MAC 2012 Background paper by MACani Magazine

Model American Congress 2012 Chains broken ... Challenges awoken

Table of Contents Preamble........................................................................................................................4 Rules of Procedures......................................................................................................5 Committee on Foreign Relations...............................................................................11 Venezuela..................................................................................................................18 Libya.........................................................................................................................38 Sudan .......................................................................................................................52 Committee on Finance...............................................................................................71 The Debt crisis...........................................................................................................77 Brazil.....................................................................................................................106 Committee on Judiciary...............................................................................................4 Criminal Justice......................................................................................................132 Death Penalty..........................................................................................................153 Euthanasia ..............................................................................................................170 Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental affairs.............................191 Homegrown Terrorism ...........................................................................................195 Weapons of Mass Destruction................................................................................220 Committee on Near East South Asian Affairs........................................................239 Syria .......................................................................................................................242 India........................................................................................................................267

Preamble This document represents the culmination of the work of the Academic Committee and the Organizing Committee throughout the year. For eleven years Model American Congress has sought to provide Egyptian students with the necessary professional and life skills demanded by the job market, and has established itself as a leading student activity with its sustained success and For the members of the Academic and Organizing Committee, MACâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;12 represented a threshold for a new decade, hopefully one of continued success and prosperity for the model. When talking about the model this year, is necessary to say that we are indebted to everyone who has worked to sustain and preserve the modelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s outstanding status as one of the most successful student simulation activities in Cairo University. In the end, the culmination of our work is directed towards empowering Egyptian youth to be the game-changers of the future, and to work towards a better Egypt, for all. This is dedicated to every Egyptian hero, big or small, who has sought to live a life of dignity, and or may have died for it. To you, all of us are forever indebted.

Model American Congressâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;12 Rules of Procedures

Section I: Parliamentary Authority -These rules shall be the official rules of the Model American Congress (MAC), - MAC Rules of order Revised, may be used for purposes of definition, but in cases of conflict, these by-laws shall take precedence, - No one may amend these by-laws except the members of the committee.

Section II: Senate members and officers First, the duties of the chairman/lady of each committee shall be: - T o declare the opening and closing of each committee meeting, - To recognize all the speakers, - To decide all points of order, - To put questions to a vote and announce the results, - To preserve order and decorum and to clear the floor of any disorderly persons. Second, the duties of the Vice-Chair shall be: - To chair the committee during the chairman/lady absence or when the latter yields the floor to, - To read all bills and amendments, - To assist in counting of the votes, - To make sure that there is a quorum present at all times during which business is being transacted. Third, the duties of the Ranking Member shall be: - To advise the Chairman/lady in the decision of any parliamentary questions, - To Direct the Academic flow of the debate,

- To act as source of all academic materials that needed by the senators during the congressional meetings. - To make sure that the committee bills are issued according to all technical and legal specifications. Fourth, the duties of the Party Consultant shall be: - To arrange each and every party factions and wings, - To work on the formulation of the party statement, - To assist the Ranking Member in providing the Academic materials, - To act as source of party and senators stances. Fifth, the duties of the Senators shall be: - To Work on the discussed committee topics, as well issuing a bill on the discussed topics to be taken to the senate floor, - To assist the Chairman/lady in maintaining order and decorum. Sixth, the duties of the Lobbyists shall be: - To provide the senators with the academic materials and any technical or legal support, - To work on the discussed committee topics, - To lobby for or against the committee bills in the other committees and in the floor, - To assist the Chairman/lady in maintaining order and decorum. NOTE: the Chairman/lady may vote when it is necessary to break a tie, to complete a 2/3 vote, to make a quorum, or in any case where his/her vote would change the results, at which time he may vote if he/she chooses.

Section III: Standing Committees - The committee Chairman/lady shall assign the senators prior to the opining of the Model American Congress Conference, - There shall be one Chairman/lady and 20 senators for each committee, - The Committee on the Rules shall consist of the Model American Congress President, President Pro-tempore and the Chairmen/ladies of the 5 Committees. Other senators may be arbitrarily admitted.

Section IV: Agenda and Order of Business - The Agenda of the Senate Floor and each of the standing committees shall be drawn up in advance of the opening of the respective sessions. - The Vice-chair shall see that each member of the chamber has received a copy of the agenda. - Bills not on the agenda may only be introduced by a motion to suspend the rules. - Bills passed in the committee should be forwarded to the Committee on Rules, Where they will be placed on the agenda of the Senate Floor. - In Committee, the sponsor of the bill may make any changes on his/her bill by arranging them with the Ranking Member before the markup session.

Section V: Rules of Order The following are some motions, which shall be used in Senate. If two motions are on the floor simultaneously, the higher numbered one shall take precedence.. ACCLAMATION A bill may be passed by acclamation only before debate has begun. The acclamation preserves the preliminary bill before amendments are passed, and it requires a simple majority vote. "I'd like to move to an acclamation voting procedure on the presented bill".

OBJECT TO CONSIDERATION (only on the floor) This motion, if passed, has the effect of canceling the effect of the bill. It is used only if the body feels that the bill being discussed is frivolous, irrelevant, not within the body’s jurisdiction, or clearly unconstitutional. It must be done before debate on the bill has begun. It requires a 2/3 vote to pass “I object to consideration of this question, having…. " TO DIVIDE A MOTION If a delegate calls for a division of a motion, it means he/she wants the bill to be voted on separately from its amendments. 2/3 majority is required to divide a motion, it can be raise though in case we have an acclamation motion pre-discussing the bill. "I call for the division of the committee" (And its asked for a vote by actual count to verify a voice vote for the bill without amendments) PREVIOUS QUESTION This ends debate prematurely and brings the assembly to an immediate vote on the main motion. It requires a 2/3 vote to pass “I move the previous question, to…" SUSPEND THE RULES This motion suspends the rules of the chamber involved for a definite purpose, for a specified time. It requires a 2/3 vote to pass. “I move we suspend the rules and consider the chairs authority" POINT OF ORDER If a breach of parliamentary procedure occurs, a senator may bring it to the attention of the chair. The punishment of the offender shall be at the discretion of the chair, as well it can be used to raise a motion for a caucus, mark up session or holding a congressional hearings and in that cas4e it always begins with “I move that….”. "I'd like to raise a motion to move to a… "Or “I appeal the chair’s decision" or “I move we postpone this meeting until"….

POINT OF PERSONAL PRIVLEGE A delegate may rise to appoint of privilege if there is a question concerning the rights of a member or the entire assembly. It can call for the reading of pertinent Bill, the opening of a window … etc. "Point of personal privilege" TO RECESS/ADJOURN A senator may, at his/her discretion call for a recess/adjourn of any meeting. It requires a majority vote to pass. “I move that we recess until….” or “I move that we adjourn” Note: All motions require a 2/3 majority to pass except the recess, adjourn & acclamation both requires a simple majority to pass. Only the point of personal privilege can be raised while a senator has a floor.

SECTION VI: Voting - All voting on the main motion shall consist of a show of hands of the ayes and nays but this is done only if there is a marked uncertainty as to the result of the vote. No division shall be allowed if any new motion has been made since the vote has been taken. - The majority vote as well as the 2/3 vote shall consist of the number of senators present and voting. - All motions and points shall be out of order once the vote has begun. Abstentions shall not be counted where its only allowed in case of the amendments and the bill voting. - All motions require a 2/3 majority to pass except the recess, adjourn & acclamation both requires a simple majority to pass. - In case of having a miss-vote a re-voting procedure is taken by the chair, by which a voice vote for the motion is taken as in the case of the divided motion. - Abstentions aren't allowed in case of a motion vote

SECTION VII: Debate Flow The Congressional Committee meetings: <chairman/lady> the Committee will come to order. We are meeting today to consider our congressional agenda the "….", the "….", and the "…." <Opening statements by chairman and RM> <chairman/lady> "thanks to the gentleman or the gentle lady" pointing to the ranking member, a quorum(10) being present, the committee will now proceed the consideration of the declared agenda for that congressional meeting, and now the floor will be yield to the vice-chair to have the roll call, senators attending should reply as present

<Chairman/lady> the honorable senator…of….. Is recognized for two minutes <chairman/lady>other members may submit opening statements comments for the record <chairman/lady>honorable senators wishing to speak should raise their placards high and keep them high…. <Chairman/lady> the honorable senator…of….. is recognized for two minutes <chairman/lady> "thanks to the gentleman or the gentle lady" and so on <Senator> point of order <chairman/lady> honorable….of……what's your point <senator>I'll move that we go to a hearing session for…minutes <chairman/lady> honorable senator that’s in order, the question is on agreeing to the motion offered by the gentleman. to…. Those in favor say "aye" <pause> those opposed say "no" <pause> (if only no or ayes are heard then the voting had a consensus result whether yes or no while in case of nays and ayes are heard then a raising hands motion takes place) <chairman/lady> In the opinion of the chair, the ayes [nays] have it and the motion is [is not] agreed to

The Mark up Session: <chairman/lady> the Committee will come to order. We are meeting today to consider S.111 the"…..bill title…..", a bill to….. <Clarifying stmt by the ranking member> <chairman/lady>A quorum (10) being present, the committee will now proceed the consideration of S111 the "…..bill title….", I'll now call up the S111. The ranking member will report the bill. <RM begins to read the bill> <Chairman/lady> (interrupt reading) the bill was circulated in advance. Without objection, the first reading of the bill is dispensed with. <if objection is heard, a senator or the RM should raise "move to dispense with the reading> <chairman/lady> Are there any amendments to the present bill? <if any member called ayes> <chairman/lady> now the floor will be opened for 10 minutes for having amendments, the ranking member will record the amendments. <chairman/lady> the time for recording S111 amendments has elapsed, the honorable …of…….amendment calls for… <After finishing reading the amendment if the member raised "reserve a point of order" at this time then he would be recognized for 1 minute> <chairman/lady> the gentleman/lady is recognized for 1minute in the support of the amendment <Member explains the amendment> <chairman/lady> the time of the gentleman/lady has expired, since there is no further discussion, the question is on agreeing to the amendment offered by the gentleman/lady. Those in favor say "aye"<pause>, those opposed say "no" <pause>

(if only no or ayes are heard then the voting had a consensus result whether yes or no while in case of nays and ayes are heard then a raising hands motion takes place) <chairman/lady> In the opinion of the chair, the ayes [nays] have it and the amendment is [is not] agreed to. And so on the amendments are discussed & voted to………… <chairman/lady> hearing no further amendments, the question now occurs on the adoption of the bill as amended. All those in favor say "aye"<pause> all those opposed say "no"<pause> In the opinion of the chair, the Ayes have it and adoption of the bill as amended is agreed to. (if only no or ayes are heard then the voting had a consensus result whether yes or no while in case of nays and ayes are heard then a voice recorded voting takes place) <Chairman/lady> I now move the bill as amended be forwarded favorably to the senate floor. All those in favor say "aye" <pause> all those opposed say "no" <pause> in the opinion of the chair, the Ayes have it and the motion is agreed to. <Possible request for a voice recorded vote> <Chairman> without objection, the motion is to reconsider is laid on the table, and staff is authorized to make any technical and conforming changes. There being no further business, without objection, the committee stands adjourned.

SECTION VIII: The Floor - The committee on rules will set the floor agenda a day before the floor - The floor of MAC will involve the 100 senator as speakers, while the secretariats and the lobbyists are not recognized. However, the lobbyists conduct their task informally. - The bills pass throughout the floor to the white house with a simple majority of 50+1 - All the committee rules & motions are in order in addition to putting the object to consideration. The Filibuster: - In recent practice, a unanimous consent agreement has sometimes included the provision that would require a 60-vote (Three-fifths of the present and voting senators) majority threshold to be met for amendments or legislations to be considered agreed to, rather than the ordinary simple majority required. These amendments may be of a controversial nature with the potential of causing a Filibuster, a 60-vote required majority.  Honorable President/ President Pro-Tempore, I would like to move to a filibuster on the presented bill…. “In the opinion of the president, the filibuster is adopted on the presented bill...”

MAC Committee on Foreign Relations Congressional Research Service Report

Prepared by:

Chairman: Mahmoud Nabil Vice-Chairlady: Maha Sameh Ranking Member: Ahmed el Shiekh Party Consultant: Asmaa Tohamy

Model American Congress 11

COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN RELATIONS ……..We exceed expectations

“The purpose of foreign policy is not to provide an outlet for our own sentiments of hope or indignation; it is to shape real events in a real world.” John F. Kennedy “International incidents should not govern foreign policy, but foreign policy, incidents” 12

Napoleon Bonaparte

This is dedicaTed To; The 25 th Jan Martyrs, the revolutionary Youth, and all Justice Seekersâ&#x20AC;Ś Also to our EX MAC-ians, our High board, our fellow Secretariats of MAC'12, our delegates of CFR'12 , and all the coming generations of MACâ&#x20AC;Ś

With all the sincerity and best wishes,

Secretariats of the Committee on Foreign Relations

Mahmoud Nabil Maha Sameh Ahmed el Shiekh Asmaa Tohamy 13

About the Committee on Foreign Relations:Committee on Foreign Relations is considered one of the most important committees in the US Senate. The committee was created in 1816 and since then it played a significant role in important events that contributed for the creation the American political history and the American foreign policy like the purchase of Alaska, the establishment of UN … etc. The committee enjoys a broad extent of jurisdiction that covers vital issues like: foreign assistance and loans; diplomatic service; international law as relates to foreign policy; declaration of wars; maritime, environmental, and scientific affairs as relates to foreign policy; US foreign relations in general; international aspects of nuclear energy… and others. The committee is also divided into seven vital subcommittees due to the importance and complexity of the work in the committee. These subcommittees are: the subcommittee on 1)Western Hemisphere, Peace Corps and Global Narcotics Affairs; 2)Near Eastern and South and Central Asian Affairs; 3)African Affairs; 4) East Asian and Pacific Affairs; 5)International Operations and Organizations, Democracy, Human Rights, and Global Women’s Issues; 6)European Affairs; 7)International Development and Foreign Assistance, Economic Affairs, and International Environmental Protection. In Model American congress, the committee on foreign relations is also considered as one of the most important and permanent committees in MAC since the launching of the model. Each and every year we discuss a lot of influential topics that is related to the US foreign policy, hence affecting the whole world. 14

Table of content: First: Venezuela ... a threat in America's backyard:  Introduction about the historic relations with Latin America 1- Monroe Doctrine  Venezuela as a threat: 1- History of Venezuela 2- Political turmoil 3- Period of democratic rule 4- Economy of Venezuela  Chavez into power 1- Brief ouster 2- Venezuelan political system  Us Venezuelan relations 1- During Bush administration 2- During Obama administration 3- Us funding to democracy projects 4- Oil issues  Venezuelan foreign relations 1- China : 2- Iran 3- Syria 4- Libya  History of tensions between Venezuela and Colombia 1- Venezuela's military purchases 2- Venezuela's activities in Latin America  Major concerns in Venezuela 1- Human rights concerns 2- 2012 presidential elections 3- State sponsor of terrorism list  Prospects for the US Venezuelan relations 15

Second: Sudan ...”an era of stability or a new round of conflicts??!!!”  Introduction 1) History of Sudan 2) Brief description for The region of Sudan  Disturbances 1) South Sudan a) First Civil war b) Second Civil War c) Peace, Referendum and independence d) Abiey Conflict 2) Darfur  US-Sudanese relations 1) Before separation 2) After Separation a) US-North relations b) US-South relations  The Sudanese Foreign relations 1) North Sudan Foreign Relations 2) South Sudan Foreign relations  Prospects for the future 1) Relations between North & South 2) Relations Between North & South and USA

Third: US-Libyan Relations….Post-Qaddafi Libya; “Stable country VS graves and arms!” 16

 introduction: 1-Demographics & Tribal System 2-Brief history of Libya before Gaddafi

 Pre-Revolution:

Gaddafi's Rule (including Political, Economic, and social status)

 Revolution: 1-course of the revolution and international responses 2- the NTC 3- armed civilians and human rights violations by Gaddafi's Forces & the NTC

 Post Revolution: -------1- the transitional period 2- surfacing conflicts between revolution comrades

 chemical weapons in Libya : 1- chemical non proliferation treaty 2- Libyan stocks

 US-Libyan relations: 1- history of the relations and strategic importance of Libya for the US 2- the status quo of the relations

 Prospects For the Libyan Revolution  Prospects for the US-Libyan Relation

Venezuela ... a threat in America's backyard 17

The term "America's Backyard" started in reference to Central and South America. "America's Backyard" is about the United States' traditional area of dominance and major sphere of influence, which was Central and South America for a long time. With Latin America in near proximity to the US, the neighboring continent has been labeled as “America’s Backyard.” 1

US historic America:

relations

with

Latin

During the early 19th century, many Spanish colonies in Latin America were trying to take advantage of the failing Spanish empire and were trying to gain their independence from Spain. However, during the early 1820s, Spain was on the verge of restoration. The United States and Great Britain did not want Spain to gain any power back in Latin America because they wanted those colonies to become independent. The term "America's backyard" was then coined during this time as a reference to Latin America. The United States supported the Spanish colonies' independence because they wanted Spain and other European countries to be out of the Western Hemisphere, or in other words, out of "America's Backyard".

Monroe doctrine: The Monroe Doctrine is a policy of the United States that was introduced on December 2, 1823. It stated that further efforts by Europe and other countries to colonize land or interfere with states in the Americas would be viewed as acts of aggression requiring U.S. intervention (however, the wording referred to the entire 1 Diplomacy & Statecraft Volume 11, Issue 1, 2000, america's backyard

Western Hemisphere, which actually includes parts of Europe and Africa). The doctrine was introduced by President Monroe when he was enraged at the actions being executed around him. 2 The United States has been interested in developing its relations with Latin America over the course of history to increase its political and economical influence over this region. In attempts to further economic development, the US government has exercised many strategies towards Latin America, especially over the past half century, including the Alliance for Progress, which was initiated by U.S. President John F. Kennedy in 1961 aimed to establish economic cooperation between the U.S. and South America. President Obama said that the United States has sometimes taken Latin America for granted, but that he sees the region as an increasingly important player on the world stage. He called Latin America "a region on the move, proud of its progress, and ready to assume a greater role in world affairs," and he described the U.S. economy as deeply entwined with that of Latin America. "Latin America is only going to become more important to the United States, especially to our economy," the president said "Trade between the United States and Latin America has surged. We buy more of their goods and products than any other country, and we invest more in this region than any other countryâ&#x20AC;Ś. In other words, when Latin America is more prosperous, the United States is more prosperous." 3

Venezuela ... the threat: Columbus discovered Venezuela in 1498. Venezuela is located on the northern coast of South America and is about the size of Texas and Oklahoma combined. Venezuela is among the most highly urbanized countries in Latin America. With a population of approximately 25 million, Venezuela consists of the following ethnic groups: Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Arab, German, and African. The religious makeup is Roman Catholic 96%, Protestant 2%, and other 2%. The official language is Spanish but the citizens speak other numerous indigenous dialects. The total population literacy rate of age 15 and over that can read and write is 93.4%. The cosmopolitan capital city is Caracas, of which a quarter of the residents are immigrants or descendants from Europe, Arabia, and Africa.

2 Rodrigue Tremblay (2004). The New American Empire (pp 133-134)

3 3-Peter Nicholas, " Latin America increasingly important to the U.S", Los Anglos Times, March 22, 2011, found on this link: http://articles.latimes.com/2011/mar/22/world/la-fg-obama-chile20110322

History of Venezuela: Spain's colonization of mainland Venezuela started in 1522. The newcomers faced fierce resistance from the indigenous population, but they were ultimately suppressed as the European settlers finally toke-over Venezuela. Spain's eastern Venezuelan settlements were incorporated into New Andalusia Province. Administered by the Royal Audience of Santo Domingo from the early 16th century, most of Venezuela became part of the Viceroyalty of new Granada in the early 18th century, and was then reorganized as an autonomous Captaincy General starting in 1776. The town of Caracas, founded in the central coastal region in 1567, was well-placed to become a key location, being near the coastal port of La Guairá whilst itself being located in a valley in a mountain range, providing defensive strength against pirates and more fertile and healthy climate.

Venezuela went into a fierce war for independence at the early 19th century period going through several attempts to separate itself from the falling Spanish monarchy. Yet sovereignty was attained definitively after Simon Bolivar aided by José Antonio Páez and Antonio José de Sucre, won the Battle of Carabobo on 24 June 1821. José Prudencio Padilla and Rafael Urdaneta's victory in the Battle of Lake Maracaibo on 24 July 1823 helped seal Venezuelan independence. New Granada's congress gave Bolívar control of the Grenadian army; leading it, he liberated several countries and founded Gran Colombia.4 Venezuela remained part of Gran Colombia until 1830, when a rebellion led by Páez allowed the proclamation of a newly independent Venezuela; Páez became the first president of the new republic. Between one- fourth and one-third of Venezuela's population was lost during these two decades of warfare (including 4 Important info about Venezuela, embassy of people's power and Foreign Affairs, found on this link: http://venezuela-us.org/historia/

perhaps one-half of the white population), which by 1830 was estimated at about 800,000. The colors of the Venezuelan flag are yellow, blue and red, in that order: the yellow stands for land wealth, the blue for the sea that separates Venezuela from Spain, and the red for the bloodshed by the heroes of independence.

Political turmoil: Venezuela entered a period of political turmoil after independence in which it was dominated by authoritarian regimes that witnessed continues coups and governmental changes and even civil wars. This culminated in the Federal War (1859–1863), a civil war in which hundreds of thousands died, in a country with a population of not much more than a million people. The countries discovery of oil in 1911 only led to more corruption as corruption thrived, but at the same time, the new source of income helped centralize the Venezuelan state and develop its power. The discovery of oil would prove pivotal to the Venezuelan republic as it will later transform the Venezuelan economy from being dependant on agriculture to being dependant on oil and its prices. The GDP of the Venezuela was the highest in Latin America in 1935.5 Venezuelans yet fought for political freedom and democratic rule to try to over through the consecutive dictator regimes and after a failed coup attempt in 1945 and then in 1952 a failed elections to try to put the country on the right political tract, a democratic regime was born in 1958 when The military dictator Perez Jimenez was forced out on 23 January 1958.

Period of democratic rule: By the end of 1959, the Venezuelan people again responded to free elections to elect a new president. The electoral campaign was marked by an intense debate that divided the political actors into who supported a moderate reform program and who wanted a program of revolutionary and deep transformations. Moderates approved a political pact for the government that excluded the remaining political factions. This pact, known as the Pact of Punto Fijo, was used to create Venezuela’s “representative democracy” that limited governance to two principal political parties, Democratic Action (AD) and the Christian Democratic Party (COPEI).

5 The Transition to Democratic Rule in Venezuela, US library of congress, found on this link: http://countrystudies.us/venezuela/5.html

Under the pact, different government from both parties alternated power. Among them were: Romulo Betancourt (1959-1964); Raúl Leoni (1964-1969); Rafael Caldera (1969-1974); Carlos Andrés Pérez (1974-1979); Luis Herrera Campins (1879-1984); Jaime Lusinchi, (1984-1989); Carlos Andrés Perez (1989-1993); and Rafael Caldera (1994-1999). As a result of this political pact, extensive social sectors and political parties remained excluded from the new system. The Communist Party of Venezuela (CPV) and the Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MRL) were banned and persecuted. Between 1960 to 1973, the different representative governments had to face guerrilla movements and discontented military groups who had taken arms due to the sectarianism practiced by the economic and political elite. These old political wounds added to the growing deterioration of the economic situation of the country during the 1980s and led to a social explosion on February 27, 1989, known as the “Caracazo.” Additionally, in 1992 the government of Carlos Andres Perez had to face two military rebellions of young officials who were unhappy with all the rampant corruption and the neoliberal economic policies that kept the majority of the country in poverty.

Economy of Venezuela: With an estimated 211 million barrels of proven oil reserves, (the largest in the hemisphere, up from previously reported 99 billion in proven reserves), Venezuela’s major economic sector is petroleum, which accounts for 90% of exports, more than 30% of its gross domestic product, and half of the government’s fiscal income. The country is classified by the World Bank as an upper middle income developing country because of its relatively high per capita income of $10,150 (2009). Despite Venezuela’s oil wealth, economic conditions in the country deteriorated in the 1990s. The percentage of Venezuelans living in poverty (income of less than $2 a day) increased from 32.2% to 48.5% of the population between 1991 and 2000. High levels of inflation, averaging 30% in 2008, 27% in 2009, and 28% in 2010, have also eroded purchasing power. For several years, Venezuela has had the highest rate of inflation in the region. In addition to inflation, there have been periodic shortages of basic food staples because of price controls that have stifled local production. The government’s response to shortages has been to nationalize some domestic agricultural producers or distributors. The government has threatened to nationalize Polar, the country’s largest food manufacturing company, but has not done so to date. Venezuela’s GDP is 17% dependant on manufacturing. The manufacturing sector continues to increase dramatically in spite of private under-investment. Venezuela manufactures and exports steel, aluminum, transport equipment, textiles,

apparel, beverages, and foodstuffs. It produces cement, tires, paper, fertilizer, and assembles cars both for domestic and export markets.

Chavez into power:

After spending about two years in jail, Hugo Chavez, the popular leader of the military rebellion of February 4, 1992, was nominated as the candidate of a coalition of the progressive forces of the country in the 1998 elections. The phrase Chavez had used after being arrested for his role in the rebellion — he indicated that they had failed, “For now” — remain marked in the collective subconscious of Venezuelans. In a country burdened by corruption and a democracy of elites — where nobody wanted to assume responsibility for failures in governance — this gesture would not be easily forgotten. With a program of transforming government and calling a constituent assembly to rewrite the country’s constitution, Chavez won the presidency with an overwhelming majority in spite of not having the endorsement of the traditional political parties.

Brief ouster: During the early years of President Chavez’s presidency, new laws and reforms were promoted, among them ones that sought to direct more oil resources to social programs and diminish the number of large land holdings in the country. These changes threatened many vested interests and led to a coup attempt in April 2002 and a sabotage of the oil industry in late 2002 and early 2003. The coup of April 11, 2002 was launched against President Chavez with the support of members of the opposition, the privately held media and sectors of the armed forces. Though President Chavez was briefly taken from power, his public supporters and members of the armed forces seeking to uphold and defend the constitution returned him to power on April 13.

A few months later, the defeated opposition movement tried to sabotage the state petroleum industry, PDVSA. In alliance with the then-managers of the business, the opposition organized a mass layoff that paralyzed the industry and greatly affected the economy. Nevertheless, the government managed to recover the petroleum industry.

Venezuelan political system: When Hugo Chavez was first elected as the President of Venezuela, he initiated a reform so as to bring about a radical change which would enhance the social, economic and political development of the country. The current constitution was drafted on 1999 by and passed by a popular referendum, with 70% saying yes, replacing the earlier constitution which was made in 1961. Subsequently, the name was changed from "República de Venezuela" to "República Bolivariana de Venezuela". This recent constitutional changes emphasize on human rights, development of free education and upholding the inherent Venezuelan traditions, cultures and beliefs. The political system of Venezuela is divided into three groups as Executive, Legislative and Judicial branches. The executive branch of the government is presided over by the President, who also looks into the appointment of higher posts like the Vice-President, members of the Cabinet and important other members of the National Assembly. He is also the decision maker regarding the size and arrangement of the ministers in the cabinet.

United states-Venezuelan relations: The United States traditionally has had close relations with Venezuela, the fourth major supplier of foreign oil to the United States, but there has been significant friction with the Chávez government. Tensions in relations turned especially sour in the aftermath of President Chávez’s brief ouster from power in April 2002. Venezuela alleged U.S. involvement in the ouster, while U.S. officials repeatedly rejected charges that the United States was involved.

Bush Administration: The relationship between the two countries contained huge restraints due to the allegations of assassination attempts by the US against chavez. Soaring oil prices in the beginning of the chavez era due to chavez movements with other OPEC countries proved provocative to the bush administration. Administration officials voiced increasing concern about President Chávez in 2005, and tensions increased in U.S.-Venezuelan relations, with elevated rhetoric on both sides. In both March and September 2005, State Department officials testified to

Congress that President Chávez’s “efforts to concentrate power at home, his suspect relationship with destabilizing forces in the region, and his plans for arms purchases are causes of major concern.” And most of the time Chavez was insulting George W. Bush, conleeza Rice and other American officials saying "The imperialist, genocidal, fascist attitude of the U.S. president has no limits. I think Hitler would be like a suckling baby next to George W. Bush," "you are a donkey, Mr. Danger. You are a donkey, Mr. George W Bush." 6

Obama administration: During the U.S. presidential campaign, Barack Obama maintained that his Administration would use principled bilateral diplomacy to engage with such adversaries in the region as Venezuela under populist President Hugo Chavez. In response to written questions during her confirmation hearing for Secretary of State before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in mid-January 2009, Senator Hillary Clinton characterized President Chavez as a “democratically elected leader who does not govern democratically.” She maintained that while the United States should be concerned about Chavez’s actions and posture, “we should not exaggerate the threat he poses.” Clinton asserted that the United States “should have a positive agenda for the hemisphere in response to the fear-mongering propagated by Chavez and [Bolivian President] Evo Morales.” She maintained that the Administration believes that bilateral cooperation with Venezuela on a range of issues (like counterterrorism, counternarcotics, energy, and commerce) would be in the mutual interests of Venezuela and the United States. Clinton maintained that “it remains to be seen whether there is any tangible sign that Venezuela actually wants an improved relationship with the United States.”

U.S. Funding for Democracy Projects: The United States has funded democracy-related projects in Venezuela for a number of years through a variety of programs funded by the State Department, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), and the National Endowment for Democracy (NED) USAID, through its Office of Transition Initiatives, has funded democracy projects in Venezuela since 2002, with the goals of strengthening democratic institutions, promoting space for dialogue, and encouraging citizens’ participation in democratic processes. Transitions Initiatives (TI) funding reached its highest year in

6 6- Thomas George, quoting from Hugo Chavez Quotes on liberalism, found on this link: http://www.boycottliberalism.com/Hugo-Chavez-Quotes.htm

FY2005 about $5. According to USAID, the funding supports projects implemented by five U.S. organizations.7 The State Department has supported democracy projects in Venezuela largely through Economic Support Funds (ESF), but also recently through Development Assistance (DA) funding.

Oil issues: The relations between two countries extended to have oil relations with each others, as Venezuela is an establishing member of the OPEC organization. It is the 4th biggest provider of oil to the United States of America, exporting 11.5% of the total American imports of oil. Venezuela’s oil exports to the U.S. are 68% of total Venezuelan’s oil exports, showing clear dependency from Venezuela on the American market. In 2007, Venezuela’s total exports destined for the United States amounted to $39.9 billion, with oil products accounting for almost 96% of the total. The December 2002 strike orchestrated by the opposition reduced Venezuela’s oil exports, but by May 2003, Venezuelan officials maintained that overall oil production returned to the pre-strike level. Venezuela’s state-run oil company, PDVSA, owns CITGO, which operates three crude oil refineries and a network of some 14,000 retail gasoline stations in the United States. Despite notable frictions in bilateral relations, Venezuela continues to be a major supplier of oil to the United States. On numerous occasions, however, Chavez has threatened to stop selling oil to the United States. In February 2006, he asserted that the “U.S. government should know that, if it crosses the line, it will not get Venezuelan oil.” In April 2006, he warned that his government would blow up its oil fields if the United States ever were to attack. In November 2006 (amid Venezuela’s presidential election campaign), President Chavez asserted that "Venezuela would not send one more drop of oil to the U.S.” if the United States or its “lackeys” in Venezuela try a “new coup,” fail to recognize the elections, or try to overthrow the oil industry." Venezuela’s Ambassador to the United States asserted in July 2006 that oilcutoff comments by Venezuelan officials, including President Chávez, only reflect what would be Venezuela’s response against aggression initiated by the U.S. government. Once again in February 2008, President Chávez once again threatened to stop oil exports to the United States, this time if ExxonMobil was successful in freezing billions in Venezuela oil assets in a dispute over compensation for its Orinoco oil investments. Because of these comments, however, some observers have raised questions about the security of Venezuela as a major supplier of foreign oil. 7 congressional research service, Venezuela: political conditions and US policy

There are also concerns that Venezuela is looking to develop China as a replacement market, although Venezuelan officials maintain that they are only attempting to diversify Venezuelaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s oil markets. In June 2006, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) issued a report, on the issue of potential Venezuelan oil supply disruption. The GAO report concluded that a sudden loss of all or most Venezuelan oil from the world market could raise world prices up to $11 per barrel and decrease U.S. gross domestic product by about $23 billion. It also concluded that if Venezuela does not maintain or expand its current level of oil production, then the world oil market may become even tighter than it is now, putting pressures on both the level and volatility of energy prices.

Venezuelan Foreign Relations: First of all Venezuela is trying most of the time to develop its relations with US enemies like China, Iran, Libya and Syria.

China: If we could build an imaginary bridge between the two countries, to highlight the most important aspects and facts of the bilateral relations in these 34 years, the period which began in 1999 and corresponds to the Venezuelan Bolivarian government, would have a significant relevance in the design as a whole, due to the rapid and solid growth and diversification of the current bilateral relations. It is not a coincidence that the strengthening of the relations with China came under the government of President Hugo Chavez. The incessant barrage of threats and counter-threats hurtling between Washington and Caracas is the background, sometimes the foreground, of Sino-Venezuelan relations.8 Simply put, if U.S. ties to Venezuela were friendly, Beijing would have little to do in this oil-rich state that exports 60 percent of its output to its northern neighbor. Yet, Washington has been suspicious of Hugo Chavez since his election as president during the Clinton administration and relations have nosedived under the presidency of George W. Bush. . Meanwhile, Chavez insists that the U.S. plans to invade Venezuela and uses his enormous oil slush fund to press for Latin independence from Washington. Enter China, searching for oil. Chavez always wanted to grasp Beijing concerns and he has repeatedly tried to pull China in his side in disputes with Washington, For example, he has condemned Washingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s refusal to supply spare parts for Venezuelaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aging F-16s and for blocking his efforts to purchase aircraft from Spain and Brazil on the grounds of U.S.8 Bian Ji, " Venezuela, China: 34 years of diplomatic relations" , China daily, Updated: 2008-0705, found on this link: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2008-07/05/content_6821807.htm

licensed components used by the Spanish and Brazilian companies , and he said that he will buy [the planes] from China [or] Russia and after that he said “We could easily sell [our] oil to real friends and allies like China, India or Europe” In mid-2005 the Chinese ambassador in Caracas tried to put a brake on Chavez’s rhetoric in a long interview (El Universal, August 28 and 29, 2005). He understood Venezuela’s wish to diversify its clients, but added that “the natural markets for Venezuelan oil are North and South America.” He conceded that China was cooperating with the Venezuelan government in the expectation of securing access to some of the oil for itself.9

Agreements between Venezuela and China In 2005 Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez and Chinese Vice President Zeng Qinghong signed 19 agreements concerning oil, agriculture and technology, including 5 agreements with the President of the Chinese National Petroleum Corporation. Chavez pledged that each agreement will turn into a thousand things and he promised that not even one of the 19 agreements would remain just on paper but instead all come to reality Bi-lateral cooperation between China and Venezuela has been in the works for some time now. In late December, 2004, Chavez visited China, where he further strengthened relations with Chinese President Hu Jintao. Caracas and Beijing agreed to invest in joint ventures in oil and gas exploration in Venezuela. Relations between "China and Venezuela are in better conditions than ever," noted Chavez, adding that "now [the relations] go from the subsoil, where there is petroleum and gas, to the stratosphere, where we are going to put a satellite." For quite some time Venezuela has been looking to foster new trade relations, in particular with China and Russia, in order to break dependency on the United States. The South American nation is currently the world's fifth largest producer of petroleum. It supplies the United States with 13% of its oil, making it the closest major supplier.10

Economy In 2010, exchanges and cooperation between the People's Republic of China and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela made positive progress and their strategic 9

William Ratliff, " Pragmatism over Ideology: China’s Relations with Venezuela" , China Brief ,Volume# 6 , found on this link: http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news %5D=3936&tx_ttnews%5BbackPi %5D=196&no_cache=1

10 Sarah Wagner, "Venezuela and China Sign 19 Cooperation Agreements", Venezuela analysis, Jan 31st 2005, found on this link: http://venezuelanalysis.com/news/908

partnership of common development deepened. And according to the financing agreements between the two countries, China had agreed to extend $20 billion in loans to Venezuela pointing to deepening ties between the two countries as China seeks to secure oil supplies here. The linchpin of the loans appears to be China’s thirst for oil, with the China National Petroleum Corporation, or C.N.P.C., agreeing to form a venture with Venezuela’s national oil company to explore for oil in southern Venezuela. Eventually the companies could produce 400,000 barrels a day in the area. 11

China is a transit point in spreading Nuclear Programs: Venezuela is a major oil producer and has no nuclear power plants; however in October 2009 the government signed an agreement with a Russian company to build one. Yet on the 13 of March 2011 these plans were put on hold. China is sure that it can't get into direct war against US because this would be the end of the world. That's why they sell nuclear knowledge to developing countries and promise them of protecting them with VITO right in the UN, in exchange for sharing in natural resources (especially oil) and being an open market for china or getting loans from China as proof of its own power. This scenario is so close to Venezuelan case. After electing Chavez in 1998, he created good relations with China and made oil extraction contracts with Chinese companies. He also got loans from Chinese national banks. All of that is topped by the statement of Chavez that China is to lend his country 20 billion dollars in 2010.

Iran: Both of them were thinking of creating a world without the dominance of one single power. Iran is backing Venezuela's bid for a seat on the UN Security Council and at the same time Mr. Ahmadi nejad was expected to lobby for his nation's nuclear program, which he insists is for peaceful purposes. And in 2006, At the Non-Aligned Movement summit in Cuba which both leaders recently attended, Mr. Chavez said he would defend Iran. He said it was "under threat" of invasion, after it ignored UN demands to suspend uranium enrichment.12

11 Simon Romero, "Chávez Says China to Lend Venezuela $20 Billion", April 18, 2010, found on this link: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/19/world/americas/19venez.html

12"Iran and Venezuela bolster ties" , BBC News, 17 September 2006, found on this link: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5354812.stm

Iran and Venezuela share an interest in maintaining the price of oil, developing Venezuela's oil-rich areas, and more importantly in rejecting U.S. dominance and interference around the world. The diplomatic ties between Iran and Venezuela go back almost 50 years and until recently amounted to little more than the routine exchange of diplomats. With the election of Iranian President Mahmud Ahmadinejad in 2005, the relationship dramatically changed. Now is the time to develop policies in this country to ensure this partnership produces no poisonous fruit. Signs of the evolving partnership began to emerge in 2006, when Venezuela joined Cuba and Syria as the only nations to vote against a U.N. Atomic Energy Agency resolution to report Iran to the Security Council over its failures to abide U.N. sanctions to curtail its nuclear program. A year later, during a visit by Mr. Chavez to Tehran, the two nations declared an "axis of unity" against the U.S. Iranian investments in Venezuela have been rising. The two countries have signed various Memoranda of Understanding on technology development, cooperation on banking and finance, and oil and gas exploration and refining. In April 2008, the two countries also signed a Memorandum of Understanding pledging full military support and cooperation. United Press International reported in August that Iranian military advisers have been embedded with Venezuelan troops. 13

Nuclear co-operation: Venezuela and Bolivia are supplying Iran with uranium for its nuclear program, according to a secret Israeli government report obtained by the associated press. The two South American countries are known to have close ties with Iran, but this is the first allegation that they are involved in the development of Iran's nuclear program, considered a strategic threat by Israel. "There are reports that Venezuela supplies Iran with uranium for its nuclear program," the Foreign Ministry document states, referring to previous Israeli intelligence conclusions. It added, "Bolivia also supplies uranium to Iran." The report concludes that Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez is trying to undermine the United States by supporting Iran.14

13 Robert M. Morgenthau, "The Emerging Axis of Iran and Venezuela" , September 8, 2009, found on this link:http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203440104574400792835972018.html

"Israel: Venezuela, Bolivia Supplying Iran With Uranium for Nuclear Program" , Fox News, May 25, 2009, found on this link:http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,521731,00.html

Venezuela and Bolivia are close allies, and both regimes have a history of opposing U.S. foreign policy and Israeli actions. Venezuela expelled the Israeli ambassador during Israel's offensive in Gaza two years ago, and Israel retaliated by expelling the Venezuelan envoy. Bolivia cut ties with Israel over the offensive.

Syria: Basically Syria and Venezuela are in very good relations with each other, Venezuela has been supporting Syria and its President Bashar el Assad. In 2006 President Hugo Chavez visited Damascus and said that his government is united with Syria in strong opposition to the U.S. government's "imperialistic" aggression in the Middle East.15 Chavez has built close ties with Iran, Syria and other Mideast countries while his relations have grown tense with the U.S. and Israel. So it's known that Syria-Venezuela relations became closer after Hugo Chavez was elected president in 1998, as part of his anti-American policy, Chavez tightened relations with countries such as Syria , Libya and Iran." That's why during the Syrian revolution President Hugo Chavez lent his support to embattled Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad, blasting what he called attempts by western powers to oust him by force. He criticized the “imperial madness” of the international community which, according to him, seeks to attack Syria under the pretext of defending its people. He said “They’re starting to say: ‘Let’s see if we sanction the government, we’re going to freeze their assets, we’ll blockade them, throw bombs on them, in order to defend the people.’16 So he thought that what basher el Assad has been doing there is just to defend his country from those terrorist groups, so he called the Syrian protestors as "terrorists". Early in 2012, Venezuelan state owned oil firm PDVSA confirmed supplying diesel to the Syrian government contrary to the western efforts to isolate the Assad regime. Chavez responded to the questions on the possibility of this diesel actually being used in military actions by saying “Venezuela did not question the United States about what it did with the fuel that Venezuela sold it, and that no one could dictate to Caracas. We are free. We are a free country”

15CHRISTOPHER TOOTHAKER, "Chavez Says Syria, Venezuela United" , August 30, 2006, found on this link: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/08/29/AR2006082901599.html

16 http://www.yalibnan.com/2011/04/26/venezuelas-chavez-sides-with-syrias-assad/

Libya: While concerning Libya it's known that Hugo Chavez is from the people who are supporting Kaddafi most of the time, and he is one of his allies. Also during the revolution there were media reports that suggested that Gaddafi had fled to Venezuela. And that raised questions as to why Gaddafi would choose Venezuela over any other country. The answer may be clear from the growing closeness of the bilateral relationship between Libya and Venezuela over the past decade. The extent of that relationship was apparent in the statement made by Maduro after the first binational, mixed commission between the two countries in Caracas in October 2008. Then Maduro urged that the relationship deepen beyond their mutual interest in energy (with both countries being oil producers and members of OPEC) to other areas, including finance and more social-political activity. He also condemned NATO's bombings in Libya, as well as the roles of the United States and some European nations. Saying the aim is to seize control of the country's oil wealth. Chavez has been a staunch defender of Libyan leader Moammar Gadhafi. He did not say whether he had been in contact with the Libyan leader in recent days.

History of the tensions Venezuela and Columbia:

between

Since the 20th century the relationship has evolved with ups and downs mostly regarding the Colombiaâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Venezuela maritime territory dispute over the Gulf of

Venezuela. The lowest point in the relationship occurred on August 19, 1987, after the Colombian corvette ARC trespassed into disputed waters and then President of Venezuela, Jaime Lusinchi, ordered the Venezuelan Air Force to the area. The standoff was resolved through diplomatic channels but the dispute remained. One of the main issues has been the large wave of Colombians who migrated to Venezuela in the 1970s and 1980s, working primarily in low-end jobs. Many Colombian immigrants were imprisoned in Venezuela and kept poor, faced discrimination and endured human rights violations. The Colombian armed conflict between the Colombian government and guerrilla groups has also provoked impasses between the two countries. Military illegal incursions by the two countries' military forces into each others' territory have been frequent since the conflict in Colombia escalated in the 1980s, which subsequently triggered forced displacements in Colombia and into Venezuela. Illegally armed groups also trespassed into Venezuela. Illegal products range from gasoline, drugs and weapons to stolen cars. Since 2002, the relationship between Venezuela and Colombia has fluctuated due to ideological differences that separate Presidents Hugo Chávez and Álvaro Uribe, respectively. The relationship between the two countries once again reached a low point in November 2007 after a failed effort to achieve a humanitarian exchange, causing relations to freeze. 17 In the weeks before Colombia gets a new president, tensions between current President Alvaro Uribe and Venezuela's Hugo Chavez reached a breaking point this week when Chavez cut diplomatic ties with its neighbor over renewed accusations he is coddling Colombian rebels. Colombia claims Venezuela is harboring Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) rebels, and Uribe made the accusation again at a meeting of the Organization of American States on Thursday, prompting Chavez to say he was cutting all ties with his southern neighbor. The United Nations has called for restraint and a dialogue between the two countries. The United States has voiced support for its ally Colombia. Some Colombians were hoping the incoming president Juan santos who is inaugurated Aug. 7, will help smooth things over. Santos appears more concerned about having good international relations and is more in tune with international opinion of Colombia from studying abroad and from his travels, than outgoing President Uribe, who is "much more of a local guy, much more parochial," Otis explained. 18

17 Ramirez, Socorro. "Colombia – Venezuela: construir canales de comunicación para prevenir el conflicto". Analitica.com. found on this link: http://web.archive.org/web/20071215085321/http://www.analitica.com/va/hispanica/colombia_paz/141 7173.asp.

18 Larisa Epatko, "Diplomatic Stress between Colombia and Venezuela Grows" , July 23, 2010, found on this link:http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2010/07/colombia-and-venezuela.html

"Any time there's a severance in diplomatic relations or a freezing in commercial relations, which is what's happened as well, the borders often get closed, tractor trailers line up at the borders trying to bring goods back and forth," said Otis. Trade between the two countries fell from $7 billion in 2009 to a projected $2 billion this year, he added.19 Uribe and Chavez's relationship started out well, but over the last couple of years grew testy starting with a 2008 Colombian raid into Ecuador to take out a FARC leader. Chavez showed solidarity with fellow left-wing leader in Ecuador, Rafael Correa, by sending Venezuelan troops to the Colombian border, said Otis, and the relationship further deteriorated with the allegations that FARC guerillas were camped in Venezuela. Both Chavez and Uribe appeared to be using the spat for their own purposes. Chavez blamed Colombia for problems inside Venezuela and said Colombia with U.S. help will attack Venezuela. And every time Uribe complained about Chavez, his approval ratings rise. In 2009 Tensions between Venezuela and its neighbor Colombia have flared over a proposed deal in which Bogota would allow the United States to establish seven military bases on its soil. The issue has become a source of dispute in South America, and it became as Venezuela was increasing its military and nuclear cooperation with Russia. The Americans have asked for the bases to aid in the fight against drug trafficking. The Venezuelan leader, Hugo Chavez, however, said that "various friends of Colombia are worried about these bases". 20 After recalling his ambassador from Colombia, the Venezuelan leader on announced punitive trade measures on the country, including prohibiting the import of 10,000 cars from Colombia. It also sought to substitute for Colombian imports by increasing imports from more friendly states like Argentina and Brazil.

Venezuelaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s military purchases: 19 Ibid19

Michael Hirshman, "Tensions Escalate Between Venezuela and Colombia" , August 6, 2009, found on this link:http://www.rferl.org/content/Tensions_Escalate_Between_Venezuela_And_Columbia/17940 59.html

For several years, U.S. officials have expressed concerns about Venezuela’s purchases of military equipment. In January 2006, the State Department indicated that the United States had denied licenses— required by the Arms Export Control Act—to transfer U.S. technology for use in 12 military transport planes that Spanish companies had contracted to sell to Venezuela. According to a State Department spokesman, the proposed sale could contribute to de-stabilization in Latin America. In May 2006, the State Department determined (pursuant to Section 40A of the Arms Export Control Act) that Venezuela was not fully cooperating with U.S. antiterrorism efforts, an action that triggered a prohibition on the sale or license of defense articles and services to Venezuela. Since then, the State Department made the same annual determination each year. In January 11, 2007, testimony before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, then Director of National Intelligence (DNI) John Negroponte expressed concern that the President Chavez’s military purchases and moves toward developing his own weapons production capability were increasingly worrisome to his neighbors, and could fuel an arms race in the region.

Venezuela’s Activities in Latin America: As U.S.-Venezuelan relations have deteriorated over the past several years, the Chávez government has focused its relations with Latin America and its activities in the region in part as a means of countering the United States and U.S. interests and influence in the hemisphere. DNI Michael McConnell testified in February 5, 2008 testimony before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Chavez will continue to attempt to unite Latin America under his leadership behind an anti-U.S. and radical leftist agenda, but noted that as time passes, Chávez’s leadership ambitions are likely to encounter growing opposition. Over the years, there have been concerns about President Chavez’s attempts to export his brand of populism to other Latin America countries. He has strongly supported Bolivia’s President Evo Morales, and offered assistance to help Bolivia re-write its constitution and implement radical reforms to the economy. In Peru’s 2006 presidential elections, Chávez openly supported the unsuccessful presidential candidacy of a nationalist former army colonel who had led a failed military uprising in 2000.

Major concerns in Venezuela: There are a lot of important and ongoing issues in Venezuela that really affect United States of America and thus USA tries to interfere and manage those issues in order to be sure that all concerns are going right and according to its interests.

Human rights concerns: 35

Human rights organizations and U.S. officials have expressed concerns for several years about the deterioration of democratic institutions and threats to freedom of speech and press in Venezuela under the Chavez government. The State Department’s February 2009 human rights report stated that Venezuela’s human rights situation continued to be characterized by “politicization of the judiciary,” and “official harassment of the media and of the political opposition.” 10 Some observers are concerned that Chavez is using his political strength to push toward authoritarian rule. Human Rights Watch maintains that the Chavez government dealt a severe blow to judicial independence by packing the Supreme Court with his supporters under a new law that expanded the court from 20 to 32 justices. Since 2004, according to Human Rights Watch, the packed Court has fired hundreds of provisional judges and granted to permanent judgeships to about 1,000 others.

2012 presidential elections: With the vote scheduled for Oct. 7, Hugo Chavez looks set to face the toughest presidential election of his tenure, as a recent poll has him neck-and-neck with likely challenger Henrique Capriles. Venezuelan authorities have finally announced a date for next year’s presidential elections, ending months of speculation and setting the stage for the first serious electoral challenge to President Hugo Chavez. The vote is to be held on Oct. 7, 2012, when Mr. Chavez will stand head-tohead with the winner of opposition primaries set to take place on Feb. 12.This gives the opposition a chance to campaign for their chosen candidate, most likely state governor Henrique Capriles Radonski. Mr. Capriles is the first Venezuelan politician to rival Chavez in the polls, thanks perhaps to a charisma that is on par with that of the socialist firebrand.21 There had been speculation that Chávez had ordered the election brought forward to March, in order to stifle any chance the opposition had of launching a successful campaign. Indeed, the date has been brought forward from the traditional December vote, likely for that same reason claim critics. The date may also have been chosen in order to give Chávez a full year to recover from chemotherapy, the fourth round of which he announced today. “I have faith, my recovery is going well,” he told state television. “After this chemotherapy, the last one God willing, I will undoubtedly start physical exercise.”22

Girish Gubta, "Venezuela sets date for 2012 presidential election" , September 13, 2011, found on this link:http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/Latin-AmericaMonitor/2011/0913/Venezuela-sets-date-for-2012-presidential-election

22Ibid

There could be another twist in the tale this week, as the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) announces its decision in the case of Leopoldo López, a popular former mayor. The Venezuelan government declared Mr. López “inhabilitado” – barred from standing for public office – on allegations of corruption, despite his never having been tried in court on the charges. López challenged the ban at the IACHR in 2008. Like Capriles, López is popular and does not lack charisma. The IACHR is expected to rule in his favor; though there is little hope that Chávez will overturn his government’s decision. If the president did choose to allow López to stand, however, he may be doing himself a favor. Both López and Capriles competing for the vote could split an already fragmented opposition just as Chávez ramps up his own campaign, in the wake – he hopes – of a successful recovery from cancer. Henrique Capriles Radonski, was mentioned in The U.S. Department of State 2008 Human Rights report as denial of a fair public trial. The 39-year-old governor of Venezuela's second-most populous state, Miranda, does not, however, believe in statist economics, indefinite re-election for presidents, the evils of capitalism or other central tenets of Chavez's "revolution".

