheep, which was the preferred currency at the time. The ancient world also had estate taxes, or death tax, meaning an amount of taxes is paid over the amount of property or money inherited. The earliest recorded evidence of a death tax was in ancient Egypt, where the authority charged a 10% tax on property transferred at time of death in 700 BC. So, taxes have existed since the inception of the government, as the main source of revenue for the government 221 is taxes, and without taxes then the government will cease to exist. B. Overview Individuals pay income taxes, but since corporations are a separate legal entity, corporate taxes were created in order for corporations to pay taxes. Corporationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s revenue and profit are mainly more than the profit gained by individuals so thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s why they are taxed at a percentage more than the individuals and that is why the corporate tax in the U.S. is more than the income tax. The United States corporate tax rate is known to be one of the highest taxation rate in the world reaching 35%. However in reality, most of the US firms pay far less than the official rate because of loopholes and exploiting tax breaks. Corporate taxation is a very important cornerstone in any financial investment decision-making process, because a lower tax allows the company to lower prices thus generating higher revenue, and profit which can then be paid out in salaries and dividends. Now, due to the large number of loopholes, companies evade paying taxes thus reducing the amount of money that the U.S. should collect.
II.
Corporations
A corporation is a legal entity that is separate and distinct from its owners. The major difference between a corporation, the sole proprietorship, and partnership is that its owners do not contribute in managing the company. To further illustrate, if a single individual opens a firm it is called a sole proprietorship where he is the manager of this company, while if two or more individuals open a company they are the ones who operate and manage it, but in corporations a group of individuals create a firm and then they instate a board of directors to manage and operate the company and the board of directors does not have to be from the owner. Basically you have two options to choose from when youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re starting off your business as a corporation, either C corporations or S corporations, the following points would show the 221
http://www.taxworld.org/History/TaxHistory.htm
differences. A. C Corporations ● C corporations are separately taxable entities that pay their taxes fairly at the corporate level. They also face the possibility of double taxation if the corporate income is distributed to business owners as dividends, which is considered personal income. ● C corporations have no restrictions on ownership. 222 ● C corporations have no restrictions on Nationality of Shareholders. B. S Corporations ● S corps are pass-through tax entities, income taxes are not paid at the corporate level. The profits/losses of the business are instead “passed-through” the business and reported on the owner's’ personal tax returns. Any tax due is paid at the individual level by the owners. ● The maximum number of shareholders in S corporations is 100. ● S corporations’ shareholders must be US citizens/residents. It also cannot be owned by C corporations, other S corporations, LLCs, partnerships or many trusts.
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http://www.bizfilings.com/learn/s-corporation-vs-c-corporation.aspx http://cpa-services.com/special_sco.shtml
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III.
Taxation
A. Double Taxation Definition: A taxation principle referring to income taxes paid twice on the same source of earned income. It can happen when earned income is taxed at both levels the corporate level and personal level. The double taxation is a case that only occurs for the C corps as previously 223 mentioned. Double taxation is generally seen as a negative element of a tax system, and an unintended consequence of tax legislation, Tax authorities are always trying to avoid it whenever possible. A type of double taxation is the International taxation. Earned income may be taxed in the country where it is earned, and then taxed again when it is repatriated in the business' home country. International double taxation is always being overcome by treaties signed between countries, those treaties are often based on models provided by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and they are considered as augmentation for the trade agreement between those Countries. B. Types of Taxation There are different types of brackets in the United States for corporations on a federal, state and local level. To get to know the US taxation system more, we need to know what the amount of taxes taken from the citizens is. First, there are two types of taxation systems: 1. Progressive taxation: where everyone is taxed according to the amount of income he generated, meaning that if a person makes more income he will pay more taxes. 2. Flat taxation: This is a single tax rate that is implemented on all amounts of income. The 224 U.S. uses the progressive taxation system, and divides income as brackets. C. Statistical View This is the 2016 rates for income taxes. Tax Rate 10% $927.50 plus 15% of the amount over $9,275 $5,183.75 plus 25% of the amount over $37,650 $18,558.75 plus 28% of the amount over $91,150 223
Taxable Income $0—$9,275 $9,276—$37,650 $37,651—$91,150 $91,151—$190,150
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/double_taxation.asp
224 https://www.forbes.com/sites/kellyphillipserb/2016/10/25/irs-announces-2017-tax-rates-standard-deductionsexemption- amounts-and-more/#66cacfe45701 http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/f1120.pdf
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$46,278.75 plus 33% of the amount over $190,150 $119,934.75 plus 35% of the amount over $413,350 $120,529.75 plus 39.6% of the amount over $415,050
$190,151â&#x20AC;&#x201D;$ 413,350 $413,351â&#x20AC;&#x201D;$415,050 $415,051 or more
Income taxes are very important. Since C corporations as previously mentioned get double taxed meaning that after paying the 35% of the corporate tax they get taxed another 39% income taxes when the profit is distributed among the stockholders. Now as for the corporation the brackets are bigger since corporations make more money than individuals so this table will 225 illustrate more on how big corporations are taxed. Tax rate
Taxable income ($)
15%
0 to 50,000
$7,500 + 25% Of the amount over 50,000
50,000 to 75,000
$13,750 + 34% Of the amount over 75,000
75,000 to 100,000
$22,250 + 39% Of the amount over 100,000
100,000 to 335,000
$113,900 + 34% Of the amount over 335,000
335,000 to 10,000,000
$3,400,000 + 35% Of the amount over 10,000,000
10,000,000 to 15,000,000
$5,150,000 + 38% Of the amount over 15,000,000
15,000,000 to 18,333,333
35%
18,333,333 and up
225 https://www.forbes.com/sites/kellyphillipserb/2016/10/25/irs-announces-2017-tax-rates-standard-deductionsexemption- amounts-and-more/#66cacfe45701 http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/f1120.pdf
112
D. Worldwide taxation The United States uses the worldwide taxation system which means that any corporation’s headquarter located in the U.S. must pay the corporate income tax on all its income, regardless of whether it is earned in the U.S. or overseas. The corporation located in a foreign country pays this tax when the foreign earnings are returned to the U.S by not bringing the income back to the U.S. This is known as “deferral,” because the income tax owed from your earnings outside the isn’t taxes until you take it back to the U.S. To further illustrate if a company pays 20% taxes overseas then it will have to pay 15% when it transfers its earnings back to the U.S meaning you subtract the taxes paid overseas from the U.S tax 226 percentage (35%) Advantages: ● The country collects more taxes if the company returns its profit gained overseas. Disadvantages: ● Encourages companies to keep their money overseas Discourages companies from moving their headquarters to the U.S. ● Taxes at the highest corporate rate in the world. ● Encourages foreign investment over U.S. investment. E. Territorial Taxation Territorial taxation is the opposite of worldwide taxation as it only taxes income earned in the and almost never taxes income earned abroad and most countries of the world use territorial system like (Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Spain, and the United Kingdom) Advantages: ● Encourages most investors to move their headquarters to the U.S. ● Encourages corporations to bring the income earned outside the U.S back to the U.S. Disadvantages: ● Does not tax income made abroad, this could be considered as a loss. Now this doesn’t mean one is better than the other, although the worldwide taxation has all these negatives, it should bring more income to the government IV.
Loopholes
The corporate tax code in the U.S is filled with loopholes that cost the U.S millions and 226
http://www.rpc.senate.gov/policy-papers/territorial-vs-worldwide-taxation
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millions of dollars. U.S corporations evade paying taxes by exploiting these loopholes. The following figure shows how much theses loopholes are costing the U.S.
Loopholes Examples: 1. Exclusion of Interest on State and Local Bonds: this means that a corporation doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t pay any taxes on the interest gained from investing in state and local bonds, so even if the company is making 2 million from investing in the state or local bonds, it will pay zero taxes on that investment. and is costing the U.S. 59.8 billion 2. Research and Experimentation Tax Credit: this is used mainly by Pharmaceutical companies, high tech companies, engineers, and agriculture conglomerates. This loophole gives these companies 20% of the money they spend on research and development as tax credit. Meaning if a company paid 1 million on research and development, they would get 200 thousand as tax credit. This is supposed to encourage development of new products. Others consider this wasted money since companies will strive to produce new products either way, but some may argue that this cost the U.S 29.8 billion.
3. Alcohol Fuel Credit: This tax credit is supposed to encourage alcohol fuel like ethanol and the credit ranges from $0.39 to $0.60 per gallon. It is supposed to create alternative forms of energy and decrease the amount of imported oil but this is costing the U.S. 32 billion. 227
4. Accelerated Depreciation of Assets: usually when you buy an asset like a 100 dollar car for example its lifetime is 4 years. This means that each year it will depreciate with 25 dollars meaning you can add 25 dollars to your expenses each year, so that after the four years, youâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll be able to purchase a new car. This loophole allows you to white off the 100 dollars in the same year thus recoding 100 as expenses thus it records less profit and since it reports less profit it pays less tax. This is costing the us 51.7 billion. 5. Deferral of Forging Income: this loophole means that any multinational company can evade paying taxes on money earned outside of the U.S. just by leaving their money earned abroad and not returning it to the U.S. This is because the U.Sâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s adoption of worldwide taxation means that it cannot take taxes on profits earned outside the U.S unless it is returned(repatriated) to the U.S 172.1 billion.
228
6. The Corporate Inversions Tax Loophole: it mainly is the practice of relocating a corporation's legal domicile (it is the main country that the company is located in) to a lower-tax nation, or tax haven, usually while retaining its material operations in its higher-tax country of origin. Thus paying no taxes on income made overseas and decreasing the amount of taxes paid in the U.S. this is estimated to cost the U.S 20 billion over the next decade 7. Double Irish With A Dutch Sandwich: what happens is that the U.S. company sells its rights of ownership and patents to its smaller company abrade the it pays fees for using the product thus paying no tax .To further explain Apple could sell its rights and patents to a firm in Ireland so every product that Apple sells in the U.S. pays a fee to Ireland so if Apple earns 100 million dollars it will give 60 million as an example to pay for using the rights that it sold to apple Ireland. And this is estimated to create a 1.4 trillion budget 229 gap. 8. The Executive Facebook Loophole: Any corporation has the right to give its executives 227
Depreciation is an accounting method of allocating the cost of a tangible asset over its useful life. Businesses depreciate longterm assets for both tax and accounting purposes. 228 http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/02/25/8-ridiculous-tax-loopholes-how-companies-are-avoiding-the-taxman.html http://taxfoundation.org/sites/taxfoundation.org/files/docs/sr184.pdf http://www.businessinsider.com/corporate-tax-breaks-2011-2#graduated-corporate-income-2 229
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/double-irish-with-a-dutch-sandwich.asp http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2012/04/28/business/Double-Irish-With-A-Dutch-Sandwich.html
share as compensation for their achievements or as a part of a bonus. So they give the executives shares as a bonus and they calculate the share for 5 cents and give him the bonus as shares now if the share prices go higher than the cooperation can deduct the difference as tax break. If a million shares of a company are sold to an executive at five cents a share and later he cashes those options in when they're selling for $20 cents a share the company gets the 15 cents as tax credits. Facebook still has the highest amount of stock deductions to cash inâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;about $6.2 billion worth, allowing it to avoid income taxes for almost five year 9. The Like Kind Exchange Loophole: capital gain tax is the amount of money you pay when you gain profit from selling an asset so if you buy a piece of land with 1 million and sell it for 3 million you will pay capital gain taxes on the two million you earn this loophole exempts you from paying interest if you make an exchange with a like kind asset so in this case you will pay zero taxes if you exchange it with another land. Wells Fargo and a lot of investment banks use this loophole to evade capital gains taxes. Hundreds and hundreds of companies are using these loopholes in order to evade taxes, thus it is imperative for the United States to solve this matter as this shows the injustice of the tax code and shows how rich people keep on getting richer and evading paying taxes and the poor are the ones who abide. V.
Conclusion
Whether some might consider that the U.S taxes are high and some strive to decrease it, most acknowledge the fact these loopholes are costing the U.S. a lot of money. Taxes are a welldefined fact in any country and the U.S congress must address the fact that the U.S tax code contains a lot of loophole and is a broken system the needs to be fixed.
Committee on the Judiciary
Prepared by: Chairman Omar Fathy Vice chairlady Sandy El-Nouby Ranking Member Nourrmeen Rashwan Party Consultant Sohila Amr
"This nation was founded on the principle that all men are created equal, and that the rights of every man are diminished when the rights of one man are threatened." -John F. Kennedy "Those who deny freedom for others deserve it not for themselves." -Abraham Lincoln "Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred." -Martin Luther King Jr. To the young dreamers of freedom and future knights of the civil liberties; May your eyes be wide open! Your mind awake and steady And your soul pure and tolerant, Conquering all forms of suppression, injustice, and discrimination. To the most honorable delegates of the Committee on the Judiciary.
Judiciary'17 Secretariats Team
Committee History and Jurisdiction: Established in 1816 as one of the original standing committees in the United States Senate, the Senate Committee on the Judiciary is one of the most influential committees in Congress. It considers legislation relating to judicial proceedings. Since that time, the scope of the committee’s concern has expanded to include not only civil and criminal judicial proceedings and Federal courts and judges, but also issues relating to bankruptcy, espionage, terrorism, the protection of civil liberties, constitutional amendments, immigration and naturalization, interstate compacts, claims against the United States, national penitentiaries, Presidential succession, antitrust law, revision and codification of the statutes of the United States, state and territorial boundary lines and patents, copyrights and trademarks. Particularly important in our time is the Committee's oversight responsibility for the Departments of Justice and Homeland Security. Any legislation that carries a possibility for criminal or civil penalties can be referred to the Committee on the Judiciary, so its legislative workload is substantial. The committee’s weighty agenda has frequently placed it in a central role in American politics, most notably during its consideration of impeachment charges against presidents of the United States in both 1974 and 1998. Subcommittees:
Antitrust, Competition Policy and Consumer Rights Bankruptcy and the Courts The Constitution, Civil Rights and Human Rights Crime and Terrorism Immigration, Refugees and Border Security Oversight, Federal Rights and Agency Actions Privacy, Technology and the Law
Leadership: Chairman
Ranking Member
Chuck Grassley
Dianne Feinstein
Animal Testing I. Introduction.................................................................................................120 II. Types of Animal Testing.............................................................................120 III.Types of the Animals that go through Testing...........................................122 IV. The Effect of Each Type on Animals..........................................................123 V. The History of Animal Testing...................................................................124
Its beginning across the entire world………………………………………………….
The timeline of animal testing in the U.S……………………………………………
VI.....................................................................................................................The Legal Aspect...............................................................................................129
State laws………………………………………………………………………………
Federal laws……………………………………………………………………………
VII....................................................................................................................The Alternatives of Animal Testing...................................................................131 VIII...................................................................................................................The Debate on Animal Testing.........................................................................133
pros and cons………………………………………………………………………….
The aim of the testing………………………………………………………………….
The danger of destroying species because of testing………………………………….
120
I. Introduction Most of Humans’ daily used products are a result of a series of tests on animals, in order to ensure its safety for humans. But in the middle of this, a number of questions are being raised; do animals suffer? What gives humans the right to exploit them for luxury? And if these tests were to be stopped, could the human body turns to a test field or the scientists have alternatives?
II. Types of Animal Testing 1. Basic Biomedical Research The purpose behind the basic biomedical research is to discover more about the basic biological processes by which living organisms function, behave, and develop. Most of these researches do not lead to new discoveries about diseases or creating new medicines because they are done to 230 answer scientific questions that may be used in medical achievements in the future. The basic biomedical research has many forms, most importantly:
Physiological Research: They are studies conducted to know how organs’ systems function. They are conducted on anaesthetized animals, but many of them are also conducted on conscious animals. Psychological Research: this type of research has an essential role in field of psychology, as it leads to important discoveries that enrich the knowledge of human behavior. Through it, scientists control the movement, eating, and any other choices of the animals. And eventually, this may lead to distress and frustration.
2. Medical Research It is required for discovering the causes of human diseases and creating treatments for them through medical experimentations on animals, it includes:
230 231
Disease Testing; which aims to recreate human diseases in animals, then studies what causes them and their nature to find a medical treatment. Such as: infecting animals with lethal viruses, giving them cancer or injecting them with toxic chemicals. Drug Testing; after the researchers study the disease and create a treatment for it, they do not try it on patients before being tested on animals first to make sure of its 231 effectiveness and that it is free from any possible side effects. Genetic Modification (GM); it is another way of mimicking human diseases, such as diabetes, by adding, removing or altering specific genes in the cells of animals bodies. Researchers modify some animals to be born with or automatically develop different kinds of cancer or diabetes, etc. But Genetically Modified animals mostly cannot mimic the complexity of the diseases development process that happens in the human body;
http://www.animalsaustralia.org/documents/factsheets/AnimalExperimentationFactSheet.pdf http://www.animalaid.org.uk/images/pdf/factfiles/exp.pdf
because it depends on other factors such as lifestyle and environmental factors, not only 232 genes. 3. Product Safety Tests After companies invent a new product, they conduct tests called "toxicity tests" to make sure that it is safe for human use. Scientists inject animals with the product, put it in their eyes, rub it into their skin, or force them to inhale it. Then to know how this product could affect organs and what its bad side effects are, they might kill the animals and note the effects on their tissues and organs. This type includes cosmetics, agricultural and industrial chemicals, food additives, household cleaning products and any other chemical products. 4.
Military Defense Animal testing is used in the military field for a lot of purposes; first, Developing Weapons and Defensive Tactics through testing the effects of weapons and any possible human damages from them on animals; second, Creating Vaccines for soldiers since they are always exposed to different types of highly toxic diseases; and finally, Improving Surgical Techniques to stop bleeding in order to save the lives of many soldiers.
233
III. Types of Animals that go through Testing Researchers use different types of animals in their laboratories to test on them, but there are certain types that are commonly used in testing: 1) Rats and Mice: They are usually used in biomedical research especially in the scope of diseases and treatments. Because rats and mice are very similar to humans biologically and some species share common diseases with humans such as: cancer and high blood pressure. They also develop diseases through days or weeks, and for scientists that is a privilege rather 234 than waiting for months or years. 2) Guinea Pigs: Scientists use them widely in researches particularly medical research. Guinea Pigs testing has led to some of the most important medical discoveries in the history of humanity, for example: the discovery of adrenaline, vitamin C, as well as the development of antibiotics, replacement heart valves and blood transfusion. They also contribute in the study of respiratory, nervous and immune systems till today. 3) Rabbits: The first animal that contributed to cancer testing caused by a virus was a rabbit. They are also used to develop surgical lasers and they play an important role in the studies of ear infections, eye infections, diabetes and the influence of high cholesterol. 232
https://www.crueltyfreeinternational.org/why-we-do-it/types-animal-testing http://www.aboutanimaltesting.co.uk/animal-tests-military-defence.html 234 http://www.animalresearchcures.org/typesneeded.htm 233
4) Dogs, Cats and Non-Human Primates: Dogs were the reason behind discovering that Diabetes is the result of lack in insulin and were the first animals used in defeating the rejection of transplanted organs. Cats and Dogs, both went through several tests to make the open-heart surgery possible today. These animals are not used widely but they are important for the study of heart diseases, HIV/AIDS and neurological disorders.
235
5) Other Farm Animals: The US government published a statistic in 2015 with the number of animals used in laboratories and compared it with the numbers of 2014; It showed a decline in numbers of certain types of animals used in testing, which are hamsters, rabbits, 236 and cats.
IV. The Effect of Each Type on Animals The types of testing are divided into several categories depending on the amount of pain and suffering that the animals face during the testing: ď&#x201A;ˇ
ď&#x201A;ˇ 235
Mild: It is the lowest category of animal suffering; it involves procedures like deprivation from social partners for a short time, taking simple blood and urine samples, changing the animal's diet, making a simple surgical procedure. And it is done under 237 anesthesia. Moderate: Certain types of testing require a high level of pain and suffering in order to be done effectively and achieve their goals. Such as: tests made on primates to create
http://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/animals/a-z-animals/ https://speakingofresearch.com/facts/statistics/ 237 http://www.aboutanimaltesting.co.uk/animal-suffering-assessment-mild.html 236
treatments for the most common diseases, non-lethal toxicity tests, conducting surgeries to create genetically modified animals, and organs transplantation surgeries with an effective control of rejection.238 Severe: It includes the tests that cause the highest level of pain and suffering and can lead to death. For example, lethal toxicity test, testing the medical devices on animals which may lead to death, a lethal dose of irradiation and chemotherapy, and testing the effectiveness of vaccines, which may lead to long-lasting moderate pain or death.
The effects of some types of animal tests: 1. Genetic Modification (GM): This type of tests causes serious damage as many animals are born with acute defects that could lead to death while they are still 239 babies. 2. Product Safety Tests: It includes different types of tests depending on how they test the product on animals to make sure of the safety and effectiveness of the food additives, household and cleaning products, agricultural and industrial chemicals agricultural, and 240 cosmetics. Some types of product safety tests are: Acute Toxicity Testing. Skin Corrosivity/Irritation Testing Eye Corrosivity/Irritation Testing Skin Sensitization Testing Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity Testing
V. The History of Animal Testing: The history of animal testing begins before Christ, in ancient Greece. Natural philosophers and physicians of that time started applying experiments on animals with just the aim of increasing their knowledge about the way complex organisms such as humans and animals functioned. Animal experiments were the key for natural philosophers and physicians to reveal the complexity of the functioning of living organisms. In the beginning their experiments did not have a specific aim but exploring these animals, but then they were able to use it to track diseases development, in order to find better medicines and effective cures. nd
rd
th
This was considered the first era of animal testing, it lasted during the 2 , 3 and the 4 centuries BC. This era was led by Aristotle (384-322 BC) and Erasistratus (325BC-250BC) who made plenty of discoveries in physiology depending on human and animal dissections and experiments, one of his discoveries was the brain’s four ventricles and the cerebrum
238 239
http://www.aboutanimaltesting.co.uk/animal-suffering-assessment-moderate.html https://www.crueltyfreeinternational.org/why-we-do-it/types-animal-testing
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http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-experimentation/animals-used-experimentation-factsheets/product-testing-toxictragic/
convolutions. Aristotle and Erasistratus were the first to use living animals for testing various 241 medical procedures. 242
They were followed by Doctor Galen (129-200 AD ) a roman physician, who was called “The 243 Father of Vivisection” , due to the massive number of experiments he operated on many types of living animals; especially pigs. th
The Arabs had also some contributions in this field, one of them was in the 12 century by Ibn Zuhr or (Avenzoar) (1091-1161) who used to apply surgical procedures on animals before applying them on human beings, he also wrote a very famous book “Al-Taisir fi Al-Mudawat wa Al-Tadbir” (Book of Simplification Concerning Therapeutics and Diet).244 The 1600's: 245
During that era, the Italian medical school was mainly working on methodological research . At that time the church represented the only source of law, the Catholic Church at that time forbade human autopsy which could have contributed to biological and physiological knowledge; indicated the effects of many diseases, and could have been a good alternative to animal testing. That forced scientists and physicians to use animals as the primary physiological and anatomical models. From the achievements of that era: The demonstration of blood circulation by William Harvey in 1628 based on the work of the Arabian scientist Ibn El Nafis, and also, the detection of the function of lungs by Robert 246 Hooke. The 1700's: Due to the spread of the study of animals across Europe, experiments had become more complex and invasive; it involved the death of the animal in some cases to prove scientific concepts. Robert Boyle was a scientist who had a theory about living creatures that they need air to live; in order to prove his theory he used to cage animals in a bell jar depleted from air by a pump to suffocate animals. Opponents started to appear in that time especially in the newspapers. Marshal Hall (1790-1857), a physician and a physiologist who supported animal testing, however, his support was accompanied with objection that he expressed by saying: “unhappily… 241
http://www.esciencecentral.org/journals/the-neurology-of-erasistratus-2329-6895.1000111.php?aid=12376 AD comes from a Latin word called "Anno Domini" which means 'in the year of our lord", referring to the Christ's birth year. 243 Vivisection: is the use of living animals in tests that are intended to increase human knowledge of human diseases and the effects of using particular drugs 244 http://www.famousscientists.org/famous-muslim-arab-persian-scientists-and-their-inventions/ 245 Methodology: "is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study". 246 http://nuffieldbioethics.org/wp-content/uploads/Animals-Chapter-2-The-Context-of-Animal-Research-Past-and-Present.pdf http://www.nt.ntnu.no/users/clabec/pdf/MedicalResearchAnimalExperiments.pdf 242
the subjects of animal physiology are sentient, and every experiment is attended by pain and suffering”. He had set up five principles for animal testing to be used as guidelines aiming to decrease the number of experiments as well as the animal's suffering. These principles initiated a controversy in the scientific community, the principles were: i) The lack of an alternative ii) A clear objective iii) The avoidance of repetition of work iv) The need to minimize suffering v) Full and detailed publication of the results. The 1800's: th
Charles Darwin, one of the leading philosophers and scientists in the 19 century, introduced "The Theory of Evolution" which stated that the whole life is connected and has descended from a common ancestor, and that the presence of different species is the result of mutation over the years. The theory stated that there is a link between humans and animals due to common origins; which provoked other scientists to do research on animals to explore human physiology. Darwin's opinion was opposed by another which stated that animals have emotions and rights that should be respected. In Britain, in 1822, an Act passed under the name "Cruel Treatment of Cattle", it was not the first Act introduced regarding Animal Testing specifically, but it was the first Act introduced concerned with animals' rights. Also, in Britain in the mid 1860’s, Anesthesia (a state in which someone does not feel pain, usually because of a certain drug) was introduced for the first time, initiating a new era of medical experiments on animals. Scientists started experimenting on unconscious animals, which were under the effect of Ether or Chloroform (types of anesthetics) and that was a strong response to the major argument of the defenders of animals' rights which was animals' feelings, in this case no pain could be felt. As a result of this discovery the number of experiments that involved animals increased in a massive way. As a response to this huge increase of animal experiments, in 1875 a society for animal protection was formed by Frances Power Cobbe (1822-1904), who created a community called the “Victorian Street Societies” for the Protection of Animals from vivisection. She was the first to call for regulations of animal experiments and total prohibition of animal testing. Later on, scientists started to take action to keep their main method of research and discoveries by proposing a bill less restrictive than the one proposed by Cobbe. Insight of both proposals, a royal commission was formed requesting the regulation of Animal Testing. The case was introduced in the House of Lords producing the 1876 “Cruelty to Animals Act”, this Act legalized certain experiments but under certain conditions, which were as follows: the application of the experiments must be held under the authorities review, and no experiments shall be held without a certain license.
One of the medical achievements of that era was in 1877; it was the proof that micro-organisms 247 (bacteria) caused maladies to both humans and animals through the usage of anthrax by Louis 248 Pasteur and Robert Koch on animals . Also, Pasteur developed a vaccine to anthrax and a few 249 years later a vaccine to rabies, through animal testing. In 1959, two British scientists professor William Russell and Rex Burch established the three R's principles; targeting the reduction of animal testing as much as possible and the animals' pain. They are: Refinement, Replacement and Reduction of animal experiments, which will be 250 explained later on. Since the 1900s up till now: This era was the peak of scientific achievements and medical discoveries, and also the peak of tremendous disasters as a result of the absence of animal testing. The cosmetic and the pharmaceutical industries were initiated in that era. At first, it did not involve animal testing but later on it did. In Britain, animal testing was conducted in cosmetics till the outlawing of all cosmetics related to animal testing in 1998, while The European Union banned animal testing in 2013. Discovery of insulin in 1921 was one of the important discoveries of that era. It was discovered by Fredrick Banting and Charles Best, by conducting experiments on different animals. The first experiment was held in 1889, a dog's pancreas was removed to prove its digestive role, and with its removal flies were recognized swarming around the urine of the dog, indicating the presence of sugar in the urine with a high percentage, proving that the pancreas is the digesting organ of sugar. This experiment was the first proof of the connection between the pancreas and diabetes. For two decades after this discovery, plenty of experiments were held on dogs to figure out a way to keep the dog alive without its own insulin. The experiments held were attempts to extract insulin from other animals and injecting it to the dog with no pancreas as compensation to the role of the pancreas. The insulin produced by animals is almost identical to humans. When it was extracted for the first time, the insulin of cows, pigs and horses was extracted to be used for human beings as a cure for diabetes; but that cure did not last for the time being. Due to medical development, Insulin used today as a cure for diabetes is extracted from human DNA. Another example was the 1996 Dolly Sheep cloning, which still brings up debate till now due to the ethical dilemmas surrounding cloning. Dolly was the first sheep to be cloned; a cell was taken from the mammary gland of a male sheep, six years old called Finn Dorset, and an egg cell from a female Scottish blackface sheep (the surrogate mother). Dolly died six years later, 247
A disease that causes fever, swelling, and often death in animals, especially sheep and cattle (= male and female cows), and can be passed on to humans. 248 http://www.cdc.gov/anthrax/resources/history/ 249 A serious disease, to the nervous system, that might lead to death. Rabies can be passed on to humans by other animals, such as: Dogs, cats, foxes, and bats. 250 http://www.nt.ntnu.no/users/clabec/pdf/MedicalResearchAnimalExperiments.pdf
scientists stated that the reason behind that was that the cell was already taken from an adult sheep. The debate over cloning is very strong as supporters say that it is the key for production of any organ for humans, while opposers state that it is unfair to kill the embryos (to make sure of the quality of the cell as much as possible) of animals to produce organs for humans and it is not accurate as the sheep died after few years from the cloning process, also it would lead to the 251 destruction of species through preventing the birth of new generations. In The US: th
In the first quarter of the 20 century, a catastrophic incident happened due to not involving animal testing in cosmetic experiments. A woman used a mascara darkener, which caused 252 burning in her eyes and ultimately, blindness. Some of the critics then came up with a new argument against animal testing, which was that the key ingredients in cosmetics have already been tested on animals proving their safety, which means that there is no need for further experiments on animals for the sake of cosmetics. That argument was not strong and did not last as the chemical ingredients used in cosmetics are variable which means animal testing is essential for these companies. th
During the 20 century in the United States, animal testing was of a great importance specifically in the field of pharmaceutical drug testing; especially after the disaster of (Diethylene Glycol) DEG. A pharmaceutical company, back in 1937, created a preparation of sulfanilamide, a drug used to treat streptococcal infection, using a solvent (DEG), which was a 253
colorless, odorless liquid with a sweet taste. Although it was a very good solvent for waterinsoluble chemicals and drugs, chemists did not know that DEG had a poisonous effect on humans. DEG was flavored with raspberry and marketed as the "Elixir Sulfanilamide". It poisoned more than a hundred patients, leading to the passage of the 1938 “The Federal Food, Drugs and Cosmetics Act” which stated that drugs must be tested on animals before being used by humans. Despite these regulations another tragedy occurred in the late 1950's and early 1960's. A drug described as the "wonder drug", was claimed to cure insomnia, colds, headaches, coughs and morning sickness. That “wonder drug” was prescribed for 20,000 patients including pregnant women. The result was catastrophic, as massive number of babies in 46 countries was born with malformation or missing limbs.
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http://dolly.roslin.ed.ac.uk/facts/the-life-of-dolly/ https://www.nap.edu/read/10733/chapter/10 253 http://www.calpoison.org/hcp/2012/callusvol10no4.htm 254 https://helix.northwestern.edu/article/thalidomide-tragedy-lessons-drug-safety-and-regulation 252
In the USA, animal testing statistics are not accurate because 95% of the used animals in experiments are excluded from official statistics like birds, rats, mice, fish, invertebrates, 255 amphibians and reptiles as they are not covered by Law. In 1938, The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic (FDC) Act passed through the Congress, containing new provisions indicating that; first, the government regulations will be extended to cosmetic and therapeutic devices. Second, the safety of any drug must be tested before marketing it to avoid any effect of poisonous substances. Third, standards of the quality of products and factory inspections are to be reviewed by the authorities.
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VI. The Legal Aspect For any Law to be well-written, adequate and comprehensive enough to cover the citizensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; needs, it passes through many stages of writing under the name of A Bill. The form of this Bill might change through these stages, changing the name or paraphrasing its articles to finally reach the form most understandable and agreeable; the Law. 1-Federal Acts: When any Bill passes and becomes a Federal Law, being enforced on the Federal level gives it a binding form. In other words, all States become bound to comply with this Federal Law. Many Bills have been proposed inside the Congress aiming to control and regulate the use of animals in testing, and cruelty in treating animals in general, or specifically through the process of testing. One of these Bills passed and is now regarded as one of the most important and widely known Federal Laws regulating animal treatment, is Animal Welfare Act (AWA). The (AWA) was signed into Law in 1966 under the name of Laboratory Animal Welfare Act. It gives the Department of Agriculture the authorization to control the treatment of some animals, through setting standards of housing, feeding and caring for primates (monkeys), guinea pigs, hamsters, rabbits, dogs and cats in the possession of animal dealers and laboratories, and requiring licenses for dealers and research facilities in order to sell these animals.
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The imprisonment for not more than one year or a fine of not more than $1,000, or both is the 258 penalty of any dealer who violates the terms of the law. Amendments
255 256 257
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on (AWA):
http://lushprize.org/many-animals-used-experiments-around-world/ http://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/WhatWeDo/History/Milestones/ucm128305.htm
https://www.na ugust-24-196l.usda.gov/awic/animal-welfare-act-public-law-89-544-act-a6 Sub-section (c) of section 19 of the AWA of 1996 259 An amendment: is a minor change or addition to a piece of legislation to improve it. 258
The (AWA) undergone many amendments, some are considered the most important for they were of a great impact on shaping the position of Animal Testing across the US. They are as follows: -In 1970, the Act was amended by Congress and renamed to â&#x20AC;&#x153;Animal Welfare Actâ&#x20AC;? providing protection to all warm-blooded animals in laboratories. -In 1976, Congress passed another amendment to broaden the (AWA), this amendment suggested that for any federal agency to use laboratory animals, it must show its full compliance 260 to the AWA through appointing certified veterinarians. -In 1985, another amendment on (AWA) passed under the name (Improved Standards for Laboratory Animals Act), clarifying the requirements of "humane care" mentioned in (AWA) and prohibiting the application of more than one major operative experiment on an animal, unless there is a scientific necessity that requires an exception. Moreover, establishing guidelines for the use of animals in biomedical and behavioral research, requiring appropriate use of tranquilizers, paralytics and other substances before and after any practice that would cause pain and distress to the animals, and the use of Euthanasia (Merciful 261 killing) on these animals when needed. -Besides the 1985 amendment, Congress enacted another three laws that dealt with the laboratory animals in the same year. The (AWA) was amended many times later between the years 1985 to 2013, each amendment 262 upgrading certain section/s in the Act. The most up to date version of the Animal Welfare Act and Regulations was published in 2013; it incorporates the amendments passed on the original Law from the year 1970 till 20. In brief, the federal act does not legalize animal testing, but it regulates the testing and leaves the legalization to the States governments. The states willing to legalize animal testing must follow the federal laws and regulations set on animals housing, transportation, sufferingâ&#x20AC;Śetc. On the other hand, the States that not willing to legalize it, the federal act does not force them to do. 2-State Laws: Since Animal Testing is left to what is called "Status Quo" for states to decide, some states were with and some were against it. States that confirmed banning are: 260 261 262
https://awionline.org/content/animal-welfare-act https://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/public-law-99-198-food-security-act-1985-subtitle-f-animal-welfare https://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/animal-welfare-act
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California: In 2002, the State of California passed a Law banning cosmetic tests on animals in the presence of an alternative, and legalizing any type of non-animal research, making it the first 263 state to pass a law of this kind. -New Jersey: In 2007, the State of New Jersey also passed a bill illegalizing the use of Animals 264 in research when there is a validated alternative. -New York: the latest State to ban animal use in cosmetic research is the State of New York, passing a bill to ban it in 2014. In a sub-section of this law, it was written that this section (banning animal use in cosmetic research) does not apply on animals used in medical research, 265 making it clear that the use is only banned in cosmetics-related tests. To sum up, State Laws tend to focus on common, individual and frequent incidents; that explains why cosmetic tests on animals are the type most regulated in state laws.
VII. Alternatives of Animal Testing Sometimes, U.S. Laws require considering the replacement of animals in research with other alternatives if applicable. The (AWA), for example, requires specialized Committees to approve using animals in research by facilities, and ensure that using alternatives to animals in experiments is applied when possible. Also, Federal Agencies are required to support the development of alternative test methods. But, what are these alternatives? And how are they applied? A book named "The Principle of Humane Experimental Technique" was published in 1959; the authors of this book William Russell and Rex Burch introduced three principles for treating the 266 problem of using laboratory animals in a concept called the "3Rs of humane technique". These principles were not introduced as a final solution, but rather as a foundation for the future generations to develop. It gained huge support from the scientific community, and was later adopted by all organizations and facilities that are willing to minimize the number of animals 267 used in testing if there was a possible alternative (Including federal research facilities). 263
http://www.navs.org/what-we-do/keep-you-informed/legal-arena/product-testing/state-laws/ http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=civ&group=01001-02000&file=1833-1840 Section 1834.9 of the Cal. Civil Code 264 http://lis.njleg.state.nj.us/cgi- bin/om_isapi.dll? clientID=1032658904&Depth=2&depth=2&expandheadings=on&headingswithhits=on&hitsperheading=on&in fobase=statutes.nfo&record={2C21}&softpage=Doc_Frame_PG42 Section 4:22-59 of this law 265 http://codes.findlaw.com/ny/public-health-law/pbh-sect-505.html 266 https://awionline.org/content/alternatives 267 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382615/
The 3Rs are: Reduction: this principle goal is to reduce the number of animals used in experiments, but in the same time do not affect the result of the experiments. Refinement: refers to techniques for treating animals, aiming to refine them by minimizing the pain and distress caused for these animals and caring for their well-being. Replacement: finding methods to replace animals in tests with other non-animal systems, or replacing one animal species with another one less developed (for example: replacing mice with 268 worms). Alternatives: Researchers seek alternatives that do not involve animals in experiments to prevent pain and distress caused by these experiments; yet providing the same resultsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; accuracy, or otherwise the research is of no value. There are many suggested replacements, but only few are applicable and reliable in their results. The three main alternatives are: In Vitro testing, In Silico studies, and In Vivo studies (clinical 269 research). 1-In Vitro Testing: "In Vitro" is the Latin word for "in glass", which refers to performing the scientific experiment required in a search field outside of a living organism (usually in a tube or a microchip) and 270 creating the environment needed for the experiment inside this field. One of the latest revolutionary techniques of in vitro testing is the "Organs on Chips" mimicking 271 human organs on microchips and performing experiments on these chips. 2- In silico studies: "In Silico" is an expression that refers to Computer modeling or simulation; these kinds of experiments are carried out entirely on the computer. It has many forms, all of which depend on modeling the cellular behavior on the computer to give the same reactions it would give inside 272 the animals' bodies. 3-In Vivo studies (Clinical Research): 268
https://awionline.org/content/alternatives https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/sya-iccvam/#a11440 269
http://www.neavs.org/alternatives/in-research#sources https://mpkb.org/home/patients/assessing_literature/in_vitro_studies 271 https://mpkb.org/home/patients/assessing_literature/in_vitro_studies 272 https://mpkb.org/home/patients/assessing_literature/in_vitro_studies https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1978274/ 270
"In Vivo" is Latin for "In a Body" or in a living organism. In Vivo refers to experiments using living organisms -usually animals- in research. But the other type of In Vivo studies is Clinical 273 Research on human volunteers. There are two types of Clinical Research: Clinical Trials: they are mostly trials of certain medications or surgical procedures...etc.; 274 conducted on human volunteers to evaluate their effect. i-
Observational Studies: studies where participants (volunteers) are being observed or 275 watched to study their reflexes and behavior in specific occasions. ii-
To conclude, there is a variety of alternatives for animal testing, yet their effectiveness depends on their accuracy of results in comparison with researches on animals.
VIII. The Debate on animal testing The question of whether we should use animals in testing is asked every day, and it has always been contributed with several pros and cons, some of which are based on morals and ethics, others are based on practical thinking and analyzing the alternatives. Proponents Cures and treatment; without the animal testing we could not have reached any of the treatments for a lot of diseases like diabetes, breast cancer and malaria. All of these medical breakthroughs 276 have been contributed to testing on animals. Chris Abee, Director of the University of Texas Anderson Cancer Center's animal research facility said: "We wouldn't have a vaccine for hepatitis B without chimpanzees, and the use of chimps is our best hope for finding a vaccine for Hepatitis C, a disease that kills 15,000 Americans annuallyâ&#x20AC;?. The similarity between animals & humans, humans share 99% of the DNA of the Chimpanzees, 277 and 92% of the mice, which makes animals the most suitable choice for applying tests. The inefficiency of alternatives; despite the ability of scientists to conduct their researches in a dish lab or computer models in some experiments that does not mean they can rely on that in all
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https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/about-studies/learn http://www.who.int/topics/clinical_trials/en/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OfU0i54Yma4
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https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/about-studies/learn https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms?cdrid=286105
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http://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/resources/video-library/ten-medical-breakthroughs-thanks-to-animal-testing/ https://www.koshland-science-museum.org/sites/all/exhibits/exhibitdna/intro03.jsp
cases, because human biology is very complex, for example: blindness is impossible to be 278 studied in bacteria. Animals also benefit from these tests; all the medical treatments, which have been discovered for humans, are being used in the veterinary medicine right now, and have saved countless number of animals. For example: millions of animals have been saved from diseases like hepatitis virus, feline leukemia and rabies after scientists tested vaccines on them, so these tests 279
are as beneficial to animals as they are to humans.
Animals cannot be replaced by humans; due the moral and ethical restrictions of applying tests on humans and also, the short life cycle of animals which helps the scientists to examine the effect of the treatment or the substance over the whole life cycle of the animal and through many generations. For example the life cycle of mice is just 2 years. Moreover, the surrounding environment of the animals, in contrary to that of humans, can be controlled; such as the temperature.
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The daily products; health care products and cosmetics are being tested on animals first to ensure their safety, and no one can afford to take the risk to try it before it is tested. The number of animals used in testing is very low compared to the number of animals that are killed for food. According to Meat Atlas, for every 10 Americans; 1.2 cattle, 3.7 pigs, and 7.7 turkeys are raised and slaughtered every year. This means billions of animals killed just for 281 feeding all Americans.
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http://www.ca-biomed.org/csbr/pdf/fs-whynecessary.pdf https://www.nap.edu/read/10089/chapter/7 280 http://io9.gizmodo.com/do-these-startling-animal-studies-mean-your-lifespan-co-486041314 281 https://www.nrdc.org/onearth/how-much-meat-we-eat 279
Source: NRDC
However, according to U.S. statistics, the total number of animals used in animal testing is 767,622 animal; But, this includes only the animals that are mentioned in the Animal Welfare 282 Act.
Source: U.S. statistics
Opponents 282
https://speakingofresearch.com/facts/statistics/
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The cruelty of the tests; force feeding and water deprivation are involved in all animal tests. Also the Lethal Dose 50 test “which includes applying chemical compounds on the animals to find out which compound has killed 50% of it” is considered to be very cruel. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) reported that in 2010, 97,123 animals suffered pain 284 during experiments while being given no anesthesia for relief. It is not completely reliable, even if some animals share a big percentage of DNA with humans, this does not mean they are the same in their reaction. ‘TGN1412’ a drug that has been tested on animals and made good results, once it was applied on humans it made them suffer from life285 threatening side effects. “Over 100 stroke drugs that were effective when tested on animals have failed in humans, and over 85 HIV vaccines failed in humans after working well in non-human primates” Aysha Akhtar, M.D. neurologist. The inefficiency of the law, The (Animal Welfare Act) has put regulations over just 5% of the total animals, because it has covered only 1,134,693 types, which leave 25 million animals 286 unprotected i.e. 95%. Also 338 possible violations of (AWA) have been reported by Humane Society of the United States (HSUS), in Louisiana’s New Iberia Research Center (NIRC), which is a federally funded research center. The violations include but not limited to: frightening chimpanzees on purpose, 287 and increasing the risk of injury between them by not providing a safe environment to live in. The high cost of animal testing, according to the Human Society International (HSI), the test 288 costs more when it is applied on animals. The following table shows the cost of each type of tests when it is applied on animals and when it is applied in a dish lab.
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Humane Society International, "About Animal Testing," hsi.org (accessed Oct. 15, 2013) http://m.humanesociety.org/news/news/2009/04/usda_nirc_violations_042409.html 285 http://www.planet-science.com/categories/over-11s/technology/2011/09/animal-testing---the-facts.aspx 286 The Hastings Center, "Fact Sheet: Animals Used in Research in the U.S.," animalresearch.thehastingscenter.org (accessed Oct. 15, 2013) 287 Humane Society of the United States, "Undercover Investigation Reveals Cruelty to Chimps at Research Lab," humanesociety.org, Mar. 4, 2009 288 http://www.hsi.org/issues/chemical_product_testing/facts/time_and_cost.html 284
Source: Human Society International
Legalizing Marijuana
I. Introduction.................................................................................................139 II. Definition...................................................................................................139 III.Sources of Marijuana.................................................................................139 IV. Chemical component.................................................................................140 V. History of Marijuana.................................................................................140 VI....................................................................................................................The usage of marijuana.....................................................................................142
Medical ……………………………………………………………………… Recreational…………………………………………………………………..
VII....................................................................................................................Diffe rence Between marijuana & alcohols........................................................143
The effect on human being…………………………………………………….. Why alcohols legal and marijuana isn’t? .............................................................
VIII..................................................................................................................The legal aspect................................................................................................146
Federal acts……………………………………………………………………… State laws……………………………………………………………………….. Supreme court cases…………………………………………………………….
IX.....................................................................................................................The debate on marijuana....................................................................................147
Pros and Cons…………………………………………………………………... The economic benefits of marijuana……………………………………………. The relation between legalizing marijuana & crimes rate………………………
I. Introduction Marijuana has been a very controversial issue in the American society. Its controversy comes from the fine line between the government responsibility and the personal freedom of the individuals.
II. The definition of marijuana Nowadays Marijuana is one of the most famous plants. Many myths and contradicting rumors roam around this plant. Thus, it has become one of the main concerns of the American society. ď&#x201A;ˇ
What is marijuana?
Marijuana is a powder, made of greenish-grey mixture of the shredded flowers, leaves, stems and 289 seeds of a plant called cannabis sativa.
III. Source of marijuana: The origin of the Cannabis Sativa goes back to China, where was the start of using it around the whole world over many ages and in different forms. It is called Hemp when it is used in industry for fabricating cloth and ropes, it is also used in producing many types of drugs, most importantly; marijuana. The flower of Cannabis Sativa (the bud) is the main part in which the 290
active ingredient targeted for drugs exists ; it also exists with minimal percentages in the stems, leaves, and seeds of the plant. Regarding the cultivation of cannabis sativa, it can be grown in 291 almost any climate and in any area in the world . It could even be cultivated indoors by means 292 of hydroponic technology . It is found in many areas around the world, and most importantly, in the United States (whether grown domestically or smuggled from the surrounding countries), also in Asia; specifically in India, Cambodia, Myanmar, Philippines and Iran and in North 293 Africa . Cannabis has been used for over 500 years. In the early ages of its usage it was only used for medical purposes or for industrial ones to produce fibers, but then over the years the recreational uses started appearing, leading to the imposition of control over it through international 294 treaties .
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https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/what-marijuana https://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/marijuana 290 http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/marijuana.html 291 http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Cannabis+sativa https://ncpic.org.au/professionals/publications/factsheets/what-is-cannabis/ 292 Hydroponic technology: growing plants in a solution supplied with nutrients without a soil https://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/hydroponics 293 http://insider.thcuniversity.org/3-marijuana-lenient-countries-southeas-asia/ 294 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1021/np50008a001
A picture illustrates the biological structure of the cannabis leaf
IV.
The chemical components of Marijuana:
Marijuana is produced from Cannabis Sativa, which is a dioecious plant. i.e.: the individual flower must be either a male or a female; it cannot be both at the same time, but both flowers the male and female must be planted for reproduction. The main psychoactive ingredient in the cannabis sativa is delta-9-tetrahydro cannabis (THC), it mainly exists in the female flowering parts and leaves, while it exists with low percentages in the male flowers, stalks and seeds
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.
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It also contains another major component which is Cannabidiol (CBD) , both affect the cannabinoid receptors in the human brain but they are different in effect, the cannabinoid receptors are molecules on neurons (nerve cells) , to which the THC or CBD act as neurotransmitters that send chemical messages to the neurons, causing different effects on the brain and the body. THC is more recreationally used, while CBD is more medically used.
V. History of marijuana Across the whole world For thousands of years, cannabis has been used in many forms; whether as a drug, in this case called “marijuana”, or as a plant to produce cloth and ropes and in this case called “Hemp”.
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http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Cannabis+sativa https://cbdoilreview.org/cbd-cannabidiol/thc-cbd/
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The first use of cannabis was in 2727 B.C. in the era of the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung, for 297 medical purposes , then in India for recreational use by Muslims because alcohol is prohibited in Islam, after which it reached Europe where they cultivated it to get fibers in 517A.D. In the US From the beginning of the American colonies, hemp was an important crop, as it was used in making clothes and ropes. It was documented that 50 tons were needed to write the US Constitution in 1779. Famous presidents like George Washington used to be a hemp farmer which shows how important hemp was at that time. The first medical use of cannabis in US was in the late 1800s, where many medicines like 298 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Bromidia and Neuralgicâ&#x20AC;? pills contained cannabis extracts without any legal problems. The Mexican revolution in 1910 made a turning point in the history of marijuana, as it led Mexicans to immigrate to the US, bringing the recreational use of marijuana with them, this led 299 some states to outlaw marijuana . California outlawed Marijuana in 1913 to be the first state to do this. At this time legislators started to take actions against the cultivation of hemp and the medical use of marijuana whether by laws or taxes. Addiction to drugs like opium and morphine showed up at 1914, at this time opium was being taken to heal emotional problems and menstrual pain; also, soldiers used morphine as a pain killer during war. In response to this, the government passed The Harrison Narcotics Act that imposed controls and taxes on distributing opium or cocaine. It was the first Act to limit addictive drugs, and was followed by prohibition of the sale and production of alcohols, but in 1933 it was repealed. This might not be directly related to marijuana, but it has encouraged the government to prohibit marijuana federally following the same procedures to prohibit opium, but ended up with failure. Although the government did not succeed to federally ban it, States continued their attempts to legislate laws on the consumption of marijuana, like Nebraska, California, Utah and Texas 300 from the period of 1915 till 1927 . Marijuana was considered to be a narcotic drug, and was outlawed in northern states like New York, but none of the past attempts have stopped marijuana. On the contrary, it became more and 297
https://www.deamuseum.org/ccp/cannabis/history.html Bromidia: a drug for restlessness. Neuralgic: a drug used to control pain and make people sleep 299 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/dope/etc/cron.html 300 http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/nc/nc2_7.htm 298
more popular across the entire country to the extent that it has been included in jazz songs like “Sweet Marihuana Brown”. The federal Bureau of Narcotics was created in 1930 to outlaw the use of cannabis, and they succeeded, as they managed to pass the Marijuana Tax Act that outlawed cannabis unless the 301 proper taxes are paid, which backfired and caused a near end to the cultivation of Hemp . However, the government needed to cultivate hemp on a large scale to produce clothes to the soldiers and ropes for parachutes, so they encouraged the farmers to cultivate hemp using incentives; where each farmer was given money for the cultivation of Hemp. Boggs Act of 1951 and Narcotics Control Act of 1956, these two acts continued the attempts of the government to prohibit marijuana by increasing the sentences for any violations of the narcotics federal laws. According to them, for the first offense of marijuana possession the sentence would be not less than two years or more than ten years of imprisonment, and the sentences will increase for the second and the third offense.
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The history of marijuana was not stable between legal by the federal government and a threat to the society, and this continued on its path of hesitancy between pro and against.
VI. The Usage of Marijuana Marijuana has different uses, not just the common use as a drug for recreational purposes which is the first impression that comes to the mind when hearing “marijuana”, but it also has medical and industrial uses. That is due to the diversity of chemicals inside marijuana, some of which have intoxicating effects and others have medical benefits The two main usages of Marijuana are: 1. The Medical Use. "Medical Marijuana" refers to the whole unprocessed marijuana plant, or to the basic extracts 303 that are used to cure diseases . Marijuana contains more than 100 chemicals, but the most active ones are THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and CBD (cannabidiol). THC is the chemical which is responsible for getting high and leads to the mind-altering effects; i.e. the chemical that causes intoxication. Besides that, it has medical advantages. But the chemical that is responsible for Marijuana’s medical use is CBD; because CBD does not affect the mind or the behavior but causes medical effects. 301
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=113971561 http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4977&context=jclc http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/dope/etc/cron.html 303 http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/marijuana.html 302
Marijuana’s two main active ingredients are very important for cancer patients when the conventional treatment is not effective for specific cases such as: reducing nausea and vomiting that happen through chemotherapy, relieving the pain patients suffer from as an 304 adjuvant analgesic and combating weight loss of cancer patients as an appetite 305 stimulant. CBD is used to cure addictions, reduce depression and schizophrenia symptoms, control epileptic seizures, and possibly psychiatric disorders such as anxiety. THC is used to reduce AIDS symptoms by combating the lack of appetite and weight 306 loss, spinal injuries, and glaucoma, as it reduces the pressure inside the eye. Recent animal studies concluded that marijuana extracts have an effective use for killing cancer cells and seizing others; and specifically, the whole-plant marijuana extracts which slow down the growth of cancer cells even in cases of serious types of brain 307 tumors . In addition, a research on mice concluded that treatment created from pure extracts of THC and CBD with radiation increased the effectiveness of radiation in killing cancer cells.
2. The Recreational Use. People also use marijuana to get high and to be intoxicated; consuming marijuana gives them relaxation, time distortion, and alteration of senses. But when they take it to enjoy these effects, they do not take into consideration the negative side effects such as: destroying their 308 coordination, thinking, and memory. And there are many ways to take marijuana; these are some of them:
Smoked as a cigarette (joint). Smoked in a dry pipe or water pipe (bong). Mixed with food like cookies, tea, sodas or candy; which is called (edibles).
VII. Difference between Marijuana and Alcohol. In the United States, alcohol is legal but marijuana is illegal on the federal level, despite that, many states legalized it for medical or recreational use. This paradox can be due to the different effects of both on people, the number of people who died because of both, or may be due to traditions and customs.
Marijuana
304
Adjuvant analgesic: “is a medication that is not primarily designed to control pain, but can be used for this purpose.” https://www.cancercouncil.com.au/1978/cc-publications/health-strategies-reports-submissions/position-statements/cancercouncil-new-south-wales-medical-use-of-marijuana-fact-sheet/ 305
306
https://cbdoilreview.org/cbd-cannabidiol/thc-cbd/ Brain tumors are abnormal growths of cells in the brain. Although such growths are popularly called brain tumors, not all brain tumors are cancer. 308 http://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/the-health-effects-of-marijuana-from-recreational-and-medical-use-2016081910180 307
Marijuana affects every tissue in the human body, and that happens due to interactions between chemicals in marijuana and the chemicals in the human body. In the brain there are chemicals and "Endogenous cannabinoids" which are similar to the chemicals exising in marijuana called neurotransmitters, such as: "anandamide". They carry the information between cells called neurons (nerve cells) through the nervous system. The interactions between these chemicals are responsible for the brain function. They affect memory, coordination, time perception, thinking, movement, and pleasure, because they exist in brain areas that are crucial for these functions in a high destiny. THC and CBD interact with specific brain proteins called the cannabinoid receptors that receive any cannabinoids that enter the body, and what makes CBD used more in medical treatment than THC is that the effect of each one of them on the human body is different. The human body recognizes THC because THCâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s chemical structure and the brain chemical anandamide are similar to each other. After recognizing THC the brainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s normal communication would change. Because of this similarity, when THC interacts with the cannabinoid receptors, it attaches to them and activates them causing disruption to many mental and physical functions.309 On the other hand, CBD interacts with two cannabinoid receptors; CB1 and CB2. Also it activates several non-cannabinoid receptors and acts through other independent channels. One of the effects of CBD on the nervous system that give it a medical benefit, is that it activates a type of receptors called "serotonin receptor" causing an anti-depressant effect. In addition, this receptor is responsible for some biological and neurological processes, such as: nausea, appetite, 310 sleep, addiction, pain, vomiting, and anxiety. 1) The short-term effects: The short-term effects of marijuana on the body start immediately after the drug enters the brain. However, taking it in a food or a drink will make the effect different compared to taking it through other means. In this case, the short-term effects start within half an hour or an hour. It is also different in the period that the effects would last through; if it was taken in a food or a drink the effects would last for four hours, but if it was taken through any another method, the effects would last for one to two hours. If it was smoked, the smoke would enter the body through the nose and begins to affect all other organs; starting with the heart that will beat more rapidly by 20 to 50 redundant pulses per minute or may be double, the eyes color would turn to red because the size of their blood vessels would expand, the bronchial passages size would expand and it would become more relaxed. All these effects would increase definitely if the person takes any other drugs with the marijuana.
309 310
http://www.brainfacts.org/about-neuroscience/ask-an-expert/articles/2013/how-does-marijuana-affect-brain-function/ https://www.projectcbd.org/how-cbd-works
THC works on activating the brain's reward system; which is areas of the brain that respond to drugs, food, and drinks as stimuli, by stimulating brain cells to release certain chemicals. And the result is feeling high. The user might feel time passing slowly, pleased, suddenly become hungry or thirsty, trembling in his hands, and might become cold and his mouth dry. After the euphoria ends, he might feel 311 sleepy or depressed. 2) The long-term effects: Smoking marijuana can lead to lungs irritation and problems in breath, such as: bronchitis, coughing, or may be worse, asthma. If a pregnant woman uses marijuana, it would harm the 312 baby's brain development . It also affects the ability of thinking, memory, learning and the way 313 the brain connects between areas that are essential for these functions. ď&#x201A;ˇ
Alcohol
When anyone drinks alcohol, every organ in their body is affected whether they drink occasionally or are usual heavy drinkers. But the effects differ because the irreversible damage happened due to drinking heavily over the years, certainly differs from the damage 314 happening due to drinking heavily just on one occasion. Alcohol affects the human body as follows: Brain: Alcohol creates disruptions inside the brain which leads to changes in mood, behavior, and coordination. Because alcohol affects the brain severely, it changes how the brain works, looks, and interferes with the pathways of communications, and also might cause other 315 problems; such as: coma, sleep disorders, anxiety, and depression. 1)
2) Heart: Alcohol affects the heart causing Cardiomyopathy as a long-term effect of drinking heavily; which means, weakness in the heart muscle and its failure to pump enough amount of blood to the rest of the bodyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s organs, this shortage of blood flow may cause severe damage to organs and tissues. Alcohol also may cause long-term Arrhythmias and high blood pressure. 3) Immune System: Alcohol weakens the immune system; which makes it easier to catch diseases especially for addicted drinkers who have high probabilities to be infected by pneumonia. Drinking heavily, for only one occasion, makes the immune system slower to combat any infection up to 24 hours after drinking.