State Sponsors of Terrorism List: In light of the assistance the Chavez government gave to the FARC, some observers, including some Members of Congress, had called on the Bush Administration in 2008 to designate Venezuela as a state sponsor of terrorism. Other countries currently on the state sponsors of terrorism list include Cuba, Iran, Sudan, and Syria. The Bush Administration began an initial inquiry into designating Venezuela as a state sponsor in March 2008, but did not make such a designation. In terms of economic sanctions associated with being on the terrorism list, the EAA requires a validated license for the export of goods and technology to a country if the Secretary of State determines that the government of such a country “has repeatedly provided support for acts of international terrorism” and if the export of such goods and technology could make a significant contribution to the country’s military potential or could enhance its ability to support acts of international terrorism.23 The sanctions associated with being on the terrorism list would likely have an effect on U.S.-Venezuelan economic relations. A substantial portion of U.S. exports to Venezuela, particularly for the oil sector, would likely require validated licenses for so-called dual-use exports and technology. The termination of the tax credit that 23 congressional research service , Venezuela: issues for the congress

prevents double taxation would increase the cost of U.S. companies operating in Venezuela, and could be a disincentive for some U.S. companies operating there.

Prospects of the U.S. â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Venezuelan relations: There are two major scenarios for the future of the relations between the two countries, 1st they may go to open new kind of relations between each other, as Obama may tend to have good relations with Venezuela, in order to open new diplomatic relations and start dealing with Chavez and his government, like what Hillary Clinton said before, and till the new presidential elections in Venezuela take place, as it may be for the American interests. The 2nd one is that US may cut all the relations with Venezuela and try to lessen its dependence of oil on this country, and try to replace it with another country like Libya or Sudan, and at the same time the whole world and the international community how Venezuela is violating the international laws and is supporting the terrorism, and thus it can get the right to impose sanctions and send air strikes through the military bases in Colombia.

Libya

Introduction Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west. With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometers, Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa by area, and the 17th largest in the world. The largest city, Tripoli, is home to 1.7 million of Libya's 6.4 million people. The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania, Fezzan and Cyrenaica. The first inhabitants of Libya were Berber tribes. In the 7th century B.C., Phoenicians colonized the eastern section of Libya, called Cyrenaica, and Greeks colonized the western portion, called Tripolitania. Tripolitania was for a time under Carthaginian control. It became part of the Roman Empire from 46 B.C. to A.D. 436, after which it was sacked by the Vandals. Cyrenaica belonged to the Roman Empire from the 1st century B.C. until its decline, after which it was invaded by Arab forces in 642. Beginning in the 16th century, both Tripolitania and Cyrenaica nominally became part of the Ottoman Empire. History: Tripolitania was one of the outposts for the Barbary pirates who raided Mediterranean merchant ships or required them to pay tribute. In 1801, the pasha of Tripoli raised the price of tribute, which led to the Tripolitania war with the United States. When the peace treaty was signed on June 4, 1805, U.S. ships no longer had to pay tribute to Tripoli. Following the outbreak of hostilities between Italy and Turkey in 1911, Italian troops occupied Tripoli. Libyans continued to fight the Italians until 1914, by which time Italy controlled most of the land. Italy formally united Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in 1934 as the colony of Libya. Libya was the scene of much desert fighting during World War II. After the fall of Tripoli on Jan. 23, 1943, it came under Allied administration. In 1949, the UN voted that Libya should become independent, and in 1951 it became the United Kingdom of Libya. Oil was discovered in the impoverished country in 1958 and eventually transformed its economy.24 In its foreign policy, the Kingdom of Libya was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States, of which it became a member in 1953. 24 Libyan economy info., The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed., 2007, Columbia University Press: http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107722.html?pageno=2

Foreign relations of the kingdom of Libya: The government was in close alliance with the United States and United Kingdom; both countries maintained military base rights in Libya. The U.S. supported the United Nations resolution providing for Libyan independence in 1951 and raised the status of its office at Tripoli from a consulate general to a legation. Libya opened a legation in Washington, D.C., in 1954. Both countries subsequently raised their missions to the embassy level and exchanged ambassadors. Libya and the United States signed an agreement under which the United States also obtained military base rights, subject to renewal in 1970, in return for economic aid to Libya. The most important of the United States installations in Libya was Wheelus Air Base, near Tripoli, considered a strategically valuable installation in the 1950s and early 1960s. Reservations set aside in the desert were used by British and American military aircraft based in Europe as practice firing ranges. Libya forged close ties with France, Italy, Greece, and Turkey, and established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1955, but declined a Soviet offer of economic aid.25

Pre revolution: Muammar al-Qaddafi: On Sept. 1, 1969, 27-year-old Col. Muammar al-Qaddafi deposed the king and revolutionized the country, making it a pro-Arabic, anti-Western, Islamic republic with socialist leanings. It was also rabidly anti-Israeli. A notorious firebrand, Qaddafi aligned himself with dictators, such as Uganda's Idi Amin, and fostered anti-Western terrorism.26 The Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya: The remaking of Libyan society that Qadhafi envisioned and to which he devoted his energies after the early 1970s formally began in 1973 with a so-called cultural or popular revolution. The revolution was designed to combat bureaucratic inefficiency, lack of public interest and participation in the sub national governmental system, and problems of national political coordination. In an attempt to instill revolutionary fervor into his compatriots and to involve large numbers of them in political affairs, Qadhafi urged them to challenge traditional authority and to take over and run government organs themselves. The instrument for doing this was the "people's committee." Within a few months, such committees were found all across 25 Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), "Independent Libya", U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved July 14, 2006

26 Qadhafi and the Revolutionary Command Council, library of congress country studies, 1987, found on this link: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+ly0038%29

Libya. They were functionally and geographically based and eventually became responsible for local and regional administration. In 1986 Libyan state television announced that Libya was training suicide squads to attack American and European interests. 27 Lockerbie: On Dec. 21, 1988, a Boeing 747 exploded in flight over Lockerbie, Scotland, the result of a terrorist bomb, killing all 259 people aboard and 11 on the ground. This and other acts of terrorism, including the bombing of a Berlin discotheque in 1986 and the downing of a French UTA airliner in 1989 that killed 170, turned Libya into a pariah in the eyes of the West. Two Libyan intelligence agents were indicted in the Lockerbie bombing, but Qaddafi refused to hand them over, leading to UN-approved trade and air traffic embargoes in 1992. In 1999, Libya finally surrendered the two men, who were tried in the Netherlands in 2000â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2001. One was found guilty of mass murder; the other defendant was found innocent. Libya had hoped its fainthearted cooperation would lead to suspended sanctions, which had severely affected the Libyan economy. The UN did suspend its sanctions, but they were not formally removed for another four years, not until Sept. 2003, when Libya finally admitted its guilt in the Lockerbie bombing and agreed to pay $2.7 billion to the victims' families. In 2004, Libya also agreed to compensate the families of the victims of the UTA airliner bombing ($170 million) and the Berlin disco bombing ($35 million). 28

27 Brian Lee Davis. Qaddafi, terrorism, and the origins of the U.S. attack on Libya.. p. 186. 28 John Biewen, "shadow over Lockerbie : mass murder over Scotland" , American radio works, March 2000, found on this link: http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/lockerbie/story/printable_story.html

Demographical status:

Libya has a small population residing in a large land area. Population density is about 50 persons per kmÂ˛ (80/sq. mi.) in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, but falls to less than one person per kmÂ˛ (1.6/sq. mi.) elsewhere. Ninety percent of the people live in less than 10% of the area, primarily along the coast. About 88% of the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the two largest cities, Tripoli and Benghazi. 50% of the population is estimated to be under age 15. Native Libyans are primarily of Berber and Arab heritage. Small Tuareg and Tebu tribal groups in southern Libya are nomadic or semi nomadic. Among foreign residents, the largest groups are citizens of other African nations, including North Africans (primarily Egyptians), and Sub-Saharan Africans. 29 Libya was a very poor agricultural country with bleak economic prospects until 1958, when petroleum was discovered. Much of the income from petroleum was used to improve the cities, to modernize transportation, and to build up the military. The resulting migration of Libyans to urban areas created a growth in unemployment, spurring the government to invest in agricultural development in order to make farming more attractive. Although petroleum production has dropped since the 1970s, oil exports continue to generate about 95% of export earnings and 25% of the country's GDP. Libya is also a major exporter of natural gas and has several large gas liquefication plants. In addition, gypsum, salt, and limestone are produced in significant quantities. Libya has increased industrial production in recent years. The principal manufactures are refined petroleum, liquefied natural gas, petrochemicals, iron and steel, aluminum, textiles, handicrafts, and construction materials. Food processing is also important. 30 29 Libyan demographic profile 2011, index mundi, found on this link: http://www.indexmundi.com/libya/demographics_profile.html

30 Opcit , http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0859275.html

ď&#x201A;ˇ Libyan civil war:

Following popular uprisings in neighboring Tunisia and Egypt, Libya witnessed massive peaceful protests in Benghazi starting on the 17 th of February 2011. The Qaddafi regime responded to the protests in a shocking brutality leading a huge amount of human casualties that left the international community in a state of shock for quite some time. The aggressive response of el Qaddafi led to the eventual arming of the civilians in Benghazi and the ouster of el Qaddafi forces from Benghazi and the start of the Libyan civil war.31 N.T.C: On 24 February 2011, politicians, former military officers, tribal leaders, academics and businessmen held a meeting in the eastern city of Bayda. The meeting was chaired by former justice minister Mustafa Abdul Jalil, who quit the government a few days before. The delegates discussed proposals for interim administration with many delegates asking for UN intervention in Libya. The podium at the meeting displayed the pre-Jamahiriya flag.32

31 Timeline: Libya's civil war, Gaurdian, 19 Nov. 2011, found on this link: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/nov/19/timeline-libya-civil-war

32 Discussion under way for provisional government in Libya, Maltastar News, 25 feb, 2011, found on this link: http://maltastar.com/pages/r1/ms10dart.asp?a=14356

The formation of the NTC was announced in the city of Benghazi on 27 February 2011 and its intended purpose is to act as the "political face of the revolution". On 5 March 2011, the council issued a statement in which it declared itself to be the "only legitimate body representing the people of Libya and the Libyan state".33 Structure: The National Transitional Council is a body that claims to be, and is widely recognized as, the "only legitimate body representing the people of Libya and the Libyan state". Starting off at 33 members, it has now risen to 51, with proposals to increase its size further to 75 or even 125. On 5 March 2011, a crisis committee was set up to act as the executive arm of the council. The Executive Board was dismissed on 8 August 2011 due to administrative mistakes in investigating the assassination in July of army commander General AbdelFatah Younes. A new cabinet was unveiled in early October 2011. On 23 October, Jibril resigned as Mustafa Abdul Jalil declared an end to the civil war, and Abdurrahim El-Keib succeeded him as prime minister on 31 October. The Executive board was dissolved on 22 November 2011 as per Interim constitution which states the Executive board be dissolved upon the formation of the Interim Government. International recognition: France became the first nation to recognize the National Transitional Council as the official representative government of Libya, on March 10, 2011. The United States recognized the council on July 15: “I am announcing today that, until an interim authority is in place, the United States will recognize the TNC as the legitimate governing authority for Libya, and we will deal with it on that basis,” Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said, speaking from Istanbul in Turkey.34 As of 25 November 2011, 101 UN member states and four other countries have stated they recognize the National Transitional Council as the sole legitimate representative body of Libya. On 15 July, many of these countries constituting the Libya Contact Group issued a joint statement that they consider the council to be Libya's "legitimate authority".35 33Patrick O’Connor, "The US recognizes Libya’s Transitional National Council", world socialist web site, 20 July 2011, found on this link: http://www.wsws.org/articles/2011/jul2011/pers-j20.shtml

34 Pierre Tristam, " What Is Libya's National Transitional Council?", Middle east issues, found on this link: http://middleeast.about.com/od/libya/f/Libya-National-Transitional-Council.htm

35 Ian Black, " Libyan rebels win international recognition as country's leaders", 15 July 2011, found on this link: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jul/15/libyan-rebels-internationalrecognition-leaders

United Nations NATO intervention: Following the shock of the un-foreseen Qaddafi aggressive response to the protests, and the several pleadings of both the NTC and the Arab league, the United Nations Security Council issued resolution 1973 to allow for a now fly zone over Libyan airspace in favor of protecting civilians. The no fly zone was to be implemented by the NATO on the 17th of March 2011.36 On 19 March 2011, a multi-state coalition began a military intervention in Libya to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution.37 on 19 March, military operations began, with US and British forces firing over 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles, the French Air Force and British Royal Air Force undertaking sorties across Libya and a naval blockade by the Royal Navy. Air strikes against Libyan Army tanks and vehicles by French jets were since confirmed. The official names for the interventions by the coalition members are OpĂŠration Harmattan by France; Operation Ellamy by the United Kingdom; Operation Mobile for the Canadian participation and Operation Odyssey Dawn for the United States. The NATO intervention provided air space cover for the NTC forces to proceed and re-capture coastal regions that the Qaddafi forces derived them out of, at the beginning of the war. When NATO intervened the Qaddafi forces were just a few miles out of the city of Benghazi in what would have been a crushing defeat for the opposition. On the 21 st of August rebels entered Tripoli facing little to no resistance, and el Qaddafi and his sons fled the city. Qaddafi made a radio speech to his people urging them to continue fighting. On the 16th of the next month after several diplomatic ventures by the NTC, the United Nations agreed on easing the sanctions imposed on Libya during the Qaddafi regime, including on its national oil company and central bank. The UN general assembly approves a request to accredit interim government envoys as Libya's sole representatives at the United Nations, effectively recognizing the NTC. Fighting in Libya ended in late October following the death of Muammar Gaddafi, and NATO has stated it will end operations over Libya on 31 October 2011. However, Libya's new government requested that its mission be extended to the end

36 Department of Public Information , News and Media Division, New York, Security Council 6498th Meeting (Night), 17 March 2011, found on: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2011/sc10200.doc.htm

37 "Libya: UN team to start probe of human rights abuses", BBC News Africa, 27 April, 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13202981

of the year, but on 27 October, the Security Council voted to end NATO's mandate for military action on 31 October.38 Human rights concerns: Following the outbreak of the civil war, el Qaddafi forces committed huge crimes against humanity. The UN human rights commissioner, Navi Pillay, said in late February that what was happening in Libya "may amount to crimes against humanity". There have been reports that Col Gaddafi's forces trying to retake Misrata from rebels are indiscriminately shelling the city.39 Moammar Gadhafi used foreign mercenaries from Africa who don't speak Arabic, as a private army to protect his regime and they have shown no hesitancy to fire on civilian protesters, witnesses have said. Though video reports from the country have been scarce, some videos have been posted on YouTube showing locals beating dark-skinned people they said were captured mercenaries and were blamed for shootings. Even Libya's ambassador to India confirmed the reports, telling Reuters that African mercenaries are being used to crush protests.40 NTC captives: Former Libyan rebels are still holding about 7,000 prisoners, the United Nations says. The detainees are being held without access to legal process because the police and courts are not functioning, and some may have been tortured. Many are sub-Saharan Africans suspected of being mercenaries hired by the Gaddafi regime. The UN said the new Libyan government had responded positively when pressed to deal with the issue. The BBC's Barbara Plett in New York says this was the first UN assessment of the situation in Libya since the end of the eight-month civil war.

38 Huma Khan and others, " Moammar Gadhafi's Private Mercenary Army 'Knows One Thing: To Kill'" , abc world News, Feb, 22, 2011, found on this link: http://abcnews.go.com/International/libyabenghazi-doctor-gadhafi-foreign-mercenaries-quell-protests/story?id=12972216#.TtSkeWM1LmM

39 Libya ex-rebels still hold 7,000 prisoners, says UN, BBC News, 29 November 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15932105

40 Libya ex-rebels still hold 7,000 prisoners, says UN, BBC News, 29 November 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15932105

The report, by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, estimates that 7,000 prisoners in Libya are currently held in prisons and makeshift detention centres, most under the control of revolutionary brigades.41 Al Qaddafi assassination:

Although the killing of col. Qaddafi marked the end of the civil war, and constituted the beginning of the new Libya, the circumstances of his death and the way al Qaddafi’s body was handled was internationally criticized by human rights organizations. These circumstances fired questions and doubts on whether the new Libya would respect human rights, or would it be engulfed in vendetta actions.  Death Several videos related to the death were broadcast by news channels and circulated via the internet. The first shows footage of Gaddafi alive, his face and shirt bloodied, stumbling and being dragged toward an ambulance by armed men chanting "God is great" in Arabic. The video appears to picture Gaddafi being poked or stabbed in the rear "with some kind of stick or knife" or possibly a bayonet. Another shows Gaddafi, stripped to the waist, suffering from an apparent gunshot wound to the head, and in a pool of blood, together with jubilant fighters firing automatic weapons in the air. A third video, posted on YouTube, shows fighters "hovering around his lifelesslooking body, posing for photographs and yanking his limp head up and down by the hair."42  Public display The interim Libyan authorities decided to keep his body "for a few days", NTC oil minister Ali Tarhouni said, "to make sure that everybody knows he is dead.” To 41 "Gaddafi killed in hometown, Libya eyes future" , Reuters, found on this link: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/10/20/us-libya-idUSTRE79F1FK20111020

42 "Libya's NTC orders probe into Gaddafi killing" , al Jazeera News, 24 October, 2011, found on this link: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/10/2011102413358850809.html

that end, the body was moved to an industrial freezer where members of the public were permitted to view it as confirmation. Gaddafi's body was publicly displayed in a freezer in Misrata until the afternoon of 24 October.43 Calls for investigation: Numerous organizations including the United Nations, the U.S. and UK governments have called for an investigation of the exact circumstances of Gaddafi's death, amid concerns that it may have been an extrajudicial killing and a war crime. The UN human rights office spokesperson said that he expects the UN commission already investigating potential human rights abuse in Libya would look into the case. Waheed Burshan, a member of the NTC, said that an investigation should happen. On 24 October 2011 the NTC announced that it had ordered an investigation in response to the international calls and that it would prosecute the killers if the investigation showed he died after his capture.

Chemicals Weapons in Libya Libya announced its renunciation of all weapons of mass destruction, including chemical weapons, on December 2003. Subsequently, the Libyan Government deposited its instrument of accession to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) with the United Nations on February 2004. With the help of Organization for The Prohibition of Chemicals Weapons (OPCW) in order to ban all the chemicals weapons.44 When Libya joined the Chemical Weapons Convention in 2004, it was obligated to declare all of its chemical warfare materials, and once the OPCW confirmed the declaration, to destroy the materials in their entirety, in accordance with established deadlines. 45 In October 2011 Mahmoud Jibrilthe Prime Minster of NTC declared that two sites containing chemical weapons were found in Libya including mustard gas which have been stockpile and the existence of them was never declared to OPCW, The

43 "UN calls for probe into Gaddafi's death" , al Jazeera News, 22 October, 2011, found on this link: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/10/20111021235116164421.html

44 "The Chemical Weapons Convention Enters Into Force in Libya", Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, 02 February 2004, found on this link: http://www.opcw.org/news/article/the-chemicalweapons-convention-enters-into-force-in-libya/

45 "OPCW Inspectors Return to Libya", Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons 04 November 2011, found on this link: http://www.opcw.org/news/article/opcw-inspectors-return-to-libya/

NTC security committee insists the weapons exist and are safe, but are not yet centrally controlled. 46 And that would fuel the terrorist activities especially Al Qadaa in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) , and also that would make Libya a global terrorism risk and an accessible arsenal for any potential insurgency, many such weapons have already been looted, raising fears both in Libya and among its neighbors of new violence in the months ahead.47

Us Libyan relations: Strategic importance of Libya to US: 

Libya's Oil

Yes, it's true that Libya produces only 1.6 million of the globe's 87 million barrels of oil a day. However, it produces some of the most coveted and highest quality light, sweet crude oil on the planet. Its crude is easily refined into gasoline and diesel. It is also lower in sulfur, making it cleaner to burn. Saudi Arabia is the de facto custodian of OPEC's 4.7 billion barrels a day of effective spare capacity. However, Saudi crude oil overall is not of the same quality as Libya's. Most of the country's production is classified as medium crude oil. Arab Light, the leading Saudi oil by volume, is a relatively high 1.8 per cent sulfur and heavier. This makes it more difficult to refine into light products such as diesel and other fuels.48 

Geographical location

Libya is on the coast of the Mediterranean with a close proximity to Europe. If the country loses its grip on the coastal regions it could lead to increased flow of illegal immigrants to Europe, destabilizing the region which is an economical background to the US. 

Proliferation of weapons

46 Karen Allen, "On the trail of Libya's missing missiles", BBC News, 18 November 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15781302

47 Abigail Hauslohner, "Gaddafi's Abandoned Arsenals Raise Libya's Terror Threat", Time World news, Sept. 07, 2011, found on this link: http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2092333,00.html#ixzz1ej2Kc6Nq

48 Tony D'Altorio, " Why Libya Is Important to Oil Prices" , March 5, 2011, found on this link: http://wallstreetmess.blogspot.com/2011/03/why-libya-is-important-to-oil-prices.html

To date, the worry has been that elements of al Qaeda were infiltrating the ranks of the Libyan rebel forces. But if the above intelligence is correct, the greater worry may be that Gaddafi was willing to strike back at the United States and its NATO allies by supplying weapons to terrorists. Of course, this would not be the first time that Gaddafi has employed “indirect” means to attack the United States, the most devastating example being the bombing of Pan Am 103 in 1988 that killed 270. There is also the possibility that the weapons going to AQIM are being sold by elements within Libya’s security forces because of a breakdown in control from Tripoli. In either case, weapons appear to be getting in the hands of some pretty dangerous folks. This is just another reason why the US let the military campaign against Gaddafi drag on—as the administration has—is such a problem. Common sense says that stirring up a hornets’ nest is a sure way to get stung. If you don’t want that to happen, it’s best to destroy it—and the sooner the better.49

Status quo of the relations: On July 15, 2011, the United States government announced that it had granted diplomatic recognition to the National Transitional Council as the legitimate Libyan government. It granted accreditation to Ali Aujali as the Libyan Ambassador to the United States on August 15. The United States formally supports the NTC and believes in the future of the democratic process in Libya. The United States was a major ally of the NTC during the war against Gaddafi, launching Operation Odyssey Dawn on 19 March 2011 after Susan Rice, its ambassador to the UN, successfully persuaded sceptics of the proposed Libyan no-fly zone on the United Nations Security Council to abstain from voting on the resolution rather than voting "no" or exercising veto power. The United States Air Force, Marine Corps, and Navy played an instrumental role in suppressing Libyan air defenses in late March before shifting toward a supporting role in Operation Unified Protector.50 The US took longer than other leading NTC allies to formally recognise the council as Libya's legitimate authority, but it ultimately handed over the Libyan 49 Gary Schmitt, " New Worries That Libyan Arms Flow to Al Qaeda", the American Blog, July, 1 ,2011, found on this link: http://blog.american.com/2011/07/new-worries-libyan-arms-flow-to-alqaeda/

50 Tom Vanden Brook, "U.S. warplanes taking aim at supporting role in Libya", USA today, 4 May, 2011, found on this link: http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2011-04-04-us-libya_N.htm

Embassy in Washington, D.C., to the NTC in early August 2011. Later that month, the US led an effort at the United Nations to repeal parts of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970 in order to allow unfrozen Libyan assets to be transferred to the interim government. 51

Prospects for Libyan revolution:

On October 20th, the whole world witnessed a very historical moment, which is the assassination of Muammar el Gaddhafi. With news of Muammar Gaddhafi's death, the U.S., NATO, and the Libyan National Transitional Council (NTC) deserve a moment to relish in the successes of the democratic movement in Libya. Yet it's important to understand that despite this success, the story of Libyan democracy is in its infancy. Now begins the difficult part. Can the NTC establish rule of law, democratic institutions, security, a stable economy, and a functioning government for the whole of Libya? This is traditionally the most difficult part of any revolution.52

51 Louis Charbonneau, "U.S. asks U.N. to unfreeze $1.5 billion Libyan assets" , Reuters, August 24, 2011, found on this link: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/24/us-libya-un-usaidUSTRE77N5F020110824

52 1 Matthew Wallin, "Libyan Lessons For Doomed Autocrats and U.S.", AOL defense, October 26, 2011, found on this link: http://defense.aol.com/2011/10/26/libyan-lessons-for-doomed-autocratsand-u-s/

At this point, it's wise to step back for a moment and reflect upon some of the lessons learned, and how those lessons can help guide future U.S. or NATO involvement in future scenarios of intervention. A lot of issues need to be clarified more, what are the future scenarios for them, one of them is the issue of disarming civilians, after the revolution this problem appeared as a nightmare for the Libyan future. Giving people weapons is easy, but taking them away is not. There are going to be some serious issues in disarming this heavily armed population and reducing the risk of an explosion of post-Gaddafi violence. Witnessing the excessive amounts of reckless celebratory gunfire after the fall of Tripoli shows an undisciplined, poorly-trained force of heavily armed people that are probably in no hurry to give up their new toys. What will ultimately happen in Libya is anybody's guess at this point. What can happen in Libya is subject to both the desire of the Libyan people, and the willingness of NATO and the world to assist them in this process as they see fit. While these lessons are not exhaustive, they are important to keep in mind for future conflicts, and as the current story continues to unfold. So accordingly, some people are talking about a civil war that may break out between the different tribes there; some other people are talking about a scenario of separation in Libya, because of the struggling of many countries to benefit from Libya, and because in Libya each tribe is seeking its own interest.

Prospects for the US-Libyan Relation: Many Members of Congress welcomed the announcement of Libya’s liberation and the formation of the interim government, while expressing concern about security in the country, the proliferation of weapons, and the prospects for a smooth political transition. Securing stockpiles of Libyan conventional and chemical weapons has emerged as an issue of broad congressional concern, as has ensuring that transitional authorities act in accordance with international human rights standards in pursuing justice and handling detainees. 

Imposed sanctions:

The Obama administration slapped el Kaddafi regime with severe sanctions early in March 2011, freezing in the process over 30 billion dollars of Libyan assets. After the fall of the regime, the administration sent a letter to the congress on Thursday 25th of February 2012, asking for the sanctions to be extended for another year. Obama remains adamant that remnants of Gaddafi’s family present a clear and present danger to the US. “We need to protect against this threat and the diversion of assets or other abuse by certain members of Gaddafi’s family and other former regime officials”.



Rise of Islamists:

Like citizens in other Middle Eastern societies, Libyans have grappled with questions posed by Islamist activism, state repression of Islamist groups, and violent Islamist extremism over a period of decades. Since Kaddafi’s downfall, a number of confrontations between conservative militia forces and local religious communities have centered around disputed interpretations of Islamic religious and cultural practices. To date, the leadership of the TNC has not demonstrated rhetorical or material support for Al Qaeda, the Muslim Brotherhood, or Hamas. On March 30, the TNC released a statement affirming its support for U.N. Security Council resolutions on Al Qaeda and the Taliban and U.N. conventions on terrorism. Like other political organizations and opposition groups, the Muslim Brotherhood was banned in Libya under Kaddafi. However, its membership worked clandestinely at home and remained active abroad. The group has renewed its public activity in Libya since the start of the revolution. A statement attributed to the Libyan Muslim Brotherhood in late February 2011 welcomed the formation of the TNC but called for a future, non-tribal government to “be formed by those who actually led the revolution on the ground” and to exclude supporters of the original Kaddafi coup or officials involved in human rights violations. The Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) is a U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization and Islamist movement that used violence in past attempts to overthrow Muammar al Qadhafi and his government. Some figures affiliated with the LIFG, such as current Tripoli-based militia commander Abdelhakim Belhajj, participated in this reconciliation process and have reiterated their rejection of Al Qaeda and its ideology in public interviews in 2011. Some Libya-based members of the LIFG responded to the release of leading figures on February 16 by announcing the reorganization of the group as the Libyan Islamic Movement for Change (LIMC). 

Al Qaeda in the Lands of the Islamic Maghreb (AQLIM/AQIM)

U.S. government officials and their regional counterparts remain focused on the potential for the unrest in Libya to provide opportunities to Al Qaeda’s regional affiliate, Al Qaeda in the Lands of the Islamic Maghreb (AQLIM/AQIM). Some press reports suggest that AQIM personnel have obtained weaponry from looted Libyan military stockpiles, including surface-to-air missiles. The Algerian, Malian, and Chadian governments continue to express concern about the potential for instability in Libya to weaken security along Libya’s long borders, which could allow AQIM operatives and criminal networks that provide services to AQIM to move more freely. While the Libya-based leaders of the LIFG participated in reconciliation with Kaddafi’s government while in prison and renounced violence as a domestic political tool, some of their supporters are reported to have sent Libyans abroad to participate in insurgencies and terrorism

Sudan â&#x20AC;¦ era of stability, or a new round of conflict

History of Sudan: Sudan geographically is one of the largest countries in Africa. Records of man inhabitation of Sudan go back to at least 7 thousand years ago. The country measures about one fourth of the United States total area. What is now northern Sudan was in ancient times the kingdom of Nubia, which came under Egyptian rule after 2600 B.C. An Egyptian and Nubian civilization called Kush flourished until A.D. 350. Missionaries converted the region to Christianity in the 6th century, but an influx of Muslim Arabs, who had already conquered Egypt, eventually controlled the area and replaced Christianity with Islam. During the 1500s a people called the Funj conquered much of Sudan, and several other black African groups settled in the south, including the Dinka, Shilluk, Nuer, and Azande. Egyptians again conquered Sudan in 1874, and after Britain occupied Egypt in 1882, it took over Sudan in 1898, ruling the country in conjunction with Egypt. It was known as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan between 1898 and 1955. The 20th century saw the growth of Sudanese nationalism, and in 1953 Egypt and Britain granted Sudan self-government. Independence was proclaimed on Jan. 1, 1956. Since independence, Sudan has been ruled by a series of unstable parliamentary governments and military regimes. Under Maj. Gen. Gaafar Mohamed Nimeiri, Sudan instituted fundamentalist Islamic law in 1983. This exacerbated the rift between the Arab north, the seat of the government, and the black African animists and Christians in the south. Differences in language, religion, ethnicity, and political power erupted in an unending civil war between government forces, strongly influenced by the National Islamic Front (NIF) and the southern rebels, whose most influential faction is the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA). Human rights violations, religious persecution, and allegations that Sudan had been a safe haven for terrorists isolated the country from most of the international community. In 1995, the UN imposed sanctions against it.53 53 Background notes on Sudan, bureau of African Affairs, US department of state, April 8, 2011, found on this link: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5424.htm

In January 2011, South Sudan held a referendum to decide between unity or independence from the central government of Sudan as called for by the Comprehensive Peace Agreement that ended the country’s decades-long civil war in 2005. According to the South Sudan Referendum Commission (SSRC), 98.8% of the votes cast were in favor of separation. In February 2011, Sudanese President Omar Hassan al-Bashir officially accepted the referendum result, as did the United Nations, the African Union, the European Union, the United States, and other countries. On July 9, 2011, South Sudan officially declared its independence.54

Economy: The region of Sudan is considered one of Africa’s fastest growing economies in 2010.² The rapid development of the country largely from oil profits even when facing international sanctions was noted by the The New York Times in a 2006 article.³ Due to the secession of South Sudan, which contained over 80 percent of Sudan's oilfields, the economic forecast for Sudan in 2011 and beyond is uncertain. While historically agriculture remains the main source of income and employment hiring of over 80 percent of the 40 million strong Sudanese population, and makes up a third of the economic sector, oil production drove most of Sudan's post-2000 growth. The People's Republic of China is Sudan's largest economic partner, with a 40 percent share in its oil.4 The country also sells Sudan small arms, which have been used in military operations such as the conflicts in Darfur and South Kordofan. 5 The independence of oil-rich South Sudan, however, placed most major oilfields out of the Sudanese government's direct control. In order to export oil, South Sudan must rely on a pipeline to Port Sudan on Sudan's Red Sea coast, as South Sudan itself is landlocked, as well as on Sudan's superior refinery infrastructure. The exact terms of a revenue-splitting agreement between Juba and Khartoum have yet to be established, but Sudan will likely receive a significant portion of the income from South Sudan's oil sales as a fee for the use of Sudanese pipelines, refineries, and port facilities, perhaps as much as 50 percent of the profits. Agriculture production remains Sudan's most-important sector, employing eighty percent of the workforce and contributing thirty-nine percent of GDP, but most farms remain rain-fed and susceptible to drought. Instability, adverse weather and weak world-agricultural prices ensures that much of the population will remain at or below the poverty line for years.

54 Ibid

II) Disturbances:

Overview Britain's Southern Policy From the beginning of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, the British concentrated their development on North Sudan, leaving the South with least official attention. The British justified this policy by claiming that the south was not ready for exposure to the modern world, and they closed the region to outsiders. As a result, the south remained isolated and backward. During 1920s, the British detached the south from rest of Sudan; barring northern Sudanese from entering or working in the south, replacing Arab administrators, expelling Arab merchants, discouraging the spread of Islam, fighting the practice of Arab customs, and wearing Arab dress. On the other hand, they revitalized African customs and tribal life. Finally, a 1930 directive stated that blacks in the south are to be considered a people distinct from northern Muslims and that the region should be prepared for eventual integration with British East Africa. 55 During World War II, some British colonial officers questioned the economic and political viability of the southern provinces as separate from northern Sudan. Britain also had become more sensitive to Arab criticism of the southern policy. In 1946 the Sudan Administrative Conference determined that Sudan should be administered as one country; readmitting northern administrators to southern posts, abolish the trade and employment restrictions imposed, and introducing Arabic in the south as the official administration language. Some British officers argued that northern domination of the south would result in a southern rebellion against the government. Khartoum therefore convened a conference at Juba to allay the fears of southern leaders and British officials in the south and to assure them that a post independence government would safeguard southern political and cultural rights. -

First Sudanese Civil war:

Despite these promises, an increasing number of southerners expressed concern that northerners would overwhelm them. The hostility of southerners toward the northern Arab majority surfaced violently when southern army units mutinied in 55 Robert O. Collins, "THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN CONDOMINIUM, 1899-1955", Library of congress country studies, June 1991, found on this link: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r? frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sd0028)

August 1955 to protest their transfer to garrisons under northern officers. The rebellious troops killed several hundred northerners, including government officials, army officers, and merchants. The government quickly suppressed the revolt and eventually executed seventy southerners for sedition. But this harsh reaction failed to pacify the south, as some of the mutineers escaped to remote areas and organized resistance to the Arab-dominated government of Sudan and starting the first Sudanese civil war. 56 By 1969 the rebels had developed foreign contacts to obtain weapons and supplies. Israel, for example, trained Anya Nya recruits and shipped weapons via Ethiopia and Uganda to the rebels. Anya Nya also purchased arms from Congolese rebels and international arms dealers with monies collected in the south and from among southern Sudanese exile communities in the Middle East, Western Europe, and North America. The rebels also captured arms, equipment, and supplies from government troops. The Sudanese government however conducted several arms agreements mostly from Soviet Union and soviet arms manufactured in Egypt. In 1971 Joseph Lagu, who had become the leader of southern forces opposed to Khartoum, proclaimed the creation of the Southern Sudan Liberation Movement (SSLM). Despite his political problems, Nimeiri remained committed to ending the southern insurgency. After considerable consultation, a conference between SSLM and Sudanese government delegations convened at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in February 1972. In which they reached an agreement under the help of the Ethiopia's Emperor Haile Selassie.57 The Addis Ababa agreement gave the south an autonomous rule over their region and their right to choose executive figures to handle their operations and collect taxes from the people of the south, thus ending the first civil war at 27th March 1972. 58

56 A research done by the Library of Congress, "The South and the Unity of Sudan", June 1991, found on this link: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+sd0031)

57 John Pike, "Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA)", Jan. 5, 2000, federation American Scientists, found on this link: http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/spla.htm

58 A research done by the library of congress, "The Southern Problem", June 1991, found on this link: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+sd0038%29

- The second civil war:

A number of reasons led to the renewed outbreak of fighting; the failure to fulfill the economic development and real political representation in the South, the discovery of Oil in the south and the political decision in Khartoum to locate the oil refinery in the North, The plan initiated by Numairy in June 1983 to re-divide the south into three provinces, The Impose of Islamic laws upon the Sudanese state by decree in September 1983 “September laws”.59 During the same period, soldiers who came from the Anya Nya units absorbed into the army after the Addis Ababa Accords, had resisted illegal orders to be transferred north. Col. John Garang de Mabior, assumed power of the rebels “SPLA”. Garang welded the desperate troops into the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) with its political wing, the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM). Initially the SPLA defines itself as a movement for all oppressed Sudanese citizens According to the SPLA/SPLM manifesto; the war is intended to liberate the whole Sudan from its main enemies, represented by Northern and Southern Sudanese bourgeoisie and bureaucratic elites, religious fundamentalism. Although the alliance with the dissidents from the North had led to the popular uprising that overthrew Numairy in April 1985, the SPLA/SPLM felt that this was not enough, and the war continued. In 1988, Democratic Unionist Party - part of Sudan's ruling coalition government - drafts cease-fire agreement with the SPLM, but it wasn’t implemented. 59 Col. Barnabas L Wama, "PROLONGED WARS: THE WAR IN SUDAN", a research paper presented to The Research Department, In Partial Fulfillment of the Graduation Requirements of ACSC, March 1997, PDF , found on this link: http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/97-0588.pdf

In 2001, Sudanese Islamist leader Hassan Al-Turabi's party, the Popular National Congress, signs memorandum of understanding with the southern rebel SPLM's armed wing, the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), as a result Al-Turabi was arrested the next day. In the same year, the Sudanese government accepted LibyanEgyptian initiative to end the Sudanese civil war after failure of peace talks between SPLM leader John Garang and President Omar Bashir in Nairobi. 60 In 2002, SPLA and Sudanese government signed agreement on six-month renewable cease-fire in central Nuba Mountains. On 20 July in the same year, Talks in Machakos-Kenya lead to a breakthrough agreement between southern rebels and Sudanese government on ending the civil war. The Machakos Protocol agreed on a broad framework, setting forth the principles of governance, the transitional process and the structures of government as well as on the right to self-determination for the people of South Sudan, and on state and religion During 2003-2004, SPLA and Sudanese Government Signed 5 other protocols; The Protocol on security arrangements, The Protocol on wealth-sharing, The Protocol on Power-sharing, The Protocol on the resolution of conflict in southern Kordofan/Nuba Mountains and the Blue Nile States, The Protocol on the resolution of conflict in Abyie. Followed by agreements at the end of 2004; one on permanent cease-fire arrangements, and, one on the International/Regional Guarantees On 9 January 2005, A Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was signed, and marked the implementation of all Protocols signed. The brief terms of the peace agreement are as follows: • The south will have autonomy for six years, followed by a referendum on secession. • Both sides of the conflict will merge their armed forces into a 39,000-strong force after six years, if the secession referendum should turn out negative. • Income from oilfields is to be shared 50 to 50. • Jobs are to be split according to varying ratios (central administration: 70 to 30, Abyei/Blue Nile State/Nuba mountains: 55 to 45, both in favour of the government). • Islamic law is to remain in the north, while continued use of the sharia in the south is to be decided by the elected assembly. 61 60 A chronology of key events, "South Sudan Profile", BBC NEWS, 8 July 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14019202

61 A report in the United Nations Mission in Sudan, "The background to Sudan's Comprehensive Peace Agreement", 10 Nov. 2011, found on this link: http://unmis.unmissions.org/Default.aspx? tabid=515

In 2005 July, Former southern rebel leader John Garang was sworn in as first vice-president, In addition to signing a new Sudanese constitution which gives the south a large degree of autonomy. In 2005 August - South Sudanese leader John Garang was killed in a plane crash. He was succeeded by Salva Kiir Mayardiit. Garang's death sparked deadly clashes in the capital between southern Sudanese and northern Arabs. one month later, a power sharing government was formed in Khartoum. In 2005 October, Autonomous government was formed in South Sudan, in line with the January 2005 peace deal. The administration is dominated by former rebels. After some “non-major” tensions, in December 2009, The Leaders of North and South reached an agreement on the terms of referendum on independence of south due in 2011. In 2011 January, The people of South Sudan vote in favour of full independence from Sudan. 62 After some clashes and disputes mostly over the region of Abye, the republic of south sudan became officially an independent country on 9th of July 2011, putting an end for a long history of civil wars, and leaving a question of whether the new country will live peacefully with its Northern neighbor or a new round of conflicts will break out!.,

Current conflicts: 1) Abyei conflict: SUDAN’S “KASHMIR”

Considered a historical bridge between north and South Sudan, the Abyei Area had previously been considered part of the larger Abyei District within the now62 A report in the united nations office for the coordination of humanitarian affairs, " the history of Sudan: the second civil war", Feb. 2006, found on this link: http://www.unsudanig.org/new_gateway/sudan/data/history/The%20Second%20Civil%20War.pdf

abolished state of West Kurdufan. Under the terms of the Abyei Protocol, the Abyei Area was declared, on an interim basis, to be simultaneously part of the states of South Kurdufan and Northern Bahr el Ghazal. Historically, Abyei was unique, having developed a reputation as an economic and cultural bridge between North and South Sudan. Therefore, Abyei repeatedly surfaced as a key factor in Sudan’s North-South struggle. Later, after discovering oil, the importance of Abyei increased as it holds a significant amount of hydrocarbon reserves.63 Abyei is claimed by a southern group, the Dinka Ngok, and northern nomads, the Misseriya. The Misseriya spend part of each year grazing their cows in the area. There are several prominent Dinka Ngok in both the Sudan People's Liberation Army, which fought for the south's independence, and in the SPLM, its political wing. On the other side, armed groups of Misseriya were often used as a proxy army by Khartoum during the civil war. According to the Abyei Protocol, the North and South have agreed on: • A special administrative status for Abyei • A mechanism for local governance until 2011 • A process for determining Abyei’s boundaries • A share of oil revenues to meet the needs of Abyei survivors and returnees • A security arrangement • A referendum in 2011, simultaneous with the South’s referendum, to determine if Abyei will thereafter be part of the North or the South. 64 In 2011, the referendum of Abyei was cancelled, after arguments on whether the nomadic Misseriya were eligible to vote. A string of clashes followed the cancellation of the referendum. In May 2011 Following what they described as a "southern ambush" on their men on the northern army seized control of Abyei town, the capital of Abyei region, and President Omar al-Bashir issued a decree dissolving Abyei's joint administration, which was headed by a southerner.

63 Roger Winter and John Prendergast , " Abyei: Sudan’s “Kashmir” (Strategy Paper), Center for American Progress, 2011, found on this link: http://www.enoughproject.org/publications/abyei-sudan %E2%80%99s-%E2%80%9Ckashmir%E2%80%9D

64 Ibid

The US and the UN condemned what they essentially characterized as a southern provocation followed by a northern over-reaction. On 20 June 2011, Governments of north and south Sudan signed an accord to demilitarize the disputed Abyei region and let in an Ethiopian peacekeeping force under a UNSC resolution. The Ethiopian peacekeeping troops arrived in the middle of July 2011. 65 After the recognition of the southern republic, both countries continue to claim Abyei, but the presence of the Ethiopian troops is preventing direct military confrontation between them, so far. The absence of a permanent resolution for this conflict will always keep the door open for a military confrontation between two countries share a black bloody history, and tens of arguments and tensions.

2)Darfur:

The crisis in Darfur began in February 2003, when two rebel groups emerged to challenge the National Congress Party (NCP) government in Darfur. The crisis in Darfur in western Sudan hassled to a major humanitarian disaster, with an estimated 1.9 million people displaced, more than 240,000 people forced into neighboring Chad, and an estimated 450,000 people killed. In July 2004, the House and Senate declared the atrocities in Darfur genocide, and the Bush Administration reached the same conclusion in September 2004. On May 4, 2006, the Government of National Unity and the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) signed the Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA) after almost two years of negotiations. In 2010, the SLM pulled out of the government and joined other rebel groups. As of May 2011, no agreement has been reached between the government and Darfur rebel groups. 66

Background

65 James Copnall, " Sudan: why Abyei is crucial to north and south", BBC news, 23 May 2011, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13502845

66 "Q&A:Sudan's Darfur conflict", BBC news, 23 February 2010, found on this link: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3496731.stm

The conflict's origin goes back to land disputes between semi-nomadic livestock herders and those who practice sedentary agriculture. Since the population of Darfur is predominantly Muslim, conflict is not about race or religion, but about resources as the nomadic tribes facing drought are going after the territory of sedentary farmers. 67 Beginning in 1991 elders of the Zaghawa people of Sudan complained that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign. Sudanese Arabs, who control the government, are widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government is accused of "deftly manipulating Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing against non-Arabs in Darfur. 68 Due to these claims and the danger of drought facing the people in Darfur, and the already existing fight for resources the SLM toke arms against the Sudanese government, starting the conflict of Darfur on the 26 February 2003, when a group calling itself the Darfur Liberation Front (DLF) publicly claimed credit for an attack on Gulu, the headquarters of Jebel Marra District. In early 2010, security conditions in Darfur began to deteriorate, despite some progress in negotiations between the government of Sudan and some rebel groups. Attacks of the Sudanese army and the Janjaweed rebels left hundreds of civilians killed or seriously injured.

- The Doha Peace Talks On May 31, 2011, after three days of conference on the crisis in Darfur, organized by the government of Qatar in Doha, the participants (civil society groups, Internally Displaced Persons, refugees, the Government of Sudan, Darfur rebel groups, tribal leaders, and Darfuris in the Diaspora) endorsed a framework document for peace in Darfur. According to press a release issued by the organizers, â&#x20AC;&#x153;the conference endorsed the Doha draft document as the basis for reaching a permanent ceasefire, a comprehensive and inclusive peace settlement, and sustainable peace and stability in Darfur.â&#x20AC;? The government of Sudan also announced that a vice president from Darfur would be appointed. Darfur rebel groups called for more negotiations to reach an agreement. 69

- United Nations Peacekeeping in Darfur:

67 Bechtold, P. K. (2009). A History of Modern Sudan. Middle East Journal, 63(1), 149 - 150

68 http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/countries/africa/sudan?id=1351050

69 Ted Dagne, " Sudan: The Crisis in Darfur and Status of the, North-South Peace Agreement" , African Affairs.

On July 31, 2007, acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1769. The resolution called for the deployment of a hybrid United Nations-African Union force in Darfur (UNAMID). The U.N. was expected to fully deploy 26,000 peacekeeping troops to Darfur by mid-2008. As of April 30, 2011, UNAMID deployed a total of 23,129 peacekeeping personnel. The intervention was mainly for reaffirming the commitment of the international community to stopping the suffering of the people of Darfur and ensuring stability in the region.

- Humanitarian aspect of Darfur: Sudanese authorities claim a death toll of roughly 19,500 civilians, while certain non-governmental organizations, such as the Coalition for International Justice, claim that over 400,000 people have been killed. The large number of mortality rates sparked international response. The humanitarian agencies condemned the delayed and un-effective actions of the international community to the “humanitarian catastrophe” in Darfur. The huge death toll was due to a variety of causes, ranging between direct causes in combat to undirect mortalities due to draught and miss-placement of refugees, hunger and disease.

III) US-Sudanese relations 1) Before separation - Overview: The United States and Sudan shared warm friendly relations starting 1956, when the U.S. recognized Sudan shortly following the attainment of independence from the United Kingdom. Sudan broke diplomatic relations with the U.S. in June 1967, following the outbreak of the Arab-Israeli War. Relations improved after July 1971, when the Sudanese Communist Party attempted to overthrow President Nimeiry, and Nimeiry suspected Soviet involvement. U.S. assistance for resettlement of refugees following the 1972 peace settlement with the south added further improved relations. 70 After the assassination of the American ambassador Cleo A. Noel by the ‘black September’ Palestinian movement in 1973, the relations got strained again as the assassins got released in 1974 to Egyptian custody. The U.S. Ambassador to the Sudan was withdrawn in protest. Although the U.S. Ambassador returned to Khartoum in November, relations with the Sudan remained static until early 1976, 70 US Sudan relations, Embassy of United States, Khartoum, Sudan, found on this link: http://sudan.usembassy.gov/ussudan_relations.html

when President Nimeiri mediated the release of 10 American hostages being held by Eritrean insurgents in rebel strongholds in northern Ethiopia. In 1976, the U.S. decided to resume economic assistance to the Sudan. The bombing of Tripoli in 1986 by the US, and the overthrow of the elected government in 1989, bringing basher into power, strained the relations between the two countries and consequence events caused the US to reduce its staff in the embassy of the United States to only essential personal. Despite these events Sudan continued to be the largest sub-Saharan single entity to receive economic and military aides from the US. 71 U.S. relations with Sudan were further strained in the 1990s. Sudan backed Iraq in its invasion of Kuwait and provided sanctuary and assistance to Islamic terrorist groups. In the early and mid-1990s, Carlos the Jackal, Osama bin Laden, Abu Nidal, and other terrorist leaders resided in Khartoum. Sudan's role in the radical PanArab Islamic Conference represented a matter of great concern to the security of American officials and dependents in Khartoum, resulting in several draw downs and/or evacuations of U.S. personnel from Khartoum in the early-mid 1990s. Sudan's Islamist links with international terrorist organizations represented a special matter of concern for the U.S. Government, leading to Sudan's 1993 designation as a state sponsor of terrorism and a suspension of U.S. Embassy operations in Khartoum in 1996. In October 1997, the U.S. imposed comprehensive economic, trade, and financial sanctions against the Sudan. In August 1998, in the wake of the East Africa embassy bombings, the U.S. launched cruise missile strikes against Khartoum. The last U.S. Ambassador to the Sudan, Ambassador Tim Carney, departed post prior to this event and no new ambassador has been designated since. The U.S. Embassy is headed by a charge d'affaires. In response to the Government of Sudan's continued complicity in unabated violence occurring in Darfur, President George W. Bush imposed new economic sanctions on Sudan in May 2007. 72

2) After the Separation: Separation between the north and the south did not do much improvement to the status quo of the relations between the north of Sudan and the US. Sudan continues to be on the list of the states sponsor of terrorism, US still revoke the human rights violations made in Darfur by the north government. The seat of US ambassador in Khartoum remains vacant. However, relations between both countries have, at least, the hope of improving due to President Obama's sending of Special Envoy Scott Gration to Sudan to improve diplomatic conditions, and discuss ways to avert the 71 "A guide to the United States history of recognition of Sudan", Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State, found on this link http://history.state.gov/countries/sudan

72 Barbara Slavin,"U.S. hits Sudan with new sanctions" , USA today, 30 May, 2007, found on this link: http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-05-29-sanction-sudan_N.htm

current Darfur conflict. On September 9, 2009, the United States has published a new law to ease the sanctions on parts of Sudan. On the other hand the south Sudanese new independent state consolidates a great new ally to the United States. The new state is ruled by a conservative evangelical Christian government, which has allies to the hugely popular conservative movement in the states. The United States supports the south Sudanese government with great economical and military aides. The peace pact in 2005 that lead to the popular referendum in 2011 is sponsored by the United States and America was the 73 first country to acknowledge the independence of south Sudan

- US aid: Despite policy differences the U.S. has been a major donor of humanitarian aid to the Sudan throughout the last quarter century. In 1991, the U.S. made major donations to alleviate food shortages caused by a two-year drought. In a similar drought in 2000-01, the U.S. and the international community responded to avert mass starvation in the Sudan. USAID has consistently been the world's largest donor of food assistance to Sudan. Since 2004, those affected by conflict in Darfur have comprised the majority of food aid beneficiaries in Sudan. In 2011, USAID responded quickly to assist tens of thousands of Sudanese displaced by conflict in Abyei and Southern Kordofan, in coordination with the international humanitarian community, including the United Nations. 74

IV) Sudanese foreign relations: 1) North Sudan: -

Egypt:

Egypt and Sudan have enjoyed intimate and longstanding historical ties, seeing as they are each other's closest allies in the North African region. The two countries are connected by various cultural ties, and political aspirations. Sudan showed great solidarity with Egypt in its Camp David peace initiatives with Israel in the late 1970s. In 2008, Egyptian Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif urged the two countries to focus on two specific projects: the Aljazera project which aims to cultivate some two million acres (8,000 kmÂ˛) of land in Sudan, and a joint project to improve food security in agricultural and meat production. 73 US Sudan relations, Embassy of United States, Khartoum, Sudan, found on this link: http://sudan.usembassy.gov/ussudan_relations.html

74 "USAID to Sub Saharan Africa", USAID, July 15th ,2011, found on this link: http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub-saharan_africa/countries/sudan/

Egypt's policy on Sudan is that it is in favor of a united Sudan. As such Egypt was not directly involved in the Sudan Peace Process that was hosted in Kenya under the auspices of IGAD and that gave the peoples of south Sudan the right to secede and form an independent state in 2011 after the long and brutal Sudanese civil war that cumulatively lasted more than 40 years and claimed over 2 million lives.

Chad:

The relations between North Sudan and Chad isn't that good or we can say that they cut off all the relations between them, Relations between the two states have deteriorated since Chad accused Sudan of being behind Sunday's attack on Adre, which left about 100 people dead. On December 23, 2005 Chad accused Sudan of being the "common enemy of the nation" after a Chadian rebel attack on a town a statement issued by Chad's government after this attack and claimed that not only was Sudan behind the attack on Adre, but it also accuses Sudanese militia of making daily incursions into Chad, stealing cattle, killing innocent people and burning villages on the Chadian border. "Chad is today in a state of war with Sudan," the statement says. 75

The statement went on to call for Chadians to form a patriotic front against Sudan. On May 11, 2008 Sudan announced it was cutting diplomatic relations with Chad, claiming that it was helping rebels in Darfur to attack the Sudanese capital Khartoum. Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir made the announcement that his country was breaking off diplomatic ties with Chad on state television. "These forces [behind the Omdurman attack] are all basically Chadian forces supported and prepared by Chad and they moved from Chad under the leadership of [rebel chief] Khalil Ibrahim," President Bashir said in his televised statement. He added his country reserved the right to retaliate against Chad. 76

- China The People's Republic of China is Sudan's biggest trade partner. China imports oil, from Sudan, and Sudan imports low cost items as well as armaments from China. China and Sudan enjoy a very robust and productive relationship in the fields of diplomacy, economic trade, and political strategic. The two nations established diplomatic relations on January 4, 1959 and have since become strongly close global allies. Also their cultural relations are very tight in Education they have close ties, as Sudanese students go to China to learn Chinese, and Chinese students go to Sudan to learn Arabic. 75 Stephanie Hancock, " Chad in 'state of war' with Sudan", 23 December 2005, BBC News, found on this link: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4556576.stm

76 "Sudan cuts Chad ties over attack", 11 May 2008, BBC News, found on this link: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7394422.stm

- Libya: Relations between Sudan and Libya deteriorated in the early 1970s and reached a low in October 1981, when Libya began a policy of cross border raids into western Sudan. After the 1989 coup d'état, the military government resumed diplomatic relations with Libya, as part of a policy of improving relations with neighboring Arab states. In early 1990, Libya and the Sudan announced that they would seek “unity.” This unity was never implemented.

- Israel: Israeli- Sudanese relations are unique for their secrecy and inconsistency. This is in a large measure a result of political instability, and unlike the most Muslim countries in the periphery of the Middle East, Sudan's initial policy towards Israel was by no means hostile. In 1956 the bilateral contacts began between Israel and Sudan after the independence of Sudan. However, many factors militated against a consistent policy on the part of Sudanese government. The unstable nature of Sudanese state caused by the military takeover, inter bilateral conflicts, perennial struggles between Islamic and secular groups were partially to blame for the inconsistency in the country's foreign relations. 77 In 1958, less than three years after independence, the pro western regime Prime Minister Abdallah Khalil was over thrown. This change resulted in an immediate change in the country's foreign policy orientation. As long as Khalil was in power, he maintained good relations with United States of America, and as long as Khartoum maintained a pro western orientation, there was little tension in Sudanese Israeli relations. In November 1958 military coup took place and General Ibrahim Aboud came to power and decided to re orient his foreign relations. The new policy called for mending fences with the Egyptian president Gamal Abdulnasser, serving contact with the west, and avoiding any association with Israel, and up till now the relations between both countries are deteriorated.

3) South Sudan:

- Israel: On 28 July 2011, it was announced that full diplomatic ties had been established between the two countries. This is considered a significant boon to Israel, as Sudan does not have diplomatic relations with Israel and does not recognize Israeli sovereignty. As on 15 July South Sudan was recognized by Israel and offered the new 77 Jacob Abadi, " Israel and Sudan: The Saga of an Enigmatic Relationship", Middle Eastern Studies, Jstor, Vol. 35, No. 3 (Jul., 1999), pp. 19-41, found on this link: http://www.jstor.org/pss/4284022

state economic help after it seceded from the mainly Arab and Muslim north. 78 Economic ties show the most potential. As of 23 July 2011, several Israeli companies are already in talks for various business deals. Just days after independence declaration, Israeli businesspeople seeking economic cooperation with world's newest country in fields of security, infrastructure, medicine and agriculture .79 Israel also is host to thousands of refugees from South Sudan, who are now ready to return to their native country.

- North Sudan: After decades of civil wars between both nations, and after the separation the relations between North Sudan and South Sudan tended to be peaceful relations and North Sudan was the first country to recognize South Sudan as independent state. On Friday, Sudan's Minister of Presidential Affairs, Bakri Hassan Saleh, announced that it recognised "the Republic of South Sudan as an independent state, according to the borders existing on 1 January 1956", when Sudan gained independence from Britain. 80 The new country is rich in oil, but one of the least developed countries in the world, where one in seven children dies before the age of five.President Bashir, who agreed the 2005 peace deal with the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), stressed his country's "readiness to work with our southern brothers and help them set up their state so that, God willing, this state will be stable and develop. The co-operation between us will be excellent; particularly when it comes to marking and preserving the border so there is a movement of citizens and goods via this border," Said President Bashir

Egypt:

Egypt was from the early countries that recognized south Sudan as independent state, and Egyptian prime minister made his first visit to South Sudan and designed to put Egypt in the vanguard of Pan- African diplomacy. It is not, however, out to prove that Egypt was a menacing great power in Africa. Sharaf pledged to improve cultural, educational and economic links with South Sudan. Egypt can play a critical role in educational assistance after the educational infrastructure was devastated during the civil war period. Thousands of southern Sudanese students study in Egyptian universities and institutions of higher learning.81 78 "South Sudan will have relations with Israel-official", July 15 2011, Reuters, found on this link: http://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFLDE76E1EA20110715

79 Ofer Petersburg , " Israeli companies discover South Sudan", 22 July, 2011, found on this link: http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4097591,00.html

80 "South Sudan becomes an independent nation", 8 July 2011, BBC news, found on this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14089843

81 Gamal Nkrumah, "Heading for headwatersâ&#x20AC;?, 31 March- 6 April 2011, issue no. 1041, al Ahram weekly, found on this link: http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2011/1041/eg1.htm

V) Prospects for the future: Overview of Sudan strategic importance: From a practical standpoint, it may be difficult to see any strategic value in Sudan. Sudan is deeply divided along almost every line imaginable. Clashes between North and South, East and West, Christian and Muslim, center and periphery and local tribal rivalries have created a fractured state at best and a broken state at worst. In 2008, the International Criminal Court indicted Sudanese President Omar Al-Bashir on war crimes charges. It would seem from an international security point of view that Sudan is a highly nominated candidate for international neglect. But there are reasons that make this 6,500 miles away region vital for the United States foreign policy. Despite the state of complete dissolution in the country. Here are three reasons Sudan is important to the world of international security:

Oil: Sudan has enormous oil reserves--over 6 billion barrels discovered so far. Most of the oil fields are in South Sudan but the government in the North controls mos t of the refinement facilities. The only port cities are in the North, since the southern border is landlocked. Because the North relies on Southern crude oil and the South relies on Northern transportation and refinement, peace is essential for Sudan's oil production. This symbiotic relationship is tenuous even during peacetime and violence would upset this fragile balance, leading to economic hardship for both North and South Sudan. The dependence on Middle Eastern oil has led to a number of costly problems for the international community and diversifying the international oil supply keeps one country or region from controlling global energy. Sudan has an enormous potential to provide the world with energy and adding another African oil partner to its list of providers is not only wise but preferable. Maintaining the peace in Sudan before and after the referendum vote will protect the fragile oil relationship between the North and the South and keep Sudan supplying the world with oil.

Geographic Location: Sudan also has a unique and important position on the African continent, since it is the largest country in Africa and comparable in size to Western Europe. It borders nine countries: Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Chad and Libya. It contains much of the Nile River (both the Blue Nile and White Nile) and it borders the Red Sea to the east.

Access to these countries and to water ways gives Sudan great strategic worth. Much of the world's oil imports travel through the Red Sea by way of either the Suez Canal to the north or the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait to the south. The Red Sea has recently seen increased pirate attacks and Eritrea has seen rising terrorist activity, both of which threaten global shipping in the area. A strong partnership with Sudan would allow the world to protect its imports in the Red Sea and increase its ability to fight extremism and terrorism in Eritrea. Using Sudan as a base of operations, however, is only realistic if the country is relatively peaceful and more internal conflict would prevent this. The international community cannot station troops or organizations in Sudan if the organizations were forced to defend themselves against Sudanese threats as well.

The Threat of a Failed State: Sudan was ranked in 2010 as the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s third failing state. The Sudanese government is divided according to the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, yet even the two governments combined do not control all of Sudan's military strength. Militant groups like the Janjaweed in Darfur enjoy significant influence in many regions in Sudan, threatening the stability of the entire country. If Sudan descends further into chaos, it is likely that terrorist networks will move into Sudan as a safe haven. The international community has realized since the attacks on September 11th that failed states are often recruiting bases for terrorist networks. Al-Shabaab, a terrorist group in Somalia with strong ties to Al-Qaeda, is a perfect candidate for filling the power vacuum left by the Sudanese government's collapse. Sudan is an enormous and strategically-placed country that could be a base of operations for terrorist organizations. Thus, the United States and the international community in general have a strategic interest in keeping Sudan's government in control. A peaceful outcome in the 2011 referendum would secure the Sudanese government's control over militant groups, which will keep terrorist networks like AlShabaab from using Sudan as a base of operations

1) Relations between North & South The successful secession of the south was followed by different holding issues, that either to be resolved peacefully by reaching a compromise between North and South, or be the spark that ignite a new round of conflicts and wars between both countries. Focusing on 2 major problems;

The location of the new border

The precise location of the border between north and south was so contentious that the details were not resolved before secession. The CPA promised a referendum in Abyei, and consultation exercises in South Kordofan and Blue Nile, which would allow people living in states situated on the north side of the proposed border to have a say about which country they lived in. Since many residents of these states self-identify as non-Arab and non-Muslim and

fought against Khartoum in the civil war, they feel aligned to Republic of south Sudan (RoSS). 82 Sudan has blocked the promised referendum in Abyei (see Abyei’s part) and the consultation in South Kordofan and has delayed the consultation exercise in Blue Nile. All three areas are now subsumed in violence, with thousands dead, injured, missing or displaced. A continous distrust and tensions on both sides of the border that are unlikely to go away without intervention.

The economic relationship between the two nations: “Shipment of Oil” The CPA resulted in 75% of Sudan’s oil being allocated to RoSS. The South produces 385,000 barrels a day, and it transships north and east through an existing North Sudanese pipeline to Port Sudan. Since the CPA in 2005 the North and South were sharing the oil revenues with each others, but unfortunately they didn’t agree clearly on the status of the oil after separation. In June 2011, Kiir told reporters "We do not want to take all the oil revenues, we must leave something for the North to help them in facing the economic challenges,". But after secession he changed his words saying "I am saying that we will rent the North's oil pipelines and we will give them money for our oil to be transported, and we will of course pay and there is no problem," Adding, "However, this offer is unaccepted by the North. They need oil. But we fought for 21 years without oil and we can still go for 3 years until we build our own oil infrastructure". 83 On the other hand, In June Sudanese president Omer al-Bashir said "I give the south three alternatives for the oil....either the north continues getting its share, or we gets fees for every barrel that the south sends to Port Sudan," Adding, "If they don't accept that, we're going to shut down the pipeline” Meanwhile South Sudan is renting Sudan's oil pipelines, no exact information for the price is known, but it said to be something between 15$ & 33$ per barrel. Neighbouring Chad pays $0.4 a barrel. The highest known transhipping rate elsewhere is $2 a barrel. Clearly, Khartoum’s excessive charges will lead to further tensions between the two countries, especially in the oil-rich border regions.

2) Relations between North & South and USA: 82 Wagine Peace, "The Birth of a Nation and the Prospects for Peace and Development", October 2011, Parliament, found on this link: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmintdev/writev/1570/ss01.htm

83 " South Sudan: Kiir Talks Tough On Oil, Abyei", 19 July 2011, All Africa, found on this link: http://allafrica.com/stories/201107210116.html

North Sudan was looking forward for lifting it from the USA list of states sponsor of terrorism, as well as lifting the long time sanctions imposed on its economy. Barrack Obama told El-Bashir in 2010 that conducting the separation referendum peacefully will make USA reconsider Sudan’s positions in the states sponsor of terrorism. After Separation, No real improvements happened in the relations. The ongoing Darfur Crisis, The unresolved conflicts in Abyie, Bahr Elghazal & Blue Nile, Bashir’s continuous support for Iran’s nuclear program, and the continuous human rights violations ; all that decrease the opportunity for a better relations On the Other hand, South Sudan as a new porn country needs a continuous support. With the role USA played in the process of CPA and referendum, USA put the first brick in the relations between USA and the South. South Sudan is Important for USA for different reasons; the presence of 75% of Sudanese Oil in the South, resisting the Chinese control of African Oil & markets, constructing an important Alley in this highly important region specially after the Arab spring revolutions, protecting Israel interests in the region. So, for the current scene, the mutual interests for both countries support them to have more deep relations in the future.

Model American Congress

Committee on Finance Future Ahead, Past in our heads Congressional Research Service Report Prepared By: Chairlady: Hadeer Maged Vice Chairman: Ahmed Ehab Ranking Member: Donia Shaheen Party Consultant: Olivia Saeed

About the Committee on Finance The Committee on Finance is one of the original committees created in the US Senate. It was originally established in 1815 as a select committee formed to solve economic issues arising from the War of 1812. It was not till December 10, 1816, when the Senate officially designated the Committee on Finance a standing committee. The Committee had power over certain aspects of tariffs, banking and currency issues and appropriations. The Committee’s jurisdiction has fluctuated throughout the years, as its jurisdiction over appropriations and banking and currency issues has been suspended. Jurisdiction: The Finance Committee’s jurisdiction is defined by subject matter; not by agency or Department. The Committee’s Jurisdiction includes issues such as: taxation and other revenue measures, bonded debt of the United States; collection districts, and ports of entry and delivery; customs, reciprocal trade agreements; tariff and import quotas, and related matters thereto; general revenue sharing; the transportation of dutiable goods; deposit of public moneys; health programs under the Social Security Act, including Medicare, Medicaid, the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP), Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) and other health and human services programs financed by a specific tax or trust fund; and national social security. As a consequence of the Committee’s broad subject matter jurisdiction, the Finance Committee has sole or shared jurisdiction over the activities of numerous agencies and offices Subcommittees: The Finance Committee is divided into 5 Subcommittees that allow its members to tackle specific issues within the jurisdiction of the committee. The Chairman and Ranking Member establish the Committee’s subcommittees and membership for each Congressional session, which is still subject to the approval of the whole committee. The Chairman and Ranking Member serve as ex officio members of all subcommittees. The subcommittees of the committee on finance in the 111 th congress are:84

84 http://www.senate.gov/general/committee_membership/committee_memberships_SSFI.htm#SSFI12

 Health Care  Taxation, IRS Oversight, and Long-Term Growth  Energy, Natural Resources, and Infrastructure  Social Security, Pensions, and Family Policy  International Trade, Customs, and Global Competitiveness

Current Committee: The Current Committee on finance has twenty three members, 13 democratic majority members and 11 republican Minority members. A Democratic Chair, Senator Max Baucus, and a Republican Ranking Member, Senator Orrin Hatch.85

85 http://www.govtrack.us/congress/committee.xpd?id=SSFI

Index: 1-Topic one: debt crisis 

introduction………………………………………………………………... ……………………………………77  Cause of debt crisis………………………………………………………………………………..77 1. the currency war…………………………………………………………………….……………………. ….81  competitive devaluation……………………………………………………….………….. ….81  mechanism of currency devaluation……………………………………….……….. …..81  advantages and disadvantages of currency devaluation…………………. …….82  china Vs the US…………………………………………………. ………………………………....84  USA relations with china…………………………….. …………………………….84  China's holdings of US securities……………….. ……………………………..85  Chinese currency devaluation……………………………………………………85  The impact of the Chinese currency devaluation on the US……… 87  The US response to the Chinese currency devaluation……………...89 2. Unemployment……………………………………………………………………………………………… …92  Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….. …..92  Reasons behind high unemployment in the US……………………………………..93  The Americans job act……………………………………………………………………. …….94  Wall street demonstrations……………………………………………………………….. …95 3. The agricultural reform……………………………………………………………………….. …………..96  Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………… .96 a) Subsidies………………………………………………………………………………. …..96  Types of subsidies……………………………………………………….…. …..97

Advantages and disadvantages of subsidies…………………….....98  What will happen if subsidies disappear……………………….. …...99 b) Visa reform……………………………………………………………………. …………100  Introduction...…………………………………………………………..…..…… 100  Advantages and disadvantages……………………………………………101 c) Food insecurity………………………………………………………………………...103  Effect of financial crisis on food security in U.S……. …………….103 

2- Topic two: Brazil 



   

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..………. …….106  Political corruption……………………………………………………………………………. …111  Crime rates………………………………………………………………………………………. ….112 US-Brazil potential FTA…………………………………………………………………………………….113  US domestic policies……………………………………………………………………….…… 113  Economic objectives……………………………………………………………………….…… 114  Commitment of the partner…………………………………………………………….. ….114  Foreign policy considerations…………………………………………………………. …..114 Doha Round……………………………………………………………………. ……………………………....115 Agriculture in Brazil…………………………………………………………….………………………. ……116 US- Brazil Agriculture relations………………………………………………. ………………………..117 US- Brazil Competitive point:................................................................................118  Soy bean………………………………………………………………………………………….. …..118  Poultry………………………………………………………………………………………………… .119



 Beef &veal…………………………………………………………………………………………….119  Pork…………………………………………………………………………………………………… …119 US-Brazil WTO disputes………………………………………………………………………..……. …….120  Case 1: US cotton Subsidies…………………………………………………………….. ……120  Case 2:US Ethanol Tariffs Subsidies……………………………………………………….121 Offshore Drilling:……………………………………………………………….………….. …………………122  General look at oil industry………………………………………………. ………………….122  USA & Brazil oil's Project…………………………………………………………. ……………124 1. Brazil Oil reserve……………………………………………. ……………..125 2. US oil reserve ………………………………………………….. ……………125

Topic one 80

The debt crisis The causes of the debt crisis: The financial crash of 2008, and the subsequent sharp drop in economic output, showed that the growth of the prior two decades was no longer sustainable. A creditheavy economy meant that the crisis would take the form of a financial crash, but all the focus on finance concealed the roots of the problem: a lack of profitability in productive areas. The Obama administration was supposed to meet the challenges and seek to put the economy on the right track away from the recession and the crash but he seemed to put the economy on a different footing. So whenever the government has faced a budget deficit simply the US government covers the shortfall by its Treasury, they do something like that by issuing new bonds and other debt instruments to bridge the shortfall. These bonds are held by banks, corporations and even by foreign countries. So doing such a thing was routine in US and there were always more than enough people to invest in Federal government knowing that these bond were rated to be AAA and it was the safest types of bonds. But they kept issuing bonds and they kept selling them to other countries, corporations and banks, even though there was no much revenue to cover for these debts. So the gap between the government outlays and the government revenues kept widening and the debt kept increasing till it reached almost a 14 trillion dollars were it were about to exceed the debt ceiling, and as the amount of money that the government can borrow is limited by the debt ceiling so there has been a must that the congress has to vote to raise it. The congress had to do such a voting as if it would have exceeded the debt ceiling this might have led to a real crisis that the US might have entered sovereign default which means that the US at that time will not be able to pay the interest and the principle at the maturity date of these bonds, thereby creating an international crisis in the financial markets. Therefore the congress has agreed to raise the level of the debt ceiling on April 15, 2011 to reach US $14.294 trillion. If it were not the case the US treasury would have been banned from borrowing as in the absence of sufficient revenue, a failure to raise the debt ceiling would result in the administration being unable to fund all the spending, so there was no escape to raise the debt ceiling by the congress.

This action was accompanied by a plan to reduce the growth of the debt; this can be done by two methods whether to increase revenues or to decrease expenditures; so if they have chosen the first option to increase revenues by increasing taxes, it would be impossible as the unemployment rate has reached a very high percentage in the United States and doing such an action may trigger the anger of millions of people against the Obama administration, while the other option is that the government can cut spending in different sectors in the government. Actually the proposal to cut spending was the one who was supported by many democrats and republicans and there has been a bill to have spending cuts of roughly $1 trillion. Now the last up date of the Current Outstanding Public Debt of the United States is $15,621,445,734,132.83 (treasury direct, 2012), this total debt can be divided into debt held by the public which is equal to 10,884,773,109,942.45 (2012), it is all federal debt held by individuals, corporations, state or local governments, foreign governments, and other entities outside the United States Government less Federal Financing Bank securities, and Intergovernmental Holdings which is equal to $4,736,672,624,190.38 (2012) they are Government Account Series securities held by Government trust funds, revolving funds, and special funds; and Federal Financing Bank securities.86 This means that Every man, woman and child in the United States currently owes $50,730 for their share of the U.S. public debt total debt so this represent a huge number that is impossible to be paid by cutting the government spending only there must be other fiscal and monetary policies that should be adopted, this shows that the coming year and the impact on the coming generations would be so heavy and no one knows how this crisis will be ended. The US is indebted mainly to Americans. Still, foreigners hold a very large portion of the national debt, with China and Japan owning the biggest chunks. At March 2011, The U.S. public debt totaled $14.3 trillion of this amount, 41.8% was held by U.S. government trust funds and 58.2% was privately held. Of the total level of privatelyheld U.S. Treasury securities ($8.3 trillion), foreigners owned 53.8% of the total ($4.5 trillion). Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s holdings of U.S. Treasury securities as of March 2011 were $1.1 trillion. The importance of Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s holdings of U.S. debt securities (as of March 2011) can be measured as follows. They constituted: 25.6% of total foreign holdings of U.S. Treasury securities, 13.8% of U.S. privately-held Treasury securities, and 8.0% of the total level of U.S. federal debt (privately held and intergovernmental) (CRS, 2011, P.14). 87 86 http://www.treasurydirect.gov/NP/BPDLogin?application=np

87 http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34314.pdf

We can see from the chart here that china owns the largest amount of this debt as they own about 21.09% of the whole debt owned by foreign countries, or about $1134.1billion dollars. Next come Japan with a $979.0 billion dollars, or about 20.40% (2012), so that means that china represent one of the biggest obstacles to the USA to pay for its debt as China is the biggest foreign buyer of Treasury bonds.88

So the problem now is very complicated as china accumulates a large amount of the US treasury notes and at the same time the RMB is significantly undervalued against the dollar and that has been a major contributor to the large annual U.S. trade deficits with China and the loss of U.S. jobs in recent years. So now the problem can be analyzed in two ways first they don’t have the money to pay for their debt and second the Chinese products are competing with the US products all around the world and in the US itself. Consequently with this unfair competitive advantage that china has, the US products will not be able to sustain. Now to solve the debt crisis there could be more than one solution this can be explained as the follows:

 To cut the agricultural subsidies that is given to the farmers in order to help these farmers financially. These subsides represent a very large portion of the government spending that a lot of money is wasted on such aid to farmers, as it is given sometimes even if the farmers are not really in need of it. Also it gives unfair advantage to American farmers against other farmers in other poor countries that they can’t compete with them, and this violates the WTO rules.

 To increase the working population as there is about 200 million working people, or taxpaying people in America. These 200 million people pay about 1.2 trillion dollars in taxes each year. If the government can increase the 88 http://www.davemanuel.com/us-national-debt-clock.php

working population of the United States about 10 times its present number and it tax them all at the present rate, the government would have a national income of 10 or 11 trillion a year. So then, if the government could get to put one trillion aside each year, they could pay off the National Debt in about 10 or 11 years. Of course that solution may take a long time to solve this debt crisis but it may help in solving both the high percentage of unemployment there that had reached about 9.1% on the short run and to solve the problem of the national debt on the long run.

ď&#x201A;§ To cut the benefits that is given to the US citizens but that may trigger their anger about cutting this kind of aid specially that the food insecurity has reached about 15% inside the US itself so this doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t give good signs about the whole performance of the economy. So this might be a solution for solving the national debt but it may lead to demonstrations that may turn into a revolution.

ď&#x201A;§ To Cut the U.S. Corporate Tax Rate as it represents one of the highest corporate tax rates on the world level, cutting this taxes may lead to promote higher long-term economic growth, improve U.S. competitiveness, higher wages and living standards, boost entrepreneurship, investment, and productivity, lower the tax burden on low-income taxpayers and seniors, attract foreign direct investment (FDI), and help the states compete globally. So all of these solutions are just few ones out of hundreds of solutions to solve the debt crisis but the problem is that it will take a long time to have an impact on reducing the national debt, so will the US bear this long time or will it come to an end before solving it?!

1. The currency war “An international currency war has broken out “ Guido Mantega, Brazil’s finance Minister

What is the meaning of competitive devaluation? the currency war or competitive devaluation is a situation in which countries compete in order to achieve a relatively low exchange rate for its currency, this could be achieved by lowering the value of its currency by direct government intervention or when governments manipulates the exchange rates in order to gain international competitiveness.

Mechanism of currency devaluation: When a country wants to devalue its currency it can use different policies like:  The direct government intervention in the state’s central bank, this can be done most probably by maintaining a fixed exchange rate. A fixed, or pegged, rate is a rate the government (central bank) sets and maintains as the official exchange rate. A set price will be determined against a major world currency. In order to maintain the local exchange rate, the central bank buys and sells its own currency on the foreign exchange market in return for the currency to which it is pegged. Unlike the fixed rate, a floating exchange rate is determined by the private market through supply and demand. A floating rate is often termed "selfcorrecting", as any differences in supply and demand will automatically be corrected in the market (2012).89 89 http://www.investopedia.com/articles/03/020603.asp#axzz1cJAWrpbr

 Another method to devalue a currency is by having quantitative easing, which

means increasing the money supply in the domestic economy by printing more money through the central bank. Increasing the money supply will translate into a draconian dollar devaluation even if the central bank does not directly buy any foreign assets.

Advantages and disadvantages of the currency devaluation: Competitive devaluation represents a double edged weapon as it has advantages for some countries and disadvantages for others as the following: 1. The advantages:  The exports of the country that devalue its currency will be more cheaper as the value of their money is decreased so people all around the world will find it attractive to buy these cheap products and therefore the demand will increase for it. On the other hand the imports to this country will be expensive for its citizens as its value is much higher than the domestic products, so by all of that this country will gain economic advantage over other counties.

 The importing country they will benefit too by the advantageous exchange rate and citizens there will buy these goods cheaper than their domestic products. 

When the balance of payment of any country is unfavorable the devaluation policy is adopted. When the currency is devalued the imports become more expensive while the exports become cheaper. So as a result the value of exports will be greater than the value of imports in the balance of payment, so that may shrink the gap in the budget deficit.



For a developing country that is devaluing its currency it can reap a sizable profit from exporting its products to countries that have a relatively stable currency that is valued much higher than its own.



Countries may find it attractive to pay for their debt if the country that owns this debt is devaluing its currency, this could happen as the value of this country’s currency became less valuable than before, so when they buy it they will find that the country’s currency much cheaper than when they have bought it before. So

that makes the country more attractive to buyers not only of goods

but of currency itself, including debt. 

Also one of the important things that result from lower exchange rate is that it could help to provide more jobs creation inside the country as it makes imports more expensive to the consumers and make them demand more of the domestic products which will lead to boosting the economy and help to enhance the industrial sector, eliminate unemployment and raise gross domestic product.



It could be one of the best solutions for developing countries that are spending more on imports than they earn on exports.



Foreign investors may find it attractive to invest in those countries where currency is devalued, as they may gain economic and competitive advantages over other businesses in other countries.

2. The disadvantages: 

Devaluing a country’s currency has a bad effect on the international trade, as it may trigger a retaliatory action by other countries which in turn can lead to a general decline in international trade, harming all countries.



Devaluing a currency can harm the citizen purchasing power when they buy imports and when they travel abroad.



Devaluing a currency by the government could harm the country as the more the government devalues its currency, the lower the probability that it will get another loan from a foreign government in the foreseeable future.



If quantitative easing is applied to devalue a currency this may lead to inflation or maybe hyperinflation. As The average prices of products in a country is the ratio of the quantity of currency in the country to the quantity of products produced in the country. When the government prints money, it increases the quantity of the currency without changing the quantity of products. So the result is that prices go up by the same percentage as does the money supply, leading to inflation which may lead to a crisis by itself.



Devaluation increases the foreign debt burden in terms of home currency especially on the poor countries. Another thing is that the country has to pay greater amount of money for imports; on the other hand she gets less money for its exporters. So devaluation may causes deterioration in terms of trade.

China VS the USA: ď&#x192;&#x2DC; The USA relations with china The relationship between China, one of the oldest civilizations with the biggest population, and the United States, one of the youngest civilizations with the strongest economy, is significant not only for the two peoples but also for the future of the whole world. The factors influencing the Chinese-US relationship include economic, strategic, diplomatic and cultural elements. Undoubtedly, among them the economic factor is the most important one (Zhu Shida, 2002).90 U.S.-China economic ties have expanded substantially over the past three decades. Total U.S. China trade rose from $2 billion in 1979 to $457 billion in 2010. China is currently the second largest U.S. trading partner, its third-largest export market, and its biggest source of imports. Because U.S. imports from china have risen much more rapidly than U.S. exports to China, the U.S. merchandise trade deficit has surged, rising from $10 billion in 1990 to $273 billion in 2010. The rapid pace of economic integration between China and the United States, while benefiting both sides overall, has made the trade relationship increasingly complex. On the one hand, Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s large population

90 http://www.china.org.cn/english/2002/Mar/29138.htm

and booming economy have made it a large and growing market for U.S. exporters. Over the past decade, China has been the fastest-growing market for U.S. exports. U.S. imports of low-cost goods from China greatly benefit U.S. consumers by increasing their purchasing power. U.S. firms that use China as the final point of assembly for their products, or use Chinese-made inputs for production in the United States, are able to lower costs and become more globally competitive.

 China’s Holdings of U.S. Securities China’s holdings of U.S. public and private securities are significant. These include U.S. Treasury securities, U.S. government agency securities, corporate securities, and equities. These securities help the federal government to finance its budget deficit. China is the largest foreign holder of U.S. Treasury securities as china’s holding of it have reached in 2010 about $1,160 billion. Also the Department of the Treasury reported that China’s Treasury securities holdings was $1,174 billion as of May 2011 (CRS, 2011).91 China had gained an advantage from holding this huge number of treasury securities as it can be largely attributed to its policy of intervening in exchange rate markets to limit the appreciation of the RMB to the US dollars. This could be achieved as china requires the Chinese exporters to pay in dollars in exchange for the RMB as they often are paid in dollar, so as a result the Chinese government now accumulates a significant amount of dollars which makes it control the price of the Yuan in the exchange rate market against the price of the US and that’s how china keeps the devaluation of its currency. More over china doesn’t keep these dollars in its reserves and earn no interest rate on it; they actually reinvest it in buying US treasury securities because they are seen as a relatively safe investment. All of these actions restrict the US from banning the Chinese government to stop the devaluation of the Yuan.  The Chinese currency devaluation Unlike most advanced economies such as the USA, China does not maintain a market based floating exchange rate. Between 1994 and July 2005, China pegged its currency, the renminbi (RMB) or Yuan, to the U.S. dollar at about

91 http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33536.pdf

8.28 Yuan to the dollar. In July 2005, China appreciated the RMB to the dollar by 2.1% and moved to a â&#x20AC;&#x153;managed float,â&#x20AC;? based on a basket of major foreign currencies, including the U.S. dollar. In order to maintain a target rate of exchange with the dollar and other currencies, the Chinese government has maintained restrictions and controls over capital transactions and has made large-scale purchases of U.S. dollars. According to the Bank of China, from July 2005 to July 2009, the dollar-Yuan exchange rates went from 8.27 to 6.83 Yuan per dollar, an appreciation of 21.1%. However, once the effects of the global financial crisis became apparent, the Chinese government halted its appreciation of the RMB and subsequently kept the Yuan/dollar exchange rate relatively constant at 6.83 from July 2009 to June 2010 in order to help limit the impact of the sharp decline in global demand for Chinese products (CRS, 2011, P.21).92

92 ibid

This graph shows the Yuan per dollar and it shows how China’s currency was moving until July 2008, and then was held flat. (Frank Vargo, 2009)93 But china continued in its currency policy and it continues to manipulate its currency in order to keep the value of its currency artificially low against the dollar (with estimates of undervaluation ranging from 15% to 50%) Claiming that this policy constitutes subsidy for Chinese exports to the United States, also the Chinese officials have insisted that the current currency policy is not meant to favor exports over imports, but instead to foster domestic economic stability. The Chinese officials see the exchange rate, prices and market mechanisms in general is used as tools in a broader development strategy. The goal of this development strategy is not to create a market economy but to make China a rich and powerful modern country. All of the Chinese leaders observe that all countries that have raised themselves from poverty to wealth in the industrial era have done that through export led growth (Brookings, 2011). “The Chinese government have benefited from such an action as an undervalued RMB might also have the effect of limiting the level of U.S. exports to China than might occur under a floating exchange rate system. Also Obama had warned that the economic relationship between the two countries had become “deeply imbalanced” in recent decades, with a yawning trade gap and huge Chinese holdings of U.S. government debt (Frank Vargo, 2009). 94

 The impact of the Chinese currency devaluation on US economy 93 http://shopfloor.org/tag/currency-devaluation

94 http://shopfloor.org/tag/currency-devaluation

The intervention of the Chinese government to keep its exchange rate substantially below the level of the international market this have resulted in a price distortion that have prevented the international markets from functioning well. This price distortion also has a great effect on China’s own economy, by encouraging large-scale investment in export manufacturing, and discouraging investment in the domestic consumer market. China's policy of undervaluation of its currency, provision of subsidies on its exports to US and making imports more expensive, took the market share in world trade away from US. Moreover the growing economic ties with China have exposed U.S. manufacturing firms to unfair competition from low-cost Chinese firms, this has induced many U.S. production facilities to relocate to China which resulted in hurting several U.S. manufacturing sectors and the loss of many manufacturing jobs, and has led to the loss of hundreds of thousands of U.S. jobs in other sectors. One of these sectors that have been harmed is the solar power production, this sector has experienced three bankruptcies for three solar companies these companies are Solyndra, a California based solar panel manufacturer, filed for bankruptcy on 31 August 2011, following in the footsteps of Evergreen Solar, based in Massachusetts, and Spectra Watt, based in New York. These bankruptcies and the closing of BP Solar plant in Frederick, Maryland in 2010 removes about one-fifth of the solar panel manufacturing capacity in the United States. Solyndra laid off about 1,100 workers, which is considered the largest to date in a solar firm bankruptcy . The cause of Solyndra’s demise, like that of other solar companies, is due to Chinese solar panels, subsidized by the government, undercutting the global solar market. In the following graph we can see tha t in 1995, the United States had 43 percent of the market but there share have dwindled to 7 percent in 2010–just a pittance compared to that of China and Taiwan. China now has almost threefifths of the world’s solar production capacity. All of these economic advantages can be explained by China’s low cost labor, free or subsidized land from local governments, extensive tax breaks, low-cost loans from stateowned banks, and other state assistance (IER, 2011).95

95 http://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/2011/09/02/another-u-s-solar-firm-filesfor-bankruptcy/

China’s currency policy has been a major factor in the size and growth of the U.S. trade deficit with China. Some congress members contend that the current high unemployment with the high trade deficit that is resulting from the Chinese currency manipulation can no longer be tolerated. Also china’s central bank is the largest foreign country holder of the U.S. government debt which may give it leverage over the United States. It is often said that China is “America’s banker,” and that could lead to undermine the U.S. economy by selling all of its dollar holdings, thereby causing a collapse of the U.S. dollar and perhaps the U.S. economy.

 The US response to the Chinese currency policy As china is not allowing its currency to appreciate and as a lot of Americans are losing jobs especially in the manufacturing sector, so on the 11 th October 2011, the US Senate passed a bill that would allow for new tariffs on Chinese exports to the United States if China continues to undervalue its currency. This bill states that The Government of the People’s Republic of China has pursued an international trade policy that violates its obligations as a member of the World Trade Organization and other international organizations, which has resulted in a perpetual, historically high trade imbalance with the United States that threatens the stability of the global economy. Also as members of both the World Trade Organization and the International Monetary Fund, the People’s Republic of China has assumed a series of

international legal obligations to eliminate all subsidies for exports and to facilitate international trade, but the People’s Republic of China has failed to do so. The Chinese Government continues to maintain control over the decisions of Chinese enterprises through ownership, board membership, and coercion. Also the Chinese Government, directly and indirectly, facilitates unfair requirements for coproduction agreements between United States companies and Chinese entities. Since 1994, the People’s Republic of China has repeatedly intervened in currency markets and it have taken measures that have significantly misaligned the value of its currency against the United States dollar and other currencies. This policy by the People’s Republic of China has resulted in substantial undervaluation of the renminbi by up to 40 percent or more. So as a result of all of these congress findings it has decided to impose tariffs on the products of the People’s Republic of China that is imported to the US, also the president shall take the necessary steps to negotiate a trade relationship with the People’s Republic of China that will achieve and maintain balanced trade between the United States and the People’s Republic of China within four years after the date of the enactment of this Act (open congress, 2011).96 This action has been opposed by china as they claimed that China had manipulated the value of its currency. “The renminbi exchange rate is gradually achieving a more balanced and reasonable level,” the central bank said in a statement. In response to this action, The Ministry of Commerce MOC have reiterated its position over the new bill passed by the US Senate to add pressure on China's currency policy making. So the MOC spokesman Shen Danyang have said that The US Senate's move to force its trading partners currency to appreciate through the passing of law is in violation of international rules and the country's obligations to the world.

96 http://www.opencongress.org/bill/112-h2909/text

Also the move will not only hurt the mutually beneficial relations between China and the US, but also it will hurt the long-term interests of the peoples of the two countries. "If the US continues to go down the path, China will have to take further actions," Shen said. "China hopes the US doesn't turn an economic problem into a political one and doesn't force others to take medicine when the country itself is suffering an illness."(Xinhua, 2011)97 But after that the US and China made significant progress in talks as Chinese officials agreed to end policies that favor domestic firms, making it easier for U.S. companies to compete. Although China had allowed its currency to appreciate over the past year, Geithner is encouraging China to let the Yuan appreciate faster, which critics have argued has been kept artificially low to benefit Chinese exporters.

97 http://en.ce.cn/subject/usyuanbill/usyuanbillcr/201110/19/t20111019_22773510.shtml

"We hope that China moves to allow the exchange rate to appreciate more rapidly and more broadly," Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner said (the hill, Vicki 98 Needham, 2011). So the debate is still ongoing between the US and china whether to remove the bill or not, putting in considerations that this violates the WTO rules and this may lead to increase the hatred between the two countries, so no one knows where the debate will take the two countries.

98 http://thehill.com/blogs/on-the-money/801-economy/160323-us-china-make-significant-progress-intalks

2. Unemployment September 09, 2011

"You should pass this jobs plan right away." - BARACK OBAMA

The economy took a dive in late 2007, and the administrations of Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama have struggled to reverse the loss of jobs. Since Obama took office in 2009, various government programs and bailouts have been instituted to stimulate the economy, including Cash for Clunkers and a tax credit for home buyers. In February 2009, Congress passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, a stimulus package infusing $787 billion into the economy. But unemployment still soared. The average unemployment rate for 2008 was 5.8 percent. In 2009 the average annual rate shot up to 9.3, topping out at 10.1 percent in October. In 2010, the unemployment rate has hovered around 9.7 percent, dropping to 9.5 percent in June and July. Obama and others have touted the stimulus as preventing a depression (US news). 99 But these stimulus packages are opposed by some senators thinking that itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a wasteful, inefficient, and ineffective government spending at a time when the national debt continues to soar. The unemployment rate in the United States was reported at 9 percent in October of 2011 and it has fallen to 8.3 in January of 2012, the lowest since February 2009. From 1948 until 2010 the United States unemployment rate averaged 5.70 percent reaching a historical high of 10.80 in November of 1982 and a record low of 2.50 percent in May 1953 (trading economics, 2010-2012). 100 Between the third quarter of 2009 when the recovery is said to have begun and the third quarter of this 2011, the percentage of workers who had been jobless for a year or longer nearly doubled from 16 percent to 31.8 percent. The number of workers who have been unemployed for a year or longer has jumped, during the same period, from 2.5 million to 4.4 million (David Ruccio, 2011).101

Reasons behind the high unemployment rate in the USA: There is actually more than one reason for the high unemployment some of these are:

1. Fewer new openings: While layoffs increased during this recession, they are not the primary cause of the nearly 9 percent unemployment rates. The main factor driving the 99 http://www.usnews.com/topics/subjects/unemployment

100 http://www.tradingeconomics.com/united-states/unemployment-rate

101 http://rwer.wordpress.com/2011/11/06/chart-us-long-term-unemployment-1967-2011/

unemployment rate so high during this recession was, and continues to be, the sharp drop in creation of new jobs. The credit crunches, the collapse of the housing bubble, and harmful economic policies have made the economy less hospitable to entrepreneurs. This bad business climate discourages business owners from expanding, as a result the number of new job openings in the country crashed to below 3 million jobs whereas there used to be 4.5 million new openings before it.

2. Lack of real growth: The economy is gripped by chronic lack of real growth. A measly 36,000 jobs were added in January whereas economists have concluded that at least 150,000 new jobs are needed to keep up with the rise in population.

3. Government sector layoffs: Government sector jobs, which are considered the safest, are becoming a dangerous option as state and local governments are continually cutting jobs. Also the Government spending still does not create jobs or prosperity, as it will not reduce unemployment because government spending does not encourage businesses to invest and hire. Congress should instead focus on promoting innovation and entrepreneurshipâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; which promote wealth creation and, consequently, more jobs. So it should finally admit this fact and encourage private-sector investment and entrepreneurship the best job creators that history has produced.

4. Chinese job grab and devaluation of currency: China is taking away U.S. jobs in hordes. Unbelievable cost advantages in China, thanks to its ultra low labor costs, are moving thousands of jobs into China and away from the U.S. each year. Plus, the bulging trade deficit is slowly eating up the U.S. economy as hundreds of billions of dollars are going to the rest of the world. Also another problem is that china is devaluing its currency and that have led to the closure of many businesses because of the competitive advantages that

the Chinese companies have in the United States, so that’s represent one of the real big problems that have lead to a loss of many jobs in there.

5. High taxes: Businesses and corporate pay more taxes in the United States than just about anywhere else in the world. As a result they can’t afford to hire more employees because of the high taxes. Also they think that outside the country they can pay lower amount of taxes. This means that many businesses are literally pushed out of the country, so that’s make jobs vanish. As result of these high taxes 10 Big Businesses That Have Moved Their Headquarters Abroad to Pay Less U.S. Taxes these companies are Halliburton, Accenture, Foster Wheeler Ltd, Ingersoll-Rand Co. Ltd, Tyco International Ltd, Cooper Industries Inc, Noble Drilling Services Inc, Global Crossing, Seagate Technology LLC, and Nabors Industries Ltd (HR World Editors).102

The American Jobs Act: On the 8th of November 2011, Obama gave a speech for his nation; this speech was about the creation of new jobs for the American citizens as the unemployment rate had reached a very huge number which is 9.1 percent. The speech has delivered more than one solution for the high unemployment, these points are:  Obama stated that he was sending the Congress a plan that they should pass right away. It’s called the American Jobs Act and there should be nothing controversial about this piece of legislation as everything in it is the kind of proposal that’s been supported by both Democrats and republicans.  "The purpose of the American Jobs Act is simple: to put more people back to work and more money in the pockets of those who are working. It will create more jobs for construction workers, more jobs for teachers, more jobs for veterans, and more jobs for long-term unemployed". He said.  It will provide a tax break for companies who hire new workers, and it will cut payroll taxes in half for every working American and every small business. It

102 http://www.focus.com/fyi/10-big-businesses-that-have-moved-abroad/#

100

will provide a jolt to an economy that has stalled, and give companies confidence that if they invest and if they hire, there will be customers for their products and services. You should pass this jobs plan right away.  Small businesses will get a tax cut if they hire new workers or if they raise workers’ wages, so he said that if this bill is passed all small business owners will also see their payroll taxes cut in half next year.  “Pass this job bill, and we can put people rebuilding America, thousands of teachers in every state will go back to work, companies will get extra tax credit if they hire America’s veterans, and companies will get a4,000$ tax credit if they hire anyone who has spent more than six months looking for a job”. Obama said.  While most people in this country struggle to make ends meet, a few of the most affluent citizens and most profitable corporations enjoy tax breaks and loopholes that nobody else gets. So Obama stated that they should raise taxes on those who are most fortunate and can best afford it. “We need a tax code where everyone gets a fair shake and where everybody pays their fair share”. He said (politico, 2011).103 So all of these previous points show the most important parts in Obama’s speech about the job creation plan, but when it came to the congress to vote on this bill the Senate Republicans have voted to kill the $447 billion White House jobs bill despite weeks of barnstorming by President Barack Obama across the country. The plan would have included Social Security payroll tax cuts for workers and businesses and other tax relief totaling about $270 billion. There also was to be $175 billion in new spending on roads, school repairs and other infrastructure — as well as jobless aid and help to local governments to avoid layoffs of teachers, firefighters and police officers. Republicans opposed the measure over its spending to stimulate the economy and its tax surcharge on millionaires. But on November 23, 2011, President Barack Obama said that although Republican lawmakers have failed to take up the $447 billion jobs bill, he will give them another try so Obama hopes to pass the bill this time in the congress (Jake berry, 2011).104 103 http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0911/63043.html

104 http://www.nashuatelegraph.com/news/940956-196/supportive-crowd-greets-obama-as-hewarns.html

101

Wall Street demonstrations: As the percentage of the high unemployment didn’t change and there was no response from the government about creating new jobs, corruption is everywhere specially in the financial services, so on September 17, 2011 there has been a vast of protesters that have occupied Wall Street. The protests are against social and economic inequality, high unemployment, greed, as well as corruption, and the undue influence of corporations—particularly that of the financial services sector—on government. So after these demonstrations will the government respond or not?

3. Agricultural reform The United States now is facing one of the most dangerous problems that any economy may face which is the debt crisis. So, the United States government is trying to solve this problem as quickly as possible it is trying to get the solutions by using all its aspects. We will discuss in this section three of the solutions that the United States may use and how the United States government can use it to solve the debt problem the three solutions are:

a- Subsidies b- Visa reform

102

c- Food security

A-

Subsidies: Agricultural subsidies is Paid by the federal government to producers of agricultural products for the purpose of stabilizing food prices, ensuring plentiful food production,

103

supplement their income, manage the supply of agricultural commodities, and influence the cost and supply of such commodities and generally strengthening the agricultural segment of the national economy. The farmer will get subsidies if he is producing specific crops , some of these 10 crops wheat, feed grains, cotton, milk, rice, peanuts, sugar, tobacco, and oilseeds such as soybeans. The United States went from having no role for the federal government in farming to having government intervention in all aspects of farming from planting to harvesting to selling crops and that is the way it was until about 1930. In 1933 the government begins to offer subsidies to farmers to encourage them to be willing limit their production of crops in order conserve soil prevent erosion, and accomplish other minor goals for political reasons. Now, The U.S. Department of Agriculture pays 5 billion to the farmers in cash subsidies to farmers and owners of farmland each year.

Types of subsidies: 1- Direct payments : It was established in 1996 and it is cash subsidies for producers of 10 crops: wheat, corn, sorghum, barley, oats, cotton, rice, soybeans, minor oilseeds, and peanuts, these payments are based on a historical measure of a farmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s acres (how many acres the farmer has) used for production and are not related to current production or prices, it is the largest source of subsidies to farmers.

104

2- Countercyclical payments: Farmers and landowners receive counter-cyclical payments when crop revenue declines below a certain level. So the government provides extra subsidies when market prices are lower.

3- Marketing assistance loans: Marketing assistance loans program facilitate the orderly distribution of commodities throughout the year. Instead of selling immediately at harvest, a loan allows a producer who grows a crop to store the production and pledge the crop itself as collateral. The loan proceeds help the producer pay bills when they come due without having to sell the harvested crop at the time of year when prices tend to be lowest. Later, when market conditions may be more favorable, a producer can sell the crop and repay the loan.

4- Conservation Subsidies: It is a subsidy that is paid to farmers in order not to grow crops, but to cultivate ground cover such as grass or trees on retired acres.

5- Insurance:

105

Crop insurance is a risk management tool available to agricultural producers providing protection against low yields and/or lost revenue due to natural disasters including drought, excessive moisture, disease and other perils. The RMA (Risk Management Agency) describes its mission as helping farmers “manage their business risks through effective, market-based risk management solutions.

6- Disaster Aid: Congress has repeatedly expanded crop insurance programs in order to reduce farmers’ dependence on emergency bailouts. But both insurance subsidies and emergency bailouts have grown in cost. After just about any sort of crop damage, Congress jumps in to declare a “disaster” and distribute millions of dollars to farmers, whether or not particular farmers actually sustained substantial damage.

7- Average crop revenue election: ACRE is designed to protect farmers against revenue losses for each regardless of the cause: price decline, yield loss, or some combination of the two.

Advantages and disadvantages of agricultural subsidies:

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Disadvantages:  Farm subsidies damage the economy. In most industries, market prices balance supply and demand and encourage efficient production.  The USDA pays about 35% of its total subsidies to corn growers. When combined with other grains such as rice and wheat, the percentage of subsidies devoted to grain as a category comes out to a whopping 60%. Meanwhile, fruit and vegetable subsidies are almost non-existent.  Even granting that agricultural subsidies may reduce food prices in general, the benefits of a “cheap food” policy are not evenly distributed across all varieties of food; the price of fresh fruits and vegetables has actually risen and this will hurt the consumer directly (2010)105.  62 percent of farmers in United States did not collect subsidy payments according to USDA this is because Farm subsidies typically transfer income from consumers and taxpayers to

105 http://www.farmscapegardens.com/blog/45

107

relatively wealthy farmland owners (their average incomes of $200,000 ) as a result net losses are imposed on society.  Giving subsidies to the farmers make the prices of some crops low and this will prevent the competition and close international trade.( Daniel A. Sumner)106  Subsidies cause overproduction and this harms the environment because marginal or less productive land is cultivated unnecessarily, which often requires more inputs such as fertilizer and pesticides.  Overproduction also hurts worldwide crop prices and the ability for farmers in countries without subsidies to make a living.  Access to commodity programs and crop insurance are key factors in motivating farmers to plow up native grass land into crop land (farmland). 107

Advantages:  farm subsidies stabilize agricultural commodity markets, aid lowincome farmers raise unduly low returns to farm investments, aid rural development, compensate for monopoly in farm input supply and farm marketing industries, help ensure national food security, offset farm subsidies provided by other countries, and provide various other services (Daniel A. Sumner). 108  Subsidies are considered important for maintaining a safe and secure food supply in the United States. They also provide a safety net to farmers to protect against the fluctuating nature of farming and disasters such as floods or droughts. Domestic crop yield can fluctuate considerably depending on the local weather. As a result of these fluctuations in production levels and prices, there could be very large variations in farm revenues between years. A safety net 106 http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/AgriculturalSubsidyPrograms.html

107 http://www.farmland.org/programs/farm-bill/history/usfarmsubsidies.asp 108 http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/AgriculturalSubsidyPrograms.html

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can help to smooth farmers' income over time and ensure they are not required to maintain debt from year to year in order to maintain a consistent income(farmland).109

What will happen if subsidies are cut??? 1. If farm subsidies ended, U.S. agriculture would continue to thrive.