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http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/view.answers.php?questionID=000640 http://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/the-health-effects-of-marijuana-from-recreational-and-medical-use-2016081910180 313 https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/marijuana 312
314 315
https://www.collegedrinkingprevention.gov/SpecialFeatures/InteractiveBodyText.aspx#brain https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/alcohols-effects-body
VIII. The Legal Aspect. On a Federal level: Although most of the States have rules regulating drugs, there is only one federal Act that regulates possession, cultivation, and distribution of drugs including marijuana; which is the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) of 1970. According to the CSA, Cannabis is illegal on a federal level for its medical use as well as its recreational use. The Act also put cannabis in Schedule 1, classifying it as a highly addictive drug with no medical value. Every controlled substance is put into a certain schedule depending on its medical value and relative potential for abuse. The Sentencing Commission determined the sentences of marijuana possession, distribution, and cultivation offenses by enacting the federal sentencing guidelines. It depends on the amount of cannabis possessed by the offender, and also if there is any past convictions of him or not and all 316 the sentences are eligible for imprisonment. On a State level: States started to legalize marijuana since 1996. Till now, 28 states and the District of Columbia have legalized smoking marijuana for medical use. States of Alaska, Oregon, Colorado and Washington legalized the sale and distribution of marijuana for 21 year olds, DC legalized it also for the same age but just for possession and growing limited amount of marijuana but not selling it.
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The Supreme Court cases: ď&#x201A;ˇ
Gonzales v. Raich (2005)
After California passed an act that legalized the medical use of marijuana called "Compassionate Use Act" in 1996. This law conflicted with the CSA that prohibits possession of marijuana. After that, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) arrested a doctor who was prescribing marijuana to the patients. The CSA passed Congress by the Commerce Clause - which gives Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce -. Medical marijuana supporters argued that the CSA exceeded the power of this clause.
316
http://www.safeaccessnow.org/federal_marijuana_law http://www.hg.org/control.html
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https://www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp/state-laws-related-to-marijuana
The Supreme Court ruled by a 6-3 decision that Congress under the Commerce Clause has the power to prohibit the use and cultivation of marijuana, even if the state law legalizes such 318 action.
United States v. Booker (2005)
The Supreme Court in this case ruled that the federal sentencing guidelines are not mandatory but advisory. And the judge cannot use evidence that was not viewed by the jury; otherwise it 319 considered violating the Sixth Amendments rights.
IX. Debate over Marijuana: For the past decade, Marijuana has been causing a debate in the United States; the controversy over whether it is beneficial for the society both socially and economically seems to grow day by day. In addition, the purpose behind its legalization, whether for recreational or medical use or both, is also in question. The states are split on themselves over the idea of Federal legalization or illegalization. To conclude, forming a solid and final opinion requires awareness of different aspects regarding such debate, which are: I. II. III.
PROs and CONs of its use Economic Benefits Relation between Marijuana and crimes' rate
PROs and CONs of Marijuana: Proponents:
Personal Freedom: supporters of legalizing argue that the use of Marijuana is part of their civil rights, and its illegalization is a limitation to the freedom of action granted by 320 the constitution. Medical use: Initial studies by the National Institute of Health (NIH) suggest that Marijuana might have medical benefits as a pain reliever, killing certain types of cancer 321 cells and treating HIV/AIDS, Alzheimer's and epilepsy. Regulated use: supporters also argue that legalizing marijuana would give the authorities 322 the power of limiting and regulating its use to ensure it is safe (as it is with alcohol). Creating jobs: legalizing Marijuana would give a chance to law-abiding citizens to work 323 in the field of Marijuana planting and industry instead of illicit trade.
318
https://www.oyez.org/cases/2004/03-1454 http://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/criminal-procedure/criminal-procedure-keyed-to-weinreb/sentence/united-states-vbooker-2/2/ 319
320
http://www.people-press.org/2015/04/14/in-debate-over-legalizing-marijuana-disagreement-over-drugs-dangers https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/marijuana-medicine 322 http://www.balancedpolitics.org/marijuana_legalization.htm 323 http://www.drugpolicy.org/marijuana-legalization-and-regulation 321
Enhancing Creativity: since Marijuana increases dopamine levels in the brain, it helps 324 the mind to innovate and create more freely.
Opponents
Marijuana is a gateway drug: some opponents argue that the abuse of Marijuana lowers 325 the dopamine levels in the brain reward centers causing a vulnerability to addiction of 326 other drugs. Risk of more road accidents: because of driving under the effect of Marijuana (as being 327 high or stoned). Dangers of secondhand smoking: by smoking Marijuana, bystanders to the smoker might fall under its effect, even more than that of normal cigarettes; which has a negative 328 effect on public health. Falling in the hands of kids: because there are many forms of Marijuana, there is a chance it could reach young children or even young adults, which may lead to 329 unfortunate consequences of early drugging. Rise of crime rate: drugged individuals under the effect of marijuana could commit crimes unconsciously.
Economic benefits of Marijuana: Proponents of legalizing Marijuana believe it introduces a new income source to the community. The Marijuana industry could be a huge profit to the United States, applying sales taxes and 330 taxes on distribution would be profitable, and could boost the economy. It is hard to accurately calculate the potential revenue gain of states that plan to legalize Marijuana; this is because the distinction between profits raised from sales of recreational and medical marijuana is hard. Although there has not been a clear taxing policy for Marijuana transactions, an approximate calculation of revenue was made on states that legalized its use. In the State of Colorado and the State of Washington, laws legalizing Marijuana passed in 2012 and were enacted and took effect in 2014, making them the first two states to legalize recreational as well as medical Marijuana, their experiences show that profits are not prompt, as the first retail sale for the drug started after legalization with a period that exceeded a year.
324
331
http://herb.co/2015/10/15/11-non-medical-benefits-of-marijuana/ Dopamine is a neurotransmitter found in any synapse of the human brain, it regulates the feelings of pleasure to reward our normal behavior. 326 https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/marijuana-gateway-drug 327 http://nyln.org/19-primary-pros-and-cons-of-legalizing-weed 328 http://nyln.org/19-primary-pros-and-cons-of-legalizing-weed 329 http://www.balancedpolitics.org/marijuana_legalization.htm 330 http://nyln.org/19-primary-pros-and-cons-of-legalizing-weed pros-boost in revenue 331 http://taxfoundation.org/article/marijuana-legalization-and-taxes-federal-revenue-impact#_ftnref3 325
Yet after some time, Marijuana revenues increased substantially. This is due to the transfer of profits of Marijuana sales from the hands of illicit dealers to the state's national income instead, and this happened as a result of bringing marijuana out of the black market by making it legal. Another reason is Marijuana tourism; which is travelling for the purpose of obtaining Marijuana from states where it is legal. The Colorado Department of Revenue made a study concluded with that a huge percentage of sales of retail Marijuana were to out-of-state visitors. However, profits from Marijuana tourism might decrease over time if legalizing the recreational use spread between the states and the drug started being sold all around the country. The State of Colorado's Department of Revenue data shows that Colorado collected $63.4 million taxes levied of Marijuana in 2014. Although this amount was lower than expected for a start, but when Marijuana sales have ramped up, the amount of revenue collected substantially 332 increased from $2.9 million in January to $7.3 million in December. As for the State of Washington, $16 million taxes were collected from the beginning of July to 333 December 2014. The reason behind Washington's lower tax revenue was the shortage of 334 legally grown Marijuana due to the illegalization for a huge amount of time. Relation between Marijuana and crimes' rate: Opponents of legalizing Marijuana believe that Marijuana use has an impact on increasing crimes rate & violence, as it is for other scheduled drugs. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) of the U.S Department of Justice' compilation of drug-related crimes report between the years 1996-2001, 1/3 of Parents in jail have admitted committing offenses under the influence of drugs. 15% was Marijuana which makes it the 335 second most abused drug after the 16% of cocaine-based crimes. Also in 1995, a national survey of adults on probation about drugs used at the times of their offenses suggested that 10% of the adults were under the influence of Marijuana. On the other 336 hand, 65% of offenders of Driving While Intoxicated (DWI) admitted using Marijuana prior to 337 their offenses. Finally, from the years 1996-2002, about 76% of drug abusing jail inmates confirmed abusing Marijuana. State of Colorado: 332
https://www.colorado.gov/pacific/revenue/colorado-marijuana-tax-data Tax Revenue: the income or profit from taxes implied on goods and services. 334 http://itep.org/itep_reports/2015/05/issues-with-taxing-marijuana-at-the-state-level.php?gclid=CjwKEAiAj7TCBRCp2Z22uezrj4SJACG7SBEGlNdC8UPhB1sUmp3FosF4quD1ujDsZmY7zFFwgbhjBoCctXw_wcB#overtime 335 https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/dcf.pdf page 9 336 DWI: is an offense in the law, committed by individuals who drive under the influence of any drug. 337 https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/dcf.pdf page 11 333
338
As the first state to legalize recreational Marijuana, the results of legalization were studied to find accurate information about the impact of allowing Marijuana retail stores on crime rate. According to the National Incident Based Reporting System (NIBRS), it is suggested that between January 2013 and June 2014, reported offenses has increased
338
https://nevergetbusted.com/marijuana-laws-colorado/ http://itep.org/itep_reports/2015/05/issues-with-taxing-marijuana-at-the-state-level.php?gclid=CjwKEAiAj7TCBRCp2Z22uezrj4SJACG7SBEGlNdC8UPhB1sUmp3FosF4quD1ujDsZmY7zFFwgbhjBoCctXw_wcB#.WE2ojdKUfHt
150
Hate Crimes I. Introduction.............................................................................................152 II. Definition of crime....................................................................................152 III. Definition and criteria of a hate crime.....................................................152 IV. Definition of minority groups..................................................................153 V. Hate Groups..............................................................................................153 VI. Hate crimes and hate speech.....................................................................154 VII. Hate crimes and terrorism.........................................................................155 VIII...................................................................................................................Hist ory of hate crimes.....................................................................................155 IX. The legal aspect.........................................................................................158
Federal acts………………………………………………………………… State laws………………………………………………………………….. Supreme Court cases………………………………………………………
X. The Victims...............................................................................................160
Colored People………………………………………………………………. Muslims……………………………………………………………………… LGBTs……………………………………………………………………….
XI. Police and hate crimes...............................................................................165 The violations made by cops…………………………………………………. The crimes against cops………………………………………………………
XII. The rights of the victims of hate crimes...................................................167 XIII...................................................................................................................The debate on hate crimes................................................................................169
I.
Introduction:
While in the 21st century, some US citizens might still be exposed to crimes because they are “minorities”. Are the insufficient laws the reason behind all this? Should the Government apply special strict laws on Hate Crimes?
II.
The Definition of a Crime:
The term “crime” has many definitions; the legal definition of a “crime” is “a violation of the public law that is considered to be a felony or misdemeanor".339 And the definition in the Burton’s Legal Thesaurus dictionary is “violation of the law in which there is injury to the public or a member of the public”
III.
The Definition of Hate Crimes:
The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) defines hate crimes as “Criminal acts motivated by prejudice that affect the security of individuals, their communities and societies as a whole”.340 According to the FBI, hate crimes are “Traditional offenses like murder, arson, or vandalism with an added element of bias towards race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, or gender identity”.
What makes it so important?
The importance of classifying some crimes as hate crimes is contributed to the number of incidents that happen each year and has been nearly stable through the past 10 years; which are driven by certain biases.
339
http://www.lectlaw.com/def/c330.html *Felony: a serious crime, characterized under federal law and many state statutes as any offense punishable by death or imprisonment in excess of one year. *Misdemeanor: a criminal offense that is less serious than a felony and punishable by a fine and incarceration in a local county jail. 340 http://hatecrime.osce.org/what-hate-crime
341
IV.
Minority groups:
The common definition of minority groups is contributed to the mathematical calculation “a group which includes small number of people”, but the real definition of minority groups is “subordinate group who has less power in the society whether politically, financially or in any aspect of the society”. Hate crimes are not limited to a certain group and they are committed with a bias towards many things like religion, race, sex, Etc.
342
343
V.
Hate Groups:
They are groups who have a certain belief based on hate towards an entire class of people.344 The SPLC (Southern Poverty Law Center) reported the existence of 784 hate groups across the US, but no data reported the involvement of any member of these hate groups in any crime, all the data shows that hate crimes are committed by individuals. 341
http://hatecrime.osce.org/united-states-america http://racism.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=280:minor0101&catid=15&Itemid=118 343 http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/charleston-church-shooting/hate-crime-america-numbers-n81521 344 https://www.splcenter.org 342
The following map shows the hate groups distributed across the US:
345
The following ideologies attract the most number of groups:
Neo-Confederate (37), which expresses the interest in reviving the proConfederate sentiment in the US, to end immigration and follow the Christianity values that are “missing” in the American’s life. Black Separatist (113), which calls for separate institutions for Blacks and opposes any 346 kind of integration with any other race. General Hate (165), these groups support hateful doctrines which can be hardly categorized, such as: “Jewish group” which opposes Arabs strongly, and “Christian 347 group” which is anti-Catholic. Neo-Nazi (142), which is against Jews, LGBTs and black people, and also share a sense 348 of belonging to Hitler.
VI. Hate crimes and hate speech: The main difference between hate speech and hate crimes is the action itself, because hate speech technically does not include any criminal action listed by the law, because it is protected under the first amendment of the constitution, as freedom of speech. Yet both of them might cause the same sense of damage; because the main reason behind hate crimes is the motivated speeches that encourage the individuals. The phobia of applying censorship over the media has opened the door to an endless debate about whether the law should include censorship over hate speech or not. 349 345
https://www.splcenter.org/hate-map https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/general-hate 347 https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/black-separatist 348 https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/neo-confederate 349 https://www.article19.org/pages/en/hate-speech-more.html 346
VII. Hate crimes and terrorism: The world did not put a standard definition to terrorism, but it can be defined as “the usage of violence to enforce change; whether religious, political or ideological.” The word violence is excluded from the term terrorism at certain times like wartime, self-defense, collateral damages and capital punishments, because in these cases violence is necessary. The U.S. code defines Domestic terrorism as an activity using the following criteria: 1. Involves acts dangerous to human life that violate federal or state law. 2. appears intended to: Intimidate or coerce a civilian population. Influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion. Affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping. 350 3. Occurs primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the U.S. The debate on the difference between hate crimes and terrorism is endless. Incidents like the Orlando shooting, which is regarded as “the biggest shooting incident in the U.S. history”, when an armed man opened fire on people in a gay club killing 49 citizens, can be defined as a hate crime because the elements of bias towards gender exists, also can be defined as a terrorist attack because it meets the U.S. code of terrorism. 351 The 9/11 attacks, where the world trade center had been attacked by two planes; under the control of two suicide pilots, has been considered as a terrorist attack by the U.S. government, but this does not deny the fact that it is a criminal offence motivated towards a certain nationality, i.e. “hate crime”.
VIII. History of Hate Crimes. Rome History gave the beginning of hate crimes in the world to ancient civilizations, starting with the Roman Empire. The Empire that was well-known with prosecuting different religious groups; it was mentioned in the historical documents that in the era of Emperor Nero there was tolerance with Christianity till a big disaster happened in 46 AD, when a massive fire destroyed a huge part of Rome, which was called the “ Great Fire of Rome”. The Emperor felt he was guilty, and to move the blame away from him he ordered that any Christian would be punished for the damage
350
https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/terrorism http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/09/us/orlando-pulse-nightclub- memorial.html?rref=collection%2Fnewseventcollection %2F2016-orlandoshooting&action=click&contentCollection=us&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=1&pgt ype=collection&_r=0 351
caused by the fire. Due to such decision, many years passed with a huge number of hate crimes committed against anyone who follows the beliefs of Christianity.352 Hitler One of the most tremendous hate crimes that affected the whole world was the Holocaust or the Nazi’s systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution of the Jews in the Second World War (1933-1945). “Holocaust” is a Greek word which means “sacrifice by fire”. The Holocaust was motivated by hate that caused the death of about six million Jews. Hitler and the Nazis wanted to get rid of the Jews because they believed that Jews were a threat to the German racial community, as they thought that Germans were “racially superior” and Jews were “inferior”. Hitler’s dream, which was described by Nazis as the “final solution”, resulted in several hate crimes based on religion and gender, as Hitler desired to eliminate homosexuals and Jews. His dream was to create a pure nation of Aryan people. As a result of this fascist dream, he built a full-scale death camps where he burnt Jews to death, there were also other methods by which they used to kill the Jews, such as: gassing, shooting, starvation and random acts of terror. But 353 the methods commonly used were shooting and gas vans. Native Americans Removal th
Another event that is a remarkable one in the history of hate crimes was in the early 19 century when the United States started to expand into the lower south of the continent and move towards what is known now as the states of Alabama and Mississippi. This area was the home of the Indian tribes (Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaws and Seminole). They were the obstacle standing in the way of the white settlers, who asked the federal government to take over this territory and transport the Indian tribes from it. In 1814, Andrew Jackson led an expedition against the Creek Indians which ended with the victory of Jackson’s force and the destruction of Creeks’ military power. As a result of this victory, he forced the Indian tribes to make a treaty by which they would leave most of their traditional lands. The land-hungry white settlers continued annoying the Cherokee by burning their towns and stealing their livestock. This conflict or shall it be called “war” did not stop at this point, as Andrew Jackson became the President and started a new round in the battle against Native Americans. In 1830, he pushed a law through the Congress called the “Indian Removal Act”. According to this Act, the President had the power to negotiate with the Indian tribes the removal 352
http://quatr.us/religion/christians/nero.htm http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/great-fire-rome-background/1446/ 353 http://www.crimemuseum.org/crime-library/history-of-hate-crime/ https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005143
treaties. So this Act established a process that started by asking the tribes to move from the east of Mississippi to the west, and when they refused to move, they were forced to. At the end, Jackson’s government got what it was fighting for through many years. The government seized the traditional lands of the Indian tribes. Jackson described the Indian tribes as children who need guidance. He believed that they benefited from the removal policy and it 354 did not cause any harm to them. Slavery Slavery was the reason behind a massive number of hate crimes committed in a certain era in the history of the United States. In 1619, slavery started in Virginia by a Dutch ship which arrived with African slaves. The African slaves were cheap labor, and the white settlers benefited from this by increasingly importing slaves. As a result of that, the term “slavery” was used to refer to Africans in the British North America in the early of the 1700s. After the American Revolution and the adoption of a new constitution, the founders agreed to stop importing slaves in 1808. But slavery became alive again because of the cotton industry especially in the southern United States, as the climate in it is suitable for such kind of agriculture and growing cotton needed labor. They depended on African American slaves in various forms of agriculture, such as growing tobacco, hemp, cotton, corn, and livestock. But the cotton agriculture was the most recognizable. Their lives were tough physically and psychologically. Their work started before dawn and ended after sunset with a two-hour break for a noon meal only. Moreover, psychologically they lived under a threat of physical 355 punishment all the time. The Thirteenth Amendment The Civil war (1861-1865) is an important event in the U.S. history. The war started because of slavery; a conflict, between states which supported slavery and other states that opposed it, about whether the government has the power to prohibit slavery in the territories. Abraham Lincoln was elected as a president one year before the war; he was the first Republican President who made a promise to keep slavery out of the territories. As a result for that promise, seven slavery states in the south seceded and a new nation was created which was called the "Confederate States of America". Lincoln and northern states denied that secession as a legitimate action and the Civil War started.356
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http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/indian-treaties 355 http://www.history.com/topics/black-history/slavery 356 http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/civil-war-overview/overview.html?referrer=https:// www.google.com.eg/
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At the end of the Civil War and before the slave states in the south returned to be a part of the th Union, the 13 amendment of the US constitution passed abolishing all forms of slavery. The amendment passed the Senate and the House before it was ratified in December 6, 1865. The Amendment provides that “Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.” Another two amendments to the constitution that guarantee the same rights for all Americans including former slaves are: The Fourteenth Amendment: it was ratified in 1868. According to it, any person born or naturalized in the U.S. would have the citizenship, including slaves who were recently freed. It gave all Americans the whole protection under the civil rights protection. Furthermore, it prohibited the denial of life, liberty, or property to anyone without the due process of law, and denial of the equal protection of law.
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The Fifteenth Amendment: it was ratified in 1870. The amendment declared that all citizens have the right to vote and that the government or any state could not deprive anyone of this right because of his color, race, or because he is a former slave. As a result to that, it granted African American men the right to vote. This amendment was not enforced for about a century through the use of poll taxes and literacy tests in certain states especially the southern states till the enactment of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.358
IX. The legal aspect Federal laws Civil Rights Act of 1946 It is the first federal act concerned with the rights of minority groups. According to this Act, any discrimination based on religion, color, race or sex in employment is banned, and segregation was ended in public places. President John F. Kennedy introduced the Act to the Congress, then Lyndon B. Johnson who was the president after Kennedy's assassination, signed it into law.359 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994
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https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/14thamendment.html https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/15thamendment.html 359 http://www.history.com/topics/black-history/civil-rights-act 358
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This act was the start to imposing severe penalties on hate crimes. According to the Act, the US Sentencing Commission shall increase the sentences on hate crimes.360 Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2009 Before Shepard’s prevention act, the classes of the hate crimes’ victims were limited according to the law. As when these acts were enacted, the focus was on African Americans and their right to vote. Matthew Shepard was a student who was killed for being gay. When the local police asked for help from the U.S. Department of Justice to investigate this case, they refused on the basis that investigating LGBT cases was out of their authority. This Act requires the government to list any crimes based on sexual orientation and disability under hate crimes and support all the grants for the federal and local authorities to investigate it, and that was a turning point in dealing with hate crimes.361
Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990 It was the first Act that required data collection on crimes committed based on 362 sexual orientation, gender identity, race or ethnicity from the Attorney General.
State laws
Each state has its own laws that focus on certain victims of hate crimes and its own penalties. Only 6 states do not include hate crime laws, and that can be illustrated through the following map.363
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https://www.ncjrs.gov/txtfiles/billfs.txt http://www.hrc.org/resources/hate-crimes-law 362 http://archive.adl.org/issue_government/hate_crime_sentencing_act.html 363 http://preliatorcausa.blogspot.com/2010/10/questioning-rationale-for-hate-crime.html 361
ď&#x201A;ˇ The Supreme Court on Hate Crimes: WISCONSIN, PETITIONER v. TODD MITCHELL 1989 Todd Mitchell, a young African American with other group of men, attacked a young white boy, as a result he was found guilty of aggravated burglary in Kenosha Countyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Circuit Court. The court found that he has chosen his victim on purpose so they increased his sentence. This decision was challenged by Mitchell before the Supreme Court, but his claims were rejected by the court. That decision gave the green light to states to impose harsh sentences on criminals who commit their crimes with bias towards gender, ethnicity, race, religion or sexual orientation.
X. The Victims: Since the general definition of Hate Crimes refers to minority groups, this made the idea of a Hate Crime broad and flexible, including a wide range of characteristics by which the case of each victim is decided on whether or not they are the result of discrimination and hate. 1-People of Color: 160
The term "people of color" is used to refer to people with no white skin, particularly, of no European descent. This includes a variation of races and origins, but the dominant reference for 364 this expression is African Americans.
Thereof, we will particularly discuss Hate Crimes against African Americans. According to statistics from Uniform Center Research (UCR) Program of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) released in the year 2016 (collected in 2015), 59.2% of the over-all amount of hate crimes committed in the United States were motivated by racial/ethnic bias.365 52.7% of reported and documented hate crimes were committed against people with dark skin (African Americans in particular), compared to 18.2% against people with white skin.366 These numbers dropped significantly in comparison with the statistics released in 2015 (collected 2014) citing 63.5% to 22.8% respectively.367 The reasons behind this significant drop vary as some sources such as the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) of the Bureau of Justice, confirm that the majority of Hate Crimes remain undocumented, due to fear and distrust of law protection, in addition to the lack of legal immigrant status of the victims in some cases.368 364
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/person_of_color https://www.fbi.gov/news/pressrel/press-releases/fbi-releases-2015-hate-crime-statistics https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2015-hate-crime-statistics-released 366 https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2015/home/topic-pages/victims_final 367 https://ucr.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2014/topic-pages/incidentsandoffenses_final 368 https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=dcdetail&iid=245 http://www.icaad.ngo/hate-crimes-in-the-us/?gclid=CjwKEAiAg5_CBRDo4o6e4o3NtG0SJABIatYPKaQnJwipKd2_GB_dxdXM5uMk_FcMc3oRr5MTUPkCBoCTbjw_wcB 365
It is also suggested that this drop could be due to the deterrent nature of the security measures taken regarding this type of crimes. Yet the exact reason remains unknown. -On January 12, 2015, Rand Metcalf (40) of Dubuque, State of Iowa, repeatedly stomped and kicked an African American Man's head in a bar in Dubuque. Metcalf assaulted the man after arguing with and attacking one of the victim's female friends. He directed racial insults to them and told the customers of the bar that he hated blacks. Metcalf attacked the man, stomped on and kicked his head many times. His friends knocked him out but then he walked over to him again and hit him. In 2016, Metcalf was found guilty by the Northern Iowa district court. He was sentenced with10 years and ordered to pay $1,874 in restitution.369 -One of the most widely-known incidents regarding African Americans took place in June 7th 1998, when the 49 years old James Byrd Jr. -an African American- was walking home in Jasper, Texas. Three white men (Lawrence Russell Brewer, John King and Shawn Berry) offered him a ride home. He got in their pick-up truck, but instead of taking him home, they drove to a desolate 370
road off town. The men severely beat James then chained him to the back of the truck by his ankles, and dragged him about 4 miles before reaching an African American cemetery where they dumped his body in.371 -Another incident occurred on election night in 2008, when it was assured that Barack Obama won the election, Ralph Nicoletti, Michael Contreras (both 18 years old), Brian Carranza (21) and Bryan Garaventa. Four men of Staten Island NYC, decided "to find African Americans to assault". They drove to Park Hill, an African American neighborhood, came across a 17 years old African American boy who was walking home. One of the defendants yelled "Obama", and then they got out of the car and beat the boy with a metal pipe and a police baton which caused injuries on his head and legs. They carried on their way, committing several assaults, then ended up crashing their car into a man they mistakenly thought was African American causing his body to crash the windshield, 372 the man survived the attack yet remained in a coma for several weeks after the attack. The four men pleaded guilty for purposely assaulting innocent civilians. Nicoletti was sentenced to 108 months (12 years) in prison for participating in the assault in addition to driving the group 369
https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/iowa-man-convicted-racially-motivated-hate-crime-sentenced-10-years-prison http://americansperspective.com/10-of-the-worst-hate-crimes-and-violence-in-domestic-american-history/# 371 http://www.adl.org/imagine/james-byrd-jr.html?referrer=https:// www.google.com.eg/ 372 http://www.civilrights.org/publications/hatecrimes/african-americans.html?referrer=https:// www.google.com.eg/ https://www.justice.gov/archive/opa/pr/2009/January/09-crt-011.html 370
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to the neighborhood and intentionally crashing his car into the victim. Carranza was sentenced to 70 months, Garraventa was sentenced to 60 months and Contreras was sentenced to 55 months.374 2-Muslims: Muslims in America form 0.9% of the US population (about 3-4 million Muslims).375 They are considered as one of the religious minority groups most aggrieved recently due to the instability of the political situation and also because they are easy to differentiate in a community due to their rather different appearance, especially Muslim females. The main reason behind violence against Muslims in the US is what lies under the name "Islamophobia". Definition of Islamophobia and the reasons behind its emergence in the US: Some define Islamophobia as the fear of Islam and Muslims in general, but the government officials of the US highly oppose this definition as they see it deepens the gap between nonMuslim and Muslim Americans. Instead, they define Islamophobia as the fear of Muslim Terrorists that are becoming a threat on the American community day after day.376 This expression first emerged in Europe in the early 1990s (under the category of xenophobia because of the confusion between Islam and Muslim terrorists by the European community at that time.378
377
)
In the United States, this phenomenon only started spreading and increasing after the 9/11 attacks, it is said that it has always existed and acted upon even before the 9/11 attacks, yet the attacks acted as a stimulant for its growth.379 According to statistics from Uniform Center Research (UCR) Program of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) of Crimes based on religious bias released in the year 2016 (collected in 2015) 19.7% of the over-all amount of hate crimes in the United States was driven by religious bias, which is considered the second most frequent type of hate crimes. (Check previous picture). 22.2% of reported and documented offenses were committed based on hate and prejudice 380 towards Muslims. 373
https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/final-defendant-pleads-guilty-anti-obama-assaults https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/four-men-sentenced-combined-293-months-prison-election-night-assaults 375 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html https://www.census.gov/library/publications/2011/compendia/statab/131ed/population.html 376 https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/u-s-government-and-american-muslims-engage-to-define-islamophobia/ 377 Intense fear of foreigners and people from different countries or backgrounds 378 http://crg.berkeley.edu/content/islamophobia/defining-islamophobia 379 https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/u-s-government-and-american-muslims-engage-to-define-islamophobia/ 380 https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2015-hate-crime-statistics-released 374
This number has highly risen since the release of the 2014 statistics citing 16.3% of reported offenses. This could be due to the instability of the political situation as mentioned above, or due to the rise of immigration and Muslim population in America in the past 3-4 years. On August 2016, Imam Alauddin Akonjee (55), a religious leader in al-furqan mosque in Queens, New York, and his assistant Thara Uddin (64) were reportedly shot by Oscar Morel (35) of Brooklyn near the mosque shortly after completing prayers.381 According to witnesses and recorded footages of the incident, Morel approached the victims from behind and shot each one in the head, after which the Imam and his assistant were left 382 drowned in their blood. New York State officials considered this as a hate crime, which led to treating the incident as a hate crime by the New York City Police Department. This urged many Muslim organizations to address Bill de Blasio, Mayor of NY to require further investigations to the case. An incident famously known as the 'Chapel Hill Shooting', on February 2015, Deah Shady Barakat, (23), his wife Yusor Mohammad Abu-Salha (21), and her sister, Razan Mohammad Abu-Salha (19) were shot in the head and found dead in their house in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. The suspect, later confirmed as the offender, was the neighbor of the victims, who is an atheist aged 46 years, and his name is Craig Stephen Hicks. Hicks turned himself down to a police office in Pittsboro, 20 miles south, sometime after the incident was discovered.383 3- LGBT: Considering crimes based on sexual orientation as Hate Crimes was the point most argued on, as the majority of the American society was in a state of denial to the fact that LGBTs exist and are vandalized because of their sexual preference. Ever since sexual orientation was added to the definition of Hate Crimes, it has been on the top of the hate crimes list, as the third most widespread type of assaults are assaults based on sexual orientation bias. According to UCR statistics released in 2016, 17.7% of hate crimes in the United States are based on sexual identity. Reported hate crimes against LGBT were broke down to: ď&#x201A;ˇ ď&#x201A;ˇ 381
62.2% of the reported crimes were anti- Gay males. 13.8% were anti-lesbian females.
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/queens-shooting-imam-among-two-shot-in-head-after-afternoon-prayerat-new-york-mosque-a7189436.html 382 http://nypost.com/2016/08/15/man-charged-with-murder-for-executing-imam-assistant/ (video) https://www.muslimadvocates.org/files/Coalition-letter-re-Queens-murders-081716.pdf 383 http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/04/us/chapel-hill-muslim-student-shootings-north-carolina.html?_r=0
2.9% were anti-bisexuals. 1.9% was anti-heterosexuals. 19.3% were put in a (mixed group) category, referring to aggression towards all types of 384 sexual orientations. th
- A very well-known incident regarding anti-sexual orientation, occurred on the 6 of October 1998, when the 21 years old homosexual Matthew Shepard, freshman of University of Wyoming was leaving a bar in Laramie, Wyoming, few hours after attending a gay awareness week 385 meeting in campus. Two Men, Russell Henderson and Aaron McKinney lured Shepard to their car offering him a ride, then drove to a remote area east of Laramie. The two men told Shepard they were going to rob him. They started punching him with a pistol, then Henderson tied him to a fence with white clothesline, they took his wallet and left him beaten and unconscious. 18 hours later, Shepard was discovered by a biker who was passing through the area, he was then transported to a th 386 hospital but died on the 12 of October. Henderson's & Aaron's Cases both reached a plea agreement 388 imprisonment.
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and they were sentenced with life
Another recent widespread incident that resembles aggression towards LGBT is the Orlando Shooting, a mass shooting that took place in "Pulse Nightclub" an LGBT nightclub in Orlando, Florida. The shooting resulted in the death of 49 people, and the injury of 53 others, most of whom were members of the LBGT community.389 The Shooter, Omar Mateen (29), of New York, was shot dead by the police inside the club. The FBI along with the Department of Justice released a call to 911 done by Omar whilst inside the club, pledging allegiance to a terrorist group.390
XI. Police: Convict or Victim: The idea of Police Accountability for hate crimes despite causing a debate, has no clear stances on whether policemen abusing their powers and committing violations against civilians should be considered a Hate Crime or not, also whether the assault of a policeman on the hands of a civilian is a Hate Crime or not. i. Crimes committed by Policemen (Police Accountability): 384
https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2015/topic-pages/incidentsandoffenses_final https://www.adl.org/imagine-matthew-shepard?referrer=http%3A//www.adl.org/imagine/james-byrdjr.html%3Freferrer%3Dhttps%3A//www.google.com.eg/ 386 http://www.wyohistory.org/encyclopedia/matthew-shepard 387 An agreement between the defendant and the prosecutor in which the defendant agrees to confess in exchange with sentence reduction, example: from death penalty to a life sentence. 388 http://www.wyohistory.org/encyclopedia/matthew-shepard 389 http://www.npr.org/2016/06/16/482322488/orlando-shooting-what-happened-update 390 https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/joint-statement-justice-department-and-fbi-regarding-transcript-related-orlando-terror-attack 385
With the presence of power in the hands of the representatives of an entity, proper use of this power is not always guaranteed, as some of the representatives might abuse this power, causing fatal damage to the image of the entity as a whole. This could be the case with police officers abusing their powers to commit personal race-biased crimes and other forms of hate crimes under their identity as officers of police departments.
On November 2006, African American Sean Bell (23) of New York was going out of a club after having a bachelor party, when he was shot in his car by three undercover NYPD officers, who fired 50 bullets to his car after he and his two friends ran against 391 them in 4:15 am in the morning of Sean's wedding. The three officers were charged with murdering Sean, but were acquitted later, for insufficiency of evidence.392 th
On July 17 2014, Eric Garner, a black 43 years old was choked by a police officer during an attempt to arrest him for selling loose cigarettes. It was said that the officer have used a banned chokehold to restrain him. Eric Garner died of choking despite repeating (the later famous quote used by protestors) "I can't breathe" many times for the officer to let him go. The officer was charged for Eric's murder, but was not proven 393 guilty.
On August 2014, the unarmed 19 years old African American Michael Brown was shot by Darren Wilson, a white police officer in St. Louis, Ferguson, Missouri. After Wilson noticed Brown fitted the description of a suspect in a theft, Wilson stopped his car in front of Brown & his other friend to check, the three got into a scuffle when Brown's 394 friend attempted to grab his gun. Wilson was found innocent by St Louis County grand jury and the US Department of Justice. But Brown's shooting led to protests around the country for months later.395 th
v. Note: The Department of Justice announced findings of civil rights' violations of the 4 and th 14 amendments of the constitution by the Ferguson Police department. Attorney General of the US at that time (Eric Holder) along with fellow government officials released a statement that indicate frequent violation of police officers in Ferguson which include unreasonable stops and arrests and the use of unnecessary force against civilians.
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https://www.nytimes.com/topic/person/sean-bell https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/federal-officials-close-investigation-death-sean-bell 393 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/11446472/A-timeline-of-police-attacks-in-the-USA.html https://www.justice.gov/usao-edny/pr/statement-us-attorney-loretta-e-lynch-federal-investigation-death-eric-garner https://www.justice.gov/opa/speech/statement-attorney-general-holder-federal-investigation-death-eric-garner 394 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/michael-brown-shooting-what-happened-in-ferguson-10450257.html 395 https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/attorney-general-holder-statement-conclusion-grand-jury-proceeding-shooting-michael-brown 392
The Department of Justice promised to take necessary measures to prevent such phenomenon from spreading through the states, in addition to fixing the disorder leading to such events in Ferguson.396 ii. Crimes committed against Policemen: The lives of "Men & women in uniform" performing their duties are being risked daily due to the grave mission of crime deterrence & Law enforcement. Yet targeting them for the mere facts of being officers of police departments puts their lives on the edge, as hate towards some individuals of an entity can cost committed policemen their lives. According to the FBI statistics, officers around the country were menaced with an average of 151 deaths, 57,000 assaults and 15,000 injuries in the past decade solely.397 ď&#x201A;ˇ
On May 2016, the 29 years old Curtis Ayers shot a police detective and father of two, Brad Lancaster (39), in Kansas City, Missouri. Detective Lancaster was assisting patrol officers in chasing Curtis as a suspect, when Cutis opened fire on Detective Lancaster and shot him twice before fleeing the scene. Cutis was sentenced 41 years in prison for a 398 total of 9 crimes including the shooting of D. Lancaster.
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On March 2015, two officers were shot and left severely injured by Jeffrey Williams (22) 399 during one of the many protests that followed Michael Brown's death in 2014.
XII. The rights of the victims of hate crimes For each American citizen, there are basic rights that their possession is not negotiable since the urbanization of the American society; these rights are categorized as civil rights. The protection of these rights is a binding fundamental function of the government. Before the First World War, according to the federal government the protection of civil rights was a locale function, then it was upgraded to be federal; protected by the FBI, state and local law enforcement agencies. The violation of any of these rights in certain procedures defined by the law is considered as a crime. The FBI and the law enforcement agencies record the number of crimes convicted nationally in all the states with their aspects, to categorize them and to produce reports stating these numbers and categories. The latest hate crimes reports released by the FBI and the law enforcement agencies in 2014 stated that 5,479 hate crimes were committed, involving 6,418 offenses to the uniform crime reporting program (UCR), leaving behind 6,727 victims. 396
https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-announces-findings-two-civil-rights-investigations-ferguson-missouri http://www.nleomf.org/facts/officer-fatalities-data/daifacts.html 398 http://www.kansascity.com/news/local/crime/article138366998.html http://www.odmp.org/officer/22837-detective-brad-d-lancaster 399 http://www.latimes.com/nation/nationnow/la-na-ferguson-shooting-20161209-story.html 397
According to the 2014 reports, and by the analysis of 5,462 incidents, the victims were 400 categorized as follows : 1-Race: 47% 2- Sexual orientation: 18.6% 3- Religion: 18.6% 4- Ethnicity: 11.9% 5-Gender identity: 1.8% 6-Disability: 1.5% 7-Gender: 0.6% The accuracy of these statistics cannot be relied upon completely due to two factors; the first is the fear of some victims to go forward to report the incidents to the authorities, and the second is that the local authorities do not have a defined standard for regarding a crime as a hate crime, affecting the number of hate crime incidents reported for these statistics. The main reason behind that is that hate crimes Acts that are supposed to be the basis on which local authorities report the incidents as hate crimes differ, if even existed, from a state to another. For example, the state of Wyoming has no Acts for hate crimes to define it or to deal with it; as a result none of the hate crime incidents that take place in this state is reported affecting the efficiency of the numbers of crimes recorded in the FBI and the law enforcement agencies reports. The victim of any crime has rights, including hate crime victims, according to the 401 Crime Victimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Rights Act of 2004 : 1. The right to be respected and treated with dignity: this right is constitutional in most of states that has victims' rights amendments. This right could affect the penalty depending on its impact on the victim's life and that is considered by the judge and the parole board. The victims have the right to introduce a Victim Impact Statement, through which the victim describes the impact of the crime over their lives whether psychological, physical or even financial; In sight of this statement the judge can use some of its information to determine the sentence, the parole board also can decide whether to grant a parole and under what conditions in its accordance. This statement has had the satisfaction of many victims who 402 stated that it helped them recover after the crime. 2. The right to be informed: the victim has the right to be informed of his/her rights, for example: how to contact criminal justice officials, what they would have in return from the criminal justice system, to if there are any provided services or resources to help them. This right also means that the victims have the right to be informed of any development or change that happens regarding their case like arresting the offender, trial, appeal, dismissal of charges, sentencing, release or escaping of offender. Information reaches the victim through 400
https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/latest-hate-crime-statistics-available https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/olc/opinions/2010/12/31/availability-crime-victims-rights.pdf 402 https://victimsofcrime.org/help-for-crime-victims/get-help-bulletins-for-crime-victims/victims'-rights 401
mailing an automated victim notification system which automatically call or mail the victim to inform him/her with any update in their case. 3.
The right of protection: the victim has the right to be protected by authorities as long as the case is open, this right could be provided according to each case in the form of relocation, restraining orders (which are court orders prohibiting the accused person from carrying out certain actions, specifically approaching or contacting the victim in any possible way) police 403 escort or witness protection program.
4. The right to apply for compensation: it is the right that allows the victim to ask for a financial repay of what is lost due to that crime such as: medical and counseling expenses, lost wages, or funeral expenses. This right resembles another one which is the right to restitution from the offender; which means financial repay to the victim too, but the difference is that the offender is the one obliged to pay for it. 5. The right of a speedy trial: the direct effect of this right is specified to the accused, to prove his innocence or guilt as soon as possible; but the victims also benefit indirectly from this right through retrieving their violated rights as soon as possible. 6. The right of enforcement of the victims' rights: some states have passed laws for the enforcement of the victimsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; rights while others created offices to be in touch with victims and to make sure that they get their rights. For example: The National Crime Victim 404 Law Institute (NCVLI). \
XIII. The debate on hate crimes: No one supports crime, but the argument about hate crimes is not between supporting and opposing hate crimes; the difference in the points of views lies in the idea of whether there should be specification of some violations or crimes as hate crimes or there is no necessity for that, what is the definition such a crime? Does it deserve specified penalties too? Who are the protected groups and to what extent? Would this legislation lead to justice and security or else it would increase the recessive culture?
Proponents - Certain groups need further protection by the law due to discrimination against them, and hate 405 crimes are much more severe than other crimes, and it deserves harsher penalties. - Further legislation seeks justice for discriminated against groups, with no aim of admitting or dispensing any of these groups styles of life; they have the right to enjoy freedom according to 403
http://www.courts.ca.gov/1260.htm https://law.lclark.edu/centers/national_crime_victim_law_institute/child_victims/ 405 http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_hat5.htm 404
their choices without any kind of abuse, and that is not a special right, it is a civil right for each and every citizen. - Further federal contributions are needed to protect discriminated against groups who are facing different types of abuse. - Legislation won't affect the freedom of speech in anyway as the recommended Act will define what shall be treated as hate crimes and it must be a crime, and will exclude the supervision on any religious belief. - Motives resemble thoughts and they are taken into consideration when sentencing a criminal for harsher or weaker penalties if he intended to do the crime or not for a certain motive. For instance if the crime was murder, previous intentions if existed are taken in consideration, increasing the penalty but if the murder occurred with no intention for self-defense the gravity of the penalty is much less. Then if the crime is motivated by hate, it should have a harsher penalty. - The police officers face discrimination and their lives are endangered only because of their profession, they need to be included in the hate crimes legislation in order to provide them with more protection on their lives, for example, the police officers that have been killed recently in Baton Rouge and Dallas.
Opponents - All types of crimes are covered under the state and common laws, no need to specify some violations as hate crimes; some consider this as a sort of discrimination and useless legislation. - Inequality in the penalties for the same crime merely because of being based on hatred is a mean of inequality against the accused.
- Further legislation would give special rights to LGBTs groups over the normal citizen, and neglecting quality and admitting their choices of lives as the normal or superior style of life. -creating federal legislation means increasing the federal contribution in the law enforcement, which means much more governmental power over the individual freedom. - The federal legislation will waste any freedom of speech as any person against any of these groups as homosexuals for instance will be considered as a criminal, even saying that the action of homosexuality is banned according to the bible would be considered as an action of hate speech. - Thoughts cannot be punished or used as an accusation for a crime, and the presence of a motive 406 for a crime is not enough to form an accusation against anyone. 406
http://politicalcorrection.org/blog/200905070003
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- The police officers are already protected with harsher sentences for anyone convicted of attacking the police; there is no necessity to add them in legislation on hate crimes for further 407 protection.
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http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2016/08/03/should-killing-a-police-officer-be-a-hate-crime
Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
Prepared by: Chairlady Maryam Khaled Vice-Chairlady Fayrouz Ali Ranking Member Ahmed Gamal Party Consultant Hosam Belal Badawy
In assertion that knowledge is power, light is contiguous, and border security is important, This is dedicated to the Honorable Delegates of the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs.
Homelandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;17 Secretariatsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Team
About the committee: The Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs (HSGAC) is the Senate’s primary oversight committee with broad jurisdiction over government operations generally and the Department of Homeland Security in particular. Its primary responsibilities are to study the efficiency, economy, and effectiveness of all agencies and departments of the federal government; evaluate the effects of laws enacted to reorganize the legislative and executive branches of government; and study the intergovernmental relationships between the U.S. and states and municipalities, and between the U.S. and international organizations of which the U.S. is a member. In addition to governmental affairs, the Committee oversees and receives legislation, messages, petitions, and memorials on all matters related to the Department of Homeland Security and its agencies, except for appropriations, the Coast Guard, the Transportation Security Administration, immigration, customs revenue, commercial operations, and trade. Subcommittees:
Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations (PSI) Financial and Contracting Oversight (FCO) The Efficiency and Effectiveness of Federal Programs and the Federal Workforce (FPFW) Emergency Management, Intergovernmental Relations and the District of Columbia (EMDC)
Leadership: Chairman
Ranking Member
Ron Johnson
Claire McCaskill
WAR ON DRUGS
I. History of Fighting Drugs.............................................................................176 II. Dangerous Effects of Drugs............................................................................178
Effects of Drugs on Economy…………………………………………………………… Effects of Drugs on Environment……………………………………………………….. Effects of Drugs on Crime Rate…………………………………………………………. Effects of Drugs on Health……………………………………………………………….
III. Drug Cartels..................................................................................................184
Colombian Narco-Trafficking…………………………………………………………... Mexican Narco-Trafficking………………………………………………………………
IV. Drug Enforcement Administration...............................................................188 V. Border Security and Coast Guard..................................................................191 VI. United States Foreign Policy in Fighting Drugs............................................192
Merida Initiative…………………………………………………………………………… Plan Colombia……………………………………………………………………………… Operation Albatross………………………………………………………………………...
VII. Principles of Modern Drug Policy................................................................194 VIII. Drug Rehabilitation......................................................................................196
I.
The History of Fighting Drugs: rd
In September 3 1783, Representatives of King George III of Great Britain and Representatives of the United States of America signed a peace treaty in Paris, which ended the revolutionary war of independence between the United States of America and the British Empire. In 1789, following the ratification of the United States Constitution, a new federal government began operating, which started borrowing money to meet the expenses of the revolution. This led to debts that the United States was unable to fulfil. At this time, Alexander Hamilton was the Secretary of Treasury and he proposed a tax on distilled spirits. At this time, whiskey was the most popular distilled beverage. In 1791, after a vigorous debate, the House, by a vote of 35 to 21, approved a legislation imposing an excise tax on whiskey. This tax was supported by a number of social reformers, who believed that the whiskey tax was a "sin tax"; which is a tax imposed on certain goods deemed harmful to society. This tax was believed as a sort of compensation to the damage that happens to the society; others 408 also believed that it may decrease the alcohol intake. Citizens of the United States opposed imposing a tax on whiskey as it was a popular drink; poor farmers often increase their incomes by distilling their excess grain into whiskey. And there were small villages where cash was always in short supply, so whiskey often was used as a medium of exchange in these villages. Many residents petitioned against passage of the whiskey excise. When that failed, they organized extralegal conventions to advocate repeal of the law in May 1792, as a result of this, the tax law was changed. Changes included a small reduction in the tax that was advocated but the new excise law was still unsatisfactory to many people. In 1794, some farmers wearing womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s clothes in western Pennsylvania attacked a number of federal officials seeking to collect tax on the grain they had distilled into whiskey. The U.S. President George Washington dispatched 15,000 militia men under his personal command to put down the revolt. Alexander Hamilton joined him in his campaign. Resistance quickly scattered after the troops arrived.
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In 1801, When Thomas Jefferson became the president of the United States of America. The whiskey tax was repealed, because many citizens continued to refuse to pay the tax and the tax was difficult to collect. In 1915, the U.S. congress passed Harrison Narcotics Tax Act; it was enacted to regulate the use and distribution of Coca leaves and Opium. As well as imposing special tax on any person who 408
Glass, Andrew. 2009. "Excise Tax Imposed On Whiskey, Starts Whiskey Rebellion, Jan. 27, 1791". POLITICO. http://www.politico.com/story/2009/01/excise-tax-imposed-on-whiskey-starts-whiskey-rebellion-jan-27-1791-017976 . 409 "Whiskey Rebellion Facts, Information, Pictures | Encyclopedia.Com Articles About Whiskey Rebellion". 2005. Encyclopedia.Com. http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/united-states-and-canada/us-history/whiskey-rebellion .
imports, manufactures, distributes or deals in these drugs. Harrison Narcotics Tax Act requires those persons to register their name or style, and place or places where his business is to be 410 carried on with the collector of internal revenue of the district . th
In 1919, the Congress passed the 18 amendment of the constitution, which prohibited the th production, the transportation and the sale of alcoholic beverages. As a result of the 18 amendment, the alcohol consumption was significantly reduced, especially, among low income groups. The crime rate decreased as well; especially crimes associated with alcohol consumption. However, as alcohol production became a crime, there was an increase in crimes involving alcohol production and distribution. Criminal organizations became rich as a result of trafficking th alcohol in black markets, and the government was unable to enforce the 18 Amendment. th
th
In the 5 of December 1933 and after 13 years of enacting the 18 Amendment; the U.S st th Congress passed the 21 Amendment of the Constitution which repealed the 18 Amendment and ended the federal prohibition of the manufacturing and distribution of alcoholic beverages. th
On the 27 of October 1970, the U.S. President Richard Nixon signed the “Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act” into law, making it the first step in declaring the war on 411
drugs. (CDAPCA) aimed to decrease the potential for illegal substance abuse, as it required the pharmaceutical industry to maintain strict record keeping and physical security and for certain types of drugs. Title II of the “Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act” is called the Controlled Substance Act (CSA), which classified the types of drugs into five distinct schedules, depending upon the drug’s abuse potential and drug’s acceptable medical use. The (CSA) also set federal penalties for those who possess, distribute, sell, manufacture, or smuggle these types of drugs. The penalty of a certain schedule drug offense or violation differs 412 from the penalty of another schedule drug offense. Schedule I: Drugs, substances, and chemicals in schedule I have the highest potential for abuse and have no currently accepted medical use. Marijuana, Cannabis, Amphetamine, Heroin, and lysergic acid diethylamide (LCD) are examples of schedule I Substances. Schedule II: Includes drugs that have high potential of abuse, these drugs leads to severe physical or psychological dependence and are considered dangerous drugs. Methamphetamine (Meth), Cocaine, Fentanyl and Phencyclidine (PCP) are examples of Schedule II drugs.
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"Harrison Narcotics Tax Act, 1914 - Full Text". 2017. Druglibrary.Org. http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/e1910/harrisonact.htm . 411 "A Brief History Of The Drug War | Drug Policy Alliance". 2017. Drugpolicy.Org. Accessed April 1. http://www.drugpolicy.org/facts/new-solutions-drug-policy/brief-history-drug-war-0 . 412 "CSA Schedules". 2014. Drugs.Com. https://www.drugs.com/csa-schedule.html.
Schedule III: Defines drugs or chemical substances with moderate to low probability for physical or psychological dependence. With potential of abuse lower than Schedule I and Schedule II. Ketamine and testosterone are examples of schedule III drugs. Schedule IV: Schedule IV drugs, substances, or chemicals have a low potential for abuse and low risk of dependence. Tramadol and Ambien are examples of Schedule IV Drugs. Schedule V: Defines drugs or chemical substances that have a potential for abuse that is lower than Schedule IV drugs and consist of preparations containing limited quantities of certain narcotics. Drugs of Schedule V are generally used for antitussive, antidiarrheal, and analgesic 413 Purposes.
II. Effects of Illegal Drug trade: 414
Economy: As of 1971, $1 trillion was spent by the USA on the war on drugs . About 500,000 415 inmates are imprisoned for drug related charges . The annual cost for an inmate is $25,000 that is equal to $12.6 billion a year. America spends 58% less money to educate a child than what it spends on prisoners. Drugs generate profits for suppliers and costs for the state. Drug users in the United States spend 416 an average of $100 billion annually on cocaine, heroin, marijuana, and meth. Drug abuse costs were close to $193 billion on America in 2007 that is the last available estimate. It includes:
When it comes to productivity $120 billion was lost, mainly because of labor participation costs, participation in rehabilitation programs, imprisonment, and premature 417 death due to abusing drugs.
$13 billion were paid on healthcare, for drug treatment programs and side effects related to drugs.
$61 billion in criminal justice costs, mostly due to criminal investigation, prosecution and incarceration, and victim costs.
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"DEA / Drug Scheduling". 2017. Dea.Gov. Accessed April 1. https://www.dea.gov/druginfo/ds.shtml. "Over $1 Trillion Spent Since Nixon Began The War On Drugs". 2017. Mintpress News. http://www.mintpressnews.com/war-on-drugs/211217/. 415 "Drug War Clock | Drugsense". 2017. Drugsense.Org. http://www.drugsense.org/cms/wodclock. 416 https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/ondcp/policy-and-research/wausid_results_report.pdf 417 "(U) Impact Of Drugs On Society - National Drug Threat Assessment 2010 (UNCLASSIFIED)". 2017. Justice.Gov. Accessed April 1. https://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs38/38661/drugImpact.htm#Productivity . 414
Legalizing marijuana and other types of illegal drugs would have a negative and a positive impact on the economy, through acquiring sales tax revenue for state and local governments and saving money on imprisonment costs. Although, after legalizing marijuana in Colorado statistics showed teenagers use becoming 56 % higher than the national average. Also college students’ use became 54 % higher than the national average. The negative effects of legalizing marijuana in Colorado also include marijuana-related exposure to children, treatment, the flood of marijuana in and out of Colorado, the dangers of pot extraction labs and other disturbing factual trends. Environment: Illegal drugs are a widely known danger to society. The effects that they have on one’s body are vastly known. However, the environmental impact from producing such drugs is often overlooked. Cocaine, heroin, marijuana and Methamphetamine; most of these drugs start as simple plants; Cocaine is extracted from Coca plants, Heroin from poppy plants and Marijuana 418 from Cannabis sativa. So naturally Deforestation is by far the most notable environmental destructive effect of these drugs cultivation, mostly in areas of rainforest; leading to a reduction in natural habitat and addition air pollution, since fields are slashed and burned to clear a place for the crops. Another factor is pesticide pollution. The pesticides used by the farmers pollute the soil, groundwater and air. The process of turning these plants into usable drugs has more damaging effects than 419 growing them. Many drug labs have been established on the borders for the mixing of chemicals. The dumping of chemicals in rivers has contributed to environmental pollution problems spread in drugproduction related countries. As for methamphetamine which is manufactured by a number of 418
"Impact of Drugs On Environment - National Drug Threat Assessment 2010 (UNCLASSIFIED)". Justice.Gov. https://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs38/38661/drugImpact.htm#Environment . 419 “Colombia, Coca cultivation survey 2011” United Nations Office on Drug Crime (UNODC). June 2012 https://www.unodc.org/documents/crop-monitoring/Colombia/Colombia_Coca_cultivation_survey_2011.pdf
easily obtained chemicals that are hazardous, such as acetone, anhydrous ammonia (fertilizer), 420 ether, red phosphorus, and lithium. Meth laboratories have another series of threats to nature. Meth lab cleanup is beyond the capabilities of most law enforcement offices. The average cost of a cleanup is about $150,000. Fumes in the walls can cause cancer, short and long-term brain damage, problems with their immunity systems and respiratory illness; children living in former meth labs have been known to test positive for the drug. Many home fires have been blamed on the â&#x20AC;&#x153;blowing-upâ&#x20AC;? of minimeth labs conducted by inexperienced people trying to make meth at home. Crime: Reduction in crime rates is directly proportional to increasing admissions to rehabilitation programs. The illegal drug abuse affects the entire criminal justice system as it is estimated that about one-half of State and Federal prisoners abuse or are addicted to drugs, but few receive treatment. Taxpayers spend tens of billions on arresting, prosecuting and jailing offenders for drug crimes, and post-release supervision process. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), 20 % of state prisoners and 53 % of federal prisoners are imprisoned because of a drug offense. The drug-crime link is also reflected in arrestee data. In 2008, the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) II program -which was designed to monitor trends in drug use among arrested populations in urban areas across the United States- found that the median percentage of male arrestees who tested positive in the 10 ADAM II cities for any of 10 drugs, including cocaine, marijuana, meth, opioids, and PCP, was 67.6 %, down slightly from 69.2 %. 421
Health: Drugs raise health care costs by $11 billion per year . The cost rises to $193 billion when accounting for crime-related costs and lost productivity at work, according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Drug use and abuse may lead to specialized treatment, ER visits (sometimes involving death), contraction of illnesses, and prolonged hospital stays. Many of those who become dependent on illegal drugs end up seeking professional help. Individuals often experience adverse reactions to drugs including nonfatal overdoses that require them to go to the hospital. The drug user is not the only one affected by the drugs abuse often the effects are extended to the user's family as well as the whole community. Many states have enacted children protection laws to protect children from the effects of drug production, trafficking, and abuse. With
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Zuccato, E., and S. Castiglioni. 2009. "Illicit Drugs In The Environment". The Royal Society. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1904/3965.short. 421 "Forbes Welcome". 2012. Forbes.Com. https://www.forbes.com/sites/matthewherper/2012/02/10/the-truly-staggeringcost-of-inventing-new-drugs/#7cbf48674a94.
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manufacturing of methamphetamine, the harms have escalated to not only abuse and neglect but 422 also to fires, explosions, and physical health hazards such as toxic chemicals.
The Negative Side Effects of Drugs on Health:
Cocaine: Cocaine is a stimulant; which means it is a drug that increases the activity of the body. Cocaine is made from leaves of the Coca plant, which grows in South America; especially, in Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. In South America, coca leaves are eaten to treat altitude sickness; which is the biological effect of high altitude on human body as a result of low air pressure and low levels of oxygen.
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Cocaine is used as an anesthetic; it is given to patients before painful surgeries. Cocaine also is used to reduce bleeding, as it narrows the blood vessels through a process called “Vasoconstriction”. Narrowing the blood vessels reduces the blood flow through the wound or 424 injury. Cocaine is one of the most dangerous drugs. It is highly addictive; a person cannot recover from cocaine addiction easily, once a person starts taking cocaine it affects the person mentally and physically. Physically, Cocaine stimulates the brain nerves to create euphoria. The human body quickly develops tolerance to this euphoria. After few times of use, the user’s body needs frequent use or higher dosages to bring the same feeling of euphoria. This increases the body dependence on cocaine. Usually cocaine -when taken- is mixed with another type of drugs such as marijuana, heroin, or amphetamine. This mixture greatly increases the dangers of cocaine, as well as developing 425 addiction to the other drug combined with cocaine, which is called two-drug habit. There are two forms of cocaine. Powder cocaine and crack cocaine. Powder cocaine the form of cocaine that is taken through injection, insufflation (Breathing it in through the nose), or rubbing it to the gum line. The crack cocaine is the crystal form of cocaine. It looks like white rocks. It is called crack cocaine because it makes cracking or popping sound when heated. Crack cocaine is more dangerous than powder cocaine, because it consists of between 70% and 100% pure cocaine. The short term use of cocaine causes loss of appetite, increases heart rate and blood pressure and increases body temperature. It also causes depression, panic and hallucinations. The long term 422
"Impact of Drugs On Health - National Drug Threat Assessment 2010 (UNCLASSIFIED)". 2017. Justice.Gov. Accessed April 1. https://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs38/38661/drugImpact.htm#Health . 423 "Pope 'Plans to Chew Coca Leaves During Bolivia Visit' - BBC News". 2015. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/worldlatin-america-33312962. 424 "Pharmaceutical Use of Cocaine". Narconon International. Accessed April 1. http://www.narconon.org/druginformation/cocaine-circa-1860-1900.html. 425 "Watch Truth About Drugs Documentary Video & Learn About Substance Addiction". 2017. Foundation For A Drug-Free World. Accessed April 1. http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/cocaine/why-is-cocaine-so-highlyaddictive.html#deadlycombinationofdrugs.
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use of cocaine causes permanent damage to blood vessels of the brain and the heart. Causing high blood pressure, which consequently leads to strokes and heart attacks, and causes death, cocaine also causes severe damage to the liver and kidney. If a person takes cocaine through insufflation, it causes destruction of nose tissues. If cocaine was smoked, it causes severe damage to the lungs. It also causes permanent and severe tooth 426 decay if it was rubbed to the gum line. Cocaine addiction causes sexual problems as it causes infertility. The cocaine addicted mothers who use cocaine during pregnancy, give birth to cocaine addicted infants, who suffer a horrifying withdrawal just few days after their birth. Cocaine abuse of the mother during pregnancy causes lifelong health problems to their babies. Heroin: Unlike Cocaine, Heroin is a sedative; which means that it is a substance that reduces the activity of the body. Heroin is made from a plant called opium poppy. The plant grows in Asia, in Myanmar (or Burma), Laos, and Thailand, these three countries are called the Golden Triangle. Opium poppy also grows in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran; these three countries are called the Golden Crescent. Heroin is a schedule I drug; which means, unlike cocaine, heroin does not have medical uses. During the 1850s, The United States suffered from a major problem as the rate of opium addiction was extremely high. The Government considered that providing another less addictive drug to solve the opium addiction problem. The United States government started providing opium addicts with morphine. It was believed that Morphine is a “non-addictive” drug and would be a good substitute to opium because it is “Less- Potent”. Less potent means that 427 morphine is less powerful and less effective than opium. Instead of solving the problem, morphine addiction has become bigger problem than opium addiction. In 1898 a German pharmaceutical company “Bayer” began to manufacture Heroin. Just like morphine, Heroin was used to solve the opium morphine addiction problem. But heroin was proved to be more addictive than morphine and opium, and much more devastating to health.
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Heroin causes immediate harm to human body. It enters the brain rapidly and affects the brain physically and psychologically. Heroin users experience “surge of euphoria” accompanied by
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"Truth About Cocaine Documentary Video & Learn About Substance Addiction.". Foundation For a Drug-Free World. http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/cocaine/effects-of-cocaine.html . 427 "On This Day: January 29, 1859". 1859. Nytimes.Com. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/harp/0129.html . 428 "Truth About Heroin". Foundation For A Drug-Free World. http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/heroin.html.
warm feeling of the skin, and dry mouth. The basic functions of body like heart beat or breathing 429 begin to slow down. The heroin user starts feeling somnolence. After few hours of use, the addict’s body begins to develop tolerance towards heroin making the addict feel the need for another dose of heroin. Unless the dose is provided, the user will experience the withdrawal. Heroin withdrawal leads to extreme mental and physical symptoms that include diarrhea, vomiting, pain in the bones, and severe discomfort. The long term use of heroin damages teeth and causes inflammation of the gum lines, the frequent use of heroin weakens the immune system of the user’s body, as well as weakening the muscles and may lead to partial paralysis. The use of heroin causes loss of memory and significantly reduces mental and intellectual performance. Also reduces sexual capacity and causes infertility and impotence.
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Amphetamine Type Stimulants (ATS): The amphetamine was developed in the late nineteenth-century. Amphetamine was legally available and people could buy it. It was used as a medicine to treat asthma and allergies because of its effect on respiratory system as amphetamine widens the air ways. Later, people discovered that Amphetamine increases energy and keeps them awake, so it was given to soldiers during the war. Housewives started using Amphetamine to benefit from its effects that will help them with the house work. Later, it was discovered that Amphetamine suppresses appetite, so it was used by people with obesity to help them lose 431 weight. The Methamphetamine (Meth) was developed in the 1950s, but it has become more powerful in the recent years, as there was a huge evolution in the techniques of manufacturing the Methamphetamine. The Methamphetamine had medical uses. It was prescribed to people with depression because it raises the level of anti-depressant organic chemicals in the brain. 432 Methamphetamine was also prescribed to people with Alcoholism and Parkinson’s. The use of Methamphetamine began to increase quickly. People began to use it to lose weight, and others used it to stay alert. People who work in jobs and industries that require them to stay awake for long periods of time such as trucking industry began to heavily use Methamphetamine. Methamphetamine creates false sense of energy. It makes Meth users feel that they are capable of exerting more effort both mentally and physically, and push their bodies further, which leads to physical and mental breakdowns. Methamphetamine causes extreme loss of weight because of 429
"What Are the Immediate (Short-Term) Effects of Heroin Use?". Drugabuse.Gov. https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/heroin/what-are-immediate-short-term-effects-heroin-use . 430 "Watch Truth About Heroine". Foundation for A Drug-Free World. http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/heroin/thedestructive-effects-of-heroin.html. 431 "The Difference Between Methamphetamine and Amphetamine". 2012. The Cabin Chiang Mai. https://www.thecabinchiangmai.com/the-difference-between-methamphetamine-and-amphetamine/ . 432 Hand, Elizabeth. 2007. "In Meth We Trust". Salon. http://www.salon.com/2007/08/16/meth/.
its effect on appetite. Meth users experience other negative side effects as a result of the short term use of Meth. These side effects include Hyperactivity disorder, nausea, and delusions of power. Meth use also has an effect on human behavior as it increases aggressiveness. Long term use of Methamphetamine causes permanent harm to basic body functions. It increases blood pressure and increases heart rate. Meth users suffer from damaged brain and blood vessels. This may lead to strokes that may cause death. Meth users also suffer brain damage, as they 433 experience loss of memory and they lack the ability to grasp abstract thoughts. Currently, only the Amphetamine may be prescribed in medication. It is used to treat attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); which is a mental health disorder in which the patient suffers difficulty paying attention and low performance in work or school. The Methamphetamine is believed to be too dangerous to be prescribed in medication, due to its stronger effects and its quicker onset.
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III. Drug Cartels: “A drug cartel is any criminal organization with the intention of supplying drug trafficking operations.” In the dictionary the term “Cartel” refers to any group of companies that agree to a certain price for their products so that they can all win. This is exactly what happened when the major drug lords agreed to put certain price for drugs so that they can all win, the deal later was broken but the name stuck to the cartels. 435
The Basic Hierarchy of a Cartel: 1-The Falcons: They are considered the eyes and ears of the cartel. They watch the streets, activities of the Police and other rival cartels, and then they report them to their cartels. 2-The Hitmen: They are the armed division of the cartel, their job is to assassinate, and kidnap targets; in addition to protecting their turf as well. 3-The Lieutenants: They are like the supervisors. Each Lieutenant is assigned a territory to supervise the work of the Falcons, and the Hitmen. They have the authority to make minor decisions and undergo low profile executions. 4-The Drug Lords: A Drug Lord is the highest post in any cartel. They assign the Lieutenants, take major decisions, and undergo high profile executions.
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"Watch Truth About Crystal Meth". Foundation for A Drug-Free World. http://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/crystalmeth/the-deadly-effects-of-meth.html . 434 "Amphetamine Uses, Dosage, Side Effects & Warnings - Drugs.Com". Drugs.Com. https://www.drugs.com/amphetamine.html. 435 Bowden, Charles F (Feb 6, 2011). "El sicario, un documental proscrito en México”
There is also an important division of any cartel that is not in the hierarchy. These consists of the drug producers; the chemists who modify and provide drugs to cartels. There are also the sponsors and lenders of money, and there are the arms-providing groups who have their own organizations. Mexican and Colombian Cartels have the most prominent effect on the United States. The U.S. Department of Justice estimated that 1,286 cartels operated in the U.S. in 2009 and 2010. It also estimated that Mexican cartels earn about $39 billion from drug trade in the U.S. More than 2400 marijuana plants belonging to a Mexican cartel called “La Familia Michoacana” were found in 2009.
Colombian Narco-trafficking:
Colombia had 4 main drug cartels, what this part is going to focus on are The Medellin, and Cali cartels. The efforts of the Colombian War on Drugs in the last 10-20 years cannot be ignored. Colombia’s approach was the most aggressive in comparison to other countries that were facing the same problem of fighting the rise of drug cartels in it. A result of the good planning, and acting upon it, in the last 10 years, the Colombian National Police has eliminated and caught drug lords with a rate of 100 per year. Drug lords were fighting back, they killed five presidential candidates, and it did not stop there. In addition to the problems and hidden wars between rival cartels, they were fighting their wars against the government as well. Of course innocent civilians were harmed in the process. The government’s approach was efficient nonetheless, in 2010; studies proved that Colombia decreased its rate of producing drugs by 60% in comparison to its peak in 2000. However, Colombian narco-trafficking still threatens the U.S. 1. Medellín Cartel (1972-1993): The Medellin Cartel started in early 1970s with a group of men, the most important of them is Pablo Emilio Escobar, who was described in books as “The world’s greatest outlaw”. Medellin cartel’s main interest was to export drugs into the United States. This was through key-states including Florida, California, and New York. In the peak of the cartel, their daily profit was almost 60 Million USDs out of drug trafficking, and they exported 84% of the amount of drugs entering the United States, and 80% of the 436 cocaine exportation around the globe. The wealth of Pablo Escobar was estimated to be around 24 billion dollars. Escobar knew that life was tough on the poor; he made sure everyone in his community was taken care of. He constructed numerous housing projects and built entire neighborhoods for those who needed 436
Macias, Amanda. 2016. "Legendary Drug Lord Pablo Escobar Lost $2.1 Billion In Cash Each Year — And It Didn't Matter". Business Insider. http://www.businessinsider.com/pablo-escobar-and-rubber-bands-2015-9 .
shelters. He built schools, churches, constructed hospitals and opened health centers. He is also responsible for constructing soccer fields, and establishing and funding soccer teams and 437 leagues. In 1982, the popularity of Pablo Escobar got him elected to the Congress of Colombia. In 1983 a Colombian lawyer and politician named Rodrigo Lara Bonilla was appointed as Colombian Minister of Justice. Lara publicly denounced the drug cartels and declared himself an enemy of the Colombian drug traffickers and drug lords. Lara gained the support of many politicians including Luis Carlos Galán; a Colombian journalist and politician who ran for presidency of Colombia on two occasions. His policy and his efforts were the reason why Escobar was expelled from the Congress. In 1984, only after 8 months of taking the Ministry of Justice post, Rodrigo Lara was assassinated by orders of Pablo Escobar. In 1987, Luis Carlos Galán was also assassinated while he was walking onto the stage to give a speech in the City of Bogota. In 1989, the Medellín planted a bomb on Avianca jetliner. The plane took off from El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá and it was heading to Cali. It was carrying 107 passengers including 2 American citizens. Just five minutes after takeoff, the bomb was detonated and the aircraft exploded and went down in flames. All of the 107 passengers lost their lives in the explosion. Pablo Escobar planned the bombing as an assassination attempt to kill presidential candidate César Gaviria Trujillo.
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John Jairo “Popeye” Vásquez, a former member of the Colombian National Army, served in the Colombian Navy. He was one of Escobar’s hitmen. Popeye confessed after being arrested that he killed more than 300 people and gave orders to the hitmen of the Medellin Cartel to kill around 3000 more. The victims of “Popeye” include politicians, journalists, policemen, judges and even criminals inside the Medellin Cartel. After spending 23 years in prison he said that he feels no 439 guilt as he believes that he has been used by Pablo Escobar. The end of the cartel was on the hands of joined forces of Colombian, U.S military and police forces. In addition to a group from Cali Cartel (Medellin’s rival cartel) called “Los-Pepes” a Spanish word as an abbreviation for “People Prosecuted by Pablo Escobar”. Colombian electronic surveillance team used radio triangulation technology to track his radiotelephone transmissions and found him hiding in a middle-class neighborhood in Medellín. The Colombian Police attacked the building in which he hid. Escobar tried to escape but he was shot and killed on spot. 2. Cali Cartel (1977-1998): 437
Arturo Wallace. 2013. "Drug Boss Pablo Escobar Still Divides Colombia - BBC News". 2013. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-25183649 . 438
Brodzinsky, Sibylla. 2016. "Ex-Pablo Escobar Enforcer Who Killed 300 Seeks New Career As Youtube Star". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jun/08/pablo-escobar-popeye-enforcer-youtube-channel . 439 Matt Roper. 2015. "Escobar's Hitman - Behind 3,000 Murders - Doesn't Feel Any Guilt". 2015. Mail Online. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3238278/Buddy-circumstances-make-man-Pablo-Escobar-s- .
Unlike the one man structure of Medellin Cartel –although it started as a part of it– Cali Cartel had a group of 4 drug lords that functioned as Cali Cartel’s Executive Board. The Cartel was structured as “cells” and that made it harder to detect; In addition to it having strong links with the government, leading to political and judicial power. This explains how the Cali Cartel was involved in the fall of the Medellin Cartel. The most prominent Drug Lord in the Cartel was Gilberto Rodriguez Orejuela, together with his brother and Jose Londono they founded the cartel by splitting from Medellin. Later, Helmer Herrera joined to be the fourth executive board member. By mid 1990s, Cali cartel had over 90% of the control over the drug market around the world. By estimate, the profit of the Cartel was nearly 7 Billion U.S. dollars a year out of Drug Trafficking. Most of that number is definitely from the U.S considering that it is the largest consumer of Drugs in the world.
Mexican Narco-trafficking:
Mexican Drug cartels and traffickers have existed for a very long time, but their influence has increased drastically in the past 20 years. This was especially due to the end of the Colombian Cartels; Medellin and Cali. It started when a former Mexican Judicial Federal Police agent, Miguel Gallardo, nicknamed “The Godfather” decided to work in drug smuggling. He became the first trafficker of Opium and Marijuana from Mexico to the U.S through the borders. He was the first person as well to have links with Colombian Cartels who were his suppliers (Medellin Cartel). The number of cartels later became like an uncontrollable eruption of an active volcano. Mexico currently is the main provider of drugs in the globe and especially into the U.S because of how easy it is -assuming they only cross the borders-. By 2007, statistics have shown that Mexican Cartels control over 90% of the amount of drugs entering the United States. The Mexican War on Drugs’ approach was aimed at fighting the Mexican Drug Cartels rather than fighting Drug-trafficking, as Mexico saw it was the job of America. The current two main Cartels providing Drugs to the U.S are Los Zetas, and Sinaloa Cartel. 1. Los Zetas Cartel (1999-Present): Los Zetas is a Mexican criminal syndicate. Considered by the US government to be "the most technologically advanced, sophisticated, efficient, violent, ruthless, and dangerous cartel operating in Mexico" It started in the late 1990s when Osiel Cárdenas Guillén, drug lord of another cartel called The Gulf Cartel, found himself in the middle of a turf war so he sought a former Mexican army lieutenant, who in turn convinced a lot of other corrupt Mexican army men to leave the army and
become his personal bodyguards. The amount of money he paid them was more than double what they got paid in the army and that’s how the cartel was able convince them to join the cartel. The name of the group became so because the first commander’s code name was Z1. The prominent members in the cartel were named with a Z and a number and that’s how they became The Zs. The powers and responsibilities of The Zs expanded within the Gulf Cartel, until they became a very prominent part of the cartel. Their executions and kidnappings and violent actions are usually very barbaric. It is also believed that they would harm anyone who stands in their way whether he was an officer, a drug lord, a politician, a woman, or a child. They are known to perform massacres against innocent civilians and other rival cartels. In 2010, Los Zetas officially split from the Gulf cartel although they started to be rivals long before that. The real reason behind the split is not known. Now Los Zetas have control over 11 states in Mexico, that’s 5 less than the strongest cartel Sinaloa. An American street gang called Surenos is known to have the tightest connections to Los Zetas, in addition to other American gangs. Mainly, this is the ways Drugs are trafficked through them. 2. Sinaloa Cartel (1989–present): Sinaloa cartel is the current most powerful drug cartel in the world. At least, that’s what it is to the United States Intelligence Community “the most powerful drug trafficking organization in the world.” Between 1990 and 2008 –The U.S Attorney General says– Sinaloa Cartel is responsible for importing 200 tons of Cocaine and large amounts of Heroine into the United States. It also distributes Marijuana, methamphetamine, and MDMA. Its drug lord is considered to be one of the most powerful in the world; Juaqien Guzman, nicknamed “El-Chapo.” It controls 16 states in Mexico, and in 2015, it was considered the most active cartel smuggling drugs into and throughout the United States.
IV. Drug Enforcement Administration: The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) was established as a result of an executive order by the United States President Richard Nixon in 1973. The Drug Enforcement Administration is the only single-mission federal agency; it’s specialized in enforcing the controlled substances laws and regulations of the United States regarding drugs. Jurisdiction:
The Drug Enforcement Administration has the sole responsibility of conducting U.S. drug investigations and to pursue the crimes that are related to drugs both domestically, and abroad. The DEA is divided into 21 divisions across the United States; each division includes a number of offices. The total number of DEA offices in the United States is 221 offices; they work to investigate crimes related to drugs and prosecute those who violate the drug enforcement regulations and those who facilitate them. It is a fact that most of the illegal drugs in the United States are exported from foreign countries. The Drug Enforcement Administration also has 89 offices in 68 foreign countries including Moscow, Beijing, Mexico City, Guatemala, Cairo, 440 Rabat and other countries and cites. Impact on the Illegal Drug Trade: In the 2016 fiscal year, the budget of the Drug Enforcement Administration Exceeded 2.98 billion dollars. The activities of the DEA Results in arresting an average of 32,000 persons every year for crimes related to drugs and the seizure of an average of 53,000 kilograms of cocaine, 930 kilograms of Heroin, 335,000 Kilograms of Marijuana, and 3,100 kilograms of Methamphetamine “Meth” 441 every year. The DEA managed to prevent 33.1 billion dollars from flowing into the drug industry from fiscal year 2005 to fiscal year 2015, by seizing the assets and the drugs of the drug trafficking 442 organizations. From 2000 to 2015, the DEA succeeded in preventing nearly 690,000 teenagers from using illicit drugs for the past ten years, which is estimated to be 15 percent decline in the number of teens using cocaine. It also succeeded in reducing the current cocaine use among high school seniors by 59 percent, and crack cocaine use has been decreased by 53 percent. The DEA also was able to plummet 80 percent of the methamphetamine use by teens, as well as decreasing the percentage of Marijuana use by 14 percent over the last decade. Employees of the DEA: In 1972 the DEA was employing 2,898 employees. By 1990 the number of employees increased 443 to 6,274 employees and to 11,017 in 2016; including:
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"DEA / Foreign Office Locations". Dea.Gov. https://www.dea.gov/about/foreignoffices.shtml.
"DEA.Gov / Statistics & Facts". 2017. Dea.Gov. https://www.dea.gov/resource-center/statistics.shtml#seizures. “DEA.Gov / Factsheet June 2016”. Dea.Gov. https://www.dea.gov/docs/DEA_Factsheet_june2016.pdf 443 "DEA.Gov / DEA Staffing & Budget". Dea.Gov. https://www.dea.gov/pr/staffing.shtml. 442
Over 4,600 Special Agents whose job is to collect evidence and prepare it for use to convict drug traffickers. Arresting and searching subjects besides seizing assets connected to illicit drug trafficking.
Over 600 Diversion Investigators; their job is to prevent diversion of controlled substances and listed chemicals into the illicit market, by enforcing the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) and the Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act (CDTA) regarding the manufacture drugs, the distribution and dispensing of legally produced controlled substances and listed chemicals.
Nearly 800 Intelligence Research Specialists; whose job is to conduct and manage complex research into drug cultivation and production, methods of transportation of illegal drugs and their trafficking routes, they also conduct research into the structure trafficking organizations and analyze it.
300 Forensic Chemists; who analyze evidence for the presence of controlled substances, they also provide expert testimony in courts of law and develop intelligence data used to 444 determine trends in local and international drug trafficking.
Mission of the DEA: The mission of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is to enforce the controlled substances laws and regulations of the United States. In carrying out its mission, the DEA's primary responsibilities include:
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Responsibility for enforcing the provisions of the Controlled Substance Act (CSA) regarding the manufacture, distribution, and dispensing of legally produced controlled substances
Conducting investigations for major violators of the controlled substance regulations and laws who operate on interstate and international level, as well as the Criminals and the Drug trafficking organizations that commit violence and terrorize citizens and prepare them for prosecution.
Co-operation with the federal and state officials and organizations to collect and analyze strategic and operational drug intelligence information and manage the national drug intelligence programs
Seizing and expropriating assets that are used, or intended to be used in illegal drug trafficking. As well as the assets that are gained or owned as a result of illegal drug trade.
DEA.Gov / Factsheet June 2016”. Dea.Gov. https://www.dea.gov/docs/DEA_Factsheet_june2016.pdf
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Responsibility for all the programs associated with drug law enforcement in foreign countries, under the guidance of the policy of the U.S. Secretary of State and the U.S. ambassadors.
Co-ordination and co-operation with federal and state agencies, and with foreign governments, in programs meant to reduce the availability of illicit drugs on the United States market through non-enforcement methods such as crop eradication, crop substitution, and training of foreign officials.
Keeping in touch with the United Nations and Interpol on matters relating to international drug control programs.
Aviation Division:
Provides aviation support to operational and intelligence elements within DEA and the law enforcement community to detect, locate, identify, and assess illicit narcotics-related trafficking activities.
Aviation support is critical to DEA’s strategic goal of disrupting and dismantling drug trafficking organizations that have a significant impact on America’s illegal drug 445 availability.
V. Border security and coast guard: One of the major factors to deter drug smuggling is fortifying the border and costal security as most of the drugs that enter the United States come through the Mexican borders and the Pacific Ocean from Afghanistan so in order to stop drugs from entering the U.S there should be strong actions to stop them from entering the country.
1-Border security: Drug dealing inside Mexico is one of the most complicated processes all over the world due to the low living standards, weak government and police. These factors forced Mexico to become the biggest country in the world producing methamphetamine and marijuana aside from producing heroin. The United States now has 2000 miles of fence which reduced the rate of drug smuggling into the United States so now drug smugglers use new ways like: Ultra-light aircraft, smuggling through the sea or the ocean, or using tunnels that cross the borders from Mexico to the U.S. The United States has discovered nearly 75 tunnels since 2008, those tunnels are becoming bigger and bigger in order to allow smugglers to get more quantities of drugs into the United States. A lot of tunnels that are being discovered are between San Diego (American) and Tijuana (Mexico). Cartels sometimes use bribery to pass but in another cases like in Arizona city of 445
"DEA / Aviation". 2017. Dea.Gov. https://www.dea.gov/ops/aviation.shtml.
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Nogales, there is a lot of tunnels as gateway for floods but smugglers use them to pass drugs, 446
which makes the police unable to shut down those tunnels . Lana Duffy the United States Attorney said: “These cartels have spent years and tens of millions of dollars trying to create a secret underworld of passages so they can move large quantities of drugs” this shows the level of strength of those cartels and smugglers.
2- Coast Guard: Another way of smuggling drugs into the United States is through Pacific Ocean and other maritime areas. Anyway if we compared the quantity that is being smuggled through water to the quantity that is being smuggled through land we will find it smaller. Drug smugglers mainly Colombians smuggle Heroin and Cocaine in containers and ships hidden 447 between normal goods, while some others use private vessels in order to smuggle drugs. The Coast Guard is the agency that protects the maritime zones of the United States and stops any intervention in it. The U.S. has 100,000 miles of coastline and inland waterways on the Pacific, Atlantic Ocean and also the Caribbean. The Coast guard agency works with other agencies in order to stop drug smugglers from entering the maritime zone and territorial seas of the United States.
VI. U.S. foreign policy in fighting drugs: The United States of America had big differences in its policies due to the change of administrations, each one of them had his own vision; some of them thought it is better to fight drugs from the source (Colombia and Mexico for example) and some others said that they just should fortify the borders. So those variances in thinking changed the whole policy of the U.S. from time to time.
1-Plan Colombia: Colombia has been the most funded country from the United States for more than a decade. The military aid for Colombia is very big but there are many calls in the United States to stop this funding as it costs the United States over $700 million per year. It has over 80% of the military aid that the U.S. gives to other countries. Despite this huge amount of funds, the plan is not enough to stop drugs as the government of Colombia is incapable of stopping drug production and trafficking. So what is “Plan Colombia”? Plan Colombia is the name of the United States’ package for the military aid for Colombia, United States has funded Colombia with over 8 billion $ since it was initiated in 2000. That is 446
Rafael Romo. 2011. "Smuggler Tunnels Probe For U.S. Border Weakness". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/02/21/mexico.border.us/ . 447 "National Drug Threat Assessment 2010 (UNCLASSIFIED)". 2011. Justice.Gov. https://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs38/38661/index.htm#Contents .
mainly a support for the military and the police in order to stop drug trading and production, thus the amount of drugs getting into the U.S. will be decreased. This amount of money is bigger than 448
any aid for a foreign country outside the Middle East . The plan was originally suggested by the Colombian president Andres Pastrana in 1999, he said: “"[Drug crops are] a social problem whose solution must pass through the solution to the armed conflict. Governments in South America are losing control over their own countries and security as the drug cartels and military groups are growing bigger and bigger, this was the case in Colombia in year 2000 but the U.S. - with this initiative- stopped this crisis from happening by implementing 449 plan Colombia. Back then the United States had fiscal surplus which gave the policymakers the ability to give aids to Colombia which is not the case recently, the United States doesn’t have that surplus nowadays so the plan is having many offenders nowadays that argue saying that giving away that much money is a waste and that the U.S. should either stop or reduce the amount of aid.
2-Merida initiative: Merida initiative is a mutual agreement between the United States of America and Mexico. They agreed on fighting drug trade and drug cartels together so in order to strengthen the database for each county they decided sharing useful information among themselves, this is happening with respect to the independence of each country and mutual confidence between them. Under the Merida Initiative, the United States has a partnership with the Government of Mexico to stop and fight organized criminal groups and cartels, with a great effort and obvious procedures to maintain the rule of law and human rights. The United States has aided the Mexican government with 2.5 billion$ since the beginning of the initiative in year 2008 and now let’s see where this money goes. Its missions:
Increasing the efforts to make some reforms in the judicial branch in Mexico beginning from the police until the highest court including also the law school.
Enhancing the capabilities of the Mexican police in order to fight crimes and stop drug production and trading.
Trying to increase the knowledge of the people in order to prevent them from entering drugs industry and respect the human rights.
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"U.S. Policy In Colombia". Amnesty International USA. http://www.amnestyusa.org/ourwork/countries/americas/colombia/us-policy-in-colombia. 449 Michael Shifter. "Plan Colombia: A Retrospective | Americas Quarterly". 2012. Americasquarterly.Org. http://www.americasquarterly.org/node/3787.
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Establishing Drug Treatment Courts in five states in Mexico, They are meant to deal with addiction as a health issue and find ways to cure people from it.
Working on raising the level of the prisons there to get its accreditation from the American correction association (ACA), there are 42 prisons that are given the accreditation from the ACA till now.
3-Operation Albatross: This operation took place on June 9, 2008. It was in Afghanistan, it was a record-breaking 450
operation as the DEA was able to seize 262 tons of hash . This is the biggest amount ever seized in the history of the DEA. The operation was a result of cooperation between the government of Afghanistan and DEA’s Foreign-Deployed Advisory and Support Teams (FAST). The operation had a great support from the world biggest organizations like NATO which gave it a great legitemacy and acceptance. The operation took place in areas that taliban rules. The search was done on 5 narcotic super-labs and some other underground labs. Twelve people were arrested back then.
VII. Human rights violations in War on Drugs: The Drug War Policy have been said by different people to be racist and discriminatory Since the start of the Drug War in America, arrest rates between people have been very biased –so the Human rights movement says. The number of people arrested, prosecuted, or convicted by drug crimes is more for African-Americans and Hispanics rather than White Americans. In the last year, statistics has shown that white people use the same amount of illicit drugs that black people do, also there is no difference in drug dealing between races. However, the number of arrested Blacks is still larger, and their penalties lengthier. Almost 6 Black people are arrested in comparison to 1 White person in states like Montana, Iowa, and Vermont. It’s 11 to 1 in Manhattan. Although the use of drugs is equal, black people occupy the majority of people imprisoned for illicit drug use. Officials deny any type of discrimination in the Drug War. The War on Drugs targets communities with low income, and the largest population of people living in these areas are black people. Their arguments are viewed as weak by civil rightists. Many movements have tried to decrease the gap and talk about the issue, like Black Lives Matter. However, the issue is still there and human rights in America are still fighting it. The government of Obama opposed the policy of the federal agencies combating drug-related crimes. Barack Obama stated that he opposes using the term “War on Drugs”, as drug addicts are
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"News From DEA, DEA Releases Photos Of Record-Breaking Seizure In Afghanistan". 2008. Dea.Gov. https://www.dea.gov/pubs/pressrel/pr061308a.html.
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not an enemy that governments should declare war on. And government should acknowledge 451 that drug addiction is not just a criminal problem, it is a health problem as well. On May 2012, The Office on National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) published an updated version of the drug policy. The modern drug policy will focus more on reducing the demand of 452 drugs. Principles of the modern drug policy include: 1-Ensure Balanced and More Humane Drug Policy: The Government will acknowledge that drug addiction is a chronic disease of the brain that can be prevented or treated. And also will acknowledge that public health initiatives are as equally vital as public safety initiatives. 2-Protect the Citizens from Drugs: Governments criminalize drugs because of its harmful and lethal effects, not only on drug users but on the society as well. The government of the United States commits to protect all citizens from dangers of drugs and tragic consequences of drug addiction. Including the citizens who are still in recovery from the consequences of illegal drug use 3-Reduse Drug Use to Reduce Drug Consequences: The best way to reduce or avoid the lethal effects of drugs is to reduce drug use itself which could be achieved by financing campaigns that aim to raise the awareness of citizens of the substantial harm associated with drug use and by implementing the public health service for individuals who use drugs in the context of comprehensive recovery-oriented public health system. 4-Disrubt Drug Trafficking: Targeting criminal organizations (Both foreign and domestic) that violate laws and regulation of the substance control policy and focusing on arrest, prosecution, and imprisonment of drug traffickers. 5-Integrate Prevention, Treatment, and Recovery Support into Public Health Systems: There is overwhelming scientific evidence that drug prevention and treatment are cost-effective ways to reduce drug use and the consequences associated with drug addiction. New approaches should be followed by public health systems, such as evidence-based prevention, drug addiction treatment programs and recovery support services. 6-Protect Human Rights: Citizens have the right to be safe from illegal drug use and crimes and violence associated with drug abuse and trafficking. Drug involved offenders that have contact with criminal justice should be supervised in a way that respects their basic human rights. 7-Reform Criminal Justice System: Criminal justice system arrests and prosecutes individuals who are responsible for breaking laws and regulations. The Criminal justice system should help 451
"Obama On The Need For Drug Treatment". 2017. Nytimes.Com - Video. https://www.nytimes.com/video/us/100000004298612/obama-on-the-need-for-drug-treatment.html .
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"Principles of Modern Drug Policy". The White House. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/ondcp/policy-andresearch/principles-of-modern-drug-policy.
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bringing these individuals into contact with treatment service if they are suffering from physical or mental disorder as a result of illegal substance use. 8-Support the UN Drug Conventions: The three UN Drug Conventions are the foundation of our global drug control efforts and are effective in their current form. Efforts to renegotiate the Conventions should be opposed.
VIII. Drug Rehabilitation: Drug rehabilitation (or Drug Rehab) programs are programs conducted in facilities called Rehab centers to help drug users to recover from their addiction and help them to regain their normal lives in a healthy way and prepare them to re-enter society by providing treatment and recovery 453 support. To help patients feel more comfortable while receiving their treatment, drug rehab centers specialize in providing treatment and assistance to patients who are addicted to specific types of 454 drugs, and others specialize in helping patients of specific gender. Drug rehab centers range from basic facilities to luxury treatment centers. The patient receives his rehab program in the facility that is suitable for his\her budget and his\her level of insurance coverage. Drug rehab faces many obstacles which reduces its efficiency as a solution for the drug addiction problem. One of the obstacles that drug addicts choose to attend the rehab programs voluntarily; unless it was their choice, they cannot be forced to receive drug treatment and the support of the rehab centers. Patients are also free to leave whenever they choose. Because it is believed that the patientsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; desire to make a positive change in their lives, and their persistence and determination to get rid of their addiction are the most important factors to make the drug rehab truly effective. Drug addicts in many cases deny that they have addiction and sometimes they claim that drugs are not harmful which affects their desire to receive treatment. Because drug addicts take their first step in their journey to recovery from addiction once they realize they have a problem. Addictsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; denial of their addiction will prevent them from seeking treatment. Studies conducted by National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) indicate that 40% to 60% of 455 patients relapse after completing their drug rehab programs. Drug relapse can be caused by 456 various reasons. These reasons include stress, negative emotions, going back to old social 453
"Treatment And Recovery". Drugabuse.Gov. https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-scienceaddiction/treatment-recovery. 454 "Drug Rehab Treatment Information". Rehabs.Com. http://www.rehabs.com/about/rehab-treatment/. 455 Health, Drug, and American Centers. 2017. "Statistics On Drug Addiction". American Addiction Centers. http://americanaddictioncenters.org/rehab-guide/addiction-statistics/.
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"Causes of Addiction Relapse". 2014. The Recovery Place. https://www.recoveryplace.com/blog/top-5-causes-of-addictionrelapse/.
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circles, being accompanied by people with addiction, or even losing control in hard times or 457 during celebration.
Steps of Addiction Rehab Process: The steps of the addiction treatment process are not the same for all patients. The process varies from one patient to another depending on the type of addiction and the treatment plan. However, there are 4 key elements that are included in all recovery processes. 1-Intake: The process to determine whether the rehab center is fit for the patient or not. In this stage, the rehab center asks the patient to undergo some diagnostic tests and screenings to determine the best way of providing treatment to the patient. The patient is asked a number of questions to make sure that the program meets his needs. 2-Detoxification (Detox): The stage, in which, all the traces of drugs and alcohol are removed from the body of the patient. In this stage the patient is provided with some maintenance medication that would ease the symptoms of withdrawal associated with specific drugs. The patient would likely be assessed by professional medical personnel to determine what type and degree of pharmaceutical assistance that may be needed during Detoxification. Generally, detoxification process is safe for most patients. But in some cases, the process can be severe and sometimes deadly. 3-Rehabilitation (Rehab): In this stage, patients get to know the reasons behind their addiction. Patients address those issues so they can effectively move on with their lives without going back to drugs, alcohol, or their addictive behavior. The process of rehabilitation includes: individual therapy, group therapy and family therapy. Individual therapy: in individual therapy patients do some inner work identifying when they began abusing substance and the reasons why they started using it. They receive strategies that can help them focus on finding new hobbies and interests and learn to identify situations that trigger drug use, they also learn deal with these situations. Group Therapy: Group sessions that allow people who are recovering from their addiction to interact with each other. It is helpful for people in the recovery stages to know that they are not alone. Group therapy sessions develop the sense of community support. Patients find solace when others share their stories of addiction and their journey of recovery. 457
"Drug & Alcohol Addiction: Common Causes Of Relapse". 2012. The Cabin Chiang Mai. https://www.thecabinchiangmai.com/drug-alcohol-addiction-common-causes-of-relapse/ .
Family Therapy: in some Rehab programs, family members are an important component in recovery process of some drug addicts. Sometimes they are welcome to participate in the therapy sessions, as they are the persons who are most affected by the addiction of their loved ones. 4-Recovery: For many individuals, recovery is a lifelong process. The ongoing work their attention makes it much. Many people cannot withstand the temptation to relapse. To avoid this problem, many rehab centers provide follow-up programs like weekend stays in rehab center, or offering the 458 patients to maintain regular therapy sessions post-rehab or conduct scheduled drug testing
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"The Addiction Rehab Process". 2017. Rehabs.Com. Accessed April 2. http://www.rehabs.com/about/the-addictionrehabilitation-process/.
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Cyber Threats I. Overview……………………………………………………………………. II. Cybercrimes and Cyber Terrorism…………………………………………. III. Types of Hackers…………………………………………………………. IV. Hacktivism…………………………………………………………………. V. Whistleblowing……………………………………………………………… VI. Surveillance………………………………………………………………… VII. Cyberattacks against the United States……………………………………...
Cyber Attacks Targeting Military…………………………………………………. Cyber Attacks Targeting Economy………………………………………………….. Cyber Attacks Targeting Infrastructure………………………………………………
VIII. Deep Web…………………………………………………………………
Difference between Deep web and Dark Web…………………………………………
IX. Agencies Fighting Cyber Crimes……………………………………………
Overview: We cannot talk about cybersecurity without first identifying what cyberspace actually is, cyber space does not have a standard definition. Instead, it is used to describe the virtual world of computers. For example, an object in cyberspace refers to a bulk of data floating around a computer system or network. With the advent of the Internet, cyberspace now extends to the global network of computers. So, after sending an e-mail to one of your friends, you could say you sent the message to them through cyberspace. The Internet has become essential to people’s lives, the economy, and national security of the developed countries which depend mainly on cyberspace. Banking, stock exchange, money transfer, and other financial transactions require connection between entities and organizations around the world. Infrastructure of developed countries is operated through computer networks. People use the internet for Online Education, and to communicate with each other, to shop online, to administrate and run business, and to record and store personal information. As Cyberspace provides huge opportunities and facilitates people’s lives, it also comes with vulnerabilities. Cyberattacks are the most intriguing kind of attacks, because they are hard to detect and unpredictable. The Cyber threats to the national security and the economy of the United States increase every year. The scope of cyberattacks increases every year, as well as the frequency of the attacks. Cyber threat may come from foreign countries and nations, seeking to exploit secret and classified information to gain advantage over another country. It may also come from a terrorist group that can use cyberspace to access and exploit the confidential information of a country. The Terrorist groups may use the social media to spread their ideologies and extremist ideas and to recruit new members to their terrorist organizations.
Hacking: That is a kind of crime in which someone’s computer is accessed illegally without his/ her permission. Inside the United States, hacking is classified as a felony and punishable by 20 years in prison, a fine of up to $15,000, or both. In hacking, the criminal uses a selection of software programs to go into a person’s pc and this person might not be aware that his laptop is being accessed from a remote location.
Cyber Crime: When personal computers were invented in the 1990s, hacking was done basically to get more information about the system. Hackers competed with each other to win the tag of the best hacker. The term ‘cybercrime’ appeared at that period; it's a bigger risk now more than ever due to the growing number of connected people and devices. The U.S. Department of Justice expands the definition of cyber-crime to encompass any unlawful activity that uses a laptop for 200
the storage of evidence. This definition is unique in that it defines the crime as the vector being 459 the pc and that the computer is a storage tool. The Appeal of Cyberterrorism for Terrorists • First, it's far less expensive than conventional terrorist methods. All what a terrorist needs is a non-public laptop and an internet connection. Terrorists do no longer need to shop for guns which include weapons and explosives; as an alternative, they could create and supply laptop viruses via a smartphone line, a cable, or a wireless connection. • Second, cyberterrorism is more anonymous than traditional terrorist techniques. Like many internet surfers, terrorists use on-line nicknames “display names” or log on to an internet site as an unidentified individual, making it very hard for security agencies and police forces to track down the terrorists’ real identity. And in cyberspace there are not any physical barriers such as checkpoints, borders, and customs agents. • Third, the range and quantity of targets are substantial. The cyberterrorist could target the computer systems and networks of governments, individuals, public utilities, private airways, and many others. Fourth, cyberterrorism may be carried out remotely, a characteristic that is mainly attractive to terrorists. Cyberterrorism calls for less physical training, threat of mortality, and travel than traditional types of terrorism, making it simpler for terrorist agencies to recruit and preserve 460 followers. •
But perhaps the thing that still attracts the extremist and terrorist groups to the conventional attacks is that the damage caused by it is far more obvious than that caused by a cyber-attack. The casualties whether dead or injured through a conventional terrorist attack appear on the news. Unlike the Cyber-attack which can be hidden. Cyber Crime vs. Cyber Terrorism The difference between cyber-crime and cyber-terrorism is mainly in the “motive” of the cyberattack. A cyber terrorist’s motive is to spread fear and to intimidate a specific society into changing for the purpose of an ideological aim. Cyber-crime is distinctive in that its motive is for personal gain. Technically, the same action could be taken by a cyber-terrorist and a cybercriminal, for example a person hacks into an account to steal information. However, the difference is why the individual hacked into the web page or account. Commonly if it is a terrorist group, like Anonymous, they will inform before the assault. Part of the action of the terrorist is not only committing the act but as well letting people know that they did it. A cyber459
https://www.cga.ct.gov/2012/rpt/2012-R-0254.html Margaret Rouse. 2010. "What Is Cyberterrorism? - Definition". Searchsecurity. http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/cyberterrorism . 460
crime is committed by hackers that do not want to be discovered; they do not want to be found. This also centers back on their motive for doing the attack. Understanding the "motive" of the offender is the main point to differentiate between what is a cyber-crime and what is a cyberterrorism attack.
Types of Hackers:
White-hat hackers: White-hat hackers are the ‘ethical’ hackers. They work for governments and for organizations; for a good cause. They establish computer security systems and are hired to test others. White-hat hackers report back to organizations on how they gained access to a particular document or area in their computers.
Black-hat hackers: Black-hat hackers are the stereotypical meaning of the term ‘hacker.’ They are the hackers who penetrate personal computers, bank accounts, etc... for personal gain. This is the criminal sense of the word.
Grey-hat hackers: Grey-hat hackers are the middle ground between both types. They might do all the actions of a black-hat hacker, but without the element of personal gain. So they might penetrate a security system, without alerting the organization, which is illegal, but at the same time they do not profit personally from the process. Grey Hat Hackers notify the owner of the organization that the organization’s security system suffers from holes and flows. They offer these organizations to fix these flows in exchange for payment.
Hacktivism: “It is the act of hacking, or breaking into a computer system, for a politically or socially motivated purpose. The individual who performs an act of hacktivism is said to be a hacktivist.” 461
Anonymous: Anonymous is a group of hacktivists that originated in 2003. They do not have a fixed philosophy, or a strong leadership. Rather, they adopt a certain group of ideas that are mainly anti-cyber surveillance, anti-Zionist and anti-evil. They are known to be the group wearing the Guy Fawkes masks from the movie “V for Vendetta”. Anonymous performs attacks against governmental, religious or corporate websites. The latest targets of Anonymous were the U.S, Israel, Uganda, and Tunisia. In addition to the attacks on ISIS, MasterCard, PayPal, 1and other religious sites as well.
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Margaret Rouse. 2007. " what is hacktivism? - Definition". Searchsecurity. http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/definition/hacktivism
In a website linked with Anonymous they, describe themselves as “an internet gathering, with a very loose and decentralized command structure that operates on ideas rather than directives” This means that they do not have a fixed leadership, anyone who wants to be a member of Anonymous just needs to acknowledge himself as a member of Anonymous. Members usually use this tagline after operations: "We are Anonymous. We are Legion. We do not forgive. We do not forget. Expect us." Anonymous Operations Anonymous have performed several operations from 2004 and until now, for example of the most recent of them:
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Operation KKK (Ku Klux Klan): in which Anonymous threatened to release names of 1000 member in KKK and other terrorist groups, warning them that they are the terrorists 462 living under masks of normal people.
Operation Tamir Rice: Tamer Rice, a 12 year-old was shot by police officer in Cleveland Park while only holding a BB gun. Anonymous shut down the Cleveland City website and after that they posted a video on their official website in November 2014. In the video Anonymous threatened the officer who fired his gun on Tamir, telling him that he is under the Radar of Anonymous. Anonymous also announced a Cyberattack on the 463 websites of the police.
Operation Cyber privacy: Anonymous released a video condemning the passage of a bill in Canada that increases the access and power of Canadian Intelligence offices.
Operation Saudi: Saudi Anonymists hacked into government websites, it is said that these attacks were supported by the Iranian government.
Case Donald Trump: it was reported that Anonymous declared war on Donald Trump in March of 2016, but the official Anonymous YouTube channel denounced these allegations, stating that this “goes against everything Anonymous stands for” and "we are 464 for everyone letting their voices be heard, even, if the person at hand...is a monster."
Anonymous U.K also launched a movement to help the homeless, and starved people around the world.
Woolf, Nicky. 2015. "Anonymous Leaks Identities Of 350 Alleged Ku Klux Klan Members". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/nov/06/anonymous-ku-klux-klan-name-leak . 463 Stone, Jeff. "Tamir Rice Shooting Inspires Anonymous Hack On Cleveland Websites". 2014. International Business Times. http://www.ibtimes.com/tamir-rice-shooting-inspires-anonymous-hack-cleveland-websites-1728681 . 464 Klein, Adam. 2016. "How Anonymous Hacked Donald Trump". New Republic. https://newrepublic.com/article/132283/anonymous-hacked-donald-trump.
Supporters call them Internet-Robin Hoods, and critics call them cyberterrorists. One thing remains, Anonymous is considered to be of the “100 most influential people” by Time Magazine in 2012.
Surveillance: Definition: The word surveillance means “the careful watching of a person or place”. It was used to describe the act of policemen keeping close watch over a criminal because of a crime that has happened or is expected to happen. Computer and network surveillance means monitoring computer activity, data and traffic on the Internet. In 1994, President Bill Clinton signed Communications 465
Assistance for Law Enforcement Act, which requires all phone calls, broadband Internet traffic, emails, web traffic, instant messaging, etc. to be available for unimpeded real-time 466 monitoring by Federal law enforcement agencies Surveillance through the National Security Agency (NSA):
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The NSA is a U.S. governmental intelligence organization concerned with global monitoring in addition to the collection and processing of foreign intelligence and counterintelligence purposes. In other words, the NSA is not only the nation's firewall against cyberattacks and hackers but a hub for information collection as well; lately, as a result of the confidential documents revealed by the whistleblower Edward Snowden regarding the surveillance and protection methods the NSA used against the people, many ethical concerns were raised regarding the constitutional legitimacy of the NSA's work. Should the government have the right to spy on its people under the pretext of deterrence? The National Security Agency’s main job is to protect the information of the U.S government against penetration. In order to ensure the safety of information, NSA has wide surveillance on even normal citizens and this has caused major political controversy until now and that is the historical leaking of Edward Snowden. It is the statement that the NSA bypasses encryptions and gathers personal information.
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Some of the leaked programs of the NSA are: A) PRISM: (Surveillance program): It is a clandestine surveillance program that collects its information from 9 major US internet companies. The program was launched in 2007.
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"Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (1994 - H.R. 4922)". 1994. Govtrack.Us. https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/103/hr4922. 466 "Summary of H.R. 4922 (103Rd): Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act - Govtrack.Us". 1994. Govtrack.Us. https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/103/hr4922/summary . 467 "Combating Cyber Crime | Homeland Security". 2017. Dhs.Gov. https://www.dhs.gov/topic/combating-cyber-crime.
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"NSA.Gov". National Security Agency. https://www.nsa.gov/.
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B) Xkeyscore: This program basically gives the NSA analysts access to any personal information of anyone and their history of websites he visited and his Facebook chats just by typing the e-mail of the user. C) FASCIA: This program works on collecting the locations of all cell phones at all times by transmitting these locations from the cell phones to the nearest cell-tower and then they are transmitted through towers till it reaches the FIASCA. D) Optic Nerve: The UKâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surveillance agency GCHQ collaborated with the NSA to create Optic Nerve. This program saves all images sent through Yahoo Messenger. Yahoo says that they never heard of Optic Nerve and promised on encryption. Until now, Yahoo chat remains unencrypted. E) Boundless Informant: Boundless informant allows the NSA to analyze well the boundless amounts of metadata information collected from around the world. Metadata is basically the call durations and the details without the actual words. The most surveilled countries in 2013 were Iran, Pakistan, Jordan and India. The program claims to not surveille American citizens, although more than 3 billion pieces of metadata were collected from U.S citizens. F) Dishfire: Dishfire targets text messages, collecting information about money transactions, monitor border crossings, and meetings between unsavory characters. Upon public disclosure of some surveillance programs, James Clapper, the United States Director of National Intelligence released a statement confirming that the government of the United States had been using large internet services companies such as Facebook, Twitter, and Google to 469 collect information on foreigners outside the United States. He also stated that the purpose of collecting the information is that it would be used as a defense against national security threats. Clapper clarified that the government of the United States were operating within the legal 470 boundaries mentioned in the provisions of Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) . The Congress was divided after the surveillance programs were leaked. A number of Congressmen and Senators defended the surveillance programs justifying data collection by provisions in USA PATRIOT Act of 2001. Others said that these programs are a setback and an unjustifiable intervention in the privacy of the citizens.
Whistleblowing: Whistleblowing is the action of exposing or revealing any kind of activity that could be considered illegal or unethical within a public or a private entity. A person who performs that action is called a whistleblower. He reports if the organization which he is a part of undergoes 469
"US Spy Chief Clapper Defends Prism and Phone Surveillance". 2013. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-uscanada-22809541. 470 Koebler, Jason. "James Clapper Finally Admitted The NSA Used PRISM To Spy On US Citizens". 2014. Motherboard. https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/james-clapper-finally-admitted-the-nsa-used-prism-to-spy-on-us-citizens .
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any types of misconduct, such as false advertising or illegal accounting. Whistleblowing can be internal –within an organization by reporting the bad deeds only to the person in charge and that is simple, or it could be external where the information is leaked outside of the organization by contacting a third party such as the media or the government. There are two types of whistleblowers; legal, and protected by the law, and illegal.
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Whistleblowers Protection in the U.S: There were several Acts released to protect whistleblowers, the most important of them is the Whistleblowers Protection Act of 1989. It offers protection to employers in private-sector companies against manager retaliation. The Act was released as a modification to the Civil 472 Service Reform Act of 1978. However, it offered protection to federal employees only. Peter Buxtun: Peter Buxtun was born in 1937. He used to work as an epidemiologist in the US Public Health Service. He knew that the service was keeping away vaccines for syphilis from 400 AfricanAmerican citizens to study the long-term effects of the disease. He blew the whistle six years after he initially reported the previous information to his superiors and no action was taken. In the end, the Public Service had to pay $10 million for the victims’ families. The next type of whistleblowers is not protected by law, in fact, it is condemned by most 473 government officials categorically, and governments generally. Edward Snowden: Edward Snowden is a 33 year-old American computer professional and a former CIA employee. Most of Snowden's family has been employed by federal government and that was one of his goals. In 2013, he was hired by the National Security Agency (NSA) after preciously working with Dell then the CIA. Snowden worked for NSA for a while then on May 20th of the same year, he flew to Hong Kong and after that started a wave of leaking NSA documents without authorization. The documents included surveillance information on important world leaders, even allies not only enemies. It included surveillance details on American citizens, surveillance of British allies on their people, and even exposure of intelligence activity against al-Qaeda. Edward Snowden leaked this information through many journalists and newspapers not only one, that is what got Snowden into international attention. He leaked his information through newspapers like The 471
"The American Heritage Dictionary Entry: Whistleblower". 2017. Ahdictionary.Com. https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=whistleblower . 472 "15 U.S. Code § 2087 - Whistleblower Protection". LII / Legal Information Institute. https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/2087. 473 Cringely, Robert. 2013. "Geeks and leaks: Tech Whistleblowers". Infoworld. http://www.infoworld.com/article/2606763/techology-business/106630-Geeks-and-Leaks-Top-10-tech-whistleblowers-of-alltime.html#slide3.
Guardian, The Washington Post, and others. NSA leaders can never say how many documents he actually took copies of and can leak, but they say “we can know how many he touched and that's over a million”. Since then, Ed Snowden has been sending asylum requests to countries which refused him because of their relationship with US. Some said that he had to be on country grounds to ask for asylum. Even Russia did not agree first on asylum unless Edward Snowden agrees on not leaking anything that could violate the State’s security. He did not agree. Later, he applied for an asylum in Russia again and now he is in Moscow for an extended period of asylum of three years starting from 2015. On June 21st of 2013, Snowden was charged by the U.S Department of Justice with three charges with a minimum of ten-year imprisonment for each. The charges are; theft of government property and two counts of violating the Espionage Act through unauthorized communication of national defense information and "willful communication of classified intelligence information to an unauthorized person." There was a request to Snowden to return to American grounds to be trialed but he rejected the request saying that those who are charged of breaking the Espionage Act cannot defend themselves in court. On October 29th of the year 2015, the European Parliament voted 285 to 281 on dropping the charges against Snowden. He later received over four prizes and awards from several countries, for example; Germany. Julian Assange: Julian Assange is an Australian Computer programmer, publisher and Journalist. He is the founder and the editor-in-chief of the organization WikiLeaks. Assange started hacking earlier before he founded WikiLeaks. He started hacking in 1987 under the pseudonym Mendax with two other friends. At that time he hacked many organizations including colleges, gadget brands, and most importantly, U.S Department of Defense facilities, the U.S Navy and NASA. He was caught hacking into a Canadian multinational corporation. The Australian Federal Police tracked him and he was charged with 31 hacking crimes, on December 1996, 25 of them were approved and 6 were dropped. He compensated by paying fines not imprisonment. WikiLeaks was established in December 2006 and published its first document in the same month. The purpose of WikiLeaks was to bring important news and information to the public, and to publish original source material and news stories so people can see evidence of the truth. WikiLeaks published secret information, news leaks, and classified media from anonymous sources. WikiLeaks was described by Assange himself that it is "a giant library of the world's most prosecuted documents." It leaked over 10 million documents since its founding until now. It leaked videos of U.S soldiers shooting 18 dead people from a helicopter in Iraq, videos of the Afghanistan and Iraq wars, Guantanamo files and quarter of a million diplomatic cables. Opinions of Assange varied just like opinions of Snowden. And as Snowden got called a hero, a traitor, a whistleblower...etc., Assange's actions were called illegal, he himself has been called a
terrorist by Vice President Joe Biden, at the same time his work was approved by many world leaders and he was awarded as well. WikiLeaks released manning material and since then, the U.S authorities began investigating Assange himself along with WikiLeaks. The authorities had in mind prosecuting his acts under the Espionage Act of 1917 just like Snowden. FBI court documents published in May 2014 showed that Investigations about Assange were ongoing and active; Moreover, Snowden leaked some documents that showed Assange on the list of "2010 Man-hunting timeline" of the U.S government. Again, in 2015, U.S investigation confirmed that it is still ongoing in Assange's and WikiLeaks' case. Assange later was in Sweden and was accused of molesting two different Swedish women. He got charged but he didn't approve the allegations. Running from all of that, Julian Assange seeked asylum in Ecuador and he is currently staying in the Ecuadorian Embassy in London. If he gets out of the embassy he might be deported to the U.S and there he will face more serious charges.
Cyber Attacks Targeting the Military of the U.S. In April 2016, the United States government invited a group of hackers to find flows and vulnerabilities in 5 of the pentagon websites. The Hackers reported existence of 138 474 vulnerabilities that may be used by terrorists or hackers in future cyberattacks. In 1999, A 15-year old teenager called Jonathan James, nicknamed â&#x20AC;&#x153;c0mradeâ&#x20AC;? was able to hack into the computers of the Department of Defense. His intrusion enabled him to intercept hundreds of e-mails sent from different government organizations. These e-mails contained usernames and passwords of various military computers. He also installed a backdoor on the 475 servers of the Department of Defense. On June 29 and 30, 1999, James was able to gain access to NASA by breaking the password of the server belonging to the government. He downloaded several files and programs that controlled the Temperature and humidity system in the living quarters of the International Space Station. NASA stated that James stole documents that have an estimated value of 1.7 million dollars, and NASA was forced to shut down its systems and reboot them which costed them around 41,000 dollars. th
On 26 of January 2000, The U.S. secret service raided the house of James and arrested him. He was prosecuted and sentenced for 6 months as he was a minor. He also was required to write letters of apology to both the Department of Defense and NASA. 474
Hodan, George. "'Hack The Pentagon' Program Reveals 138 Security Flaws: US". 2016. Phys.Org. https://phys.org/news/2016-06-hack-pentagon-reveals-flaws.html#jCp. 475 WILSON, CATHERINE. "15-Year-Old Admits Hacking NASA Computers". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=119423.