Farms would adjust, planting different crops and diversifying their sources of income. A stronger and more innovative agriculture industry would emerge, as occurred in New Zealand after it repealed all its farm subsidies in 1984. 2. Substantial cuts to farm subsidies would save taxpayers money and

reduce the federal budget deficit. 3. They should end subsidies for wellâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;off farmers, remove agricultural

trade barriers to cut food costs for families and reduce the debt load being imposed on young Americans.

b- Visa reform A lot of people leave their country and go to other one because they are seeking of more job opportunities, better life, and better standard of living. In order to be able to travel to any other country you have to have visa (an official authorization appended

109 Ibid

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to a passport, permitting entry into and travel within a particular country or region). There are many kinds of visas (depend on purpose of traveling).the one we are interested in our topic is H-2A visa: “A what America’s farmers and ranchers want is legal guest worker program that allows workers to come across the border, work and go back, which is what many workers want to do. They just want the economic opportunity to work. They do not want to stay here. In an ideal world that is what we want. The H-2A (temporary agricultural worker) program is the only existing guest worker program. And it has a host of flaws and difficulties, which make it not very usable.” Said Stallman (the president of the American Farm Bureau Federation) The H-2A agricultural guest worker program was passed by Congress in 1986 as part of the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA). It is the most functional of visa categories. The H2A visa is designed to allow a foreign national entry into the U.S. for temporary or seasonal agricultural work as farm workers temporarily. The work to be performed must be of a temporary or seasonal- i.e. such as a short annual growing cycle- nature, meaning employment that is performed at certain seasons of the year, usually in relation to the production and/or harvesting of a crop, or for a limited time period of less than one year when an employer can show that the need for the foreign workers(s) is truly temporary. Currently in the United States there are about 30,000 temporary agricultural workers under this visa program. All of these workers are supposed to be covered by U.S. wage laws, workers' compensation and other standards. Visa reform is a term used in political discussion regarding changes to current immigration policy of a country. In its strict definition, "reform” means to change into an improved form or condition. In the political sense, immigration reform may include promoted, expanded, or open immigration, as well as reduced or eliminated immigration. The immigration system in the US is broken and need to be reformed

110

Advantages and disadvantages of the visa reform: Disadvantages:  Despite that the foreign farmers are paying taxes and their wages is low the grower should also provide farmer with transportation to and from the worker’s temporary home to the workplace, housing to all H-2A workers who do not commute, three meals a day or facilities in which the worker can prepare food. When the contract period is up, the employer must provide the worker with transportation home or to their next workplace.

 The existing H-2A regulatory framework protects US farm workers from being displaced by foreign guest workers. The proposed (H-2A reform) regulations significantly undermine these protections, opening the door to widespread displacement of and discrimination against US farm workers.  At the same time, the relatively low wages of such workers and their acceptance of often difficult working conditions have caused them to be viewed as an economic threat to American workers. That’s why the department of labor issued the adverse effect wage rate (AEWR) which is the minimum wage that must be offered by the employer to the foreign farmers. So the foreign farmers wages should at least equal to AEWR and this in order to affect the employment opportunities of U.S workers (UFW).110

Advantages:

 An estimated 70% of all agricultural workers in the U.S. are here illegally either by fake documents or undocumented immigrants which is not good and

110 http://www.ufw.org/pdf/DOLH2Acomments.pdf

111

H-2A reform will facilitate and legalize people that want to work as farmers in the U.S and since it will be easy to apply for a job in the US this will decrease illegal immigrants .

 The H-2A program provides agricultural employers with an alternative source of labor and, in effect, expands the pool of available workers, potentially increasing competition for available jobs. It helps the grower achieve workforce stability.

 Working as a farmer is unwilling by the U.S citizens while there are states the agriculture is the number one industry as New York.

 The population of farm workers and their families stimulate the general economy, they are frequent consumers of goods and services, and they purchase and use the same commodities and services, such as food, clothing, housing, utilities, auto essentials, and entertainment.

 USDOL (United States department of labor) fees would increase from $10 per worker to $100 per worker. They pay more in taxes than they take out. They pay sales taxes, Social Security, income taxes, and driver’s licenses and fees. Though they are required to pay these taxes, as non-residents they are not able to realize many of the benefits (BOCES Geneseo Migrant Center, P.3).111

 By H-2A reform Employers would no longer have to do the same kind of documentation, such as recruitment reports, and would no longer have to send them to USDOL and the state for approval, but instead they would be subjected to more frequent and in-depth compliance audits.

 Though wages of American agricultural workers are low in comparison with wage rates in the U.S. economy, they are relatively high by the standards of neighboring less developed countries.

111 http://www.migrant.net/pdf/farmworkerfacts.pdf

112

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C- Food Insecurity "Food security" means that people have access, at all times, to enough food for an active, healthy life for all household members. It means that all people can get the kind of food that they want and healthy at the same time not the kind that they should eat because they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have money (because they are food insecure). Food insecurity is often rooted in poverty and has long-term impacts on the ability of families, communities, and countries to develop. It also means that the country is suffering from hunger which is the result from lack of economic growth so, increased food productivity plays an important role in alleviating hunger or from lack of access to family planning services, and World population is growing by 100 million per year, straining the productive capacity of agriculture. Hunger also causes poor maternal health and high rates of infant mortality rates.

Effect of financial crisis on food security in U.S BEFORE According to economic research report, Eighty-nine percent of American households were food secure throughout the entire year in 2007, meaning that they had access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life for all household members. The remaining households (11.1 percent) were food insecure at least some time during the year. About one-third of food insecure households (4.1 percent of all U.S. households) had very low food securityâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;meaning that the food intake of one or more adults was reduced and their eating patterns were disrupted at times during the year because the household lacked money and other resources for food. Prevalence rates of food insecurity and very low food security were essentially unchanged from those in 2005 and 2006.

AFTER An estimated 85.5 percent of American households were food secure throughout the entire year in 2010; the remaining households (14.5 percent) were food insecure, including 5.4 percent with very low food security. So we can conclude that the financial crisis increased food insecure people and this is also shown in the graph:

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The prevalence of food insecurity declined from 11.9 percent of households in 2004 to 11.0 percent in 2005 and remained near that level until 2007. In 2008, the prevalence of food insecurity increased to 14.6 percent of households and was essentially unchanged at 14.7 percent in 2009 and 14.5 percent in 2010. The prevalence of very low food security remained essentially unchanged from 2004 (3.9 percent) to 2007 (4.1 percent), then increased to 5.7 percent in 2008, remained at 5.7 percent in 2009, and declined to 5.4 percent in 2010. The United States of America will not leave people who are unsecured without food, not just food but a healthy food so it introduces a lot of food security programs such as:

- Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) ď&#x201A;ˇ

SNAP is the Nation's largest domestic food and nutrition assistance program for low-income Americans and serves as a source of demand for the products of American farmers and food industries.

ď&#x201A;ˇ

In fiscal year 2010, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP): ď&#x201A;§ Served about 40.3 million low-income Americans each month

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

Had an annual USDA (United States department of agriculture) outlay of about $68.3 billion (USDA, John A. Kirlin 2011).112

- WIC (Women, Infants, and Children) The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children, commonly known as the WIC program, serves to safeguard the health of low-income women, infants, and children younger than 5 who are at nutritional risk. As the third largest food and nutrition assistance program, WIC served over 9.1 million participants per month in fiscal 2010. Federal program costs for WIC were $6.7 billion in fiscal 2010 (Elizabeth Frazaã o, 2011).113

- Child Nutrition Programs USDA administers five major domestic food assistance programs that exclusively or primarily serve the nutritional needs of children: o

National School Lunch Program

School Breakfast Program

Child and Adult Care Food Program

Summer Food Service Program

Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program.



The child nutrition programs work individually and in concert to provide a nutritional safety net for children and together account for one-quarter of USDA's domestic food and nutrition assistance outlays.



In fiscal 2009, USDA spent $15.5 billion on these programs (Joanne Guthrie, 2011).114

112 http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/SNAP/

113 http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/WIC/

114 http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/ChildNutrition/

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The United States is paying billions of dollars to finance these programs to help those who are food insecure but as mentioned before the unites states is suffering from debt crisis so as any country it wants to increase production and decrease costs and expenses but by applying these food insecurity programs the U.S expenses will increase and here is the problem shall the U.S leave the people who are food insecure and concentrate on increasing production and flourishing the economy to overcome the problem of debt crisis so it will not finance the food insecurity programs (cutting expenses ) or continue paying money even the existence of debt crisis problem in order not to have hungry people or insecure people putting into consideration that the unsecured people is increasing so it may need increase the amount of money paid.

Topic two

Brazil Council on Foreign Relations to US, "it is in the interest of the United States “to understand Brazil as a complex international actor whose influence on the defining global issues of the day is only likely to increase.” CFR thinks Washington would be wise to look south again, not for new rivalries, but for new, and even stronger partnerships. Brazil Official name: Federative Republic of Brazil Capital: Brasília Population: 179 million Currency: Real Official language: Portuguese Date of independence, or formation date: 1822

Brazil is the world's leading coffee producer and also has rich reserves of gold, diamonds, oil, and iron ore. The city of São Paulo is the world's fifth-biggest conurbation, with some 20 million inhabitants. Brazil became independent of Portugal in 1822. Brazil shares a border with almost every other country in South America-only Chile and Ecuador are untouched--and covers almost half the continent. The largest country in South America and It is the fifth largest country in the world, behind Russia, Canada, China, and the U.S.A.

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Brazilians are one people, with a single culture. Brazil is the most highly industrialized country in Latin America. Its huge industrial base includes steel, automobiles, military aircraft (including the AMX jet fighter), tanks, hydroelectric power, and a nuclear power program. Its industrial base is so developed that the country exports high-technology aviation components, such as aircraft engines and helicopter landing-gear systems. Brazil will construct a small part of the international space station. Brazil's major trading partners are the United States, Germany, Switzerland, Japan, the United Kingdom, France, Argentina, Mexico, and Canada. Exports represent 7.3 percent of Brazil's gross domestic product (GDP--see Glossary), and industry accounts for about 41 percent, a pattern found in some developed countries. Once an industrial powerhouse of the developing world, Brazil now counts on services for 48 percent of its GDP. Brazil's economy, Latin America's biggest and the worlds eighth largest is greater than Russia's and twice as large as Mexico's. Its economy will be the sixth largest in the world by 2015, according to a Ministry of Finance prediction. In 1997 Brazil had an estimated GDP of US$775.5 billion, according to the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU). In 1995 Brazil was ranked third, after China and Mexico, for planned investments by American multinational companies. The second largest United States trading partner in the hemisphere in 1995-97, it is first in foreign direct investment from the United States, with US$41 billion. According to President Cardoso, foreign direct investment in Brazil in 1996 totaled US$9.4 billion, as compared with US$3.9 billion in 1995 and was expected to exceed US$14 billion in 1997. Multinationals based in Brazil remitted US$4 billion in dividends to their parent corporations during 1995. The energy, mining, petroleum, and telecommunications sectors expect investments of US$24 billion by the end of the 1990s.115 Brazil has consolidated its power in South America, extended its influence to the broader region, and become increasingly prominent on the world stage. The Obama Administrationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s national security strategy regards Brazil as an emerging center of influence, whose leadership it welcomes â&#x20AC;&#x153;to pursue progress on bilateral, hemispheric, and global issues.116 115 "BRAZIL: Introduction", 2006 interKnowledge Corp. date of access: 4/10/2012. http://www.geographia.com/brazil/ "BRAZIL: Introduction", World Desk Reference. Date of access: 4/10/2012. http://dev.prenhall.com/divisions/hss/worldreference/BR/introduction.html

116 Peter J.Mayer, " Brazil- US relation Analyst in Latin American Affairs", Congressional Research Service. Nov,22,2011 http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33456.pdf

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With a gross national income (GNI) of $1.6 trillion, Brazil is the largest economy in Latin America. Over the past eight years, the country has enjoyed average annual growth of over 4%. This growth has been driven by a boom in international demand for its commodity exports and the increased purchasing power of Brazil’s fastgrowing middle class. In 2010, the value of Brazil’s exports reached some $202 billion, contributing to a trade surplus of $20.3 billion. The country’s current economic strength is the result of a series of policy reforms implemented over the course of two decades that reduced inflation, established stability, and fostered growth. These policies have also enabled Brazil to better absorb international shocks like the recent global financial crisis, from which Brazil emerged relatively unscathed. Although current conditions and Brazil’s recent performance suggest the country will sustain solid economic growth rates in the near term, several constraints on mid- and long-term growth remain. Brazil has long held potential to become a world power, but its rise to prominence has been curtailed by setbacks, including 21 years of military rule, political instability, and uneven economic growth. The Brazilian military stifled representative democracy and civic action in Brazil, carefully preserving its influence during one of the most protracted transitions to democracy to occur in Latin America.117 Most analysts credit Brazil’s strong macroeconomic framework and the Lula Administration’s timely policy response for successfully mitigating the effects of the crisis. As the fallout of the financial crisis spread around the world, the Brazilian government injected at least $100 billion of additional liquidity into the local economy, provided support packages to productive sectors, and cut the key interest rate. The current President Rousseff On economic policy, sought to constrain spending, cutting about $32 billion (R$50 billion) from the budget and limiting the increase in the minimum wage in hopes of easing inflationary pressures, continued to provide extensive subsidized financing to Brazilian industry, and has launched an anti-poverty plan designed to eradicate extreme poverty by 2014. Going forward, issues likely to require Rousseff’s attention include attracting investment to develop the country’s infrastructure, improving the quality of public education and health services, and reducing high rates of crime and violence in Brazil’s urban centers. Brazil’s current conditions and recent economic performance suggest the country will sustain solid growth rates in the near term; however, many analysts assert that several constraints on mid and long-term growth remain.38 These include a sizeable public debt burden and fast growing private debt burden, high taxes and interest rates, low

117

ibid

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investment and savings rates, rigid labor laws, and overburdened transportation and energy infrastructure. Relations between Brazil and the United States are generally friendly. The United States Increasingly regards Brazil as a significant power, especially in its role as a stabilizing force in Latin America. The Obama Administration’s National Security Strategy states that the United States “welcome[s] Brazil’s leadership and seek[s] to move beyond dated North-South divisions to pursue progress on bilateral, hemispheric, and global issues.” Although Brazil and the United States share a number of common goals, the countries’ independent foreign policies have led to periodic disputes on trade and political matters. Some long-running disputes include Brazil’s opposition to the U.S. tariff on Brazilian ethanol and the stalled Doha Round of World Trade Organization negotiations. Some analysts assert that Brazil’s increasing global prominence and involvement on an array of issues will inevitably lead to disputes with the United States and that managing those disputes in a transparent and respectful manner will be the key to maintaining friendly relations moving forward. Trade issues are central to the bilateral relationship between Brazil and the United States. Both countries have been heavily involved in sub regional, regional, and global trade talks; however, they have frequently disagreed on the substance of trade agreements. In 2005, opposition from Brazil and other South American countries effectively killed the U.S.-backed Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). Since then, the United States has pushed for bilateral and sub-regional free trade agreements while Brazil has focused its efforts on strengthening the Common Market of the South (Mercosur). During President Obama’s March 2011 visit to Brazil, the United States and Brazil concluded an Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooperation. The Agreement creates a new bilateral trade dialogue designed to foster deeper cooperation on issues such as intellectual property rights, trade facilitation, and technical barriers to trade. Total trade between the United States and Brazil totaled $46.3 billion in 2010, an increase of nearly 30% over 2009. U.S. exports to Brazil were valued at $27 billion while U.S. imports from Brazil were valued at $19.3 billion. The United States is now Brazil’s second-largest trading partner and Brazil is the 11th-largest trading partner of the United States. In order to make greater progress in their economic relations, both governments need to make “courageous political decisions” to move both countries to the next level and change the dynamic of the hemisphere. In the absence of change in the current FTA model, however, neither country is likely to advance trade much beyond current levels. More promising results can be achieved if Brazil and the United States are

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willing to balance out costs and benefits associated with bilateral trade. The United States should be willing to cut agricultural subsidies in return for an FTA with Brazil. On the Brazilian end, the country must be willing to change its position on services, market access and intellectual property issues. While in the United States there is mounting political pressure for a comprehensive revision of trade policies, in Brazil, the same political willingness does not appear to be in place. Given the fact the United States only seeks trade agreements outlined according to its model, and Brazilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unwillingness to negotiate FTAs based on the U.S. model. To understand how Brazilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s trade relations with the United States have evolved over the years, one needs to look at its trade history. Traditionally Brazil's foreign economics policy has been centered on the defensive, protectionist objectivesfocusing on isolating the country from external threats and risks. Protectionism remains a major inhibitor of economic growth in Brazil. The country has high import tariffs on capital goods, especially in comparison to China, Indonesia, Korea and Thailand.118 Over the past eight years, Brazil and the United States have been involved in a dispute over U.S. subsidies for cotton farmers. In 2002, Brazil went to the WTO to challenge several provisions of the U.S. cotton program. A WTO dispute settlement panel ruled in Brazilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s favor in 2004, finding that certain U.S. agricultural support payments and export guarantees were inconsistent with its WTO commitments. Although Congress modified agricultural support programs in 2005, a WTO compliance panel ruled in 2007 that the U.S. actions were insufficient.130 Following a ruling from a WTO arbitration panel, Brazil announced in March 2010 that it intended to impose retaliatory measures against the United States worth $829 million, including $591 million in higher tariffs on a range of U.S. products and $239 million through suspension of certain intellectual property rights obligations. According to the U.S. Trade Representative, Brazil has improved its record on protecting intellectual property rights in recent years. In recognition of this progress, the United States Trade Representative lowered Brazil from the Priority Watch List of countries with significant intellectual property rights violations to the Watch List in 2007. Brazil has remained on the Watch List every year since 2007, however, as significant levels of piracy and counterfeiting persists and stronger enforcement is still needed. The United States and Brazil intend to continue working together on intellectual property rights issues under the Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooperation signed in March 2011. 118 Priscilla Yeon ,"Brazil and The United States trad agenda and challenges of the Bilateral relationship", Brazil Institute special report 2008. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/brazil.us.tradereport.pdf

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However, According to the U.S. State Department’s Country Report on Human Rights the following human rights problems were reported in Brazil in 2010: “unlawful killings; excessive force, beatings, abuse, and torture of detainees and inmates by police and prison security forces; inability to protect witnesses involved in criminal cases. A U.N. Special Reporter concluded that police in Brazil are allowed to “kill with impunity in the name of security.” BUT Although many analysts assert that Brazilian politicians at all levels of government have failed to devote the resources and political will necessary to confront the country’s serious public security problems, there have been a number of efforts in recent years to improve the situation.

Political corruption: According to many reports, Brazil loses $36billion to corruption. The discourse around public attitudes to corruption is the period of slavery in Brazil. This led to the acceptance of an elite, upper class that was somehow above the law. The slaves had neither the means, nor the moral attachment to abide by the law, but did not have the social standing to abide by it. This persists in the form of what Graeff describes as “corporatism” in Brazil today, where the upper class is somehow deemed to be exempted from following the letter of the law. Following the spate of corruption scandals that has blighted the government in recent months, Brazilians from all sectors of society are standing up in support of President Rousseff’s governmental “clean-up” operation and making their voices heard in the fight against corruption. Last Wednesday, Brazilian Independence Day celebrations were augmented by Brazilians around the country marching in protest.119 Brazil has long been open to and encouraged foreign investments, which is why it remains among of the world's leading investment destinations. The government advocates for both state participation in the economy and respect for the contractual rights of investors. However, despite a formally well-functioning business environment, several studies indicate that corruption and bribery are serious obstacles 119 Sarah de Sainte Croix ,"Brazilians Protest and March Against Corruption", The Rio Times, sep 13,2011. http://riotimesonline.com/brazil-news/front-page/brazilians-protest-

march-against-corruption/

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to doing business in Brazil. Especially in business dealings with the government at the local levels, corruption reportedly represents a serious threat. Positive developments in relation to corruption and investment: Brazil is often cited for its strong legal framework aimed at curbing corruption, and the country is occasionally used as a role model when establishing legal anticorruption frameworks in developing countries. However, effective enforcement of laws is a problem Although the fight against corruption faces obstacles in terms of implementation and lack of political support, anti-corruption initiatives in Brazil are formally strong and well-developed.

Risks of corruption: Companies operating in Brazil have to deal with a wide range of regulatory agencies due to the federal structure of the political system, which may increase the likelihood of demands for bribes by public officials. The Brazilian tax system is complex and reportedly prone to corruption. It is reported that tax collectors frequently ask for bribes to relax assessments and inspections, to refrain from pursuing acts of tax fraud or to give advice on the legal possibilities of reducing tax obligations.120

Crime rates: Much of the crime and violence in Brazil can be attributed to gangs and organized crime groups operating throughout the state. Experiencing violent crimes such as murder, rape, and kidnappings, as well as armed assaults and burglaries, these crimes increase the concern to about employees and Americans in Brazil. There is also Civil Unrest; the threat of political violence remains a possibility as Brazil periodically hosts large-scale demonstrations. While the vast majority of these

120 "Snapshot of the Brazil Country Profile", Austrian Development Agency. December 2011

http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/latin-america-thecaribbean/brazil/snapshot/

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protests are peaceful, violence can occasionally flare up, resulting in disturbances, property damage, and increased police activity. International Terrorism or Transnational Terrorism; Border areas of Brazil, including the Tri-Border Area (TBA) where the Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay frontiers meet, have been subject to illegal activity. Travelers should exercise caution when traveling to these areas. No incidents directed against official or non-official Americans have occurred in the TBA. There are no known indigenous terrorist groups other than the organized crime elements listed, operating in Brazil. Brazil is a non-aligned country with no significant enemies and is not targeted by any known radical groups. Brazil experiences the harmful effects of illicit drug trafficking. Several Brazilian cities are transshipment points for illicit drugs, especially cocaine. Crack cocaine use is increasing. Police response, both from the military and civil police, varies. Police authorities cite a lack of resources, under-staffing, and payroll issues among the key reasons why response times are not always optimal and why many crimes go unsolved. Brazilian law enforcement entities continue to look for creative policing strategies to overcome infrastructure challenges to achieve crime prevention in some areas.121

US-Brazil potential FTA: FTA (Free Trade Agreement) is a type of trade agreements at which the member countries lift most (or all) of its trade barriers in front of the other members’ goods and services, those agreements can be bilateral or multilateral, however, those type of agreements don’t support the free motion of capital nor labor.122 FTAs was proved to be one of the best ways to expand countries’ merchandise to foreign markets, especially if those merchandise are expensive and the trade barriers create an additional burden that makes buying that merchandise unaffordable. For both USA and Brazil, FTAs were great tools to expand their trade all over the globe, although both countries are different in their goals and necessarily in their FTAs’ shapes and members, but both agree on the importance of the agreements to revitalize the economy. 121 "Brazil 2011 Crime and Safety Report: Sao Paulo", United States Department of state, Bureau of diplomatic security. 24/2/2011. https://www.osac.gov/pages/ContentReportPDF.aspx?cid=10497 122 Business Dictionary, date of access: 10/4/2012. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/freetrade-agreement.html

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But, When we discuss a FTA between both USA and Brazil, it is something totally different, because, although the two countries are great political allies for decades, they are two powerful economies, not only that, the Brazilian economy is showing a great potential to have more advancement Important to be stated, is that USA put always some important considerations before negotiating any FTA with any country, so, the same will be applied to the Brazilian case, those considerations are: 1-Impact on US domestic Politics 2-Economic objectives 3-commitment of the partner country to accomplish the agreement 4-foreign policy consideration123

US Domestic Policies: This considers the political point of views inside the congress and the lobbies if it is powerful enough to pass the FTA in both the house and the senate, also if the other partner will pass the products important for the congressional constituents, and also if the FTA provisions will convince the opposition inside the congress. If we took Brazil, we will find that the provisions of the bilateral trade between them is witnessing a huge increase, and there is a common point of view between economists inside both USA and Brazil that lifting the trade barriers will increase that flourishing trade between the two countries, however, every lobby and politician will have his own point of view.

Economic Objectives: FTA is a trade agreement after all, and the economical branch is the cornerstone in signing any FTA, and in an FTA it is all about the US exporters, If it will open a new market for them, or increase their advantage in an existing market, also, If the FTA will help USA to take the partner country as a base to further market accessibility to the neighbors of the partner and also spread the democracy, labor rights and IPR in this region. If we took a look at Brazil, we will find that Brazil will allow the US exporters to lift the barriers that block their merchandise, and also the region of Latin America is not friendly to USA, so having an economically will boost USA position as a superpower.

Commitment of partner country:

123 Jeffery Schott, " Assessing US FTA policy", http://www.petersoninstitute.org/publications/chapters_preview/375/13iie3616.pdf

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“An Agreement needs to agree to all the conditions”, and trivial as it looks to be, it is very important for USA to make sure totally that the partner(s) agree to all the conditions that the USA propose in order to protect its own interest, and this means the commitment of the partner(s) both to share the economic objectives with the USA, implying the changes needed to achieve the objectives, and to integrate with the neighbors to widen the USA perspective inside the region. Brazil, in this point, is debatable. Although the administration is progressing on some cases like IPR and democracy, however, it is still having some major defects, mainly in the very high crime rates that oppose the stability that any investor needs; also there are some concerns on the human rights there.

Foreign Policy Consideration: As the title states, the foreign policy of the partner(s) is a major key, in the end you don’t want to develop the economy of an enemy!, however, other factors enter that title, like the expected effect of the economic develop on the democracy there by increasing the living standard and in return the overall culture, also, a key point is the political influence of the partner on the partner’s continent. Brazil in this point has a great advantage over any pending country, Both USA and Brazil are great political allies, also Brazil is the largest country in Latin America making it a great partner, in addition, Brazil has showed excellent increase in the democracy when the economy started flourishing.124 125

Doha Round: The Doha Round is the latest round of trade negotiations among the WTO membership. Its aim is to achieve major reform of the international trading system through the introduction of lower trade barriers and revised trade rules. Its fundamental objective is to improve the trading prospects of developing countries. The Doha Ministerial Declaration provided the mandate for the negotiations, including on agriculture, services and an intellectual property topic, which began 124 Keith Porter," The Relationship of the United States with Brazil", About.com http://usforeignpolicy.about.com/od/countryprof4/p/usbrazil.htm 125 The Doha Round", World Trade Org., http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dda_e/dda_e.htm "

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earlier. In Doha, ministers also approved a decision on how to address the problems developing countries face in implementing the current WTO agreements. At the Fourth Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar, in November 2001 WTO member governments agreed to launch new negotiations. They also agreed to work on other issues, in particular the implementation of the present agreements. The entire package is called the Doha Development Agenda (DDA). The Fifth Ministerial Conference in Cancún, Mexico, in September 2003, was intended as a stock-taking meeting where members would agree on how to complete the rest of the negotiations. But the meeting was soured by discord on agricultural issues, including cotton, and ended in deadlock on the “Singapore issues” The talks, named after the Qatari capital in which they were launched in 2001 The Doha round has made no significant progress since a ministerial meeting collapsed in mid-2008 in Geneva. An increasing number of officials admit privately that the round will never conclude, but as yet no government has publicly declared it over. If the talks are abandoned, it will be the first failure of a negotiating round since the WTO’s forerunner, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, was created in 1947.126

Agriculture in Brazil: Being a vast country with mainly-forest land, Brazil has been a great agriculture land since it was discovered, because of the high fertility of its soil and the diversity of its climate, which allows it to grow a variety of crops- wither annual crops or stable ones-, and it is a also a perfect place for cattle, which makes Brazil a great foodproducer. However, Brazil changed its agricultural-attitude and achieved high levels of development in the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st one, it included more crops and it increased the productivity and the quality of those crops which allowed Brazil to invade major markets like EU and USA. The agriculture development in Brazil started from 1949, for twenty years, this stage of development was a horizontal one, which means the increase of agriculture land by deforestation and enhancing the transportation by creating new roads to connect the far agriculture lands. 126 Randy Schnepf, Charles E. Hanrahan, "WTO Doha Round: Implications for U.S. Agriculture", January 4, 2010. http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RS22927.pdf..

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By the end of that era, it was the era of military reign in Brazil, in this time, the horizontal expansion was showing its limits, so the military regime decided to start the second development stage, which is the â&#x20AC;&#x153;conservative modernizationâ&#x20AC;?. This stage is the stage that depends on the conservation of the current land space, and the development of the technical methods used, this made Brazil started using new techniques, better seeds for more productive crops, and the usage of higher technology in agriculture.127 Mainly, one of the apparent results of the 2 nd stage is the increase of the crops in Brazil, changing from a mainly Coffee with cotton and sugar, into an arsenal of crops ranging from cocoa, cotton, rice, sugarcane, oranges, corn, soybeans, and wheat; those in the traditional segment included beans, manioc (cassava), bananas, peanuts, and coffee. In 2010, Agriculture accounted for about 6% of the GDP and the Entire agribusiness accounted for 25% of the GDP, and agriculture accounted for 40% of the trade surplus, which shows the importance of the agricultural sector in Brazil.128

127 "Agriculture", Library of the congress, http://countrystudies.us/brazil/71.htm

128 Luiz Martinelli, Peter Vitousek, "Agriculture in Brazil; impacts, costs, and opportunities for a sustainable future" 29 September 2010. http://www.scitopics.com/Agriculture_in_Brazil_impacts_costs_and_opportunities_fo r_a_sustainable_future.html

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“1998 agricultural products”

“2008 Agricultural products”

“1998 agricultural exports”

“2008 agricultural exports”129

US-Brazil Agricultural Relations: When we are talking between the Relations between the first and the seventh largest economies in the globe, then we must expect to see powerful economic relations between the two countries. In 2010, the agricultural relations between the 2 countries reached about 3.5 Billions U$, with a surplus of 2.3 Billions for Brazil, showing the powerful agricultural relations between the two countries. The US side contributed by 575 Millions U$, $575 million in 2010. Leading categories include: wheat ($112 million), cotton ($47 million), dairy products ($39 million), and sugars and sweeteners ($28 million). While the Brazilian side totaled 2.9 Billions U$, the 5th largest supplier of Ag imports. Leading categories include: coffee (unroasted) ($1.1 billion), tobacco ($310 million), fruit and vegetable juices ($278 million), and raw beet and sugar cane ($221 million).130 The obvious thing in the previous info., is the fact that the only sector in which the US has a deficit in trading with Brazil is the agricultural sector, which give an alarm to the rising agricultural power of Brazil, and also gives an important hint on the 129 http://www.nuffieldinternational.org/csc_conf/2011_csc/braz_ag_perspective_m_suzuki.pptx

130 "Brazil", Office of the US Trade Representative. http://www.ustr.gov/countriesregions/americas/brazil

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importance of the diversity in crops that allowed Brazil to find areas of competition with USA.

US-Brazil Competitive points:In 2005, Brazil and USA have seen the most powerful competitiveness in the history of agriculture, as this year was the most iconic year in the development of Brazil in the agricultural sector, and it was the beginning of the real appearance of Brazil on the Global economic Map.131 In that year, Brazil was able to take the first place in the global exports in many major crops that was controlled by USA, that leadership was increased in the following years by the further development in the agricultural sector in Brazil. In this section, we will deal with those products that mark the major competitive points between the two countries, both from the production and exports. 1-SoyBeans: Production: Global soybean production rose to 220 million metric tons (mt) in 2005, from the previous year’s total of 192 million mt. Brazil’s share of world soybean production was 25% in 2005. The United States continued to be the world’s top producer of soybeans in 2005 with 39%. Exports: Brazil’s soybean exports increased in 2005 as well. Brazil’s share of world soybean exports was 40% in 2005. Just slightly below Brazil’s total exports. The U.S. share of soybean exports in 2005 was 37%, However, USA gained the world’s lead again in 2006 until now, yet Brazil and Argentina are contributing with more than half the global exports, so it is still an important point of competition till now.132 2-Poultry (broilers): Production: Global poultry production increased in 2005. Brazil was third in production behind the United States and China with a share of world poultry production was 16% in 2005.

131 Charles E. Hanrahan, "Brazil’s Agricultural Production and Exports", CRS Report for Congress, October 16, 2006. http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RL33699.pdf 132 "Soybeans and Oil Crops", USDA, Economic Research Service. http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/Soybeansoilcrops/trade.htm

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The United States is the world’s leading producer of poultry with 27% of world production. China, the world’s second largest producer of poultry meat, accounts for 17% of world production. The European Union produced in 2005 about 13% of world production. Exports: Global broiler exports increased significantly in 2005 to 6.7 million mt from 6 million in 2004. Brazil led the world in broiler exports in 2005 (41% of global poultry exports) after exporting 2.4 million mt in 2004. The U.S. share of world broiler exports was 35% in 2005. The two countries accounted for some 76% of global exports in 2005. 3-Beaf and veal: Production: Global beef and veal production increased in 2005 to 52.2 million mt from 51.3 million mt the previous year. Brazil accounts for 16% of world beef production. The United States led the world in beef and veal production with share of global beef production was 22% in 2005. The European Union and China were the next largest producers of beef and veal in 2005. The European Union produced 15% of the world’s beef production, while China produced 7.1 million mt, 14% of global beef production. Exports: Globally, beef and veal exports increased from 6.5 million mt in 2004 to 7 million mt in 2005. Brazil led the world export market with the share of 26% in 2005. Australia was next with 20% of the world export market share. Argentina was third with 11% of export market share. The United States exported 313,000 mt in 2005(4.4% of world beef exports), an increase from the 209,000 mt exported in 2004, but still low compared to exports of 1.142 million mt in 2003, the year in which a case of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) or “mad cow” disease was discovered in the United States. (Important to say is, USA was the world leader till 2003, when BSE was later found that year causing USA to fall to 8th place). 4-Pork: Production: Global pork production increased in 2005 from 91.4 million mt in 2004 to 94.2 million mt in 2005. The People’s Republic of China led the world with more than half (53%) of global pork production. The European Union produced about 23% of world production. The U.S. share of global pork production in 2005 was 10%. Brazil produced 3% of global production in 2005. Export: Pork exports increased from 4.6 million mt in 2004 to 5 million ton in 2005. The European Union was the world’s largest exporter of pork with 28% of world exports of pork). The United States’ pork exports were 24% in 2005. Canada exported 22% of the global exports in 2005. Brazil was the world’s fourth largest pork exporter in 2005, with 15% of world pork exports

US-Brazil WTO Disputes:

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One of the main factors of the rising alert in USA towards Brazil, is the appearance of international disputes between the two countries, although their relations in the political field is very good and stable; the two countries have seen powerful disputes over some trading policies, those disputes were sent to the WTO so it can be the judge between them. Being the organization responsible for judging the trading disputes, WTO-as a judgehave seen two disputes between USA and Brazil, those disputes had similar outline in both of them. Case 1: US cotton subsidies:133 In 2002, Brazil initiated a dispute is WTO against USA about US violating the laws of WTO about subsidies paid, expressing its growing concerns about the bad impact of the paid subsidies from the USA government to the cotton farmers. Subsidies in itself is not a prohibited thing in WTO rules 134, however, It is very controlled whether in the quantity of money or the way it is pumped into the market, making it a very complicated and precise process. But in 2002, Brazil said in the dispute that USA is pumping illegal subsidies in the market, those illegal subsidies are harming Brazil interest and making a great imbalance in the global trade. So, after searching for more than a year, On September 8, 2004, a WTO dispute settlement panel ruled against the United States on several key aspects of U.S. cotton programs. This ruling was appealed by the United States, and on March 3, 2005, a WTO Appellate Body (AB) upheld the panel’s ruling and provided specific deadlines for removal or modification of the offending U.S. subsidies. In WTO’s point of view, USA has committed two main faults, the first one is by allowing prohibited subsidies that opposes the WTO laws, those subsidies are pumped in the market for the US cotton buyers to compensate its relatively- high price, which inflects direct damage to other countries. The other main fault is that USA had pumped subsidies with legal categories, but the quantity of the money was too much for the amount of money allowed for those subsidies, which makes the process easier for the US cotton farmers and this is another obstacle for other nation’s farmers. 133 Randy Schnep,"Brazil’s WTO Case Against the U.S. Cotton". Congressional Research Service March 2009. http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RS22187.pdf 134 For more Details “http://docsonline.wto.org/GEN_highLightParent.asp?qu=%28%40meta %5FSymbol+LT%FCUR%FC%2A%29+%26+%28%40meta%5FTypes+Legal+text%29+%26+%28%40meta %5FTitle+subsid%2A%29&doc=D%3A%2FDDFDOCUMENTS%2FT%2FUR%2FFA%2F24%2DSCM%2EDOC %2EHTM&curdoc=3&popTitle=LT%2FUR%2FA%2D1A%2F9”

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According to those previous incidents, USA was subjected to countermeasures for the interest of Brazilian farmers, those countermeasures were in the shape of aids to the Farmers, and they are divided into two main parts (Technical assistance, and liquid money) However, the two countries in 2010, held some negotiations to determine those countermeasures in a diplomatic way far from the WTO, and they were determined to be in the shape of subsidies in an informal way until the new Farm Bill of 2012 comes out and those payments are legislated. Case 2: USA Ethanol Tariffs and subsidies: Ethanol is a type of biofuel that is produced by using some crops like (soybeanscorn…) and transforming it by some chemical processes into a gas fuel, this biofuel was a vicious competition between the two biggest producers and consumers of this fuel……USA and Brazil! In Brazil, ethanol is produced in a highly efficient, sustainable and cost-effective manner, making the biofuel the most competitive available and considerably less costly than gasoline. Compared to ethanol made from corn in the U.S., Brazil's sugarcane ethanol is around 3 times less costly and has an energy balance 8 to 10 times stronger. Not surprisingly, the country is trying to create a global market for its green product and wants to export to the largest consumers. However, the U.S. protects its own ethanol producers by a steep $0.54 per gallon tariff, blocking direct imports. Moreover, American farmers and biofuel manufacturers receive lavish subsidies, estimated to cost U.S. tax payers as much as $5.1 billion in 2006 for ethanol alone.135 Early 2007, the United States and Brazil pledged to collaborate on the development of biofuels technologies and markets in the Americas. Even though the agreement was hailed by Brazil as recognition of its expertise and leadership in the sector, the country could not convince the U.S. to give up its trade barriers imposed on imported ethanol or its large farm and biofuel subsidies. To challenge this state of affairs, Brazil initiated a case against the U.S. at the World Trade Organization (WTO), the global body that settles trade related disputes. The move could threaten the U.S. biofuel industry. In December 2010, the U.S. government extended through end-2011 a 54-cent-pergallon import tariff on ethanol as well as a 45-cent-per-gallon subsidy for blenders’ worth up to $6 billion, which led the bad situation into a worse one by this total opposition to the Brazilian dispute.

135 "Brazil initiates WTO case against U.S. ethanol and farm subsidies", MONDAY, AUGUST 20, 2007. http://news.mongabay.com/bioenergy/2007/08/brazil-initiates-wto-case-

against-us.html

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Senators John McCain and John Barrasso said on the bi-Partisan delegation that visited Brail in early 2011 that the extension of U.S. ethanol subsidies and a tariff on imports is likely illegal under international trade rules, lending some support to Brazil's opposition to U.S. ethanol policy.

Offshore Drilling In a world controlled by the modern technology, energy resources, that move everything around starting from cars up to the shuttles in the space, are vital for the existence of any country nowadays. However, when it comes to USA, we are not talking about a normal country; we are talking about worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biggest super power, which means more industry, more technology, and for certain more energy consumption. And from that perspective, it is important for the USA to find out how to get the greatest amount of energy resources available to maintain its modern civilization; however, taking a decision requires a detailed look at the history of the oil industry.

A General Look at the Oil Industry:Generally, oil is one of the non-renewable resources of energy, along to coal and natural gas (which is produced in the same way the oil is), Oil is the biggest source of energy in the world, due to its variety of uses and products (actually some of the oil products are not connected to the energy, like plastic.s).

134

Petroleum comes from drilling underground wells on variety of depths, those wells in fact are very expensive and requires a lot of work, time and money, and the advanced technology in this industry still faces a lot of hurdles. The bad thing also, is that the probability of finding oil in the drilled well is 10% only, which increases maximum to 30% in places where successful drilling was done.

USA Consumption of oil USA is the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biggest consumer of oil; it consumes 19.1 Million barrels a day 136, where the total oil demand is 89.9 Million barrels a day by the end of 2012137. One of the most important things that we have to consider, is the strange jump in oil consumption, which is very apparent in the USA case, this increase is a reason in the increasing price which doubles USA problems. 138

136 The Fact Book", Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/rankorder/2174rank.html

137 "Oil Market Report",14 March 2012. http://omrpublic.iea.org/

138 "How to Profit in Global Capital Market." http://www.howprofit.com/uncategorized/oilconsumption-per-capita-1900-2010-us-japan-korea-hongkong-china-india.html

135

Offshore Drilling In order to find the energy, you have to look for its resources anywhere, and this is what is really obvious in the offshore drilling. Offshore drilling is the searching for oil (and natural gas) in wells under the seas or the oceans; those wells are extremely expensive and needs more effort and technology, as well as its high risk on the environment. But, as any industry is, some of those offshore wells are really good, so they deserve some attention aside from all those negative sides discussed above, and especially in two countries, Brazil and USA.

USA & Brazil Oil’s Projects: In the US delegation that visited, US president Obama Made a very interesting speech that was the buzz of the entire economic society for weeks, the most important piece in that speech is the focus of the current issue.139 “We want to partner with Brazil…on the issue of energy, which is why President Rousseff and I…agreed to launch a Strategic Energy Dialogue. By some estimates, the oil you recently discovered off the shores of Brazil could amount to twice the reserves we have in the United States. We want to work with you. We want to help with technology and support to develop these oil reserves safely, and when you’re ready to start selling, we want to be one of your best customers. At a time when we’ve been reminded how easily instability in other parts of the world can affect the price of oil, the United States could not be happier with the potential for a new, stable source of energy. Now, even as we focus on oil in the near term, we shouldn’t lose sight of the fact that the only long-term solution to the world’s dependence on fossil fuels is clean energy technology. And that’s why the United States and Brazil are deepening our cooperation on biofuels — (applause) — and why we’re launching a U.S.-Brazil Green Economy Partnership, because we know that the development of clean energy is one of the best ways to create new jobs and industries in both our nations.” After this speech, there was a storm of debates about the soundness of the step of moving the US oil imports from the Middle East to Brazil, while the step had its own positive points; it also called for another question “What about US offshore reserves 139 "Obama calls for more offshore drilling in Brazil Oil", march. 2011 Institute for Energy Research. http://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/2011/03/22/obama-calls-for-

more-offshore-drilling%E2%80%A6in-brazil

136

that

the

current

administration

leaving

under

the

sea?”

In this case, we must take a look at both US and Brazil’s Reserves, and then the decision will be easier and more accurate.

1-Brazil Oil reserves:Brazil is an emerging Oil power in the world, with the newly-discovered reserves in the Pacific Ocean; Brazil is very close from the dream of becoming a major petroleum power that can even compete the Middle East. With a very promising report, Brazil’s proven oil reserves rose 10.65% in 2010 to nearly 14.25 billion barrels, the biggest annual increase in the past eight years, the ANP (The National Petroleum Authority/Autoridade Nacional do Petróleo) oil regulator announced this week. Total reserves, overwhelmingly offshore, which also include probable and possible reserves, soared 34.57% to 28.47 billion barrels.140 ANP also indicated that proven natural gas reserves increased 15.23%, ending 2010 at 423 billion cubic meters. The new figures include initial production at the ultra-deep Lula and Cernambi fields, the first to be developed in Brazil’s promising offshore, pre-salt frontier, so-named because it is located deep below the ocean floor under a shifting layer of salt, Located in a roughly 160,000-sq.-kilometer area, the pre-salt fields could potentially quintuple the country’s current reserves and transform Brazil into a major oil power. So, with the presence of good relationships, short transportation distance, and more political stability, Brazil is a good choice for USA more than the Middle East, however, with the high costs of drilling and the time needed to start getting real crude oil from those reserves, the transportation to Brazil as the major oil contributor needs some more time….and debates.141 2- US Oil Reserves:

140 "Brazil’s proven oil reserves increase 11% in 2010 reaching 14.25 billion barrels". Fep 18th 2011. http://en.mercopress.com/2011/02/18/brazil-s-proven-oil-reservesincrease-11-in-2010-reaching-14.25-billion-barrels

141 Peter Millard , "Brazil Oil Fields May Hold More Than Twice Estimates", Jan 19, 2011.

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-01-19/brazil-oil-fields-may-hold-more-thantwice-estimated-reserves.html

137

USA is facing a very critical era in its petroleum industry, after the infamous accident in Gulf of Mexico142, the banned, new offshore drilling projects in USA became a matter of dreams, however, with the oil prices going wild and USA paying 700Billion U$ every year for Oil imports, people believe that time is convenient to change this old way of thinking. The Minerals Management Service (MMS), is the part of the U.S. Department of the Interior responsible for leasing tracts to oil and gas companies and collecting the royalties on them, estimated that there are around 18 billion barrels in the underwater areas now off-limits to drilling. That's significantly less than in oil fields open for business in the Gulf of Mexico, coastal Alaska and off the coast of southern California, where there are 10.1 billion barrels of known oil reserves as well as an estimated 85.9 billion more. However, offshore drilling is not that easy, it needs a lot of time; In addition, offshore oil exploration is slow and costly. If the federal government opened California's coast to drilling tomorrow, the first exploratory wells probably wouldn't be drilled for at least six years, Medlock said. Bringing newly discovered oil fields into full production would take longer. That means any new oil wouldn't arrive on the market until midway through the next decade, at the earliest. The process is slow enough that the Energy Information Administration, the statistics branch of the U.S. Department of Energy, estimated last year that opening the coasts to offshore drilling would have no significant impact on oil prices before 2030.143 So, with Independency in oil reachable-but in 2030-people believe that this is the time to get their own energy and by their own workers with no more payment to other countries with unrest. And that just leads us to the conclusion, which is to choose whether to wait and MAYBE you depend on yourself, or just keep the things as it isâ&#x20AC;Ś.or at least, try to improve it a little bit!

142 "Louisiana Oil Spill 2010 PHOTOS: Gulf Of Mexico Disaster Unfolds". Updated: 05/25/11. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/30/louisiana-oil-spill2010_n_558287.html#s172644&title=Gulf_Oil_Spill 143 David R. Baker,"The lowdown on offshore oil reserves", July 22, 2008.

http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/07/21/MN6M11SN60.DTL

138

139

:Chairman Hani Samy :Vice chairlady Mariam Ragaei :Ranking Member Ahmad Ashraf Ali :Party Consultant

140

Heba Mostaf Committee on Judiciary is one of the founding committees in the senate, {144} .which was on the 10th of December 1816 {145}

:Jurisdiction

In the starting years of the committee it was concerned with criminal justice, the expansion of the judicial systems to new territories and states, and judicial salaries. However, in the following years, and due to the civil rights and civil liberties movement in USA, the committees jurisdictions were broadened to include more issues concerning these movements as well as the protection of the American population from individual crimes, the broadening included discussing issues as terrorism, human rights, immigration laws, intellectual properties, anti-trust laws, and internet .privacy As it’s mainly concerned with the oversight of departments of justice and FBI (Federal bureau of investigation), and the Department of Homeland Security, the Judiciary Committee plays an important role in the .consideration of nominations and pending legislation :Chairmanship

 The Chairman:



Sen. Patrick Leahy (Democrat-Vermont)

The Ranking Member:

144 [“Committee on the Judiciary, About the Committee” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/about/] 145 [“Committee on the Judiciary, Committee Jurisdiction” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/about/jurisdiction.cfm]

141

Sen. Chuck Grassley (Republican-Iowa)

MAC 2012: Committee on Judiciary Revolutions spread all over the Arab world; Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen, Syria, last spring, spreading the principles of justice and dignity for their people, insisting on the fact that Arabs should be treated as the people of civilized, citizen-respecting states. Due to the beginning of this new Arab dawn, the Committee on Judiciary in the model has decided this year to increase the awareness of the Egyptian youth on issues they thought they would never be granted the chance to discuss in fear of such corrupted regimes. Criminal justice, it is fact that the debate going on the efficiency of the rehabilitative justice system and the retributive justice system; including capital punishment, creates more ambiguity about the direction the criminal justice system is going everywhere, the committee works on enhancing the understanding of the several aspects needed to discuss when facing criminal justice issues, in order for the youth to share their well-based thoughts and opinions about the suitable system. Another new issue that faces all civilized communities, including the Arab community, is euthanasia, the broadened view to this issue will be clearly explained and thoroughly discussed in the committee, leaving the educated youth with the choice to support this act or not.

142

Outline: First Topic: Criminal Justice  Introduction to criminal justice.  The history of criminal justice. First Sub-topic: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution  Retributive Justice o Definition and introduction to the system. o The history and origin of the system. o The system in Religion. o The system in the USA.  Rehabilitative Justice o Definition and introduction to the system. o The history and origin of the system. o The basis of the system.  The Debate: o The objectivity of each system. o The systems in regards to the criminal's circumstances. o The better basis of determining a sentence. o The practicality of rehabilitative justice. o Special considerations to imprisonment.  Studies in Deterrence.  Financially, cost efficiency.  Polls.  Proposed solutions: Second Sub-topic: Death Penalty  Definition and introduction to death penalty.  The history of death penalty and capital punishment: o Worldwide and in the USA.

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 Crimes punishable by death penalty.  Methods of execution.  Pros and cons of death penalty as a punishment: o The effects of the death penalty on the society  Death penalty's acceptability in religion.  Financially, cost efficiency.  Cases. Second Topic: Euthanasia            

Definitions. Cases where Euthanasia is possible. Stages and Procedures of Euthanasia. Classifications of Euthanasia. History of euthanasia. The medical and ethical aspects of euthanasia. Famous cases. The religious aspect of euthanasia. The legal background of euthanasia. Famous acts and court trials. The financial/economical aspect of euthanasia. Statistical facts about euthanasia.

144

1st Topic

riminal Justice "Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere." - Martin Luther King Jr. ◆

Introduction to Criminal Justice: Criminal Justice, Punishment and Corrections in America are a crucial part of

the United States’ criminal justice system. The United States has the largest inmate population in the world, with more than 2.5 million in prisons or jails. The roots of corrections in America can be traced back to the European system that was used in England, France, and Holland at the time when early colonists first arrived in this country.

✿The History of Criminal Justice: OLD AND NEW COVENANT {146} The history of crime begins in the first book of the Bible which dates back at least seven thousand years. In Exodus 21: 24, the oft misquoted "Eye for an eye" verse, when read in context is a statement of the modern "rule of proportionality" standard used on our courts today. That is, the pay-back (penalty) is proportionate to the harm actually caused. This is a legal principle in Biblical, Rabbinical and Common Law. It has nearly always been understood that this verse was not a literal eye but representative of the "worth" of an eye. In other words, the context of Exodus 21 is "value for value".

ENGLISH COMMON LAW {147} 146 [“Law and Liberty, History of Criminal Justice” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.lawandliberty.org/justice.htm] 147

145

Along with the evolution of time, the rules and principles of criminal justice have evolved as well, from the old and new covenant periods to English Common Law era, which started by the emphasis of the concept of "The State of Nature" which was explained by its creator John Locke as "..the state all men are naturally in, and that is a state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of possessions and persons as they see fit. Every man or government is in a state of nature when there exists no civil authority to settle a dispute between them. They have not surrendered themselves to a common judge."

John Locke

Sir William Blackstone was a legal scholar during this period whose Commentaries on the Law of England became the guiding influence on English (and American) Law for three hundred years. He developed and articulated many legal principles which are Biblical in origin and anyone familiar with the U.S. Declaration of Independence and Constitution will recognize the principles advanced by Blackstone. Among those principles are the theories on Civil duties: "Every citizen who wishes to share in the benefits of social order." In other words, there can be no liberty without responsibility. Sir William Blackstone

The list below is a partial list of the principles of criminal justice which became part of the written law during this period. 1. "Justice is proportionate to our actions." 2. "Justice is retributive." 3. "Justice is vindicatory." (Provides sanction against the offender) 4. "Justice is compensatory." (Restores to the victim) 5. "Judgment under the law is declaratory." (Declares what is right) 6. "Judgment under the law is remedial." (Corrects what is wrong) 7. "Judgment under the law is directive." (Directs behavior) 8. "Inalienable right to property. Citizens cannot be forced to give up rights to

property unless they are found guilty of a crime which amounts to forfeiture." 9. "Citizens cannot be treated like criminals unless they have been tried and

convicted as criminals.