In 2007, a home goods company called TJX was hacked and later other companies were hacked. The Federal Agencies accused James and 11 other hackers for making these series of intrusions. th
On May 18 2008, The Secret Service raided Jonathan’s home, his brother’s home and his girlfriend’s home in order to arrest him. The secret service did not find any connection between him and the intrusion. But they found him dead in the shower, as he committed suicide by a gunshot. Later they found a note indicating that he killed himself because he believed he would be charged with crimes he never committed. He also stated that he no longer had faith in the 476 justice system. In 2008, the U.S. Department of Defense confirmed it incurred a critical Cyberattack. Pentagon officials classified this attack as the most significant breach in the history of the United States military. The Secretary of Defense stated that a foreign intelligence agency infected a flash drive with a 477 malicious code, which was let in a parking lot of a military base in the Middle East. The USB flash drive was plugged into one computer that was connected to the U.S. military computer networks, the malicious code uploaded itself to the United States Central Command 478 network and it spread undetected. The Malicious code was believed to be a variant of a code used by Russian Hackers before. It has the ability to scan computers for data, and then open backdoors from which it can send 479 information and data to a remote command and control server. Deputy Defense Secretary William J. Lynn called 2008 cyberattack "the worst breach of U.S. military computers in history". The breach led later to the creation of the U.S. Cyber Command.
Cyber Attacks Targeting the Economy of the U.S. In October 2010, a monitoring system that is subordinate to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) picked up an alert while monitoring the internet traffic. It was a malware coming from NASDAQ which is an American stock exchange. The National Security Agency (NSA) and the National Cybersecurity and Communication Integration Center (NCCIC) began their investigations of the incident. Most of the details of the investigation remains classified, but the House Intelligence Committee Chairman “Mike Rogers” 476
Poulsen, Kevin. 2009. "Former Teen Hacker’s Suicide Linked to TJX Probe". WIRED. https://www.wired.com/2009/07/hacker-
3/. 477
"Secret US Military Computers 'Cyber Attacked' In 2008 - BBC News". 2010. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-uscanada-11088658. 478 "Cyberattack In 2008 Prompted New Pentagon Cyberdefense Plan". 2010. CNN.Com. http://edition.cnn.com/2010/TECH/innovation/08/25/pentagon.cyberattack/ . 479 Shachtman, Noah. 2010. "Insiders Doubt 2008 Pentagon Hack Was Foreign Spy Attack". WIRED. https://www.wired.com/2010/08/insiders-doubt-2008-pentagon-hack-was-foreign-spy-attack/ .
said that investigations indicated that a Nation State intelligence agency is behind the NASDAQ attack, but the investigations struggled to provide their motives and what their objective was.
Attacks on the U.S. Infrastructure: Critical infrastructure sectors, from financial services to transportation to healthcare, all depend on massive information technology networks. It is believed that if Hackers or intruders were able to gain access to the U.S Power Grid and Shut it down, The United states will be shrouded in the darkness, transportation systems will fail, commerce will grind to a halt, thousands will die and unrest will break out as public services fail.
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In January 2016, officials from the Industrial Control System Computer Emergency Response Team (ICS-CRET) revealed that they see more and more cyberattacks gaining access to the industrial control system (ICS). The ICS depends on a large network to produce critical utilities 481 such as water, electricity, gas, and oil. In March 2016, John Carlin, the assistant attorney general unveiled charges against seven Hackers affiliated with the Iranian government. The Hackers attacked a dam 25 miles north of New York City. They broke into the command and control system of the dam and infiltrated its computerized controls through a cellular modem. Intruders had the ability to release water from behind the dam, which would put people’s lives and property at risk. They were unable to raise 482 the sluice gate of the dam because it was manually disconnected for maintenance. Cyberattacks on Department of Energy: Between 2010 and 2014 the United States Department of Energy (DoE) reported a total of 1130 cyberattacks on the computer system of the department. 159 cyberattacks were successful. In 53 of the 159 attacks, the intruders were able to gain administration privileges or “Super-User” privileges; this means that the attackers could do anything on the computer systems of the Department of Energy.
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The DoE is in charge of the research and policy setting of the United States Power Systems. It also contains critical information about the power grid, its security plans, and information about the Energy Labs in the U.S.
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Brasso, Bret. 2016. "Cyber Attacks Against Critical Infrastructure Are No Longer Just Theories". Fireeye. https://www.fireeye.com/blog/executive-perspective/2016/04/cyber_attacks_agains.html . 481 Bennett, Cory. 2016. "Critical Infrastructure Cyberattacks Rising, Says US Official". Thehill. http://thehill.com/policy/cybersecurity/265753-critical-infrastructure-cyberattacks-rising-says-us-official . 482 Thompson, Mark. 2016. "Iranian Cyber Attack On New York Dam Shows Future of War". Time.Com. http://time.com/4270728/iran-cyber-attack-dam-fbi/. 483 Reilly, Steve. 2015. "Records: Energy Department Struck By Cyber Attacks". USA TODAY. http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2015/09/09/cyber-attacks-doe-energy/71929786/ .
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The National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) is an agency within the Department of Energy, responsible for Managing the Nuclear policy of the United States. The NNSA manages and secures the Nuclear weapons stockpile and the Nuclear Power Plants of the U.S. Officials of The Department of Energy indicated that Cyberattacks aimed to disrupt or shut down the power systems of the DoE or to compromise critical information or data. Officials from the NNSA said that the NNSA experienced 19 successful cyberattacks, but they did not reveal whether the Nuclear Weapon Stockpile were accessed or stolen or not. Cyberattacks on Department of Health: In January 2015, a group of Hackers attacked Anthem Health Insurance Company. The attackers were able to trick the employees of the company by sending them a “Phishing Mail”; which is an E-Mail that contains a code designed to enable the sender to gain access to the personal 484 information on the computer of the victim. The Hackers made the E-Mail look like it was an internal message to the employees of the company. Through the phishing mail, the hackers were able to access more than 100 million health records, and they were able to expose the most sensitive and valuable personal information of the clients of Anthem. Health plans announced that the attack affected at least 22 million individuals.
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Investigators believe that the Hackers were from China and been operating undetected for more than a month in the company’s computer system. And the data they were able to gain access to, is believed to be sold on the Black Market. On May 2016, there was a cyberattack that targeted more than 1000 employees of several departments in the county of Los Angeles, California. Hackers sent the employees Phishing Emails which required the employees to provide their usernames and passwords. The department of Health (DoH) is the department that was most affected by this attack. As Hacker gained access the Personal information of more than 750 thousand of the patients and clients.
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The attack enabled the intruders to expose Personal and Confidential Information related to the healthcare of the patients; including their Names, Address, Date of Birth, Social Security number, Financial Information and Medical Records.
The Deep Web:
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Herman, Bob. 2016. "Details Of Anthem's Massive Cyberattack Remain In The Dark A Year Later". Modern Healthcare. http://www.modernhealthcare.com/article/20160330/NEWS/160339997 . 485 DiChristopher, Tom. 2015. "This Is How Bad Cyberthreats Have Gotten: Expert". CNBC. http://www.cnbc.com/2015/02/06/this-is-how-dire-cyber-threats-have-gotten-expert.html . 486 Barboza, Tony. 2016. "L.A. County Targeted In Phishing Cyberattack; Private Information Of 750,000 People Compromised". Latimes.Com. http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-county-cyberattack-20161217-story.html .
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Known Search Engines like Google, Yahoo, or Bing use specific kind of software to update their web content. This software is called “web crawlers” or “Spiders”. These Crawlers browse the World Wide Web; they find and index web pages. However, there are some webpages crawlers 487
cannot reach and so these web pages are not indexed on the Search Engine. Users cannot find these websites or webpages because search engines cannot show websites that are not indexed in their systems. So the deep web is defined as: “Anything that a search engine cannot find”. It was started when the U.S Naval Research Laboratory created a protocol as a way to communicate with intelligence assets and Americans stationed abroad without being detected in the 1990s. The source code of the project was released to public in 2004. A group of programmers used the source code to develop the onion router, which was released in 2006. The deep web is used to store scientific papers the databases of valuable information of governmental agencies and institutions, corporations, banks, and Patents and Trademark Offices. The deep web is also used as internal networks for companies and universities. The deep web also includes census data, data collected on space missions, climate data and academic databases filled with scientific papers. Examples of Activities on the Deep Web:
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Lost Relatives: Some people that were when they were children used “People Search Databases” that are stored on the deep web to find their natural parents and vice versa. The adoptee provides basic information about himself. The information may include: Name, gender, date of birth, place of residency to websites designed for that purpose. The website searches the information of the parents that have matched the information of the adoptee. People who have children that ran away, parents who left the family, parents who gave up on their children while they were young, or members of extended family members who lost contact with each other find this type of research fruitful and beneficial. They use social networks, public records, people search databases, and birth, marriage, or death indexes to find their lost relatives. Genealogy: This is considered one of the most popular activities on the deep web. Users of the deep web use websites focused on providing databases of local ancestry research resources. They find it an interesting hobby to use people research database to find their past ancestors. Most major countries have their own branch of genweb websites. Background Checks: 487 488
"Web Crawler". 2016. Sciencedaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/web_crawler.htm. Dube, Ryab. 2014. "Journey into The Hidden Web: A Guide For New Researchers". Makeuseof.
http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/journey-into-the-hidden-web-a-guide-for-new-researchers/ .
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There are online websites that can conduct background checks on persons in exchange for a modest fee. However, there are some websites on the deep web that users can exploit to conduct background checks on other individuals at no cost. Background checks websites provide information that includes: Name, Address, Marital Status and Family members, Phone numbers, E-Mail Address, and even Criminal Records. Local History: Databases on the deep web contain digitalized Historical Records of certain places or a certain society. It contains Photos, Historical Documents, and other Records and Newspaper Scans that cover the history of that region or society. Academic Research: Most of Academic Research and Studies are searchable and accessible by the public. However, the deep web stores the largest virtual libraries on the World Wide Web. It is considered a great space for researchers, students and teachers as it contains all of the academic researches and studies that that have not been made public due to its effects or influence on health and social beliefs of large populations. These researches and studies found on the deep web will probably not be available from standard search engines. The deep web also contains the academic studies and researches that are stored on the servers of various universities. Legal Research: The deep web provides thousands of accurate and high quality legal databases. It also provides access to court cases and court decisions that in some countries set precedent for future court decisions. Lawyers and Legal Experts access the deep web seeking to exploit the resources and legal information about court cases of people, companies, organizations, and historical events.
The Dark Web: There is a small portion of the deep web that is intentionally hidden from the World Wide Web and inaccessible through standard search engines and web browsers. This part of the deep web is called the “Dark web” or “Dark Net”. And it is known for illegal activities and prohibited 489 content. The dark web is made up of websites that hide the internet addresses of the servers that operate them. Users and websites on the dark web use The Onion Router encryption tool which creates a path through randomly assigned user computers around the world which are called “Nodes”; which means that data or information are not transferred from the server to the user directly. It passes through other different computer nodes which respectively transfers it to another random 489
"Clearing Up Confusion - Deep Web Vs. Dark Web - Brightplanet". 2014. Brightplanet. https://brightplanet.com/2014/03/clearing-confusion-deep-web-vs-dark-web/ .
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computer node. Each computer node is located in a different country, and each computer node only knows which node sent the information to it and which node to send it to next. It does not know where the data or the information are originated, or where is it ultimately going, which makes intercepting the data extremely difficult. And makes it virtually impossible to identify or track the users or the websites on the dark web. Examples of illegal Activities on the Dark web: Drug Trafficking: Drug producers and drug sellers benefit from the privileges of being able to log onto the internet anonymously, without being detected. Users of illegal drugs can find almost any type of drugs and chemicals on the dark web. The sellers and traffickers prefer to receive payment in bitcoins; which is a decentralized digital currency that can be transferred from one person to another 490
directly using the internet without going through a bank. Within few days the seller ships the drugs by mail in a concealed case. Or simply leave the case in a hidden place. The location of the place is to be sent to the buyer, and then he visits the place and picks up the merchandise without being discovered. Arms Smuggling:
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On the dark web, there are some websites that are specialized in trafficking firearms and shipping them to countries where buying these guns is difficult, they take off their serial numbers in order to make these guns hard to trace. Arms smugglers ship these weapons in cars, engines, computers, and furniture. In order to avoid being detected by explosive material detection 492
systems, Arms smugglers provide these weapons free of gun oil. Hiring Hitmen and Assassins:
There are some websites on the dark net that offers the services of hitmen in exchange for money. The cost of the service depends on the target. The cost of murdering an ordinary citizen is much less than the cost of murdering a high rank government official, or a business man. The hitmen require clients to pay part of the payment in advance, so that they are able to purchase the tools and equipment necessary to execute the operation. Later, the client pays the rest of the 493 payment after execution. Criminal Forums and communities: 490
"Frequently Asked Questions - Bitcoin". 2017. Bitcoin.Org. Accessed April 2. https://bitcoin.org/en/faq#what-is-bitcoin. Patterson, Thom. 2016. "Inside The Illegal Online Weapons Trade". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2016/08/10/us/declassified-illegal-online-weapons-trade/ . 492 Matthews, Sam. 2014. "Q&A With A Deep Web Arms Dealer". Vocativ. http://www.vocativ.com/tech/bitcoin/q-deep-webarms-dealer/. 493 Murdock, Jason. 2016. "Hacker Exposes Murder-For-Hire Website and Leaks Customer Data - But Is It Legit?". International Business Times UK. http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/hitman-hire-how-dark-web-contract-killer-site-besamafia-was-exposed-byhacker-1560001. 491
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The Dark web contains websites, blogs, and forums that make cybercrimes much less complex. Beginner criminals and hackers use information sharing websites on the dark web to benefit from the expertise and the advice of experienced criminals. There are some websites that provides link-directories to websites that offer contract killing or cyberattacks for hire. There are also some websites where terrorist groups such as ISIS or Al-Qaeda spread their propaganda in an attempt to recruit new members and hire mercenaries. Users on the dark web sometimes publish snuff films in which a person is actually murdered or commits suicide. One of the rare incidents, a video was published contains footage of killing a child after being pulled apart after having been tied to two horses that ran in opposite direction. Some websites on the dark web function as a meetup for cannibals, in which users can buy or sell pieces of human skin, muscles, or bones. These sites also provide recipes for cooking human flesh, and it gives explicit details on the shape body parts should be cut into Sites of the dark web are being monitored by police institution of many countries of the world, those who log onto the Dark web use web browsers that keep them anonymous, in order not to be seized and arrested.
Agencies Fighting Cybercrimes: In this part, we will state the agencies that are assigned to fight and stop cybercrimes. The Department of Homeland security copes with some other federal agencies that help it in: 1Disrupting and defeating cyber criminals. 2- Recruiting and training technical experts to fight cybercrimes. 3- Developing standardized methods to deal with any cyber threat. 4- Sharing cyber response best practices and tools. Some of those agencies are under the supervision and command of Department of Homeland Security and some others are not under its jurisdictions and we will state them in details. 1-National Cybersecurity and Communication Integration Center (NCCIC): It is part of the Department of Homeland security. It is the center of coordination between many other agencies specialized with cybersecurity and communication protection. They act coherently in order to stop any cyber threat. Those coordinating agencies might be private or other governmental. Their main mission is to operate in harmonic way among the private sector, civilian, law enforcement, intelligence, and defense communities, conducting special way of analysis, giving people the awareness to secure themselves and orchestrating synchronized response efforts while protecting the Constitutional and privacy rights of Americans in both; 494 having cybersecurity and be able to communicate privately. 494
"National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center | US-CERT". Us-Cert.Gov. https://www.us-cert.gov/nccic.
Mission of NCCIC: 1- It has the duty to protect the cyberspace of civilian federal agencies 2- Coordinating with national and international agencies in order to respond to any cyber threat, they do this by sharing information among them. 3It leads the protection, prevention, mitigation, and recovery of its parts after any incident. 4- It assists with the initiation, coordination, and reconstitution of National Security or Emergency Preparedness (NS/EP) telecommunications services under all the conditions, crises, or emergency cases that happen. 5- It is assigned to execute the emergency support function-2 (ESF-2) under the national response framework (NRF) The NCCIC contains 4 branches:
NCCIC Operations & Integration (NO&I): Its main mission is to plan and integrate the work of all branches of NCCIC. United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT): It brings advanced expertise that helps in fighting the cyberattacks. It shares information across different governmental and non-governmental actors in order to stop any cyber-threat. Industrial Control Systems Cyber Emergency Response Team (ICS-CERT): They try to strengthen the infrastructure in order to reduce the risk of any breach. National Coordinating Center for Communications (NCC): leads and coordinates the initiation, restoration, and reconstitution of National Security or Emergency Preparedness NS/EP telecommunications services or facilities under all conditions
2-United States Cyber command (USCYBERCOM): This is an armed forces sub-unified command managed by United States strategic command. It 495 was initiated by United States Defense Secretary Robert Gates on 23 June 2009 . It follows the strategies of the Department of Defense (DOD). And here is the beginning paragraph of the establishment document of secretary of defense: “Cyberspace and its associated technologies offer unprecedented opportunities to the United States and are vital to our Nation’s security and, by extension, to all aspects of military operations. Yet our increasing dependency on cyberspace, alongside a growing array of cyber threats and vulnerabilities, adds a new element of risk to our national security. To address this risk effectively and to secure freedom of action in cyberspace, the Department of Defense requires a command that possesses the required technical capability and remains focused on the integration of cyberspace operations. Further, this command must be capable of synchronizing
495
Hollis, David. 2010. “USCYBERCOM: The Need for a Combatant Command Versus a Sub-Unified Command” https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=22422
warfighting effects across the global security environment as well as providing support to civil 496 authorities and international partners.” 3-United States Secret Service At the initiation of the agency in 1865, its role was investigating and preventing counterfeiting. The agency has evolved over history and included enforcing laws that prevent any kind of counterfeiting and protecting the payments and financial systems then it also involved investigating any computer-based crime. It has a big role in protecting the country’s infrastructures especially regarding financial systems and cybersecurity. This Secret Service is assigned to locate and identify any cybercriminal over the world who is related to any cyber intrusions, bank fraud, data bases breaches, and any computer-related crimes. Firstly, we should mention that this agency is divided into 2 forces; Electronic Crimes task force (ECTF) and financial crimes Task force (FCTF). Secondly, this agency was transferred from Department of Treasury to the Department of Homeland Security although it is also concerned with protecting financial systems but it became more concerned with the security inside the states. 4-United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement: United States immigration and customs enforcement agency has 3 branches which are: U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), Homeland Security Investigations (HSI), Cyber Crimes Center (C3), but we will focus on the cybercrimes center (C3). The agency is mainly concerned with securing the borders of the United States of America. Cyber Crimes Center (C3) promotes computer-based technical services to aid both domestic and international investigations to help reduce cross-border crime. C3 consists of Cyber Crimes Unit, the Child Exploitation Investigations Unit and the Computer Forensics Unit and here is a description of the role of each of them: 1-Cybercrimes Unit: a unit within the (ICE), concerned with the management and supervision of the agency's investigations that are related to any cyber act by focusing on the criminal organizations that use cyber capabilities to increase their crimes. This unit supports HIS’s abilities to fight hackers and criminals through the internet but they focus on: Cyber Economic-related crimes Any Intellectual Property that is theft Internet-facilitated proliferation of arms and strategic technology 497 Cyber smuggling and money laundering done through the internet.
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Department of Defense. 2009. “A Memorandum for Secretaries of the Military Departments” https://fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/secdef-cyber.pdf 497 "Cyber Crimes Center". 2017. Ice.Gov. https://www.ice.gov/cyber-crimes.
2Child Exploitation investigations unit: C3's Child Exploitation Investigations Unit (CEIU) is a unit that fights the exploitation of children or any use of child pornography. So the unit tries to catch people who are working through the internet in any kind of these violations. The unit has many initiatives in this sense in order to stop violations against children. 3- Computer Forensics Unit: This unit is meant to develop the ways of investigations as every day we have new technology, also investigators are ought to get digital evidences which are highly volatile as there are many ways of hiding those evidences through encryption or erasing those information.
Puerto Rico
I. Historical Overview........................................................................................220 II. Territories that Became States..........................................................................222
Alaska……………………………………………………………………………… Hawaii………………………………………………………………………………
III. Political Background.......................................................................................222
Executive Branch………………………………………………………………….. Legislative Branch…………………………………………………………………. Judicial Branch……………………………………………………………………..
IV. Puerto Rican Financial Crisis..........................................................................224 V. Future Scenarios...............................................................................................226
Continuing Status Quo………………………………………………………………. Statehood……………………………………………………………………………. Independence ………………………………………………………………………..
Puerto Rico is a unincorporated territory within the United states; which means that the U.S. Constitution applies only partially in these territories. That makes fundamental rights apply as a matter of law, but other constitutional rights are not available. Puerto Rico is located between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of the Virgin Islands. Citizens of Puerto Rico are granted the American citizenship, but they are not allowed to vote in the US Congress, and in the Presidential elections same as six other US territories. The United States has full jurisdiction over the territory under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act (1950). It has a Governor: Ricky Rosselló, its own Senate and House of Representatives. However, the decisions have to be approved by the US Congress.
I.
Historical Overview:
The Natives of Puerto Rico were The Taíno Amirindians. They lived in small villages; each was ruled by a chief. The men hunted and caught fish while the women gathered roots and fruits. This was until 1492 when it was discovered by the Italian explorer, and navigator Christopher Columbus. On 19th November 1493, Christopher Columbus visited Puerto Rico for the second time, but this time he claimed it for the Kingdom of Spain. Columbus brought with him a letter from King Ferdinand which approved every action done to extend the Kingdom of Spain and to spread Christianity. He named the place San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist. The capitol of the territory now is referred to as San Juan. The island began to be colonized by the 16th century despite laws which prohibited that, even The Taíno people were forced under extreme labor. By 1520, King Charles I of Spain issued an order to emancipate Puerto Ricans as the extreme labor conditions and the lack of medical attention got them epidemics from the European diseases. The number of Puerto Ricans left to emancipate was not that much anyway, and enslaved Africans were starting to take their place in labor. By the start of the 16th century, the Spanish Empire was getting weaker and attacks from European Competitors were increasing so The Spanish Empire had to ensure that its territories were safe so Puerto Rico was basically turned into a heavily fortified area. At a time, due to the increase in the walls and the forts that would protect the Spanish territory Puerto Rico was called "The walled city". The economic importance of Puerto Rico increased, roads were created to connect places and the U.S trade ships took interest in selling African slaves to grow crops and take care of their trade there. Movements of Independence started to rise in Puerto Rico, so Spain sent more Spanish citizens to live there and ensure Spain's presence. In 1809, Spain gave Puerto Rico recognition as an overseas Province of Spain and that gave Puerto Ricans the right to vote for and elect representatives in the Spanish Parliament, the same rights all Spanish have. 220
Independence movements inspired by SimĂłn BoulĂvar and others increased. As a result, Spain was struggling to diverge the attention of these movements. This happened at the same time that the economy of Puerto Rico became of a strategic importance, so Spain offered land for even non-Spanish Europeans to move there granting them Spanish citizenship, to try to further assert the Spanish presence in the territory. Since 1894, the U.S has been developing plans to go into war with Spain. It immediately excluded Cuba and Puerto Rico as strategically important but they remained as important trade places for crops. In 1897, Puerto Rico was granted the freedom of having its own government by The Liberal Spanish government. However it was short-lived because the U.S had plans of military operations in Puerto Rican waters. During the Spanish-American war, the U.S navy attacked Puerto Rico on July 25th, 1898. As a result of that, Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the U.S. It also ceded Cuba, but not to the U.S and it later got its independence. Throughout the first years Puerto Rico was ruled by the military. On the year 1900, The Foraker Act was released and this gave Puerto Rico the right to have its own elected House of Representatives, while The Upper House and The Governor were chosen by The American Government. The Political system was constructed exactly like the American Political system. Puerto Rico was authorized a non-voting member in the Congress under the name of "Resident Commissioner." Puerto Rico had the right to produce and modify laws, but all of that had to be approved or annulled by the American Congress. In 1914, the Puerto Rican House voted on independence from the US but it was refused by the Congress saying that it was unconstitutional and does not go with the rules of The Foraker Act. The first time the US citizenship for Puerto Ricans was suggested was on 1906 by President 498
Theodore Roosevelt. However, on 1917, the U.S Congress passed The Jones-Shafroth Act. Even though the Puerto Ricans voted against it as they said The U.S is doing so to drag Puerto Ricans to WWI. However, this bill also gave Puerto Ricans the right to vote for the Resident Commissioner on a standard of 4 years, and provided it with an elected Senate. Puerto Rico tried to gain its independence from the U.S as well, and in 1936, U.S Senator Millard Tydings produced a bill that supported the independence of Puerto Rico, this bill was supported by all 499 Puerto Rican parties. The bill did not pass. An uprising happened in 1937, unarmed protestors were faced by the open fire of the Police. It was considered a massacre because 19 people were 500 killed and over 200 were badly injured. The Ponce Massacre was investigated by the American Liberties Union Counsel. Tydings issued another bill for Puerto Rican independence and it failed as well. 498
"Jones Act - The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War (Hispanic Division, Library Of Congress)". 1917. Loc.Gov. https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/jonesact.html. 499 Denis, Nelson. 2017. WAR AGAINST ALL PUERTO RICANS. https://waragainstallpuertoricans.com/2016/03/29/historic-photoof-the-day-the-tydings-bill-2/. 500
"History: The Ponce Massacre (1937)". Enciclopediapr.Org. http://www.enciclopediapr.org/ing/article.cfm? ref=06102005.
II.
Territories that Became States:
Alaska: Alaska has a long history even before the birth of Jesus Christ. It was Russian until the United States bought it in 1867 for 7 million dollars. It was called the department of Alaska from 1879 up to 1884 and fell under the jurisdiction of U.S. army, U.S. Department of treasury and U.S. Navy in this era. Since 1884 it has been called district of Alaska and reforms began. Luckily, in a very close territory in Canada called Yukon a gold mine was discovered so many workers had to go through Alaska or even had houses there so some new cities were created. By 1899, Gold was discovered in Alaska itself. Cities and railroads began to be built and Alaska flourished. So in 1912, the Congress passed the Second Organic Act of 1912. As a result, Alaska was called territory of Alaska, they had a congress delegate for Alaska who introduced a statehood bill but it failed. After nearly 40 years and exactly in 1956 Alaska was granted the 501 statehood so it became the 49th state of the United States. Hawaii: 1500 years ago, Polynesians from the Marquesas Islands sailed across the sea to become the first to step a foot on the island of Hawaii. Many tribes after this date arrived either as an immigrant or as an invader. In 1897, the United States annexed Hawaii, they faced great opposition from Japan because the United States maintained control over the Pacific Ocean and proved its presence. On the 7th of December 1941 Pearl Harbor was attacked by Japan. The whole American fleet was drowned. After the war a lot of uprisings and civil disobedience appeared there leading to the declaration of the statehood of Hawaii in 1959. Since then and the United States has 50 states.
III.
Political history:
Puerto Rico is a self-governing commonwealth in association with the United States. The chief of state is the President of the USA. The head of government is an elected Governor. There are two legislative chambers: The House of Representatives with 51 seats one per electoral district, and the Senate with 27 seats per electoral district. Puerto Rico has authority over its internal affairs. US controls: interstate trade, foreign relations and commerce, customs administration, control of air, land and sea, immigration and emigration, nationality and citizenship, currency, maritime laws, military service, military bases, army, navy and air force, declaration of war, constitutionality of laws, jurisdictions and legal procedures, treaties, radio and television, communications, agriculture, mining and minerals, highways, postal system; Social Security, and other areas generally controlled by the federal government in the United States. Puerto Rican institutions control internal affairs unless U.S. law is involved. Puerto Ricans revel in full US citizenship like anyone born in any of the 50 States, so Puerto Ricans can travel freely to any part of the US. The main differences between Puerto Rico and the 50 states the aspects of the IRC (Internal Revenue code refers to Title 26 of the U.S. Code, which acts as the laws of the country, the laws are enforced by the Internal Revenue Service), lacks the 501
"Timeline Of Alaska's History". 2017. Alaskacenters.Gov. https://www.alaskacenters.gov/alaska-timeline.cfm.
right to vote in the 2 chambers of congress (Senate and House of Representatives), same goes for the right to vote for a president, and its lack of assignation of some revenues reserved for the state. Government Officials: President
Donald J. Trump (Since 20 January 2017)
Vice President
Michael R. "Mike" Pence (since 20 January 2017)
Governor
Ricky Rossellรณ
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Executive branch: The Executive Power is in the hands of the Governor of Puerto Rico, who leads a cabinet adjusted by the heads of the commonwealth's executive departments, must also be ratified by the Legislature. The Governor is elected by popular vote for a 4 year term (no term limits), which begins on the 2nd day of Jan. after the year of his election and ends on the date his successor takes office. In case of death, resignation, or removal, of the Governor, the Secretary of State of Puerto Rico takes place of the Governor. In case the Secretary of State is unwilling or unable to assume it, the Attorney General (or, as the position is known, the Justice Department Secretary) would assume the governorship, followed by the Secretary of Treasury. Legislative branch: The Legislative Power in Puerto Rico lies in the hands of the Puerto Rican Senate and in the Chamber of Representatives. The Senate consists of 27 members, two per electoral district, and eleven elected according to the different districts proportion of population. Two extra seats are given in each house to the opposition if necessary to limit any party's control to two thirds. The Chamber of Representatives consists of 51 members, one per electoral district and eleven elected. Legislators are elected to 4 year terms. The bicameral legislature determines how to spend the island's tax revenue. Unless specifically stated, Puerto Rico is also subject to all laws and most regulations of the U.S. government, which sometimes cause jurisdictional problems. Most U.S. agencies are represented on the island. Puerto Rico has no electoral votes in the United States elections of a president. Judicial branch: 502
"Inicio | La Fortaleza". 2017. Fortaleza. Gobierno. Pr. http://www.fortaleza.gobierno.pr/.
223
The Judicial System of Puerto Rico is supervised by the Puerto Rican Supreme Court. The Supreme Court consists of 7 judges (a chief justice and six associate justices) appointed by the Governor. The Judicial System consists of a Court of Appeals, Superior Court, a District Court (civil & criminal), and Municipal Court. There are 12 judicial districts. Puerto Rico has one Resident Commissioner (with voice, but no vote) in the Congress of United States. Political Division: The major political parties in Puerto Rico are: Popular Democratic Party, which supports an enhanced commonwealth status. The New Progressive Party, which supports full U.S. statehood for the island. Puerto Rican Independence Party which supports the independence from the US.
IV.
Puerto Rican Financial Crisis:
The district of Puerto Rico is in the middle of a financial crisis, the U.S Territory has more than 73 billion dollars in bond debt, the timely payments of Puerto Rico’s Debts represent nearly 70% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) which impedes the growth of Puerto Rico’s economy and weakens its development. Most of the states in the United States of America have an average of debt-to-GDP ratio of 17%, and the island's debt per capita increased to of $19.000 in 2014 is more than 10 times higher than the average per-capita debt of the 50 states. Origins of the Crisis:
503
In 1917, the U.S Congress issued the “Jones-Shafroth Act” which set up a new civil administration and granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship. It also granted Puerto Rico the “Triple Tax Exemption”; which means that the bonds issued by the government of Puerto Rico and its various agencies and utilities enjoy exemption from Federal, State and Local taxes, which made Puerto Rican paper an attractive proposition for investors,
As a result of “Triple Tax Exemption”. Investment dollars began flooding into Puerto Rican government bonds for decades. Bond investors from all 50 states have taken advantage of this benefit by purchasing Puerto Rican bonds, as the investors invest in Puerto Rican bonds 504 without paying taxes on the income. During the 1970s, the government of Puerto Rico issued bonds in numbers beyond their capability to fulfil, the Government started using bond investment money to balance its budget and started to loan and issue more debts to pay older
503
Issa, Darrell. 2016. "How To Solve Puerto Rico’s Debt Crisis". National Review. http://www.nationalreview.com/article/434799/puerto-ricos-debt-crisis-how-solve-it . 504 "Government Development Bank For Puerto Rico". 2017. Gdb-Pur.Com. http://www.gdbpur.com/investors_resources/introduction.html .
debts. And continued to do so until that led to the accumulation of debt which reached 73 505 billion dollars.
Puerto Rico’s remote island location, tiny land area and lack of natural resources did not attract companies to locate in Puerto Rico, the federal government created an incentive for companies to locate there by establishing corporate tax exemptions. This was especially attractive to technology and service-oriented companies, for which Puerto Rico's remote location and dearth of resources posed few challenges. The Economy of Puerto Rico was sustained by the presence of technology and service-oriented companies that located to the island due to its favorable tax treatment. These tax advantages, however, were not permanent. As they expired over time, many companies elected to discontinue their Puerto Rican presence.
Also Puerto Rico suffers from Oppressive Social Spending as more than 60% of the citizens of Puerto Rico receive Medicare or Medicaid. However, compared to other states with high percentages of poor residents, such as Mississippi, Puerto Rico receives a tiny fraction of federal funds to assist with social spending. As a result, the territory must allocate money from its own budget to provide fund for these programs. Puerto Rico suffered from mounting debt and declining tax revenues over the past few decades, which forced Puerto Rico to 506 borrow money to keep its Medicare and Medicaid programs solvent.
In 2005 the population of Puerto Rico peaked at 3.91 million. During the intervening seven years, the island lost over 150,000 residents. Between 2011 and 2013, the net population of Puerto Rico decreased by 50,000 people annually. Puerto Ricans are relocating to the mainland due to better economic opportunities. Moreover, the population that Puerto Rico has managed to retain is aging rapidly. An aging population means less tax revenue and greater expenditures. When a Puerto Rican resident ages out of the workforce, the government not only loses out on tax revenue from his income, but, due to high levels of poverty among the elderly, it often must spend money on this resident in the form of social 507 welfare.
Results of the Economic Crisis: Downgrade: on Feb 2014, as a result of economy decline and the inefficient tax policy of Puerto Rico, the island was downgraded to a Non-Investment Grade, which reduced the credit quality of the municipal and corporate bonds and indicated the high risk of default. This downgrade triggered acceleration clauses with many of the territory's creditors, as many of the creditors required the government of Puerto Rico to repay all or part of the loan immediately.
505
Yglesias, Matthew. 2016. "Congress Has A Bipartisan Deal To Save Puerto Rico From Its Debt Crisis". Vox. http://www.vox.com/2016/5/20/11719332/puerto-rico-debt-crisis-deal . 506 "Puerto Rico Lags In Federal Funding". 2014. Puerto Rico Report. http://www.puertoricoreport.com/puerto-rico-lags-infederal-funding/#.WN2EJ2jyuUk. 507 DePersio, Greg. 2017. "How Puerto Rico End Up with So Much Debt". Investopedia. http://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/090915/origins-puerto-rican-debt-crisis.asp .
Local Market: the debt crisis of Puerto Rico affects the purchasing power parity (PPP) as more than 40% of the debt of Puerto Rico is owned by residents of Puerto Rico. The residents of Puerto Rico and its business people have been the ones bearing the hike in taxes and cuts performed by the government in order to stabilize its finances.
V.
Future Scenarios:
Continuing the Status Quo The existing commonwealth arrangement was established in the early 1950s. The Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act, passed in 1950, allowed the island significant autonomy in local matters, although the Puerto Rican government remained limited in its capacity as a result of the constitutional powers retained by the U.S. Congress. There has been some discussion of abandoning Puerto Rico’s existing commonwealth status in favor of a “New Commonwealth” status. The proposed option envisions the creation of an autonomous political entity that is in permanent union with, but not subordinate to, the U.S. However, the Constitution of the U.S. does not permit any option other than full independence, statehood, or a territorial status. In 2001, U.S. Department of Justice argued that the creation of a permanent and equal union between the U.S. and Puerto Rico would also place limitations on the sovereignty of the US. Upon entering this arrangement, the president’s power to unilaterally terminate treaties would be curtailed, and some powers vested in the legislature would be lost, as both Puerto Rico and the U.S. would need to consent to any change in the relationship. However, there is a legal precedent for the interpretation of the Constitution in such a way as to allow for a more equal permanent relationship between Puerto Rico and the US. The Constitution actually requires Congress to adhere to changes in political status established by an earlier Congress (for example, in incorporation of a territory or in granting independence), and that the U.S. has a history of entering into relationships requiring mutual consent. Statehood: Granting statehood to the island of Puerto Rico is an option that receives the second highest number of votes in all three plebiscites held on the status of the island. Statehood would put Puerto Rico on an equal footing with other states and eliminate much of the autonomy currently enjoyed by the island’s government. However, Puerto Rico would gain greater representation in the federal government. Like other states, Puerto Rico would have two senators to represent the island in the U.S senate. It would also have several voting members in the House of Representatives. Also, residents of Puerto Rico would be able to vote in presidential elections 508 and would be eligible to pay federal taxes.
508
"Democratic and Republican Party Platforms On Puerto Rican Statehood". 2017. Puerto Rico 51St. http://www.pr51st.com/democratic-and-republican-party-platforms-on-puerto-rican-statehood/ .
In considering the option of statehood, the cultural dimension of U.S.-Puerto Rican relations should be taken into account. The official languages of Puerto Rico are Spanish and English, but Spanish is more dominant between Puerto Ricans. If Puerto Rico is incorporated into the Union, the overwhelmingly English-speaking U.S. will have acquired an overwhelmingly Spanishspeaking state. The linguistic difference reflects historical and cultural disparities between the U.S. and Puerto Rico. Geographic isolation of Puerto Rico may serve to attenuate the effects of incorporation, on the long run it is likely that the distinct culture of the island would fade into that of the mainland. Puerto Rico is the perfect bridge to markets in South and Central America. For the Englishspeaking mainland, the island is a bilingual haven with four medical schools, a world renowned engineering school (where NASA does direct recruiting), and an active Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) program that turns out high-caliber bilingual officers for the U.S. Army. The strategic place of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean was one of the justifications for U.S. to keep Puerto Rico for trade. Independence: The option of independence has registered much less support than either of the choices already discussed. If Puerto Rico becomes an independent state, the government of Puerto Rico will acquire the freedom to conduct its own foreign relations. However, Puerto Rico would face potential loss of the benefits that come from its ties with the US; for example, the freedom to travel to the mainland without any restrictions. Tthis could also impact individual families, which benefit from having family members working on the mainland. It was mentioned earlier that Puerto Rico suffers from population decline as a result of the immigration of the workforce of Puerto Rico to the Mainland seeking better economic opportunities. This population decline affects the economy of Puerto Rico in a negative way. The economy of the island will be significantly affected if Puerto Rico gained independence from the US. A substantial portion of the Puerto Rican governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s revenue comes in the form of monetary transfers from the U.S. federal government. Puerto Rico is also the largest trading partner of the U.S. and independence could compromise the close economic relationship between Puerto Rico and the U.S.
لجنة شؤون الشرق األدنى ووسط وجنوب آسيا و مكافحة االرهاب Committee on Near Eastern and South and Central Asian Affairs and Counterterrorism (NESA)
Prepared by: Chairman Mohamed Rasheed Vice Chairlady Radwa Moataz Ranking Member Amr Eid Party Consultant Farida Wagdy
Congressional Research Service Report
ﺧﺎﻣﺴﺎ :ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻲ ﻟﻤﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ: ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺃﺳﺴﻪ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻳﻮﺳﻒ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺃﻭﺩﺕ ﺑﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﻴﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻨﺠﺢ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻭ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻹﻗﻠﻴﻤﻲ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ ،ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﺧﻄﺮ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺼﺎﻟﺢ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻓﻰ ﻧﻴﺠﺮﻳﺎ .ﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻓﻰ ﺳﺒﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻋﻘﺐ ﺗﺤﺬﻳﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻨﻴﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﺴﻔﺮ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻋﻘﺐ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﺩﺍﺭﻱ ﺑﺤﻈﺮ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﺴﻴﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ،ﻟﻴﺜﻴﺮ ﻗﻠﻖ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻟﻤﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ .ﻓﻬﻞ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﻋﻢ ﺍﻧﺴﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺒﺎﺭﺍﺗﻲ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻘﺮﺭ ،ﺍﻡ ﺗﻘﺮﺭ ﺗﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﺿﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﺟﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﻗﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ؟
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ﻣﻧﻅﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻔﻭ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﻳﺔ ،ﻧﻳﺟﻳﺭﻳﺎ ٧١٠٢/٦١٠٢ https://www.amnesty.org/ar/countries/africa/nigeria/report-nigeria/
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ﻅﻠﺖ ﻣﺨﺎﻭﻑ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎﻙ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺮﻁﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﺟﺰء ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻳﻀﻌﻒ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺭﻓﺾ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻱ ﻟﺪﺧﻮﻝ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺗﺸﺎﺩ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ،ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺼﻠﺤﺔ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﺗﺘﺤﻘﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻘﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺟﻨﺒﻴﺔ. ﺳﺎﻫﻤﺖ ﺍﻷﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺳﺎﻫﻤﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﻀﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﻴﺮﻳﻦ ﻟﺼﻔﻮﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ،ﻭ ٥٠١ ﺃﺛﺮﺕ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ .
ﺭﺍﺑﻌﺎً :ﺃﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻅﻞ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ : ﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎﻙ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺃﻣﺮﺍً ﻋﺎﺩﻳﺎً ﻣﺴﻠﻢ ﺑِ ﻪ ﺳﻮﺍء ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺑﻲ ،ﺃﻭ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻴﻪ.
ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ
ﻣﺎﺭﺳﺖ ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ ﺃﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﺭﺗﻜﺒﺖ ﺟﺮﺍﺋﻢ ﺗﻮﺻﻒ ﺑﺠﺮﺍﺋﻢ ﺣﺮﺏ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﻧﺠﺤﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻗﺘﺤﺎﻡ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺘﻲ ﺑﺎﺟﺎ ﻭ ﻣﻨﻐﻮﻧﻮ ﻭ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﻘﺘﻞ ﺍﻵﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻴﻤﻴﻦ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺑﺘﺪﻣﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺸﺂﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻭﺻﻠﺖ ﻁﺒﻘﺎً ﻟﻸﻗﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ٠٠٧٣ﻣﺒﻨﻰ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺪﻣﻴﺮﻫﻢ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ .ﺃﺟﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺃﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻴﺶ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺣﻜﻤﻪ ﻭ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﺧﺘﻄﺎﻓﻬﻢ ﻭ ﺍﺣﺘﺠﺎﺯﻫﻢ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻌﺴﻜﺮﺍﺕ ﺗﺎﺑﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ،ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺷﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﺳﺘﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﻴﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺠﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﺳﺘﻬﺪﻓﺖ ﻣﺤﻄﺎﺕ ﺗﺠﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺮﻳﻦ ،ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺎﻋﻢ ،ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻧﺎﺕ ،ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﺎﺩﺓ. ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺳﻌﻴﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺑﺠﺮﺍﺋﻢ ﻣﻀﺎﺩﺓ ﻟﻺﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻳﺸﺘﺒﻪ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺟﺮﺍﺋﻢ ﺣﺮﺏ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺕ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﻋﺪﺍﻡ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺇﺫﻥ ﻗﻀﺎﺋﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺨﻀﻮﻉ ﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ﻟﻤﻦ ﻳﺸﺘﺒﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻤﺎء ﻟﻠﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻷﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﻣﺤﺎﻭﻟﺘﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻔﺠﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻭ ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻛﺪﻟﻴﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﺐ ﻟﺪﻯ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ "ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻣﺎﺭﻯ ﺃﺑﺎ" ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺃﻋﺘﻘﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ ٢١٠٢ﻭ ﺑﻘﻰ ﺭﻫﻦ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺠﺎﺯ ﻟﻤﺪﺓ ﻋﺎﻡ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ،ﺭﺟﻞ ﺍﻷﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻱ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺟﻲ ﺑﻜﺎﺭ ﻳﺎﻏﺎﻧﺎﻣﻰ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺗﻢ ﺍﻟﻘﺒﺾ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻓﻲ ٣١٠٢ﻭ ﻅﻞ ﻣﺤﺘﺠﺰ ﺭﻏﻢ ﺻﺪﻭﺭ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﻓﺮﺍﺝ ﻋﻨﻪ. ﻭﺻﻞ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺯﺣﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺷﻤﺎﻝ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ٢.١ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻳﻌﻴﺸﻮﻥ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺨﻴﻤﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﻣﻀﻴﻔﺔ
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ﺍﻟﺳﻳﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﻳﺔ ،ﻋﻭﺍﺋﻖ ﺍﻟﺗﺣﺎﻟﻑ ﺿﺩ ﺑﻭﻛﻭ ﺣﺭﺍﻡ ٪aspx ٠٢.ﺑﻭﻛﻭ-ﺣﺭﺍﻡ -٪٠٢ﻣﻥ-ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻠﺔ/ﺗﻘﺎﺭﻳﺭ/ﻋﻭﺍﺋﻖ-ﺍﻟﺗﺣﺎﻟﻑ-ﺍﻹﻗﻠﻳﻣﻲ-ﺿﺩ/٤٣٦٧/٢١١/٣ http://www.siyassa.org.eg/NewsContent /
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ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﺨﺎﺭﻯ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺃﻛﺪ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺃﻭﺑﺎﻣﺎ ﺑﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻡ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻭ ﺇﻳﻘﺎﻑ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺑﻲ. ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺁﺧﺮ ،ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺒﻠﻎ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻧﻲ ٠٧١ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﻤﺔ ﻛﺄﻛﺒﺮ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﻰ ﺃﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ،ﻭ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻣﺤﻠﻰ ﺑﻠﻎ ٠١٥ ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﺃﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﻛﺄﻛﺒﺮ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺮﺍء .ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺼﺪﺭ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻤﺢ ،ﺍﻵﻻﺕ ،ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺎﺕ ،ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺳﺘﻴﻚ ،ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻤﺸﺘﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ،ﻓﻰ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺗﺼﺪﺭ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻛﺎﻭ ،ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺎﻁ ،ﻭ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻒ .ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻧﻴﺠﺮﻳﺎ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ٤٠١ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻱ . ً ﻭ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼً ﻗﺪ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺗﻬﺪﻳﺪﺍً ﺻﺮﻳﺤﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﺼﺎﻟﺢ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻼﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻛﻤﺼﺪﺭ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻟﻠﻨﻔﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻟﺤﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺘﻠﻜﻪ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻄﺮﺃ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ.
ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎ :ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ : ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻗﺪ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻭ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻭﺭﺓ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺗﺸﺎﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﺮ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻴﺮﻭﻥ ،ﻭ ﺑﻠﻎ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﺴﺎﺋﺮ ﺗﺪﻣﻴﺮ ٠٠١١ﻣﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻧﺰﻭﺡ ٠٠٠٠٦ﺷﺨﺺ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺸﺎﺩ ،ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﻗﻤﺔ ﺃﺩﻳﺲ ﺃﺑﺎﺑﺎ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻓﺮﻳﻘﻲ ﻁﺎﻟﺒﺖ ﺗﺸﺎﺩ ﺑﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺇﻗﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﻤﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ .ﻭ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻌﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻓﺒﺮﺍﻳﺮ ٥١٠٢ﺗﻢ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺇﻗﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﺗﻀﻢ ﺗﺸﺎﺩ، ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﺮ ،ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻴﺮﻭﻥ ،ﺑﻨﻴﻦ ،ﻭ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﻠﻎ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺇﺭﺳﺎﻟﻬﺎ ٠٠٥٧ﻓﺮﺩ ،ﻭ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ً ﻣﺴﺒﻘﺎ ،ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﺧﻀﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻟﻤﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺣﻘﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﻧﺠﺎﺡ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ٠٠٤ﺭﻫﻴﻨﺔ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻗﺪ ﺍﺣﺘﺠﺰﻫﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺩﺧﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﻟﻤﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺑﺤﻴﺮﺓ ﺗﺸﺎﺩ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺣﺮﺏ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺴﺒﺒﺖ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺑﻨﺰﻭﺡ ٠٠٠٠٦ﺷﺨﺺ .ﺩﻭﻟﻴﺎً ،ﻟﻢ ﺗﺸﺎﺭﻙ ﺃﻱ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺃﻛﺘﻔﺖ ﺑﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺨﺒﺎﺭﺍﺗﻲ ﻭ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﻁﺎﺋﺮﺍﺕ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﻁﻴﺎﺭ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﺳﺘﻜﺸﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺸﺎﺩ ،ﻭ ﺍﻛﺘﻔﺖ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﻮﻋﻮﺩ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻲ. ﻳﻌﺎﻧﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﻨﻌﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﻭ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻧﺘﺼﺎﺭ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻭ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﺗﻔﻨﻴﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻰ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ : ﺗﻀﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ ﻟﻤﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺭﺅﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺔ ﻭ ﻣﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻬﺎ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻻ ● ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﻫﺪﻑ ﻭﺍﺿﺢ ﻳﺴﻌﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻘﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﻴﺪ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﻁﺆ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ. ﺗﻌﺎﻧﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻘﺺ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻻ ﺗﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻓﻴﺔ ● ﺳﻮﺍء ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺣﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺘﺒﻌﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ،ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﻴﺮ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻻ ﺗﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ. ﺗﻌﺪ ﺃﺯﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻮﻳﻞ ﻫﻲ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺼﻌﺐ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻥ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺩﻋﻢ ﻣﺎﺩﻯ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ، ● ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻭﻋﻮﺩ "ﺑﺎﻥ ﻛﻰ ﻣﻮﻥ" ﺍﻷﻣﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻗﺪ ﻭﻋﺪ ﺑﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﻟﻠﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ،ﻟﺬﺍ ﻭﺳﻂ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻣﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻳﺼﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ .
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US Department of state, U-S relations with Nigeria http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/٦٣٨٢.htm
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ﺃﻭﻻ ً :ﻅﺮﻭﻑ ﻧﺸﺄﺓ ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ ﻭ ﺗﻄﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ : ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻳﻮﺳﻒ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺃﻧﺸﺄ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺘﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٢٠٠٢ﻟﺘﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﻛﺠﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﺗﺪﻋﻮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ،ﻭ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻠﻪ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻳﺘﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻳﻌﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻳﺮﻓﺾ ﺃﺳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻲ ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ .٤٠٠٢ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺕ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻮﺓ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺴﻠﺤﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ٩٠٠٢ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺑﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺗﻪ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﻘﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺛﺮﻫﺎ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺭﺃﺳﻬﻢ ﺯﻋﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﻭ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﻬﺎ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻳﻮﺳﻒ .ﻛﺎﻥ ﻟﻨﺸﺄﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﺃﺳﺒﺎﺏ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﺪﻧﻰ ﺍﻷﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻤﺎﻝ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺩﻓﻌﻬﻢ ﻟﺮﻓﺾ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻁ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻜﻤﻠﻮﺍ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻬﻢ . ﻗﺪ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﺎﻡ ٩٠٠٢ﺑﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺮﻯ؛ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ: ﺃﻭﻻ ،ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ١١٠٢ﺑﺘﻔﺠﻴﺮ ﻣﻘﺮ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺎﺻﻤﺔ ﺃﺑﻮﺟﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺃﻭﺩﻯ ﺑﺤﻴﺎﺓ ٣٢ﺷﺨﺺ ﻭ ﺇﺻﺎﺑﺔ ● ٠٨ﺃﺧﺮﻳﻦ ،ﻓﻲ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺃﻋﻠﻨﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺮﻳﺪ ﺗﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﺭﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﻟﻠﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺑﺎﺭﺍﻙ ﺃﻭﺑﺎﻣﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ. ● ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺃﺷﻬﺮ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ،ﺍﺧﺘﻄﺎﻑ ٦٧٢ﻓﺘﺎﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺗﺸﻴﺒﻮﻙ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺑﺮﻳﻞ ٤١٠٢ﻓﻲ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﺔ ﻣﻔﺰﻋﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺃﺟﻤﻊ ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺣﻠﻬﺎ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻭ ﻗﺪ ﺃﺩﺍﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺃﺟﻤﻊ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻠﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎﻛﺎﺕ ﻟﺤﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ. ● ﻓﻲ ﺩﻳﺴﻤﺒﺮ ٦١٠٢ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺑﺘﻔﺠﻴﺮ ﺍﻧﺘﺤﺎﺭﻱ ﺃﺩﻯ ﻟﻤﻘﺘﻞ ٥٤ﺷﺨﺺ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺧﺮ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ،ﻟﻴﺼﺒﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺷﺮﺍﺳﺔ ﻭ ﻋﻨﻔﺎً ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﻴﻦ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻗﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺃﺑﻰ ﺑﻜﺮ ﺷﻴﻜﺎﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺧﻠﻒ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻳﻮﺳﻒ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﻘﺘﻠﻪ ﻓﻲ .٩٠٠٢ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻋﺮﻑ ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﻁﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻧﺸﺄﺗﻪ ﺑﻄﺎﻟﺒﺎﻥ ﺃﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ﻟﺘﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﻧﺸﺄﺗﻪ ﻣﻊ ﻧﺸﺄﺓ ﻁﺎﻟﺒﺎﻥ ﺃﻋﻠﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺎﺭﺱ ٥١٠٢ﻣﺒﺎﻳﻌﺘﻪ ﻷﺑﻰ ﺑﻜﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﻐﺪﺍﺩﻱ ﺯﻋﻴﻢ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﻡ (ﺩﺍﻋﺶ) ﺧﻠﻴﻔﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﻠﻤﻴﻦ ،ﻭ ﺇﻋﻼﻥ ﻭﻻء ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ ﻟﻠﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ .ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺒﻠﺘﻬﺎ ﺩﺍﻋﺶ ﻣﻌﻠﻨﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺇﻣﺎﺭﺓ ﻏﺮﺏ ﺍﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ﻣﺤﺪﺛﻪ ﺗﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻋﻠﻦ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﻋﺶ ﺗﻌﻴﻨﻪ ﻷﺑﻰ ﻣﺼﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻧﺎﻭﻯ ﺍﺑﻦ ﻣﺆﺳﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺙ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﺃﻣﻴﺮﺍً ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﺘﺠﺎﻫﻠﺔ ﻣﺼﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺋﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺃﺑﻰ ﻳﻜﺮ ﺷﻴﻜﺎﻭ. ً ﺗﻜﺮﺍﺭﺍ ﻓﻬﻞ ﻳﺴﺘﺴﻠﻢ ﺃﺑﻰ ﺑﻜﺮ ﺷﻴﻜﺎﻭ ﻭ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻭ ﻫﻨﺎ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺑﻮﺍﺩﺭ ﺍﻧﻘﺴﺎﻡ ﻳﻌﺪ ﺗﻜﺮﺭ ﺇﺷﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﻣﻘﺘﻞ ﺃﺑﻰ ﺑﻜﺮ ﺷﻴﻜﺎﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻧﻔﺎﻫﺎ ﻣﺮﺍﺭﺍً ﻭ ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻣﺘﻘﺒﻼً ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺃﺑﻰ ﺑﻜﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﻐﺪﺍﺩﻯ ﺃﻡ ﻳﺪﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺧﻄﺮ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﺴﺎﻡ؟ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻤﺎ ﺇﺭﻫﺎﺑﻴﺎً ً ﻭ ﻓﻰ ﻧﻮﻓﻤﺒﺮ ٣١٠٢ﺃﻋﻠﻨﺖ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ
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ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ :ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺔ : ﺗﻌﻮﺩ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠٦٩١ﺑﻌﺪ ﺣﺼﻮﻝ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﻼﻟﻬﺎ .ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺘﻄﻮﺭ ﻭ ﺗﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﺑﻔﻌﻞ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺮﺿﺖ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻧﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻣﺘﻜﺮﺭﺓ ،ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺗﺴﻌﻴﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ ﺃﺧﺬﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻓﻰ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺩﺧﻮﻝ ﻣﺠﺎﻻﺕ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪﺍً ﻋﺎﻡ ٩٩٩١ﺑﺪﺃ ﺗﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،ﻭ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺬﺍﺋﻲ ،ﻭ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻣﺠﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺰﺍﺭﻋﺔ ،ﻭ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ .ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻠﻘﺎء ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺟﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺃﻭﺑﺎﻣﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻱ
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Counter Terrorism Guide, Boko Haram https://www.nctc.gov/site/groups/boko_haram.html
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ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ
ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ :ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺍﻹﺧﺒﺎﺭﻳﺔ
ﺃﺳﺒﺎﺏ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ : ﺧﻠﻒ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻋﺎﻧﺖ ﻣﻨﻪ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺮﺍء ﻟﺴﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺗﺴﺒﺒﺖ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎﺕ ﺇﺭﻫﺎﺑﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺭﺓ؛ ﻭ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ ﺍﻵﺗﻰ: ﺧﻠﻒ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﺭ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻫﺸﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻭ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬﻩ .ﻓﺒﺎﺗﺖ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻻ ﻣﺠﺮﺩ ● ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﻻﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻟﻜﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻻﻣﺮ ﻻ ﺗﻤﻠﻚ ﺃﻯ ﺳﻠﻄﺔ ﺗﻤﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﺮ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻨﻴﻬﺎ. ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﺑﻴﺌﺔ ﻓﻘﻴﺮﺓ ﺗﻌﺎﻧﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﻞ ﻟﻴﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻋﻘﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻳﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﺶ ﻓﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ● ﺧﻴﺎﺭﺍ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺘﺎﺡ ﻟﻠﻜﺜﻴﺮﻳﻦ. ﺧﻠﻖ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﺭ ﺩﻭﻻ ﻣﻔﻜﻜﺔ ﻳﺴﻬﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻭ ﻳﺴﻬﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻓﺮﺍﺩﻫﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻣﻨﺢ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ ﻣﺜﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﺒﺮﻭﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎﺕ ● ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺑﻴﺔ. ﻧﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﻟﻺﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ : .١ﺟﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﺮﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻏﻨﺪﻱ : ﻫﻮ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺗﺄﺳﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻳﺪ ﺳﻴﺪﺓ ﺗﺪﻋﻰ "ﺍﻟﻴﺲ ﺍﻭﻣﺎ" ﻭ ﻳﺘﺰﻋﻤﻪ "ﺟﻮﺯﻳﻒ ﻛﻮﻧﻰ ".ﻳﺴﻌﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻟﻺﻁﺎﺣﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻭﻏﻨﺪﺍ ﻭ ﺇﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺪﺱ ،ﻭ ﻳﺘﻌﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺣﺎﻝ ﻭﺻﻮﻟﻪ ﻟﻠﺴﻠﻄﺔ .ﻛﺎﻥ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻭﻏﻨﺪﺍ ﻭ ﺟﻨﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺩﺍﻥ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻡ ﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺷﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺩﺍﻥ ﺑﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺩﻋﻢ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻟﻠﺘﺨﻠﺺ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺘﻤﺮﺩﻱ ﺟﻨﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺩﺍﻥ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻻﻧﻔﺼﺎﻝ ،ﻭ ﻳﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺟﻮﺯﻳﻒ ﻛﻮﻧﻰ ﻣﺴﺌﻮﻝ ﺍﻣﺎﻡ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻻﻣﻦ ﻋﻦ ﻣﻘﺘﻞ ٠٠١ﺃﻟﻒ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻭ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻠﻖ ﺍﺻﺒﺢ ﺍﺣﺪ ﺍﻫﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ ﻟﻠﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ .ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ١١٠٢ﺍﺭﺳﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻣﻦ ٠٠١ﻓﺮﺩ ﻟﻼﺷﺘﺮﺍﻙ ﻓﻲ ١٠١ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ . .٢ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻫﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﻣﺎﻟﻴﺔ : ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺻﻮﻣﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻋﺮﻓﺖ ﺑﺄﺳﻤﺎء ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻭ ﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﺷﺘﻬﺮﺕ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ .ﻳﻌﻮﺩ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺴﻬﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤٠٠٢ﺑﺘﺒﻨﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﺗﻮﺟﻬﺎ ﺇﺳﻼﻣﻴﺎ ﻳﺴﻌﻰ ﻹﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﺧﻼﻓﺔ ﺇﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ .ﻳﺘﺮﺍﻭﺡ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺃﻋﻀﺎء ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ٠٠٠٧-٠٠٠٣ﻣﻘﺎﺗﻞ .ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺇﺭﻫﺎﺑﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﺎﻡ ٨٠٠٢ﻭ ﺷﺎﺭﻛﺖ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ .ﻗﺎﻡ ٢٠١ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻣﺆﺧﺮﺍ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻴﻨﻴﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺁﺧﺮﻫﺎ ﺍﻗﺘﺤﺎﻡ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ "ﻏﺎﺭﻳﺴﺎ" ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺭﺍﺡ ﺿﺤﻴﺘﻪ ٧٤١ﻗﺘﻴﻼ . ١٠١
ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺟﻳﺵ ﺍﻟﺭﺏ ٩/١١/٤١٠٢ /٤١٠٢/٢/٠١ﺍﻟﺭﺏ-ﺟﻳﺵ http://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/movementsandparties/ ٢٠١ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺣﺭﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﺑﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﺟﺎﻫﺩﻳﻥ ٣/٤/٥١٠٢ /٥١٠٢/٤/٣ﺍﻟﺻﻭﻣﺎﻟﻳﺔ-ﺍﻟﺷﺑﺎﺏ-ﺣﺭﻛﺔ http://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/movementsandparties/
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ﺍﻟﻔﻬﺮﺱ (ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ) : .........................................................................................................٢٤ﺍﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺃﺳﺒﺎﺏ......................................................................................٢٤ﺣﺮﺍﻡ ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﻧﻤﺎﺫﺝ.....................................................................................٣٤ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺗﻄﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﻭ ﺣﺮﺍﻡ ﺑﻮﻛﻮ ﻧﺸﺄﺓ ﻅﺮﻭﻑ :ﺃﻭﻻ............................................................................................٤٤ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺠﻴﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ :ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ.........................................................................................................٤٤ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ :ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎ..................................................................................٥٤-ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻅﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺃﻭﺿﺎﻉ :ﺭﺍﺑﻌﺎ
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-٧ﺍﻟﻼﺟﺌﻮﻥ ﻭ ﻁﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﻠﺠﻮء : ﺗﺴﺘﻀﻴﻒ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ٢.٣ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻻﺟﺊ ﺳﻮﺭﻯ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻝ ٠٥٢ﺃﻟﻒ ﻻﺟﺊ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻨﺴﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ .ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺃﻏﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﻼﺟﺌﻴﻦ ﻻ ﻳﺤﺼﻠﻮﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻈﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﺶ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺤﺼﻞ ﺃﻏﻠﺒﻬﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺼﺮﻳﺢ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻞ ،ﻭ ﺑﺎﺕ ﺃﻛﺜﺮﻫﻢ ﻳﻨﺎﺿﻠﻮﺍ ﻟﻠﻌﻴﺶ ﻓﻲ ﻅﺮﻭﻑ ﺻﻌﺒﺔ ،ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻼﺟﺌﻴﻦ ﻛﻮﺭﻗﺔ ﺿﻐﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ﻭ ﻫﺪﺩﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮﺓ ﺑﻔﺘﺢ ﺣﺪﻭﺩﻫﺎ ﻷﻯ ﻻﺟﺊ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ٠٠١ ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑﺎ .
ﺳﺎﺩﺳﺎ :ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺜﺮ ﻭ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺭﺅﻳﺔ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ : ﺑﻌﺪ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻋﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺩﺍﻣﺖ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻳﻘﺎﺭﺏ ٦ﻗﺮﻭﻥ ﻭ ﺣﻘﺒﺔ ﺻﻌﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻭﺍﺟﻬﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺜﺔ ،ﻧﺠﺢ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺮ ﻭ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻣﺴﺒﻘﺎ .ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﺎﺡ ﻗﺪ ﺑﺎﺕ ﻫﺸﺎ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﻜﺮﺭﺓ ﻟﻠﻐﺮﺏ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻌﻲ ﻟﺘﺪﻣﻴﺮ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺟﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﺘﻮﺭﺍ ،ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻫﻢ ﻣﺎ ﺟﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺗﺪﺧﻞ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺻﻌﺒﺔ .ﺍﻭﻻ ،ﻋﺪﻡ ﻗﺒﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ ﺗﺴﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻰ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻓﺘﺢ ﷲ ﺟﻮﻟﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮﻩ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺑﺮ ﻟﻼﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺷﻞ .ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ ،ﻣﺎ ﺯﺍﻟﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺭﻣﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﻣﻠﻔﺎ ﺷﺎﺋﻜﺎ ﺗﺮﻓﺾ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺃﻱ ﺣﺪﻳﺚ ﺑﺨﺼﻮﺻﻪ ﻓﻬﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻘﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺗﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻼﻋﺘﺮﺍﻑ ﺑﻤﺬﺍﺑﺢ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ﻛﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﺑﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ .ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎ ،ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼﺕ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺮﻯ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺃﻻ ﺗﻘﺒﻞ ﺑﺄﻯ ﺗﺼﻮﺭ ﻳﺒﻘﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺪ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺎ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﻗﺪ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ .ﺭﺍﺑﻌﺎ ،ﺷﻬﺪ ﻣﻠﻒ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻻﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎﻛﺎﺕ ﻛﺎﺭﺛﻴﺔ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻻﺧﻴﺮ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻧﻀﻤﺎﻡ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻻﻭﺭﺑﻲ ﺑﺎﻻﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻑ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ .ﻓﻬﻞ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺃﻯ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪﺍﺕ ﺗﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻢ؟
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٧١٠٢/٦١٠٢ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ ،ﻣﻧﻅﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻔﻭ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﻳﺔ ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ https://www.amnesty.org/ar/countries/europe-and-central-asia/turkey/report-turkey/
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ﻓﺮﺿﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻗﻴﻮﺩ ﻛﺜﻴﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺘﺠﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﻨﺢ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺒﺾ ﻭ ﺍﻋﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ ﻹﺫﻥ ﻗﻀﺎﺋﻲ .ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻠﺖ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻋﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺃﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﺈﻗﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﺗﺠﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﻳﻮﻡ ﻋﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺳﺎﺣﺔ ( ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ) ﻣﺒﺮﺭﺓ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺄﻥ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺘﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻋﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻭﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺳﺎﺣﺔ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ. ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺑﻔﺾ ﻣﺴﻴﺮﺓ ﻛﺒﺮﻳﺎء ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺮﻁﺔ ﻷﻭﻝ ﻣﺮﺓ ﻣﻨﺬ ٢١ﻋﺎﻡ ،ﻭ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻗﻨﺎﺑﻞ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻴﻞ ﻟﻠﺪﻣﻮﻉ ﻭ ﺧﺮﺍﻁﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﻐﻮﻁﺔ ﻭ ﺑﺮﺭﺕ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﻌﺪﻡ ﺇﺧﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺴﻴﺮﺓ ،ﻭ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺴﻤﺢ ﻣﺤﺎﻓﻆ ﺇﺳﻄﻨﺒﻮﻝ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺄﻱ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ .ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻠﻔﻴﻖ ﺍﻻﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﻟﻤﺘﻈﺎﻫﺮﻳﻦ ﺣﺪﻳﻘﺔ ﻏﻴﺰﻯ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺒﺮﺃﺕ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﻢ ﻭ ﻣﺎﺯﺍﻟﻮﺍ ﻳﺨﻀﻌﻮﻥ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ﻭ ﺗﻢ ﺇﺩﺍﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ. -٣ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺮﻁ ﻟﻠﻘﻮﺓ : ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﺖ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺮﻁﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻈﺎﻫﺮﺍﺕ ﻭ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﻭ ﺭﺻﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﺷﺘﺒﺎﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻭﻗﻌﺖ ﻣﻊ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ .ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻳﻨﺎﻳﺮ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺃﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻁﺔ ﺑﻘﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻧﻬﺎﺩ ﻛﺎﺯﻧﺨﺎﻥ ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺃﻧﻜﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻌﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺃﺷﺮﻁﺔ ﻓﻴﺪﻳﻮ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺇﻁﻼﻕ ﺍﻷﻋﻴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺇﻟﻘﺎء ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺃﻁﻔﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﺣﺠﺎﺭ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻁﺔ ﺃﺛﺒﺘﺖ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻌﺔ ﻭ ﻣﺎﺯﺍﻟﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻷﻥ. ﻓﺮﺿﺖ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻁﺔ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺣﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻮﺍﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻁﻖ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺍﺷﺘﺒﺎﻛﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﻘﻄﻊ ﺷﺒﻜﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺗﺼﺎﻝ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺭ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻁﻖ ﺃﻳﻀﺎً. -٤ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺬﻳﺐ ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮﻩ ﻣﻦ ﺿﺮﻭﺏ ﺳﻮء ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ: ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻠﺖ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺬﻳﺐ ﻛﻮﺳﻴﻠﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﺠﻮﻥ .ﻭ ﺃﻅﻬﺮ ﻣﻘﻄﻊ ﻓﻴﺪﻳﻮ ﺁﺛﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺬﻳﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺴﺪ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺃﻋﻀﺎء ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺣﺒﺴﻪ ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ،ﻭ ﺗﻌﺮﺽ ٤ﺃﺷﺨﺎﺹ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﻬﻢ ﺑﻘﺘﻞ ﺿﺎﺑﻄﻲ ﺷﺮﻁﺔ ﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﻌﺬﻳﺐ ﻭ ﺿﺮﺏ ﻣﺒﺮﺡ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﻭﺟﻮﺩﻫﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﺰ. -٥ﺍﻹﻓﻼﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺎﺏ : ﺃﺻﺒﺢ ﺍﻹﻓﻼﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺎﺏ ﻟﻤﻮﻅﻔﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺃﻣﺮ ﻋﺎﺩﻯ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺘﻢ ﻣﺴﺎءﻟﺔ ﺃﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﯩﻦ ﻗﺪ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺼﻮﻳﺮﻫﻢ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺪﺍء ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺘﻈﺎﻫﺮﻯ ﺣﺪﻳﻘﺔ ﻏﻴﺰﻯ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﻚ ﺃﻯ ﺩﻋﺎﻭﻯ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺃﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺃﻭ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺃﻋﻀﺎء ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻗﺪ ﺍﺭﺗﻜﺒﻮﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺮﺍﺋﻢ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺃﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﻋﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻋﻤﺪﺓ ﺗﺎﺑﻊ ﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﺑﺈﻁﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻴﺮﺍﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺃﺷﺨﺎﺹ ﻣﻤﺎ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﺑﻘﺘﻠﻬﻢ ﻭ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻘﺪﻡ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻅﻬﺮ ﻣﻘﻄﻊ ﻓﻴﺪﻳﻮ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺿﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻁﺔ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻳﻌﺬﺏ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺃﻋﻀﺎء ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ﻭﻟَﻢ ﻳﻘﺪﻡ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺎءﻟﺔ.
-٦ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﻛﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻳﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻠﺤﺔ : ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻠﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺒﺒﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﻣﺪﻧﻴﻴﻦ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺴﺒﺒﺖ ﺃﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﺩﺍﻋﺶ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﻣﻬﺮﺟﺎﻥ ﺗﺎﺑﻊ ﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻤﻮﻗﺮﺍﻁﻲ ﻭ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺗﻔﺠﻴﺮ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ٣٣ﺷﺨﺺ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺕ ﺃﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﻴﻦ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﻋﺪﺍﺋﻬﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ. ٧٣
ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺗﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻱ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﻣﻤﺎ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺧﺴﺎﺋﺮ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻭ ﺗﺤﻮﻝ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﺃﻫﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ ﺍﻧﻀﻤﺖ ﻓﺼﺎﺋﻞ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻟﻄﺮﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﺰﺍﻉ .ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﻗﺮﺭﺕ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻘﻒ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﻮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ً ﻫﺪﻓﺎ ﺃﻋﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﻪ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﺣﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﺩَﺍﻭﺩَ ﺃﻏﻠﻮ ﻫﻮ ﺇﺳﻘﺎﻁ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺪ ،ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻭﺟﻬﺖ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻭ ﻭﺿﻌﺖ ﻟﻨﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺩﻋﻤﻬﺎ ﻟﻔﺼﺎﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﺤﻘﻖ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ ،ﻭ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﺘﺪﺭﻳﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺘﺪﻟﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ٨٩ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﻼﺟﺌﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﯩﻦ ﻓﺮﻭﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺤﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﻟﺘﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻼﺟﺌﻴﻦ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺰﺍﻉ . ﻭ ﻣﺆﺧﺮﺍً ﺷﺎﺭﻛﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺗﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺩﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻭﺿﻌﺖ ﻟﻪ ﻫﺪﻓﺎً ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﻟﻠﺠﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻣﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺟﺘﻴﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺟﺮﺍﺑﻠﺲ ﻫﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻷﻫﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﻌﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺩﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺍﺕ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺗﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻳﺪﻱ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﻋﺶ ﻭ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺣﺪ ﻟﻨﻔﻮﺫ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ .٩٩ ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﺗﺴﺎﺅﻝ ﻫﺎﻡ ﻫﻞ ﺗﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺩﻋﻤﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺃﻡ ﻳﺘﺮﺍﺟﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺪﻓﻪ ﺑﺈﺳﻘﺎﻁ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﺳﺪ؟
ﺧﺎﻣﺴﺎً :ﺃﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ : ﻟﻢ ﺗﺤﺮﺯ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺗﻘﺪﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺕ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻜﻴﻞ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎﻙ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﺍﻧﺐ ،ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮ ﺭﻓﺾ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺮﺍﻑ ﺑﻤﺴﺆﻭﻟﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺑﺎﺩﺓ ﺑﺤﻖ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺣﺪﺛﺖ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ،ﻭ ﻋﺎﺩﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺰﺍﻋﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻭ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻭء ﺍﻟﺤﺬﺭ ﻭ ﺳﻨﺘﺤﺪﺙ ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻌﺎﻧﻰ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ. -١ﺣﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ: ﺗﺪﻫﻮﺭﺕ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺣﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺎﺭﺛﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﺳﺘﻬﺪﻓﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻣﻮﻅﻔﻴﻦ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻴﻮﻥ ﻭ ﻧﺸﻄﺎء ،ﻭ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺠﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻬﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﻲ. ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺑﺈﻏﻼﻕ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻒ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﺻﺤﻒ ﻛﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺇﺑﺪﺍء ﺃﺳﺒﺎﺏ ،ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺎﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ ﺗﻢ ﺍﻟﻘﺒﺾ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻔﻲ "ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﺎﺭﺍﻧﺴﻮ" ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﺼﺤﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ ﻻﺗﻬﺎﻣﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻟﻼﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮ ً ﻣﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺩﺓ ٩٠١ ﺍﺣﺘﺠﺎﺯﻩ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻤﻪ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ،ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﺧﻼﻝ ٦ﺃﺷﻬﺮ ﺣﺮﻙ ﻭﺯﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻝ ٥٠١ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﺑﺘﻬﻤﺔ ﺇﻫﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ً ﺷﻬﺮﺍ ﻹﻫﺎﻧﺘﻪ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺣﺪ ﻣﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﺻﺪﺭ ﺣﻜﻢ ﺑﺤﻖ ﻁﻔﻞ ﻳﺒﻠﻎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺮ ٧١ﺳﻨﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﺠﻦ ﻟﻤﺪﺓ ١١ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺻﻞ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ. ﻭ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺑﺈﻏﻼﻕ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻴﻔﺰﻳﻮﻧﻴﺔ ﻻﺗﻬﺎﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﺠﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﻓﺘﺢ ﷲ ﻛﻮﻟﻦ ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺇﻏﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺎﺭﺿﻬﺎ ﻭﻗﺖ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺸﺎء ،ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻮﻓﻤﺒﺮ ﻟﻘﻰ ﻧﻘﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻣﻴﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺍﻓﻊ ﻋﻦ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻁﺎﻫﺮ ﺃﻟﺘﺸﻰ ﻣﺼﺮﻋﻪ ﺃﺛﺮ ﺇﻁﻼﻕ ﻧﺎﺭ ﻭ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﻲ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻷﻥ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺷﻜﻮﻙ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺟﺪﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺕ. -٢ﺣﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻤﻊ: ٨٩
ﺩﻭﻳﺗﺵ ﻓﻳﻠﺔ ،ﺍﻟﺣﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﻔﻘﻭﺩ ﺳﻳﺎﺳﺔ ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ ﺗﺟﺎﻩ ﺳﻭﺭﻳﺎ ﺗﺻﻁﺩﻡ ﺑﺑﻘﺎء ﺍﻻﺳﺩ ٤/٣/٥١٠٢ -a/٨٥٩١٩٢٨١ﺍﻟﺣﻝ-ﺍﻟﻣﻔﻘﻭﺩ-ﺳﻳﺎﺳﺔ-ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ-ﺗﺟﺎﻩ-ﺳﻭﺭﻳﺎ-ﺗﺻﻁﺩﻡ-ﺑﺑﻘﺎء-ﺍﻷﺳﺩ /http://m.dw.com/ar ٩٩ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺩﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﺭﺍﺕ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﻋﺳﻛﺭﻳﺔ ﻣﺗﻌﺩﺩﺓ ﺍﻻﻫﺩﺍﻑ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺟﺑﻬﺎﺕ ٨/٩/٦١٠٢ /٦١٠٢/٩/٥ﻭﺍﻟﺟﺑﻬﺎﺕ-ﺍﻷﻫﺩﺍﻑ-ﻣﺗﻌﺩﺩﺓ-ﻋﺳﻛﺭﻳﺔ-ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ-ﺍﻟﻔﺭﺍﺕ-ﺩﺭﻉ http://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/military/
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ﺑﺮﻋﺎﻳﺔ ﺇﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ،ﻭ ﺃﺧﻴﺮﺍً ﻫﺪﺩ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍءﺍﺕ ﺿﺪ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﻔﺘﺢ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﻟﻼﺟﺌﻴﻦ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑﺎ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻫﺪﺩ ٤٩ ﺻﺮﺍﺣﺔ ﺑﻔﺘﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺑﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺑﻠﻐﺎﺭﻳﺎ ﺍﻣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻼﺟﺌﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﻴﻦ . ﻭ ﺑﻌﻴﺪﺍً ﻋﻦ ﺗﻌﺜﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻭﺿﺎﺕ ﺣﺎﻟﻴﺎً ﻓﻴﺘﻮﺍﺟﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺒﺎﺕ ﻹﻛﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻧﻀﻤﺎﻡ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ؛ ﺑﺤﺴﺐ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﻤﺜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺑﺤﺴﺐ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺍﻧﻀﻤﺎﻡ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ﺳﺘﻤﻠﻚ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﺣﺼﺔ ٥٩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻋﻀﺎء ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﻠﻚ ﻭﺣﺪﻫﺎ ٦٩ﻋﻀﻮ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﺑﻲ ،ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺁﺧﺮ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺩﺧﻮﻝ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺳﻴﺨﻠﻖ ﺗﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺗﻤﺘﺎﺯ ﺑﺮﺧﺺ ﺍﻷﻳﺪﻱ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻭ ﺑﺪﺧﻮﻟﻬﺎ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺳﻮﻑ ﺗﺴﻴﻄﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﺘﻐﺮﻕ ﺍﻷﺳﻮﺍﻕ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻴﺔ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺩﺧﻮﻝ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﻻﺯﺍﻟﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺒﺮﺻﻴﺔ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺑﺎﺭﺯﺓ ﺗﻌﻴﻖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺩﺧﻮﻝ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺇﺻﺮﺍﺭ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﺤﻘﻬﺎ ﻓﻰ ﻗﺒﺮﺹ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ،ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﻣﻠﻒ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻣﺎﺯﺍﻝ ﻋﺎﺋﻖ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﺃﻣﺎﻡ ﺩﺧﻮﻝ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ. ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻜﻦ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻌﺔ ﺩﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺗﺮ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﺑﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺭﻓﻀﺖ ﻫﻮﻟﻨﺪﺍ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺡ ﻟﻄﺎﺋﺮﺓ ﻭﺯﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﻬﺒﻮﻁ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺭﺍﺿﻴﻬﺎ ،ﻭ ﻗﺪ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺮﺭ ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﻭﺯﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﻳﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﺘﻄﺮﺡ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﻔﺘﺎء ﻳﻮﻡ ٦١ﺍﺑﺮﻳﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﺭﻱ ،ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺤﺪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻣﻨﻌﺖ ﻭﺯﻳﺮﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﻟﻤﻘﺮ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺼﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﻬﻮﻟﻨﺪﺍ ﻟﻠﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻨﺪﻭﺓ ﻭ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺮﺣﻴﻠﻬﺎ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺫﻟﻚ .ﻭ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ ﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺼﺮﻳﺤﺎﺕ ﻏﺎﺿﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻁﻴﺐ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﻭ ﻭﺯﻳﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻴﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺑﻤﻄﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﻟﻨﺪﻱ ﺑﻌﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺩﺓ ﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﻫﻦ .ﻭ ﺍﺯﺩﺍﺩ ﺗﺄﺯﻡ ﺍﻷﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﺍﻟﺪﻧﻤﺎﺭﻛﻲ ﻧﻈﻴﺮﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻳﻠﺪﺭﻡ ﺑﻌﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺘﺮﺽ ﺍﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ٩١،٠٢ﻣﺎﺭﺱ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﻟﻴﺰﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻐﻀﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ .ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻌﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺒﻲ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﻈﺎﻫﺮ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺗﺮﺍﻙ ﺑﻬﻮﻟﻨﺪﺍ ﺗﺄﻳﻴﺪﺍ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺮﻭﺣﺔ ﻣﺎ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻁﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﻟﻨﺪﻳﺔ ﻟﺘﻔﺮﻳﻘﻬﻢ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ .ﺃﻣﺎ ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ ﻓﻘﺪ ٦٩ ﻁﺎﻟﺒﺖ ﺑﺘﻬﺪﺋﺔ ﺍﻷﺟﻮﺍء ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺗﺼﻌﻴﺪ ﺍﻷﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻭﺻﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﻴﻪ . -٥ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ : ﻗﺒﻴﻞ ﺑﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻨﺰﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺃﻭﺻﻞ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻱ ﻟﻄﺮﻳﻖ ﻣﺴﺪﻭﺩ ﻻ ﺭﺟﻌﺔ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﻭ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﺳﺪ ﻓﻲ ﻗﻤﺔ ﻣﺠﺪﻫﺎ .ﺍﺭﺗﺒﻄﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺳﻮﺭﻳﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺎﻟﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ ﺃﺑﺮﺯﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺪﺍء ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻱ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺷﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻣﻴﻦ ﺣﺮﺏ ﺿﺪﻫﻢ ،ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﺟﻌﻠﺖ ﺍﻷﺳﻮﺍﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻣﻔﺘﻮﺣﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﻞ ﺃﻥ ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻊ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺗﺒﺎﻉ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺑﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﺳﺪ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻜﺮﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻠﻴﻦ ،ﻭ ﺑﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ٠١٠٢ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺘﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻄﺎﻥ ﺑﻌﺸﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻠﻐﻰ ﺗﺄﺷﻴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻮﻝ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺛﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ. ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﺪ ﺍﺗﺒﻌﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﺢ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﺟﻬﺖ ﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﺢ ﺩﻭﻣﺎً ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻭﺗﻴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﻴﺤﺔ ﺍﺯﺩﺍﺩﺕ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﺃﺷﺒﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻬﺪﻳﺪ .ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﺮﻯ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺸﺎﺭ ﺗﻘﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﻭ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﻒ ﻭ ﻭﺑﺪء ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺇﺻﻼﺡ ً ﺗﺮﺿﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻱ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺠﺎﻫﻠﻪ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺪ ﻭ ﻗﺮﺭ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻗﺪ ﻻ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺣﻼً ﻣﺠﺪﻳﺎ ،ﻭ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﻘﺪﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ ٧٩ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻭ ﺗﺒﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً . ٤٩
ﺍﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺗﻬﺩﻳﺩ ﺻﺭﻳﺢ ﻟﻼﺗﺣﺎﺩ ﺍﻻﻭﺭﺑﻰ ﺍﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺗﻡ ﻓﻰ ﺍﺟﺭﺍءﺗﻛﻡ ﺳﻧﻔﺗﺢ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﺑﺭ ﺍﻟﺣﺩﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻼﺟﺋﻳﻥ CNN ٥٢/١١/٦١٠٢ http://arabic.cnn.com/world/٦١٠٢/١١/٥٢/erdogan-threatens-eu-refugees ٥٩ EUROPEAN PARLIAMENThttp://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/search.html?country=DE ٦٩ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺗﺻﺎﻋﺩ ﺍﻟﺧﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻲ ﺍﻻﻣﺭﺑﻲ ﻭ ﻓﺭﻧﺳﺎ ﺗﺩﻋﻭ ﻟﻠﺗﻬﺩﺋﺔ ٢١/٣/٧١٠٢ /٧١٠٢/٣/٢١ﻟﻠﺗﻬﺩﺋﺔ-ﺗﺩﻋﻭ-ﻭﻓﺭﻧﺳﺎ-ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ-ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻲ-ﺍﻟﺧﻼﻑ-ﺗﺻﺎﻋﺩ http://www.aljazeera.net/news/international/ ٧٩ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ ﻭﺍﻻﺯﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻭﺭﻳﺔ ٨١/٥/١١٠٢ /١١٠٢/٥/٧١ﺍﻟﺳﻭﺭﻳﺔ-ﻭﺍﻷﺯﻣﺔ-ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ http://www.aljazeera.net/knowledgegate/opinions/
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ﻣﻦ ٠٠٣ﺃﻟﻒ ﻳﻮﻧﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ﺳﺮﻳﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ﺁﺧﺮﻳﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﺿﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ .ﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺗﺮﻓﺾ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺮﺍﻑ ﺑﻤﺬﺍﺑﺢ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ﻛﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺇﺑﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻣﺬﺍﺑﺢ ﺑﺤﻖ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ﻭ ﺗﺆﻛﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻨﺔ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺔ ﺑﺄﻱ ﺣﺎﻝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺣﻮﺍﻝ ﻭ ﺃﻥ ٩٨ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺃﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻀﺤﺎﻳﺎ ﻳﺒﻠﻎ ٠٠٣ﺃﻟﻒ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻧﻴﻴﻦ . ﺩﻭﻟﻴﺎً ﺍﻋﺘﺮﻓﺖ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺑﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺑﺤﻖ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻧﻔﺬﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻳﺄﺗﻲ ﺃﺑﺮﺯﻫﺎ (ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﺯﻳﻞ ، ﺗﺸﻴﻠﻲ ،ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻳﺪ ،ﺍﻷﺭﺟﻨﺘﻴﻦ ،ﻟﻮﻛﺴﻤﺒﺮﺝ ،ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺴﺎ ،ﺑﻮﻟﻴﻔﻴﺎ) ﻛﻤﺎ ﺍﻋﺘﺮﻓﺖ ﻣﺆﺧﺮﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﺎ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺃﻏﻀﺐ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻗﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ﻣﺬﺍﺑﺢ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ﻛﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺇﺑﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻗﺘﺮﻓﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﺤﻖ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ،ﻭ ﻟﻤﺮﺍﺕ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻛﺎﻥ ٠٩ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻧﺠﺮﺱ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﻗﺮﻳﺐ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺮﺍﻑ ﺑﻤﺬﺍﺑﺢ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ﻛﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺇﺑﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺤﺪﺙ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺭﺳﻤﻴﺔ . ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ ﺗﺄﺑﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺮﺍﻑ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺑﺎﺩﺓ ﻭ ﻳﺄﺗﻲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺳﺒﺎﺏ؛ ﻳﻌﺪ ﺃﺑﺮﺯﻫﺎ ﻣﺒﺎﻟﻎ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﺘﺠﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺪﺍﺩﻫﺎ ﻛﺘﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺖ ،ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﻫﻮ ﺃﻥ ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﻣﻤﺘﻠﻜﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ﻭ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺳﺘﺠﺒﺮ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺭﺩ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﻷﺻﺤﺎﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﻄﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻣﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ،ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺮﺃﻱ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻳﺮﻯ ﺃﻥ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺴﺌﻮﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺑﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺖ ﻭ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺆﻟﻴﺔ ﺗﺘﺤﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﻘﻄﺖ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٢٩١ﻭ ﺧﻠﻔﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﻭ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺆﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺳﻘﻄﺖ ﺑﺴﻘﻮﻁ ١٩ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ . -٤ﻁﻤﻮﺡ ﺍﻻﻧﻀﻤﺎﻡ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ: ﺭﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻤﻮﺡ ﺍﻷﻛﺒﺮ ﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻻﻧﻀﻤﺎﻡ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﺑﻲ ،ﺍﻻﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺑﺎﺕ ﺣﻠﻤﺎ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻘﻪ ﺑﺸﺘﻰ ً ﺍﻟﺴﺒﻞ .ﺃﻋﻘﺐ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﻮﻻً ﻫﺎﺋﻼ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺳﻌﻰ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ ً ﻳﻀﻤﻦ ﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺗﻄﻮﺭﺍً ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺍ .ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ﺗﻘﺪﻣﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﻄﻠﺐ ﺭﺳﻤﻲ ﻟﻼﻧﻀﻤﺎﻡ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٦٩١ﻭ ﻭﻗﻌﺖ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺃﻧﻘﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻭﺿﻌﺖ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺴﻠﻜﻬﺎ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺤﺎﻕ ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ،ﺇﻻ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻧﻘﻼﺏ ٠٨٩١ﺗﻌﻄﻠﺖ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ .ﻋﺎﻭﺩﺕ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﻣﺮﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻋﺎﻡ ٧٨٩١ﺣﻴﺚ ﻧﺠﺤﺖ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎء ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻀﻴﺮ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻧﺠﺤﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻮﻗﻴﻊ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺟﻤﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ﺳﺮﻋﺎﻥ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺠﻤﻴﺪﻫﺎ ﺑﻔﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻧﻴﺔ. ﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺷﺤﺔ ﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺭﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ ٩٩٩١ﻟﺘﺒﺪﺃ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺭﺣﻠﺔ ﻁﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻟﺪﺧﻮﻝ ﻣﻔﺎﻭﺿﺎﺕ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ .ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥٠٠٢ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺭﺳﻤﻴﺎً ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻭﺽ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ، ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻭﺽ ﻋﻠﻰ ٣١ﺑﺎﺏ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻟﻠﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺇﺻﻼﺡ ﻭ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﺆﻫﻠﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ٢٩ ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﺻﻼﺣﺎﺕ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻛﺎﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ٠١٠٢ﻭ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﻗﻀﺎﺋﻴﺔ . ﻭ ﺗﺸﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺗﻌﺜﺮ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻭﺿﺎﺕ ﻗﺪ ﺑﺎﺗﺖ ﻻ ﺗﺨﻔﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﺻﺪﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ﺗﻮﺻﻴﺘﻪ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺗﺼﻮﻳﺖ ٣٩ ﺃﻏﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺳﺎﺣﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﻗﻒ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻭﺿﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺣﺼﻮﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ،ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮ ً ﻣﻬﺎﺟﻤﺎ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻭﺻﻔﻪ ﻟﻠﺘﺼﻮﻳﺖ ﺑﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺛﺮ ﻭ ﺑﻼ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﻪ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻁﻴﺐ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻁﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺮﻳﺤﺎﺕ
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ﺳﻛﺎﻱ ﻧﻳﻭﺯ ،ﻣﺫﺍﺑﺢ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻥ ﺫﻛﺭﻯ ﺗﺟﺩﺩ ﺍﻻﻟﻡ ٤٢/٤/٤١٠٢ /٧٠٣٦٥٦ﺍﻵﻻﻡ-ﺗﺟﺩﺩ-ﺫﻛﺭﻯ-ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻥ-ﻣﺫﺍﺑﺢ http://www.skynewsarabia.com/web/article/ ٠٩ THE ARMENIAN GENOCIDE-INSTITUTE http://www.genocide-museum.am/eng/states.php ١٩ ﺳﻛﺎﻱ ﻧﻳﻭﺯ ،ﻟﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﻻ ﺗﻌﺗﺭﻑ ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ ﺑﻣﺫﺍﺑﺢ ﺍﻻﺭﻣﻥ ٤٢/٤/٥١٠٢ /٩٦٤٠٤٧ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻥ؟-ﺑـﻣﺫﺍﺑﺢ-ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ-ﺗﻌﺗﺭﻑ-ﻟﻣﺎﺫﺍhttp://www.skynewsarabia.com/web/article/ ٢٩ ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺭﺟﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﺔ ،ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻻﺗﺣﺎﺩ ﺍﻻﻭﺭﺑﻰ http://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkiye-ab-iliskilerine-genel-bakis-ar.ar.mfa ٣٩ BBCﺍﻟﺑﺭﻟﻣﺎﻥ ﺍﻻﻭﺭﻭﺑﻰ ﻳﻭﺻﻰ ﺑﺗﺟﻣﻳﺩ ﻣﻔﺎﻭﺿﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﺿﻣﺎﻡ ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ ﻟﻼﺗﺣﺎﺩ ﺍﻻﻭﺭﺑﻰ http://www.bbc.com/arabic/world-٢٢٥٣٩٠٨٣
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ﻣﺮ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﺑﻤﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺭﺣﻠﺘﻬﻢ ﻟﺘﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻛﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﺃﻗﺮﺑﻬﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺳﻴﻔﺮ ٠٢٩١ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺿﻤﻦ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﺣﻘﻬﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻟﻬﻢ ﺷﺮﻁ ﻣﻮﺍﻓﻘﺔ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻔﺎء .ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﺫﻛﺎء ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﻛﻤﺎﻝ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻧﺠﺢ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺃﻧﻬﻢ ﺟﺰء ﻣﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ،ﺛﻢ ﺟﺎءﺕ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻟﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﺿﺮﺑﺔ ﻗﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﻠﻢ ٤٨
ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﻱ ﺑﺘﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻬﻢ ،ﻭ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺪﻡ ﻭﻋﻮﺩ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ ﻁﻮﻳﻼ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺇﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻟﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺗﻌﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻨﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺿﻄﻬﺎﺩ ﻣﺎﺭﺳﺘﻬﺎ ﺿﺪﻫﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺳﻌﻴﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﻗﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺔ ،ﻓﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻨﻴﻦ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﻣﺤﻈﻮﺭ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﻢ ٥٨ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻟﻐﺘﻬﻢ ﺃﻭ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺃﺳﺎﻣﻰ ﻛﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﺳﻮﺍء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺑﻨﺎﺋﻬﻢ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻯ . ﻭ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺿﻄﻬﺎﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﻋﺎﻧﻰ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﻭ ﺧﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ ) (PKKﻫﻮ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺍﻷﺑﺮﺯ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ ﻧﺠﺢ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﺎﺏ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺃﻭﺟﻼﻥ ﺑﺘﻮﺟﻪ ﻣﺎﺭﻛﺴﻲ ،ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻭﺿﻌﻪ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﻛﻬﺪﻑ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻧﺸﺄﺗﻪ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻧﺸﺎء ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻛﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻮﺣﺪﺓ .ﺧﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺑﺪء ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤٨٩١ﻋﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻪ ﻭ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺭﺍﺡ ﺿﺤﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ٠٤ﺃﻟﻒ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻓﻴﻦ .ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٩٩٩١ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺑﺔ ﺍﻷﻛﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﺤﺰﺏ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺒﺾ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎﺋﺪ ﻭ ﻣﺆﺳﺲ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺃﻭﺟﻼﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺣﻜﻢ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻷﻋﺪﺍﻡ ،ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻥ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺨﻔﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﺠﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺑﺪ .ﻭ ﺷﻬﺪ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣١٠٢ ٦٨ ﺇﻋﻼﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﻭﻗﻒ ﺃﻁﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ .ﺍﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺑﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﺩﻳﺴﻤﺒﺮ ٥١٠٢ ﺗﺒﺎﺩﻝ ٧٨ ﺃﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻰ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺴﻠﺤﻴﻦ ﺗﺎﺑﻌﻴﻦ ﻟﻠﺤﺰﺏ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﻘﺎء ﺍﻟﻘﺒﺾ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﻢ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺍﺧﺘﺒﺎﺋﻬﻢ ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻓﻰ ﺩﻳﺎﺭ ﺑﻜﺮ . ﻭ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻤﺜﻴﻞ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﻳﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻻ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻷﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﻛﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ .ﻭ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺚ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻋﻦ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻤﻮﻗﺮﺍﻁﻲ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﺼﻒ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﺑﻤﻤﺜﻞ ﻟﻜﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻷﻗﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻧﺸﺄ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٢١٠٢ﻭ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻵﺭﺍء ﺑﻤﺒﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﺃﻭﺟﻼﻥ .ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺑﻨﺠﺎﺣﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻣﺆﻛﺪﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺪﺭﺗﻪ ﻓﻰ ﺗﻤﺜﻴﻞ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻗﺪ ﻳﺰﺍﻝ ﺧﻴﺎﺭﺍً ﻣﺘﺎﺣﺎً ً ﻋﻠﻰ ٩٥ﻣﻘﻌﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ٨٨ ﻟﻠﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﻳﺔ . ﺑﻌﺪ ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺰﺍﻉ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻻﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻫﻞ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺣﻞ ﻫﺬﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﺰﺍﻉ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻼﺡ ؟ ﻭ ﻫﻞ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﻣﺼﺎﻟﺤﺔ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻭ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺳﺘﺎﻧﻰ؟ -٣ﻣﺬﺍﺑﺢ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ : ﻫﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻬﺠﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻣﺎﺭﺳﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻴﺤﻴﻦ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﺑﻴﻦ .٢٢٩١-٥١٩١ﻭ ﺑﺤﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥١٩١ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﻬﺠﻴﺮ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﺑﺤﻖ ﺍﻷﺭﻣﻦ ﻻﺗﻬﺎﻣﻬﻢ ﺑﻤﺴﺎﻧﺪﺓ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺘﻬﺎ ،ﻭ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺖ ﻓﻲ ﻅﺮﻭﻑ ﻗﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺁﺩﻣﻴﺔ ﺃﻭﺩﺕ ﺑﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻭ ﻧﺼﻒ ﺃﺭﻣﻴﻨﻲ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻘﺮﺏ http://www.bbc.com/arabic/middleeast/٤١٠٢/٠١/٢٢٠١٤١_who_are_kurds ٤٨ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺟﺫﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺷﻛﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻛﺭﺩﻳﺔ ٣٢/٥/٦٠٠٢ http://www.aljazeera.net/specialfiles/pages/٤f ٥٣٩dae-٨e ٤-٨٠c ٣٨-٤٥ca-٦١f ٢٩٦c ٧ab ٥٣ ٥٨ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺍﻟﻛﺭﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺩﻣﺞ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ ٣٢/٥/٦٠٠٢ http://www.aljazeera.net/specialfiles/pages/٦a ٣٨d ٤٢f-d ٥٥f-٤e ٣٢-a ١fa-f ٠٣a ١e ٦ ٦٨ ٩ﺍﻟﻛﺭﺩﺳﺗﺎﻧﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﺎﻝ ﺣﺯﺏ ٦١٠٢ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ٩fec ٦/٧/، /٤١٠٢/٢/٢١ﺍﻟﻛﺭﺩﺳﺗﺎﻧﻲ-ﺍﻟﻌﻣﺎﻝ-ﺣﺯﺏ http://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/movementsandparties/ ٧٨ ﺳﻛﺎﻱ ﻧﻳﻭﺯ ،ﺍﺷﺗﺑﺎﻛﺎﺕ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺭﺩﺳﺗﺎﻧﻰ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺟﻳﺵ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻰ ﻓﻰ ﺩﻳﺎﺭ ﺑﻛﺭ ٦٢/٢١/٥١٠٢ /٥٠٤٢٠٨ﺑﻛﺭ-ﺩﻳﺎﺭ-ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻲ-ﻭﺍﻟﺟﻳﺵ-ﺍﻟﻛﺭﺩﺳﺗﺎﻧﻲ-ﺍﺷﺗﺑﺎﻛﺎﺕ http://www.skynewsarabia.com/web/article/ ٨٨ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺣﺯﺏ ﺍﻟﺷﻌﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺩﻳﻣﻭﻗﺭﺍﻁﻰ ٩/٦/٥١٠٢ /٥١٠٢/٦/٩ﺍﻟﺩﻳﻣﻘﺭﺍﻁﻲ-ﺍﻟﺷﻌﻭﺏ-ﺣﺯﺏ http://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/movementsandparties/
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ﺗﻤﺮ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺑﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺻﻌﺒﺔ ﺗﺤﺘﺎﺝ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻹﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺗﺼﺤﻴﺢ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺛﺮﺍﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻭ ﺳﻨﺘﺤﺪﺙ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺃﻫﻢ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ: -١ﺃﺯﻣﺔ ﺟﻮﻟﻦ : ً ﻻ ﺷﻚ ﺃﻥ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﻓﺘﺢ ﷲ ﺟﻮﻟﻦ ﺃﻭ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﻗﺪ ﺑﺎﺗﺖ ﻫﺪﻓﺎً ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺎ ﻟﻠﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ .ﻭ ﺑﺎﺕ ﻓﺘﺢ ﷲ ﻛﻮﻟﻦ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻷﺧﻴﺮ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻭﺟﻬﺖ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺃﺻﺎﺑﻊ ﺍﻻﺗﻬﺎﻡ ﻟﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ. ﻳﻌﻮﺩ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠٧٩١ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﺳﺴﻬﺎ ﻓﺘﺢ ﷲ ﻛﻮﻟﻦ ﻣﺘﺄﺛﺮﺍً ﺑﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﻭ ﺃﻓﻜﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺗﺐ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﻯ ﺳﻌﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺭﺳﻲ .ﻭ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺼﻔﻬﺎ ﺟﻮﻟﻦ ﺑﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳُ ﺆ ِﻣﻦ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ ﻻ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ ،ﻭ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠٨٩١ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺃﻳﺪﺕ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺣﺪﺙ ﺣﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺗﻴﺎﺭ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺍﻻﺳﻼﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺗﻢ ﻗﺒﻮﻟﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺣﺎﺏ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ .ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﻯ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺃﺩﺍﻩ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﻋﻰ ﻟﺬﺍ ﺗﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ٠٠٥١ﻣﻨﺸﺄﺓ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ .ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻨﺘﻘﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﺇﺳﺮﺍﺋﻴﻞ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ ﻭ ﺗﺮﻯ ﺃﻧﻬﻢ ﻗﻮﻯ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﻻﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻬﻢ ،ﻭ ﺳﻌﺖ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻐﻠﻐﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ٠٨ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻟﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﻮﺍﺯﻯ ﻟﻠﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ . ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺩﻋﻢ ﺟﻮﻟﻦ ﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻁﻴﺐ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ ٧٠٠٢ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﺑﺈﻏﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺍﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻀﻴﺮﻳﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺗﺤﻮﻝ ﻓﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺟﻮﻟﻦ ﻭ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ،ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﺘﺼﺮﻳﺤﺎﺕ ﺟﻮﻟﻦ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺳﻔﻴﻨﺔ ﻣﺮﻣﺮﺓ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺪ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺑﺈﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﻗﺎﻓﻠﺔ ﺩﻋﻢ ﻟﻐﺰﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻲ ﻟﻜﺴﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻓﺮﺿﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎﺕ ً ﻣﺘﻮﺟﻬﺎ ﻟﻮﻻﻳﺔ ﺑﻨﺴﻠﻔﺎﻧﻴﺎ ﺑﻐﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﺝ ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻹﺳﺮﺍﺋﻴﻠﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻏﺰﻩ .ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻗﺪ ﻏﺎﺩﺭ ﺟﻮﻟﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ ﻋﺎﻡ ٩٩٩١ ١٨ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻦ . ﻭ ﻓﻰ ﺳﺒﺘﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ ﻁﺎﻟﺒﺖ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺭﺳﻤﻲ ﺗﻮﻗﻴﻒ ﻓﺘﺢ ﷲ ﺟﻮﻟﻦ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻭﺟﻬﺖ ﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎ ﺻﺮﻳﺤﺎً ﺑﺎﻟﻀﻠﻮﻉ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺷﻞ .ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﻛﻮﻟﻦ ﻧﻔﻰ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻻﺗﻬﺎﻡ ٢٨
،ﻓﻬﻞ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺘﺴﻠﻴﻢ ﻓﺘﺢ ﷲ ﺟﻮﻟﻦ ﻟﻠﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺃﻡ ﻳﺘﺄﺯﻡ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻧﻘﺮﺓ ﺑﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ؟ ﻭ ﻫﻞ ﻳﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﺗﺴﻠﻴﻢ ﺟﻮﻟﻦ ﻓﻰ ﻋﻮﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﻋﻬﺪﻫﺎ؟ -٢ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﻭ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ: ﻛﻤﺎ ﺫﻛﺮﻧﺎ ﻣﺴﺒﻘﺎ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ٪٠٢ﻣﻦ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻰ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻭ ﻫﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﻻ ﻳﺴﺘﻬﺎﻥ ﺑﻬﺎ .ﻭ ﻳﻌﻮﺩ ﺃﺻﻞ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺗﻮﻗﻴﻊ ﺇﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻟﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺃﻣﺎﻟﻬﻢ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻟﻬﻢ ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻮﻗﻴﻊ ﺇﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻟﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺭﺳﻤﺖ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺗﻼﺷﺖ ﻭ ﺃﻧﻬﺎﺭﺕ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻷﺣﻼﻡ ﻭ ﺃﺻﺒﺢ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩ ﺃﻗﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮﺓ ﻓﻰ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﺜﻞ (ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ،ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ،ﺳﻮﺭﻳﺎ ،ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ، ٣٨ ﺃﺭﻣﻴﻨﻴﺎ) . ٠٨
/٤١٠٢/١/٠١ﺍﻟﺳﻳﺎﺳﺔ-ﻻﺣﻘﺗﻪ-ﻭﺩﺍﻋﻳﺔ-ﻣﻔﻛﺭ-ﻏﻭﻟﻥ-ﷲ-ﻓﺗﺢ http://www.aljazeera.net/news/reportsandinterviews/ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﻓﺗﺢ ﷲ ﺟﻭﻟﻥ ﻣﻔﻛﺭ ﻭ ﺩﺍﻋﻳﺔ ﻻﺣﻘﺗﻪ ﺍﻟﺳﻳﺎﺳﺔ ٤١٠٢/١/٠١ /٤١٠٢/١/٠١ﺍﻟﺳﻳﺎﺳﺔ-ﻻﺣﻘﺗﻪ-ﻭﺩﺍﻋﻳﺔ-ﻣﻔﻛﺭ-ﻏﻭﻟﻥ-ﷲ-ﻓﺗﺢ http://www.aljazeera.net/news/reportsandinterviews/ ٢٨ ﺍﻻﻫﺭﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻰ ،ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ ﺗﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﺑﺗﺳﻠﻳﻡ ﻓﺗﺢ ﷲ ﺟﻭﻟﻥ ٣٢/١/٧١٠٢ http://arabi.ahram.org.eg/News/٧٦٢٥٠١.aspx ٣٨ ﻣﻥ ﻫﻡ ﺍﻻﻛﺭﺍﺩ BBC ٢٢/٠١/٤١٠٢ ١٨
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ﺃﻥ ﻗﺮﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﻥ ٢١ﻣﻴﻼ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺤﺮ ﺇﻳﺠﺔ ،ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺭﺃﺗﻪ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻔﺎ ﻟﻘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻼﺣﺔ ٦٧ ٥٧ . ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻋﻘﺒﺖ ﻋﻨﻪ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﺍﻣﺮ ﻳﺴﺘﺤﻖ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﺃﻣﺎ ﻗﺒﺮﺹ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻧﺎﻟﺖ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠٦٩١ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻬﻨﺄ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻭ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪﺍ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٦٩١ﺑﺪﺃ ﺻﺮﺍﻉ ﺃﻫﻠﻲ ﻣﺎﺭﺱ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻘﺒﺎﺭﺻﺔ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﻒ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻷﺗﺮﺍﻙ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ،ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮ ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺑﺎﺗﺖ ﻣﻨﻘﺴﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻮﺗﻴﺮﺓ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻗﺮﺭﺕ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺴﻜﺮﻱ ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ ﻳﻮﻧﻴﻮ ٤٧٩١ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺃﺭﺳﻠﺖ ﻗﻮﺍﺗﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﺴﻴﻄﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﺰء ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺃﺻﺒﺢ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻗﺒﺮﺹ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ .ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺮﺍﻑ ﺑﻘﺒﺮﺹ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻱ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺑﻨﺎءﺍً ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻣﻨﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﻗﺒﺮﺹ ٧٧ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ،ﻭ ﻣﺎﺯﺍﻟﺖ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻭ ﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﺍﺣﺪﻯ ﻣﻌﻮﻗﺎﺕ ﺩﺧﻮﻝ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﺑﻲ . ﻭ ﻳﺸﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﻫﻦ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻅ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻭ ﺳﻌﻰ ﺟﺎﺩ ﻟﺘﺠﺎﻭﺯ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻓﻰ ﻅﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﻯ ﺇﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺠﺎﻭﺯ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ . -٣ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺷﺮﺍﻛﺔ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻴﺔ: ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻴﺔ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﺳﻌﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﻋﻤﻪ ،ﻭ ﻣﺮﺕ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻤﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﻭ ﺗﻘﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﻌﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻬﺒﻮﻁ ﻭ ﺳﻨﺴﻌﻰ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻟﻠﺤﺪﻳﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻄﺎﺕ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ. ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﺍﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺭﺑﻄﺖ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﺳﺴﻬﺎ ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﻛﻤﺎﻝ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ ،ﻗﺪﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺩﻋﻢ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻋﻘﺐ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻋﻼﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻤﺒﺪﺃ ﺗﺮﻭﻣﺎﻥ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻋﻠﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺍﻥ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻳﺴﺎﻧﺪ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻻﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﻥ ﻟﻪ ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺳﺎﺱ ﻗﺪﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ٠٠٤ ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﻟﻠﻴﻮﻧﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻟﻤﺤﺎﺭﺑﺘﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻮﻋﻴﺔ .ﻭ ﻅﻬﺮ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﻣﺪﻯ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻣﻊ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻙ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ٨٧ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺩﻋﻤﺎ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﻣﺮﺕ ﺑﻌﻘﺒﺎﺕ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻠﻬﺎ .ﻓﻤﻊ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺖ ﺑﺈﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺻﻮﺍﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻓﻴﻴﺖ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻮﺑﺎ ﻭ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺍﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻠﻘﻰ ﺗﺮﺣﺎﺑﺎً ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﺴﺒﺒﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺮﻣﺎﻧﻬﺎ ﺃﺣﺪ ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻗﻮﺗﻬﺎ .ﺃﻳﻀﺎً ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﺎﺟﺘﻴﺎﺡ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺒﺮﺻﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﻷﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﻡ ﻟﻠﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﻭﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻭﺍﺟﻬﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺤﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﻠﻴﺢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻟﻴﻜﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺑﺎﺭﺯﺓ ﻓﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ .ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﻫﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺗﺴﻠﻚ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺃﺳﻠﻮﺏ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻭﺿﻌﻪ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ ﺗﺒﺮﺯ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺮﻯ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻞ ﻣﻊ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﺳﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻀﻐﻂ ٩٧ ﻟﺮﺣﻴﻞ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﺸﺎﺭ . ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺣﺪﺙ ﻣﺆﺧﺮﺍ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺩﺧﻠﺖ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻭ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻓﻰ ﻁﻮﺭ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻁﻴﺐ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺾ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻻﻳﻮﺍﺋﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻻﺗﻬﺎﻡ ﺑﺨﺼﻮﺹ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﻓﺘﺢ ﷲ ﻛﻮﻟﻦ ،ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺧﻼﻑ ﺣﺎﺩﺓ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺑﺎﺗﺖ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺧﻄﺮ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ.