MODERN THEORY {148}

[â&#x20AC;&#x153;Law and Liberty, History of Criminal Justiceâ&#x20AC;? accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.lawandliberty.org/justice.htm]

146

As criminal law developed in the 20th century, American Jurisprudence moved further and further away from common law principle that a crime consisted of two elements, a guilty deed [Actus Rea] plus a guilty mind [Mens Rea]. The requirement of an act is one that is evidence of a choice being made and choice, of course, brings into question the state of mind (drug induced, emotion induced, medical/psychological aspects). In an effort to make the criminal justice system more uniform and predictable, judges and legal theorists sought to marginalize the element of "intent". They sought to blur the lines between criminal law and civil law by minimizing, or eliminating altogether, the requirement of mens rea.

148 [â&#x20AC;&#x153;Law and Liberty, History of Criminal Justiceâ&#x20AC;? accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.lawandliberty.org/justice.htm]

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◆ First

Sub-topic: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution:

Imprisonment was less common in the early colonial years, but the jail system soon found its way into being a staple of corrections in America. It wasn’t until the late 19th century that prisons in America shifted their focus – rather than just existing to punish criminals, prisons would now set goals to rehabilitate offenders through both education and skilled labor. Corrections in America would also make it a point to dedicate efforts towards mentally and emotionally re-training criminals so that they will be able to re-enter society when their sentence is complete. ◆

First: Retributive Justice ◆

✿Introduction to Punishment: Retributive justice is defined as the theory that considers punishment a morally acceptable response to crime, as long as it is proportionate to the offense. The maxim, "Let the punishment fit the crime" often summarizes the principle adopted in western society; that punishment should be functioning as a deterrent, however although deterrence to the society is one of the main goals of punishment, retributive justice considers that punishment should be determined primarily (possibly even only) by the seriousness of the crime itself, and not by the extent of deterrence that this punishment provides in the behavior of members in the society. {149} It is a very serious mistake to think that the retributive ideal in the criminal justice system is about vengeance, retaliation or payback. Rather, it is an extremely sophisticated idea that often forms the basis of, and arguably is even the leading indication of, a developed sentencing system. {150}

149 [“International Debate Education Association, Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.idebate.org/debatabase/topic_details.php?topicID=307] 150 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

148

Applied to the international stage, retributive justice represents the type of justice that international institutions such as the International Criminal Court (ICC) attempt to realize.

- The Early History of Punishment: The Code of Hammurabi that was written around 1750 BC was the first settlement of retributive justice. In this code, the abiding principle was "Talio" which had to do for mutilating or amputating the part of the body that had committed a crime. {151}

- Punishment in Religion: Moving on, after The Kingdom of Hammurabi, came the Ten Commandments which summarized the citizen’s duty under law. In the first five books of the Bible, known as the Torah (Law), Biblical punishments follow Hammurabi. Crimes under the Biblical laws were a violation of God’s will and had to be punished for. The legal tenants of the Torah were complimented by interpretations of the Mishnah (oral law) and the Talmud (an encyclopedic compilation of legal debates. The tenants of Jewish law have three purposes. They are "Retributive" (punishing the criminal for his act), "Deterrent" (severe enough to intimidate others from committing the crime) and "Expiatory" (attempting to obtain God's forgiveness). Punishments included: {152} a) Imprisonment, which was reserved for repeat offenders who had been convicted twice before. b) Banishment (forcing an offender to leave his home and go abroad or to another region either permanently or for a fixed period of time).

151 [Lewis Lyon, The History of Punishment (The Lyons Press, 2003). http://wcprg.org/History.pdf] 152 [Tim Lambert, “A Brief History of Punishments”, Local Histories, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.localhistories.org/pun.html]

149

Hammurabi

c) Sympathetic punishment (where the offender receives the same injury that he inflicted on his victim. “Life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, burning for burning. The Bible, Exodus 21:23”) was ruled for offenses against the person. d) Flogging (also known as whipping) was the preferred punishment for a total of 168 offenses including seven types of incest and eight violations of dietary laws. e) Fines were reserved for property crimes and minor bodily injuries. There were 36 capital crimes including murder, sexual offenses, and witchcraft. The Bible lists three methods of execution; stoning, burning and decapitation. Stoning was the most common method used mainly for crimes that affected the well being of the whole community including sex crimes. Death by burning was the punishment for nine categories of incest and one of adultery-that of sex with a married daughter of a priest. Decapitation (execution by cutting off the criminal's head) was reserved for willful murderers and those convicted of communal apostasy (the renunciation of religion). Capital cases had to be tried by at least 23 judges who needed a majority of at least two to convict. {153}

- Punishment in USA: In the early years of the United States there was no prison system but sentences consisted of fines, whippings, public humiliation, and banishment. The reform movement focused on the issue of freedom which had been the basis of the American Revolution. Different states enacted laws to reduce the brutality of incarceration and developed procedures to turn the offender into a law abiding citizen. Competition between New York and Pennsylvania focused on the activities of prisoners. In the New York prisons at Auburn and in Ossining prisoners slept alone one to a cell. They were forbidden to speak or engage in any form of contact. In the Pennsylvania system the prisoner was isolated with his only reading material being the Bible. His only diversion was work to complete in his cell, usually the spinning of wool. In the 1860’s and 1870’s the habit of handing down long sentences had begun and helped to create the huge and overcrowded system that still exists. The US prison system is not only the largest but probably the first large prison system which today comprises some 2.5 million inhabitants.

153 [Lewis Lyon, The History of Punishment (The Lyons Press, 2003). http://wcprg.org/History.pdf]

150

◆

Second: Rehabilitative Justice ◆

✿Introduction to Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation is the idea of ‘curing’ an offender of his or her criminal tendencies, of changing their habits, their outlook and possibly even personality, so as to make them less inclined to commit crimes in the future. It seeks to prevent a person from reoffending by taking away the desire to offend. This is very different from the idea of ‘deterrence’ (which is the idea of making him afraid to offend, though he may still desire to), and the idea of ‘incapacitation’ (which is the idea of taking away his physical power to offend, though he may still desire to and be unafraid to). Reformists have taken criminal justice to a whole new level by creating the rehabilitation system in criminology and penology. Not only did they enhance the way to deal with criminals from punishing to curing, but also they innovated a new concept called "Restorative Justice" where the offender is made to confront his victim, often in the company of the victim's family, and representatives of the society in which the offence took place. These initiatives taken by the reformists were made according to their belief in helping the offenders instead of punishing them.154

154 [Jud Evans, “Deterrence, Retribution and Rehabilitation”, Evans-Experientalism.com, accessed February 28, 2012. http://evans-experientialism.freewebspace.com/evans_retribution.htm]

151

- The History of Rehabilitation: Rehabilitative strategies came to the fore in many Western penal systems in the 1960s. They remain prominent in sentencing policy in many European countries. Although today community-based sanctions would be seen as the most clearly rehabilitative type of sentence, the idea of prison itself having a beneficial reforming effect has had a longer history. The main principle on which prisons were established was that of enforced isolation, causing the offender to contemplate his or her sins and need for redemption. Throughout the nineteenth century the rhetoric of reformation persisted even within the harshest penal regimes. The reformative model then became reinvented in the twentieth century in terms of behavioral science, and reached its high point in the 'medical' or 'treatment' model widely accepted in US prisons in the 1960s.155

- The main questions that the reformists base the rehabilitation system upon are:   

Does Prison Work? Why should the judiciary be prevented from locking up more people, if that leads to a fall in crime? Could it be that the fall in crime rates is because we are locking more people up in the first place, as has been claimed?

There are three points to be made in relation to this question, all of which illustrate strongly the danger of over-using imprisonment. First, international research shows that decreases in crime rates may be attributed to multiple factors, usually independently of the amount of people put into prison. Secondly, prison research has proved that prison does not work according to simple recidivism criteria. Researches carried out showed that each prisoner had on average clocked up ten previous terms of imprisonment - hardly an indication of the potential of prison for rehabilitation. Thirdly, just as imprisonment disproportionately affects ethnic minorities in other countries, so too does it disproportionately affect the young working-class males in the US society. This is because offenders do not in fact commit crime as a result of a rational choice, but in the context of their circumstances, the reformists claim. Research that has been recently carried out into the links between economic deprivation and crime found that an apparently significant variation in sentencing exists depending on disadvantage. In total, 29 per cent of those defendants from the most deprived areas were found to receive custodial sentences, compared to 19 per cent of those from the least deprived 155 [Ivana Bacik, “Crime and Punishment - Retribution of Rehabilitation”, The Bar Council of Ireland, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.lawlibrary.ie/viewdoc.asp? Docid=144&Catid=18&StartDate=01+January+2001]

152

areas. It was also found that defendants from more deprived areas are 49 per cent more likely to receive a custodial sentence than those from less deprived areas, once other variables are taken into account. In other words, the findings indicate that the economic deprivation of a particular community may be a factor leading to the increased likelihood of a custodial sentence for those defendants, particularly the young men, from that community. {156} ◆ THE

DEBATE ◆

Is rehabilitation a more just objective than retribution? {157} Yes 

No Rehabilitation is the more



Punishment signals clearly that certain

humanizing and dignified

conduct is wrong. The purpose of

objective. It is the most valuable

punishment is to show disapproval for the

ideological justification for

offender’s wrongdoing, and to clearly

punishment, for it alone promotes

condemn his criminal actions. This is why

the humanizing belief in the notion

we punish; we punish to censure

that offenders can be saved and not

(retribution), we do not punish merely to help

simply punished. The rehabilitative

a person change for the better

ideal alone conveys the message

(rehabilitation). We still have to punish a

that the state has an obligation to

robber or a murderer, even if he is truly sorry

help those who fall short of the

and even if he would really, really never

standards of behavior it has set.

offend again and even if we could somehow

These people are often those with

tell that for certain. This is because justice,

the greatest social disadvantages

and not rehabilitation, makes sense as the

that have constrained them to a life

justification for punishment. Why is justice

in crime in the first place.

and censure (‘retribution’) so important? Because unless the criminal justice system



Punishment for punishment's

responds to persons who have violated

156 [Ivana Bacik, “Crime and Punishment - Retribution of Rehabilitation”, The Bar Council of Ireland, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.lawlibrary.ie/viewdoc.asp? Docid=144&Catid=18&StartDate=01+January+2001] 157 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

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sake (desert) is wrong in a decent

society’s rules by communicating, through

society. Desert (retributive) theory,

punishment, the censure of that offending

on the other hand, sees punishment

conduct, the system will fail to show society

as an end in itself, in other words,

that it takes its own rules (and the breach of

punishment for punishment’s sake.

them) seriously.

This has no place in any enlightened society.



Punishment acknowledges to victims that they have been wronged. Punishment,



Retributive justice replaces

in other words, may be justified by the aim of

the interests of society with

achieving ‘justice’ and ‘desert’, and not by

ideology. Rehabilitative ideal does

the aim of rehabilitation.

not ignore society and the victim. In fact it is because it places such great value on their rights that it tries so hard to change the offender and prevent his re-offending. By seeking to reducing re-offending and to reduce crime, it seeks constructively to promote society’s right to safety, and to protect individuals from the victimization of crime.

Does rehabilitative justice better account for circumstances of offender? {158} Yes 

No Rehabilitation acknowledges



Crime is not a product of

the reality of social inequity. To

circumstances; punishment fosters

say that some offenders need help

accountability. Crime is not pathology, it is

to be rehabilitated is to accept the

not the product of circumstance, and it is

158 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

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idea that circumstances can

certainly not the product of coincidence. It is

constrain, if not compel, and lead to

the result of choices made by the individual,

criminality; it admits that we can

and therefore the justice system must

help unfortunate persons who have

condemn those choices when they violate

been overcome by their

society’s rules. To say otherwise (i.e. to say

circumstance. It rejects the idea that

that criminals are merely the product of their

individuals, regardless of their

unfortunate circumstances) would be an

position in the social order, exercise

insult to ideas of free will, human autonomy

equal freedom in deciding whether

and individual choice – it would be to deny

to commit a crime, and should be

the possibility of human actors making good

punished equally according to their

decisions in the face of hardship. Retribution

offense, irrespective of their social

alone best recognizes the offender’s status as

backgrounds. Policies that ignore

a moral agent, by asking that he take

these realities foster hardships that

responsibility for what he has done, rather

will fall primarily and

than to make excuses for it. It appeals to an

disproportionately on the already

inherent sense of right and wrong, and in this

disadvantaged, and deepen the

way is the most respectful to humanity

resentment that many inmates find

because it recognizes that persons are indeed

difficult to suppress upon their

fundamentally capable of moral deliberation,

release back into such a society.

no matter what their personal circumstances are.

Which is a better basis for determining sentencing? {159} Yes

As a guide to the sentencing decisions

Retribution advocates that more serious crimes

of judges, having rehabilitation as a

should be punished more seriously, because the

goal provides the most flexible and

more severe the violation of our rules, the greater

sensible direction. With rehabilitation

the censure that is needed. It means that if X, a

as a guide sentences can give a penitent

pickpocket, would get punishment A, then Y, a

offender, or an offender who has

robber who uses force and then rapes his victim

159 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

155

learned from his mistakes (i.e. a self-

should get a proportionately more severe

rehabilitated offender), the chance to

punishment, punishment B. The idea is

receive a lighter sentence. On the other

‘proportionality’, not ‘equivalence’ – nobody is

hand it can give offenders a different or

suggesting we should rob Y and then rape him to

tougher sentence to help them reform,

“pay him back”. It is thus very different from the

if they are less likely to reform.

idea of an “an eye for an eye”. What matters is

Retribution, by contrast, merely

merely that more serious crimes are treated

advocates “an eye for an eye, a tooth

proportionately more seriously. Punishment A

for a tooth”. This simplistic notion of

may one month’s probation while B may be 10

vengeance is primitive if not barbaric,

years imprisonment. By contrast, under a

and should not be encouraged in

rehabilitative model where the goal was the

society.

reformation of the offender, the pickpocket may well get 10 years imprisonment if he looks like he is not going to reform, while the robber-rapist may get one month’s probation if he is repentant – a result that is surely ridiculous. When it comes to deciding the quantum of punishment, proportionality (retribution) is the only consistent and fair approach.

Does rehabilitation actually work? {160} Yes 

No Studies show rehabilitation



Rehabilitation programs are not

programs are effective. If we could

reliable enough. While some rehabilitative

find a medicine that would ‘cure’

programs work with some offenders (those

some offenders so they would never

who would probably change by themselves

offend again, would we really not

anyway), most do not. Many programs

want it? Even if it only worked for

cannot overcome, or even appreciably

some people, is that not still

reduce, the powerful tendency for

worthwhile? It is no different with

offenders to continue in criminal behavior.

rehabilitative programs – we should

They simply do not work. ‘Rehabilitation’

160 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

156

certainly support them if they can be

is therefore a false promise – and the

shown to work. And indeed, the most

danger with such an illusory and

recent studies show that they do.

impossible goal is that it is used as a front

Such programs include cognitive-

to justify keeping offenders locked up for

behavioral programs (say, trying to

longer than they deserve and sometimes

get a violent offender to think and

even indefinitely (‘if we keep him here

react differently to potential ‘trigger’

longer maybe he might change’). We

situations), pro-social modeling

cannot justify passing any heavier or more

programs, and some sex-offender

onerous a sentence on a person in the name

treatment programs. The most

of “rehabilitation” if “rehabilitation” does

credible research (done by a

not work.

technique called meta-analysis) demonstrates that the net effect of



It is too hard to tell if rehabilitation

treatment is, on average, a positive

has "worked." The question “does it

reduction of overall recidivism (re-

work?” must be joined by a second

offending) rates of between 10% and

question: “even if it does work, how can

12%, which would promote a

you tell, with each individual offender,

reduction in crime.

when it has worked?” This provides further problems with subscribing to the



Prison as punishment does not

rehabilitative ideal, argued below.

effectively deter criminals. Stuart Henry, Ph.D.., Professor and Chair of Interdisciplinary Studies, College of Urban, Labor and Metropolitan Affairs, Wayne State University. "On the Effectiveness of Prison as Punishment". Paper presented at the Conference: Incarceration Nation: The Warehousing of America’s Poor. October 24, 2003: "One might conclude that those incarcerated are less likely to be rational, cost-benefit calculators. Indeed, a look at incarcerated offenders' criminal history supports exactly this point. Data shows that the national re-arrest rate is 63%, although can be as high

157

as 84% for juveniles, but that 76% of the state prison population has a previous criminal history of prior convictions. The data for 1997 shows that almost half of those with prior convictions are for violent offenses. Importantly, 59% of recidivists have more than two previous convictions and 43% have more than 3 convictions. Clearly, the threat of prison as punishment did not work for the majority of these offenders. This picture of the deterrence effect of prison as punishment is further undermined when examining the kinds of crimes that those in state prison have committed."

Imprisonment: A special consideration. {161} Yes 

Rehabilitation is not only  important when the court is deciding on the sentence. It is also important when it comes to actually carrying out the punishment. This is perhaps the clearest with sentences of imprisonment. The role of the criminal justice system does not end with the pronouncement of a

The goal of “rehabilitation” is at its most dangerous when it is applied in the context of actually carrying out the punishment of imprisonment; that is, when it is used as a criteria for release decisions. For how can any prison staff, parole officer or even psychologist ever tell that a person “has reformed” or “probably will not offend again”? Evidence has shown that such vast

161 [“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Rehabilitation vs. Retribution” accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Rehabilitation_vs_retribution]

158

sentence – for what is to happen to the offender while he is serving his time in prison? Surely we should be trying to help him change: we should provide him with meaningful skills training, with behavioral-treatment programs, with counseling and so on. In other words, we should be trying to rehabilitate him while he is in imprison (since he is going to be there anyway), instead of just thinking that the job is done. This rehabilitation also plays a role in determining the content of punishment and the shape that it takes.

discretion given to treatment staff, guided only by the grand ideal of “rehabilitation”, has systematically produced unfair, incorrect and even racially discriminatory results. Indeed, on what basis can they make any fair, sensible decision? The sad answer is that, since one can never tell if an offender is “cured”, having “rehabilitation” as the goal forces the decision to be made be based on statistical ‘risk factors’ like whether the person belongs to a racial group that is statistically likely to reoffend, or whether the person belongs to an economic underclass that makes him statistically likely to reoffend. Of course all this does is to doublepenalize the offender for something he cannot help, such as his race or his poverty. It also leads to what is sometimes called “backend sentencing”: the offender is sentenced once in court, but in reality he is sentenced again out-of-court – because the final date of his release depends entirely on parole officers or prison staff.

1. The US criminal justice

system does little to help those arrested change the patterns in their life that lead to crime. 2. The US system is getting

worse, as is shown in the increase in arrest rates from 1984 to 1993. The system has gotten especially worse in relation to drug offenses, with the rate changing from 50.4% to 66.7%. Overall in 1994, 61.7% 162 [“The Mindful Mission”, Retribution vs. Rehabilitation, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.mindfulmission.com/index.php/2006/02/01/retribution_vs_rehabilitation]

159

of those released back into society have been re-arrested and 46.9 have been convicted within three years of their release. - Study number 2) 2002 Study: {163} TWO-THIRDS OF FORMER STATE PRISONERS REARRESTED FOR SERIOUS NEW CRIMES WASHINGTON, D.C.â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Sixty-seven percent of former inmates released from state prisons in 1994 committed at least one serious new crime within the following three years. This was a rearrest rate 5 percent higher than that among prisoners released during 1983. State prisoners with the highest rearrest rates were those who had been incarcerated for stealing motor vehicles (79 percent), possessing or selling stolen property (77 percent), larceny (75 percent), burglary (74 percent), robbery (70 percent) or those using, possessing or trafficking in illegal weapons (70 percent). Those with the lowest rearrest rates were former inmates who had been in prison for homicide (41 percent), sexual assault (41 percent), rape (46 percent) or driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol (51 percent). About 1 percent of the released prisoners who had served time for murder were arrested for another homicide within three years, and about 2 percent of the rapists were arrested for another rape within that period. Within three years, 52 percent of the 272,111 released prisoners were back in prison either because of a new crime or because they had violated their parole conditions (e.g., failed a drug test, missed a parole office appointment). Men were more likely to be rearrested than were women (68 percent, compared to 58 percent), blacks more likely than whites (73 percent vs. 63 percent) and nonHispanics more than Hispanics (71 percent vs. 65 percent). Younger prisoners and those with longer records were also more likely to be rearrested.

163 [â&#x20AC;&#x153;Crime in Americaâ&#x20AC;?, Percent of Released Prisoners Returning to Incarceration, accessed February 28, 2012. http://crimeinamerica.net/2010/09/29/percent-of-released-prisoners-returning-toincarceration/]

160

Post-prison recidivism was strongly related to arrest history. Among prisoners with one arrest prior to their release, 41 percent were rearrested. Of those with two prior arrests, 47 percent were rearrested. Of those with three earlier arrests, 55 percent were rearrested. Among those with more than 15 prior arrests, that is about 18 percent of all released prisoners, 82 percent were rearrested within the three-year period. The 272,111 inmates had accumulated more than 4.1 million arrest charges prior to their current imprisonment and acquired an additional 744,000 arrest charges in the 3 years following their discharge in 1994 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; an average of about 18 criminal arrest charges per offender during their criminal careers. These charges included almost 21,000 homicides, 200,000 robberies, 50,000 rapes and sexual assaults and almost 300,000 assaults. Almost 8 percent of all released prisoners were rearrested for a new crime in a state other than the one that released them. These alleged offenders were charged with committing 55,760 new crimes in states other than the imprisoning state within the three-year period. New York, Arizona and California had the most arrests of out-ofstate offenders in this study. The data were from the largest recidivism study ever conducted in the United States, which tracked prisoners discharged in 15 states representing two-thirds of all state prisoners released in 1994. They were 91 percent male, 50 percent white, 48 percent black, 24 percent Hispanic (of any race) and 44 percent were younger than 30 years old. Most of them had been in prison for felonies: 22 percent for a violent offense (such as murder, rape, sexual assault or robbery), 33 percent for a serious property offense (mostly burglary, motor vehicle theft or fraud), 33 percent for a drug offense (primarily drug trafficking or possession) and 10 percent for public order offenses (mainly drunk driving or weapons crimes). Most former convicts were rearrested shortly after getting out of prison: 30 percent within six months, 44 percent within a year, 59 percent within two years and 67 percent by the end of three years. The study findings are based upon the prison and criminal records of an estimated 272,111 discharged prisoners in 15 states who were tracked through fingerprints records made at various points of contact with the justice system, both within the state in which they had served time and other states to which they traveled. - Study number 3) {164}

164 [â&#x20AC;&#x153;Crime in Americaâ&#x20AC;?, Percent of Released Prisoners Returning to Incarceration, accessed February 28, 2012. http://crimeinamerica.net/2010/09/29/percent-of-released-prisoners-returning-toincarceration/]

161

Possibly one of the most significant studies on recidivism (defined for this report as a return to prison) was offered by the Pew Center on the States, Pew Safety Performance Project and released in April, 2011. The study analyzed returns to prison for 33 states for those released in 1999 and 41 states for those released in 2004 making the study the most comprehensive analysis of returns to prison ever done. The report compared earlier studies on recidivism conducted by the US Department of Justice for 15 states for releases in 1983 and 1994 and concluded that recidivism rates “have consistently remained around 40 percent.” California was excluded from this finding due to that state’s large percentage of the nation’s prison population and the fact that California’s rate of return to prison is traditionally high. The report singles out three states, Oregon, Michigan and Missouri for lowering rates of return to prison. It followed offenders for three years and tracked results. The study found that:  Two-thirds (sixty-seven) of offenders were arrested for “serious” crimes.  Fifty-two percent of the offenders were returned to prison for “serious” crimes and technical violations (they didn’t follow the rules of their release after prison). The study found two primary variables in recidivism which seem to be present in virtually all past and current studies:  Younger prisoners and those with longer records were more likely to be rearrested.  Post-prison recidivism was strongly related to arrest history.

 Cost Efficiency & Polls:

162

It is argued by those who are pro-rehabilitation that the rehabilitation system costs much less than the retributive justice system, as fewer jails would be needed, by that they are making good use of studies that have proven that Incarceration mainly costs more than rehabilitation. For example, in California an average cost of a prisoner is

$35,000 per year to sustain his/her life, while elderly inmates, who require more care, cost an average of $70,000 per year. Their arguments might even reach an extent of turning up to 80% of jails into rehabilitation centers for criminals! They also argue that the country spends so much money to punish the criminals whether in jail or any other sort of punishment, yet the crime rate, as shown in the graph above is remarkably increasing. Much realistic reformists have suggested directing the money used for jail enhancement and imprisonment reforms in states, to the enhancement of rehabilitation centers, in order to get the centers ready to serve their goals of turning the criminals into better citizens. They claim that these enhancements would be reflecting the people's demands; however these claims are backed by polls made to the people. On the other hand, people pro-retribution claim that introducing the rehabilitation system to criminal justice will cost the building of new rehabilitation centers, as well as providing doctors and tutors that develop rehabilitation programs for each and

163

every inmate on their own, they did not also forget about the commodities that will be needed for the inmates in the rehabilitation centers. Regarding the imprisonment reform, people pro-retribution claim that reform will always cost much less than the introduction of a new system and in itself is a step towards correcting the previous mistakes and shortcomings of the imprisonment system in order to enhance its applicability, and increase its efficiency in deterrence along with punishment. ◆ Polls have been conducted, asking the following questions:165 Q: Generally speaking, do you think that the inmates who have served their time and are released back into society today are more likely, about the same, or less likely than they were before their imprisonment to commit future crimes?

Only 14% of the total respondents thought that prisoners are less likely (vs. more likely or the same) to commit future crimes after serving their time and being released from prison. Over 40% of those polled thought that inmates returning to society were just as likely to commit more crime as they were when they entered prison, and 34% thought that after prison, inmates are more likely to commit future crime. Respondents answered similarly despite differences of economic status, gender, ethnicity, and political persuasion. Q: Following are four alternative prison policies that California’s prison system could follow for people who have committed property crimes or drug-related offenses. Which would you prefer the state implement?    

Treat prison as punishment, and do not offer rehabilitation services to inmates either during their time in prison or after their release. Make state-funded rehabilitation services available to inmates only while they are serving time in prison. Make state-funded rehabilitation services available to inmates only after they have been released from prison. Make state-funded rehabilitation services available to inmates both while they are serving time and after they have been released from prison.

165 [Barry Krisberg, Jessie Cranie, and Susan Marchionna “Attitudes of Californians Toward Effective Correctional Policies”, Views from the National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 2004, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.policyarchive.org/handle/10207/bitstreams/5828.pdf]

164

Californians clearly (almost 8 to 1) favor using state funds for rehabilitation over a system that only punishes inmates for drug and property offenses. Merely 8% favor punishment only, while 63% favor rehabilitation both during prison time and after release. Some prefer education and rehabilitation only during detention (13%) and some only post-release (11%). A small number (5%) are uncertain.

Even areas that are typically conservative, whose residents have in the past opposed such measures, now are largely in support of a rehabilitation model. Q: Which of these four alternative policies do you think would cost the state of California the least in the long run?

By a margin of almost 2 to 1 (45% to 24%), Californians believe that rehabilitating and educating offenders both during their incarceration and after their release from prison would be least costly to the state in the long run. Others favored a smaller scopeâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;services in prison only (16%) and post-release only (8%).

165

Q: “When they leave prison, inmates have no more life skills than they had before they entered prison.” In your opinion, is this a major factor, a minor factor, or not at all a factor in the high rate of inmates who return to prison today?

Of those polled, 66% believe that a lack of life skills is a major factor in recidivism; another 19% believe it to be a minor factor. Only 11% believe that a lack of life skills is not a factor in recidivism. Q: “Once a criminal, always a criminal” In your opinion, is this a major factor, a minor factor, or not at all a factor in the high rate of inmates who return to prison today?

Q: “The experience of prison reinforces criminal behavior.” In your opinion, is this a major factor, a minor factor, or not at all a factor in the high rate of inmates who return to prison today?

Only 29% of respondents thought that criminality is irreparable and a major factor in recidivism, while another 29% thought it a minor factor, and 38% thought it not at all a factor. In addition, 59% believe that the experience of being in prison is a major factor in subsequent offending and returning to prison, while another 27% consider it a minor factor, and only 10% think that it is not at all a factor.

Q: In the November 2000 general election, California voters approved Proposition 36, which changed state laws to require probation and drug treatment, rather than prison terms, for persons convicted of possessing or using illegal drugs. The new law does not apply to those convicted of the sale and manufacturing of illegal drugs, who could still be sentenced to prison terms. If Proposition 36 were being voted on again this year, would you be inclined to vote YES or NO?

166

Of likely voters, 73% would vote for Proposition 36 today. Prop 36 was passed by 61% of California voters in November of 2000. Q: Do you agree or disagree with the following statement: “The crime problem would be reduced if fewer offenders were sent to prison and instead were re-educated and rehabilitated out of prison.”

A total of 56% of respondents agree that education and rehabilitation would help reduce California’s crime problem. When a similar question was asked by the Field Research Corporation in 1982, only 35% of Californians agreed. The summary of the poll came as the following: "Over the past several decades, California has experimented with a variety of sentencing policies to reduce crime. Most of those reforms have emphasized increasing punishment. These survey data suggest that the state’s public is looking for a reconsideration of these policies. Californians are now saying that punishment alone does not deter crime and that they favor a correctional system that includes rehabilitation as a core operating principle."

167

◆

Proposed Solutions to the Debate: 

A hybrid system can be created, a system that contains rehabilitation to criminals while doing their time in imprisonment. The main advantage of such a system, is that it provides a compromise between the two extremes, as the imprisonment will stay applicable, and punishment won't be deleted, but alongside punishment there will be also rehabilitation programs to the victims created separately for each victim by specialists, in order to achieve both goals of the two systems, creating a better person of the criminal, as well as deterrence to the society. However the main shortcoming of this hybrid system is that it is financially very costly, as it determines more specialties, more space, more commodities, more programs, more restrictions, and more legal and executive reform.



Another proposed idea, is applying the rehabilitation system on certain crimes that the system proves its efficiency when applied to them, while on the other crimes, retribution is obligatory. However, this needs a long time of experiment, and previous statistical results have proven failure for both systems when applied on different criminals for different crimes regarding the rates of returning to crime!



A third party of thought says that the right of determining the ruling of a crime or a criminal's need of either system should be given to the judge following the case. This gives more capacity to judges to find or even create legal precedence regarding this issue, as they won't have to go through the law whenever they want to see which case deserves what system, however judges are only human, and them making mistakes is very possible, thus the risk of era here increases, a judge may rule by a certain system, or a certain program for a criminal that proves failure, or even create negative residues against the society in the heart of that criminal.

168

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2nd Subtopi c

eath Penalty Imagine that you are having your last meal before being executed! What if someone came and told you: " you will not be executed you will be given a second chance at life imprisonment" This is the dilemma in America having the death penalty or having an alternative to it, considering that America is a symbol for liberty and human rights and many Americans may favor alternatives calling death penalty inhumane. But what about the families of the victims?! What if the victim was your son or daughter?! ◆

What is Death Penalty?

Death penalty sometimes called “Capital punishment”. It is the execution of a person by the state as punishment for a crime. The word "capital" comes from the Latin word "capitalis", which means "regarding the head". At one point and time capital crimes where punished by severing the head. Crimes that can result in the death penalty are known as capital crimes or capital offenses (serious crimes, especially murder, which are punishable by death){166}{167}.

◆

Introduction to Death penalty:

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[“International Debate Education Association, Debate: Death Penalty”, accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Death_penalty]

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[“US Legal, Death Penalty Law”, accessed February 28, 2012. http://debatepedia.idebate.org/en/index.php/Debate:_Death_penalty]

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✿ Early Death Penalty Laws The first established death penalty laws date as far back as the Eighteenth Century B.C. in the Code of King Hammaurabi of Babylon, which codified the death penalty for 25 different crimes. In the Tenth Century A.D., hanging became the usual method of execution in Britain. In the following century, William the Conqueror would not allow persons to be hanged or otherwise executed for any crime, except in times of war. This trend would not last, for in the Sixteenth Century, under the reign of Henry VIII, as many as 72,000 people are estimated to have been executed. Some common methods of execution at that time were boiling, burning at the stake, hanging, beheading, and drawing and quartering. Executions were carried out for such capital offenses as marrying a Jew, not confessing to a crime, and treason. The number of capital crimes in Britain continued to rise throughout the next two centuries. By the 1700s, 222 crimes were punishable by death in Britain, including stealing, and cutting down a tree. Because of the severity of the death penalty, many juries would not convict defendants if the offense was not serious, which lead to reforms of Britain's death penalty. From 1823 to 1837, the death penalty was eliminated for over 100 of the 222 crimes punishable by death. (Randa, 1997) {168}

✿The Death Penalty in America Britain influenced America's use of the death penalty more than any other country. When European settlers came to the new world, they brought the practice of capital punishment. The first recorded execution in the new colonies was that of Captain George Kendall in the Jamestown colony of Virginia in 1608. Kendall was executed for being a spy for Spain. In 1612, Virginia Governor Sir Thomas Dale enacted the Divine, Moral and Martial Laws, which provided the death penalty for even minor offenses such as stealing grapes, killing chickens, and trading with Indians. Laws regarding the death penalty varied from colony to colony. The Massachusetts Bay Colony held its first execution in 1630. The New York Colony instituted

168 3

[“Death Penalty Information Center”, History of Death Penalty, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/part-i-history-death-penalty#intro]

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the Duke's Laws of 1665. Under these laws, offenses such as striking one's mother or father, or denying the "true God," were punishable by death. (Randa, 1997)

✿The Death Penalty Worldwide According to Amnesty International, 139 countries have abolished the death penalty. In 2010, only one country, Gabon, abolished the death penalty for all crimes. During 2010, 23 countries executed 527 prisoners and at least 2,024 people were sentenced to death in 67 countries. More than 17,833 people are currently under sentence of death around the world. Examples of countries permitting death penalty: Libya- Egypt-Afghanistan-BahrainChina- Bahamas-Barbados-Oman-Sudan-Ethiopia-Malaysia-Nigeria-Qatar-Saudi Arabia-Cuba-Iran-Uganda-Vietnam-United states-Thailand-Lebanon-BahamasBangladesh{169}.

◆

Timeline of DP in America:

1908: 1st person sentenced to death in America. The person was hanged for spying for the Spanish government. He was living in Jamestown colony, the 1st British colony in America (in present day Virginia near Williamsburg) Late 1700s: Successful abolitionist movement. European philosophers start trend. 1774-83: War of Independence. The Colonies fight for freedom from British rule. 1776: Constitution is written. 1777: Thomas Jefferson attempts to change Virginia's death penalty laws so that only murder and treason are punishable by death. His bill, the Bill for Proportioning Crimes and Punishments in Cases Heretofore Capital, is defeated by one vote. 1861-65: Civil War.

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[“Info Please”, The Death Penalty Worldwide, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0777460.html#ixzz1dQSeyWSH]

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1867: Illinois is 1st state to give juries the option of choosing prison time instead of execution for the crime of murder. 1868: The 14th Amendment is added to the Constitution. It will become a focus in future DP debates: the accused have the right to "due process" within the court system. 1914-18: World War I. 1930s: Great Depression. 1941-45: World War II. 1948: The UN writes the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It gives everyone the right to life. 1961-75: Vietnam War. America finds a new spirit of activism and embraces social change. 1967-76: DP suspended by the US Supreme Court. Supreme Court rules that constitutional problems with the DP must be resolved before executions can continue. 600 Death Row inmates had their death sentences reduced to life in prison. All states were told by the Supreme Court to rewrite their DP laws. 1972: Furman v. Georgia Court Case (the Supreme Court reviewed this case and also included the similar cases Gregg v. Georgia, Jurek v. Texas and Proffitt v. Florida). The US Supreme Court found the DP laws to be unconstitutional. The laws were deemed cruel and unusual punishment which is in violation of the 8th Amendment of our Constitution: "Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted." The Supreme Court felt allowing a jury to decide sentencing could yield arbitrary results which would not be fair to the

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defendant and amount to "cruel and unusual punishment." To counteract this, states wrote new laws providing sentencing guidelines to the jury and to the judge. Note: Appellant: William Henry Furman Appellee: State of Georgia Appellant's Claim: That the Georgia death penalty was cruel and unusual punishment under the Eight and Fourteenth Amendments. Furman's trial was on September 20, 1968. Because he was poor, Furman got a poor man's trial. His court-appointed lawyer, B. Clarence Mayfield, received the regular court-approved fee of just $150. Furman testified in his own defense. He said that when Micke caught him in the kitchen, he started to leave the house backwards and tripped over a wire. When Furman tripped, the gun fired. Furman said he did not mean to kill anyone. Although murder cases can be complicated, Furman's trial lasted just one day. The court rejected Furman's insanity plea and the jury found Furman guilty of murder. Although the evidence suggested Furman killed Micke accidentally, the jury sentenced Furman to death.) 1993: Pope John Paul visits the US and prays for an end to the DP. 1999: The U.N.'s Human Rights group supports a worldwide moratorium on executions. 2003: Governor of Illinois, George Ryan, commutes all death sentences after 13 people on Death Row are found to be innocent and are freed. He places a moratorium on all future executions in IL. 2004: NY abolishes its DP. The state's high court finds it unconstitutional. 2008: As of April 1, 2008, the Death Penalty was authorized by 37 states, the Federal Government, and the U.S. Military. Those jurisdictions without the Death Penalty

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include 13 states and the District of Columbia. (Alaska, Hawaii, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, North Dakota, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin). In 2008, the Nebraska Supreme Court ruled that the use of the electric chair as a method of execution violated the Nebraska Constitution. With no alternative method of execution on the books, Nebraska is practically without a death penalty. In 2004, the New York Supreme Court ruled that the existing death penalty procedures violated the New York Constitution. The New York legislature has made no effort to change the procedures, effectively eliminating the death penalty in the state. ◆

Crimes Punishable by death Penalty : {170}



All executions since 1976 have been for murder or conspiracy to commit murder, although other crimes are eligible for the DP depending on what state you are in. Most states require additional aggravating circumstances to make a murder eligible for the DP. An aggravating circumstance could be a prior felony conviction, kidnapping the murder victim, raping the murder victim or premeditating the crime, depending on what state you are in.

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[“Anti-Death Penalty”, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.antideathpenalty.org/crimes.html]

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

In 1994, tough new anti-crime laws raised the number of crimes punishable by death from 2 to over 60.

 The Federal Government has many crimes punishable by death, including: o o o o o o o o

◆

Treason (fighting against your own country). Espionage (spying). Large scale drug trafficking. Attempted murder of a witness in a continuing trial. Murder while committing a civil rights offense. Murder while robbing a bank. Murder while killing a cop, a federal judge, or a prison guard. Murder using weapons of mass destruction.

Methods of Execution:

✿Lethal Injection{171}: Lethal injection is the practice of killing a person using a lethal dose of drugs administered intravenously (into the vein).this method was proposed in 1888 as a means of execution but was first used by Oklahoma in 1977.

- Method: Using a three-drug protocol: 1) Sodium Thiopental or Sodium Pentothal: is a

barbiturate (acid) that renders the prisoner unconscious. 2) Pancuronium Bromide: is a muscle relaxant that paralyzes the diaphragm (respiratory muscle) and lungs. 3) Potassium Chloride: causes cardiac arrest (failure of pumping action of heart). - Current Application: 16 states and the federal government authorize lethal injection as the sole method of execution. 20 other states provide for lethal injection as the primary method of execution, but provide alternative methods depending upon the choice of the inmate, the date of the execution or sentence, or the possibility of the method being held 171 6

[“Death Penalty Focus”, Lethal Injection, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.deathpenalty.org/article.php?id=52]

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unconstitutional. As of April 1, 2008, 929 (85%) of 1,099 executions performed since 1976 have been by lethal injection, including 443 of the last 448 executions. - Problems Associated with Lethal Injection: Two men from Georgia and one from Arizona were executed in 2011 using thiopental (barbiturate) the states purchased from a DreamPharma in London. All three inmates reportedly kept their eyes open long after the sodium thiopental was administered, which indicates the drug was ineffective in sedating them. The inmates would then have experienced excruciating pain, but would have been unable to express it, while the two final drugs used in the protocol paralyzed them, stopped their breathing, and induced cardiac arrest. In cases such as these, protocols for assessing the consciousness of the inmates were not followed, calling into question how the rules can be reliably enforced.

✿Electrocution{172}: Passing through the body of the convict a current of electricity of sufficient intensity to cause death, and application and continuance of such current through body of such convict shall continue until such convict In 1888, New York became the first state to adopt electrocution as its method of execution. William Kemmler was the first man to be executed by electrocution in 1890.

the the is dead.

- Method: Using a wooden chair with restraints and connections to an electric current. The offender enters the execution chamber and is placed in the electric chair. Chest, arm, and forearm straps are secured and the headgear conceals the offender's face. The metal part of the headpiece consists of a copper wire mesh screen to which the electrode is brazened. A wet sponge is placed between the electrode and the offender's scalp. The safety switch is closed. The circuit breaker is engaged. The execution control panel is activated. Problems Associated with Electrocution: The most common problems encountered include burning of varying degrees to parts of the body, and a failure of the procedures to cause death without repeated shocks. Witness accounts of many botched executions over the years have caused electrocution to be replaced with lethal injection as the most common method of execution. 172 7

[“Clark County Prosecuting Attorney”, Methods of Execution, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/methods.htm]

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✿Lethal Gas{173}: Killing the offender by placing him in a chamber containing lethal gas. Nevada became the first state to adopt execution by lethal gas in 1924 and carried out the first execution in 1924. The gas chamber is now only available as an option to inmates in California and Arizona.

- Method: The use of a steel airtight execution chamber equipped with a chair and attached restraints where the executioner opens a valve which allows hydrochloric acid to flow into a pan behind the chair. He then adds a quantity of potassium cyanide or sodium cyanide crystals into the acid by pulling a lever. The resulting chemical interaction produces white puffy clouds of lethal hydrocyanic gas. This gas affects the ability of the body to process blood hemoglobin and unconsciousness generally occurs within a few seconds after the prisoner takes a breath. If the prisoner tries to hold their breath, the process can take much longer and can cause convulsions. It is comparable to having a severe heart attack. After the After the prisoner is pronounced dead, usually within five to fifteen minutes, air filters are turned on and corrections officers wearing

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[“Clark County Prosecuting Attorney”, Methods of Execution, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/methods.htm]

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gas masks enter the chamber to confirm death. Prisoner is pronounced dead, usually within five to fifteen minutes, air filters are turned on and corrections officers wearing gas masks enter the chamber to confirm death. - Problems Associated with Lethal gas: The most common problems encountered are the obvious agony suffered by the inmate and the length of time to cause death and difficulty of safely maintaining these facilities, some of which were shown to be at risk for leaks.

â&#x153;żHanging{174}: The condemned prisoner is weighed prior to the execution using gallows. It is the oldest method of execution in the United States, but fell into disfavor in the 20th century and was replaced by electrocution as the most common method. Today, hanging is only available as an option to condemned inmates in Washington State. - Method: The inmate, in restraints, is escorted to the gallows area and is placed standing over a hinged trap door from which the offender will be dropped. Following the offender's last statement, a hood is placed over the offender's head. Restraints are also applied. If the offender refuses to stand or cannot stand, he is placed on a collapse board. A determination of the proper amount of the drop of the condemned offender through the trap door is calculated using a standard military execution chart for hanging. The "drop" must be based on the prisoner's weight, to deliver 1260 foot-pounds of force to the neck. The noose is then placed snugly around the convict's neck, behind his or her left ear, which will cause the neck to snap. The trap door then opens, and the convict drops. If properly done, death is caused by dislocation of the third and fourth cervical vertebrae, or by asphyxiation. - Problems Associated with Hanging:

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[â&#x20AC;&#x153;Pro Death Penaltyâ&#x20AC;?, Methods of Execution, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.prodeathpenalty.com/methods.htm]

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If not precisely done, the inmate will strangle to death on the rope, die from lack of blood to the brain, or if dropped too far, decapitation (cut of the head) can occur.

✿Firing Squad{175}{176}: It is death by shooting as the shooter aims at the chest, since this is easier to hit than the head, causing rupture of the heart, great vessels, and lungs so that the condemned person dies of hemorrhage and shock. Currently this method is only used in Utah, but may be dropped from availability in that state in the near future - Method: Execution by a firing squad usually involves a team of five shooters, only some of whom use real bullets with others using blanks. The offender is placed in a specially designed chair which has a pan beneath it to catch and conceal blood and other fluids. Restraints are applied to the offender's arms, legs, chest and head. A head restraint is applied loosely around the offender's neck to hold his neck and head in an upright position. The offender is dressed in a dark blue outfit with a white cloth circle attached by In this photo from June 4th, 1913, a young Velcro to the area over the offender's heart. Behind man named “Antonio Echazarreta” is the offender are sandbags to absorb the volley and executed by Mexican revolutionaries for prevent ricochets. Approximately 20 feet directly in front of the offender is a wall. This wall has firing his role in defending a major outpost. ports for each member of the firing squad. The weapons used are 30_30 caliber rifles. No special ammunition is used. Following the offender's statement, a hood is placed over the offender's head. The warden leaves the room. The firing squad members stand in the firing position. They support their rifles on the platform rests. With their rifle barrels in the firing ports, the team members sight through open sights on the white cloth circle on the offender's chest. On the command to fire, the squad fires simultaneously. - No obvious problems associated: This is due to difficulties in finding suitable volunteers and the expense of setting up a

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[“About.com, Civil Liberties”, Execution by Firing Squad, accessed February 28, 2012. http://civilliberty.about.com/od/capitalpunishment/ig/Types-of-Executions/Execution-by-FiringSquad.htm]

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[“CapitalPunishmentUK.org”, Shooting, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/shooting.html]

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suitable place where people other than the prisoner will not be injured by flying bullets. It is not used because it is typically associated with the military, the firing squad is one of the least expensive forms of execution--and, if performed correctly, one of the most humane. â&#x2014;&#x2020;

:Deterrence :Arguments Pro-Death Penaltyâ&#x153;ż A criminal would think hundred times before because he /she knows that death penalty is waiting and thus for example if one tends to kill his mother to inherit her if thinks of the death penalty and that he would be imprisoned most probably he won't commit such a crime as he won't be able to use those money he would inherit because .he would be dead - The death penalty is a just means of protecting society "The legitimate role of government involves the protection of life, liberty and property. Just as the role of the government is to raise an armed force and rain down deadly force upon a bloodthirsty invading army, so also the government is duty bound to inflict death upon the man who chooses to slaughter fellow citizens in their own backyards. Few, if any, object to the use of deadly force against an invading army. Yet those invading soldiers, ordered to fight and likely whipped up by propaganda to go into battle, are far less deserving of death than the assailant who has been proven guilty and convicted in a court of law, by a jury of his peers, of shedding the innocent blood of his neighbor â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and this of his own free will. Yet we do and must condone war in such situations. Governments must protect life. This is no less true regarding individual life."- Steven Farrell, professor of political economy at George Wythe College.

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:Arguments Con-Death Penaltyâ&#x153;ż -The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), in its Apr. 9, 2007 website presentation titled "The Death Penalty: Questions and Answers," offered the following: There is no credible evidence that the death penalty crime more effectively than long terms of imprisonment. States that have death penalty laws do not have lower crime rates or murder rates than states without such laws, and states that have abolished capital punishment show no significant changes in either crime, or murder rates. The death penalty has no deterrent effect. Claims that each execution deters a certain number of murders have been thoroughly discredited by social science research. People commit murders largely in the heat of passion, under the influence of alcohol or drugs, or because they are mentally ill, giving little or no thought to the possible consequences of their actsâ&#x20AC;Ś"

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Death Penalty in Religion : {177}

✿Arguments of Those Who Say that Religion is Pro-Death Penalty: Proponents of death penalty usually state that death penalty is supported by the bible depending on: 

Exodus 21:12-14: "Whoever strikes a person mortally shall be put to death. If it was not premeditated, but came about by an act of God, then I will appoint for you a place to which the killer may flee. But if someone willfully attacks and kills another by treachery, you shall take the killer from my altar for execution."



Numbers 35:30,31,33 - "If anyone kills another, the murderer shall be put to death on the evidence of witnesses; but no one shall be put to death on the testimony of a single witness. Moreover you shall accept no ransom for the life of a murderer who is subject to the death

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[“TwoPaths.com.”, Capital Punishment, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.twopaths.com/faq_CapitalPunishment.htm]

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penalty; a murderer must be put to death...You shall not pollute the land in which you live; for blood pollutes the land, and no expiation can be made for the land, for the blood that is shed in it, except by the blood of the one who shed it." 

"Thou shall not kill" means "thou shall not murder" Robert Meyer, Renew America Columnist.



The expression an "eye for an eye" is a prescription for proportional justice and capital punishment Robert Meyer, Renew America Columnist. This statement represents the biblical principle of Lex Talionis, that is, the crime must be proportional with the punishment.

✿ Arguments of Those Who Say that Religion is Con-Death Penalty:  Opponents of capital punishment see it as exactly the kind of revenge and human judgment that Jesus and His apostles so often warned

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against. They believe the principles set forth by Jesus and the apostles restrict punishment to only that which is necessary to protect society.  Opponents of capital punishment also point out that Jesus taught great principles for us to apply in our lives, rather than specific laws. They see the mercy He showed to the woman caught in adultery (John 8:3-11) as His rejection of capital punishment. However, Jesus never specifically repudiated capital punishment.  Bible does not support the death penalty :  Deuteronomy (30:19): "I have set before you life and death, blessing and curse; therefore choose life, that you and your descendants may live".  Exodus (20:13): "You shall not kill."  Most Catholics now reject the death penalty Catholic New Service, 2004 - "Catholic support for the use of the death penalty has dropped significantly—from over 70% of Catholics in the late 1990s to now less than half (48%)." Bible's "an eye for an eye" does not support death penalty The United Methodist Church. "In Opposition to Capital Punishment". 2004 - "In spite of a common assumption to the contrary, 'an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth,' does not give justification for the imposing of the penalty of death. Jesus explicitly repudiated retaliation (Matthew 5:38-39), and the Talmud denies its literal meaning and holds that it refers to financial indemnities. Christ came among us and suffered death. Christ also rose to new life for the sake of all. His suffering, death, and resurrection brought a new dimension to human life, the possibility of reconciliation with God through repentance. This gift is offered to all without exception, and human life was given new dignity and sacredness through it. The death penalty, however, denies Christ's power to transform and restore all human beings. In the New Testament, when a woman having committed a crime was brought before Jesus, He persisted in questioning her ".accusers, so that they walked away (John 8:1-11)

: Alternatives for Death Penalty ◆ {178}

1) Life Imprisonment: The most popular alternative to the death penalty is life imprisonment without the possibility of parole plus restitution. This alternative not only costs much less than capital punishment, but also keeps the criminal in jail for the rest of his life - so he cannot return back to society. Restitution means that while the 178 13

[“End the Death Penalty Now.”, Alternatives to the Death Penalty, accessed February 28, 2012. https://www.msu.edu/~millettf/DeathPenalty/alternatives.html]

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prisoner is in jail, he will be put to work - with all the money made going to the family of the victim. Public opinion over the past few years has shown an increase in support for this alternative as well. When asked plainly of the death penalty, 77% of the public support and believe that the death penalty is good, according to recent polls. However, when an alternative to the death penalty is presented, public support drops. When asked the same question with an alternative such as prison with parole after 25 years, death penalty support drops to 56%. When the alternative "prison with no parole ever" is introduced, death penalty support drops further to only 49%. And finally, when introduced to life in prison with no parole ever, plus restitution, death penalty support drops to its lowest, at 41% - becoming the minority to that alternative. The public is becoming more aware of the flaws in our justice system, and because of this, public support for the death penalty is at its lowest ever.

2) Prison with Parole: Other alternatives to the death penalty exist as well. They are just not as popular as life imprisonment. One of these is prison with parole. The average sentence for someone convicted of murder is twenty years. The average time spent in jail for a convicted murderer before being released is around 8.5 years. These numbers mean that most murderers do receive parole and go back into society. John DiIulio (a political scientist) writes that even though some paroled murderers remain dangerous, â&#x20AC;&#x153;the vast majority of [them] never commit another murder or violent crime. Many have not only gone straight but have continued paying their debt to society... by making post-release restitution, manning youth and community outreach centers that work with juvenile felons, and moreâ&#x20AC;? (Wall Street Journal, Dec. 15, 1997). When someone is sentenced to death, most of the time it is between 10-20 years before the death sentence is carried out. By this time, we are executing a completely different person than we first sentenced. Criminals are no different than other human beings - they can change, and usually do given ten years in prison. Now, of course, some may never change, which makes this a more dangerous and less supported alternative to the death penalty. 3) Rehabilitation: Another alternative is rehabilitation or reformatories. Reformatories are used to reform criminals - working with the physical, mental, and moral issues of their inmates - instead of just punishing them as we would in jails. They put their offenders to work for society and try to turn their lives around, so they can live a normal life in society. Reformatories are used now for young offenders, those that are around sixteen to twenty-five years old, but they could be used for older criminals, too. A good use of this method would be for juveniles on death row. Since the death penalty was reinstated in 1976, 18 children under the age of 18 have been executed. This is unacceptable to a civilized society. Instead of keeping these kids in jail for 10-20 years and then executing them, we should at

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least try to rehabilitate them. We all do stupid things as children (maybe not that stupid, but ...) - we shouldn't have to pay for those stupidities with our lives. Although not all criminals can be reformed, the vast majority of them can be, proven by the fact that most parolees never commit a violent crime again when re-entering society. This alternative to the death penalty is a more practical solution, rehabilitating criminals instead of just punishing them. However, it remains a more dangerous alternative because not every criminal can be truly reformed. Hence, this is probably the least supported alternative to capital punishment. â&#x2014;&#x2020;

Debate Around the Alternatives:

â&#x153;żArguments against the Alternatives: Life imprisonment does not repudiate murder like capital punishment Jeff Jacoby, Boston Globe Columnist. "The feeble 'arguments' against capital punishment". Jewish World Review. 19 June 2001 - "'The loss of freedom for the remainder of one's life is no mild punishment,' James Bernstein of New York wrote to the Times.'We do not need the death penalty to express society's utter reputation of those who would take the lives of others.' Bernstein has it exactly wrong. A society that bans the death penalty outright is confirming that it does not utterly repudiate its worst murderers. The United States last week made clear just how seriously it regards McVeigh's monstrous crime. Change the law so that no future McVeigh can be put to death, and the United States will be sending a different message: Mass murder isn't that bad." Death penalty addresses crimes where victim can never be compensated Steven Farrell. "A Conservative Case for the Capital Punishment". 18 Mar. 2005 - "If one robs a store, the captured thief can pay back the debt and, in fact, under biblical law (which is better than today's law) would be tasked to work for the man he robbed until the debt was satisfied seven times the value of the goods stolen. With such a bounteous payback, the thief is then freed and, by his honorable labor, restored to a position of trust..." Farrell continues that murder is not a repayable crime, that society can never again trust that person again, and that the person, therefore, permanently forfeits all rights as a citizen, including the right to life.

â&#x153;żArguments with the Alternatives: Life in prison is a sufficient punishment; execution is excessive James Bernstein. "The Death of McVeigh: A Time to Reflect". Letter to the New

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York Times. June 13, 2001 - "The loss of freedom for the remainder of one's life is no mild punishment. We do not need the death penalty to express society's utter reputation of those who would take the lives of others." Life in prison is a greater punishment than the death penalty if the goal is to punish a person as severely as possible; life without parole can be seen as meeting this objective better than capital punishment. The reason is that life without parole forces a murderer to live out their remorseful life, whereas capital punishment saves them from living it. This is why many people on death row express feelings of relief about being put to death. ◆

The Financial Costs of Death Penalty : {179}

Death penalty cases are much more expensive than other criminal cases and cost more than imprisonment for life with no possibility of parole. In California, capital trials are six times more costly than other murder trials. (1) A study in Kansas indicated that a capital trial costs $116,700 more than an ordinary murder trial. (2) Complex pre-trial motions, lengthy jury selections, and expenses for expert witnesses are all likely to add to the costs in death penalty cases. For the states which employ the death penalty, this luxury comes at a high price. In Texas, a death penalty case costs taxpayers an average of $2.3 million, about three times the cost of imprisoning someone in a single cell at the highest security level for 40 years. (3) In Florida, each execution is costing the state $3.2 million. (4) In financially strapped California, one report estimated that the state could save $90 million each year by abolishing capital punishment. (5) The New York Department of Correctional Services estimated that implementing the death penalty would cost the state about $118 million annually.

✿Costs of Death Penalty in Some States{180}: 179 14

[Richard C. Dieter “What Politicians Don’t Say About the High Costs of the Death Penalty”, Feminism and Nonviolence Studies, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.fnsa.org/v1n1/dieter1.html]

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[“Death Penalty Information Center”, Costs of the Death Penalty, accessed February 28, 2012. http://deathpenaltyinfo.org/costs-death-penalty#financialfacts]

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 Maryland: New Study Reveals Costs in Maryland: $186 Million for Five Executions.  New Jersey: Death Penalty has Cost New Jersey Taxpayers $253 Million.  North Carolina: Death Penalty Costs North Carolina Nearly $11 Million a Year.  Florida: Spent Average of $3.2 Million per Execution from 1973 to 1988.

✿Federal Costs{15}: The average cost of defending a trial in a federal death case is $620,932, about 8 times that of a federal murder case in which the death penalty is not sought. A study found that those defendants whose representation was the least expensive, and thus who received the least amount of attorney and expert time, had an increased probability of receiving a death sentence. Defendants with less than $320,000 in terms of representation costs (the bottom 1/3 of federal capital trials) had a 44% chance of receiving a death sentence at trial. On the other hand, those defendants whose representation costs were higher than $320,000 (the remaining 2/3 of federal capital trials) had only a 19% chance of being sentenced to death. Thus, the study concluded that defendants with low representation costs were more than twice as likely to receive a death sentence.

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◆

Cases:

✿Innocent. Yet, Prisoned or Executed: 1. Ray Krone{181}: from Arizona, Released. - He spent 10 years in prison in Arizona, including time on death row, for a murder he did not commit. He was released in 2002. He was the 100th person to be released from death row since 1973. DNA testing proved his innocence. 2. Leonel Herrera{182}: Executed. In 1993, He was executed by lethal injection in Huntsville, Texas, for shooting two policemen and after years of his death it was proved that his brother was the real murderer.

✿Convicted. Yet, Was About to Escape Justice: 1. Theodore Frank{183}: Convicted after committing more than 100 Crimes. Michael D. Bradbury, Ventura County District Attorney. "The Death Penalty is an Affirmation of the Sanctity of Life". LA Times. - A two and a half-year-old girl was kidnapped, raped, sodomized, tortured and mutilated with vise grips over six hours. Then she was strangled to death. Her assailant, Theodore Frank, according to court records and his own admissions, had already molested more than 100 children during a 20-year period. A sentence of death is the only appropriate punishment for such a serial assailant committing such an extraordinarily heinous crime."

181 16

[“Amnesty International USA”, Death Penalty and Innocence, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/death-penalty/us-death-penalty-facts/death-penalty-andinnocence]

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[“ExcutedToday.com”, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.executedtoday.com/2009/05/12/1993-leonel-herrera-v-collins/]

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[Michael D. Bradbury, “The Death Penalty Is an Affirmation of the Sanctity of Life,” Los Angeles Times, September 24, 2000, accessed February 28, 2012. http://articles.latimes.com/2000/sep/24/opinion/op-25950]

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2. Scott Peterson{184}: Was about to be announced Innocent. He was accused for killing his wife and was about to be announced innocent when his girl friend appeared and testified that when he met her he told her he was not married as his wife died a year ago while his wife was still alive and pregnant! This case affected the public so much that when other evidences began to prevail the demanded that he would be sentenced to death and he was subjected to a death penalty for killing his wife and his baby.

184 19

[David Walsh, â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Scott Peterson Case: A New American Tragedyâ&#x20AC;?, World Socialist Web Site, accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/dec2004/pete-d11.shtml]

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2nd Topic

uthanasia ◆

Introduction:

✿Definitions: - Euthanasia: is a Greek word that means "Good Death". It refers to the practice of intentionally ending a life by action (active) or by omission of a dependent human being for his or her alleged benefit (passive) which aims to relieve the patient from pain and suffering. It's commonly known as "Pull the Plug" for it entails an act of pulling the plugs of the machines maintaining some terminally-ill patients alive. - Assisted-Suicide: This is different from Euthanasia. The case is termed assisted suicide when someone provides an individual with the information, guidance, and means to take his or her own life with the intention that they will be used for this purpose. When it is a doctor who helps another person to kill themselves it is called "physician assisted suicide". - Palliative Care: The active relief of suffering in a terminally-ill individual through medications like drugs and pain killers that relief pain in spite of deterioration of the patient's case is to the extent that he may be dying but he feels less pain because of the medications he takes. - Living Will: It is a document prepared by an individual in which he states what he wants in regards to health care and how he wants to be treated if he becomes seriously ill and unable to make or communicate his own choices. Living wills are also called "active declarations"{185}. - Dignity: The value that a human gains by existing, not because of any property or action{186}. - Mercy-killing: Killing a patient without their explicit consent to end the patient’s suffering. It's active, involuntary or non-voluntary and other-administered{187}. - Right to Die: The right to refuse medical treatment, even if that refusal would result in death. Also the right to have a physician actually kill the terminally-ill patient or to give assistance to that patient to commit a pain-free suicide{188}. 185 1

[“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/keywords.shtml] 186 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/keywords.shtml] 187 [“Missouri Center of Health Ethics” accessed February 28, 2012. http://ethics.missouri.edu/Euthanasia.aspx] 188

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- Right to Life: The right of people other than a terminally-ill patient to keep him alive against his wishes. It means denying his right to die{189}.

✿Cases where Euthanasia is possible: - Terminal illness: Terminal illness is a medical term describing e a disease that cannot be cured or adequately treated and that is reasonably expected to result in the death of the patient within a relatively short period of time. A patient is often considered to be terminallyill when the life expectancy is estimated to be six months or less. This may be incorrect. Consequently, though a given patient may properly be considered terminal, this is not a guarantee that the patient will die within six months. Similarly, a patient with a slowly progressing disease, such as AIDS, may not be considered terminally-ill (because the best estimates of longevity were greater than six months). However this does not guarantee that the patient will not die unexpectedly early. In general, physicians slightly overestimate survival. - Examples of Terminal diseases in which Euthanasia is applicable: 

Brain Stem Death: It is the permanent cessation of the functions of cerebral hemispheres and brain stem including respiration and blood circulation and permanent loss of consciousness. The brain stem is a small area of the brain that controls these functions. A patient with a dead brain stem will never be able to breathe spontaneously or regain consciousness. Death is now accepted as a meaning of brain stem death in many countries. However, the patient is kept alive by the aid of life-support measures (feeding tubes, inotropes, total parenteral nutrition, mechanical ventilation, heart/lung bypass, urinary catheterization, dialysis, CPR, defibrillation and artificial pace-maker)



Persistent Vegetative State: After severe brain damage the patient enters a state of coma which progresses into partial arousal which is termed "Vegetative State". After 4 weeks, in this state the case is classified as "Persistent Vegetative State". After 1 more year, the case is classified as "Permanent Vegetative State". It describes the patient who loses the higher cerebral powers of the brain (consciousness) but the functions of the brain stem (respiration and blood circulation) remain relatively intact with the cyclic state of circadian sleep and wakefulness. The patient's hands and eyes can follow a moving object or move towards a loud sound. The existence of a small number of diagnosed PVS cases that have eventually resulted in improvement makes defining recovery as "impossible" particularly difficult in a legal sense.



All types of Malignant Tumors (late cancers): Frequently, Lung Cancer - Breast Cancer - Prostate Cancer - Liver Cancer - Pancreatic Cancer - Leukemia - Lymphoma

[“Canadian Mind Products, Human Rights” accessed February 28, 2012. http://mindprod.com/humanrights/euthanasia.html] 189 [“Canadian Mind Products, Human Rights” accessed February 28, 2012. http://mindprod.com/humanrights/euthanasia.html]

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

Irreparable organ failure: Decompensated Liver Cirrhosis - Renal Failure not amenable to Dialysis - Congestive Heart Failure stage IV - Irreversible Respiratory Failure - Anoxic Encephalopathy (brain disease) – Sepsis

✿Classification of Euthanasia: 1. Classification according to the Patient subjected to undergo the process: - Human Euthanasia: It is the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain and suffering of a human-being who's terminally-ill as referred before.

- Child Euthanasia: It is a controversial form of non-voluntary euthanasia that is applied to children who are gravely-ill or suffer from significant birth defects. "Joseph Fletcher" proposed that unlike the sort of infanticide perpetrated by very disturbed people, in such cases child euthanasia could be considered humane; a logical and acceptable extension of abortion.

- Animal Euthanasia: It is the act of putting an animal to death painlessly or allowing it to die, as by withholding extreme medical measures, an animal suffering from an incurable, especially a painful, disease or condition. Euthanasia is distinct from animal slaughter and pest control, which are performed for purposes other than an act of mercy, although in some cases the killing procedure is the same.

2. Classification according to Consent of the Human patient: - Voluntary euthanasia: Euthanasia conducted with the consent of the patient. Cases include{190}: 

Asking for help with dying or refusing burdensome medical treatment.



Asking for medical treatment to be stopped, or life support machines to be switched off.



Refusing to eat.

- Non-voluntary euthanasia: Euthanasia conducted where the consent of the patient is unavailable. It is illegal worldwide but decriminalized under certain specific circumstances in the Netherlands under the Groningen Protocol. Cases include{6}:

190 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/volinvol.shtml]

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

A patient in a coma.



A patient is too young (e.g. a very young baby) or is senile.



A patient is mentally retarded to a very severe extent.



A patient is severely brain-damaged.



A patient is mentally disturbed in a way that he should be protected from himself.

- Involuntary euthanasia: Euthanasia conducted against the will of the patient. Cases include{6}: 

A soldier has his stomach blown open by a shell burst. He is in great pain and screaming in agony. He begs the army doctor to save his life. The doctor knows that he will die in ten minutes whatever happens. As he has no painkilling drugs with him, he decides to spare the soldier further pain and shoots him dead.

There is a debate within the medical and bioethics literature about whether or not the nonvoluntary and by extension involuntary killing of patients can be regarded as euthanasia. This debate is based upon the idea that these acts maybe somehow considered as cases of murder.

3. Classification according to Interference of the physician: - Passive euthanasia: It indicates to the withholding of common treatments, such as antibiotics, necessary for the continuance of life either by not doing or stopping doing some life-saving intervention. Cases include{191}: 

Switching off life-support machines or disconnecting a feeding tube.



Not carrying out a life-extending operation or not giving life-extending drugs.

- Active euthanasia: It indicates to the deliberate use of lethal substances or forces by medical professionals or other persons to kill. It is the most controversial means.

✿Other Definitions: - DNR (Do Not Resuscitate): It is a legal order written either in the hospital or on a legal form to respect the wishes of a patient not to undergo CPR (Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation) or ACLS (Advanced Cardiac Life Support). This is designed to prevent unnecessary suffering. - Principle of double effect: also known as "Doctrine of double effect" or "Double-effect reasoning". It is a set of ethical criteria for evaluating the permissibility of acting when one's 191 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/activepassive_1.shtml]

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act will also cause an effect one would normally be obliged to avoid. In other words, this doctrine says that if doing something morally good has a morally bad side-effect it's ethically OK to do it providing the bad side-effect wasn't intended{192}.

✿Stages of Grief in Terminal Illnes: The stages a person goes through, when diagnosed with a terminal illness, will generally follow the pattern established by psychiatrist “Elisabeth Kübler-Ross” in Five Stages for Receiving Catastrophic News in her book “On Death and Dying” in 1969. While these stages are universal not everyone will encounter them the same way. Some people will go through all stages in order while others will go through one or two stages many times before moving on to the next stage. How a person reacts depends on the individual and the severity of the news.{193} 1. Denial — "I feel fine."; "This can't be happening, not to me." This is a blocking out mechanism employed as a buffer to the shock of the immediacy of bad news. Everything seems unreal. As the knowledge of the situation becomes clearer, there is a sense of shock with accompanying symptoms. 2. Anger — "Why me? It's not fair!"; "How can this happen to me?"; '"Who is to blame?" The person is then forced to confront the knowledge that is beyond their emotional control. The pain and reality hit hard and this is when this phase starts. It is a way of deflecting emotional turmoil away from a vulnerable core. It can be directed at anyone, the doctor, strangers, friends, family members or even God. Feelings of guilt and fear are also common at this time. 3. Bargaining — "I'll do anything for a few more years."; "I will give my life savings if..." A person will try any means in his power to halt the inevitable. It is a method of trying to gain control over a situation in which they feel powerless. This can involve making deals with God, the Universe - whatever. 4. Depression — "I'm so sad, why bother with anything?"; "I'm going to die soon so what's the point... What's the point?"; "I miss my loved one, why go on?" A person looks at the possible scenarios and dwells on negative outcomes for a time. Feelings can include intense sadness, hopeless, emptiness, helplessness and exhaustion. 5. Acceptance — "It's going to be okay."; "I can't fight it, I may as well prepare for it." This is the stage where it all finally sinks in and the knowledge is stabilized into a new lifestyle. New feelings of hope and peace can grow provided the person is given the support, 192 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/doubleeffect.shtml] 193 [“New Zealand Resource for Life-Related Issues, Euthanasia” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.life.org.nz/euthanasia/abouteuthanasia/abouteuthanasia4/Default.htm]

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love and acceptance they need. Families can help their loved ones reach this phase by giving them as much reassurance as they can. Instead of changing routines it is important to keep things as normal as possible for as long as possible.

✿The Procedure: - Drugs: In Oregon, doctor can write a prescription for drugs that are intended to kill the patient. When the prescription is filled, directions center around making certain that the patient understands about taking all the pills in a single dose and dies after taking the prescription. - Injections: In Netherlands, firstly a coma is induced by intravenous administration of barbiturates “Sedative Sodium Thiopental”, followed by a muscle relaxant “Pancuronium”. The patient usually dies as the result of anoxemia caused by the muscle relaxant. When death is delayed, “Intravenous Potassium Chloride” is also given to hasten cardiac arrest. {194} ◆

History:

{195}

(5th Century B.C. - 1st Century B.C.) - Ancient Greeks and Romans Tend to Support Euthanasia: In ancient Greece and Rome, before the coming of Christianity, attitudes toward infanticide, active euthanasia, and suicide had tended to be tolerant. Euthanasia was supported by Socrates, Plato and Seneca the Elder in the ancient world, although Hippocrates appears to have spoken against the practice. "Hippocrates of Kos" was an ancient Greek physician (460 B.C. – 370 B.C.) of the Age of Pericles (Classical Athens), and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the father of Western medicine. He has written the "Hippocratic Oath" (late 5th century B.C.) which is an oath historically taken by physicians and other healthcare professionals swearing to practice medicine ethically. This oath is still sworn in our present time. Hippocrates stated the following in the text of his oath. "I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel". However, few ancient Greek or Roman physicians followed the oath faithfully. {Article} [Ian Dowbiggin, PhD. A Merciful End: The Euthanasia Movement in Modern America, 2003]

(1915) - Dr. Haiselden Allows Deformed Baby to Die Rather Than Give It Possibly Lifesaving Surgery: In the early hours of 12 November 1915, at Chicago's German-American Hospital, Anna Bollinger gave birth to her fourth child, a seven-pound baby boy. The baby was blue and badly deformed. Dr.Haiselden diagnosed a litany of physical defects. He predicted that, without surgery, the child would die shortly. In a decision whose 194 [“New Zealand Resource for Life-Related Issues, Euthanasia” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.life.org.nz/euthanasia/abouteuthanasia/methods-of-euthanasia/] 195 [“ProCon.org, Euthanasia and PAD Historical Timeline” accessed February 28, 2012. http://euthanasia.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=000130]

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shockwaves would ripple from coast to coast, and mark a milestone in the history of euthanasia in America, Haiselden advised against surgery although it was possible. The Bollingers tearfully agreed and the child died on 17 November, amid growing controversy. {Article} [Ian Dowbiggin, PhD. A Merciful End: The Euthanasia Movement in Modern America, 2003]

(1937) - Voluntary Euthanasia Act Introduced in US Senate: Nebraska Senator John Comstock introduces legislation called the Voluntary Euthanasia Act. It is never voted on but demonstrates an emerging interest in legislating euthanasia. {Article} [Bryan Hilliard, PhD. The Moral and Legal Status of Physician-Assisted Death: Quality Of Life and the Patient-Physician Relationship. Issues in Integrative Studies, 2000]

(1940s) - Nazi Use of Involuntary Euthanasia Changes Public Perception of it in the US: The "Euthanasia Campaign" of mass murder gathered momentum on 14 January 1940 when the "handicapped" were killed with gas vans and killing centers as Adolf Hitler carried out a program to exterminate children with disabilities (with or without their parentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s permission) under the guise of improving the Aryan "race" and reducing costs to society. This eugenic program eventually leads to the deaths of 70,000 adult Germans. As word spread in the late 1940s, the euthanasia movement found itself increasingly on the defensive, scrambling to deny that the form of euthanasia it supported was the same as Nazi murder. {Article} [Ian Dowbiggin, PhD. A Merciful End: The Euthanasia Movement in Modern America, 2003]

(Mar. 31, 1976) - Supreme Court Rules in Quinlan Case: 21-year-old Karen Ann Quinlan had fallen into an irreversible coma at a party in 1974. The New Jersey Supreme Court rules in 1976 that Karen Quinlan can be detached from her respirator. This case is a legal landmark, drawing national and international attention to endof-life issues. {Article} [In Re Quinlan. 1976]

(June 4, 1990) - Jack Kevorkian Participates in His First Assisted-Suicide: Jack Kevorkian, MD, assists Janet Adkins, a Hemlock Society member, in committing suicide in Michigan. Adkins' death is the first of many suicides in which Dr. Kevorkian assists. {Article} [Wesley Smith, JD. The Slippery Slope From Assisted Suicide to Legalized Murder, 1997]

(Nov. 5, 1990) - US Congress Passes Patient Self-Determination Act: Congress passes the Patient Self-Determination Act, requiring hospitals that receive federal funds to tell patients that they have a right to demand or refuse treatment. {Article} [Patient Self Determination Act. 1990]

(June 26, 1997) - US Supreme Court Rules There Is No Right to Die: The Supreme Court rules in Washington v. Glucksberg and Vacco v. Quill that there is not a

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constitutional right to die. {Article} [Washington v. Glucksberg. and Vacco v. Quill. 1997]

(1999) - Jack Kevorkian Convicted of Murder: A Michigan court convicts Jack Kevorkian, MD, for the murder of Thomas Youk and sentences him to 10-25 years in prison. {Article} [People v. Kevorkian. 2001]

(2001) - Netherlands Legalizes Euthanasia: The Netherlands officially legalizes euthanasia. {Article} [International Task Force on Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide. Frequently Asked Questions, www.internationaltaskforce.org, 2006]

(2005) - Terri Schiavo Has Her Feeding Tube Removed after Long Court Battle: The Terri Schiavo case garners national media attention. Terri Schiavo had been brain damaged since 1990. After a Florida Circuit Judge ruled that Terri Schiavo's feeding tube be removed, Terri Schiavo dies on Mar. 31, 2005, 13 days after her feeding tube is removed. {Article} [BBC. Timeline: Terri Schiavo Case, Mar. 31, 2005]

◆

Different Aspects of Debate on Euthanasia:

✿Medical and Ethical Aspect: Euthanasia is the most active area of research in contemporary bioethics. ✱Ethical 

arguments{196}{197}:

The Argument from Autonomy: - Libertarian View: If a person autonomously chooses to end his or her life or have someone else assist him or her in doing so, then it is morally permissible. One should have a right to self-determination as long as no harm is done to others, and thus should be allowed to choose his own fate. - Conservative View: Life is a gift from God. It is not a person's creation nor a possession so he does not have the right to give it away and die. Euthanasia

196 [“Christian Research Institute, Euthanasia” accessed February 28, 2012. www.equip.org/articles/euthanasia-arguments] 197 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/against/against_1.shtml]

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devalues human life and rejects its importance. The process saves no lives, it only takes them. 

The Equivalence Argument: - Libertarian View: There's a moral distinction between active and passive euthanasia. They think that it is acceptable to withhold treatment and allow a patient to die, but that it is never acceptable to kill a patient by a deliberate act {15} . Further more, some radical views think that there is no morally relevant distinction between active and passive euthanasia. Passive euthanasia is sometimes morally permissible. Thus, active euthanasia is sometimes morally permissible. - Conservative View: Distinction between active and passive euthanasia is morally significant. Passive euthanasia is sometimes morally permissible. Active euthanasia is not permissible at all for it's considered to be a case of murder since the fact that technically, the patient dies as soon as the act of the physician (induction of a lethal overdose for example) takes place{198}. Further more, some radical views think this distinction is nonsense, since stopping treatment is a deliberate act. Although it's certainly true that the patient dies from his terminal-illness, it's also true that the immediate cause of their death is the switching off of the life-support machine.



The Argument from Mercy: - Libertarian View: It is cruel and inhumane to refuse the plea of a terminallyill person that his or her life be ended to avoid unnecessary suffering and pain. Assisting a subject to die might be a better choice (act of mercy) than requiring that they continue to suffer for dying in peace is better than living in pain. - Conservative View: Not all diseases are painful. In addition, there are other alternatives that could end the patient's pain and suffering without killing him such as cessation of active treatment combined with use of palliative treatment or effective pain-relievers and pain-killers.



The Slippery Slope: - Libertarian View: Proper regulation and order measures aiming to control the whole process will stop any further steps that would justify murder. In addition, if a doctor ignores this distinction between killing people who ask for death under appropriate circumstances and killing people without their permission, he's lacking moral understanding and intellect and wouldn't worry about the law in the first place. - Conservative view: Acceptance of certain practices, such as physicianassisted suicide or voluntary euthanasia, won't be controlled by the law and

198 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/overview/activepassive_1.shtml]

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will eventually lead to the acceptance or practice of concepts which are currently deemed unacceptable, such as non-voluntary or involuntary euthanasia. In addition, doctors may soon start killing people without bothering with their permission as the process proceeds fast to be legal. 

The Best Interests Argument: - Libertarian View: If an action promotes the best interests of everyone concerned and violates no one's rights, then that action is morally acceptable. In some cases, active euthanasia promotes the best interests of everyone concerned and violates no one's rights. Therefore, in those cases active euthanasia is morally acceptable. - Conservative View: Active euthanasia truly violates the Right to Life which states that the patient can not take his own life. In addition, legalizing euthanasia will place the society on a "Slippery Slope" which will lead to unacceptable consequences.



The Golden Rule Argument: Moral principles, it is argued, ought to be universal. In other words, if a rule is not applied to someone, it should not be applied to others. Similarly, if a rule is applied to someone, it is to be willed to be applied to others. - Libertarian View: This applies to all cases whatever the consequences are. It even applies in cases of active euthanasia. - Conservative View: This does not apply to all cases as every case differs from others. Circumstances, consequences, will and consent determines the course of every case.

✱Medical 

arguments{199}{200}:

Necessity of Euthanasia: - Libertarian View: This depends on the burden of pain and suffering the patient faces provided that his case is terminal and has no cure. A patient suffers a lot of pain and psychological burden when he knows that he's going to die, and then he loses his interest in life, stops interacting with the surroundings and seeks death. It's very necessary for them to undergo euthanasia for their burden is incurable and hopeless. - Conservative View: Proper palliative care makes euthanasia unnecessary. The physical, emotional and spiritual care for a dying person when cure is not

199 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/against/against_1.shtml] 200 [“BBC Ethics Guide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/euthanasia/infavour/infavour_1.shtml]

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possible includes compassion and support from family and friends. The World Health Organization states that palliative care provides relief from pain and suffering for it deals with the patient as a person, not as symptoms or medical problem. ď&#x201A;ˇ

Medical Resources: - Libertarian View: Medical resources are distributed among patients according to priorities. "High-risk" cases are the first priority followed by the "First to come" cases. In addition, Costs spent on the procedures of treatment which maybe longlasting are really expensive. So, Euthanasia is considered to save the huge costs of the long-lasting treatment and provide a larger number of medical resources to the patients in need. - Conservative View: The costs and even the lack of resources do not justify the acts of killing someone who's terminally-ill. This act is entirely pragmatic and is wideopen to abuse, and would ultimately lead to involuntary euthanasia because of shortage of health resources.

ď&#x201A;ˇ

Care to the Terminally-ill: - Libertarian View: Euthanasia is a form of care relieving patients' pain and suffering. What lies behind it is Utilitarianism: the belief that moral rules should be designed to produce the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. The code of Utilitarianism is one of the ethical codes of the profession of medicine and Euthanasia applies to its conception. - Conservative View: Allowing euthanasia will lead to less good care for the terminally-ill through the following:

ď&#x201A;ˇ

Euthanasia undermines the commitment of doctors and nurses to saving lives.

Euthanasia may become a cost-effective way to treat the terminally-ill.

Euthanasia will discourage the search for new treatments for the terminallyill.

Euthanasia undermines the motivation to provide good care for the dying.

Regulation of Euthanasia: - Libertarian View: There is no reason why euthanasia can't be controlled by proper regulation. However, these regulations won't deal with people who want to implement euthanasia for bad motives and won't stop patients, particularly vulnerable ones, being pressured to choose death when they would rather live for a few more weeks. - Conservative View: Although it is possible to draft laws that will prevent the abuse of euthanasia, abuse will happen anyway. So, banning it will be the definitive solution.

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

Pressure to end Life: - Libertarian View: Pressure on terminally-ill patients to end their lives is a causality that can be dealt with. - Conservative View: The fear is that if euthanasia is allowed, vulnerable people will be put under pressure to end their lives. It would be difficult, and possibly impossible, to stop people persuading patients to request euthanasia when they don't really want it. That pressure can be categorized as moral to free up medical resources, moral on the elderly by their selfish families or psychological for patients abandoned by their families as they may feel euthanasia is the only solution.



Power of Doctors: Doctors are given a larger area of power concerning euthanasia because they decide how and when people are going to die. - Libertarian View: This is not a matter of interest to a large number of people since they want and seek euthanasia by themselves. - Conservative View: Since doctors give patients the information on which they will base their decisions about euthanasia, any legalization of euthanasia, no matter how strictly regulated, puts doctors in an unacceptable position of power.

✱Famous

Cases{201}:

- Karen Ann Quinlan: She collapsed on April 15th, 1975. Within hours, she entered a coma from which she could never recover. Her parents knew their daughter would not want to be kept alive by extraordinary means. A year later, as Karen lay in a "persistent vegetative state," the courts finally allowed her treatment to be stopped; but artificial feeding was continued and she was maintained as a living corpse until June 1985, when she eventually died of pneumonia. Her case spurred thousands of letters of sympathy and fuelled the "right to die" movement. - Teresa Marie "Terri" Schiavo: Terri Schiavo collapsed in Florida in full cardiac arrest on February 25, 1990. She suffered massive brain damage due to lack of oxygen and, after two and a half months in a coma, her diagnosis was elevated to vegetative state. In 1998 Schiavo's husband, Michael, petitioned the Sixth Circuit Court of Florida (Pinellas County), to remove her feeding tube. He was opposed by Terri's parents. On February 25, 2005, a Pinellas County judge ordered the removal of Terri Schiavo's feeding tube. Several appeals and federal government intervention followed, which included U.S. President George W. Bush returning to 201 [“EXIT, Euthanasia” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.euthanasia.cc/cases.html]

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Washington D.C. to sign legislation designed to keep her alive. However, the system upheld the original decision to remove the feeding tube. Her feeding tube was disconnected on March 18, 2005 and she died on March 31.

✿Religious Aspect: - Libertarian View: Religions require us to respect every human being. Therefore we should respect their decisions about the end of their lives. And so their rational decision to refuse burdensome and futile treatment should be accepted. - Conservative View: Birth and death are part of the life processes which God has created, so we should respect them. Therefore no human being has the authority to take the life of any innocent person, even if that person wants to die. 

Euthanasia in Judaism{202}: Euthanasia, physician-assisted suicide, and all other types of suicide are almost unanimously condemned in Jewish thought, primarily because it is viewed as taking something (a human life) that belongs to God. There are only two mentions of suicide in the Jewish Bible: King Saul (I Samuel 31:4) and David's counselor, Ahitophel (II Samuel 17:23), both of which required the assistance of another person and are thus comparable to euthanasia. In the former case, a soldier lies claiming that he took Saul's life at his request, and King David has the soldier executed for murder. However, Jewish law does allow for the withdrawal of artificial means of survival if such means will not improve the patient's condition and are the only things keeping the patient alive as long as the intention is to relieve pain and not to cause death.



Euthanasia in Christianity{203}: Christians are generally opposed to euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide, on the grounds that it invades God's territory of life and death and has other ethical problems. This position is not universal, however. There are only two mentions of suicide in the Old Testament as mentioned before in the Jewish Bible. In the New Testament, there is one instance of suicide: that of Judas Iscariot, who feels remorse after betraying Jesus and hangs himself (Matthew 27:3-5). - Verses: "Whoever sheds the blood of man, by man his blood be shed for God made man in his image." (Genesis 9:6) "Don't you know that you yourselves are God's temple and that God's Spirit lives in you? If anyone destroys God's temple, God will destroy him; for God's temple is sacred, and you are that temple." (1 Corinthians 3:16-17)

202 [“Religion Facts, Euthanasia and Religion” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/judaism.htm] 203 [“Religion Facts, Euthanasia and Religion” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/christianity.htm]

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- Orthodoxy{204}: The Orthodox Church has dealt with controversial issues by a process which addresses the "mind of the Church.". Death is seen as evil in itself, and symbolic of all those forces which oppose God-given life and its fulfillment. The Orthodox Church has a very strong pro-life stand. It firmly opposes euthanasia and regards it as "a form of suicide on the part of the individual, and a form of murder on a part of others who assist in this practice, both of which are seen as sins." - Catholicism: The Roman Catholic Church remains firmly opposed to both suicide and euthanasia as moral options. The Catholic Encyclopedia describes suicide as a grave sin against God. It gives several reasons for this conclusion such as that suicide implies the person is master of his body instead of God. Quotations{205}: "Euthanasia is a grave violation of the law of God, since it is the deliberate and morally unacceptable killing of a human person." - Pope John Paul II, 1995 - Protestantism: Protestant denominations vary widely on their approach to euthanasia and physician assisted death. Since the 1970s, Evangelical churches have worked with Roman Catholics on sanctity of life approach. While liberal Protestant denominations have offered religious arguments and support for limited forms of euthanasia as physician assisted dying has obtained greater legal support. 

Euthanasia in Islam{206}: Muslims are against euthanasia. They believe that all human life is sacred because it is given by Allah, and that Allah chooses how long each person will live. Human beings should not interfere in this. - Life is sacred: Euthanasia and suicide are not included among the reasons allowed for killing in Islam. "Do not take life, which Allah made sacred, other than in the course of justice." - (Quran 17:33) - Allah decides how long each person lives: "When their time comes they cannot delay it for a single hour nor can they bring it forward by a single hour." - (Quran 16:61) "And no person can ever die except by Allah's leave and at an appointed term." - (Quran 3:145)

204 [“Euthanasia.com, Religious Statements” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.euthanasia.com/orthch.html] 205 [“BBC Religions, Euthanasia and Assisted Dying” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/christianethics/euthanasia_1.shtml] 206 [“BBC Religions, Euthanasia and Assisted Dying” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/islamethics/euthanasia.shtml]

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- Suicide and euthanasia are explicitly forbidden: "Destroy not yourselves. Surely Allah is ever merciful to you." (Quran 4:29) The Prophet said: "Amongst the nations before you there was a man who got a wound, and growing impatient (with its pain), he took a knife and cut his hand with it and the blood did not stop till he died. Allah said, 'My Slave hurried to bring death upon himself so I have forbidden him (to enter) Paradise.' " (Sahih Bukhari 4.56.669) Finally, it is to be noted that all religions tend to differentiate between Euthanasia and the intervention to remove the medical life-support equipment from a patient who suffers Brain Death. The former is considered an act befitting the honor of the deceased, and merciful toward the feelings of relatives and loved ones.

â&#x153;żLegal Aspect: Euthanasia is illegal in all states of the United States. Physician aid-in-dying (PAD), or assisted suicide, is legal in the states of Washington, Oregon, and Montana. The key difference between euthanasia and PAD is who administers the lethal dose. Attempts to legalize PAD resulted in ballot initiatives and "legislation bills" within the United States of America in the last 20 years. â&#x153;ąLegislations:

Oregon: Ballot Measure 16 in 1994 established the Oregon Death with Dignity Act, which legalizes physician-assisted dying with certain restrictions, making Oregon the first U.S. state and one of the first jurisdictions in the world to officially do so. The measure was approved in the 1994 general election in a tight race with the final tally showing 627,980 votes (51.3%) in favor, and 596,018 votes (48.7%) against. The law survived an attempted repeal in 1997, which was defeated at the ballot by a 60% vote. In 2005, after several attempts by lawmakers at both the state and federal level to overturn the Oregon law, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled 6-3 to uphold the law after hearing arguments in the case of Gonzales v. Oregon. Texas: In 1999, the state of Texas passed the Texas Futile Care Law. Under the law, in some situations, Texas hospitals and physicians have the right to withdraw life support measures, such as mechanical respiration, from terminally-ill patients when such treatment is considered to be both futile and inappropriate. This is sometimes referred to as "passive euthanasia". In 2005, a six-month-old infant, Sun Hudson, with a uniformly fatal disease, thanatophoric dysplasia, was the first patient in which a United States court has allowed life-sustaining treatment to be withdrawn from a pediatric patient over the objections of the child's parent. Washington: In 2008, the electorate of the state of Washington voted in favor of Initiative 1000 (it

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requires the patient to ingest the lethal medication unassisted) which made assisted suicide legal in the state through the Washington Death with Dignity Act. - Montana: On December 5, 2008, state District Court judge Dorothy McCarter ruled in favor of a terminally-ill Billings resident who had filed a lawsuit with the assistance of Compassion & Choices, a patient rights group. The ruling states that competent, terminally-ill patients have the right to self-administer lethal doses of medication as prescribed by a physician. Physicians who prescribe such medications will not face legal punishment. On December 31, 2009, the Montana Supreme Court delivered its verdict in the case of Baxter v. Montana. The court held that there was "nothing in Montana Supreme Court precedent or Montana statutes indicating that physician aid in dying is against public policy." â&#x153;ąFamous Acts

and Court Cases:

- Oregon Death with Dignity Act: On October 27, 1997 Oregon enacted the Death with Dignity Act. This act requires the Oregon Health Authority to collect information about the patients and physicians who participate in the Act, and publish an annual statistical report{207}. - The Law: Under the law, a capable adult Oregon resident who has been diagnosed, by a physician, with a terminal illness that will kill the patient within six months may request in writing, from his or her physician, a prescription for a lethal dose of medication for the purpose of ending the patient's life. Any physician, pharmacist or healthcare provider who has moral objections may refuse to participate. The request must be confirmed by two witnesses, at least one of whom is not related to the patient, is not entitled to any portion of the patient's estate, is not the patient's physician, and is not employed by a health care facility caring for the patient. After the request is made, another physician must examine the patient's medical records and confirm the diagnosis. The patient must be determined to be free of a mental condition impairing judgment. If the request is authorized, the patient must wait at least fifteen days and make a second oral request before the prescription may be written. The patient has a right to rescind the request at any time. Should either physician have concerns about the patient's ability to make an informed decision, or feel the patient's request may be motivated by depression or coercion, the patient must be referred for a psychological evaluation. The law protects doctors from liability for providing a lethal prescription for a terminally-ill, competent adult in compliance with the statute's restrictions. The law also specifies a patient's decision to end his or her life shall not "have an effect upon a life, health, or accident insurance or annuity policy."

207 [â&#x20AC;&#x153;Oregon.gov, Public Healthâ&#x20AC;? accessed February 28, 2012. http://public.health.oregon.gov/ProviderPartnerResources/EvaluationResearch/DeathwithDignityAct/ Pages/index.aspx]

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- Washington v. Glusckberg Case{208}: -Allegation: In 1994, Dr. Harold Glucksberg, a physician (along with four other physicians, three terminally-ill patients, and the non-profit organization, Compassion in Dying, counseling those considering assisted-suicide) challenged Washington state's ban against assisted suicide in the Natural Death Act of 1979. They claimed that assisted suicide was a liberty interest protected by the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution and Washington State’s assisted suicide ban was unconstitutional as applied to terminally-ill, mentally-competent adults. -Decision: The U.S. Supreme Court unanimously decided that Washington’s assisted suicide ban was not unconstitutional. The decision reversed a Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals decision that a ban on physician assisted suicide embodied in Washington's Natural Death Act of 1979 was a violation of the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause. The Court asserted that because assisted-suicide is not a fundamental liberty interest, it was therefore not protected under the 14th Amendment. The Court’s ruling was 9-0. ✱Conviction

of Jack Kevorkian with murder{209}:

During the 1990s, Dr. Jack Kevorkian, commonly known as "Dr. Death", was undoubtedly the most well known assisted-suicide and euthanasia advocate in the world. Kevorkian made headlines internationally when he undertook a well publicized assisted-suicide campaign between 1990 and 1998 that reportedly ended the lives of approximately 130 people. Most of these cases were disabled or chronically-ill. According to autopsy reports, four of the people whose suicides Kevorkian helped had no discernible organic illness{210}. A Michigan judge sentenced Dr. Jack Kevorkian to 10 to 25 years in prison, despite emotional courtroom pleas on his behalf from the widow and brother of the terminally-ill man he was convicted of killing. A jury convicted Dr. Kevorkian of second-degree murder in the death of Thomas Youk, a 52-year-old man who suffered from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or Lou Gehrig's disease. At this trial prosecutors were able to use a videotape Dr. Kevorkian made of himself injecting Mr. Youk with lethal chemicals which was broadcast on CBS News program ''60 Minutes'' along with an interview in which Dr. Kevorkian dared prosecutors to file charges against him. He was paroled for good behavior on June 1, 2007. He had spent eight years and two 208 [“Wisconsin Right To Life, Legislation/Elections/Courts” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.wrtl.org/legislation/courtcases/assistedsuicide.aspx] 209 [Dirk Johnson, “Kevorkian Sentenced to 10 to 25 Years in Prison,” New York Times, April 19, 1999, Page A21. http://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/14/us/kevorkian-sentenced-to-10-to-25-years-inprison.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm] 210 [“American Law and Information Library, Crime and Criminal Law, Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide” accessed February 28, 2012. http://law.jrank.org/pages/1098/Euthanasia-Assisted-Suicide-JackKevorkian.html]

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and a half months in prison. He died from a thrombosis due to kidney problems on June 3, 2011.

✿Financial Aspect: - Terminal Illness Treatment Realities{211}: In 2003, the US was paying $400 billion as Medicare Prescription Benefit (Medicare Part D, which is a federal program to subsidize the costs of prescription drugs for Medicare beneficiaries. It was enacted with the MMA in 2003). This constitutes only 20% of the projected drug bill of more than $2 trillion for seniors from 2006 to 2015. However, it will not begin to slow the rate of increase in Medicare recipients' out-ofpocket costs. - Cost of Terminal Care{212}: Aggressive treatments attempting to prolong life in terminally-ill people typically continue far too long. Reflecting this overaggressive end-of-life treatment, the Health Care Finance Administration reported that about 25% of Medicare funds are spent in the last 6 months of life (about $68 billion in 2003 or $42,000 per dying patient). Actually, the last 6 months of a Medicare recipient's life consumes about $80,000 for medical services, since Medicare pays only 53% of the bill. Dying cancer patients cost twice the average amount or about $160,000. - Cost of Dying{213}: In 2009, Medicare paid $50 billion just for doctor and hospital bills during the last two months of patients' lives. That's more than the budget of the Department of Homeland Security or the Department of Education. It has been estimated that 2030% of these medical expenditures may have had no meaningful impact. Most of the bills are paid for by the federal government with few or no questions asked. Dr. Ira Byock states the following: "It costs up to $10,000 a day to maintain someone in the intensive care unit. Some patients remain there for weeks or even months. Something like 18-20% of Americans spend their last days in an ICU. It's extremely expensive and uncomfortable. Many times they have to be sedated so that they don't reflexively pull out a tube, or sometimes their hands are restrained."

211 [David K. Cundiff, “Medicare Prescription Drug Benefit Realities,” Medscape General Medicine, October, 12, 2003, Section 1. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/464964] 212 [David K. Cundiff, “Medicare Prescription Drug Benefit Realities,” Medscape General Medicine, October, 12, 2003, Section 2. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/464964_2] 213 [CBS News, 60 Minutes, “The Cost of Dying” December 3, 2010. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/11/19/60minutes/main5711689.shtml]

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- Cost of Euthanasia Procedures{214}: Due to the cost effective nature of euthanasia this will be the trend in the future. The cost of thousands of dollars for terminal treatment is to be compared to a mere $35.00 for drugs in an assisted-suicide. In Oregon, assisted-suicide is referred to as "comfortcare"

✿Statistics concerning Euthanasia: - Deaths under Oregon's Physician-Assisted Suicide Act{215}: In 1998: Deaths under the Act were counted to be 16. In 2000: Deaths under the Act were counted to be 27 In 2002: Deaths under the Act were counted to be 38 - Deaths from Euthanasia World-wide{216}: There have been at least 3,147 deaths from euthanasia reported worldwide. This is based on data from the Disability and Health Journal published in January 2010 that reported 401 assisted suicide deaths in Washington state by the end of 2009, 246 assisted suicide deaths in Oregon from 1998 to 2005 reported by the International Task Force on Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide, and 2,500 euthanasia deaths in the Netherlands as of 2009 reported by the Euthanasia Prevention Coalition. Exact figures may very well be higher than this total. - Deaths from Assisted Suicide in the US{217}: By the end of 2009, there are 417 cases of legal assisted suicides in the United States. This is based on a report published in Disability and Health Journal in January 2010. Of this, 401 are in Washington and 16 in Oregon. The only other state to legalize assisted suicide is Montana, which only legalized the act in January 2010. - Reasons for deaths in 2002 under Oregon's Physician-Assisted Suicide Act{218}: 84%: Feared losing autonomy. 84%: Concerned about decreasing ability to take part in enjoyable activities. 47%: Concerned about losing control of bodily functions. 214 [“New Zealand Resource for Life-Related Issues, Euthanasia” accessed February 28th, 2012. http://www.life.org.nz/euthanasia/euthanasiapoliticalkeyissues/economics/] 215 [“Euthanasia.com, Statistics, Charts and Graphs” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.euthanasia.com/charts.html] 216 [“NumberOf.net” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.numberof.net/number-of-euthanasiadeaths/] 217 [“NumberOf.net” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.numberof.net/number-of-assistedsuicides-in-the-us/] 218 [“Euthanasia.com, Statistics, Charts and Graphs” accessed February 28, 2012. http://www.euthanasia.com/charts.html]

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37%: Concerned about burdening their family, friends or care-givers. 26%: Feared inadequate pain relief. - Deaths due to Suicide{219}: Over 36,000 people in the United States die by suicide every year. In 2009 (latest available data), there were 36,909 reported suicide deaths. Suicide is the fourth leading cause of death for adults between the ages of 18 and 65 years in the United States. Currently, suicide is the 10th leading cause of death in the United States. A person dies by suicide about every 15 minutes in the United States. Every day, approximately 101 Americans take their own life. - Public Support of Euthanasia: In 2005, When asked if doctors should be allowed to end the life of a patient who is suffering from an incurable disease and wants to die, 75% of Americans say "Yes." But when asked if doctors should be allowed to help a patient commit suicide under the same circumstances, only 58% of Americans say "Yes"{220}. Also 85% of Americans say they would want their life support removed if they were in a persistent vegetative state with no hope of recovery{221} - Public Continues to Support the Right-to-Die for Terminally-ill Patients {222}:

219 [http://www.afsp.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.viewpage&page_id=050fea9f-b064-4092b1135c3a70de1fda] 220 [David W. Moore, “Three in Four Americans Support Euthanasia,” Gallup.com, May 17, 2005. http://www.gallup.com/poll/16333/three-four-americans-support-euthanasia.aspx] 221 [“Life and Death,” Gallup.com, May 17, 2005. http://www.gallup.com/video/16351/Life-Death.aspx] 222 [Joseph Carroll, “Public Continues to Support Right-to-Die for Terminally Ill Patients,” Gallup.com, June 19, 2006. http://www.gallup.com/poll/23356/Public-Continues-Support-RighttoDie-Terminally-IllPatients.aspx]

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- Moral Acceptability of Doctor-Assisted Suicide: According to the May, 2007 poll, 49% of Americans say doctor-assisted suicide is morally acceptable, while 44% say it is morally wrong. {223} According to the Gallup's 2011 Values and Beliefs poll, 45% of Americans say doctorassisted suicide is morally acceptable, while 48% say it is morally wrong. This brings the issue to be the most controversial cultural issue dividing Americans opinions. {224} 223 [Joseph Carrol, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Public Divided Over Moral Acceptability of Doctor-Assisted Suicide,â&#x20AC;? Gallup.com, May 31, 2007. http://www.gallup.com/poll/27727/Public-Divided-Over-Moral-AcceptabilityDoctorAssisted-Suicide.aspx]

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◆

Final Words:

"There is still in our chamber this cloud of euthanasia. At some time in the future we will address It." says Representative Dennis Baxley, and the time has come! Now legislate. "Your vote decides a fate!"

Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs’12

1st Topic

224 [Lydia Saad, “Doctor-Assisted Suicide Is Moral Issue Dividing Americans Most,” Gallup.com, May 31, 2011. http://www.gallup.com/poll/147842/Doctor-Assisted-Suicide-Moral-Issue-DividingAmericans.aspx]

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Prepared By: Chair-Lady: Nada Adel. Vice-Chair Lady: Emmy Sulieman. Ranking Member: Ahmed Zaher. Party Consultant: Nehal Kamal.

TABLE OF CONTENTS The first topic Homegrown Terrorism Ideology of destruction: 1- Introduction 2- Domestic Terrorism I. History II. Notable Incidents 3- Neo Nazis I. History II. Ideology

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III. Perpetrator analysis “why do people become Neo Nazis? “ IV. Incidents committed by the Neo Nazis 4- Fort Hood Shootings The reactions toward fort hood shootings 5- The Nation of Islam 6- El shabab I. Notable attacks II. Origins III. Affiliations to al –Qaeda IV. El shabab’s threat on the US 7- Educational system (American Muslim schools) I. Religious Education and public’s opinion regarding them II. Rising Public concerns 8- El sharia I. American Muslims and Sharia II. Sharia and Family Law III. Sharia and Criminal Law IV. Popular reactions 9- The US army I. Requirements for joining the army II. US army policies towards Hommosexuals III. US army policies towards Muslims IV. APAAM The Second Topic Weapons of Mass destruction : kill the world in a scientific way I. II.

Introduction Types of WMD I. Nuclear Weapons II. Biological weapons III. Chemical Weapons IV. Radiological Weapons

3-International treaties regarding WMD 4- Bio-security in the US I. Laws for facilities and research II. Laws for handling III. The Biological weapons convention IV. Scientific Code of conduct

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ABOUT THE COMMITTEE The Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs (HSGAC) is the Senateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s primary oversight committee with broad jurisdiction over government operations generally and the Department of Homeland Security in particular. Its primary responsibilities are to study the efficiency, economy, and effectiveness of all agencies and departments of the federal government; evaluate the effects of laws enacted to reorganize the legislative and executive branches of government; and study the intergovernmental relationships between the U.S. and states and municipalities, and between the U.S. and international organizations of which the U.S. is a member.