ﺭﺍﺑﻌﺎً :ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻭ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ: ٥٧
http://www.mfa.gov.tr/perception-of-the-aegean-sea.en.mfaﺃﻳﺟﺔ ﻟﺑﺣﺭ ﺗﺻﻭﺭ ،ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺭﺟﻳﺔ ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺓ ( /٦٧٦٩١ http://www.turkpress.co/nodeﺗﺭﻙ ﺑﺭﺱ ،ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻳﻭﻧﺎﻥ ﻣﻥ ﻣﺎﺿﻰ ﻣﺷﺅﻭﻡ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺳﺗﻘﺑﻝ ﻣﺷﺭﻕ (٧١/٣/٦١٠٢ ٧٧ ( /٩٠٠٥١ http://www.turkpress.co/nodeﺗﺭﻙ ﺑﺱ ،ﺍﻟﻘﺿﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺑﺭﺻﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺳﻁﻭﺭ ﻣﺧﺗﺻﺭﺓ (١١/١١/٥١٠٢ ٨٧ /٤١٠٢/٢١/٩ﺍﻟﻛﻭﺭﻳﺔ-ﺍﻟﺣﺭﺏ (٤٠٠٢/٠١/٣ ) http://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/military/ﺍﻟﻛﻭﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺭﺏ ،ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ
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ﻭﺍﺷﻧﻁﻥ ﻣﻌﻬﺩ، ( ﺍﻟﺗﺩﺍﻋﻲ ﻓﻰ ﺃﺧﺫﺓ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺭﻳﻛﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻫﻝ٥١٠٢/٢/٥ ) http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/ar/policy-analysis/view/isthe-u.s.-turkey-relationship-crumbling
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ﺗﺄﺳﺴﺖ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺭﺳﻤﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺎﻳﻮ .٢٩٩١ﻭ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ،ﻭﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺃﺑﺮﺯﻫﺎ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻱ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻮﻗﻴﻌﻬﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٢٠٠٢ﻭ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺧﻂ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ "ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻞ ﺍﻷﺯﺭﻕ" ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺷﻬﺪ ﺍﻓﺘﺘﺎﺣﻪ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻲ ﻓﻼﺩﻳﻤﻴﺮ ﺑﻮﺗﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺯﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺭﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٥٠٠٢ﻭ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺯﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻲ ﺩﻳﻤﺘﺮﻱ ﻣﻴﺪﻓﻴﺪﻳﻒ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠١٠٢ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻭﻗﻊ ﺧﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺻﻞ ﻝ ٧١ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ .ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻮﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﻀﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﻴﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺔ ١٧ ﻣﺆﻛﺪﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺘﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ . ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﺪ ﻭﺻﻠﺖ ﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻻ ﻳﻌﻨﻰ ﻋﺪﻡ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺧﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺎﺿﻲ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ؛ ﺍﻻﺯﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻑ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻓﻜﻼ ﻣﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﻳﻤﻠﻚ ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺒﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺼﺎﻟﺤﻪ. ﺑﻮﺗﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻪ ﻳﺮﻯ ﺍﻥ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺑﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﺳﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺭﺃﺱ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻮﺭﻳﺎ ﺃﻣﺮ ﻻ ﺑﺪﻳﻞ ﻋﻨﻪ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﻓﻀﻪ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺭﻓﻀﺎ ﻗﺎﻁﻌﺎ .ﺗﺄﺗﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻛﺮﺍﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﻭﺍﺿﺢ ﺑﺄﻥ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺟﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻡ ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﺃﺭﺍﺿﻴﻬﺎ ﻭ ﺣﻖ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻟﻬﺎ ،ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻑ ﻭﻗﻔﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺑﺤﻖ ﺃﻭﻛﺮﺍﻧﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﺃﺭﺍﺿﻴﻬﺎ ﺇﻻ ٢٧ ﺍﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﻓﻀﺖ ﻓﺮﺽ ﻋﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ . ﻭ ﺃﺗﻲ ﺍﺳﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻟﻄﺎﺋﺮﺓ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺔ ،ﻗﺪ ﻗﻴﻞ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﺧﺘﺮﻗﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻢ ﺇﻧﺬﺍﺭﻫﺎ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﺮﺍﺕ ،ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﻟﻄﻤﺔ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺔ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻊ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻭﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮﻓﻤﺒﺮ ٥١٠٢ﺃﻋﻠﻨﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﻘﺎﻁ ﻁﺎﺋﺮﺓ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﺪ ﺍﺧﺘﺮﻗﺖ ﻣﺠﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻱ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻧﺬﺍﺭﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻣﻘﺘﻞ ﻁﻴﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻘﺒﺾ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺁﺧﺮ ،ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺔ ﻗﺪ ﺃﻛﺪﺕ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﺋﺮﺓ ﺳﻮﺧﻮﻯ ٤٢-ﻗﺪ ﺗﺤﻄﻤﺖ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺳﻮﺭﻳﺎ ﻭ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﺎﺭﻳﻦ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻤﻜﻨﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻐﺎﺩﺭﺗﻬﺎ ،ﻭ ﺃﻧﺬﺭ ﻓﻼﺩﻳﻤﻴﺮ ٣٧ ﺑﻮﺗﻴﻦ ﺑﻌﻮﺍﻗﺐ ﻋﻨﻴﻔﺔ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻁﻴﺐ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﺑﺎﻻﻋﺘﺬﺍﺭ ﺭﺳﻤﻴﺎ ﻭ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺌﻮﻝ ﻋﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ . ﻭ ﻓﻰ ٠٢ﻣﻦ ﺩﻳﺴﻤﺒﺮ ٦١٠٢ﻟﻘﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻰ ﺑﺄﻧﻘﺮﺓ ﺍﻧﺪﺭﻳﻪ ﻛﺎﺭﻟﻮﻑ ﻣﺼﺮﻋﻪ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺍﻁﻼﻕ ﻧﺎﺭﻯ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻌﺮﺽ ﻟﻪ ﺑﻤﻌﺮﺽ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻔﺎﺭﺓ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﺸﺨﺼﻰ ﻟﻠﺴﻔﻴﺮ ﺃﻣﺎﻡ ﻛﺎﻣﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﻳﻮﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺎﻓﺔ ﺑﻘﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻴﺮ ﺛﻢ ﺭﺩﺩ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺯﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺔ ،ﻭ ﺳﺮﻳﻌﺎ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺗﻞ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺘﺼﻔﻴﺘﻪ .ﻭ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺗﻮﻗﻊ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﻴﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺩﺙ ﺳﻮﻑ ﻳﻘﻮﺩ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻰ ﻣﺄﺳﺎﺓ ﻛﺒﺮﻯ ﻭ ﻅﻬﺮ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺼﺮﻳﺢ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﻳﻤﻠﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺭﺃﻯ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﺙ ﺳﻴﺆﺛﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ،ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﺳﻌﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻓﺎﻥ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﻓﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺗﻬﻢ ﺟﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺑﻮﺗﻴﻦ ٤٧ ﻳﺆﻛﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺛﻘﺘﻪ ﻓﻰ ﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺆﻭﻝ ﻭ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻤﻪ ﻟﻠﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ . -٢ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻓﺎﺕ: ﺗﻤﻠﻚ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻗﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﺧﻼﻓﻴﺔ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻥ ،ﻓﺎﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﻠﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺧﺎﺿﺖ ﺣﺮﺑﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺗﻤﺘﻠﻚ ﻣﺤﻮﺭﺍﻥ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻑ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ؛ ﺻﺮﺍﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻹﻗﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺻﺮﺍﻉ ﻗﺒﺮﺻﻲ ﻣﻤﺘﺪ . ﻳﻌﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻹﻗﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ٦٣٩١ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻗﺮﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻥ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺃﺣﺎﺩﻱ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻮﻉ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺑﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ ﻣﻴﺎﻫﻬﺎ ﺍﻹﻗﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ٣ﺃﻣﻴﺎﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ٦ﺃﻣﻴﺎﻝ ،ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺃﻏﻀﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ .ﻟﻴﺘﻜﺮﺭ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﻣﺮﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥٩٩١ﺑﻌﺪ
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( /aspx ٦٧٢٧٦ http://arabi.ahram.org.eg/NewsQ.ﺍﻷﻫﺭﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻰ ،ﺳﺑﻊ ﻣﺣﻁﺎﺕ ﻣﻬﻣﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﻭﺱ ﻭ ﺍﻷﺗﺭﺍﻙ (٦٢/١١/٦١٠٢ =٦٩٦٤٣ http://democraticac.de/?pﺍﻟﻣﺭﻛﺯ ﺍﻟﺩﻳﻣﻭﻗﺭﺍﻁﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻰ ،ﺗﻁﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺭﻭﺳﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﺔ ٦١٠٢-٠٠٠٢ ٣٧ ( ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ ﺗﺳﻘﻁ ﻁﺎﺋﺭﺓ ﺣﺭﺑﻳﺔ ﺭﻭﺳﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺩﻭﺩ ﺳﻭﺭﻳﺎ (BBC ٤٢/١١/٥١٠٢ http://www.bbc.com/arabic/middleeast/٥١٠٢/١١/٤٢١١٥١_turkey_warplane_shot_down_syria ٤٧ ﺳﻛﺎﻱ ﻧﻳﻭﺯ ،ﺗﻔﺎﺻﻳﻝ ﻣﻘﺗﻝ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺭﻭﺳﻲ ٠٢/٢١/٦١٠٢ ٢٧
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http://www.skynewsarabia.com/web/article/ﺗﻔﺎﺻﻳﻝ-ﻣﻘﺗﻝ-ﺍﻟﺳﻔﻳﺭ-ﺍﻟﺭﻭﺳﻲ-ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ/٨٧٢٢٠٩
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ﻹﻳﺪﻳﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ
ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻧﻪ
ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ.
ﺛﺎﻟﺜًﺎ :ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻣﻴﺔ : ﻭ ﻳﺄﺗﻲ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﻛﺄﻛﺒﺮ ﺛﺎﻟﺚ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻱ .ﺗﺄﺳﺲ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٩٦٩١ ﻭﻳﻘﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻣﺪﻭﻟﺖ ﺑﺎﻫﺠﻠﻲ ﻭﻫﻮ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺫﻭ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻗﻮﻣﻲ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻤﺠﺪ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻏﻴﺮﻫﺎ ﻭﻳﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻼﻡ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ. ً ﺭﺍﺑﻌﺎ :ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻤﻘﺮﺍﻁﻲ : ﺗﺄﺳﺲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣١٠٢ﻳﺘﺰﻋﻤﻪ ﺻﻼﺡ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ ﺩﻣﻴﺮﺗﺎﺵ ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻄﺎﻉ ﻭﻷﻭﻝ ﻣﺮﺓ ﺍﺟﺘﻴﺎﺯ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺣﺼﻮﻟﻪ ﻭﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺓ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻋﻠﻲ %٣١ﻣﻦ ﺃﺻﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺧﺒﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ .٥١٠٢ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺗﺮﻛﻲ ﻳﺴﺎﺭﻱ ،ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﻭ ﻳﺤﺎﻓﻆ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺣﻘﻮﻗﻬﻢ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺣﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺻﻮﺍﺕ ﻛﺜﻴﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻳﺴﺎﺭﻳﻴﻦ ٩٦ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺃﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ . -٥ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ: ﺗﻌﺪ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﺳﺘﻄﺎﻋﺖ ﺇﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﻭﺑﺎﻷﺧﺺ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﺤﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻨﺎﻣﻲ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ؛ ﻭ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻮﻟﻲ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﻟﻠﺴﻠﻄﺔ. ﺑﺮﺯﺕ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﺻﻮﻝ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ٢٥١ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﻮﺍﺯﻱ ﻋﺸﺮﺓ ﺃﺿﻌﺎﻑ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺗﻮﻟﻲ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻤﻜﻨﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﺔ ﺍﻟـ ٧١ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺃﻗﻮﻯ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺑﺤﺴﺐ ﺍﻷﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺻﻨﺪﻭﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ،ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﺗﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺍﺿﻄﺮﺍﺏ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺮﺓ ﺿﺮﺑﺔ ٠٧ ﻣﻮﺟﻌﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺳﻘﻄﺖ ﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻴﺔ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺼﻞ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻻﺭ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻔﺮﺽ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺎﺕ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ . ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ :ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ : ﺣﺎﻭﻟﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺩﻭﻣﺎ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﻭ ﻣﺘﺰﻧﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻷﺻﻌﺪﺓ ،ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﺤﻘﻖ ﻣﺼﺎﻟﺤﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻞ ﻛﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ ﻭ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺚ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ. -١ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩﻳﺔ : ﺗﺘﺸﺎﺭﻙ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺠﺎﻫﻠﻪ ﻭ ﺟﻐﺮﺍﻓﻴﺎ ﺗﻔﺮﺽ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﻢ ﺗﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻳﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺧﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻭﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺼﺮﻳﺔ ،ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﻗﻴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻣﺎ ﻋﻘﺒﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺮﻭﺏ ﺃﻫﻠﻴﺔ ٧١٩١ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﻗﺮﻳﺒﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﻛﻤﺎﻝ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ ،ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﻋﻄﺖ ﺍﻧﻄﺒﺎﻉ ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ،ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻧﻀﻤﺎﻡ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻟﺤﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﻮ ﻓﻲ ٢٥٩١ﻭﺿﻊ ﺣﺪﺍ ﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ. ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰﻧﺎ ﺍﻷﻛﺒﺮ ﺳﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺇﺑﺎﻥ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻓﻴﺘﻲ ﻭ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩﻳﺔ ١٩٩١ﻭ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪﺍ ﻣﻊ ﻭﺻﻮﻝ ﻓﻼﺩﻳﻤﻴﺮ ﺑﻮﺗﻴﻦ ﻟﻠﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ .٢٠٠٢
( /٩٦٨١/٣٠/٦١٠٢ http://www.bayancenter.org/ﻣﺭﻛﺯ ﺑﻳﺎﻥ ﻟﻸﺑﺣﺎﺙ ﺍﻹﺳﺗﺭﺍﺗﻳﺟﻳﺔ ،ﺻﺭﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻬﻭﻳﺔ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻷﺣﺯﺍﺏ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﺔ (٨٢/٣/٦١٠٢
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ﺳﻛﺎﻯ ﻧﻳﻭﺯ ،ﺍﻟﻠﻳﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﺔ ﺑﺄﺩﻧﻰ ﻣﺳﺗﻭﻳﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻻﺭ ٠٢/٨/٥١٠٢ /٨٥٦٨٦٧ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻻﺭ-ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻝ-ﻣﺳﺗﻭﻳﺎﺗﻬﺎ-ﺑﺄﺩﻧﻲ-ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﺔ-ﺍﻟﻠﻳﺭﺓ http://www.skynewsarabia.com/web/article/
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ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺑﺮﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺑﻴﺔ ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻢ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠٥٩١ﻣﻦ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺑﺮﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﺘﻴﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺑﻴﺔ ،ﻓﺎﺯ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻤﻘﺮﺍﻁﻲ ﺑﺰﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻋﺪﻧﺎﻥ ﻣﻨﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺑﺄﻏﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺑﺮﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ.
ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ :ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻤﻘﺮﺍﻁﻲ: ﺍﺳﺘﻄﺎﻉ ﻋﺪﻧﺎﻥ ﻣﻨﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﺣﻜﻤﻪ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﻧﺠﺎﺣﺎً ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺎ ﻭ ﻧﺠﺎﺣﺎً ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺎ ﻣﻠﻤﻮﺳﺎً ،ﻭ ﺣﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺄﻳﻴﺪ ﺷﻌﺒﻲ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺧﻠﻖ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺭﺍﻗﺐ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻭﺗﺪﺧﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺆﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﺪﺍﻡ .ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺃﺧﺬ ﻳﻤﺎﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺭﺍء ﺍﻟﻜﻮﺍﻟﻴﺲ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺑﺤﻜﻢ ﻧﻔﻮﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻭﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺃﺳﺲ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﺻﺎﻳﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻴﻘﺔ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺣﻜﻤﻬﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺋﺘﻼﻓﻴﺔ ﺿﻌﻴﻔﺔ ﻭﻓﺎﺷﻠﺔ ﻭﻟﻢ ﻳﻜﻦ ﻟﻴﺼﻞ ﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺋﺘﻼﻓﻴﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺑﻔﻌﻞ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﻘﻀﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻤﻘﺮﺍﻁﻴﺔ ﻭﺣﻜﻮﻣﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺨﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻋﻮﺍﻡ ( )٧٩٩١ ، ٠٨٩١، ١٧٩١ ، ٠٦٩١ﻓﻜﺎﻧﺖ ﻛﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺍﻟﻴﺔ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻹﺭﺍﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺒﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻤﻘﺮﺍﻁﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﻳﻨﺘﺨﺒﻬﺎ.
ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺜﺔ :ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ: ً ﻟﻘﺪ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻓﻮﺯ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ ٢٠٠٢ﻧﺠﺎﺣﺎً ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺍ ﻹﺭﺍﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ،ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺮﻳﺪﻩ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﻋﻮﺍﺋﻖ .ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﻟﻨﺠﺎﺡ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻭﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﺣﻜﻤﻪ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺇﻳﺠﺎﺑﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺑﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺍﻹﺭﺍﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺒﻴﺔ ﻭﺑﺎﻷﺧﺺ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭ ﻭﻭﻅﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ،ﻭﺟﻌﻞ ﺩﻭﺭﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻤﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﻭﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺆﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﺮﻙ ﻣﻄﻠﺐ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﻟﻼﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻹﺭﺍﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺒﻴﺔ ﻓﻘﻂ. ﺣﻴﺚ ﺟﺎءﺕ ﻣﻮﺍﻓﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻮﻓﺎء ﺑﻤﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻭﺷﺮﻭﻁ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ﻟﻘﺒﻮﻝ ﻁﻠﺐ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﻀﻤﺎﻡ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻲ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻷﻫﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻛﻠﻪ ﻫﻮ ﻋﺪﻡ ﻧﺠﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻔﺮﺽ ﺭﺅﻳﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﻳﺪﻳﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺸﺪﺩﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺄﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺍﻧﻘﻼﺑﺎﺕ ﻋﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ.
ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺑﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﻫﻦ: ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺑﻴﺔ ﺑﺘﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺗﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻨﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻷﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻳﺪﻳﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻓﺒﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﻗﻮﻣﻲ ﻭﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻧﻲ ﻭﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﻟﻴﺴﺎﺭﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ .ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻷﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﺗﺤﻈﻰ ﺑﻔﺮﺻﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﻳﺠﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺤﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ %٠١ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺻﻮﺍﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺣﺘﻲ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ. ﺃﻭﻻ :ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ : ﺃﻧﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺣﺪﺙ ﺍﻷﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺗﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﺎﻡ ١٠٠٢ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ ٢٠٠٢ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﻔﺮﺩ. ﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﻣﺎ ﻓﺎﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﻫﻮ ﺣﻤﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺼﺎﻟﺢ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻷﻛﺮﺍﺩ ﻋﺮﻓﺖ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻼﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻲ ﻭﻗﺪ ﺍﺳﺘﻄﺎﻉ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺤﻘﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﻧﺠﺎﺣﺎ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺍ ،ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻨﻔﺠﺮ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻧﻔﺬﻫﺎ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺑﻲ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻻﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ . ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ :ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻱ : ً ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺮﺃﺳﻪ "ﻛﻤﺎﻝ ﻛﻴﻠﻴﺘﺸﺪﺍﺭ ﺃﻭﻏﻠﻮ" ﻭ ﻳﻌﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻗﺪﻡ ﺍﻷﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺃﻧﺸﺄﻩ ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﻛﻤﺎﻝ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ ﻣﺆﺳﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ .٣٢٩١ﺑﺘﺒﻨﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ﻳﻌﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﺍﻷﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ٨٢
ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻁﺒﻘﺎً ﻟﻠﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭ ﺳﻠﻄﺔ ﻻ ﻳﺠﻮﺯ ﺭﻗﺎﺑﺘﻬﺎ ﺃﻭ ﻓﺮﺽ ﺃﻱ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﺤﻖ ﻷﻋﻀﺎﺋﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻀﺎﺓ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺪﻋﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻮﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻱ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺳﻴﺄﺳﻰ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻯ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ ﻁﻮﺍﻝ ﻣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻭ ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﻲ ﻣﻦ : ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ :ﻫﻰ ﻓﻰ ﻗﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺮﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﻲ ﺗﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺇﺻﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﺨﺼﻮﺹ ﺩﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ o ﻋﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﻭ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺍﺗﻬﺎ ﻧﺎﻓﺬﺓ ﻭ ﻧﻬﺎﺋﻴﺔo . ﻣﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺌﻨﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ :ﻫﻰ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻟﻠﺮﻗﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻳﻌﻴﻦ ﺃﻋﻀﺎءﻫﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﺓ. ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ :ﻫﻰ ﺃﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﻳﺔ ﻭ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺍﻷﻋﻀﺎء ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ o ٧٦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ . ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺘﺮﺣﺔ : ﻭﺍﻓﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﺑﺄﻏﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺙ ﺍﺧﻤﺎﺱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ .ﻭ ﺷﻤﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ: ﻳﺤﻖ ﻟﻠﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﻭﻛﺒﺎﺭ ﻣﺴﺆﻭﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ. ● ﻳﺤﻖ ﻟﻠﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻧﺎﺋﺐ ﺍﻭ ﺍﻛﺜﺮ. ● ﻳﻠﻐﻰ ﻣﻨﺼﺐ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء. ● ﻳﺤﻖ ﻟﻠﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻬﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﺑﻐﺮﺽ ﺗﻄﻬﻴﺮﻩ. ● ﻓﺮﺽ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺍﺭﺉ ﻭ ﺗﻤﺪﻳﺪﻫﺎ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ. ● ﻭ ﻳﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﻴﻦ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻥ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﺗﻘﻮﺩ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻟﻠﺨﻠﻒ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻘﻮﺩ ﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺒﺪﺍﺩﻱ ﺗﻨﻔﺮﺩ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻳﺪ ٨٦ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ .ﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﻈﺮ ﺍﻥ ﺑﻌﻘﺪ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﺘﺎء ﺷﻌﺒﻰ ﻟﻘﺒﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺪﻣﻪ ﻓﻰ ٦١ﺍﺑﺮﻳﻞ .٧١٠٢
ﺏ -ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺑﻴﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ : ﻋﺎﺷﺖ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺑﻴﺔ ،ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻫﻲ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺣﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ ،ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺑﺪﺃ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ .٠٥٩١ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٢٩١ﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ
ﺍﻻﻭﻟﻲ :ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻱ :ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺃﺻﺒﺢ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ ﻳﺠﻤﻊ
ﻭ ﺣﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺃﺳﺴﻪ ﻭﺗﺮﺃﺳﻪ ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﻛﻤﺎﻝ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ. ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺭﺋﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﻭﺭﺋﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺁ ًﻥ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻣﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﺯﺩﻭﺍﺟﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻗﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ ﻭﻣﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻨﺠﺢ ﻓﻲ ﻗﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﻧﺤﻮ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺇﺻﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﺮﺽ ﺍﻷﻳﺪﻳﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺸﺪﺩﺓ ،ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﺎﺭﻫﺎ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑﺎ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺚ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﻩ ﻭﻓﺮﺿﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ. ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﺃﺩﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺘﺎﻋﺐ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ،ﻓﻘﺪ ﻭﺍﺟﻬﺖ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻋﺪﻡ ﻧﺠﺎﺡ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺯﺩﻭﺍﺟﻴﺔ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻘﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎﻧﻲ ،ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻫﺸﺔ ﻭ ﺿﻌﻴﻔﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺼﺎﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻣﺮﻳﻜﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻮﻝ ﻓﻲ ﻓﻠﻢ ﻳﻜﻦ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﻔﺮ ﺇﺟﺮﺍء ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺟﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻨﺎء ﺣﻠﻒ ﺷﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﻁﻠﺴﻲ ﺣﻘﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﺩﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺘﺎﺟﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺗﻮ. ﺇﻟﻰ ٧٢
٧٦ ١١٠٢ https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Turkey_١١٠٢.pdf?lang=arﻓﻰ ﺗﻌﺩﻳﻝ ﻷﺧﺭ ﻁﺑﻘﺎً ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻰ ﺍﻟﺩﺳﺗﻭﺭ ﺗﻌﺩﻳﻼﺕ ﺩﺳﺗﻭﺭﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ ﺗﻭﺳﻊ ﺻﻼﺣﻳﺎﺕ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ BBC ١٢/١/٧١٠٢ -٩٩٤٢٣٨/ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺑﺎﺕ-ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ-ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ https://arabic.rt.com/news/
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ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﺑﺘﺸﺠﻴﻊ ﻣﻨﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٩٠٠٢ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻋﺮﻑ ﻭﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﺑـ ﺧﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻔﺺ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺯﻋﻢ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺧﻄﺔ ﺍﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ،ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻗﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻛﻞ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﺠﺮﺩ ﺃﻗﻮﺍﻝ ﺑﻼ ﺃﻓﻌﺎﻝ . ﻭ -ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺷﻠﺔ ﻓﻰ : ٦١٠٢ ً ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺎ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ﺩﻭﻟﻴﺎً ﻓﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺩﺍﻋﺶ ﻭ ﺷﻌﺒﻴﺔ ﺟﻴﺪﺓ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺪﺧﻠﻬﺎ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻷﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ .ﺳﻌﻰ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻑ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﻭ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﺑﺈﺯﺍﺣﺘﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺭﺃﺱ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻓﺸﻞ ﺫﺭﻳﻊ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ ﻣﺜﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻷﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻠﺺ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﻭﺳﻂ ٦٦ ﺭﻓﺾ ﺷﻌﺒﻲ ﻟﺤﺪﻭﺙ ﺃﻯ ﺍﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺩﺓ ﻟﻠﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻱ .
-٤ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻭ ﺍﻷﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ: ً ﻁﺒﻘﺎ ﻷﺧﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻤﺖ ﻓﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ١١٠٢ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺭﺋﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺃ- ﻭ ﻳﺘﺄﻟﻒ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻠﻄﺎﺕ ﻫﻰ :ﺑﺮﻟﻤﺎﻧﻲ، ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬﻳﺔ -ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔــ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﺮﻳﻌﻴﺔ - ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﻴﺔ ً ﺃﻭﻻ :ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﺮﻳﻌﻴﺔ : ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻏﺮﻓﻪ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻫﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ٠٥٥
ﻧﺎﺋﺐ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﻬﻢ ﺑﺎﻻﻗﺘﺮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ .ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺳﻠﻄﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﻬﺎ ﻟﻤﺪﻩ ٤ﺃﻋﻮﺍﻡ؛ ﺳﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ،ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﻗﺒﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﻭ ﺃﻋﻤﺎﻟﻪ ،ﺇﺻﺪﺍﺭ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺻﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﺔ ،ﺍﻋﻼﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ،ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺪﻳﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ،ﻣﻨﺢ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻔﻮ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺹ ﺑﺄﻏﻠﺒﻴﻪ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺃﺧﻤﺎﺱ ﺍﻷﻋﻀﺎء .ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻳﻘﺮﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺪﺓ ﺃﻗﺼﺎﻫﺎ ٥١ﻳﻮﻡ . ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ :ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬﻳﺔ : ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ :ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻗﺘﺮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﻟﻤﺪﺓ ٥ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻤﺪﻳﺪﻫﺎ ﻟﻤﺮﺓ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﻩ ﻓﻘﻂ .ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺑﺈﻟﻘﺎء ﺍﻟﺨﻄﺎﺏ ﺍﻻﻓﺘﺘﺎﺣﻲ ﻟﻠﺠﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻳﺪﻋﻮﻫﺎ ﻟﻼﻧﻌﻘﺎﺩ ﻭ ﺇﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺤﻖ ﻑ ﻁﻠﺐ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ -ﺇﻗﺮﺍﺭﻫﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺪﻡ ﺑﻄﻠﺐ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻟﻴﻄﻠﺐ ﺑﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺳﺎﺭﻱ .ﻳﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻟﺘﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﻭ ﻗﺒﻮﻝ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺎﻟﺘﻪ ﻭ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺑﺎﻗﻲ ﺃﻋﻀﺎء ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻭ ﺩﻋﻮﺗﻬﺎ ﻟﻼﺟﺘﻤﺎﻉ ،ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﺃﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﺮﺍء .ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﺮﺃﺱ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻠﺤﺔ ﻭ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻲ .ﻭ ﻳﻤﻠﻚ ﺳﻠﻄﺔ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺭﺅﺳﺎء ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻟﺲ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﺎﺑﻴﺔ، ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻟﺘﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺃﻋﻀﺎء ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺭﺑﻊ ﺃﻋﻀﺎء ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻋﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ .ﻭ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻴﺔ ﺑﻤﻬﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﻑ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻏﻴﺎﺑﻪ ﻷﻱ ﺳﺒﺐ. ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء :ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻨﻪ ﻫﻮ ﻭ ﻣﺠﻠﺴﻪ ﺑﺸﺮﻁ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﻀﻮﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻴﺔ ﺛﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻋﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﻟﻠﺘﺼﻮﻳﺖ ﺑﺨﺼﻮﺹ ﻣﻨﺢ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺪﻣﻪ ،ﻭ ﻳﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﺮﺍﻗﺒﺔ ﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺪﻭﻟﺔ. ً ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎ :ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﻴﺔ: ٦١٠٢ http://aranews.org/ﺇﻟﻰ ٠٦٩١ﻣﻥ ﺗﺭﻛﻳﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻹﻧﻘﻼﺑﺎﺕ )aranews (٦١٠٢/٧/٨١
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ﻗﺎﺩﻫﺎ ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﻛﻤﺎﻝ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ ﺃﺩﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﻋﻼﻥ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ (ﻭﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺭﺋﺎﺳﺘﻬﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٢٩١ﺣﺘﻰ ﻭﻓﺎﺗﻪ ﻋﺎﻡ )٨٣٩١ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺣﻼﻝ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ ﻭﺃﺭﺳﻰ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺎﺗﻪ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺮﺏ ٥٦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ . ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎء ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﺣﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺣﺪ ﻭ ﺇﺭﺳﺎء ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺑﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻟﺪﻳﻤﻮﻗﺮﺍﻁﻴﺔ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻴﺔ ﻅﻠﺖ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﺎﻥ ،ﻟﻜﻦ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺻﻌﺒﺔ ً ﺟﺪﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﻤﻮﺍﺟﻬﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ: ﺍﻧﻘﻼﺏ : ٠٦٩١ ﺃ- ﺟﺎء ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻗﺎﺩﻩ ﺟﻤﺎﻝ ﺟﻮﺭﺳﻴﻞ ﻓﻰ ﺻﺒﺎﺡ ﻳﻮﻡ ٧٢ﻣﺎﻳﻮ ٠٦٩١ﻋﻘﺐ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻧﻔﺮﺍﺩ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻭ ﺳﻦ ﻗﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﺗﺆﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ،ﻟﻴﺴﻘﻂ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻤﻮﻗﺮﺍﻁﻲ ﻭ ﻳﻌﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﺴﻨﻮﺍﺕ .ﻧﺘﺞ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺇﻋﺪﺍﻡ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﻋﺪﻧﺎﻥ ﻣﻨﺪﺭﻳﺲ ،ﻭ ﺳﺠﻦ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺟﻼﻝ ﺑﺎﻳﺎﺭ ،ﻭ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺭﻓﻴﻖ ﻛﻮﺭﺍﻟﺘﺎﻥ ﻭ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺏ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﺩﺳﺘﻮﺭ ١٦٩١ﻭ ﺇﻧﺸﺎء ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ .ﻭ ﺣﻞ ﻋﺼﻤﺖ ﺇﻳﻨﻮﻧﻮ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﺎً ﻟﻠﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﻋﻘﺐ ﺇﺟﺮﺍء ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ ١٦٩١ﺛﻢ ﺧﻠﻔﻪ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺳﻠﻴﻤﺎﻥ ﺩﻳﻤﺮﻳﻞ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ ،٥٦٩١ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺤﻘﻖ ﺃﻯ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺏ ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺗﺮ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ. ﺏ -ﺍﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﻛﺮﺓ : ١٧٩١ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻧﻘﻼﺏ ١٧٩١ﺑﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺳﻢ ﻹﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻠﺤﺔ ﻣﺬﻛﺮﺓ ﻟﺴﻠﻴﻤﺎﻥ ﺩﻳﻤﺮﻳﻞ ﺗﻨﺬﺭﻩ ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﺪﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻠﺤﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻬﺪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﺳﺘﺪﻋﻰ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺫﻟﻚ ،ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺭﺩ ﻓﻌﻞ ﺳﻠﻴﻤﺎﻥ ﺩﻳﻤﺮﻳﻞ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻘﺎﻟﺘﻪ .ﻭ ﺧﻠﻒ ﺩﻳﻤﺮﻳﻞ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﻏﻴﺎﺏ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﺃﻯ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﻁﻮﻳﻼ ﻭ ﺑﺎﺗﺖ ﺍﻷﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﺠﺎﺡ ،ﻣﺎ ﺩﻓﻌﻬﻢ ﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﺋﺘﻼﻓﻴﺔ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺑﻮﻟﻨﺖ ﺃﺟﺎﻭﻯ .٣٧٩١ ﺝ -ﺍﻧﻘﻼﺏ : ٠٨٩١ ﺳﺎﺩﺕ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﻒ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻭ ﺍﻏﺘﻴﺎﻻﺕ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﻗﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻗﺎﺩﻩ ﻛﻨﻌﺎﻥ ﺇﻳﻔﻴﺮﻳﻦ .ﻣﺎﺭﺱ ﺇﻳﻔﺮﻳﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﻒ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻗﺘﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻋﺘﻘﻞ ﺃﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﺩﻓﻌﺖ ﻟﺘﺴﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﻮﻱ ،ﻭ ﻓﺮﺽ ﺇﻳﻔﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻷﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ .ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻷﻭﺿﺎﻉ ،ﻭﺿﻊ ﺩﺳﺘﻮﺭ ٢٨٩١ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺭﺳﺦ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻭ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺇﻳﻔﺮﻳﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻳﺪﻩ ﻛﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﻟﻠﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ. ﺩ -ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻷﺑﻴﺾ : ٧٩٩١ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺭﺣﻴﻞ ﺇﻳﻔﺮﻳﻦ ﺳﺎﺩﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺑﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺗﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﻨﺼﺐ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﻭ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺼﺐ ﻟﻘﺎﺋﺪ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺮﻓﺎﻩ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ ﻧﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ ﺃﺭﺑﻜﺎﻥ ،٥٩٩١ﻭ ﻗﺎﻡ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻣﻲ ﺑﺎﺗﺨﺎﺫ ﺇﺟﺮﺍءﺍﺕ ﻣﻌﺎﻛﺴﺔ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻗﺮﺍﺭﺕ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺭﻓﺾ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺃﺭﺑﻜﺎﻥ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﻘﺎﻟﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭ ﺃﻭ ﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ. ﻫـ -ﻣﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻧﻘﻼﺏ : ٨٠٠٢ ﺑﻌﺪ ٥ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻧﻘﻼﺏ ﺍﻷﺑﻴﺾ ،ﺣﻘﻖ ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺑﺰﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﺭﺟﺐ ﻁﻴﺐ ﺃﺭﺩﻭﻏﺎﻥ ،ﻓﻮﺯﺍً ﺳﺎﺣﻘﺎً ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎﺕ ٢٠٠٢ﻭﺧﻼﻝ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺮﺕ ﺍﻷﻗﺎﻭﻳﻞ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺳﺮﻱ ﺍﻧﺘﺸﺮ ﺍﻓﺮﺍﺩﻩ ﻓﻲ ﺻﻔﻮﻑ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻭ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻔﺎﺻﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻳﺴﻌﻰ ﻟﻠﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻭ ﺍﺳﻘﺎﻁ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ .ﺃﻁﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﺳﻢ "ﺃﺭﻏﻨﻜﻮﻥ" ﻭﻗﺎﻡ Turkish culture , A Brief outline of Turkish history http://www.turkishculture.org/general-٧٦٠١.htm
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ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺃﻭﻻً :ﻧﺒﺬﺓ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ : -١ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﺠﻐﺮﺍﻓﻲ ﻭ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ :
ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭ :ﺧﺮﺍﺋﻂ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ
ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺍﻭ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﻋﻠﻦ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺴﻬﺎ ﺣﺪﻳﺜﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٢٩١ﻋﻠﻰ ﻳﺪ ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﻛﻤﺎﻝ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ .ﺗﻘﻊ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﻂ ﻭ ﺗﻨﻘﺴﻢ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻗﺎﺭﺗﻴﻦ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻘﻊ ﺟﺰء ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎﺭﺓ ﺁﺳﻴﺎ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺠﺰء ﺍﻷﻛﺒﺮ ﻭﺟﺰء ﻓﻲ ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑﺎ .ﻳﺤﺪ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺷﻤﺎﻻ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﺍﻷﺳﻮﺩ ﻭﺟﻮﺭﺟﻴﺎ ،ﻭ ﺷﺮﻗﺎ ﺃﺭﻣﻴﻨﻴﺎ ﻭﺇﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻭ ﺃﺫﺭﺑﻴﺠﺎﻥ ،ﺟﻨﻮﺑﺎ ﺗﻠﺘﻘﻰ ﺣﺪﻭﺩﻫﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ﻭ ﺳﻮﺭﻳﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ ٣٦ ٢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ ،ﻭﻏﺮﺑﺎ ﺑﺤﺮ ﺍﻳﺠﻪ ﻭ ﺑﻠﻐﺎﺭﻳﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻥ .ﻭ ﺗﺒﻠﻎ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ٢٦٥٫٣٨٧ﻛﻢ . ﻳﺒﻠﻎ ﺗﻌﺪﺍﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ٤٥٧،٧٢٠،٠ﻧﺴﻤﺔ ﻁﺒﻘﺎ ﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮﺍﺕ .٦١٠٢ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻷﺗﺮﺍﻙ %٠٨ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻻﻛﺮﺍﺩ %٠٢ﻣﻦ ٨ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ .ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺤﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﺩﻳﺎﻧﺔ ﺭﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺪﻭﻟﺔ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺟﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺑﺮﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻁﺒﻘﺎ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺃﻗﺮﻩ ٤٦ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻓﻲ ٢٨٩١ﻭ ﻳﻌﺪ ﺍﻻﺳﻼﻡ ﻫﻮ ﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﻷﻏﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﻘﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ %٩٩ﻣﻦ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻨﻴﻦ ﺍﻷﺗﺮﺍﻙ . -٢ﺍﻷﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ : ﺗﺤﻈﻰ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﺑﻤﻮﻗﻊ ﺟﻴﻮ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻲ ﻫﺎﻡ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﺁﺳﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑﺎ ﻭ ﺃﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺠﻌﻠﻬﺎ ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻞ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﺜﻼﺙ ﻗﺎﺭﺍﺕ .ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻔﻌﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ (ﺃﻫﻤﻬﺎ :ﺣﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﻁﻠﻨﻄﻲ) ﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻹﻗﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ ﺍﻻﻭﺳﻂ ،ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻀﻴﻖ ﻳﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻔﻦ ﻭ ﻫﻢ "ﻣﻀﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﺴﻔﻮﺭ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺩﻧﻴﻞ" ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﻘﻮﻱ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻭﺑﺎﻷﺧﺺ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻔﺬ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺑﻜﻼ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﻳﻢ. -٣ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺨﻴﺔ: ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺰ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻲ ﻟﻠﺤﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻲ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ٢٢٩١ﺣﻴﻦ ﻗﺎﻡ ﻣﺼﻄﻔﻰ ﻛﻤﺎﻝ ﺃﺗﺎﺗﻮﺭﻙ ﺑﺈﺳﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺧﻠﻊ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻼﻁﻴﻦ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ .ﺛﻢ ﺟﺎءﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻓﺎﺻﻠﺔ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﺳﻔﺮﺕ ﻋﻦ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﻗﻮﻣﻴﺔ worldAtlas, where is turkey? http://www.worldatlas.com/eu/tr/where-is-turkey.html worldometers, turkey population ٦١٠٢ http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/turkey-population/
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ﺍﻟﻔﻬﺮﺱ (ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺜﺔ) : .......................................................................................................................٥٢ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻧﺒﺬﺓ ﺍﻭﻻ.......................................................................................... ٥٢ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺠﻐﺮﺍﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ....................................................................................................٥٢ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻫﻤﻴﺔ.........................................................................................................٦٢ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻔﻴﺔ............................................................................................٧٢ﺍﻻﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ........................................................................................................٠٣ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ....................................................................................١٣ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ :ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ...........................................................................................................١٣ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ...........................................................................................٢٣ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻧﺎﻥ........................................................................٣٣ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻴﺔ ﺷﺮﺍﻛﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ................................................................٣٣ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺒﺎﺕ :ﺭﺍﺑﻌﺎ..................................................................................................................٤٣ﺟﻮﻟﻦ ﺍﺯﻣﺔ.....................................................................................٤٣ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺩﺳﺘﺎﻧﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺣﺰﺏ ﻭ ﺍﻻﻛﺮﺍﺩ................................................................................................................٥٣ﺍﻻﺭﻣﻦ ﻣﺬﺍﺑﺢ........................................................................................٦٣ﺍﻻﻭﺭﺑﻲ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻻﻧﻀﻤﺎﻡ ﻁﻤﻮﺡ......................................................................................٧٣ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻻﺯﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ ﻭ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺎ.....................................................................................................٨٣ﺍﻻﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻭﺿﺎﻉ :ﺧﺎﻣﺴﺎ.........................................................٠٤-ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺭﺅﻳﺔ ﺧﻠﻖ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺜﺮ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ :ﺳﺎﺩﺳﺎ
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ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻷﻗﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﻴﺔ: -٦ ﺗﻌﺎﻧﻰ ﺍﻷﻗﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺿﺮﻭﺏ ﺳﻮء ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﺮﺹ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻟﻠﺸﻴﻌﺔ ﺃﻣﺮ ﻟﻴﺲ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻬﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻗﺎﻣﺘﻬﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﻨﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻭﻑ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﻓﺮﺓ ﻓﺮﺹ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ،ﻭ ﻳﺄﺗﻲ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﺠﻦ ﻟﻤﺪﺓ ٨ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﺿﺪ ﺭﺟﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﺯ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﻖ ﺟﺎﺑﺮ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺮ ،ﻭﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺑﺈﻋﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺮ ﻭ ٦٤ﺍﺧﺮﻳﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻗﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺎﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﻟﻴﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﻣﺴﻠﺴﻞ ﺍﻻﺿﻄﻬﺎﺩ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ. ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ : -٧ ﻅﻠﺖ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺃﻫﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﻐﻞ ﻋﻼﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﺳﺘﻔﻬﺎﻡ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻭ ﻁﺒﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﺗﺎﺑﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﺮﺟﻞ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﺗﺨﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺤﻴﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻞ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻻ ﻳﺤﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﻒ ﺍﻷﺳﺮﻯ ﺍﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﻒ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﺴﻲ ،ﻭ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻓﻲ ٣١٠٢ﺻﺪﺭ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻳﺠﺮﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﻒ ﺍﻷﺳﺮﻯ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺪﺧﻞ ﺣﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ،ﻭ ﻁﺒﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﺍﻷﺧﻴﺮﺓ ﺍﺻﺒﺢ ﻣﺴﻤﻮﺡ ﻟﻠﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﺩﺧﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻟﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻴﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻳﺸﺘﺮﻁ ﻋﺪﻡ ﻗﻴﺎﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﺄﻱ ﺣﻤﻼﺕ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﻴﺔ ﻳﺸﺎﺭﻙ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﺎﻝ. ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻼ ﺇﻧﺴﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻋﻘﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻻﻋﺪﺍﻡ : -٨ ﺃﺳﺘﻤﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺻﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻷﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺑﺤﻖ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻨﻴﻦ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻋﻘﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﺪ .ﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺿﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﺗﻌﺮﺿﻮﺍ ﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻭﻥ ﺭﺍﺋﻒ ﺑﺪﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺗﻌﺮﺽ ﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺟﻠﺪ ﻣﺘﻜﺮﺭﺓ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﺎﻣﻲ ٤١٠٢ﻭ .٥١٠٢ ٢٦ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﺻﺪﺍﺭ ﻋﻘﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻷﻋﺪﺍﻡ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ .
ﺳﺎﺩﺳﺎ :ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺮﻭﺣﺔ : ﺩﻭﻣﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﻫﻢ ﺍﻟﺮﻛﺎﺋﺰ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺳﻮﺍء ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻳﺸﻜﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ،ﺍﻭ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ .ﻭ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻠﻖ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺚ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ؛ ﺃﻭﻻ ،ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻟﺠﺎﺳﺘﺎ ﻭ ﻣﺎ ﺍﺛﺎﺭﻩ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺨﺎﻭﻑ ﻭ ﻏﻀﺐ ﻟﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻓﻬﻞ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻔﻜﻴﺮ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺑﻌﺾ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺩﻩ ،ﺍﻡ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻑ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺟﺎﺳﺘﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻖ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻦ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﻳﺠﻌﻠﻪ ﻣﺤﺼﻨﺎ .ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ، ﻭ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻁﺮﺡ ﺭﺅﻳﺔ ٠٣٠٢ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺟﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻫﺎ ،ﺭﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ ﻟﺨﻠﻖ ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﻳﺤﻘﻖ ﻟﻠﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻁﻤﻮﺣﻬﺎ ،ﻭ ﻳﻜﻔﻞ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻮﺍﺟﺪ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻔﻂ .ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎ ،ﻣﻊ ﻭﺻﻮﻝ ﺗﺮﺍﻣﺐ ﻟﻠﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻭ ﺭﺅﻳﺘﻪ ﻹﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻛﺨﻄﺮ ﻳﻬﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ،ﻭﻋﺪﻡ ﺗﺮﺣﻴﺒﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻮﻗﻴﻌﻪ ﻓﻰ ٥١٠٢ﻗﺪ ﻳﺨﻠﻖ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ. ﺭﺍﺑﻌﺎ ،ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﻡ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻋﺪﻭ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﻟﻠﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻳﻤﻨﺢ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ ﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ،ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻋﻢ ﻋﺴﻜﺮﻱ ،ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺒﺎﺭﺍﺗﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ .ﺧﺎﻣﺴﺎ ،ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﻮﺛﻴﻴﻦ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻲ ﻟﺨﻠﻖ ﺣﻮﺍﺭ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺑﻨﺎء ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ ﻳﻀﻤﻦ ﻟﻬﻢ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻭ ﻳﻀﻊ ﺣﺪﺍ ﻟﻨﺰﻳﻒ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﺎء. ﺍﺧﻴﺮﺍ ،ﺩﻭﻣﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﻟﺤﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻻﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﺣﺪ ﺍﻫﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻤﺄﺧﻮﺫﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻭ ﻣﺤﻞ ﺗﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ .ﻓﻬﻞ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺃﺩﺍﺓ ﺗﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻭﻗﻒ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻬﺎﻛﺎﺕ؟
https://www.amnesty.org/ar/countries/middle-east-and-north-
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٥١٠٢-٦١٠٢ﻋﺎﻡ ﻋﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﻣﻣﻠﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻔﻭ ﻣﻧﻅﻣﺔ ﺗﻘﺭﻳﺭ africa/saudi-arabia/report-saudi-arabia/
ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﻓﻊ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻭﻣﻌﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﻟﻠﺪﺧﻮﻝ ﻓﻰ ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﻡ ،ﻟﻴﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﻲ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻐﻴﺮ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻁﺮﺡ ﺳﺆﺍﻝ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻫﻞ ﺗﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻡ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﻹﻳﻘﺎﻓﻬﺎ؟ ﻭ ﻫﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻻﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ؟ ﺧﺎﻣﺴﺎً :ﺃﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ : ﺗﻌﺎﻧﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺪﻧﻰ ﺃﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻰ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﺗﻐﻴﺮ ﺭﺃﺱ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻭﻓﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻭ ﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺧﻠﻔﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ،ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺪﻓﻊ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺑﻊ ﻟﻸﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ،ﻭ ﻧﻨﺎﻗﺶ ﻫﻨﺎ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺤﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ . -١ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﻡ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻠﺢ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ : ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺣﺮﺑﻬﺎ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﻮﺛﻴﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎﻙ ﻣﺘﻜﺮﺭﺓ ﺿﺪ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻻﻧﺴﺎﻥ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﺻﻔﺖ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺷﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺗﻘﻮﺩﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺑﺠﺮﺍﺋﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ .ﺗﺴﺒﺒﺖ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻘﺘﻞ ﺁﻻﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﻴﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻧﺰﻭﺡ ﺃﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ .ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻭﺟﻬﻬﺎ ﻁﻴﺮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺿﺪ ﺩﺍﺭ ﻋﺰﺍء ﻻﺷﺘﺒﺎﻩ ﺣﻀﻮﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺻﺎﻟﺢ ١٦ ﺩﻟﻴﻼ ﻭﺍﺿﺢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺎﻙ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻻﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺳﻘﻂ ٠٠١ﻗﺘﻴﻞ ﻭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ٠٠٥ﻣﺼﺎﺏ . ﺣﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻭ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻤﻊ : -٢ ﻳﻌﺎﻧﻰ ﺃﺻﺤﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺮﺃﻱ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﺪ ﻭ ﻓﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﺎﺑﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ .ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺍﺛﺒﺘﻪ ﻣﺎ ﺣﺪﺙ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻭﻥ ﺭﺍﺋﻒ ﺑﺪﻭﻯ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﻋﻘﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺠﻦ ﻟﻤﺪﺓ ٠١ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻭ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻹﻧﺸﺎﺋﻪ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﺒﺮﺍﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ،ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺮﺗﻪ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻔﺎ ﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﺮﺍﺋﻢ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﺔ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﺄﺗﻲ ﺍﻳﻀﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺗﺐ ﺯﻫﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﺘﻴﺒﻰ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻫﺎﺟﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﺣﺪﻯ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺎﺗﻪ ﻟﺘﻘﺘﺤﻢ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺰﻟﻪ ﻭ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﺎﻻﻋﺘﺪﺍء ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻭ ﺗﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﺠﻦ ٤ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻭ ﻣﻨﻌﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﻤﺲ ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﺨﺮﻭﺟﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﺠﻦ ﻭ ﻣﻨﻌﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺮ ٥١ﻋﺎﻣﺎ .ﻟﻢ ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﺈﻧﺸﺎء ﺍﻷﺣﺰﺍﺏ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻔﺮﺽ ﺣﺬﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ. ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺍﻓﻌﻮﻥ ﻋﻦ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺎﻥ : -٣ ﻳﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﻴﻦ ﺑﻤﺠﺎﻝ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺍﻓﻌﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﻌﺴﻔﺎ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ .ﻓﻼ ﻳﺰﺍﻝ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﻲ ﺟﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻳﻮﺍﺟﻬﻮﻥ ﻋﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﺗﺼﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺒﺲ ﻝ ٥١ﻋﺎﻣﺎ ﻟﺘﺄﺳﻴﺴﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻌﻴﺔ ،ﻭ ﻣﺎ ﺯﺍﻟﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺗﻄﻠﻖ ﺃﺣﻜﺎﻣﺎ ﻣﺸﺪﺩﺓ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺍﻓﻌﻴﻦ ﻋﻦ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺎﻥ .ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻣﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﺯ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺍﻓﻊ ﻋﻦ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻭﻟﻴﺪ ﺃﺑﻮ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺣﻜﻢ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺒﺲ ﻟﻤﺪﺓ ٥١ﻋﺎﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺻﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺑﺘﺨﻔﻴﺾ ﻣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ٠١ﺃﻋﻮﺍﻡ . ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﻭ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ : -٤ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎﺕ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤١٠٢ﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻋﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﻴﻦ ﺑﻤﺠﺎﻝ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻴﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺃﺻﺪﺭﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻷﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﺍﻓﻌﻴﻦ ﻋﻦ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺎﻥ . ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺠﺎﺯ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺴﻔﻴﺔ : -٥ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎﺕ ﺑﺈﻟﻘﺎء ﺍﻟﻘﺒﺾ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﻴﻦ ﻭ ﺍﺑﻘﺎﺋﻬﻢ ﻗﻴﺪ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺠﺎﺯ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺗﻌﺴﻔﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﺪﺓ ﺗﺰﻳﺪ ﻋﻦ ٦ﺃﺷﻬﺮ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍءﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﺣﺘﺠﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻭ ﻣﻨﻌﻬﻢ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻣﺤﺎﻣﻰ ﻟﻠﺪﻓﺎﻉ ﻋﻨﻬﻢ .
/٣٧١٥٩٢/٣١/٠١/٦١٠٢ https://www.hrw.org/ar/newsﺍﻟﻳﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺭﺍﺳﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺯﺍء ﻗﺩ ﺗﺭﻗﻰ ﻟﺟﺭﻳﻣﺔ ﺣﺭﺏ ()٣١/٠١/٥١٠٢
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ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ ﻋﺸﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻳﻮﻟﻴﻮ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺷﺨﺺ ﺑﺴﺮﻗﺔ ﺳﻴﺎﺭﺓ ﻭ ﺗﻔﺨﻴﺨﻬﺎ ،ﻭ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﺘﻔﺠﻴﺮﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻁﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺋﺮ ﺇﻻ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ٥٥ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺠﻴﺮ ﺃﻯ ﺇﺻﺎﺑﺎﺕ . ﻓﻰ ٦ﻣﻦ ﺃﻏﺴﻄﺲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺼﺮﻡ ﺣﺪﺙ ﺗﻔﺠﻴﺮ ﺑﻤﺴﺠﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﺍﺭﺉ ﺑﻤﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﻋﺴﻴﺮ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺃﻭﺩﻯ ﺑﺤﻴﺎﺓ ٥١ﺷﺨﺺ ● ٦٥ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ ﺭﺟﻞ ﺃﻣﻦ ،ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺁﺧﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻳﺄﺗﻲ ﺁﺧﺮﻫﺎ ﺍﻏﺘﻴﺎﻝ ﺭﺟﻼ ﺃﻣﻦ ﺑﺄﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﻜﻤﺎﺋﻦ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﺎﻡ .
ﻭ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﺟﻬﺖ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺑﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﻋﺶ ﻭﻫﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﻳﻨﻔﺬﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺭﺍﺿﻴﻬﺎ؛ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺗﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ؟ ﻭ ﻣﺎ ﺳﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻴﻪ؟ -٦ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﻡ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ: ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺎﺭﺱ ٥١٠٢ﻭﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺍﻹﺫﻥ ﺑﺒﺪء ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﻡ ،ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﻙ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻛﻼً ﻣﻦ (ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ،ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻳﺖ ،ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﻦ ،ﺍ ﻻﺭﺩﻥ ،ﻗﻄﺮ ،ﺍﻹﻣﺎﺭﺍﺕ ،ﻣﺼﺮ ،ﺍﻟﻤﻐﺮﺏ ،ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻐﺎﻝ) ﻟﺘﺸﻦ ﺿﺮﺑﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻋﺒﺪ ٧٥ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺤﻮﺛﻲ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺍﻧﻘﻼﺑﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ .ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺕ ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﻡ ﻟﺜﻼﺙ ﺃﺳﺎﺑﻴﻊ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻋﻠﻨﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺇﻧﻬﺎء ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﻡ ﻓﻲ ٢٢ﺍﺑﺮﻳﻞ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻭﻉ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺪء ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﻞ ،ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﻛﺪﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻧﻬﺎ ﺳﻮﻑ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻹﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺑﻨﺎء ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ ﻣﻊ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻳﺔ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻮﻳﺔ ﻟﻢ ٨٥ ﺗﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻤﺎء ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ .ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺃﻋﻠﻨﺖ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﻟﻌﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﻡ ﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ "ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﻞ" ﻭ ٩٥ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﺟﺴﺘﻲ ﻭ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺨﺒﺎﺭﺍﺗﻲ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺇﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﺃﻯ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻬﺎ ﻟﻼﺷﺘﺮﺍﻙ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺘﺎﻝ . ﺗﻤﺜﻠﺖ ﺩﻭﺍﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻹﻋﻼﻥ ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﻡ ﻓﻰ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ: ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ ﻋﻤﻖ ﺍﻣﻨﻰ ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻭ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﻌﺎﺑﺮ ﺣﺪﻭﺩﻳﺔ ،ﻟﺬﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ● ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻻﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﺍﻻﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻫﺪﻓﺎ ﻟﺘﺪﻋﻴﻢ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ. ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻹﻳﺮﺍﻧﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺟﻪ ﻟﻠﺤﻮﺛﻴﻴﻦ ﺟﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺗﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻷﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺣﺮﺏ ﻣﻮﺟﻬﺔ ﺿﺪﻫﺎ ،ﻟﺬﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ● ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﻡ ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﺣﺮﺏ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﻛﺎﻟﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺻﺮﺍﻉ ﺧﻔﻰ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﻭ ﻁﻬﺮﺍﻥ ﻧﺤﻮ ﻓﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻮﺫ ﻭ ﺍﺛﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﺍﺭﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ. ﺷﻜﻠﺖ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺗﻬﺪﻳﺪ ﺻﺮﻳﺢ ﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺃﺭﺍﺩ ﺍﻥ ﻳﺜﺒﺖ ﻗﻮﺗﻪ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻨﺎﻣﻲ ﻭ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﺑﻬﺎ ● ﻣﻊ ﺍﻣﺮﻳﻜﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ. ﺳﻌﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﺍﻥ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺭﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺗﻌﺒﺮ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻗﺪﺭﺗﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺗﺨﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺩﻭﻥ ● ٠٦ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻴﻬﺎ .
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( ﻟﺣﻅﺔ ﺗﻔﺟﻳﺭ ﻣﺳﺟﺩ ﺍﻹﻣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﺳﻳﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﺩﻣﺎﻡ (BBC ٩٢/٥/٥١٠٢ http://www.bbc.com/arabic/multimedia/٥١٠٢/٥٠/٩٢٥٠٥١_saudi_arabia_shia_attack ٥٥ ﺗﻔﺟﻳﺭ-ﺳﻳﺎﺭﺓ-ﺑﻧﻘﻁﺔ-ﺗﻔﺗﻳﺵ( /٦١/٧/٥١٠٢ http://www.aljazeera.net/news/arabic -/ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺗﻧﻅﻳﻡ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻳﺗﺑﻧﻰ ﺗﻔﺟﻳﺭ ﺳﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﺭﻳﺎﺽ ( ٧١/٧/٥١٠٢ ﺑﺎﻟﺭﻳﺎﺽ ٦٥ ﺩﺍﻋﺵ /٥٦٤٥٦٧ http://www.skynewsarabia.com/web/article-/ﺳﻛﺎﻯ ﻧﻳﻭﺯ ،ﺩﺍﻋﺵ ﻳﺗﺑﻧﻰ ﺗﻔﺟﻳﺭ ﻣﺳﺟﺩ ﺿﺑﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻁﻭﺍﺭﺉ ﻓﻰ ﺃﺑﻬﺎ ()٦/٨/٥١٠٢ ﻳﺗﺑﻧﻰ-ﺗﻔﺟﻳﺭ-ﺍٴﺑﻬﺎ-ﺍﻻﻧﺗﺣﺎﺭﻱ ٧٥ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ،ﺍﻟﻣﻠﻙ ﺳﻠﻣﺎﻥ ﻳﻁﻠﻖ ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺯﻡ ﺿﺩ ﺍﻟﺣﻭﺛﻳﻳﻥ ٦٢/٣/٥١٠٢ /٥١٠٢/٣٠/٦٢.htmlﺍﻟﺣﻭﺛﻳﻳﻥ-ﺿﺩ-ﺍﻟﺣﺯﻡ-ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ-ﺑﺑﺩء-ﻳﻭﺟﻪ-ﺳﻠﻣﺎﻥ-ﺍﻟﻣﻠﻙhttp://www.alarabiya.net/ar/mob/saudi-today/ ٨٥ ﺳﻛﺎﻯ ﻧﻳﻭﺯ ،ﺑﺩء ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﻝ ﻭ ﺍﻧﺗﻬﺎء ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺯﻡ ١٢/٤/٥١٠٢ /٨٦٨٩٣٧ﺍﻟﺣﺯﻡ-ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ-ﻭﺍﻧﺗﻬﺎء-ﺍﻷﻣﻝ-ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ-ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ-ﺑﺩء http://www.skynewsarabia.com/web/article/ ٩٥ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺍﻟﻭﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺣﺩﺓ ﺗﺭﺣﺏ ﺑﺎﻧﺗﻬﺎء ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺯﻡ ٢٢/٤/٥١٠٢ https://www.aljazeera.net/amp/news/arabic/٥١٠٢/٤/١٢/ ٠٦ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺍﻟﺻﺭﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻯ ﺍﻻﻳﺭﺍﻧﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻳﻣﻥ :ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻅﺭ ﻳﻣﻧﻳﺔ ٩٢/٦/٥١٠٢ http://studies.aljazeera.net/ar/reports/٥١٠٢/٦٠/٢٠٩٤٣٦٢٤٩١٨٥٢٦٥١٠٢.html
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ﻭ ﺗﻀﺎﻋﻔﺖ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﻗﻌﺖ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ٤١ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﻭﻣﺬﻛﺮﺓ ﺗﻔﺎﻫﻢ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺠﺎﻻﺕ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺿﻤﺖ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ ،ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ،ﺗﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ،ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ،ﺇﻻ ﺍﻧﻪ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺃﻫﻢ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻮﻗﻴﻌﻬﺎ ٧٤ ﺑﺨﺼﻮﺹ ﺇﻧﺸﺎء ﻣﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻧﻮﻭﻱ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺑﺪﻋﻢ ﺻﻴﻨﻲ ،ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺯﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﻟﻠﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ . ﻭﻓﻰ ﺿﻮء ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺟﺎء ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﺳﺘﺒﻌﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻻﺭ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ،ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﺗﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﻟﻤﺪﻯ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻁﺒﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻴﻮﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮﺓ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ ٨٤ ﻟﻼﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻻﺭ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ . ﻭﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻟﺔ ﺍﻵﺳﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻗﺪ ﺑﺪﺃﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻫﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ،ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﻓﻰ ﺯﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺭﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺼﻴﻦ ﻭﺳﻂ ﺳﻌﻰ ﻟﺘﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺷﺮﻕ ﺍﺳﻴﺎ ،ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻰ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻫﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻯ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻰ ﻭ ﺗﻨﺎﻗﺸﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻷﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﻭﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻓﺎﻥ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺻﻠﺖ ﻗﻴﻤﺘﻬﺎ ﻁﺒﻘﺎ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﻢ ﺍﻋﻼﻧﻪ ﺍﻟﻰ ٥٦ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﺍﻻ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ٩٤ ﺍﻻﻋﻼﻥ ﻋﻦ ﺍﺧﺘﺼﺎﺻﺎﺕ ﻛﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ .ﻣﺎ ﺗﻢ ﺍﻻﻋﻼﻥ ﻋﻨﻪ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺬﻛﺮﺍﺕ ﺗﻔﺎﻫﻢ ﺑﻴﻦ "ﺍﺭﺍﻣﻜﻮ" ﻭ ﻧﻮﺭﻳﻨﻜﻮ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﻭ ٠٥ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ . ﻭﺳﻂ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﻰ ﺳﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﺨﻠﻖ ﺗﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﻀﻤﻦ ﻣﺼﺎﻟﺤﻬﺎ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺩﻓﻌﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﻣﻊ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ،ﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﺣﺪ ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ؟ -٥ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﻡ (ﺩﺍﻋﺶ) : ﻣﻨﺬ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤١٠٢ﺃﻋﺘﺒﺮ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﻋﺶ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻫﺪﻓﺎ ﻟﻪ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﺩﻋﻲ ﺃﺑﻮ ﺑﻜﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﻐﺪﺍﺩﻱ ﻗﺎﺋﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺴﺠﻴﻞ ﺻﻮﺗﻲ ﻗﺪ ﻧﺴﺐ ﻟﻪ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺎﺩ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻭ ﺷﻦ ﺍﻟﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﺻﻮﺑﻬﺎ ﺭﺩﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻬﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺿﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ،ﺑﻞ ﻭ ﺃﻧﻪ ١٥ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺮ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﺻﺮﺡ ،ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻫﻲ "ﺭﺃﺱ ﺍﻷﻓﻌﻰ ﻭ ﻣﻌﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﺍء" . ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺭﺩﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻙ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻋﻠﻨﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﺍﻛﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ٢٥ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺟﻴﻬﻬﺎ ﺿﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﺟﻮﻳﺔ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻮﺭﻳﺎ . ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﺙ ﻋﻦ ﻫﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺩﺍﻋﺶ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﻠﺴﻞ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻨﻰ ﻟﻬﺎ: ● ﻳﻌﺪ ﺃﻭﻝ ﻫﺠﻮﻡ ﻫﻮ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻭﻗﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺎﻳﻮ ﺿﺪ ﻣﺴﺠﺪ ﺍﻹﻣﺎﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺻﻼﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻌﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ٣٥ ﺃﺩﻯ ﻹﺻﺎﺑﺔ ﻭ ﻭﻓﺎﺓ ٢٠١ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻠﻴﻴﻦ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺠﺪ . ﻭ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺴﺘﻐﺮﻕ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺇﻻ ﺃﺳﺒﻮﻉ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺟﺎء ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺠﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺴﺠﺪ ﺍﻻﻣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺃﺛﻨﺎء ﺻﻼﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻌﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺃﻭﺩﻯ ● ٤٥ ﺑﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺃﺷﺨﺎﺹ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻠﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺴﺠﺪ ،ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺠﻴﺮ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺿﺪ ﻓﺌﺔ ﻣﺤﺪﺩﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻨﻴﻦ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ .
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ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ /٩١/١٠/٦١٠٢ http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/saudi-today-/ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ،ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺻﻳﻥ ﺗﻭﻗﻌﺎﻥ ٤١ﺇﺗﻔﺎﻗﻳﺔ ﻭ ﻣﺫﻛﺭﺓ ﺗﻔﺎﻫﻡ ()٠٢/١/٦١٠٢ html.ﻭﺍﻟﺻﻳﻥ-ﺗﻭﻗﻌﺎﻥ-٤١-ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻳﺔ-ﻭﻣﺫﻛﺭﺍﺕ-ﺗﻔﺎﻫﻡ ٨٤ ﻫﺎﻑ ﺑﻭﺳﺕ ،ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺻﻳﻥ ﺗﺭﻳﺣﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﻬﺎ ً ﻣﻌﺎ ﻫﻝ ﺃﻧﺗﻬﻰ ﻋﺻﺭ ﺇﺯﺩﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺧﺿﺭﺍء ()٦/٠١/٦١٠٢ http://www.huffpostarabi.com/٦١٠٢/٠١/٦٠/story_n_٠٠٣١٧٣٢١.html ٩٤ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ،ﺍﻟﻣﻠﻙ ﺳﻠﻣﺎﻥ :ﺳﻧﻌﻣﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻳﺎﻡ ﺷﺭﺍﻛﺔ ﺍﺳﺗﺭﺍﺗﻳﺟﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺻﻳﻥ ٦١/٣/٧١٠٢ /٧١٠٢/٣٠/٦١.htmlﺑﻛﻳﻥ-ﻓﻲ-ﺍﻟﺻﻳﻧﻲ-ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺱ-ﻳﻠﺗﻘﻲ-ﺍﻟﺷﺭﻳﻔﻳﻥ-ﺍﻟﺣﺭﻣﻳﻥ-ﺧﺎﺩﻡ http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/saudi-today/ ٠٥ ﻓﺭﺍﻧﺱ ،٤٢ﺗﻭﻗﻳﻊ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻘﻳﻣﺔ ٥٦ﻣﻠﻳﺎﺭ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺯﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻣﻠﻙ ﺳﻠﻣﺎﻥ ﻟﻠﺻﻳﻥ ٦١/٣/٧١٠٢ /٧١٠٢/٣٠/٦١.htmlﺑﻛﻳﻥ-ﻓﻲ-ﺍﻟﺻﻳﻧﻲ-ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺱ-ﻳﻠﺗﻘﻲ-ﺍﻟﺷﺭﻳﻔﻳﻥ-ﺍﻟﺣﺭﻣﻳﻥ-ﺧﺎﺩﻡ http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/saudi-today/ ١٥ ( ٤٢ http://m.france /com/ar.٣١١١٤١٠٢ﻓﺭﺍﻧﺱ ، ٤٢ﺯﻋﻳﻡ ﺗﻧﻅﻳﻡ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻳﺩﻋﻭ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺳﺟﻳﻝ ﺻﻭﺗﻰ ﺟﺩﻳﺩ ﻟﺷﻥ ﻫﺟﻣﺎﺕ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ (٣١/١١/٤١٠٢ﺍﻟﺑﻐﺩﺍﺩﻱ-ﺗﻧﻅﻳﻡ-ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﺔ-ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻳﺔ-ﺗﺳﺟﻳﻝ-ﺗﻬﺩﻳﺩ ﺩﺍﻋﺵ ٤٢ http://m.france/com/ar.٤٢٩٠٤١٠٢--ﻓﺭﺍﻧﺱ ، ٤٢ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺗﻌﻠﻥ ﻣﺷﺎﺭﻛﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺿﺭﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺣﻭﻳﺔ ﺿﺩ ﺗﻧﻅﻳﻡ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻳﺔ ()٤٢/٩/٤١٠٢ ٢٥ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﺔ-ﺳﻭﺭﻳﺎ-ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ-ﺇﺭﻫﺎﺏ ٣٥ ﺑﺙ ( /٣٢/٥٠/٥١٠٢ http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/saudi-today-/ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ،ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ﺗﺑﺙ ﺻﻭﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺩﺍﺧﻝ ﻣﺳﺟﺩ ﺍﻹﻣﺎﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻁﻳﻑ (٣٢/٥/٥١٠٢ html.ﻣﺑﺎﺷﺭ-ﻣﻥ-ﺩﺍﺧﻝ-ﻣﺳﺟﺩ-ﺍﻟﻘﺩﻳﺢ-ﻓﻲ-ﺍﻟﻘﻁﻳﻑ-
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ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ :
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ﻛﻨﺎ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺤﺪﺛﻨﺎ ﻣﺴﺒﻘﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ .ﺇﻻ ﺍﻧﻨﺎ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻧﺴﻌﻰ ﻹﻳﻀﺎﺡ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ،ﻭ ﻫﻞ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﻟﺘﻌﻮﻳﺾ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﺪ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺃﻡ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻣﺠﺮﺩ ﺳﻌﻰ ﻟﺘﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ؟ ﻭﺳﻂ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﻲ ﺳﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﺨﻠﻖ ﻭ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺗﻌﺪﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻌﻬﺪﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﻫﻢ ﻟﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻭﺩﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺋﻢ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﺧﺮ ﻟﺘﺴﻌﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻹﻳﺠﺎﺩ ﺣﻠﻴﻒ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺼﻌﻮﺑﺎﺕ ،ﻭﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﺧﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻧﺠﺎﺡ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﻣﻜﺴﺐ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻟﻤﺠﺮﺩ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻭﻟﺘﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻭ ﻟﻜﻦ ﺧﺴﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﻠﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺧﺴﺎﺭﺓ ﺣﻠﻴﻒ ﻗﻮﻯ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻴﺌﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺼﺮﺍﻋﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺎﻟﺢ. ﻫﻨﺎ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺪﺙ ﻋﻦ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻜﻼ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺘﻴﻦ؛ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺷﺮﺍﻛﺔ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻫﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻭ ﺗﻨﻮﻉ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻌﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻗﺪ ﻳﺨﻠﻖ ﺣﻠﻮﻝ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻘﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ .ﺃﻣﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻲ ﻓﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻣﺘﻼﻙ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﻂ ﻭ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺗﺤﺎﻟﻒ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻳﺠﻌﻞ ﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ٣٤ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﻂ ،ﻭ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ ﺍﻳﻀﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺤﺪﺛﻨﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﻟﺨﻠﻖ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ . ﻭ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺯﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﻭﻟﻰ ﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻬﺪ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻟﻤﻮﺳﻜﻮ ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﺇﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﻫﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ، ﺣﻴﺚ ﻧﺠﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻡ ٦ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ؛ ﻳﻌﺪ ﺃﺑﺮﺯﻫﻢ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺗﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺇﻧﺸﺎء ٦١ﻣﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻧﻮﻭﻱ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻤﻰ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻷﺑﺮﺯ ﻓﻰ ﺗﺸﻐﻴﻠﻬﻢ ،ﻭ ﺍﺧﺮﻯ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﻟﺠﻨﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻱ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻔﻀﺎﺋﻲ ،ﻭﺍﺧﺮﻯ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻮﺳﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﻲ ﻭ ﺩﻋﻢ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺬﺍﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ،ﻭﺗﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻻﺕ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭ ٤٤ ﺍﻻﺳﻜﺎﻥ ،ﻛﺎﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻤﺤﺎﺩﺛﺎﺕ ﺑﺨﺼﻮﺹ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﻌﻠﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺳﻮﺭﻳﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ . ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﻗﺪ ﺑﺎﺕ ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻅﺎ ﻭﻻ ﻳﺨﻔﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻬﺪﺩ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﺍﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﺮﻯ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺍﻵﺭﺍء ﺑﺨﺼﻮﺹ ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻮﺭﻳﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ ﻳﻌﺪ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺃﻫﻢ ﻣﻌﻮﻗﺎﺕ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺩﻋﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﺳﺪ ﺍﻭ ﺭﺣﻴﻠﻪ ،ﻭ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ ،ﻭﺃﺧﻴﺮﺍ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ. ﺏ-ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ : ﺗﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺒﻴﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺪﺭﺓ ﻟﻠﺼﻴﻦ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ٥٤ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻔﻂ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﺭﺩﺓ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻏﺮﺏ ﺁﺳﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺃﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻝ ٥٫٤١ﺑﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٥٠٠٢ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻤﺘﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺗﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻤﻨﺢ ٦٤ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ "ﺳﺒﻮﻧﻚ " ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺣﻖ ﺍﻣﺘﻴﺎﺯ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﻘﻴﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ .
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( ﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺑﻭﺍﻋﺙ ﻭ ﺩﻻﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﺭﻭﺳﻰ( html ٥٨٩٩٨١٦١١٤. )٦١/٥/٥١٠٢ /٨٢٧٥١٠٢/٧٠/٥١٠٢ http://studies.aljazeera.net/ar/reports ٤٤ ﻭﻟﻲ-ﻭﻟﻲ-ﺍﻟﻌﻬﺩ-ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻱ( /٨١/٦٠/٥١٠٢ http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/saudi-today-/ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ،ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ٦١ﻣﻔﺎﻋﻝ ﻭ ٦ﺇﺗﻔﺎﻗﻳﺎﺕ ( ٩١/٦/٦١٠٢ html.ﺍﻷﻣﻳﺭ-ﻣﺣﻣﺩ-ﺑﻥ-ﺳﻠﻣﺎﻥ-ﻳﺻﻝ-ﻣﻭﺳﻛﻭ- ٥٤ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺻﻳﻥ http://embassies.mofa.gov.sa/sites/China/AR/AboutHostingCountry/SaudiRelations/Pages/default.aspx ٦٤ http://cn.moe.gov.sa/ar/studyaboard/aboutcountry/Pages/SaCnrelations.aspxﺍﻟﺻﻳﻧﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ،ﺑﺎﻟﺻﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺛﻘﺎﻓﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻠﺣﻘﻳﻥ
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ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻭ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﺑﻲ ﻭ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺑﺮﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﺗﺨﺬﺕ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ٨٣ ﺍﻹﻳﺮﺍﻧﻲ .ﺇﻻ ﺍﻧﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻓﺮﺿﺖ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺎﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﻭ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻻﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﻘﺎﻁﻬﺎ . ﻭ ﺃﻧﻬﻰ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻋﺠﺎﻑ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺗﻤﺜﻠﺖ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻓﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻓﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺍﻁﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻬﺪﻳﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺒﺎﺩﻟﺔ ،ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺭﻏﻢ ﻣﺎ ﺣﻤﻠﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻠﻮﻝ ﻟﻠﻮﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﻭ ﺳﻌﻰ ﻟﺘﺠﻨﺐ ﺣﻠﻮﻝ ﻋﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻴﺔ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﻟﻄﻤﺔ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﻓﺎﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺗﻤﻠﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺠﻌﻠﻬﺎ ﺗﺮﻓﺾ ﺃﻱ ﺗﺤﺴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺮﺏ ،ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﺃﻋﻠﻨﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻄﻊ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻋﻘﺐ ﻫﺠﻮﻡ ﺗﻌﺮﺿﺖ ﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻄﻬﺮﺍﻥ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺧﻄﺮ ﻗﺪ ﻳﺰﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ . ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﺃﻋﻠﻨﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻴﺎﻥ ﺭﺳﻤﻲ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻗﺒﻮﻟﻬﺎ ﻟﻼﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺍﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﻤﻨﻊ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻣﺘﻼﻙ ﻗﻨﺒﻠﺔ ﺫﺭﻳﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺍﻧﻬﺎ ﻁﺎﻟﺒﺖ ﺑﻔﺮﺽ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﻔﺘﻴﺶ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﺗﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ،ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺗﻤﻠﻜﺘﻬﺎ ﺻﺪﻣﺔ ﺇﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺭﺳﻤﻲ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻋﻠﻦ ﺑﻨﺪﺭ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻠﻄﺎﻥ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺎﺑﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺳﻴﻌﻄﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺻﺔ ﻹﻳﺮﺍﻥ "ﻟﺘﻌﻴﺲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻓﺴﺎﺩﺍ" ﻭ ﺍﻧﻪ ٩٣ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﻌﺐ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺑﻨﻮﺩ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ . ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻟﻘﺎء ﺟﻤﻊ ﻭﺯﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻋﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻟﺠﺒﻴﺮ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺑﺎﺭﺍﻙ ﺃﻭﺑﺎﻣﺎ ﺃﻛﺪ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺃﻭﺑﺎﻣﺎ ﺍﻥ ﺧﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻱ ﻣﻊ ٠٤ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻣﺎﺯﺍﻝ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻐﻠﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺨﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺪﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﻲ ﻭ ﺃﻛﺪ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻭﺑﺎﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻭ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ . ﻭﻋﻘﺐ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻗﻤﺔ ﺟﻤﻌﺖ ﺯﻋﻤﺎء ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺠﻲ ﻭ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺃﻭﺑﺎﻣﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺟﺎءﺕ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﺮﻓﻴﻦ؛ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺠﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﻬﻢ ﻛﺎﻧﻮﺍ ﻳﻤﻠﻜﻮﻥ ﻏﻀﺐ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺇﺗﻤﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﺍﻹﻳﺮﺍﻧﻲ ﻭ ﺧﻮﻑ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺤﺪﺙ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ،ﺍﻣﺎ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﺪﺭﻙ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﻟﻦ ﻳﻤﺮ ﻣﺮﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺍﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﻭ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻳﺠﺐ ١٤ ﺗﻮﺿﻴﺤﻪ ﻭ ﺗﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺠﻴﺔ . ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺧﺘﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻐﻴﺐ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺯﻋﻤﺎء ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﺑﺒﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺃﻛﺪ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻓﺎﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺗﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﻭ ﻗﺪﺭﺗﻬﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺪﻱ ﻷﻯ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻨﺎﻭﻟﻮﺍ ﺃﻳﻀﺎ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻫﺎﻣﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺗﻤﺜﻠﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﺔ ٢٤ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ،ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﻡ ﻭ ﺍﻷﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ . ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺧﻼﻑ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺭﺃﺕ ﺍﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺗﻬﺪﻳﺪ ﺻﺮﻳﺢ ﻷﻣﻨﻬﺎ ،ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺭﺣﻴﻞ ﺍﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺃﻭﺑﺎﻣﺎ ﻭ ﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺗﺮﺍﻣﺐ ﻟﻠﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻭ ﺭﻓﻀﻪ ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ .ﻫﻞ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺃﻡ ﻳﺨﻠﻖ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﻟﻌﻮﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻁﻬﺮﺍﻥ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ؟ -٤ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﻣﻊ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ: ﻭﺳﻂ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻋﻘﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻻﺑﺪ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻠﺠﺎ ﻟﺘﻨﻮﻳﻊ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﻤﻨﺤﻬﺎ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻟﻤﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺃﺧﻄﺎﺭ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻮﺍﺟﻬﺎ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼ .
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( ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺩ ﻟﻭﺯﺍﻥ ﺭﻭﺣﺎﻧﻰ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺧﻝ ﺍﻹﻳﺭﺍﻧﻰ (html ١٢٦٧٨٨٧٩٤٧٩٤. ٩/٤/٥١٠٢ /٥١٠٢/٤٠/٥١٠٢ http://studies.aljazeera.net/ar/reports ٩٣ ﺇﻳﺭﺍﻥ-ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ( ٤٢ http://www.france/com/ar.٦١٧٠٥١٠٢--ﻓﺭﺍﻧﺱ ، ٤٢ﻣﺎ ﻣﺳﺗﻘﺑﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺭﻳﻛﻳﺔ ﺑﻌﺩ ﺍﻹﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺍﻹﻳﺭﺍﻧﻰ (٦١/٧/٦١٠٢ ﺍﻟﻧﻭﻭﻱ-ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ-ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ-ﺩﺑﻠﻭﻣﺎﺳﻳﺔ-ﺍﻟﻭﻻﻳﺎﺕ-ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺣﺩﺓ ٠٤ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺕ ( /٨١/٧٠/٥١٠٢ http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/saudi-today-/ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ،ﺍﻟﺟﺑﻳﺭ ﻳﺷﺭﺡ ﻷﻭﺑﺎﻣﺎ ﻣﻭﻗﻑ ﺃﻣﺭﻳﻛﺎ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻹﻧﻔﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻧﻭﻭﻯ ( ٨١/٧/٥١٠٢ html.ﺍﻷﺑﻳﺽ-ﺍﻟﺧﻳﺎﺭ-ﺍﻟﻌﺳﻛﺭﻱ-ﻣﻊ-ﺇﻳﺭﺍﻥ-ﻣﺎ-ﺯﺍﻝ-ﻣﺗﺎﺣﺎ ١٤ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺃﻣﺎﻝ ﻭ ﺗﻁﻠﻌﺎﺕ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺧﻠﻳﺞ ﻣﻥ ﻗﻣﺔ ﻛﺎﻣﺏ ﺩﻳﻔﻳﺩ ( )٢١/٥/٥١٠٢ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺃﻣﺎﻝ ﻭ ﺗﻁﻠﻌﺎﺕ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺧﻠﻳﺦ ﻣﻥ ﻗﻣﺔ ﻛﺎﻣﺏ ﺩﻳﻔﻳﺩ http://studies.aljazeera.net/ar/reports/٥١٠٢/٥٠/٤٧٥١٤٥٥٢٩٤٩٢١٥٥١٠٢.html ٢٤ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻥ-ﺍﻟﺧﺗﺎﻣﻲ-ﺍﻟﺧﻠﻳﺟﻲ /٦١٠١٦٣ http://aawsat.com/home/article-/ﺍﻟﺷﺭﻕ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﻁ ،ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺧﺗﺎﻣﻰ ﺍﻟﺧﻠﻳﺟﻰ ﺍﻷﻣﺭﻳﻛﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﺷﺗﺭﻙ ()٦١/٥/٥١٠٢ ﺍﻷﻣﻳﺭﻛﻲ-ﺍﻟﻣﺷﺗﺭﻙ-ﻟﻘﻣﺔ-ﻛﺎﻣﺏ-ﺩﻳﻔﻳﺩ
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ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺎ .ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﺿﻮء ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺗﺴﺘﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺻﻨﺪﻭﻕ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺘﺮﺽ ﺍﻥ ﻳﺒﻠﻎ ﺣﺠﻤﻪ ٥٫٢ﺗﺮﻳﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﻟﻴﺼﺒﺢ ﺍﻛﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﺩﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻴﺎ ٥٣
.ﻣﻦ ﺍﺟﻞ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺭﺅﻳﺔ ٠٣٠٢ﻭ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺻﻨﺪﻭﻕ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻗﺮﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﺄﻛﺒﺮ ﻁﺮﺡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ،ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﺍﺗﺎﺣﺔ %٥ﻣﻦ ﺍﺳﻬﻢ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﺭﺍﻣﻜﻮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺳﻮﺍﻕ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺭﺻﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﻣﻤﺎ ﺍﺷﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﺎﻕ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻮﻙ ،ﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﻈﺮ ﺍﻥ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻁﺮﺡ ﺍﻻﺳﻬﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻮﺭﺻﺔ ﻧﻴﻮﻳﻮﺭﻙ ﻭ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﻭ ﻣﺎﺯﺍﻟﺖ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻭﺽ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺑﻮﺭﺻﺔ ﺍﺳﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ٦٣ ﻁﻮﻛﻴﻮ ﺍﻭ ﺑﻜﻴﻦ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺛﺎﻟﺚ ﺳﻮﻕ ﺳﻴﺘﻴﺢ ﺍﺳﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ . ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﺎﺅﻝ ﻫﻞ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﺭﺅﻳﺔ ٠٣٠٢ﻁﻮﻕ ﻧﺠﺎﺓ ﺃﻭ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﻟﻠﻌﻮﺩﺓ ﻟﻺﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﻭ ﻫﻞ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺃﻱ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺭﺅﻳﺔ ٠٣٠٢؟؟ -٣ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺗﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺍﺑﻊ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻟﻮﺯﺍﻥ: ﻋﻘﺐ ﻣﻔﺎﻭﺿﺎﺕ ﺟﺎﺩﺓ ﺩﺍﻣﺖ ﻟﻤﺪﺓ ﺗﻔﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﻭﻗﻌﺖ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ( ،)١+٥ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻀﻢ ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ (ﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ ،ﺑﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﺎ ،ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻧﻴﺎ ،ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ، ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ،ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ) ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻭ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﺧﺮ ،ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻟﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺟﺎءﺕ ﻟﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﻁﻮﻕ ﻧﺠﺎﺓ ﻹﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺿﺨﻤﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﺪ ﻓﺮﺿﺖ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻭ ﻟﻠﻐﺮﺏ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ ﻣﺜﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺨﻠﺺ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻼﺋﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻁﺎﻟﻤﺎ ﻣﺜﻠﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻻﻳﺮﺍﻧﻴﺔ.
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ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﻟﻮﺯﺍﻥ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺒﻮﻝ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺮﻓﺾ
ﻭ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻥ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﺎﺯﻻﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻠﻔﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻠﺨﻴﺼﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺨﻔﻴﺾ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺗﺨﺼﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﺭﺍﻧﻴﻮﻡ ،ﺗﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺃﺟﻬﺰﺓ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺰﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ،ﺣﻈﺮ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺇﻧﺸﺎء ﺃﻱ ﻣﻨﺸﺄﺓ ﻧﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﻁﻮﺍﻝ ﻣﺪﺓ ٥١ﻋﺎﻣﺎ ،ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺡ ﻟﻮﻛﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﺘﻴﺶ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻱ ﻭﻗﺖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺸﺄﺕ ﺍﻻﻳﺮﺍﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﻀﺤﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺧﺮﻯ .ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻳﻠﺘﺰﻡ
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ﺭﺅﻳﺔ ٠٣٠٢ﻟﻼﻗﺗﺻﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ-ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ-ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ-ﻟﻼﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ-٠٣٠٢-ﺭﺅﻳﺔ/٥٢/٤/٦١٠٢ http://www.aljazeera.net/news/ebusiness / )ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ ،ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ (٥٢/٤/٦١٠٢ ٦٣ ﺃﺭﺍﻣﻛﻭ-ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ /http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/aswaq/companies (٤٢/١٠/٧١٠٢-/ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ،ﻁﺭﺡ ﺃﺭﺍﻣﻛﻭ ﻣﻧﺎﻓﺳﺔ ﺷﺭﺳﺔ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺑﻧﻭﻙ (٥٢/١/٧١٠٢ html.ﺗﻁﻠﺏ-ﻋﺭﻭﺽ-ﺍﻟﺑﻧﻭﻙ-ﻷﻛﺑﺭ-ﺑﻳﻊ-ﺃﺳﻬﻡ-ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺎﻟﻡ ٧٣ ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺩ ﻟﻭﺯﺍﻥ :ﺭﻭﺣﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ﻓﺭﻳﻘﻪ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻭﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺧﻝ ﺍﻻﻳﺭﺍﻧﻲ ٩/٤/٥١٠٢ http://studies.aljazeera.net/ar/reports/٥١٠٢/٤٠/١٢٦٧٨٨٧٩٤٧٩٤٥١٠٢.html
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ﻓﻲ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺓ .ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﺻﻔﻌﺔ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﻟﻌﺪﻡ ﻗﺪﺭﺗﻬﻢ ﻣﺠﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﻌﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻟﻠﻨﻔﻂ ،ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺄﻛﻴﺪﺍﺕ ﻣﺴﺆﻭﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﻻ ﺗﺴﺘﻬﺪﻑ ﺿﺮﺏ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ .٣٣
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ﺗﺤﺮﺭ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ
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ﺭﺅﻳﺔ ٠٣٠٢ﻭ ﺍﺛﺎﺭﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ : ﺗﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺭﺳﻤﻬﺎ ﻭﻟﻰ ﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻬﺪ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﻭﺃﻗﺮﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻭ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﻓﻲ ﺍﺑﺮﻳﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ ﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻉ ﻗﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﺮ ﺑﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺃﺳﻌﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻭ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺮﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻋﻠﻨﺖ ،ﺍﻧﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠٢٠٢ﺳﺘﺼﺒﺢ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻌﺘﻤﺪﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻧﻔﻄﻴﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺭﻓﻊ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭﺍﺕ ،ﻭ ﺍﻧﺸﺎء ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻛﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺃﻭﻟﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ .ﻭ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻟﺮﻓﻊ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺟﻨﺒﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﻤﻨﺤﻬﺎ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ ﻟﺘﺼﺒﺢ ﺍﺣﺪ ﺃﻗﻮﻯ ٥١ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ .ﻭ ﻗﺪ ﻭﺿﻌﺖ ﺍﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ ﺍﻳﻀﺎ ﻁﻤﻮﺡ ﻳﻜﻤﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺭﻓﻊ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺘﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﺳﻨﻮﻳﺎ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﺮﺅﻳﺔ ﻻﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ٠٣ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻣﻌﺘﻤﺮ ﺳﻨﻮﻳﺎ ﺑﺪﻻ ﻣﻦ ٨ ﻣﻼﻳﻴﻦ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺘﻤﺮﻳﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻧﺸﺎء ﻣﻄﺎﺭ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺭﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﺘﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻜﺔ .ﻭ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻻﻧﺸﺎء ﺷﺮﻛﺔ ﻟﻠﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺛﺎﻟﺚ ﺍﻛﺒﺮ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﺗﺪﻓﻊ ﻧﻔﻘﺎﺕ ﻋﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺮﺍﻩ ﻭﻟﻰ ﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻬﺪ ﺃﻣﺮﺍ ﻏﻴﺮ
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ﻫﻝ /٠٢/٢/٦١٠٢ http://www.aljazeera.net/news/ebusiness-/ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﻫﻝ ﺗﻧﺗﺻﺭ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺣﺭﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻧﻔﻁ ﺍﻟﺻﺧﺭﻯ ()٠٢/٢/٦١٠٢ ﺗﻧﺗﺻﺭ-ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ-ﻓﻲ-ﺍﻟﺣﺭﺏ-ﻋﻠﻰ-ﺍﻟﻧﻔﻁ-ﺍﻟﺻﺧﺭﻱ ٤٣ ٠٣٠٢ http://vision ٠٣٠٢.gov.sa/ar/bb ٠٢٠٢igﺭﺅﻳﺔ
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ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺳﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻬﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻔﻂ .ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﻫﻮ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺘﺠﺰ ﺗﺤﺖ ﻁﺒﻘﺎﺕ ﻋﻤﻴﻘﺔ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺼﻞ ﺍﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎ ﻟﻤﻴﻠﻴﻦ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺍﻻﺭﺽ ،ﻭ ﻳﻤﺘﺎﺯ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻉ ﺑﺠﻮﺩﺗﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻧﻪ ﺍﺧﻒ ﻣﻦ ﺧﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺩﻱ .٩٢ﻭ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻄﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﺨﻴﻦ ﻟﻠﺼﺨﻮﺭ ﺍﻭ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻜﺴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﻟﻴﻜﻲ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﻮﺭ ﻭ ﺗﻜﺴﻴﺮﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻀﻬﺎ ﻟﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﺣﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻣﺮﺗﻔﻌﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺳﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻬﺔ ﻟﺨﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ .ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺿﺦ ﻟﻠﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺎﻝ ﻵﺑﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻜﺴﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﻁﺒﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻭﻳﺪﻓﻊ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻟﻸﻧﺎﺑﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﺓ ﻻﺳﺘﺨﺮﺍﺟﻪ .٠٣ﻭ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻣﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﺩﻧﺎﻩ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻯ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺴﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﻟﻴﻜﻰ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻢ ﺍﻳﻀﺎﺣﻬﺎ ﻣﺴﺒﻘﺎ.
١٣ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺮﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻯ
ﻭ ﻳﻌﺎﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﺛﻤﻨﻪ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺘﻪ ﺑﺨﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻷﺣﻔﻮﺭﻱ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺒﻠﻎ ﺗﻜﻠﻔﺔ ﺑﺮﻣﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ٠٧ﺇﻟﻰ ٠٨ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﺃﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ،ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﺍﻥ ﺗﻜﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻣﻴﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻷﺣﻔﻮﺭﻱ ﺗﺒﻠﻎ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ٠١ﺇﻟﻰ ٧١ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﺃﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ،ﻣﺎ ﻳﺠﻌﻞ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﺻﻌﺒﺔ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻣﺎ ﺃﺭﺍﺩﻭﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ . ٢٣ﻭ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻣﺘﻼﻛﺎ ﻻﺣﺘﻴﺎﻁﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ٨٫٦١ %ﻣﻦ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﻴﺎﻁﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻤﻠﻚ %٧٫١٢ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﻴﺎﻁﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ. ﻭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺎﺋﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺨﻴﺔ ﺗﺸﻴﺮ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻥ ﺳﻌﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺩﻭﻣﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺃﺩﺍﺓ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﻟﻺﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻦ ﻭ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ .ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻧﻄﻼﻗﺔ ﺛﻮﺭﺓ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٠١٠٢ﺷﻬﺪ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺗﺤﻮﻻ ﺧﺎﺻﺘﺎ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﺗﻬﺪﻳﺪ ﻟﻤﻜﺎﻧﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺳﻴﺎﺩﺗﻬﺎ ﻟﺴﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ .ﻣﻤﺎ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻹﻏﺮﺍﻕ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻄﻲ ﺑﻤﻀﺎﻋﻔﺔ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺟﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻣﻤﺎ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﺑﻬﺒﻮﻁ ﺃﺳﻌﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻭﺳﻂ ﻣﺰﺍﻋﻢ ﺑﺸﺮﺍﻛﺔ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﺑﻚ
Eia, shale in the United States (٨١/١١/٦١٠٢) https://www.eia.gov/energy_in_brief/article/shale_in_the_united_states.cfm
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amso, oil shale extraction methods. http://amso.net/about-oil-shale/oil-shale-extraction-methods/ http://solvingep ٤١٠٢.weebly.com/contamination-٠٢.html ٢٣ ٦١/٢١/٥١٠٢( ﻓﺿﻳﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﻧﻔﻁ ﺍﻟﺻﺧﺭﻯ، ( ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ/٦١/٢١/٤١٠٢ http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/aswaq-/ﺍﻟﺻﺧﺭﻱ-ﺍﻟﻧﻔﻁ-ﻓﺿﻳﺣﺔhtml. ١٣
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ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺟﻮﺭﺝ ﺑﻮﺵ ﺑﺤﺠﺐ ٨٢ﻭﺭﻗﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻧﺠﺮﺱ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﺃﺷﻴﻊ ﺃﻧﻬﻢ ﻳﺜﺒﺘﻮﺍ ﺗﻮﺭﻁ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ .٤٢ ﺑﺎﻟﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻻﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻭﺟﻬﺖ ﻟﻠﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺪﻋﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻟﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻓﻲ ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺳﺒﺘﻤﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ ﻭﺍﻓﻖ ٥٢
ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺍﺏ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺸﺮﻭﻉ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻳﺤﻤﻞ ﺍﺳﻢ "ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﻋﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﺭﻫﺎﺏ " ؛ ﻭ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺍﺑﺮﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺿﻤﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺿﻢ ٦ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﻛﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ :ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺿﻤﺖ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻮﺩ ؛ ﻭ ﻫﻢ ﺃﻭﻻ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﺼﻨﻌﻪ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﻭ ﺃﺛﺮﻩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻷﻓﺮﺍﺩ .ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ ﻳﻌﺪ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﻣﺆﺛﺮﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻕ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ .ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺑﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺭﺅﻭﺱ ﺍﻷﻣﻮﺍﻝ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﺘﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺑﺎﺕ ﻟﻬﺎ .ﺭﺍﺑﻌﺎ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﻓﻊ ﻭ ﺍﻷﺑﻌﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﻴﺔ ﺧﻠﻒ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﻟﻠﺠﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺑﻴﺔ ﻭﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ .ﺧﺎﻣﺴﺎ ﻳﺨﻀﻊ ﺍﻷﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺎﻫﻢ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﺃﻭ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺩﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻭ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺗﺴﺘﻬﺪﻑ ﺃﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻦ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺍﻭ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﺍﻣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ. ﺳﺎﺩﺳﺎ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻣﺼﻠﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺩﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻀﺮﺭﻳﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺑﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻘﺎﺿﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻤﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﻣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء. ﺗﺆﻛﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺜﺔ ﺧﻀﻮﻉ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺟﻨﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺎءﻟﺔ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺩﻋﺎﻭﻯ ﺿﺪﻫﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻀﺮﺭﻳﻦ ﺳﻮﺍء ﺍﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﺍﻭ ﻣﻤﺘﻠﻜﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺃﺳﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻮﻓﻴﻦ .ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻌﺔ ﺃﻭﺿﺤﺖ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺹ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺼﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻷﺟﻨﺒﻴﺔ .ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺴﺔ ﺃﺳﻨﺪﺕ ﻟﻠﻤﺪﻋﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﻖ ﺑﻮﻗﻒ ﺃﻱ ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﻣﺪﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﻤﺤﺎﻛﻤﺔ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺃﺟﻨﺒﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻭﺽ ﻭ ﻳﺤﻖ ﻟﻪ ﺇﻳﻘﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻮﺓ ٠٨١ ﻳﻮﻣﺎ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻤﺪﻳﺪ ٠٨١ﻳﻮﻣﺎ ﺍﺧﺮﻯ .ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺳﺔ ﺃﻭﺿﺤﺖ ﺍﻥ ﺃﻱ ﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻻ ﻳﺴﻘﻂ ﺍﻷﺣﻜﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻛﻢ ٦٢ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺿﺪ ﺃﻱ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺟﻨﺒﻴﺔ . ﻋﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺑﺎﺭﺍﻙ ﺍﻭﺑﺎﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﻳﻘﺎﻑ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﻋﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻪ ﺣﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺾ (ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺘﻮ ٧٢ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﺎﺳﻲ) ،ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﺗﺼﻮﻳﺖ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻧﺠﺮﺱ ﺑﺄﻏﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺳﺎﺣﻘﺔ ﺍﺳﻘﻂ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺘﻮ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﺎﺳﻲ ﻭ ﺟﻌﻠﺖ ﻣﻦ "ﺟﺎﺳﺘﺎ" ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﺭﺳﻤﻴﺔ . ﺃﻣﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ،ﻓﻘﺪ ﻋﺒﺮﺕ ﻋﻦ ﻏﻀﺒﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺻﺪﻭﺭ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ،ﻭﺃﻥ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻧﻴﻦ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﻗﻠﻖ ﻟﺠﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ،ﺁﺧﺬﻳﻦ ﺑﺎﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﻣﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺖ ﺍﻻﺑﻴﺾ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺃﻛﺪ ﺍﻥ ﻋﻮﺍﻗﺐ ﺟﺎﺳﺘﺎ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ٨٢ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ . ﻟﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﺎﺅﻝ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺻﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﻭ ﺩﺧﻮﻟﻪ ﺣﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﻋﻤﺎ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻭ ﺧﻄﻮﺍﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻣﺔ ﻭ ﻫﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺇﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻥ؟ -٢ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ : ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺮﻳﻖ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻫﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮﻱ ،Shale) (oilﻭ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻄﻲ oil). (shaleﻳﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻄﻲ ،ﺍﻭ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﺮﻭﺟﻴﻦ ،ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺻﺨﻮﺭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺗﺤﻠﻞ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻋﻀﻮﻳﺔ ،ﻭﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﺫﺍﺑﺔ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺼﺨﻮﺭ ﻳﺘﻢ ٤٢
ﺍﻋﺗﺩﺍءﺍﺕ١١-ﺳﺑﺗﻣﺑﺭ E%٢٪٠٨٪-ACﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ-ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ-ﻗﺎﻧﻭﻥ-ﺟﺎﺳﺗﺎ٤٢ http://www.france/com/ar.٠٣٩٠٦١٠٢- (٦١٠٢/٩/٩) http://arabic.cnn.com/middleeast/٦١٠٢/٩٠/٩٠/house-votes-let-١١٩ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻘﺎﺿﺎﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻳﺻﻭﺗﻭﻥ ﺃﻣﺭﻳﻛﺎ ﻧﻭﺍﺏ CNNvictims-sue-saudi-arabia ٦٢ Congress.Gov, S.٠٤٠٢ - Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act https://www.congress.gov/bill/٤١١th-congress/senate-bill/٠٤٠٢ ٧٢ (٦١٠٢/٩/٨٢) http://arabic.cnn.com/world/٦١٠٢/٩٠/٨٢/senate-overridesﺳﺑﺗﻣﺑﺭ ١١ﻗﺎﻧﻭﻥ ﺿﺩ ﺃﻭﺑﺎﻣﺎ ﻓﻳﺗﻭ ﻳﻠﻐﻰ ﺍﻟﻛﻭﻧﺟﺭﺱ CNNobama-veto-١١-september-lawsuit-bill ٨٢ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ-ﻗﺎﻧﻭﻥ-ﺟﺎﺳﺗﺎ .( /٩٢/٩/٦١٠٢ http://www.aljazeera.net/news/arabic-/ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ :ﻗﺎﻧﻭﻥ ﺟﺎﺳﺗﺎ ﻣﺻﺩ ﻗﻠﻖ ﻟﻠﺩﻭﻝ (٠٣/٩/٦١٠٢ ﺍﻷﻣﻳﺭﻛﻲ-ﻣﺻﺩﺭ-ﻗﻠﻖ-ﻟﻠﺩﻭﻝ ٥٢
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ً ﻛﺜﻴﺮﺍ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺍﻻﻣﺮ ﻟﺘﻮﻗﻴﻊ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺃﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﺗﻨﻈﻢ ﻣﻨﻊ ﺍﻟﻬﺠﺮﺓ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻋﺎﻡ .٤٨٩١ﻫﺪﺃﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ ١٢ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻋﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻭﻗﻊ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﻧﺎﻳﻒ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ .١٠٠٢ ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺧﻮﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺇﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺳﺒﺒﺎً ﺍﺳﺎﺳﻴﺎً ﻓﻲ ﺗﻮﺗﺮ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ،ﻟﺬﺍ ﺷﻬﺪﺕ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺑﻞ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺇﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻣﻊ ﻭﺻﻮﻝ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺧﺎﺗﻤﻲ ﻟﻠﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﻭ ﺇﺗﺒﺎﻋﻪ ﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﻧﺰﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺗﺮﺍﺕ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻬﺪﻭء ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﻲ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺖ ﻣﻊ ﻭﺻﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﻴﻦ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺃﺣﻤﺪﻱ ﻧﺠﺎﺩ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ .ﻭ ﺷﻜﻠﺖ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻬﻠﺔ، ﺣﻴﺚ ﺷﻬﺪ ﻋﺎﻡ ١١٠٢ﺗﻮﺗﺮﺍﺕ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺑﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺗﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺷﻬﺪﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﻦ ﻭ ﺃﺭﺳﻠﺖ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺩﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﻭ ﺍﺗﻬﻤﺖ ﺣﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﺇﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺌﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ .ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺗﻌﺮﺽ ﻭﺯﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ ﻭ ﺳﻔﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻟﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻋﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻟﺠﺒﻴﺮ ﻟﻤﺤﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻏﺘﻴﺎﻝ ﻓﺎﺷﻠﺔ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺷﺨﺼﻴﻦ ﻳﺤﻤﻼﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﻳﺮﺍﻧﻴﺔ .ﻭ ﻓﺘﺤﺖ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺧﻼﻑ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺘﻴﻦ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻧﺪﻻﻉ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺗﺪﻋﻴﻢ ﺇﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺑﺸﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﺳﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﻼﻑ ﻣﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ .ﻭ ﺷﻬﺪ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥١٠٢ﺣﺮﺏ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﻛﺎﻟﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﻡ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﻮﺛﻴﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻰ ﺍﺗﻬﻤﺖ ﺇﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﺑﺪﻋﻤﻬﻢ .ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺣﻠﻮﻝ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٦١٠٢ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺗﺤﻮﻝ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻓﻴﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻋﺪﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺭﺟﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﻲ ﻧﻤﺮ ﻧﻤﺮ ﻓﻲ ٢ﻳﻨﺎﻳﺮ ،ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺪﺗﻪ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻹﻳﺮﺍﻧﻴﺔ ﻟﻴﺘﻢ ﺍﻗﺘﺤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻁﻬﺮﺍﻥ ﺑﺤﻠﻮﻝ ﻳﻮﻡ ٣ﻳﻨﺎﻳﺮ ﺍﻋﺘﺮﺍﺿﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﻋﺪﺍﻡ ﻧﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺮ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺭﺩﺕ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ٢٢ ﺑﻘﻄﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺭﺳﻤﻴﺎً ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ . ﺭﺍﺑﻌﺎً :ﺍﻟﺗﻭﺗﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻣﻠﻛﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻭﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺣﺩﺓ : ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻭﺻﻔﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻮﺛﻴﻘﺔ ﺍﻻ ﺍﻥ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻗﺪ ﺑﺎﺗﺖ ﺗﻤﺮ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺻﻌﺐ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﺮﺿﺖ ﻟﻀﻐﻮﻁﺎﺕ ﻳﺼﻌﺐ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻲ ،ﺑﻞ ﻳﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﻥ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺘﻴﻦ ﺗﺘﺠﻪ ﺍﻟﻰ ﻁﺮﻳﻖ ﻣﻈﻠﻢ ﻗﺪ ﻳﻜﺘﺐ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺩﺍﻣﺖ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻳﻘﺮﺏ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﻦ ﻋﺎﻣﺎ ؛ ﻭﻧﺤﺎﻭﻝ ﻫﻨﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺒﺮﺯ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺼﻌﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻧﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻳﻀﺎﺣﻬﺎ . -١ﺗﺒﻌﺎﺕ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺍﻟﺔ ﺿﺪ ﺭﻋﺎﺓ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺏ (ﺟﺎﺳﺘﺎ) : ﻋﺎﺷﺖ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺻﺒﻴﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺎء ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺩﻱ ﻋﺸﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺳﺒﺘﻤﺒﺮ ﻳﻮﻣﺎ ﻻ ﻳﻨﺴﻰ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﺮﺿﺖ ﻟﻬﺠﻮﻡ ﺇﺭﻫﺎﺑﻲ ﻗﺪ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﺣﺪ ﺍﺳﻮء ﺍﻟﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺮﺿﺖ ﺍﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺨﻬﺎ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻫﺎﺟﻤﺖ ﻁﺎﺋﺮﺗﺎﻥ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ ،ﻭ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻣﻘﺮ ﻭﺯﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﻓﺎﻉ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ "ﺍﻟﺒﻨﺘﺎﺟﻮﻥ" ﻭ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺳﻘﻄﺖ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻥ ﺗﺼﻞ ﻟﻬﺪﻓﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻭﻻﻳﺔ ﺑﻨﺴﻠﻔﺎﻧﻴﺎ .٣٢ﺃﻋﻘﺐ ﺍﻟﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﻭﺩﺕ ﺑﺤﻴﺎﺓ " ٠٠٠٣ﻣﻮﺍﻁﻦ ﺃﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﻭ ﺃﺟﻨﺒﻲ ﻭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ٠٠٠٦ﻣﺼﺎﺏ" ﺍﺿﻄﺮﺍﺑﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﺟﻬﺖ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭ ﺍﺩﻋﺎءﺍﺕ ﻋﻦ ﺻﻠﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻨﻔﺬﻳﻦ ﻟﻠﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ؛ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺻﻞ ٩١ﺷﺨﺺ ﺷﺎﺭﻛﻮﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ٥١ﺳﻌﻮﺩﻱ .ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﻁﺎﻟﺖ ﺣﺮﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺣﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮﺓ ﻫﻴﻔﺎء ﺑﻦ ﻓﻴﺼﻞ ﺑﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺩﻋﻢ ﻣﺎﺩﻯ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﺋﻤﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ،ﻭ ﻣﺴﺌﻮﻟﻴﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩﻳﻴﻦ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻓﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺮﻱ ﻭ ﺃﺳﺎﻣﺔ ﺑﺴﻨﺎﻥ ﻭ ﻋﻤﺮ ﺑﻴﻮﻣﻲ ﺑﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻟﻘﺎءﺍﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻔﺬﻳﻦ ﻟﻠﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻋﺎﻣﻲ ٠٠٠٢ﻭ ،١٠٠٢ﻭ ﺯﺍﺩ ﻣﻦ ﻏﻤﻮﺽ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﻗﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ
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ﻣﺣﻣﺩ ﺳﺎﻟﻡ ﺍﻟﻛﻭﺍﺯ ،ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻹﻳﺭﺍﻧﻳﺔ ١١٠٢-٩٧٩١ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺧﻳﺔ ﺳﻳﺎﺳﻳﺔ ،ﺩﺍﺭﻏﺑﺩﺍء ﺍﻟﻧﺷﺭ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺗﻭﺯﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ /٦/١/٦١٠٢ http://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/events -/ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ،ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻹﻳﺭﺍﻧﻳﺔ ﺗﻭﺗﺭ ﻟﻪ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ()٦/١/٦١٠٢ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ-ﺍﻹﻳﺭﺍﻧﻳﺔ-ﺗﻭﺗﺭ-ﻟﻪ-ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ٣٢ (٨٠٠٢/٢/٢١ﺳﺑﺗﻣﺑﺭ ﻣﻥ ﻋﺷﺭ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺩﻯ ،ﺍﻟﺟﺯﻳﺭﺓ ) http://www.aljazeera.net/specialfiles/pages/٤ccbb ٨٩b-١c ٥e-٦٣٤d-b ٢٣c٩٥ aae ٣٦٩ e ٦٨٩ ٢٢
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ﻣﻴﺮﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺽ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻁﺎﺭ ﺟﻮﻟﺘﻪ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺩﻭﻝ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺠﻲ ،ﻭﺗﻢ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻗﻴﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺘﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻻﻣﻮﺍﻝ .ﻭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﻋﺒﺪ ﷲ ﺑﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺭﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻮﺳﻜﻮ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻮﻓﻤﺒﺮ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٠٠٢ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻭﻟﻴﺎ ﻟﻠﻌﻬﺪ ﻭﺍﺟﺮﻯ ﺧﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﻣﺒﺎﺣﺜﺎﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻲ ﻓﻼﺩﻳﻤﻴﺮ ﺑﻮﺗﻴﻦ ،ﻭﺗﻢ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﻗﻴﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﻟﺘﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ؛ ﻭﻣﻦ ﺿﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻭﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻭﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻲ ﻓﻼﺩﻳﻤﻴﺮ ﺑﻮﺗﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٧٠٠٢ﺑﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ٩١ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ . ﻭﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ ﺯﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺯﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﻭﻟﻲ ﻭﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻲ ﻣﻮﺳﻜﻮ ﻭﺗﻮﻗﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﻣﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻮﺻﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻓﺎﻥ ﺇﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ؛ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ً ﻣﻔﺎﻋﻼ ﻧﻮﻭﻳﺎً ﻟﻸﻏﺮﺍﺽ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ،ﻭﺳﻴﻜﻮﻥ ﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻷﺑﺮﺯ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺗﻌﺘﺰﻡ ﺑﻨﺎء ٦١ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ. ﻭﻗﺪ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻟﻬﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﺤﺎﻭﺭ ﻭ ﺃﻫﻤﻬﺎ ﺗﺮﺍﺟﻊ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺃﺯﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻗﻠﻴﻤﻲ .ﻭﺛﺎﻧﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ- ﺍﻹﻳﺮﺍﻧﻲ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﻻ ﻳﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﻤﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﺍﻣﺞ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻹﻳﺮﺍﻧﻴﺔ ﻭﺇﻧﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﺒﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺇﺩﻣﺎﺝ ﺇﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﺿﻤﻦ ﻣﻨﻈﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻗﻠﻴﻤﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻻ ﺗﺰﺍﻝ ﻟﺪﻳﻬﺎ ﻣﺸﻜﻼﺕ ﻋﺎﻟﻘﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺩﻭﻝ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ .ﻭﺛﺎﻟﺜﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺍﺋﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﺘﻌﻮﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﻦ ﺳﻮﺍء ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻅﻞ ﺍﻻﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﻮﻕ ﻷﺳﻌﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻭﺗﺪﺍﻋﻴﺎﺗﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲ ،ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻭﺭﻭﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺮﻭﺿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻲ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﻳﻈﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻲ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻌﺪ ﻓﻌﺎﻻً ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺭﺩﺓ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﻴﺲ ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺎً ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻻﻁﻼﻕ .ﻓﺮﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﻻ ﻳﺰﺍﻝ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻲ ﻭﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺑﻞ ﻭﺍﻹﻗﻠﻴﻤﻴﺔ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺒﻴﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﻠﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣١٠٢ﺑﻠﻐﺖ ﺣﻮﺍﻟﻲ ٢،٣١ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﻟﻠﺨﺎﺭﺝ ،ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺣﻮﺍﻟﻲ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ٠٢ %٠١ﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﻂ . -٤ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻹﻳﺮﺍﻧﻴﺔ : ﺗﻌﻮﺩ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻹﻳﺮﺍﻧﻴﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺭﺳﻤﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ ﻭﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺗﺮﺳﻢ ﻋﻼﻗﺘﻬﻤﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ .٩٢٩١ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻭﻟﻰ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻟﻄﻬﺮﺍﻥ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺯﺍﺭ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺼﻞ ﻁﻬﺮﺍﻥ ﻋﺎﻡ .٢٣٩١ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻣﺮﺕ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺻﻌﺐ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺑﺈﻋﺪﺍﻡ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﺎﺝ ﺍﻹﻳﺮﺍﻧﻴﻴﻦ ﻟﻴﺘﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﻻﻣﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻧﻘﻄﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ٣٤٩١ﻭ ﺣﺘﻰ . ٦٤٩١ﻋﻘﺐ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻮﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺟﺎءﺕ ﺯﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻟﻄﻬﺮﺍﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻰ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﺎﻩ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺭﺿﺎ ﺑﻬﻠﻮﻱ ﻭ ﺗﺤﺪﺙ ﻗﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻋﻦ ﺳﺒﻞ ﺗﻨﻤﻴﺔ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ .ﻋﻘﺐ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺷﺎﻩ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﺘﺎﻧﺔ ﻣﺆﻛﺪﺍ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺩﻋﻢ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺃﻣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺮﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ .ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﺑﺮﺯ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺯﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻓﻴﺼﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ ٧٦٩١ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﻟﻘﻰ ﺧﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﻛﻠﻤﺔ ﺃﻣﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻟﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻻﻳﺮﺍﻧﻰ ﺃﻛﺪ ﺧﻼﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻳﺤﻤﻠﻪ ﻛﻼﻫﻤﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺮﺍﻛﺎﺕ ﺩﻳﻨﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ. ﻣﻊ ﺍﻧﺪﻻﻉ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻭ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﻩ ﺗﺤﻮﻟﺖ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺗﺤﻮﻝ ﺟﺬﺭﻱ ﻟﺘﺸﺘﻌﻞ ﺍﻷﻣﻮﺭ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺍﺣﺘﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٩٧٩١ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻠﺤﻴﻦ ﺑﻘﻮﺩﻫﻢ ﺟﻬﻴﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺘﻴﺒﻰ ،ﻋﻨﺪﻫﺎ ﻭﺟﻬﺖ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻭ ﺁﻝ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﺸﻞ ﻭ ﺳﻮء ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ .ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻧﺪﻻﻉ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ﻭ ﺗﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺩﻋﻤﻬﺎ ﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ،ﺗﻮﺗﺮﺕ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎً ﺣﺘﻰ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺍﻻﻣﺮ ﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﻘﺎﻁ ﻁﺎﺋﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻁﺎﺋﺮﺗﺎﻥ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﺪ ﺃﻋﻠﻨﺖ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻴﺎﻣﻬﻤﺎ ﺑﺎﻗﺘﺤﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻱ ٩١
ﺍﻟﺳﻔﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺭﻭﺳﻳﺎ ،ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺭﻭﺳﻳﺎ http://embassies.mofa.gov.sa/sites/Russia/AR/AboutHostingCountry/SaudiRelations/Pages/default.aspx ٠٢ -/٥١٠٢/٦٠/٨١ﻭﻟﻲ-ﻭﻟﻲ (٩١ /٥١٠٢/٦). http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/mob/saudi-today/ﺇﺗﻔﺎﻗﻳﺎﺕ ٦ﻭ ﻣﻔﺎﻋﻝ ٦١ﺭﻭﺳﻳﺎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ،ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ html.ﺍﻟﻌﻬﺩ-ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻱ-ﺍﻷﻣﻳﺭ-ﻣﺣﻣﺩ-ﺑﻥ-ﺳﻠﻣﺎﻥ-ﻳﺻﻝ-ﻣﻭﺳﻛﻭ-
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-٢ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﺔ : ً ﻋﺎﻣﺎ ﻣﻀﺖ ،ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﺟﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺒﻴﺔ ﺷﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺃﻭﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻗﺒﻞ ٥٧ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ .ﺇﺫ ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺗﺠﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺑﺴﻴﻄﺔ ﺗﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﻦ ﻭﺻﻮﻻً ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﺸﻜﻠﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻤﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠٩٩١ﻡ .ﻭﻟﻮﻻ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﻭﻧﻤﻮ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻲ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻷﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺸﻜﻠﻬﺎ ﺍﻵﻥ. ﻭﻳﻌﺰﻯ ﻭﺻﻮﻝ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﺍﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻄﻮﺭﻫﺎ ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻣﺘﺒﺎﺩﻟﺔ؛ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﻤﺘﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ .ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺇﺷﺒﺎﻉ ﺭﻏﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺗﻤﺘﻠﻜﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻮﻓﺮﺓ .ﻭ ٧١ ﻁﺒﻘﺎ ﻹﺣﺼﺎﺋﻴﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﻡ ٧٠٠٢ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﻭ ﺧﺎﻣﺲ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﺭﺩ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ . ﻭﻗﺪ ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﻄﻮﺭﺍ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺰﻳﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺆﻭﻟﻴﻦ ﻟﻜﻼ ﺍﻟﺒﺪﻟﻴﻦ .ﻓﻘﺪ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺑﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ ٨٩٩١ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻭﻟﻴﺎ ﻟﻠﻌﻬﺪ ،ﻭﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٩٩٩١ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻲ ﺟﻴﺎﻧﺞ ﺯﻣﻴﻦ ﺑﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻋﺎﻡ ٩٩٩١ﺑﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺃﻣﻴﺮﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺽ .ﻭﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤٠٠٢ﻡ ﺍﺗﻔﻖ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﺎﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺪء ﺣﻮﺍﺭ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻨﺘﻈﻢ ﻭﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻟﺠﻨﺔ ﺳﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ -ﺻﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ .ﻭﻣﻨﺬ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ ﺗﺴﺎﺭﻋﺖ ﻭﺗﻴﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻠﻘﺎءﺍﺕ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ،ﻭﺗﻮﺝ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺰﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻳﻨﺎﻳﺮ .٦٠٠٢ﻭﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺃﻭﻝ ﺯﻳﺎﺭﺓ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻋﺎﻫﻞ ﺳﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ،ﻭﺗﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﺓ ﻭﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺈﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﺳﻼﻡ ﺩﺍﺋﻢ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ،ﻭﻋﻮﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻋﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻄﻴﻨﻲ ﻛﺄﺳﺎﺱ ﻭﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻟﺒﻨﺎء ﺳﻼﻡ ﺩﺍﺋﻢ ﻭﻋﺎﺩﻝ ﻳﻀﻤﻦ ﻋﻮﺩﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺠﺰء ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ،ﻭﺃﻗﺮ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﺎﻥ ﺑﻀﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻼﻡ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻼﻡ .ﻭ ﻗﺪ ﺃﻳﺪﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻣﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻋﻘﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻋﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻄﻴﻨﻲ. ﻭﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻮﻗﻴﻊ ﺧﻤﺲ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻓﻴﻦ .ﻛﻤﺎ ﺷﻤﻠﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﻴﺎﺕ ﺑﻨﻮﺩﺍً ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻭﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﺴﺘﻬﻠﻚ ﻧﻔﻂ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ،ﻭﺗﺴﺘﻮﺭﺩ %٧١ﻣﻦ ﺍﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﻭﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﺟﻤﻬﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺒﻴﺔ ﺑﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ .ﻓﻠﻘﺪ ﻣﻨﺤﺖ ٢ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤٠٠٢ﻡ ﺍﻣﺘﻴﺎﺯ ﺗﻨﻘﻴﺐ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺯ ﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ (ﺳﻴﻨﻮﺑﻚ) ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﺔ ،ﻭﻳﺸﻤﻞ ﺍﻻﻣﺘﻴﺎﺯ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺗﻤﺘﺪ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ ٠٤ﻛﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺻﺤﺮﺍء ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻊ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻟﻲ ،ﻭﺗﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ ﺃﺭﺍﻣﻜﻮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻠﻜﻴﺔ %٠٢ﻣﻦ ﺭﺃﺱ ﻣﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺃﻧﺸﺌﺖ ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺽ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﺍﺷﺘﺮﻛﺖ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ ﺃﺭﺍﻣﻜﻮ ﻣﻊ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ (ﺳﻴﻨﻮﺑﻚ) ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻳﻮﻟﻴﻮ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥٠٠٢ﻡ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻠﻜﻴﺔ %٥٤ﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﻔﺎﺓ ﺻﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﻟﻠﻨﻔﻂ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻤﺎﻝ ﺷﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ .ﻭ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺇﻟﻰ ٣٫١٧ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ،ﺇﺫ ﺗﺮﺗﻜﺰ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﻴﺔ ﺻﺎﺩﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺘﺮﻭﻝ ،ﻭﺑﻠﻎ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ٨٨ ٨١ ً ﻣﺸﺮﻭﻋﺎ ﺑﺮﺃﺱ ﻣﺎﻝ ﻣﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺑﻠﻎ ﻗﺮﺍﺑﺔ ﺍﻟـ ٧٣٥ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ . -٣ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺔ : ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻓﻴﺘﻲ ﺃﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻋﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻋﺘﺮﻓﺖ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺩﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻓﺒﺮﺍﻳﺮ ﻋﺎﻡ .٦٢٩١ﻭﻓﻲ ٧١ﺳﺒﺘﻤﺒﺮ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠٩٩١ﻭﺑﻌﺪ ﻗﻄﻴﻌﺔ ﻁﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﻋﺪﺍء ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻮﻋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻓﻴﺘﻲ، ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﻋﺎﺩﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻣﺮﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺑﺼﺪﻭﺭ ﺑﻴﺎﻥ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﻳﻌﻠﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺌﻨﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﺭﻭﺳﻴﺎ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺲ ﻭﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ .ﻭﻓﻲ ﻧﻮﻓﻤﺒﺮ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤٩٩١ﺯﺍﺭ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻴﺔ ﻓﻴﻜﺘﻮﺭ ﺗﺸﺮﻧﻮ ٧١
ﺳﻔﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻣﻣﻠﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺻﻳﻥ ،ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺻﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺷﻌﺑﻳﺔ http://embassies.mofa.gov.sa/sites/China/AR/AboutHostingCountry/SaudiRelations/Pages/default.aspx ٨١ ( /١٩٦٩٢٥١ http://www.alriyadh.comﺍﻟﺭﻳﺎﺽ ،ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺻﻳﻧﻳﺔ ﻁﺎﺑﻊ ﺇﺳﺗﺭﺍﺗﻳﺟﻰ ﻭ ﺗﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻭﺛﻳﻖ (٨/٦١٠٢ /٠٣
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ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ. ﻭﻓﻲ ﺣﻘﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ "ﺍﻳﺰﻧﻬﺎﻭﺭ" ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺷﻮﻁﺎ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺍ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺑﺪﻋﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻓﻴﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﺩﻓﻌﻬﺎ ﺇﻟﻲ ﻣﺨﺎﻁﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺇﻟﻲ ﻗﻄﻊ ﺃﻳﺪﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ،ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ "ﺍﻳﺰﻧﻬﺎﻭﺭ" ﺭﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﻟﻜﻲ ﻳﻤﻨﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻮﻋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻻﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻮﺫ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻻﻗﻨﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻣﻮﺍﻟﻬﻢ ﻷﻏﺮﺍﺽ ﺍﻓﻀﻞ .ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ٣٧٩١ﺗﻮﺗﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻗﻄﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺻﺎﺩﺭﺍﺗﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺩﻋﻤﻬﻢ ﻹﺳﺮﺍﺋﻴﻞ ،ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ ﺳﺒﺒﺎ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺭﻓﻊ ﺍﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ. ﻧﺘﺠﺖ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻳﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻘﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ .ﻓﻤﻊ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﺷﺎﻩ ﺇﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻭﻧﺸﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺇﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ،ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﻮﺑﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻟﻲ ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻓﻴﺘﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻟﻲ ﻟﻠﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ، ﻭﻏﺰﻭ ﺍﻻﺗﺤﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻓﻴﺘﻲ ﻷﻓﻐﺎﻧﺴﺘﺎﻥ ﺑﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺪ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻳﺰﺩﺍﺩ .ﻫﻨﺎ ﺍﻭﺿﺢ ﻛﺎﺭﺗﺭ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠٨٩١ﺍﻥ ﺃﻱ ﻣﺣﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﻣﻥ ﻗﺑﻝ ﻗﻭﺓ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺳﻳﻁﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺧﻠﻳﺞ ﺳﺗﻌﺩ ﺍﻋﺗﺩﺍء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﺻﺎﻟﺢ ﺍﻟﺣﻳﻭﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻭﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺣﺩﺓ ،ﻭﺍﺯﺍء ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺗﻁﻭﺭﺍﺕ ﻓﻘﺩ ﺭﺃﺕ ﺍﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺱ ﻛﺎﺭﺗﺭ ﺿﺭﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﺗﻌﺩﺍﺩ ﻻﺣﺗﻣﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﺩﺧﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺳﻛﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺎﺷﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺧﻠﻳﺞ ﻓﺗﻡ ﺍﻧﺷﺎء ﻗﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﺩﺧﻝ ﺍﻟﺳﺭﻳﻊ ﻟﻣﻭﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻱ ﻧﺯﺍﻉ ﻋﺳﻛﺭﻱ ﻁﺎﺭﺉ ﻭﺗﻡ ﺍﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﻁﺎﺋﺭﺍﺕ "ﺍﻭﺍﻛﺱ" ﺍﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ. ﻭﻣﻊ ﻏﺰﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ﻟﻠﻜﻮﻳﺖ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠٩٩١ﺯﺍﺩﺕ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺒﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﻮﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ،ﻭﻗﺪ ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺣﺮﺏ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻳﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ،ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺯﻭﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻓﻴﺘﻲ ﺍﻻ ﺃﻥ ٤١ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ﻭﺇﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﺳﺎﻫﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ . ﺃﺩﺕ ﻫﺠﻤﺎﺕ ١١ﻣﻦ ﺳﺒﺘﻤﺒﺮ ﻋﺎﻡ ١٠٠٢ﺍﻟﻲ ﺗﻮﺗﺮ ﻧﺴﺒﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻭﻟﻮ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺭﺳﻤﻲ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻛﻮﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻨﻔﺬﻱ ﺍﻟﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﻴﺘﻬﻢ ﻳﺤﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ،ﺍﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻬﺠﻤﺎﺕ ﺩﻋﻤﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻣﺮﻳﻜﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺮﺑﻬﺎ ﺿﺪ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪﺓ .ﻭﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺗﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺃﺑﺮﺯﻫﺎ ﻫﻮ؛ ﻏﻀﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺩﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻟﺜﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ،١١٠٢ﻭﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﺍﻻﻳﺮﺍﻧﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥١٠٢ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺟﺰء ﻗﻮﻳﺎ ﻓﻴﻪ ،ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺣﻞ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﺔ .ﻭﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻣﺤﺎﻭﺭ ﻟﻠﺮﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻟﻌﻞ ﺃﺑﺮﺯﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻳﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺯﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ ١١٠٢ﻋﻦ ﻁﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺩﺭﻉ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺪﻋﻤﻪ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ .ﻭ ﺳﻌﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺗﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﺭﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮﺓ ﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺗﺆﻛﺪ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺗﺨﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻮﻉ ﻟﻺﺩﺍﺭﺓ ٥١ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ . ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺎﺭﺱ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻰ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﻭﻟﻲ ﻭﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪﺓ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻰ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺯﻳﺎﺭﺗﻪ ﻟﻮﺍﺷﻨﻄﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺩﻭﻧﺎﻟﺪ ﺗﺮﺍﻣﺐ .ﻭ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻘﺎء ﺗﻨﺎﻗﺶ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻓﺎﻥ ﺳﺒﻞ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ ﻭ ﺃﻛﺪ ﺗﺮﺍﻣﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻠﺪﻳﻦ .ﻭ ﺃﻅﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﻠﻘﺎء ﺗﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﺑﺨﺼﻮﺹ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻒ ﺍﻹﻳﺮﺍﻧﻲ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﺑﺪﻯ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﺩﻋﻤﻪ ﺑﺸﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻓﺮﺿﻬﺎ ﺗﺮﺍﻣﺐ ﻣﺆﺧﺮﺍً ﻋﻠﻰ ﻁﻬﺮﺍﻥ ،ﻭ ﺍﺛﻨﻰ ﺗﺮﺍﻣﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻬﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻻﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﻭ ﺃﻛﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﻋﻤﻪ ٦١ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﻣﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺭﻫﺎﺑﻴﺔ .
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ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ_ﺍﻷﻣﺭﻳﻛﻳﺔ_ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ /http://www.marefa.org/index.phpﺍﻟﻣﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﺭﻳﻛﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ . ٥١ ( ٣١٠٢/١١/١ ) http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/ar/policyﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﺎﻟﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻭﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺻﺩﺍﻡ ﻟﻸﺑﺣﺎﺙ ﻭﺍﺷﻧﻁﻥ ﻣﻌﻬﺩanalysis/view/the-u.s.-saudi-royal-rumble ٦١ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ،ﻫﺫﻩ ﺗﻔﺎﺻﻳﻝ ﻟﻘﺎء ﻣﺣﻣﺩ ﺑﻥ ﺳﻠﻣﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺗﺭﻣﺏ ٥١/٣/٧١٠٢ /٧١٠٢/٣٠/٥١.htmlﻭﺗﺭﻣﺏ-ﺳﻠﻣﺎﻥ-ﺑﻥ-ﻣﺣﻣﺩ-ﻟﻘﺎء-ﺗﻔﺎﺻﻳﻝ-ﻫﺫﻩ http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/mob/saudi-today/
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١٠٠٢ﺣﻴﺚ ﺑﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻹﺻﻼﺣﻲ ﺑﺈﺻﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﺋﺾ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ .ﻣﻦ ﺍﺑﺮﺯ ﺭﻣﻮﺯﻩ؛ ﻣﺤﺴﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﺟﻲ ﻭﻣﻀﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺮﺷﻴﺪ ﻭﺑﺪﺭ ﺍﻟﺮﺷﻴﺪ ﻭﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻴﻮﻑ. ﻭ ﺣﺎﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﻈﺎﻫﺮﺍﺕ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻨﻬﻢ ﻳﺘﻌﺮﺿﻮﻥ ﻟﻠﻘﻤﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻌﺮﺽ ﻭﻻ ﺯﺍﻝ ﻳﺘﻌﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ ﻟﻠﺴﺠﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﺬﻳﺐ ،ﻭ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺴﻔﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ،ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻊ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﺮ ،ﻭﻏﻴﺮ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍءﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺴﻔﻴﺔ ٠١ ﺍﻟﻈﺎﻟﻤﺔ . ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎً :ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ : ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻣﻊ ﻁﻠﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﻧﻘﻠﺔ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ "ﺳﻮﻛﺎﻝ" ﺑﺘﻮﻗﻴﻊ ﺍﻣﺘﻴﺎﺯ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﻘﻴﺐ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﻦ ،ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺕ ﺃﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻘﻴﺐ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﻴﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﻛﺘﺸﺎﻑ ﺣﻘﻞ "ﺍﻟﺒﻘﻴﻖ" ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻣﺎﻡ ﻟﻴﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻦ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﻋﺼﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ .ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺘﺼﻒ ﺍﻟﺨﻤﺴﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺑﻠﻎ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﺑﺮﻣﻴﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ ﻷﻭﻝ ﻣﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ .ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺣﻠﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺷﻬﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺗﺤﻮﻝ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٧٩١ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺣﺮﺏ ﺃﻛﺘﻮﺑﺮ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﺸﺮﺍء ٪٥٢ﻣﻦ ﺃﺳﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻔﻂ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻋﺮﻓﺖ ﻻﺣﻘﺎً ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﺃﺭﺍﻣﻜﻮ ،ﻭﺑﻌﺪﻫﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤٧٩١ﻭﺻﻠﺖ ﺣﺼﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ٪٠٦ﻣﻦ ﺃﺳﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ،ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﻛﻤﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺷﺮﺍء ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﺃﺳﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ١١ ﻟﺘﺼﺒﺢ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ ﺳﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻨﺴﺒﺔ . ٪٠٠١ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺃﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻟﺴﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻁﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻧﻬﻴﺎﺭ ﺃﺳﻌﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻷﺯﻣﺎﺕ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻌﻬﺪﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ .ﺃﺟﺒﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺗﺨﺎﺫ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍءﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻘﺎﺕ؛ ﺗﻤﺜﻠﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺨﻔﻴﺾ ً ﻭﻣﺆﺧﺮﺍ ﺃﺻﺪﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺳﻨﺪﺍﺕ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﺍﺗﺐ ،ﻭﺗﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻘﺎﺕ ﻧﻈﺮﺍً ﻟﻌﺠﺰ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺯﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺣﺪﺙ ﻓﻲ ،٥١٠٢ ٢١ ﺧﺰﺍﻧﺔ ﺑﻘﻴﻤﺔ ٧١ﻣﻠﻴﺎﺭ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﺑﻬﺪﻑ ﺗﺪﻋﻴﻢ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺨﺮﻭﺝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺯﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻋﻮﺩﺓ ﺍﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﺃﺳﻌﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻣﺮﺓ ﺍﺧﺮﻯ . ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎً :ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ : ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻁﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﺗﻤﺤﻮﺭﺕ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺮﺏ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺷﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺗﺆﻛﺪ ﺣﺪﻭﺙ ﺗﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼً ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﻴﺔ .ﻭ ﻧﺘﺤﺪﺙ ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺳﻮﺍء ﺑﺎﻹﻳﺠﺎﺏ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﺐ: -١الﻌﻼﻗاﺕ السﻌودية اﻻمريكية : ﺗﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻋﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺻﺪﺍﻗﺔ ﻭﺛﻴﻘﺔ ﻭﺗﺠﻤﻌﻬﻤﺎ ﻣﺼﺎﻟﺢ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ .ﻭﻗﺪ ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺑﺴﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﻗﻠﻴﻠﺔ ،ﻭﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ٣٣٩١ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺇﻋﻄﺎء ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺁﻝ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻻﻣﺘﻴﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻘﻴﺐ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ .ﺛﻢ ﻁﻠﺒﺖ ﺷﺮﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺍﺷﻨﻄﻦ ﻣﻤﺎﺭﺳﺔ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﻟﻀﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ،ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺭﻭﺯﻓﻠﺖ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٤٩١ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺍﻻﻋﻼﻥ ﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﻓﺎﻉ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﻣﺼﻠﺤﺔ ﺣﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ .ﻭﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ٤٤٩١ﺗﻢ ﺍﻓﺘﺘﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺪﺓ ٣١ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﻠﺖ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤٨٩١ﺇﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺽ .ﻭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺮﺋﻴﺲ ﺍﻻﻣﺮﻳﻜﻲ ﺭﻭﺯﻓﻠﺖ ﺑﺎﺭﺳﺎﻝ ﺍﻭﻝ ﺑﻌﺜﺔ ﻋﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﺃﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻘﻰ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥٤٩١ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻅﻬﺮ ﺑﺎﺧﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻗﻨﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻳﺲ ﻭﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻠﻘﺎء ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺩﺷﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ٠١
ﺗﻳﺎﺭ_ﺍﻹﺻﻼﺡ_ﻓﻲ_ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ http://www.marefa.org/index.php/ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ،ﺃﺭﺍﻣﻛﻭ http://www.saudiaramco.com/ar/home/about/history/٠٨٩١s.html ٢١ ﺍﻟﺧﺯﺍﻧﺔ ﺳﻧﺩﺍﺕ ﺑﻳﻊ ﻣﻥ ﺩﻭﻻﺭ ﻣﻠﻳﺎﺭ ٥٫٧١ﺗﺟﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ http://arabic.cnn.com/business/٦١٠٢/٠١/٩١/saudi-arabia-bond-٥-٧١-billion CNN ))٦١٠٢/٠١/٩١ ١١
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ﺍﻟﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺳﻳﺎﺳﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻣﻣﻠﻛﺔ ﺍﻷﻣﺭﻳﻛﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﺎﺭﺓ. https://sa.usembassy.gov/ar/our-relationship-ar/policy-history-ar/
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ﻳﻌﻮﺩ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺰﺍﻉ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻛﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﺔ ﻻﻧﺘﻔﺎﺿﺔ ﺍﻻﻳﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺣﺪﺛﺖ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٩٧٩١ﻋﻘﺐ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻁﻬﺮﺍﻥ ﻟﺘﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﺨﺎﻭﻑ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻧﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻻﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ .ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺠﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﻭﻗﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﻴﻦ ﺑﻬﺎ .ﻋﻘﺐ ﺫﻟﻚ ،ﻅﻬﺮ ﻣﺎ ﻋﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ "ﺣﺰﺏ ﷲ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﺎﺯ" ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻭﺟﻬﺖ ﻟﻪ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﺑﻤﺴﺆﻭﻟﻴﺘﻪ ﻋﻦ ﺗﻔﺠﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺑﺮﺝ ﺍﻟﺨﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺍﺳﺘﻬﺪﻑ ﺟﻨﻮﺩ ﺍﻣﺮﻳﻜﺎﻥ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻭﺟﻬﺖ ﻟﻪ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ. ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﻫﺪﻭء ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻭﺍﺧﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺴﻌﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﺩ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻭ ﺃﻋﻠﻦ ﺣﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ ٦ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﺔ . ﺟﻤﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ (ﺣﺴﻢ) :ﻳﻌﻮﺩ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻭﻓﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ "ﺣﺴﻢ" ﻟﻌﺎﻡ ٩٠٠٢ﻭﺳﻂ ﺳﻌﻰ ﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﺣﺪ ﻻﺭﺗﻔﺎﻉ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻘﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻅﻬﺮﺕ ﻋﻘﺐ ﺣﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ،ﻭ ﻳﺮﺃﺱ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﻋﻴﺴﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﺪ. ﻭ ﺃﺛﺎﺭ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﻗﻠﻖ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻤﺎ ﺩﻓﻌﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻣﺎﺕ ﻷﻋﻀﺎء ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺂﻣﺮ ﺿﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ،ﻭ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻧﺪﻻﻉ ﺛﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ﻗﺮﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻓﺮﺽ ﻗﻴﻮﺩ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ "ﺣﺴﻢ" ﺣﻴﺚ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺠﻤﻠﺔ ﺍﻋﺘﻘﺎﻻﺕ ﺗﺠﺎﻩ ﺍﻻﻋﻀﺎء ﻭ ﻣﻨﻊ ٧ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﺮ ﻭ ﺗﺠﻤﻴﺪ ﺃﺭﺻﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ . ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﺻﻼﺡ :ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﺻﻼﺡ ﻫﻲ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺇﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺃﺳﺴﻬﺎ ﺳﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﻴﻪ ﻋﺎﻡ .٦٩٩١ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺪﻑ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻫﻮ ﺇﺳﻘﺎﻁ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻝ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺇﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻳﻄﺒﻖ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻳﻌﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ،ﻭ ﺗﺘﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﻓﻜﺮ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺗﺴﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻋﻲ ،ﻭ ﺗﺆﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺃﻱ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺇﺻﻼﺡ ﻓﻲ ﻅﻞ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺁﻝ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻫﻮ ﺃﻣﺮ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻴﻞ ﻭﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﻤﺎ ﺃﺛﺒﺘﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ،ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٠٠٢ﺩﻋﺖ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﻟﺘﻈﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺰﺍﻣﻦ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ "ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻢ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ " ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﻦ ٨ ﻭﺍﺟﻬﺘﻬﻢ ﻭ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ . ﺣﺰﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻻﺳﻼﻣﻲ :ﺃﺳﺲ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤٠٠٢ﻋﻠﻲ ﻳﺪ "ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻌﺮﻱ" ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺍﻧﺸﻖ ﻋﻦ ﻟﺠﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻓﺎﻉ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻗﺪ ﺃﺳﺴﻬﺎ ﻣﻊ ٩ ﺳﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﻘﻴﻪ ،ﻭﻳﻬﺪﻑ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﺇﻟﻲ ﺗﻮﺣﻴﺪ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺭﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﻼﻡ .ﻭ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻔﺘﺮﺽ ﺍﻥ ﻳﺘﻮﺍﺟﺪ ﻣﻘﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﻁﺒﻘﺎ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻭﺭﺩ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺳﻴﺴﻲ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻮﺭﺓ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺍﻻﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻭ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺡ ﺑﻮﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﺣﺰﺍﺏ ،ﻓﻴﻘﻊ ﻣﻘﺮ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ ﻓﻰ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻣﻘﺮ ﺍﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﺍﻣﻴﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﺰﺏ "ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻌﺮﻯ". ﺍﻟﺘﻴﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻹﺻﻼﺣﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ :ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻹﺻﻼﺣﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﺎﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺜﻘﻔﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺸﻄﺎء ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻳﺮﻭﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻜﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻭﺃﻥ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺁﻝ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻭﺿﺮﻭﺭﻱ ﻟﻀﻤﺎﻥ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﻁﻨﻴﺔ ،ﻭﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺗﺠﺎﻫﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﺳﺘﻮﺭﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻴﺒﺮﺍﻟﻲ ﻭﺍﻷﺻﻮﻟﻲ. ﺑﺪﺃ ﻳﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻹﺻﻼﺣﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺣﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ١٩٩١ﻭﺍﺯﺩﺍﺩ ﻧﺸﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻭﺟﻤﺎﻫﻴﺮﻳﺘﻪ ﺧﺼﻮﺻﺎً ﻣﻊ ﺑﻘﺎء ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺏ ،ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﺒﻠﻮﺭ ﻭﻳﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﺇﻻ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﺣﺪﺍﺙ ١١ﺳﺒﺘﻤﺒﺮ
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(٧٠٠٢/٤/٧) http://archive.arabic.cnn.com/٧٠٠٢/middle_east/٣/٨/shiite-saudi/ﺍﻻﺣﺗﻭﺍء ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺗﻬﻣﻳﺵ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﻌﺔ (.ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻅﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺣﻘﻭﻕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺣﺭﻳﺎﺕ) ()٠٣/١/٦١٠٢ =٣٥٤ http://www.saorf.org/?p ٨ ﻟﻺﺻﻼﺡ_ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻳﺔ_ﺍﻟﺣﺭﻛﺔ http://www.marefa.org/index.php/ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺭﻓﺔ ٩ . http://www.tajdeed.org.uk/tajdeed_constitution.htmlﻟﻠﺣﺯﺏ ﺍﻟﺗﺄﺳﻳﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻥ
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ﺗﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻭﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﺭﺋﻴﺲ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﺄﻋﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﻭ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﻭ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﺭﺍء. ﻭ ﻳﻌﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻭﻟﻴﺎً ﻟﻠﻌﻬﺪ ﻳﺨﻠﻔﻪ ﺣﺎﻝ ﻋﺪﻡ ﻗﺪﺭﺗﻪ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﻤﻬﺎﻣﻪ ،ﻭ ﻣﺆﺧﺮﺍً ﺗﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺤﺪﺍﺙ ﻣﻨﺼﺐ ﻭﻟﻰ ﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻬﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﻳﺸﻐﻞ ﻣﻨﺼﺐ ﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻬﺪ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻧﺎﻳﻒ ،ﻭ ﻳﺸﻐﻞ ﻣﻨﺼﺐ ﻭﻟﻰ ﻭﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻬﺪ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ. ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ :ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﻴﺔ : ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺃﻫﻤﻬﺎ ﺍﻻﻟﺘﺰﺍﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﺮﻳﻌﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﻼﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء .ﻭ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ٤ ﺑﺘﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺃﻭ ﻋﺰﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﺓ ﻭﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﺘﺮﺷﻴﺤﺎﺕ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﺍﻷﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﺘﻮﻟﻰ ﻣﻬﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﺓ . ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎ :ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﺮﻳﻌﻴﺔ : ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻥ ﺳﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﺮﻳﻊ ﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﻓﻲ ﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﺇﻻ ﺍﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻟﻢ ﻳﻤﻨﻊ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﻤﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﺸﻮﺭﻯ ،ﻭ ﻭﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻤﻮﻝ ﺑﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻠﻚ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﺸﻮﺭﻯ ﺃﻱ ﺳﻠﻄﺎﺕ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻴﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻤﻠﻚ ﺳﻮﻯ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺘﺮﺣﺎﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻗﺪ ﻳﻘﺒﻠﻬﺎ ﺃﻭ ﻳﺘﺠﺎﻫﻠﻬﺎ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ. ً ﻁﺒﻘﺎ ﻟﺨﺒﺮﺗﻬﻢ ﻭ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﺸﻮﺭﻯ ﻟﻠﻤﺮﺓ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ .٤٢٩١ﻳﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲ ﻣﻦ ٠٥١ﻋﻀﻮ ﻭ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻬﻢ ،ﻳﻌﻴﻨﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻭ ﻋﻤﺮﻫﻢ ﻭ ﺣﺴﺐ ﺭﺅﻳﺘﻪ .ﻳﺮﺍﻋﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭﻩ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ٪٠٢ﻣﻦ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺎء ،ﻭ ﻳﺼﺪﺭ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺷﻬﺮﻳﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﻣﺪﺓ ﺧﻠﻔﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﺼﻒ ﺍﻷﻋﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪ ،ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻢ ٥ ﺍﻹﻋﻼﻥ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪ ﻳﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ﺑﻤﻬﺎﻣﻪ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻹﻋﻼﻥ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪ . -٥ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ: ﻻ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺔ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻭﺍﺿﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺗﺨﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﺎﻡ ،ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻋﺘﺮﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ،ﻭ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﺟﻤﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻫﻰ: ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﺔ :ﻳﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﺔ ﻫﻢ ﺍﻟﺨﻄﺮ ﺍﻷﻛﺒﺮ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻴﺔ ،ﻭﻗﺪ ﺷﻬﺪﺕ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺿﻄﺮﺍﺑﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻈﺎﻫﺮﺍﺕ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ٣ﺃﻋﻮﺍﻡ .ﺣﻴﺚ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻳﻼﻗﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻣﻞ ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺃﻭﺿﺎﻋﻬﻢ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ؛ ﻭ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺚ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﺃﻭﻻ ﻓﻲ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﺩﺳﺘﻮﺭ ﻳﻀﻤﻦ ﺣﻘﻮﻕ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ ﻟﻜﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻷﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﺍﻟﺸﻮﺭﻯ ﻟﻴﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﻧﻴﺎﺑﻲ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻧﺘﺨﺎﺏ ﺃﻋﻀﺎﺋﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ،ﺍﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻷﻁﺮﺍﻑ ،ﻭ ﺍﻻﻓﺮﺍﺝ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﺠﻨﺎء ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ .ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺗﻤﻨﺢ ﺗﺮﺍﺧﻴﺺ ﺍﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﻴﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺇﻻ ﺍﻧﻬﻢ ﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻻﻥ ﻳﻮﺍﺟﻬﻮﻥ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻗﺎﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﺟﺪ ﻭ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﺍء ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻬﻢ ،ﺍﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻳﻮﺍﺟﻬﻪ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻗﺼﺎء ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻅﺎﺋﻒ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻴﺔ. ﻭﺳﻌﻰ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﻟﺘﻬﺪﺋﺔ ﺍﻻﺣﺘﺠﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻧﻈﻤﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ٠١٠٢ﻭ ﺣﺘﻰ ٣١٠٢ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ،ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺭﺟﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻭﻓﻴﻦ ﺑﻘﺒﻮﻟﻬﻢ ﻟﻸﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﺃﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻗﻄﻊ ﺍﻟﻮﻋﻮﺩ ﻟﺘﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺍﻷﻭﺿﺎﻉ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼ .ﻭﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﺍﻻﺗﻬﺎﻡ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻮﻙ ﻓﻲ ﻭﻻء ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﺔ ﻹﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﺍﺗﻬﺎﻡ ﻣﺴﺒﻖ ﻭﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﻋﻘﻴﺪﺓ ﻭ ﻗﻨﺎﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ. ٤
.pdfﻟﻠﺣﻛﻡ ٪٠٢ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ٪٠٢ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ http://shc.gov.sa/Ar/Council/NationalDecisions/ﺍﻟﻣﻣﻠﻛﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻟﻠﺣﻛﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻰ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ٥ https://www.shura.gov.sa/wps/wcm/connect/shuraarabic/internet/faqﺍﻟﺷﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺋﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺷﻭﺭﻯ ﻣﺟﻠﺱ
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ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ :ﻅﻞ ﺍﻷﻫﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﻻﺋﻬﻢ ﻷﺳﺮﺓ ﺁﻝ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻭﺗﺠﻠﻰ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺎ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺃﻫﺎﻟﻲ ﻧﺠﺪ ﺑﻨﺠﺎﺡ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻯ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻬﺮﺏ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻮﺍﺕ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﺷﺎ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻟﻘﻲ ﺗﺄﻳﻴﺪﻫﻢ ﻭ ﻟﻘﻲ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪﺓ .ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺩﺧﻮﻟﻪ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﻋﻴﺔ ﻗﺒﺾ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻯ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻭ ﺳﻠﻢ ﻟﻠﺤﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ .٠٢٨١ﻋﻘﺐ ﺍﻟﻘﺒﺾ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻯ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ،ﻓﺮ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﺗﺮﻛﻲ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺑﻦ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺃﻣﻴﺮﺍ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻭﺑﺪﺃ ﻋﺎﻡ ٢٢٨١ﺍﻟﺘﺠﻬﻴﺰ ﻹﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻋﺎﺻﻤﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺽ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻧﺠﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺩﺧﻮﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤٢٨١ﻋﻘﺐ ﺍﺳﺘﺴﻼﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﺗﺮﻛﻲ ﻗﺘﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤٣٨١ﻋﻠﻰ ﻳﺪ ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻱ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻗﺼﻴﺮﺓ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺪﻭﻡ ﺳﻮﻯ ٠٤ﻳﻮﻣﺎ ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻧﺠﺢ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﻓﻴﺼﻞ ﺑﻦ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﺗﺮﻛﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺩﺍﺩ ﺣﻜﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻩ .ﺑﻌﺪ ﻋﺎﻣﻴﻦ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻭﺟﻪ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺑﺎﺷﺎ ﺣﻤﻠﺔ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻟﻠﺤﺠﺎﺯ ﺍﻧﺴﺤﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺛﺮﻫﺎ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﻓﻴﺼﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺽ ،ﻭﺗﻢ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺧﺎﻟﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﺍﻷﺥ ﺍﻷﺻﻐﺮ ﻵﺧﺮ ﻣﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻻﻭﻟﻰ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻛﺤﺎﻛﻤﺎ ﻟﻠﺮﻳﺎﺽ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٠٤٨١ﻭﻋﻘﺐ ﻣﻌﺎﻫﺪﺓ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﺳﺤﺐ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺟﻨﻮﺩﻩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﺎﺯ ﻭﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﺧﺎﻟﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻜﻤﻪ .ﻭﻧﺠﺢ ﻓﻴﺼﻞ ﺑﻦ ﺗﺮﻛﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﺎﺩﺓ ﺣﻜﻤﻪ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٤٨١ﻭﺗﻮﻓﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٥٦٨١ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﺎﺯ ﺗﺜﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻧﺘﻬﺰ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺻﺔ ﻭﺳﻴﻄﺮﻭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻥ .ﻭﻟﻢ ﻳﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﺍﺑﻦ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﻓﻴﺼﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻤﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺯﺣﻒ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺑﻦ ﺭﺷﻴﺪ ﻗﺎﺋﺪ ﺇﻣﺎﺭﺓ ﺟﺒﻞ ﺷﻤﺮ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺋﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻧﺠﺢ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺰﻳﻤﺔ ﺟﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ ١٩٨١ﻭﺩﺧﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺽ ﻣﻌﻠﻨﺎ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ.
ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺜﺔ :ﺑﻌﺪ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺁﻝ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﺇﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻳﺖ ،ﻭﻣﻦ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺑﺪﺃ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻟﻠﻌﻮﺩﺓ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺩﻋﻢ ﺃﻫﻞ ﻧﺠﺪ ﻵﻝ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﺿﺪ ﺣﻜﻢ ﺁﻝ ﺭﺷﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻛﺎﻧﻮﺍ ﻳﻤﻴﻠﻮﻥ ﻟﻠﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺑﻘﻮﺓ .ﻭﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٢٠٩١ﺗﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﺑﻦ ﻓﻴﺼﻞ ﺁﻝ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺽ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺩﺓ ﺑﺄﺳﺮﺗﻪ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﻟﻜﻲ ﻳﺒﺪﺃ ﺻﻔﺤﺔ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻔﺤﺎﺕ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ .ﻭ ﻳﻌﺪ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﺙ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺨﻲ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﺗﺤﻮﻝ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﺍ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻴﺎﻡ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﺳﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺣﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﺗﻤﻜﻨﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻮﺣﻴﺪ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺃﺟﺰﺍء ﺷﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ .ﻭﻓﻲ ٩١ﻣﻦ ﺷﻬﺮ ﺳﺒﺘﻤﺒﺮ ﻋﺎﻡ ٢٣٩١ﻡ ﺻﺪﺭ ﺃﻣﺮ ﻣﻠﻜﻲ ﺃﻋﻠﻦ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺗﻮﺣﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ ﻭ ﺗﺴﻤﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ( ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ) ﺍﺑﺘﺪﺍء ﻣﻦ ﻳﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺨﻤﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻓﻖ ٣٢ﺳﺒﺘﻤﺒﺮ .٢٣٩١ ﻭﻣﻨﺬ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻷﻥ ﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺣﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ٧ﻣﻠﻮﻙ ،ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﺎﻡ ٢٠٩١ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٣٥٩١ﻭﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺃﺑﻨﻪ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣٥٩١ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥٦٩١ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻨﺎﺯﻝ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻷﺧﻴﻪ ﻓﻴﺼﻞ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺗﺪﻫﻮﺭ ﺣﺎﻟﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻮﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ .٩٦٩١ﻭﻅﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻓﻴﺼﻞ ﺣﺎﻛﻤﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥٦٩١ ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥٧٩١ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻢ ﺍﻏﺘﻴﺎﻟﻪ ،ﻭﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺧﺎﻟﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥٧٩١ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٢٨٩١ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻓﻬﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﺎﻡ ٢٨٩١ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٥٠٠٢ﻭﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺎﻡ ٣ ٥٠٠٢ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٥١٠٢ﻋﻘﺐ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻚ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻣﻨﺬ ﻋﺎﻡ ٥١٠٢ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ . -٤ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ : ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺛﻼﺙ ﺳﻠﻄﺎﺕ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ : ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬﻳﺔ -ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔــ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﺋﻴﺔ - ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﺮﻳﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻭﻻً :ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬﻳﺔ : ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻣﻠﻛﺔ ﻧﺷﺄﺓ https://www.momra.gov.sa/About/KSA.PDF
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ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻁﻖ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺗﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺮﻣﺔ ،ﻭﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﻀﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ %٦٣٫١٥ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﻒ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ %٧٨٫٦٢ﻭﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﺪﻭ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ %.٧٧٫١٢ﻳﻌﺘﻨﻖ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﻣﻮﺍﻁﻨﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ ؛ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﻣﺘﺒﻌﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﻫﺐ ٢ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻲ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ %٠٩: %٥٨ﻣﻦ ﺇﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻨﻴﻦ ،ﻭﻳﺘﺒﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﻫﺐ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﻲ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ . %٥١ : %٠١ -٢ﺍﻷﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ : ﺗﺒﺮﺯ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﻭﺭ؛ ً ﺃﻭﻻ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﺍً ﻟﺤﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺗﻤﺘﻠﻜﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻣﻨﺤﻬﺎ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﻣﻨﺤﻬﺎ ﺃﻳﻀﺎً ﻗﻮﺓ ﻣﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺿﺨﻤﺔ ،ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎً ﺑﺎﺗﺖ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻤﺎ ﺗﻤﻠﻜﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻔﻂ ﻭ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻣﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﻋﺐ ﺍﻷﻫﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺗﻘﻮﺩ ﺗﺤﺎﻟﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺗﺴﺎﻫﻢ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ،ﺛﺎﻟﺜﺎً ﺗﻤﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺩﻳﻨﻴﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﻠﻤﻴﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﻜﻌﺒﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺰﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺘﻢ ﻓﺮﻳﻀﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺞ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺮﺓ ﻣﺎ ﻣﻨﺤﻬﺎ ﻗﻮﺓ ﻭ ﻧﻔﻮﺫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺗﺨﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ ،ﻛﻤﺎ ﻭﺿﻌﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻮﺫ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻨﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ً ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪﺍ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺜﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺼﺮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﺋﻔﻲ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻌﺔ. ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺁﻳﺮﺍﻥ ﻭ -٣ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ: ﺍﺯﺩﻫﺮﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻀﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺨﻴﺔ ﻟﻌﻞ ﺃﺑﺮﺯﻫﺎ ﺣﻀﺎﺭﺓ ﺛﻤﻮﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﺯﺩﻫﺮﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻼﺩﻱ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻡ ،ﻭﻣﻊ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻡ ﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﺍ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻴﺎ ﻭﺩﻳﻨﻴﺎ ﻟﺠﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﻠﻤﻴﻦ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺦ. ﺃﻝ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ :ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﺇﻟﻲ ﻗﺒﻴﻠﺔ (ﺣﻨﻴﻔﺔ ﺑﻦ ﻟﺠﻴﻢ) ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻌﻮﺩ ﻧﺴﺒﻬﺎ ﻷﺣﺪ ﻗﺒﺎﺋﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍء ﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻗﺒﻴﻠﺔ "ﺑﻜﺮ ﺑﻦ ﻭﺍﺋﻞ" ﻭ ﺃ -ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻳﻨﺴﺐ ﺁﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﻜﻨﺖ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍء ﻗﺪﻳﻤﺎ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺻﺮ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﻄﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺳﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺃﺳﻢ ﺁﻝ ﻣﻘﺮﻥ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺇﻟﻲ ﻣﻘﺮﻥ ﺑﻦ ﻣﺮﺧﺎﻥ ﺟﺪ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﻣﺆﺳﺲ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ،ﻭﻳﻌﻮﺩ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻷﺳﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺇﻟﻲ ٠٠٢ﻋﺎﻡ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻡ. ﺏ -ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ: ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ :ﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﻹﻣﺎﻡ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ "ﺇﻣﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﻋﻴﺔ" ﻓﻲ ٧٢٧١ﻡ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﻘﺘﻞ ﺃﻣﻴﺮﻫﺎ ﺯﻳﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻣﺮﺧﺎﻥ ﺑﻦ ﻭﻁﺒﺎﻥ ،ﻭ ﺃﺳﺲ ﺇﻣﺎﺭﺓ ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﺍ ﻻﻧﻄﻼﻗﺔ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ .ﻭﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٤٤٧١ﺑﺎﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﺦ "ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻮﻫﺎﺏ" ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﺃﻣﻴﺮﺍً ﻋﻠﻰ "ﺍﻟﺪﺭﻋﻴﺔ" ﺷﺮﻁ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻳﻌﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺣﻴﺪ ،ﻭ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺮ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﺇﻣﺎﻣﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﻠﻤﻴﻦ ﻭﻳﺨﻠﻔﻪ ﺫﺭﻳﺘﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﺪﻩ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﻋﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﻋﻴﺔ .ﻟﻔﺖ ﻅﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻭ ﺍﺯﺩﻫﺎﺭﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺍﺗﺴﺎﻉ ﻧﻔﻮﺫﻫﺎ ﻭ ﻗﻮﺗﻬﺎ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻓﻘﺮﺭﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻓﺎﺗﺠﻬﺖ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻭﺍﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﺮ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺎﺷﺎ ،ﻭﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ١١٨١ﺣﺪﺙ ﺃﻭﻝ ﻟﻘﺎء ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﺍﻟﺬﻯ ﺗﻮﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻢ ﻋﺎﻡ ،٤١٨١ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻴﺶ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺮﻱ ﺑﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻁﻮﺳﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﺷﺎ ﻭﺗﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﺼﺮ ،ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ٨١٨١ﺣﺎﺻﺮ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﺷﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﻋﻴﺔ ،ﻭ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﺭﻙ ﻫﺰﻣﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻙ ﺁﺛﻴﺮﺓ ،ﻭ ﺍﺳﺘﺴﻠﻢ ﺍﻹﻣﺎﻡ ﻋﺒﺪﷲ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻌﻮﺩ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺣﺼﺎﺭ ﺷﺪﻳﺪ ﺩﺍﻡ ﺳﺘﺔ ﺃﺷﻬﺮ ،ﻭ ﺑﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ.
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( .ﺍﻟﻣﻣﻠﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺣﻘﺎﺋﻖ ﻭ ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻡ ،ﺍﻟﻁﺑﻌﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ :ﻫﻳﺋﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺟﻳﻭﻟﻭﺟﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ (٤١؛٨٢ _pdf ١٠٠ http://www.sgs.org.sa/Arabic/News/SGSNews/Documents/SGS.
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الممﻠكة الﻌرﺑية السﻌودية ...
ً ﺃﻭﻻ ﻧﺒﺬﺓ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ :
ﺍﻟﻣﺻﺩﺭ :ﺧﺭﺍﺋﻁ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻡ
-١ﺍﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ ﻭ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻋﺎﻡ: ﺗﻘﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺑﺠﻨﻮﺏ ﻏﺮﺏ ﻗﺎﺭﺓ ﺁﺳﻴﺎ ،ﻭ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺷﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺒﻠﻎ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺘﻬﺎ ٠٠٠٫٠٥٢٫٢ﻛﻴﻠﻮﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ .ﻳﺤﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺭﺩﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻮﻳﺖ ،ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻳﺤﺪﻫﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ﻭﻋﺪﺓ ﺩﻭﻝ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﻦ ﻭﻗﻄﺮ ﻭﺍﻹﻣﺎﺭﺍﺕ ،ﻳﺄﺗﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻨﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺳﻠﻄﻨﺔ ﻋﻤﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻴﻤﻦ ،ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺗﻄﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺮ ﻭﺧﻠﻴﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻔﺼﻠﻬﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻮﺩﺍﻥ ﻭﺇﺭﻳﺘﺮﻳﺎ .ﻳﺒﻠﻎ ﻁﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺣﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ٠٠٨٣ﻛﻴﻠﻮﻣﺘﺮ؛ ﻣﻨﻪ ٠٠٦٢ﻛﻴﻠﻮﻣﺘﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺮ ﻭﺧﻠﻴﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺒﺔ ،ﻭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ٠٠٢١ﻛﻴﻠﻮﻣﺘﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ. ﺗﺘﺄﻟﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺏ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻬﻮﻝ ﺿﻴﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺎﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺮ ﻭﻫﻲ ﺳﻬﻮﻝ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﺴﻬﻮﻝ "ﺗﻬﺎﻣﺔ" ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﻠﻎ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺘﻬﺎ ٠٠١١ﻛﻴﻠﻮﻣﺘﺮ ،ﻭﺑﺠﻮﺍﺭﻫﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﺳﻼﺳﻞ ﺟﺒﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﻤﺘﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻁﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺩ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺟﺒﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﺎﺯ ﻭﻋﺴﻴﺮ ،ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻂ ﺗﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﺣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﺮﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ %٠٩ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ؛ ﺃﻛﺒﺮﻫﺎ ﺻﺤﺮﺍء ﺍﻟﻨﻔﻮﺫ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ ،ﻭﺍﻟﺮﺑﻊ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﻮﺏ .ﺃﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻕ ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﻁﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺣﻞ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﺒﻠﻎ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺘﻪ ٠١٦ﻛﻴﻠﻮﻣﺘﺮ ﻓﺘﻤﺘﺪ ﺳﻬﻮﻝ ﺳﺎﺣﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﺳﻌﺔ. ﺗﻨﻘﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﺔ ﺇﻟﻲ ٣١ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻷﺧﻴﺮ؛ ﻭﺗﻨﻘﺴﻢ ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻁﻖ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﻳﺔ ﺇﻟﻲ ﻣﺤﺎﻓﻈﺎﺕ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ٤٣١ﻣﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﻭﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻁﻖ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﻳﺔ ﻫﻲ (ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺽ – ﻣﻜﺔ -ﺍﻟﻤﺪﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻮﺭﺓ – ﺍﻟﻘﺼﻴﻢ – ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻴﺔ – ﻋﺴﻴﺮ – ﺗﺒﻮﻙ – ﺣﺎﺋﻞ – ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ – ﺟﺎﺯﺍﻥ – ﻧﺠﺮﺍﻥ – ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺔ – ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻑ) ﻭﺗﻀﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ٥٨٢١ﺟﺰﻳﺮﺓ؛ ﻣﻨﻬﻢ ٠٥١١ ﺟﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺤﺮ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺮ ﻭﺧﻠﻴﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺒﺔ ،ﻭ ٥٣١ﺟﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ .ﻳﺒﻠﻎ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺳﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ٤٫١٢ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﻁﻨﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﻴﻦ ،ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻳﻌﻴﺶ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ٨ﻣﻠﻴﻮﻥ ﻧﺴﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﻴﻦ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻳﻴﻦ .ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻛﺴﺘﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺠﻢ ﺍﻷﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺴﺘﺤﻮﺫ ﻋﻠﻲ %٧٢ﻣﻦ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ،ﻭ ﺗﺤﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺮﻳﺔ ً ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺎ ﺑﻨﺴﺒﺔ %٤١ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﻴﻦ ١ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ .ﺗﺒﻠﻎ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﻮﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻮﺩﻱ ،%٩٫٠٥ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻹﻧﺎﺙ %.١٫٩٤ﺗﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﺻﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺽ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ١
٢/٦ ،/http://www.argaam.com/ar/article/articledetail/id/٥١٠٢٧٧٨٩٦٣ﻣﺻﺭﻳﺔ ٤١%ﺑﺎﻛﺳﺗﺎﻧﻳﺔ ٧٢%ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ٥٩ﺗﺷﻣﻝ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﺎﻟﺔ ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻡ
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) :السﻌودية الﻌرﺑية الممﻠكة( الﻔﻬرﺱ ............................................................................................ ٢الممﻠكة ﻋن ﻋامة نﺑﺫﺓ : أوﻻ ......................................................................................... ٢ﻋﺎﻡ ﺗﻌﺭﻳﻑ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻗﻊ........................................................................................... ٣ﺍﻻﺳﺗﺭﺍﺗﻳﺟﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻫﻣﻳﺔ................................................................................................... ٣ﺍﻟﻣﻣﻠﻛﺔ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ........................................................................................... ٥ﺍﻟﻣﻣﻠﻛﺔ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻟﺣﻛﻡ ﻧﻅﺎﻡ........................................................................................... ٥ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ................................................................................... ٧النﻔط و السﻌودﻱ اﻻﻗﺗﺻاد :ﺛانيا .................................................................................. ٨الدولية السﻌودية الﻌﻼﻗاﺕ :ﺛالﺛا ............................................................................... ٨ﺍﻻﻣﺭﻳﻛﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ.................................................................................. ٩ﺍﻟﺻﻳﻧﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ............................................................... ..................٠١ﺍﻟﺭﻭﺳﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ................................................... .............................١١ﺍﻻﻳﺭﺍﻧﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻌﻭﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ..................... .....................................٢١المﺗحدﺓ الوﻻياﺕ و الممﻠكة ﻋﻼﻗاﺕ فى الﺗوﺗر :راﺑﻌا )............................................................... ٢١ﺟﺎﺳﺗﺎ( ﺍﻻﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﺭﻋﺎﺓ ﺿﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺍﻟﺔ ﻗﺎﻧﻭﻥ.................................................................. ٣١ﺍﻻﻗﺗﺻﺎﺩﻱ ﺍﻟﺻﺭﺍﻉ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺻﺧﺭﻱ ﺍﻟﻧﻔﻁ.............................................................. ٦١ﻟﻭﺯﺍﻥ ﺍﺗﻔﺎﻗﻳﺔ ﺗﻭﺍﺑﻊ ﻭ ﺍﻳﺭﺍﻥ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺗﻭﺗﺭﺍﺕ............................................................................ ٧١ﺍﻟﺻﻳﻥ ﻭ ﺭﻭﺳﻳﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺗﻘﺎﺭﺏ)…...................................................... ٩١ﺩﺍﻋﺵ( ﺍﻟﺷﺎﻡ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺍﻕ ﻓﻰ ﺍﻻﺳﻼﻣﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﺔ................................................................... ٠٢ﺍﻟﻳﻣﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺣﺭﺏ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺣﺯﻡ ﻋﺎﺻﻔﺔ................................................................. ١٢الممﻠكة فﻲ اﻻنسان حﻘوق أوﺿاﻉ :ﺧامسا سادسا :مسﺗﻘﺑﻝ الﻌﻼﻗاﺕ اﻻمريكية السﻌودية و الﺧياراﺕ المطروحة٣٢...................................
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ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻠﺠﻨﺔ ﻟﺟﻧﺔ ﺷﺋﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺷﺭﻕ ﺍﻷﺩﻧﻲ ﻭﺟﻧﻭﺏ ﻭﻭﺳﻁ ﺁﺳﻳﺎ ﻫﻲ ﻟﺟﻧﺔ ﻓﺭﻋﻳﺔ ﻣﻧﺑﺛﻘﺔ ﻋﻥ ﻟﺟﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺭﺟﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺟﻠﺱ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﻭﺥ ﺍﻷﻣﺭﻳﻛﻲ ﺣﻳﺙ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺅﻭﻟﺔ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻰ ﺗﺭﺑﻁ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺣﺩﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺑﻠﺩﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﺍﻗﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻧﻁﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺟﻐﺭﺍﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺗﻰ ﺗﺷﻣﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﻠﺟﻧﺔ ﺣﻳﺙ ﻳﺷﻣﻝ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﻧﻁﺎﻕ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺷﺭﻕ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﻁ ﻭﻭﺳﻁ ﻭﺟﻧﻭﺏ ﺁﺳﻳﺎ. ﺑﺩﺃﺕ ﻟﺟﻧﺔ ﺷﺋﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺷﺭﻕ ﺍﺃﻟﺩﻧﻰ ﻭﻭﺳﻁ ﻭﺟﻧﻭﺏ ﺁﺳﻳﺎ ﻋﻣﻠﻬﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺑﺩﺍﻳﺔ ﺇﻧﺷﺎء ﻧﻣﻭﺫﺝ ﻣﺣﺎﻛﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﻭﻧﺟﺭﺱ ﺍﺃﻟﻣﺭﻳﻛﻲ ﻋﺎﻡ ١٠٠٢ﻧﻅﺭﺍ ﻷﻫﻣﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﺃﻭﻻً ﻭﺿﺭﻭﺭﺓ ﻭﺟﻭﺩ ﻟﺟﻧﺔ ﺗﺗﺣﺩﺙ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ،ﺛﺎﻧﻳﺎ. ﻛﺎﻥ ﻻﻧﺷﺎء ﻫﺫﺓ ﺍﻟﻠﺟﻧﺔ ﺃﻫﻣﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺔ ﻣﻥ ﻗﺑﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﻳﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻧﻣﻭﺫﺝ ﺣﻳﺙ ﺗﻧﺎﻗﺵ ﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﻫﻰ ﺍﻷﻫﻡ ﺣﺎﻟﻳﺎً ﺑﺎﻟﻧﺳﺑﺔ ﻟﻠﺳﻳﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺭﺟﻳﺔ ﺍﺍﻟﻣﺭﻳﻛﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﻯ ﺍﻷﻣﺭﻳﻛﻰ ،ﻛﻣﺎ ﺳﺎﻫﻣﺕ ﻫﺫﺓ ﺍﻟﻠﺟﻧﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻝ ﺍﻟﻧﻣﻭﺫﺝ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺭﺑﻁ ﺷﺭﻳﺣﺔ ﻛﺑﻳﺭﺓ ﻣﻥ ﺃﻋﺿﺎﺋﻬﺎ ﺑﺛﻘﺎﻓﺗﻬﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ﻭﻟﻐﺗﻬﻡ ﺍﻷﻡ ﻭ ﻫﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﻰ ﺗﻌﺗﺑﺭ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺳﻣﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺟﻧﺔ. ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻧﺎﻗﺷﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻠﺟﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻳﻭﻡ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻫﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺎﻁﻖ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺷﺗﻌﻝ ﺑﺎﻟﺻﺭﺍﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻌﺗﺑﺭ ﻣﺻﺩﺭﺍ ﻣﻬﻣﺎ ﻭﺩﺍﻓﻌﺎً ً ﻗﻭﻳﺎ ﻟﻣﻧﺎﻗﺷﺗﻬﺎ. ﻓﺎﻻﺭﻫﺎﺏ ﻭﻅﻬﻭﺭ ﺟﻣﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺇﺭﻫﺎﺑﻳﺔ ﺟﺩﻳﺩﺓ ﻣﻧﻅﻣﺔ ﺗﻌﺗﺑﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺃﻫﻡ ﺍﻷﺣﺩﺍﺙ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻭﺍﺟﻬﻬﺎ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻳﻭﻡ ،ﻓُﺳﺑﻝ ﻣﻭﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺗﻠﻙ ﺍﻟﺟﻣﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺣﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ،ﺑﺎﻻﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺻﺭﺍﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻛﺑﺭﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﻭﻅﻬﻭﺭ ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻳﻡ ﺳﻳﺎﺳﻳﺔ ﺟﺩﻳﺩﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺳﺎﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻟﻳﺔ ﺣﻳﺙ ﺍﻟﺗﻧﺎﻓﺱ ﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻐﺭﺑﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﺩﻭﻝ ﻣﻧﻁﻘﺔ ﺷﺋﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺷﺭﻕ ﺍﻷﺩﻧﻰ ﻭﻭﺳﻁ ﻭﺟﻧﻭﺏ ﺁﺳﻳﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﺍﻟﻘﺗﺻﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻌﺗﺑﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺩﺍﺧﻝ ﺍﻟﺣﻳﻭﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺗﺄﺛﻳﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻝ. ً ﺃﻫﺩﺍﻓﺎ ﻣﻬﻣﺔ ﻹﺧﺗﻳﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﺍﺿﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺎﺳﺑﺔ ﻟﻣﻧﺎﻗﺷﺗﻬﺎ ,ﻓﺎﻹﺳﺗﻔﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻘﺩﻡ ﻣﻥ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻛﻝ ﻋﺎﻡ ﺗﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﻠﺟﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﺍﺿﻳﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻌﺭﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺻﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺻﺭﺍﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺍﺋﺭﺓ ﻭﺣﻠﻭﻟﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺷﻛﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻭﺍﺟﻬﻬﺎ ﻣﻧﻁﻘﺗﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﺟﻧﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻣﻥ ﺃﻫﻡ ﺍﺍﻟﻬﺩﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻳﺳﻌﻰ ﻓﺭﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﺎﺿﺭﻳﻥ ﺗﻘﺩﻳﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺷﻛﻝ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻣﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺏ.
Secretariats’ team: Chairman: Mohamed Rasheed Vice Chairlady: Radwa Moataz Ranking Member: Amr Eid Party Consultant: Farida Wagdy Leadership:
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Ranking Member
Chairman
Tim Kaine
Jim Risch
The 16th Model of American Congress
Congressional Research Service Report PLVS VLTRA