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The year after passage of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, the Committee's name changed from the Governmental Affairs Committee to the Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee as its jurisdiction expanded to include homeland security issues. In addition to governmental affairs, the Committee now oversees and receives legislation, messages, petitions, and memorials on all matters relating to the Department of Homeland Security, except for appropriations, the Coast Guard, the Transportation Security Administration, immigration, customs revenue, commercial operations, and trade. Among the Committeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s governmental affairs responsibilities are the Archives of the United States, budgeting and accounting measures generally, government contracting, the Census and collection of statistics, Congressional organization, the federal Civil Service, government information, intergovernmental relations, the municipal affairs of the District of Columbia, the organization and management of U.S. nuclear export policy, the organization and reorganization of the executive branch, the Postal Service, and the status of officers and employees of the U.S., including their classification, compensation, and benefits. The Committee also receives and examines reports of the Comptroller General of the United States and submits recommendations to the Senate as it sees fit related to the subject matter of the reports.

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Home Grown Terrorism: The Ideology Of Destruction. The threats the world faced since its existence has varied widely between natural, and man-made. One of the oldest threats that have managed to evolve to new and more efficient ways is man himself. Throughout the existence of humanity, the different ideologies and struggle between powers have been tried to be settled in different ways but none worse than terrorism. Terrorism is such a broad term to the extent that humans haven’t been able to come to a concrete answer to what is it? However, there has been tries to define, terrorism, and it has been’’ broadly defined as politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents’’225.

Terrorism is simply an act of violence that one takes against any targets to prove a political point of view. The Definition is of course very broad and incorporates a lot of cases, but one man’s poison is another’s drug. So we might find our self in a dilemma regarding the reasons behind the act of violence that people some time see a way of explaining violence as a means of getting equal for instance. The fact however remains that targets that are noncombatant i.e. non-fighting, remains an act of violence not accepted by anyone. One of the earliest terrorist attacks in the United States of America, occurred on the 16th of September 1920226, when an unknown attacker set a bomb in Wall Street, which led to the killing of 38 people, and hundreds being injured after the attack. The attack was considered to be the worst bombing attack in the US till the Oklahoma bombing in 1995, and the worst in New York till 9/11. The attack fits perfectly to the definition mentioned previously, as the killed and injured were merely innocent passers in the street, or standing by the hit building. Till this day the attackers were not found however, recent research linked the attack to a group called the Galleanists, which is a group that was responsible for a series of bombings the previous year. The attacks were interpreted as a reaction to the post war unrest that occurred in the economic sector due to capitalistic movements in Wall Street. The history of documented terrorism goes back as far as the beginning of the first century AD. Numerous examples of terroristic acts have been documented all over the world. The thing of interest is the reactions of people towards terrorism, no matter

225 Rapheal Perl, “Terrorism, the Future, and U.S. Foreign Policy” (Issue Brief for Congress, Order Code IB95112, Updated April 11, 2003)

226 Kevin Baker, “Blood on the Street”, The New York Times, February 19, 2009.

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what the cause or who is the perpetrator, people always have the same reaction that is fear. The international reaction to international terrorism, has not much differed from that of everyday humans when it came to the 9/11 attacks. The attacks have spun something that we have not seen in a while, international support, and a war that has been called the war on Terrorism. On the Wake of 9/11, the strategy used before to fight terrorism changed into a process more dependent on the war machine, on intelligence reform and support, and finally global support. President bush said “We cannot defend America and our friends by hoping for the best. We cannot put our faith in the word of tyrants, who solemnly sign nonproliferation treaties, and then systemically break them. If we wait for threats to fully materialize, we will have waited too long — Our security will require transforming the military you will lead — a military that must be ready to strike at a moment's notice in any dark corner of the world. And our security will require all Americans to be forward-looking and resolute, to be ready for preemptive action when necessary to defend our liberty and to defend our lives.” an indicator at the time that the ship was sailing into a new direction. Domestic Terrorism Terrorism of course like anything else can be exported or imported. In the past century the cases of Domestic Terrorism in the USA has been on the rise. The USA has many definitions of domestic terrorism, that are quiet similar, the first is the one by The United States Department of Justice which defines domestic terrorism as: The unlawful use of force or violence, committed by a group(s) of two or more individuals, against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives. The second is that which defines domestic acts of terror as it appears in the USA PATRIOT ACT227: "(A) involve acts dangerous to human life that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State; (B) appear to be intended— (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and (C) occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States."

227 UNITING AND STRENGTHENING AMERICA BY PROVIDING APPROPRIATE TOOLS REQUIRED TO INTERCEPT AND OBSTRUCT TERRORISM (USA PATRIOT ACT) ACT OF 2001, PUBLIC LAW 107–56—OCT. 26, 2001.

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Domestic Terrorism: A history228.

TABLE 1. Incidents of suspected, prevented and actual terrorism occurring in the United States during the 18-year period 1977 – 1994.

Year 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994

Suspected Terrorist Incidents* nd** nd nd nd nd 0 2 3 6 2 8 5 16 1 1 0 2 1

Prevented Terrorist Incidents Nd Nd Nd Nd Nd 3 6 9 23 9 5 3 7 5 4 0 7 0

Total Incidents of Terrorism 111 69 52 29 42 51 31 13 7 25 9 9 4 7 5 4 12 0

* = Definitions of suspected terrorist incident and prevented terrorist incident are provided in the notes section. ** = No data (nd) available for years indicated. SOME OF THE ACTIVE GROUPS OPERATING WITHIN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE PAST DECADE THAT HAVE BEEN CLASSIFIED AS "TERRORIST": African National Prison Organization (ANPO). An arm of the African Peoples Socialist Party. Animal Rights. Principally against use of animals for any purpose beyond their natural existence. Armed Resistance Group (ARG). aka Revolutionary Fighting Group, Red Guerrilla Faction. This group has been characterized in 1988 as "tired and aging revolutionaries."

228 LCDR Steven Mack Presley, MSC, USN, “Rise of Domestic Terrorism and Its Relation to United States Armed Forces”, "WRITTEN IN FULFILLMENT OF A REQUIREMENT FOR THE MARINE CORPS COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE."

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Greenpeace. Principally environmental-use extremists. Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Reorganized and relocated several arms of its group in 1989. Macheteros. Puerto Rican nationalists. Ohio Seven. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). Very public-relations oriented. Radical Feminist Organizing Committee (RFOC). Driven-out of the feminist movement in 1989, operating independently. RAMBOC (Restore a More Benevolent Order Coalition). Targets and actively pursues the US assets and people of foreign groups with terrorist links, such as the PLO, SWAPO, ANC, etc... Rolling Thunder. aka American Foundation for Accountability; primary focus is to draw attention to the POW/MIA issue from Vietnam War. Satanic Cult. Associated with attempted bombing of churches and kidnapping, and animal sacrifices, tombstone vandalism, and miscellaneous actions. Skinheads (SKA). Groups consists of both racist and anti-racist factions. SS Action Group. Principally anti-Semitic Notable incidents: The Los Angeles building Bombing in 1910 The Wall Street bombing 1920 The Bath School, Michigan bombings 1927 The Unabomber attacks in Harvard 1995 The Oklahoma city bombing 1995 The Centennial Olympic park attacks 1996 Anthrax Attacks 2001 Holocaust Memorial Museum attack 2009 Fort hood shooting 2009 The IRS Austin Attack 2010 The history of the Domestic Terrorism, in the US is not that young, it goes back to the beginnings of the foundation of the new country itself, some historians would disagree to certain events about naming them an acts of terror, take for example the raids of settlers on Native Americans at the time, for land, and resources. However one of the oldest and most notable ways of terror in the United States remains to be shootings. Perhaps one of the most notable incidents is the Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln by John Wilkes Booth, or that of President Kennedy by Lee Harvey Oswald. The psychology of

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shootings itself is quiet interesting but that is not the place to discuss it, however it remains one of the most used ways in committing terrorist acts, besides bombing. A lot of movements have chosen to be based on shootings. The Neo-Nazis represent one of the most dangerous groups in the United States right now that has been responsible for many attacks. The Freedom to gather and of expression is one of the oldest and most fundamental rights to the Americans. Terrorism and groups such as Neo Nazis Pose threats to these rights, the question of safety versus liberty arises when one tries to find out about these groups. Shall America Permit these groups to continue to work under the umbrella of the bill of rights while at the same time give them the opportunity to danger what the founding fathers had worked so hard to build? Should we accept the differences, or should we strike hard on those who endanger us?

The Neo-Nazi history:

In 1933, Adolf Hitler established a Nazi dictatorship in Germany. His regime would go on to perpetrate one of the greatest crimes in world history: the Jewish holocaust during the Second World War. This tragedy had its roots in the rise of the neo-Nazis in Germany in the post-WWI era. The neo-Nazi phenomenon was a product of many forces, but two causes of the movement remain crystal clear: 1) German humiliation in World War One and, 2) German anti-Semitism. Both realities blended together to cause the rise of the Neo-Nazis.

The ideology of the Neo-Nazis: NEO-NAZISM, is related to fascist, nationalist, white supremacist, anti-Semitic beliefs and political tendencies of the numerous groups that emerged after World War II seeking to restore the Nazi order or to establish a new order based on doctrines propounded in Hitler's’’ Mein Kampf;’’ (‘’My Struggle’’ a book written by’’ Hitler’’) others espoused related beliefs deriving from older Catholic, nationalist, or other local traditions. Some openly embraced the structure and aspirations of the Third Reich (The German State from 1933 to 1945 under Adolf Hitler rule) by displaying swastika flags (The symbol of the Nazi party 卐) and glorifying Nazi achievements, while others sought to mask their ideology and agenda.

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Starting in the 1970s, a trend of conservative, right-wing populist, ethno-nationalist, and neofascist challenges to sitting centrist or social democratic governments allowed right-wing groups a degree of legitimacy they did not possess in the immediate post-World War II era. In response neo-Nazi groups have developed a variety of ways to build bridges to more mainstream political and social movements. Some neo-Nazis repackage their beliefs as forms of "White Nationalism" or "White Separatism,"(autonomy) hiding behind broader racist movements for "White Rights," with alliances spanning Europe and North America. At the same time, Europe, North America, the Middle East, and South Asia saw the development of numerous right-wing populist political parties and reactionary fundamentalist religious movements that served to bridge the extreme right to the mainstream. In several countries neo-Nazis (sometimes in alliance with quasi-fascist or xenophobic right-wing populist allies) became more involved in electoral politics, stressing anti-immigrant and sometimes antiSemitic themes.

The Perpetrator analysis: Why do people become Neo-Nazis? In the 1980s, social scientists began to move beyond notions of deviance and psychopathology to theories of social mobilization that see people who join any social movement – even neo-Nazis – as motivated by shared grievances shaped by social circumstances, recruited by face-to-face interaction, and focused on goals that seem practical and reachable, Major factors in the global neo-Nazi upsurge included unstable economic, political, and social conditions, with their many causes–including, in the 1970s, simultaneous inflation and recession caused in great part by dependence on Arab oil; the disruptions of globalization and the collapse of the Soviet empire; waves of nonwhite immigration into Europe (from places formerly ruled or dominated by Europeans) and the United States; the constant threat of war, especially in the Middle East and the Persian Gulf; and the continued sense among white men that they were losing power and prestige in areas ranging from world affairs to their living rooms to their relations with women. In the United States, racial issues, not resolved in the 1960s, took the form of conflict over school desegregation, affirmative action, social welfare provision, and government social spending in general, So Leaders of neo-Nazi groups skillfully exploited the anxieties caused by these and other factors. The worldview of neo-Nazis is shaped by the way leaders frame issues and use narrative stories. While most neo-Nazi frames and narratives are based on myths, demonization, and scapegoating, this does not make them less effective in building a functional identity for individuals, even if they come from dysfunctional families. This process allowed neo-Nazis to adapt to changing historic conditions and expand their targets beyond Jews and black people.

Incidents committed by the ‘’Neo-Nazis’’ 1) William A. “Bill” White, the self-proclaimed commander of the neo-Nazi group the American National Socialist Workers Party, he was convicted in December 2009, for three counts of communicating threats in interstate commerce and one count of witness intimidation, Firstly ‘’White’ ’was guilty of threatening a bank employee who he mistakenly believed was assigned to handle a financial dispute involving his Citibank accounts. Secondly he was also found guilty of using intimidation to delay or prevent the testimony of AfricanAmerican tenants in a discrimination case against their landlord. Thirdly he was convicted for making threats to a university administrator who was responsible for implementing a diversity program.

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2) On May 1, 2011 A 10-year-old Californian boy called ‘‘Joseph Hall’ ’brought up amid a neo-Nazi group has been charged with murder after allegedly shooting dead his father, The boy, who has not been named, is alleged to have shot’’ Jeffrey Hall ‘’with a handgun, the Boy who was raised in an environment of hate, racism, and violence is said to have been affected by this environment. 3) In the wake of 9/11 attacks, some briefings from the security services and Justice Department, found that Right-wing groups have had an interest in anthrax and other biological agents. A member of the Aryan Nation group once boasted about that he had a hidden amount of anthrax from digging up a field where cows had died of the disease in the 1950s.’’ Larry Wayne Harris’’ was arrested 229 after trying to obtain three flasks of bubonic plague (disease circulated from small rodents and their fleas) from a mail-order science company. The rise of the Neo-Nazi ideology in the American society as we have read has been affected and nurtured by mistakes on the economic and social levels as well. The thing that intrigues is that these same factors were affecting everyone, but inly the Neo Nazis have chosen to react in the way they react. The American government finds itself in face of a society that is affected by messages by historical bad figures such as Hitler who despite his death is affecting ideologies of terrorist groups in the US. And as these groups have taken a legal cover as right wing policies, they are terrorizing the American society. What are the possible tools that the US can undertake to fight back, Putting in mind that the right to express, and buy guns, the right to form political parties are fundamental rights?

______________________________________________ The ideology of a shooter matters not, all that remain in the end is blood. Shootings have occurred even in the heart of the US army something that has shocked the American Community, and lead to a wide search in the society about the roots of this problem, one of the most recent, and very important attacks of domestic attacks was that which occurred in the Fort Hood, of the US Army.

Fort Hood Shootings: On 5 November 2009 13 people were killed and 30 injured in the worst mass shooting at a military base in Fort hood in Texas in the United States, a US soldier ‘’ Army Major/ Nidal Malik Hasan” that entered the soldier readiness center and killed almost 12/13 Soldiers, one civilian and injured about 30 other people, he was armed with 2 non-military revolvers as there were 400 people at the center, some of them are to be deployed. ‘’Nidal Malik Hasan’’, was born and raised in Virginia as his parents moved to the US from Palestine , After high school ,he joined the US Army, before being transferred to’’ Fort Hood’ ’an important official mentioned that ‘’Nidal’’ had received a poor performance evaluation from the ‘’Walter Reed Army Medical Center ‘’, his training director at the center was describing him as ‘’mostly very quiet",’’ and never spoke ill of the military or his country’’

229 Ed Vulliamy, “Anthrax attacks' 'work of neo-Nazis'”, The Guardian, October 28, 2001.

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The Reactions toward ‘’Fort Hood’’ Shooting: People who were at the base or who had loved ones there, there was great fear and despair after the attack, many people were terrified , some tried in vain to reach their acquaintances by phone, as so much has happened in’’ Fort Hood’’ since the war started, it was hard to believe that one of their own could do something like this, and some people referred this to saw the shooting as linked to the US military's operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, others perceived this as largest military installation in the free world, others thought that after 9/11, it was only a matter of time before there was another terrorist attack on the American soil .

Another Incident in November,2011 A rogue U.S. soldier ‘’Private First Class Naser Jason Abdo ‘’ planned to detonate bombs at Fort Hood and then shoot the survivors, as well as being indicted on six counts for plotting to blow up a restaurant full of troops near the Texas Army post, also trying to use a weapon of mass destruction, attempted murder of officers or employees of the US, and two counts of possession of a firearm for use in a federal crime of violence, and two counts of possession of a destructive device for use in a federal crime of violence.

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The fort hood incidents raised a lot of debate inside the American community about the role of these soldiers in the army, and whether it is advisable or not to let Arabs fight in the war on Terrorism that is being held in the Middle East? Does this pose a conflict for the soldiers? How can the US Army stop future incidents? Should there be a ban on Arab soldiers in the army? _________________________________________ After the attack, America came to see that something new in its society has appeared and now is the time for it to face it. America is facing terrorism but from its own citizens, and what she fears might be true, they are Muslims. Why is it that each time America finds terror, like previously in the shootings of Fort Hood, must it be linked to Islam? How come Americans became Muslims? The United States of America, has always been a place of dreams, and to be more specific, the American dream. For years this dream has mesmerized the world. With the foundations of this country and the life it provides, the American dream has always been the goal of millions. Now a days the American dream is endangered by terrorism. The foundations of this dream are facing a challenge, what shall America do? Should America stand by and watch the people of the world crash on her shores changing the ideologies of this country and its foundation? Should America stop new comers, to save its traditions? Or maybe America as a country that has been always a mixture of traditions let go and see what happens?

The United States of America: A Nation of Nations. The latest estimates of the number of Muslims in the United States range from six to ten million230. All Muslims who are citizens of America live a minority existence but with the benefits that citizenship brings. The very first Muslims came unwillingly to America several centuries ago as slaves brought from western Africa, there were many Islamic professors and scholars among the slaves, but they weren’t able to build Qur’an schools and teaching the reading and writing of Arabic. However, they weren’t allowed to practice the faith of Islam and they were forced to convert to Christianity. Despite the stunning achievements of the Muslim Americans but they still aren’t treated as normal citizens. 230 Religion and Immigration: Jewish, Christian and Muslim Experiences in the US / edited by Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, John L. Esposito (Alta mira Press, 2003) chapter 9. -Muqtedar Khan, “U.S. Government and American Muslims Engage to Define Islamophobia”, December 19, 2006. -Laurie Goodstein, “Across Nation, Mosque Projects Meet Opposition”, The New York Times, August 7, 2010.

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There are tensions about Islam, In an August 2011poll, only 33 percent of Americans had a generally favorable opinion about Muslims, versus 61 percent who said they had an unfavorable opinion. Also 55 percent of Muslim Americans say it has become more difficult to be a Muslim in the United States and that they had experienced mistreatment or discrimination. The two conflicting points of view, one stating that America was built on diversity and acceptance of different culture ans embracing all cultures to form a new culture, American, and pure for its citizens, stands now face in face to that saying that we should scrutinize those who wish to enter our lands, we should protect our lands and not accept any one, especially if they are Muslims.

The Nation of Islam

The Nation of Islam began by the appearance of The Pakistani Wallace D. Fard (Walli Fard Muhammad) in Detroit on July 4, 1930 whom was believed to be the long awaited "Saviour" of the Black man and woman, He announced and preached that God is one and it’s time for the black to return to the religion of their ancestors, Islam. Elijah Mohamed (Elijah Poole) was from the people who were deeply affected by his lecture; He was overwhelmed by the message and immediately accepted it. Elijah was taught by Fard for Three and half years till he was ready to establish religious center of worship, schools, businesses between only Black people and establish a newspaper, “The Final Call to Islam” in 1934.

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Elijah Muhammed

Malcolm X

By 1934, the Michigan State Board of Education disagreed with the Muslim's right to pursue their own educational agenda. Elijah, the Muslim Teachers and Temple Secretary were jailed on the false charge of contributing to the delinquency of minors. His Teacher, W. Fard Muhammad, was also harassed by the police and was forced out of Detroit and moved to Chicago where he continued to face imprisonment and harassment by the police. In 1934 W. Fard Muhammad departed the scene and disappeared leaving Elijah Muhammad with the mission of resurrecting the Black people, Elijah Muhammad was convicted in 1942 of military draft evasion for refusing to being inducted in the U.S. Arm Forces and fighting in World War 2. *** The Nation of Islam emphasizes mentoring, taking a younger person under one's wing to model moral principles, and that’s what happened to Malcolm X who was born as Malcolm Little231, he was a smart student but his teacher told him his dream of becoming a lawyer was "no realistic goal for a nigger," so he lost interest in school and began odd jobs and committed some crimes till he was arrested and judged to serve in prison for 8-10 years; Those years were the period of self-enlightenment that Malcolm's brother Reginald would visit and discuss his recent conversion to the Muslim religion. Intrigued, Malcolm began to study the teachings of NOI leader Elijah Muhammad. By the time he was paroled in 1952, Malcolm was a devoted follower with the new surname "X." (He considered "Little" a slave name and chose the "X" to signify his lost tribal name.)

231 “MalcolmX Offical Website, About Malcolm X, Biography”, Last updated February 21, 2011, http://www.malcolmx.com/about/bio2.html

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During the 1950s, Mr. Muhammad promoted Malcolm X to the National Spokesman.His charisma, drive and conviction attracted people increased membership in the NOI from 500 in 1952 to 30,000 in 1963. After the great success, Malcolm rejected Elijah’s absolutism. The tensions increased when he learned that Elijah was secretly having relations with six women within the NOI. Malcolm refused Elijah's request to cover up the affairs and subsequent children. And after a tension between them, In March 1964 Malcolm quit from the NOI. Malcolm decided to found his own religious organization, the Muslim Mosque, Inc. Quitting from NOI and telling about Elijah’s scandal was enough for making great danger on Malcolm’s life, after repeated attempts on assassinating him, three black gunmen rushed him onstage at a speaking engagement on February 21, 1965. The NOI members have said that they hadn’t participated in this assassination till Farrakhan admitted at a TV program232 in 2000 that they were responsible because they called him a traitor and that he was worthy of death. In January 1964, Elijah Muhammad expelled his own son Wallace Muhammad, who had also been a close friend to Malcolm; they had both concluded that W.D. Fard could not have been Allah and that Elijah Muhammad had misrepresented Islam. Wallace had also been one of the people who confirm his father's sexual infidelity. Despite of all these tensions between Elijah and his son, when Elijah Muhammad died in 1975, it was announced that Wallace Deen Muhammad (Wareeth Al-Deen) would be succeeding his father as the new leader of the Nation of Islam. The younger Muhammad had made drastic theological changes and organizational changes, In 1977 splinter groups and sects began dismantling the NOI and his mischaracterization of his father Elijah’s teachings. Louis Farrakhan (Louis Walcott) and Muhammed Silis resigned from Warith Deen's reformed organization and they announced their reclaiming of Elijah Mohammed’s teachings. The Ideology The Nation of Islam seems geared to reach the underclass, and its message emphasizes and capitalizes on the racial inequities and disparities between black and white people in America. They urge blacks to set up black-owned businesses, thus working to raise the standard of living in poor neighborhoods. Their fundamental ideology is to avoid reliance on government subsidies or white business partnerships. The chief leaders of the NOI (Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and Minister Farrakhan) have all made pilgrimages to Mecca, and at the present time NOI members 232 “60 Minutes Website, Farrakhan Admission On Malcolm X” Last Updated February 11, 2009, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/05/10/60minutes/main194051.shtml

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are instructed to fast during the Muslim month of Ramadan and to consult the Hadith. Despite these outward appearances, it can also be argued that the NOI is in fact pseudo-Islamic. NOI also has some polytheistic beliefs which deny the fundamentals of theistic religion. "Islam and the 'Nation of Islam' are two different religions. The only thing common between them is the jargon, the language used by the both."

There is no God but Allah Who appeared In the Person of Master W.D. Fard Muhammad Our Savior, Messiah and Great Mahdi. We forever thank Him for giving to us His Divine Messenger The Last and Greatest Messenger of Allah to the world In the Person of the Most Honorable Elijah Muhammad233 The Nation of Islam symbolizes one of the finest foundations in America that is the power of the people, and the civil society. The nation of Islam grew out of the black American society to be one of the misunderstood societies that are affecting the US Muslim society, and its image. America Now faces a new dilemma, how can it protect itself when the base upon which it stands is shifting and producing groups like NOI? A group that could form a nucleus for illegal activities that could reach the extent of Terrorism, What should America do? The Muslim American Community it seems, must come under bigger and much deeper scrutiny for America to understand why do American Muslims turn into terrorist, are they influenced by foreign organizations? It seems that the same circumstances that allowed NOI to prosper into such an organization are still there, and nowadays in the age of terrorism, Terrorist groups are taking

233 â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Nation of Islam Websiteâ&#x20AC;? , http://www.thenationofislam.org/

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advantage of this, and starting to work on young Muslim Americans to strike in the heart of the US. One such group is El Shabab234 235 236: Al Shabaab, which means “the youth” in Arabic, is an organized, but shifting, Islamist group in Somalia. It has had several incarnations. It is frequently referred to as a terrorist group in the media, and the U.S. State Department designated it a terrorist group in March, 2008. However, it also may be understood as a political party, a militia, and a movement. Home Base: Somalia Founded in : 2003 or 2004 Leadership and organization : Al Shabab was headed by Aden Hashi Ayro until he was killed by a U.S. airstrike in early May, 2008. Al Shabab members are reported to be mostly adolescents and young men in their early twenties. They are for the most part poorly educated and some have criminal backgrounds. When it first emerged, it had a small membership. The group maintained a loose organization and is reportedly inspired by Al Qaida. There are no organic links between the two groups, however, although it is reported that Ayro may have trained in Afghanistan

234 Amy Zalman, “Al Shabab”, “About website”, http://terrorism.about.com/od/groupsleader1/p/AlShabab.htm

235 Stephanie Hanson, “Al-Shabaab”, Council On Foreign Relations, August 10, 2011.

236 Committee on Homeland Security US House of Representatives, “Investigation report on al Shabaab”, July 27, 2011.

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Notable Attacks: 1.

February 2009: A suicide car bomb attack killed 11 African Union soldiers who were part of a peacekeeping force in Mogadishu

January 2009: The group captured the national Parliament building in Baidoa, and took control of the city without the use of violent force.

June 2007: A suicide bomber blew himself up outside the Somali Prime Minister's house. The PM was not killed; but there were other injuries and substantial property damage.

2007-2008: Assassinations: The group claimed responsibility for a number of assassinations of government officials. 2003-2004: The group was linked to the murder of four foreign aid workers.

Origins: the Islamic Courts Union and Al Shabab: 6.

According to a number of accounts, Al Shabab grew out of the youth wing of the Islamic Courts Union

(ICU). The ICU are a group of united Islamic courts that slowly took on increasingly substantial governance tasks, since the central government was entirely dysfunctional following its 1991 collapse. By 2006, the ICU were in control of much of Southern Somalia. 7.

According to this account, the youth wing of the ICU reconstituted itself as a militia after 2006. In

2006, the ICU hold on Somali territory was loosened, and a transitional central government established. While much of its leadership left for neighboring countries while the youth wing Re-established itself as a militia. 8.

Dr. Moshe Terdman, in a report for the S. Daniel Abraham Center for International and Regional

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Studies at Tel Aviv University, characterizes Al Shabab rather differently as an independent movement that was "integrated quite tightly with the ICU armed forces, acting as a sort of 'special forces' for the ICU" (In Somalia at War-Between Radical Islam and Tribal Politics, March 2008). In Terdman's accounting, the link between the ICU and al Shebab arose from Ayro's appointment as the head of a militia for one of the courts. Affiliation to al-Qaeda When the United States placed al-Shabaab on its list of foreign terrorist organizations in February 2008, it claimed the group has an allegiance with al-Qaeda. Specifically, it said that senior al-Shabaab leaders trained in Afghanistan with al-Qaeda. In September 2008, a senior al-Shabaab leader released a video in which he pledged allegiance to Osama bin Laden and called for Muslim youth to come to Somalia. In February 2009, Ayman al-Zawahiri, then al-Qaeda's second-in-command, released a video that began by praising al-Shabaab's seizure of the Somali town of Baidoa. The group will "engage in Jihad against the American-made government in the same way they engaged in Jihad against the Ethiopians and the warlords before them," Zawahiri said.

Ayman Al-Zawahiri In 2012 Al shabab officially announced its merge with Al qaeda ending years of speculation about a possible link, and opening the door for more threats regarding the fight against terrorism. This announcement created a far tougher situation for the US

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government. How can America protect itself when Al sahabab has been working on recruiting Muslim Americans to work with them? Should the privacy of Americans be held or should it be breached for the safety of all American? Is one American in contact with suspicious people overseas more dangerous than a serial killer? How should America handle the situation regarding rights, freedoms? El shabab’s threat on the U.S: The majority staff of the House Committee on Homeland Security conducted an investigation into the threat by Al Shabaab al-Mujahideen in Somalia, Al Qaeda’s major ally in East Africa, and its efforts to radicalize and recruit Muslim-Americans inside the U.S. The key finding is that there is a looming danger of American Shabaab fighters returning to the U.S. to strike or helping Al Qaeda and its affiliates attack the homeland. U.S. intelligence underestimated the Pakistani Taliban and Al Qaeda in Yemen’s capability of launching attacks here; we cannot afford to make the same mistake with Shabaab. The majority staff interviewed dozens of current and former counterterror officials, scholars, diplomats and other experts on Shabaab and Muslim-American radicalization to reach these conclusions: The committee discovered that Al Shabaab has an active recruitment and radicalization network inside the U.S. targeting Muslim-Americans in Somali communities. It also ensnared a few non-Somali Muslim-American converts, such as a top Shabaab commander: 1. At least 40 or more Americans have joined Shabaab; 2. So many Americans have joined that at least 15 of them have been killed fighting with Shabaab, as well as three Canadians; 3. Three Americans who returned to the U.S. were prosecuted, and one awaits

extradition from The Netherlands 4. At least 21 or more American Shabaab members overseas remain unaccounted

for and pose a direct threat to the U.S. homeland According to the House committee report, Al Shabaab has the intent and capability to conduct attacks or aid core Al Qaeda and Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) in Yemen with striking U.S. interests and the U.S. homeland. Al Shabaab has not only openly pledged loyalty and support to Al Qaeda and AQAP in Yemen, but has cemented alarming operational ties to both groups, according to the House report. The American government found that in addition to foreign influence that some organizations play in the Muslim American society, other factors that they were not seeing came to attention for example the increasing segregation of schooling systems, and the rising demands for separate schools for Muslims, Application of Muslim Shariaa Law. These factors that have nurtured years and years of misunderstanding between both sides are the factors up on which Al shabaab has been working to

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further recruit Muslim Americans. It seems that new laws need to be enacted in order to fight back. The state of these factors currently in the US is discussed below. Educational system (American Muslim Schools) As the population of Muslims in the United States continues to grow, so too does the number of Islamic schools serving Muslim families across the nation. American Muslims see these schools as a way to provide their children with a combination of good, mainstream education and training in the essentials of their faith. But critics fear some of these schools might expose Muslim children to radical Islamist views. Religious education and Publicâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s opinions regarding them: Education has always been very important to the Muslim community in the United States. And like many other families, Muslim parents have educational options. They can send their children to secular, county-administered public schools or private academies while providing religious training at home or on weekends. Alternately, they can send their children to private religious schools. Yvonne Haddad, an Islamic history professor at Georgetown University, says Islamic schools serve the same role as the many other private, church-oriented schools in the United States. According to Haddad, soon after Islamist terrorists carried out multiple attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, Americans began asking whether Islamic schools in America might be breeding grounds for homegrown terrorists that pose a threat to national security. Rising public concern: Daniel Pipes, a conservative Mideast historian who runs the Middle East Forum and Campus Watch websites, believes a number of private Islamic schools in America offer their students a curriculum laced with extremist content. Pipes argue that many Islamic schools are spreading extremist ideas and that they work to instill in their students an unhealthy notion that the only thing that matters in their lives is their Islamic identity. But there are different opinions; Albert Harb the director of the Muslim American Youth Academy in Dearborn, Michigan doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t see it that way "We follow the standards of the state of Michigan curriculum. In addition, we have an Islamic component, and we teach Islam as well as Arabic as a foreign language," says Harb. "We want to ensure that we can develop an Islamic character with our youth and give the positive aspects of Islam here in the society of the U.S.A." Muslim-American efforts to create and support Islamic schools mirror previous

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efforts by Roman Catholic and Jewish communities in America. Both communities faced the same kind of public resistance when they first established their religious schools. It seems that Education, a right so fundamental that no one questions it, in the Us has turned out be a source of trouble to the American society, if the freedom to speak and talk your mind in the us is going to give us terrorists shouldn’t we do something about it? Furthermore the Muslims society if it is even possible was more feared and shunned out of the American society by the Shariaa Muslim law, and the calls for its application something which triggered a hyperactive reaction in the American society causing more fear and hatred towards the Muslim Americans.

Sharia and America In the eyes of America Sharia’ is term that has become exclusive to the Muslim community. According to the Miriam Webster online dictionary it is the: Islamic law based on the Koran. The free online dictionary defines it as the code of law derived from the Koran and from the teachings and example of Mohammed; “sharia is only applicable to Muslims”; “under Islamic law there is no separation of church and state” The Duhaime law resources website, provides a definition which fits the situation more perfectly, where is say that it is Muslim or Islamic law, both civil and criminal justice as well as regulating individual conduct both personal and moral. Sharia as we see from the above three definitions vary according to the mindset of the west, we have multiple layers for the word, and multiple meanings, just as the word does in the Muslim world. Yet in the eyes of the west the word has been in most of the time linked to Jihadism, a view that is confirmed to some based on facts, as a survey that was conducted by mapping sharia that found that 51% had texts on site rated as severely advocating violence; 30% had texts rated as moderately advocating violence; and 19% had no violent texts at all. In 84.5% of the mosques237, the imam recommended studying violence-positive texts. The leadership at Sharia-adherent mosques was more likely to recommend that a worshipper study violence-positive texts than leadership at non-Sharia-adherent mosques. This survey according to some proves the violent tendencies that the western world is facing, tendencies that Islamic sharia represents, such as women oppression, oppression of thought, and expression. These are the things that the America should take care from.

American Muslims and Sharia: 237 Mordechai Kedar and David Yerushalmi ‘Shari’a and Violence in American Mosques’ Middle East Quarterly, Summer 2011

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The situation is different when it comes to the Muslim community in America, which is divided into two. A sect that calls firmly to stand upon the bill of rights and the foundations that the founding fathers laid, and those calling for the application of sharia law (who are further divided into two groups, one that calls for its application between themselves only, and another that sees some parts of it should be legalized in the us judicial branch). In a paper by Shelia museji238 about the American Muslims and sharia law, Shelia calls firmly upon the conviction of secularism of the state, where she asks all Americans to hold on to the separation of church and state, and that Americas’ beauty lies in this fact, expressing her gratitude as an American Muslim to this fact, and at the same time calling those who don’t understand this, don’t understand history as well.

Sharia and Family Law The other side of the Muslim society sees for instance the problem of polygamy in the USA differently. 70% of a survey conducted by the Muslim link paper 239 ( a paper, focused on the Muslim American community) said that the US should legalize polygamy. Family law in the US bans polygamy, and doesn’t recognize it based on religious foundations, since the American constitution doesn’t recognize any religion. The view right now in America after the change in marriage law is changing. American Muslims want to solve the problems of 42% of the same survey who has acknowledged that they have practiced polygamy regardless of what the law says.

Sharia and Criminal Law The situation is different when it comes, to criminal law. Sharia describes certain punishments to certain crimes that are mentioned in the Koran, accordingly Muslims must abide by. That is not the case in the United States. The united states does only recognize the secular law that the founding fathers agreed upon, Americans view sharia as a source of violence as per view of criminal part of it, they paint a picture of cut hands, stoned women, and whipped people. American Muslims views on that are not clear but a popular part of them ask for the application of sharia, by all its parts Popular Reactions:240 241

238 Sheila Musaji, “American Muslims must defend the Constitution of the United States”, The American Muslim, November 20, 2009.

239 Wafa Unus Muslim, “Polygamy: Tis The Season?”, The Muslim Link, 27 October 2011.

240 “ Citizen Against Sharia Blog, About”, Last Updated October 5, 2008 http://citizensagainstsharia.wordpress.com/about/

241 “Sharia 4 america, About”, http://www.sharia4america.com/homepage.php

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Worried citizens of the US have gathered together and formed what they call, watch groups that have the aim of watching and collecting data regarding what they call creeping sharia as one blog puts it. This of course has lead to popular reactions in capitol hill, where bills discussing the integration of religious law, in the American judicial system. The above factors need addressing and fast or America shall find itself in tight spot. The balance between diversity, civil liberties, freedoms, and security is very hard, yet it has to be reached. Suggested laws to monitor the educational facilities, the content of books, the mosques, and Muslim civil societies in the US have been proposed in order to be able to control the reach of EL shabaab in the US. But these laws stand in the face of the liberties and the American bill of rights itself. The social Response to the immigrating communities in the United States has varied depending on states, and places to which the immigrants choose to settle, take for example china town in New York. This was deemed a sign of acceptance and diversity in the American society, and was hailed by the American government always. But it seems that the Muslim society as we have seen above has managed to form a shell impenetrable by other, and specially by America itself leading to years of misconception, and distrust. When it comes to the US Army the situation should have been different but as we will read down, it is not the case.

The United States of America has one of the oldest organized armies in the world something that has lead to the evolution of the political, social, and religious factors governing the army in its different stages of history. The Us Army today has a clear and governed policy for recruitment and enlisting in it. The integration of Muslims in the US Army, is not as easy as it seems, the general requirements are specific age, citizenship, academic, physical and legal qualifications that you must meet first! To qualify for enlistment into the Army, you need to have the following242: Age Requirements: You must be between the the ages of 17 and 42 (unless you have prior U.S. military service, or a specialized professional skill, such as a chaplain, lawyer or certain medical specialties) If you are under age 18, you must obtain the consent of your parent or legal guardian. Citizenship Requirements you must be a U.S. citizen or a legal permanent resident alien to enlist in the Army. People considered to be aliens who have been lawfully and permanently admitted to the United States and requested permanent residence may enlist BUT with limitations. Nationals of the United States, such as the American Samoa, people who were born in 242 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Military Spot, Army requirementsâ&#x20AC;?, Last Updated February 2012, http://www.militaryspot.com/army/army-requirements-to-join/

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the 50 United States including the commonwealths, Guam, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and the District of Columbia and people born abroad on a military installation, or born abroad of U.S. parents who were citizens at the time are eligible for enlistment. Education Requirements: You must be either currently in high school or have a high school diploma. If you do not meet this requirement, there are programs that can help.The high school diploma is most desirable. Physical Requirements and Medical Requirements: Certain tests will be preformed to verify that you meet the physical requirements of the Army. In addition to making sure you are in generally good health, with no disqualifying conditions, you will also be required to pass a drug screening test. Height and Weight Requirements: There are weight and height requirements to make sure you are in shape for joining the Army! ASVAB Requirements: ASVAB is short for â&#x20AC;&#x153;Armed Services Vocational Aptitude batteryâ&#x20AC;?. It is a 200 questions multiple choice test designed to evaluate skills in certain areas ,deciding some factors in choosing the jobs in the army. You must also obtain a minimum qualifying score ,The score for the Army typically needs to be a 31 or better although rare exceptions are made. Background Requirements: A criminal record may disqualify you from military service. If you have a criminal record you need to talk to a recruiter in order to evaluate your particular situation. These are the requirements to enlist in the US army, but what is on real ground is much more different than what is on paper. It seems that within the UA Army un-said requirements are called for, these requirements are the basis upon which some members of the American society have cried out for the fear of segregation and separation between the society something that further divides and creates a gap between Americans; A possible door for terrorism.

US army policies towards Homosexuals: What does the Law Say?

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"The presence in the Armed Forces of persons who demonstrate a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts would create an unacceptable risk to the high standards of morale, good order and discipline, and unit cohesion that are the essence of military capability." The Law and Army Policy in Everyday Language Don't Ask, Don't Tell What Does 'Don't Ask" Mean? Applicants for enlistment will not be asked nor required to reveal their sexual orientation. Applicants for enlistment will not be asked if they have engaged in homosexual conduct. While on active duty, soldiers will not be asked about their sexual orientation or conduct unless there is credible information of homosexual conduct. What Does "Don't Tell" Mean? "Don't Tell" is the opposite side of the coin from "Don't Ask." Soldiers should not disclose or discuss their sexual orientation or conduct. If a soldier admits to being homosexual, the commander will begin the process to determine if credible information exists which would warrant separation.

U.S army policies towards Muslims: Since Sept. 11, 2001, as the United States has become mired in two wars on Muslim lands, the service of Muslim-Americans is more necessary and more complicated than ever before. In the aftermath of the shootings at Fort Hood by Maj. Nidal Malik Hasan of the Army, a psychiatrist, many Muslim soldiers and their commanders say they fear that the relationship between the military and its Muslim service members will only grow more difficult. Since Sept. 11, the nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s military has actively recruited Muslim-Americans, eager to have people with linguistic skills and a cultural understanding of the Middle East. Some 3,557 military personnel identify themselves as Muslim among 1.4 million

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people in the active-duty population, according to official figures. Muslim advocacy groups estimate the number to be far higher, as listing one’s religious preference is voluntary. Many Muslims are drawn to the military for the same reasons as other recruits. In interviews, they cited patriotism, a search for discipline and their dreams of attending college. Some Muslims said they had also enlisted to win new respect in a country where people of their faith have struggled for acceptance.

APAAM: APAAM243: is The Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military ,it’s a nonpolitical and non-religious organization, that was created shortly after 11 September, 2001 the horrific event that touched all the Americans , APAAM is aiming at organizing current and former Arab- Americans in the military, it was established for the cause of making a difference in Arab American Communities nationwide by building a bridge of understanding with the fellow Americans As There are approximately 3,500 Arab- Americans serving in the Armed Forces. Based on the fact that there are no other formal veterans(people that serve in the armed forces) organizations representing Arab- Americans in the military, APAAM has the distinction of being the first official veterans organization for Arab- Americans in the Military.

The Objectives of APAAM, is to build a contact list of all the military members, Establish a solid foundations that speaks with one "Arab American Military" voice ,Educate the fellow American and Arab communities of proudness to the ancestral heritage, coupled by the patriotism and burning dedication to the country, by emphasizing the service and sacrifice as military service men and women in the United States Armed Forces, and Finally To ultimately close the gap that lies between bigotry, ignorance and prejudice on one end, and tolerance on the other.

The Founder Baadani’’244

and the President of APAAM is ‘’Jamal 245 , Born and raised in Cairo, Egypt to Yemeni

parents, then age of 17 he

emigrated to the United States at the age of 9, At the joined the United States Marine Corps, Due to his

243 “ Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military” About, Last Updated June 14, 2010, http://www.apaam.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93:aboutus&catid=44

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belief in “Duty and Patriotism” to country,he felt that as an immigrant to America serving in the U.S. Military by making the transformation as a United States Marine legitimized his place as a citizen of this great country. Coming to America as a child who couldn’t speak English followed by struggles as a teenager to fit in as a normal young man alongside his American peers was always a challenge for him during his early days in America. Service in the United States Marines enabled him to feel that he had overcome the challenge of belonging to America , becoming a strong and proud American man, felt an obligation to give back to his community, and shortly after September attack, he founded the APAAM to stand up for the Arab and Muslim American Communities in response to the backlash and discrimination they experienced as a result of increased tensions in America resulting from 9/11, as he found out that the reasons for this discriminations and tensions were due to the lack of understanding by his fellow Americans as There were over 1,300 cases of backlash and discrimination and eight deaths (homicides) to Arab, Asian, and Muslim Americans directly after 9.11 , moreover in the military he found that their Patriotism and Service to their country was put into question by some of other Americans ,doubt that still continues today as they have fought in every climb and place to protect the freedom of America. Hundreds of Arab and Muslim Americans have deployed and many are still deployed overseas contributing with Operation Enduring Freedom in the Global War on Terrorism, they are committed to eradicating and ending terrorism once and for all. APAAM against violence, After the sorrow incidents of Fort Hood shooting , and what it had left from victims and their families , and in the aftermath of this terrible tragedy, it is more important than ever not to make the same scapegoating and fatal mistakes that were evident in the aftermath of previous tragedies. The APAAM in Military urges the media, government officials and all of the Americans to recognize that the actions of ‘’Nidal Malik Hasan’’ 246 are those of an insane gunman, and are in no way representative of the wider Arab American or American Muslim community. This is besides , The first documented Arab American immigrant 247 ‘’Private Nathan Badeen ‘’from Syria died in the revolutionary war on 26 May , 1776, he was with the 18th

244 “Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military”, Home http://www.apaam.org/index.php? option=com_k2&view=item&id=149:jamal-baadani-apaam-president-founder&Itemid=174

245 “Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military”, “Jamal S. Baadani, WE WILL NEVER FORGET ““,http://www.apaam.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=225:we-will-neverforget

246 “STATEMENT ON FORT HOOD SHOOTINGS, Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military”, http://www.apaam.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=222:statement-on-fort-hoodshootings

247 NIRAJ WARIKOO,” Muslim soldiers: We love America”, Association of Patriotic Arab Americans in Military, November 15, 2009.

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Continental Army of Massachusetts., He died fighting for a cause of freedom , two months prior to seeing the Declaration of Independence issued to the British. So there were Arab Americans and Muslim Americans who also died in the revolutionary war, in addition to’’ Private Nathan Badeen’’, Over 5,000 Muslim and Arab Americans fought on both sides of the civil war ,the Arab and Muslim Americans were rebels, and on the other side Arab and Muslim Americans with the Union fighting to end slavery, Over 15,000 Arab Americans fought in WWII to help rid the world of a tyrant. Ideologies and societies in the US are many and diverse as we have seen. From White supremacy to the national traditions of the NOI, and the Muslim community heritage in the US, It seems that extremism is not a thing of certain community or culture. It is something that can be found in any culture or any ideology if nurtured by the souls of evil men. America in its fight against Terrorism, is trying to find out possible environments where extremisms and terrorism can grow and prosper. How can we fight back? What are the Laws that we should take? With Breach of civil liberties in light, and the safety of the US in mind, what is the right balance? Terrorism, we see is such a complicated topic that can never be completely, grasped, due to the multi-factorial tree it has grown from. We however try to understand, so that we could prevent, for indeed prevention is the best treatment policy.

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Weapons Of Mass Destruction: Kill The World in a Scientific Way. An Introduction: 

Since the end of the Cold War, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction has become much more prominent in U.S. national security and foreign policy planning. Revelations about Iraqi, North Korean, South African, and Israeli nuclear weapon programs, the possibility of a nuclear arms race in South Asia, and the multidimensional conflicts in the Middle East all point to the immediacy of this problem. Adding a dangerous new twist is the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a superpower armed with nuclear, chemical, radiological and biological weapons whose successor states are wracked by economic crises and political instability. At least three main factors underlie the emphasis on proliferation of WMD: 1-First, the reduced military threat from the former Soviet Union has increased the relative importance of lesser powers, especially if armed with weapons of mass destruction. 2-Second, certain international political and technological trends are increasing the threat to international security from proliferation. 3- Third, new opportunities are opening for enhancing the current international regimes designed to stem proliferation. Since at least as far back as the 1960s, when it sponsored the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), the United States has recognized that proliferation is a global problem and combating it requires high levels of international cooperation. Proliferation of nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons is of particular concern for at least two reasons: 1-The large-scale and indiscriminate nature of their effects—particularly against unprotected civilians—differentiates mass destruction from conventional

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weapons. Mass destruction weapons make it possible for a single missile or airplane to kill as many people as thousands of planeloads of conventional weaponry. 2- These weapons can give small states or sub national groups the ability to inflict damage that is wholly disproportionate to their conventional military capabilities or to the nature of the conflict in which they are used. Unlike most categories of conventional weapons, which will likely be considered legitimate instruments of national self-defense for the foreseeable future, weapons of mass destruction engender widespread revulsion. Some 150 nations have renounced nuclear weapons, formalizing their commitment by joining the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as non-nuclear-weapon states. Moreover, the United States and many other nations have forsworn chemical and biological weapons completely, even in retaliation for in-kind attack, by joining the Biological Weapons Convention (with 125 parties) and the Chemical Weapons Convention (with more than 140 signatories). These three treaties codify strong, if not yet universal, international norms against weapons of mass destruction. Yet despite the international efforts to control them, and cage the usage of WMDs, WMDs continue to be one of the biggest threats facing our world today __________________________________________

A-Types of WMD: As Mentioned in the introduction, WMDs are considered to be those nuclear, biological, chemical and radiological. The main thing that categorizes the previous weapons is the presence of a natural agent, meaning a naturally found component that if used as a weapon could cause much damage and destruction. Here we are going to discuss each weapon and its types, With mention of their effects, and some incidents where they were used.

1-Nuclear Weapons: Nuclear weapons are the most destructive technology ever developed. From the day fission was discovered in 1938, the problem of controlling this technology has been of central importance to the human race248. Nuclear weapons can be grouped into different classes based on the type of nuclear reactions that provide their destructive energy. All nuclear weapons so far invented require fission to initiate the explosive release of energy.

248 Carey Sublette,”Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions”, “nuclearweaponarchive website”, Last Updated 20 February 1999, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq0.html

245

The nuclear weapons are based on two types of chemical reactions, these reactions require energy to occur, and they produce energy when they occur. The fission reaction: is unstable isotopes of the heavy elements uranium and plutonium are split into smaller atoms, releasing a large amount of energy proportional to the amount of material used. The Fusion reaction: is two atoms of the lightest element, hydrogen, fuse to create one atom of helium, the next-lightest element, and release much more energy. A variety of names are used for weapons that release energy through nuclear reactions249:      

Atomic bombs (A-bombs). Hydrogen bombs (H-bombs). Fission bombs. Fusion bombs. Nuclear weapons. Thermonuclear weapons.

Nuclear Bomb

249 Carey Sublette,”Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions”, “nuclearweaponarchive website”, Last Updated 1 May 1998, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq1.htm

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The Hydrogen Bomb (H-bomb), The hydrogen or thermonuclear bomb is perhaps a thousand times more powerful than a uranium or plutonium based fission bomb, making it effectively the nuclear weapon's nuclear weapon, The difference between a hydrogen bomb and a regular uranium or plutonium bomb is that a hydrogen bomb uses fusion reaction instead of fission to generate the main explosion. Only the five permanent United Nations Security Council members â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the United States, Russia, Britain, France and China, are known to possess hydrogen bombs.

Threats of the nuclear weapons: Nuclear explosions produce 1) immediate and 2) delayed destructive effects. 1) Immediate effects: These include blast, thermal radiation, prompt ionizing radiations that are produced and cause significant destruction within seconds or minutes of a nuclear detonation, their relative importance varies with the yield of the bomb. a) Blast effect: Is a volume effect, the blast wave deposits energy in the material it passes through, including air. When the blast wave passes through solid material, the energy left behind causeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s damage. b) Thermal and radiation effect: In the Hiroshima attack (bomb yield approx. 15 kt) casualties including fatalities were seen from all three causes, Burns including those caused by the ensuing fire storm were the most prevalent serious injury 2/3 of those who died the first day were burned. Blast and burn injuries were both found in 6070% of all survivors, People close enough to suffer significant radiation illness were well inside the lethal effects radius for blast and flash burns, as a result only 30% of injured survivors showed radiation illness. Many of these people were sheltered from burns and blast and thus escaped their main effects; Even so most victims with radiation illness also had blast injuries or burns as well. Dangerous radiation levels only exist so close to the explosion that surviving the blast is impossible; On the other hand, fatal burns can be inflicted well beyond the range of substantial blast damage. 2) Delayed effects: are radioactive fallout and other possible environmental effects that inflict damage over an extended period ranging from hours to centuries. a) Radioactive Contamination: The chief delayed effect is the creation of huge amounts of radioactive material that can last for long periods of time, the primary source of these products is the debris left from fission reactions. Other sources include chemical reactions of the nuclear debris; these radioactive products are most hazardous when they settle to the ground as "fallout". The rate at which fallout settles depends very strongly on the altitude at which the explosion occurs and to a lesser extent on the size of the explosion.

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b) Effects on the atmosphere and climate: Although not as directly deadly as fallout, other environmental effects can be quite harmful. c) Harm to the Ozone layer: The high temperature of the nuclear fireball, followed by rapid expansion and cooling, causes large amounts of nitrogen oxides to form from the oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere are very similar to what happens in combustion engines. These gases will be carried into the atmosphere, where they can reach the ozone layer, A series of large atmospheric explosions could significantly deplete the ozone layer, The high yield tests in the fifties and sixties probably did cause significant depletion, but the ozone measurements made at the time were too limited to pick up the expected changes out of natural variations. d) Nuclear Winter: This effect is caused by the absorption of sunlight when large amounts of soot (Carbon)are injected into the atmosphere by the widespread burning of cities and petroleum stocks destroyed in a nuclear attack, Similar events have been observed naturally when large volcanic eruptions have injected large amounts of dust into the atmosphere, The Tambora eruption of 1815 ‘’the largest volcanic eruption in recent history’’ was followed by "the year without summer" in 1816, the coldest year in the last few centuries, Soot is far more efficient in absorbing light than volcanic dust, and soot particles are small and hydrophobic and thus tend not to settle or wash out as easily250. ________________________________________

2-Biological Weapons: The use of biology in war is not something new; it goes back to the beginnings of mankind. The idea of using something that would cause disease to the other side of the war has roots in ancient texts such as the Iliad of Homer where soldiers used arrows dipped in poison. The concept has not much changed since the days of homer, it is the tools of administration that as changed beyond the dreams of homer, or in fact anyone else.

250 Carey Sublette,”Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions”, “nuclearweaponarchive website”, Last Updated 15 May 1997, http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq5.html.

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Definition and terms Biological warfare or Germ warfare is the use of biological agents or their products against human beings with the intent of killing. The Genius of biological weapons is the capabilities attributed to all living organism which Reproduction. Using living agents that cause deadly disease, reproduce on their own, easily spread between large groups of people, is the biggest advantage to these kind of weapons. Imagine a weapon that is virtually invisible, has no sound, kills thousands of people, does no damage at all to buildings or infrastructure or weapons, and costs practically nothing, due to the fact that biological agents are found in nature freely, and they reproduce on their own. Humans since the discovery of causative organism of disease, has been marveled with the fact that these invisible creatures to the human eye, could make us sick, very sick in sometimes, and even kill if left untreated. The idea of harvesting these organisms, using specific types, and attacking people with these agents instantly came to mind. With more research, Man found that these kinds of weapons in which living organisms could be used, donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t just affect humans, they can be used to attack animals, and plant crops as well, thus the idea for BW targeted towards Stock, and plant rose, leading to more research. Biological agents:

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With Research Man has found that the biological agents which he can use to cause disease are many, according to the Australia Group Biological agents could be divided into five types: a) b) c) d) e)

Viruses Bacteria Bacterial Toxins fungi Genetic elements, and Genetically-modified organisms

The List of known bio-agents251 that could be used to form a deadly attack on humans include 42 type of viruses, 17 type of Bacteria, 19 Bacterial toxins, 4 fungi, and almost an indefinite number of Genetically-modified organisms. The center for disease control in the USA has divided agents according to their effect on the people if used in a BW into three categories252: Category A Definition The U.S. public health system and primary healthcare providers must be prepared to address various biological agents, including pathogens that are rarely seen in the United States. High-priority agents include organisms that pose a risk to national security because they 

can be easily disseminated or transmitted from person to person;



Result in high mortality rates and have the potential for major public health impact;



Might cause public panic and social disruption; and



Require special action for public health preparedness.

Agents/Diseases253  Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) 

Botulism (Clostridium botulinum toxin)

251 “The Australia Group Website”, “List of Biological Agents for export control”, Last Updated June 2011, http://www.australiagroup.net/en/biological_agents.html#a 252 “Center for Disease Control Website”,”Bioterroism/Agents”, Last Updated 2011 http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/agentlist-category.asp#catdef 253 “Federation of American Scientists, Webstie”, “Biological threat agents information”, http://www.fas.org/programs/bio/agents.html

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

Plague (Yersinia pestis)



Smallpox (variola major)



Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)



Viral hemorrhagic fevers (filoviruses [e.g., Ebola, Marburg] and arenaviruses [e.g., Lassa, Machupo])

Category B Definition Second highest priority agents include those that 

Are moderately easy to disseminate;



Result in moderate morbidity rates and low mortality rates; and



Require specific enhancements of CDC's diagnostic capacity and enhanced disease surveillance.

Agents/Diseases254  Brucellosis (Brucella species) 

Epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens



Food safety threats (e.g., Salmonella species, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Shigella)



Glanders (Burkholderia mallei)



Melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudomallei)



Psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci)



Q fever (Coxiella burnetii)



Ricin toxin from Ricinus communis (castor beans)



Staphylococcal enterotoxin B



Typhus fever (Rickettsia prowazekii)



Viral encephalitis (alphaviruses [e.g., Venezuelan equine encephalitis, eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis])



Water safety threats (e.g., Vibrio cholerae, Cryptosporidium parvum)

254 “Federation of American Scientists, Webstie”, “Biological threat agents information”, http://www.fas.org/programs/bio/agents.html

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Category C Definition Third highest priority agents include emerging pathogens that could be engineered for mass dissemination in the future because of 

Availability;



ease of production and dissemination; and



Potential for high morbidity and mortality rates and major health impact.

Agents 

Emerging infectious diseases such as Nipah virus and hantavirus

BW and Technology255 The production of a BW depends mainly on three basic pillars. 1) Acquisition of a biological agent eg; virus, bacteria…etc 2) Growing and multiplication, then a process of biological modification 3) Preparation of Delivery.

In the beginnings of WWII, a biological weapons program was established in Nazi Germany, where biological testing on humans were conducted, to find the effect of biological agents that could be used in war, thus determining several facts that classifies agents according to their; a) b) c) d) e) f)

Pathogenicity Incubation Period Virulence Transmissibility Treatment Vaccination

At the time, the scope of agents that could be used in BW was limited to those known to research, and since the all agents were already known to other countries because, well, it is a disease that people get sick from and try to cure everywhere in the whole world, the superiority was in achieving an agent that was to be unknown when used on enemy forces thus research began, and with the advances in biotechnology and the discovery of DNA. The door was opened for an infinite pool of possibilities where genetically modified bacteria, or viruses could be used that would be undetectable, and resistant to treatment. However with these advances in the type of weapons, the 255 “Federation of American Scientists Website”, “Introduction to Biological Weapons”, http://www.fas.org/programs/bio/resource/introtobw.html

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threats of BW grew the fact that such a weapon is transmitted between humans, poses a risk bigger than that of using it. A way then must be found to detect and fight these weapons if ever used, thus the US started the Biological Weapons treaty256 in 1972 which prohibits the use BW war. BW in action As previously mentioned the use of a much incoherent form of BW was known to man, like catapulting dead bodies of humans infected with plague to infect enemy cities. However the uses of BW as we know them today is luckily prohibited by the international treaty, yet still, they usage of BW by terrorists could not prevented and in a lot of cases Bio-agents were used for cause of terror. This has caused a terrible nightmare for the world, the fact that bio-agents could be very easily grown in humble facilities and used against civilians, open a door that can’t be closed. Selected cases257 1- Aum Shinrikyo, April 1990-March 1995: A Japanese Terrorist group that has a cult form, during these years, the use of botulinum toxin, and anthrax in multiple occasions was documented. They became internationally known when they attacked the Japanese Subway with Sarin Gas. 2- Anthrax threats against abortion clinics, February 199: In February 1999 more than 30 anthrax letters were sent to abortion clinics all over the USA 3-Anthrax Threats, November 1998: In November 1998 a number of letters containg anthrax was sent to certain churches and anti-abortion organizations in the USA. 4-2001 anthrax attacks in the United States: One week after the 9/11 attacks several anthrax letters were sent to multiple news corporations and two democratic senators, which resulted in the death of five people and the 17 being infected.

3- Chemical Weapons: As we have seen in the previous weapons, the idea of the weapon is based on using an agent that would cause greatest amount of damage. The three known agents that are being used nowadays in WMDs are nuclear, biological and lastly chemical. 256 “ Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction”, Signed at London, Moscow and Washington on 10 April 1972. 257 W. Seth Carus, “Bioterrorism and Biocrimes: The Illicit Use of Biological Agents Since 1900” , Center for Counterproliferation Research National Defense University, Washington, D.C, August 1998 (February 2001 Revision)

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As a part of naturally found materials, chemical agents represent one of the easiest sources for harvesting, however the technology needed, for storing and handling could be a problem in some cases. Types of chemical agents258, 259: 1. Nerve Agents

• • • • •

GA – Tabun GB – Sarin GD – Soman GF – Cyclosarin VX – Methylphosphonothioic acid

Nerve Agents are characterized by their affection of the nervous system through interference in the relay system of the nerves. They mostly belong to the family of organophosphates. Symptoms include nausea, weakness, possibly convulsions and spasms. At high concentration, loss of muscle control, nervous system irregularities, and Death may occur 2. Blister Agents

•

HD – Sulfur Mustard (Yperite)

•

HN – Nitrogen Mustard

•

L – Lewisite

•

CX – Phosgene Oximine

Blister agents, known as vesicants affect the skin by causing severe blistering i.e. burns of the skin. Although it is not lethal, the effect of burning is severely painful which renders the person incapable of fighting.

258 Dana A. Shea, “High-Threat Chemical Agents: Characteristics, Effects, and Policy Implications”, Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, Updated September 9, 2003 259 Federation of American Scientists Website, “Types of Chemical Weapons”, http://www.fas.org/cw/documents/cwagents.pdf

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3. Choking Agents

•

CG – Phosgene

•

DP – Diphosgene

•

Cl – Chlorine

•

PS – Chloropicrin

These agents are known with their effect on lungs, leading to their damage which could be permanent in some cases. The symptoms include difficulty in breathing, air hunger, and feeling of suffocation.

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4. Blood Agents

•

Hydrogen cyanide

•

Cyanide salts

These agents are known for their interference with the oxygenation process of the blood, thus leaving the human body in need for oxygen. ______________________________________________________

4-Radiological Weapons The use of Radiological agents, or nuclear agents in weaponry has been discussed with the Nuclear weapons, however, there remains a fourth type of WMD that is the Radiological. The main difference between the nuclear and radiological is the explosiveness of the weapon. In a nuclear weapon, there is a use of the radiological agent, through a chemical reaction to produce energy that would produce an explosion. A radiological weapon however uses a Radiological agent just for its radiological ability of dispersing waves; the effects have been discussed earlier? Radiological agents could be dispersed using regular explosives, and bombs. These type of bombs have been named dirty bombs. A dirty bomb260, is a regular bomb, but with an addition, where a radiological agent, as uranium or plutonium is added to the bomb. So when the bomb explodes, the Radiological agent would be dispersed in the air, and the environment in which the explosion occurred, spreading all the effects of radiation to the people. The damage then wouldn’t just be from the explosion, but also from the radiation. Here are some of the notable261 events in which Radiological agents were used as weapons for the radiation effects:

260 Jonathan Medalia, ”Dirty Bombs”: Background in Brief, Congressional Research Service, Report for Congress, June 24, 2011 261 Jonathan Medalia, “Dirty Bombs”: Technical Background, Attack Prevention and Response, Issues for Congress, Congressional Research Service, Report for Congress, June 24, 2011.

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• (1993) “The Russian mafia allegedly places gamma ray-emitting pellets in the office of a Moscow businessman, resulting in the man’s death.” • (1995) “Chechen rebels partially bury a container with a small quantity of cesium137 in Moscow’s Ismailovsky Park. The Chechen leader then notifies a Russian television crew, which locates the container.” • (1998) “19 small tubes of cesium are reported missing from a locked safe in a Greensboro, North Carolina hospital. … The incident is deemed as a theft … The cesium has not been recovered.” • (1998) “the Russian-backed Chechen Security Service announces the discovery and defusing of a container hidden near a railway line that was filled with radioactive materials and attached to an explosive mine. Chechen rebels involvement is suspected.” • (1999) “unidentified thieves attempt to steal a container housing 200g of radioactive material from a chemical factory in Grozny, Chechnya. One of the thieves dies half an hour after being exposed to the container. The other is hospitalized in critical condition. Each carried the container for only a few minutes.” • (2003) “evidence uncovered in Herat, Afghanistan, leads British intelligence agents and weapons experts to conclude that Al Qaeda has succeeded in constructing a small dirty bomb, though the device has not been found.” • (2003) “Thai police arrest a public school teacher in Bangkok after he attempts to sell a container filled with cesium-137 for $240,000.” • (2004) “British authorities arrest an alleged terrorist cell that was apparently plotting to create dirty bombs from the radioactive sources inside smoke detectors. (It would require millions of smoke detectors to collect enough radioactive material for a potent RDD.)” • (2005) “Russian authorities report that they found documents in Chechnya on producing RDDs.” • (2006) “Alexander Litvinenko, a former Russian spy, was poisoned with radioactive polonium-210.”

B-International Treaties Regarding WMD: The 4 Weapons of Mass Destruction have another side other than the solid scientific facts, and their division according to science there are other parts that affect they way WMDs are used today in the world. The international

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community awoke after the WWII to find himself in an age of Weapons that if used would not just destroy enemies, but destroys the world itself. The need to establish a way of halting this crazy progress of arming, arsenal acquisition has lead to the international treaties regarding WMD.

1-International Treaties regarding WMD Proliferation: With the increasing globalization of the world economy, dual-use items and technologies used to develop weapons of mass destruction cannot be effectively controlled without cooperation among exporting and transit countries. Thus, foreign purchasers denied a critical item by one country may be able to obtain the same item from another country that does not control its exports as stringently, The U.S. government has made it a priority to strengthen and deepen multilateral cooperation on export controls. The international community has established treaties to eliminate chemical and Biological weapons and prohibit the spread of nuclear weapons. These treaties reflect the international community's will to reduce the threat posed by these weapons. Three key treaties have been established to stem the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction: (1) The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, signed in 1968, was prompted by widespreadconcerns that there might be dozens of countries with nuclear weapons in a few decades,The treaty obliges the five nuclearweapon states recognized by the treaty to refrain from the transfer of nuclear weapons, other nuclear explosive devices, or related technology to any country that does not have nuclear weapons. Countries that do not have nuclear weapons agree to refrain from acquiring or producing such items in return for the peaceful use of nuclear technology. There are 187 countries party to the treaty (2) The Chemical Weapons convention: The Chemical Weapons Convention, signed in 1997, prohibits the production, acquisition, stockpiling, transfer, retention, and use of chemical weapons. Outbreaks in the use of chemical weapons prompted the world community to reach an agreement banning their use, The Convention obligates countries to destroy any chemical weapons and related production facilities they possess by 2007, It also has the administrative structure and procedures to inspect declared and undeclared sites on short notice. There are currently143 countries party to the treaty. (3) The Biological Weapons and Toxins Convention: The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention obliges parties not to develop, produce, stockpile, or acquire biological agents or toxins that are not used for peaceful purposes, as well as related weapons and means of delivery The Convention entered into force in 1975 but did not have an enforcement protocol. In September 1986, the parties agreed to share data on

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permitted biological activities to enhance confidence and promote cooperation, In July 2001, the United States rejected a draft protocol designed to strengthen the inspection and enforcement mechanisms of the treaty, Currently 144 Countries are party to the treaty. Although the treaties' mechanisms for verifying and enforcing treaty compliance vary, these treaties are legally binding and share similar objectives. In addition, a majority of the world's nations adhere to them.262 Also there’s The Proliferation Security Initiative ‘’PSI’’ was formed to increase international cooperation in interdicting shipments of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), their delivery systems, and related materials. The Initiative was announced by President Bush on May 31, 2003, PSI does not create a new legal framework but aims to use existing national authorities and international law to achieve its goals. Initially, 11 nations signed on to the “Statement of Interdiction Principles” that guides PSI cooperation, As of January 2011, 97 countries have committed formally to the PSI principles, although the extent of participation may vary by country263 . ____________________________________

C-Biosecurity in the US: As seen above the threats faced by the world due to the rapid growth in weaponry technology and the development of WMD has triggered a faster chain of events that has lead to the development of safety programs directed towards possible attacks by the WMDs, We are going to discuss a small glimpse of these programs in the USA focusing on laws and programs directed towards biological weapons, under the title of Biosecurity.

262 Joseph A Christoff, Director, International Affairs and Trade , Testimony Before the Subcommittee on International Security, Proliferation, and Federal Services, Committee on Governmental Affairs, U.S. Senate, United States General Accounting Office, November 7, 2001 , GAO-02-226T. 263 Mary Beth Nikitin, Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI), Congressional Research Service, Report for Congress, January 18, 2011

259

264

"Biosecurity is a strategic and integrated approach that encompasses the policy and regulatory frameworks (including instruments and activities) that analyze and manage risks in the sectors of food safety, animal life and health, and plant life and health, including associated environmental risk. Biosecurity is a holistic concept of direct relevance to the sustainability of agriculture, food safety, and the protection of the environment, including biodiversity. There are many aspects to the process of creating a WMD, specially the Biological ones, and so are the laws governing the process itself. Emerging from concerns about the biosecurity situation in the US different laws emerged, laws that need to be modified, and upgraded because biology and science are always shifting, the current laws in the US right now include but are not limited to the following: 1-Laws for facilities and research: According to a Congressional Research Service (CRS) report issued March 5, titled “Oversight of High-Containment Biological Laboratories,” approximately 390 entities have been certified to work with select agents, and 15,300 staff members have been approved for lab access. Biosecurity stakeholders—scientists, engineers and technicians, lab safety and IT staff, law enforcement personnel, legislators and policy makers—are divided by the dual-use nature of biomaterials: their application for benevolent and malevolent purposes. Some worry that biosecurity concerns will constrain researchers and delay development of medicines and vaccines, including those that target select agents. Others argue for a tougher approach, saying that as pathogens proliferate and the number of global labs using select agents grows, so do the risk of accidents and opportunities for bioterrorists; or they cite past incidents—mice infected with bubonic plague go missing, or live anthrax is inadvertently shipped cross-country All these things have to tie together to have a good program, When we’re talking about security, there are three major categories according to the regulations. The first part is physical security around the facility. Next is the access control, then inventory accountability and control. It’s the combination that’s important.” lab managers have to consider investing in software that integrates security and safety regulations with specific select agents to provide access control. The key is finding someone with good experience using the software.

264 Food and Agriculture Organization of united Nations Website, Biosecurity, http://www.fao.org/biosecurity/

260

The National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (NSABB) was established in 2004 in response to the National Research Council’s Fink Report. It consists of scientists and national security experts, who will "advise on and recommend specific strategies for the efficient and effective oversight of federally conducted or supported potential dual-use biological research taking into consideration both the national security concerns and the needs of the research community." Practically speaking, the NSABB will advise institutional biosafety committees, which are already required at federally funded research institutions that work with recombinant DNA. IBC's will, in turn, review research proposals submitted by scientists within that institution. The NSABB firmly establishes the institutional policy that scientists will be the ones who judge the research of their colleagues and identify potentially sensitive research and the steps needed to address its conduct and dissemination. The NSABB has 24 appointed voting members and held its inaugural meeting on June 30, 2005. Specifically, the NSABB will: • Advice on strategies for local and federal biosecurity oversight for all federally funded or supported life sciences research. • Advise on the development of guidelines for biosecurity oversight of life sciences research and provide ongoing evaluation and modification of these guidelines as needed. • Advise on strategies to work with journal editors and other stakeholders to ensure the development of guidelines for the publication, public presentation, and public communication of potentially sensitive life sciences research • Advise on the development of guidelines for mandatory programs for education and training in biosecurity issues for all life scientists and laboratory workers at federally-funded institutions. • Provide guidance on the development of a code of conduct for life scientists and laboratory workers that can be adopted by federal agencies as well as professional organizations and institutions engaged in the performance of life sciences research domestically and internationally.

2- Laws for handling: There have been a host of efforts to control the proliferation of biological weapons and to regulate research that could be misused for nefarious purposes. Here we

261

present some of the more influential laws, reports, and organizations on modern biosecurity. The use of chemical and biological weapons was prohibited in 1925 by the Geneva Protocol following the use of chemical weapons during World War I. However, it was not ratified by the US Senate until 50 years later and did not prohibit such weapons from being developed. The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC, or more formally The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction) was established in 1972 and enacted in 1975. It prohibited the development, production, stockpiling, and acquisition of biological and toxin weapons, and required the destruction of existing inventories and delivery devices. As of February 2007, 155 state parties have signed the treaty with 16 signatories yet to ratify it and 23 parties remaining outside of the treaty. While the Convention has unlimited duration, a series of review conferences have been held to establish compliance procedures, which were lacking in the original treaty. These conferences have been unsuccessful in resolving the issue of accountability and enforcement, given persistent questions (notably, by the United States) regarding the ultimate effectiveness of mandatory declarations, visits, investigations, and concerns over intrusion on national security and confidential business information. The issue of accountability and enforcement has gained increasing prominence given evident treaty violations by the Soviet Union during the Cold War and by others since then, such as Iraq. There is also concern that the treaty is not keeping up with the rapid pace of biotechnology advances. 3- The Biological Weapons Convention: • forbid the development, production, stockpiling, or acquisition of biological agents or toxins that have no justification for peaceful or defensive purposes; • forbid the development, production, stockpiling, or acquisition of equipment to deliver biological agents or toxins for hostile purposes; • obligate States Parties to destroy or divert to peaceful purposes their existing stocks of prohibited items; • forbid the transfer of prohibited items to anyone or otherwise helping in the manufacture or acquisition of biological weapons • protect the rights of States Parties to exchange equipment, materials, and scientific and technological information for peaceful purposes in order to avoid hampering their economic and technological development;

262

â&#x20AC;˘ commit States Parties to cooperate in solving any problems through consultation and in carrying out any investigation initiated by the UN Security Council; â&#x20AC;˘ commit State Parties to provide assistance to others that have been attacked using biological weapons. These laws however as strict as they are fail to put in mind the human factor that is the scientist. 4- Scientific Code of conduct: Codes of conduct for life scientists have been increasingly advocated as an additional means to reinforce the expected ethical norms and behavior of scientists. The Fink Report discussed the need for such a code to increase awareness of biosecurity issues. While individual professional societies may have such codes, one central to all biologists, including awareness of dual-use research, has yet to be developed and accepted. Some have called for an international "code of conduct" for the scientific community based on the fundamental principle that all research scientists would pledge to conduct research that would "do no harm." While such codes can never prevent bioterrorism, they can serve as an awareness tool. While a number of steps taken by both the government and the scientific community have helped, it is clear that individual researchers still shoulder the responsibility for addressing biosecurity issues in the lab. While focused on the more commonly confronted -dual-use- dilemmas, these case studies do not cover the consequences of not striking a balance between research freedom and national security. We cannot stress enough the importance of being aware of your responsibilities in the lab and the laws that regulate work on select agents in particular. There have been several cases where researchers have found themselves in trouble with law enforcement because they were either unaware of or neglected new security rules. For example, two forgotten vials of anthrax from a 1960 cow necropsy led to a University of Connecticut graduate student being charged with violations of the Patriot Act because he did not possess the anthrax for "bona fide" research. In another case, Dr. Thomas Butler, a researcher at Texas Tech University, was convicted of mislabeling plague samples being shipped from overseas, but had been indicted for a broad range of crimes including illegal transport of a select agent and providing false information to the FBI on the whereabouts of about 30 vials of Yersinia pestis, or plague, bacteria. National security has become an inexorable aspect of biology research and how high the stakes can be for scientists. Experience has

263

shown how easily the balance between research freedom and national security can shift in response to world events.

Sub-Committee on Near East South and central Asian affairs (NESA) ‫لجنة شئون الشرق الندنى و جنوب ووسط اسيا‬

Chairman: 264

‫‪Moemen Abbas‬‬ ‫‪Vice-Chairlady:‬‬ ‫‪Alaa Mohammed Kamal‬‬ ‫‪Ranking Member:‬‬ ‫‪Nashwa O. Ghoneim‬‬ ‫‪Party Consltant:‬‬ ‫‪Sahar El-Antozy‬‬

‫لجنة شئون الشرق الندنى وجنوب ووسط اسيا‬

‫هى لجنه فرعيه رمن لجنة الشئون الخارجية فى رمجلس الشيوخ الرمريكى و هى اللجنه‬ ‫المسئولة عن العلاقات الرمريكيه رمع بلدان الشرق الوسط وجميع بلدان شمال افريقيا‬ ‫المطلة على البحر البيض المتوسط رمن رمصر الى المغرب‪ .‬و تشرف اللجنه الفرعية‬ ‫أيضا العلاقات رمع بلدان جنوب ووسط أسيا‪ .‬هذه اللجنه الفرعية أيضا رمسئولة عن‬ ‫جميع المسائل التى تدخل ضمن المناطق الخاضعة لوليتها القضائيه فيما يتعلق‬ ‫‪265‬‬

‫بالرهاب وعدم التنتشار‪ ,‬و الجريمه و المخدرات الغير رمشروعة‪ ,‬و برارمج‬ ‫المساعدات الخارجية الرمريكية‪ ,‬و تعزيز التبادل التجارى و الصادرات الرمريكيه‪.‬‬

‫‪266‬‬

‫قائمة المحتويات‬ ‫الموضوع الول‪ :‬الثوره السوريه‪.......‬الى اين……………………‪4……..................‬‬ ‫تنبذه عن رمواقع سوريا‪4..........................................................................................‬‬ ‫تاريخ سوريا الحديث‪4..........................................................................................‬‬ ‫تنظام الحكم فى سوريا‪11........................................................................................‬‬ ‫الشعب‪12..........................................................................................................‬‬ ‫أشكال رمن العلاقات السورية العربية اقبل الثورة‪14........................................................‬‬ ‫العلاقات السورية اللبناتنية‪14...................................................................................‬‬ ‫العلاقات السوريه العرااقيه‪15..................................................................................‬‬ ‫العلاقات السوريه السرائليه‪15................................................................................‬‬ ‫العلاقات السوريه اليراتنيه‪17..................................................................................‬‬ ‫العلاقات السوريه التركيه‪18...................................................................................‬‬ ‫العلاقات السوريه الرمريكيه‪21................................................................................‬‬ ‫رمستقبل الثوره‪23.................................................................................................‬‬ ‫الموضوع الثانى‪:‬الهند‪.......‬شمس الشرق الصاعد‪30....................................................‬‬ ‫تنبذة جغرافية عن الهند‪30......................................................................................‬‬ ‫تاريخ الستعمارالوربي فى الهند خاصة الستعمار البريطاتنى‪30......................................‬‬ ‫تنظام الحكم فى الهند‪34.........................................................................................‬‬ ‫ااقتصاد الهند‪36...................................................................................................‬‬ ‫الطوائف الدينيه فى الهند‪37...................................................................................‬‬ ‫الحروب الطبقيه و العنف الدينى‪39..........................................................................‬‬ ‫تاريخ الصراع الهندى الباكستاتنى على ااقليم كاشمير‪43...................................................‬‬ ‫العلاقات الهنديه الرمريكيه‪45.................................................................................‬‬ ‫العلاقات الهنديه الصينيه‪48....................................................................................‬‬ ‫البرتنارمج النووى الهندى‪50.....................................................................................‬‬

‫‪267‬‬

‫الموضوع الول‪ :‬الثورة السورية ‪ .....‬الي اين؟‬ ‫لقد شهدت رمنطقة العالم العربى فى الوتنه الخيره الكثير رمن التطورات و الثورات التى غيرت رمسار الكثير رمن‬ ‫الدول فى المنطقه‪ ,‬كما غيرت رمن شكل توازن القوى فيها‪ ,‬و فتحت الفاق لبعض الدول لكى تفرض سيطرتها و‬ ‫تلعب دور البطوله لتقود رمسيرة تلك الدول لغد افضل‪..........‬‬ ‫كاتنت رمن بدايات تلك الثورات الثوره التوتنيسيه الذى اقرر شعبها ان ينقلب على تنظام الظلم و الستبداد فى بلده‬ ‫لكى يبدأ حياه جديده خاليه رمن الديكتاتوريه و الذل و المهاتنه‪ ,‬و بالفعل كاتنت لتلك الثوره الصدى و الرثر الكبير فى‬ ‫اتنتشار العدوى لمن حولها رمن الدول‪ ,‬رمنها جمهورية رمصر العربيه و الذى خرج شعبها بداية تضمنا رمع الشعب‬ ‫التوتنسى و رمطالبا ببضع رمطالب و لكنها اتنتهت بسقوط النظام البائد و رمولد افكار جديده بشعب جديد يقود البلد‬ ‫تنحو حياه اكثر ديمواقرطيه و اتنساتنيه‪......‬‬ ‫ولكن هناك رمن الحكام الديكتاتوريين الذين اصروا على رمواقفهم و أبوا التنازل عن السلطه رمتمسكين بحقهم فيها و‬ ‫رما هو أصلح للبلد كما يزعمون رمن أرمثالهم العقيد رمعمر القذافى فى ليبيا و على عبد ا صالح فى اليمن و أخيرا‬ ‫و ليس أخرا بشار السد فى سوريا‪...........‬و الذى سوف تنقلى عليها بعض الضوء بسبب استمرار اشتعلها و‬ ‫تأرثرها على توازن القوى فى المنطقه‪ ,‬و رمواقف القوى العظمى و المجتمع الدولى رمن ذلك و كيف سيكون رد‬ ‫فعلهم؟؟؟‬ ‫نبذة عن موقع سوريا‪.‬‬ ‫تعتبر سوريا رمن البلدان التى يطلق عليها "رمهد‬ ‫الحضارة" ‪,‬حيث تعااقبت على أرضها عدد رمن الحضارات‬ ‫القديمة كالحضارة السورمرية والشورية والفينقية و الرورماتنية‬ ‫والرموية و‪ .........‬غيرها رمن الحضارات ذات التراث ‪ ,‬وتبلغ‬ ‫رمساحة سوريا ‪185,180‬كم رمربع ‪ ,‬وتشارك الحدود شمال وجزء‬ ‫رمن الغرب رمع تركيا‪ ,‬وتحدها دولة العراق تنحاية الشرق‪ ,‬ورمن‬ ‫تناحية الجنوب تحدها الردن ‪ ,‬ورمن الغرب تطل على كل رمن‬ ‫البحر البيض المتوسط ‪ ,‬ودولة لبنان‪ ,‬و أسرائيل‪ -‬فلسطين‬ ‫‪265‬‬ ‫المحتلة‪ ,‬وهضبة الجولن بما عليها رمن خلفا دول حاليا‪.‬‬ ‫تاريخ سوريا الحديث‪.‬‬ ‫كاتنت سوريا تحت الحكم العثماتنى لفترة تزيد عن ‪400‬عارما لذلك بأشتعال الحرب العالمية الولى ‪,1914‬‬ ‫تغير وضعها السياسى و حدرثت العديد رمن التغيرات لسوريا‪ ,‬وكاتنت البداية عندرما عين الباب العالى السلطان‬ ‫العثماتنى حاكما رميدتنيا وعسكريا يسمى " جمال باشا"‪ ,‬و ذلك لكى يخمد المطالب بالصل ح الدارى والل‬ ‫رمركزية فى السلطة‪ ,‬رمما جعله يقدم على أعدام الكثيريين رمن وجهاء بيروت ودرمشق علنا فى ساحة المرجة ‪,‬‬ ‫فى يوم ‪ 6‬رمايو ‪ ,1915‬المعروف بيوم الشهيد حيث بلغ عدد اقرارات العدام أكثر رمن ‪ 50‬أعدارما‪ ,‬فأطلق‬ ‫عليه لقب " السفا ح"‪,‬على ان أساليب القمع التى اقام بها "جمال باشا" لم تنجح فى اقمع المطالب بالستقلل‬ ‫العربى التام عن الرمبراطورية العثماتنية‪ ,‬ورمطالبة الرمير "فيصل بن الحسين" بأن يقود المسيرة تنحو‬ ‫الستقلل العربى التام‪ ,‬ذلك لاقى دعما رمن الرمبراطورية البريطاتنية التى تهدف الى الحصول على الدعم‬ ‫‪265‬‬ ‫‪Central intellegance agency, “https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html ”,‬‬

‫‪25/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪268‬‬

‫العربى فى حربها ضد الرمبراطورية العثماتنية‪ ,‬و تعزيز وضعها فى رمستقبل الشرق الوسط وجها لوجه رمع‬ ‫فرتنسا‪ ,‬لذلك اقارمت الثورة العربية فى ‪5‬يوتنيو ‪, 1916‬رثم فى أكتوبر عام ‪ ,1918‬دخل "الفيصل بن الحسين"‬ ‫درمشق بأعتباره بطل شعبيا ‪ ,‬وذلك بعد خروج العثماتنيين رمنها‪ ,‬ولقد تم له السيطرة على جميع أتنحاء سوريا‬ ‫‪266‬‬ ‫رماعدا الرماكن التى تقع على طول سواحل البحر المتوسط ‪ ,‬لتركز القوات الفرتنسية بيها‪.‬‬

‫‪‬‬

‫بدأ الرمير فيصل ورمؤيديه فى أعمار سوريا ‪ ,‬وذلك رمن خلل‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫جعل اللغة العربية اللغة الرسمية بدل رمن اللغة التركية‪ ,‬وأعاد فتح المدارس‬ ‫والجارمعات التى أغلقت رمن اقبل العثماتنيين ‪ ,‬واقام بتعين لجنة لبدء وضع دستور‬ ‫للدولة الجديدة‪ ,‬شهدت المناطق الوااقعه تحت رحمة القوات الفرتنسية ‪ ,‬تمرد‬ ‫السوريون‪ ,‬رمما أتنتج ذلك إتنتفاضتين ضد القوات الفرتنسية فى رمايو ويوليو عام‬ ‫‪ 1919‬على طول الحدود التركية‪ .‬أحبطت فرتنسا تلك المحاولت ‪ ,‬بالرغم رمن‬ ‫دعم الفيصل لها‪.‬‬ ‫طالب الرمير فيصل بتحقيق رمبدأ تقرير المصير للدول العربية وخاصة دول‬ ‫المشرق كنتيجة لدعم العرب لقوات دول الحلفاء فى الحرب العالمية الولى‬ ‫فى رمؤتمر السلم فى فرساى عام ‪ , ,1919‬ولكن رجع الفيصل الى درمشق فارغا اليدين ‪,‬بسبب رفض كل‬ ‫رمن فرتنسا وبريطاتنيا تحقيق وعدهما‪ ,‬رمما جعل الرمير فيصل فى المؤتمر السورى العام ‪-‬وهو أول برلمان‬ ‫سورى يضم فيه ‪99‬عضوا رمنهم ‪52‬رمن سوريا و ‪ 38‬رمن الردن ولبنان وسوريا‪ -‬يعلن أن سوريا دولة حرة‬ ‫ذات سيادة ‪ ,‬وتضم بحدودها الطبيعية ذات الاقطار الربعة وهن ) سوريا ولبنان والردن وفلسطين( رمتحدة‬ ‫تحت أسم المملكة السورية العربية‪ ,‬وبايع المؤتمر فيصل بن الحسين رملكا ‪ ,‬وأاقر دستورا للبلد فى ‪ 8‬رمارس‬ ‫‪, 1920‬رمما أرثار حفظية كل رمن بريطاتنيا وفرتنسا وجعلهما يرفضان العتراف بأستقلل سوريا‪.‬‬ ‫فى ذلك الواقت‪ ,‬كشفت الثورة البلشقية فى روسيا عن ورثائق سرية ووعود سابقة بشأن تقسيم المشرق‬ ‫العربى ‪ ,‬الولى هو وعد بلفور لليهود بإتنشاء وطن اقورمى لليهود فى فلسطين‪ ,‬تقديرا لمساهمتهم ورمساعدتهم‬ ‫لدول الحلفاء فى الحرب العالمية الولى‪ ,‬والتفاقية الثانية هى إتفااقية "سايكس بيكو" بين كل رمن بريطاتنيا‬ ‫وفرتنسا وروسيا وأيطاليا المواقعة يوم ‪16‬رمايو ‪ ,1916‬والتى تهدف الى إاقتسام أراضى الدولة العثماتنية فى‬ ‫ذلك الواقت وخاصة دول المشرق العربى‪ ,‬وتنص التفااقية‪ 267‬على إاقتسام رمنطقة الهلل الخصيب بين كل رمن‬ ‫بريطاتنيا وفرتنسا ‪,‬حيث تقرر حصول فرتنسا على كل رمن سوريا ولبنان ‪ ,‬وحصول بريطاتنيا على العراق‬ ‫والردن‪ ,‬وضع فلسطين تحت إدارة دولية رمشتركة بين بريطاتنيا وفرتنسا ‪ -‬تنلحظ فى هذا الصدد أن تم‬ ‫عقد تلك التفااقية بعد ‪ 6‬أشهر فقط رمن وعد كل رمن بريطاتنيا وفرتنسا العرب بالحصول على الستقلل‬ ‫‪ , 1920‬وفى يوم‬ ‫العربى التام – اقد تم تأكيد على بنود التفااقية فى إجتماع سان بريمو عام‬ ‫‪25‬يوليوعام ‪ 1920‬أصبحت سوريا تحت التنتداب الفرتنسي ‪ ،‬وذلك بعد سحق المقاورمة العربية ‪،‬ولقد هرب‬ ‫الملك فيصل إلى أوروبا ولم يعودوا إلى الشرق الوسط الى أن تنصبه البريطاتنيون رملكا على العراق في عام‬ ‫‪ ,1921‬أعترف البريطاتنيون بالرمير عبد ا شقيق الملك فيصل رملكا على رمنطقة شرق الردن‪.‬‬ ‫سوريا تحت النتداب الفرنسى‬ ‫اقارمت فرتنسا بالعديد رمن السياسات لتعزيز وضعها واقوتها فى بلد الشام‪ ,‬و تقويض حركة القورمية العربية‬ ‫بأضعافها‪ ,‬أول‪ - :‬بدل رمن إتنشاء رثلث وليات طائفية تكون كالتى دولة العلويين في الشمال ‪ ,‬ودولة‬ ‫للمسلمين السنيين في الوسط ودولة درزية في الجنوب ‪,‬رثم يندرمجوا تحت راية سوريا التحادية ‪ -‬لم تنشأ‬ ‫فرتنسا دولة رمسيحية في رمنطقة جبل لبنان‪ ,‬وحلم الدولة رمسلمة السنية لم يتحقق أبدا‪ ,‬وذلك لضعاف حركة‬ ‫القورمية العربية‪, .‬على ان فرتنسا اقارمت بتقسيم سوريا يتقليص رمساحتها لحساب لبنان ‪ ,‬حيث فى عام ‪,1926‬‬ ‫‪266‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/syria/8.htm”, 25/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪267‬‬ ‫‪Alnoha, “http://alnoha.com/read/saykspeko.htm”, 26/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪269‬‬

‫‪‬‬

‫فرتنسا رمع زعماء المراوتنة اقارمت بتوسيع الحدود الصلية للدولة المسيحية فى رمنطقة جبل لبنان بإضافة‬ ‫وداى البقاع ذات الغلبية المسلمة رمن الشرق و أضافت اليها رمن الغرب رمدن طرابلس وبيروت وصيدا‬ ‫وصورا لخلق دولة لبنان‪ ,‬رثم اقارمت بتقسيم بقية سوريا الى خمس رمناطق تتمتع فيما يشبه الحكم الذاتى هم "‬ ‫رمنطقة جبل الدورز‪,‬رمنطقة حلب ‪،‬رمنطقة اللذاقية ‪،‬رمنطقة درمشق ‪،‬و لواء السكندروتنة" رمما كان لها التأرثير‬ ‫على إبراز الختلفات الدينية والاقليمية وتقلص فكرة القورمية العربية‪ ,‬بالضافة الى سياسات التقسيم ‪,‬كان‬ ‫هناك بعض السياسات الاقتصادية والتعليمية التى ساعدت على تقليص فكرة القورمية العربية‪,‬او رما تعرف‬ ‫بسياسات الفرتنسة‪ ,‬وهى جعل الفرتنك عملة التعارمل التجارى‪ ,‬تولى المصرفيين الفرتنسيين إاقتصاد سوريا‪,‬‬ ‫وتولى الفرتنسيون المناصب الهارمة‪ ,‬وجعل اللغة الفرتنسية هى اللغة الرسمية وتطبيقها فى المدارس‪ ,‬وجعل‬ ‫‪268‬‬ ‫سمات الحياة الجتماعية أاقرب للحياة الفرتنسية رمن الحياة العربية‪.‬‬ ‫على ان هذا لم يقض على الغضب تجاه الفرتنسيين‪ ,‬خصوصا العيان والقادة المسلميين فى درمشق رمن أتباع‬ ‫الملك فيصل ‪,‬وكان للغضب أسبابه رمثل‪ :‬اقمع الصحف الفرتنسية ‪ ,‬النشاط السياسى وأيضا اقمع الحقوق‬ ‫المدتنية ‪ ,‬تقسيم سوريا الكبرى إلى وحدات سياسية عديدة‪ ,‬وعزوف فرتنسا عن صياغة دستور سورى رمن‬ ‫شأتنه أن يوفر السيادة لسوريا كما أاقرته عصبة الرمم عند وضع سوريا تحت التنتداب الفرتنسى ‪ ,‬على أن‬ ‫الفرتنسيون سمحوا فى أخر المطاف بإتنشاء حزب الشعب يقوده‬ ‫فارس الخورى فى ‪ 9‬فبراير ‪ ,1925‬بإعتبارها خطوة ترضية ‪,‬وذلك‬ ‫كنتيجة لخطوة بريطاتنيا بإتنشاء برلمان فى العراق‪.‬‬ ‫"ثورة الدورز" او" ثورة سوريا الكبرى الولى" التى اقارمت عام‬ ‫‪ ,1925‬كاتنت بداية إتنطلقها فى جبل الدورز واتنضم تحت لوائهم عدد‬ ‫رمن المجاهدين رمن رمختلف رمناطق سوريا والردن تحت اقيادة سلطان‬ ‫باشا الطرش اقائد عام الثورة‪ ,‬وترجع أحداث الثورة الى رفض أهل‬ ‫الدورز الى الحكم الجنبى ورماتنتج عنه رمن تقسيم سوريا‪ ,‬وسياسات‬ ‫الفرتنسة‪ ,‬و خداع الفرتنسيين فى العرب بعد الثورة العربية‪ ,‬ولكن رما ادى الى إشتعال الثورة هو اقيام‬ ‫الفرتنسيين بقيام فرتنسا بأخذ القبض على "أندهم خنجر" الثائر‪ ،‬وهو في جوار "سلطان باشا الرطرش"‪،‬‬ ‫رمما أرثار حفيظة الشعب للمساس بالتقاليد والعروبة والشرف‪ ,‬فتحركت الثورة رمن كل رمناطق ورمدن سوريا‬ ‫بقياده "سلطان باشا الطرش" القائد العام للثورة رمن جبل الردوز‪ ،‬ورمن حلب "إبراهيم هناتنو"‪ ،‬ورمن درمشق‬ ‫"حسن الخراط"‪ ، ،‬وعدد كبير رمن البطال والمجاهدين رمن رمختلف رمناطق سوريا ‪ ,‬رمع أشتراك كافة فصائل‬ ‫وطوائف الشعب السوري‪ ,‬اقابل الفرتنسيون تلك الثورة بالعنف والقتل الجماعى والتشريد والقصف للمدن رمما‬ ‫أدى الى رمقتل اللف رمن السوريين‪ ,‬على أن الشعب السورى لم يزعزع وزاد رمن تمرده ورثورته رمن خلل‬ ‫التحرركات الكبيرة له‪,‬حقق الشعب الثورى إتنتصارات هزت فرتنسا وكبدت الفرتنسيين خسائر هائلة ‪,‬رمما‬ ‫كان له أكبر الرثر على إاقتناع الفرتنسيين بتغير سياستهم فى سوريا و على رمعرفة رمؤكدة بأن الشعب‬ ‫السورى لن يستسلم ‪ ,‬ول بد رمن الرضوخ لرادة الشعب ورثورته الكبرى وتشكيل رمفاوضين رمن رمختلف‬ ‫رمحافظات سوريا لمعرفة رمطالبهم رمن تأسيس حكورمة سورية وطنية وعمل إتنتخابات برلماتنية رمستقلة‪ ,‬لكن‬ ‫الستعمار الفرتنسى لم يتفهم المطالب المعروضة عليه ‪ ,‬فعم الغضب أتنحاء سوريا رمرة أخرى الى ان تمت‬ ‫التنتخابات البرلماتنية السورية المستقلة فى ‪.1930s‬‬ ‫كان العالم على شفا حرب عالمية رثاتنية ‪,‬وكاتنت دول الحلفاء رمن ضمنهم فرتنسا رمستعدة لتقديم تنازلت للمنع‬ ‫حصول إضطربات تهدد المناطق الخلفية لها‪ ,‬رثم كاتنت اللحظة إل وهى الذكرى الربعيين لوفاة أبراهيم‬ ‫هناتنو فى ‪21‬ديسمبرعام ‪ , 1935‬التى كاتنت سببا فى إتنطلق أكبر رمظاهرات ضد التنتداب ‪ ,‬وطالب بأاقرار‬ ‫رمعاهدة سورية‪ -‬فرتنسية على رمنوال رمعادة بريطاتنيا رمع رمصر والعراق‪ ,‬يتم فيها تنظيم أوجه عمل التنتداب‬ ‫وتحد رمن تدخلته‪ ,‬وتم التوصل الى صيغة رمعاهدة فى ‪ 5‬ديسمبر عام ‪ ,1936‬أعلن المفوض الفرتنسى‬ ‫بمقتضاها ضم دولتي جبل العرب واللذاقية تنهائييا لسوريا‪ ,‬وإستثنى لواء السكندروتنة رمنها ‪,‬رثم جرت‬ ‫إتنتخابات برلماتنية ورئاسية ‪,‬أصبح بمواجبها "هاشم التاسى" رئيسا للجمهورية‪ ,‬على أن تقديرا لجهود‬ ‫‪268‬‬ ‫‪Country studies, “http://countrystudies.us/syria/9.htm”, 26/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪270‬‬

‫تركيا وعدم اتنضمارمها الى دول المحور فى الحرب العالمية الثاتنية ‪ ,‬أعطت فرتنسا رمنطقة لواء السكندروتنة‬ ‫الى تركيا ‪,‬فغضب الشعب السورى لذلك‪ ,‬واستقالت رثلث حكورمات رمتتابعة تنتيجة لذلك‪ ,‬رثم فى ‪7‬يوليو‬ ‫‪, 1939‬إستقال الرئيس "التاسى" ‪ ,‬إرثر أعلن فرتنسا سحب جيوشها رمن لواء السكندروتنة‪ ,‬فأتنتشر الجيش‬ ‫التركى فيه‪ ,‬تتبع الستقالة ‪,‬إعلن المفوض الفرتنسى تعليق العمل بالدستور حتى عام ‪ , 1941‬عندرما دخلت‬ ‫حكورمة فيشى الفرتنسية المحتلة رمن اللمان إستقلل البلد‪ ,‬وتعيين "تاج الدين الحسنى" رئيسا للجمهورية‪ ,‬رثم‬ ‫جرت إتنتخابات برلماتنية ورئاسية ‪,‬أصبح رمن خللها "القوتلى" رئيسا عام ‪ ,1943‬رمع بقاء القوات الفرتنسية‪,‬‬ ‫حيث لم تسحب اقواتها إل بعد تنهاية الحرب العالمية الثاتنية‪ ,‬بل عمدت إلى اقصف الحياء ورمبنى البرلمان‬ ‫بالمدفعية يوم ‪29‬رمايو ‪,1945‬رمما أدى الى رفع القضية الى رمجلس الرمن ‪ ,‬ورمع دعم بريطاتنيا للسوريين ‪ ,‬تم‬ ‫‪269‬‬ ‫إعلن جلء القوات الفرتنسية فى ‪17‬أبريل ‪.1946‬‬ ‫النقلبات العسكرية فى سوريا المستقلة‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫‪‬‬

‫خلل فترات التنتداب الفرتنسى‪ ,‬كان السوريون رمنقسميين فيما بينهم ولكن‬ ‫وحدهم كراهيتهم للحكم الفرتنسى‪ ,‬رثم كان الجلء فتكشف التنافس على السلطة‬ ‫بين الولءات المختلفة والمتنوعة فى سوريا‪ ,‬حيث تنازع العلويون رمع‬ ‫الدرمشقيين رمن أجل الهيمنة على الحياة الاقتصادية والسياسية‪ ,‬وحاول العلويون‬ ‫السيطرة على المسلميين السنيين‪ ،‬والوحدة ‪ ,‬كما تعهد الدرزايين بالولء لاقليم‬ ‫درزايا والمثل للكراد وولئهم للكراد فى كل رمكان وليس لسوريا‪ ,‬وأختلف القادة رمن المناطق الريفية‬ ‫رمع القادة فى المناطق الحضرية وتعارض جيل العلماتنية والتقدرمية رمع كبار الزعماء الدينيين ‪ ,‬وإختلف‬ ‫الساسيون فيما بينهم على تنوع الحكورمة السورية والنظام السياسى رمن رملكية‪ ,‬جمهورية‪,‬او برلماتنية ‪,‬و‬ ‫رئاسية‪ ,‬وهكذا بالنسبة للعلاقات الدولية ‪ ,‬حيث إتفق القادة على أن سوريا جزء رمن الرمة العربية ‪,‬‬ ‫ولكنهم أختلفوا فيما بينهم رمن حيث التجاه إلى الغرب وأاقارمة علاقات صدااقة رمع الوليات المتحدة ‪,‬أرما‬ ‫التجاه الى الشمال ‪,‬لاقارمة علاقات صدااقة رمع التحاد السوفيتى‪ ,‬وأيضا إتجاه العلويون وكبار السن رمن‬ ‫رمؤيدى الملك فيصل إلى التجارة رمع العراق وتأييد الملك فضل هاشم‪ ,‬على عكس الشباب الدرمشقى‬ ‫المثقفف الرافض لتأييد فضل هاشم‪ ,‬وكنتيجة لتلك الخلفات ‪ ,‬أصبحت رمرحلة رما بعد الستقلل تميز‬ ‫‪270‬‬ ‫بكثرة التنقلبات العسكرية وسرعة اقلب تنظام الحكم فى سوريا‪.‬‬ ‫أصبح "شكرى القوتلى" أول رئيس سورى رمنتخب بعد الستقلل‪ ,‬ولكن رمع بداية الزرمات فى عام‬ ‫‪ , 1948‬توضح إتنشقاق البرلمان رمع عدم وجود اقيادة فعلية فيه‪ ,‬حيث كاتنت البداية إعلن دولة أسرائيل‬ ‫فى رمايو ‪ ,1948‬ورمحاربة القوات السورية لذلك جنب الى جنب رمع الجيوش العربية الخرى‪ ,‬و تنحو‬ ‫تنهاية عام ‪1948‬بعد الهزيمة‪ ,‬خيم شعور بخيبة الرمل على السوريين وخاصة الساسة‪ ,‬لفشل حكورمتهم‬ ‫فى هزيمة أسرائيل وفشلها فى أستعادة لواء السكندروتنة رمن تركيا‪ ,‬والفشل فى تحرير الصول‬ ‫المحجوبة فى فرتنسا و الفشل فى إيجاد دعما لليرة السورية والاقتصاد السورى و الفشل فى بناء خط‬ ‫أتنابيب جديد يمتد رمن العراق الى السواحل السورية على البحر البيض رمما كان له الرثر فى زيادة‬ ‫السعار‪ ,‬لذلك لقى ‪ -‬التنقلب العسكرى بقيادة "حسنى الزعيم" رئيس أركان الجيش فى يوم ‪30‬رمارس‬ ‫‪ -1949‬التهليل والترحيب رمن جاتنب المعارضة السياسية والجماهير فى المناطق الحضرية‪ ,‬وكاتنتا كل‬ ‫رمن بريطاتنيا وفرتنسا أول رمن دعما هذا التنقلب بقيادة الزعيم ‪ ,‬رثم بعد ذلك تنال دعم الحكورمات العربية‬ ‫والغربية ‪,‬رثم أتنتخب الزعيم رئيسا لسوريا بأعتباره المرشح الوحيد وذلك بعد إلغاء الحزاب السياسي‪,‬‬ ‫أعلن أتنه على أستعداد لدعم رمنظمة الناتو فى حالة أعطاء الوليات المتحدة دعما إاقتصاديا لسوريا‪ ,‬كما‬

‫‪269‬‬ ‫‪Country studies, “http://countrystudies.us/syria/10.htm”, 26/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪270‬‬ ‫‪Country studies, “http://countrystudies.us/syria/11.htm”, 26/02/2012.‬‬

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‫صدق على إتفااقية رمع شركة أرمريكية لمد خطوط التنابيب رمن العراق الى البحر البيض المتوسط عبر‬ ‫سوريا‪.‬‬ ‫إستمر حكم الزعيم حوالى خمسة أشهر ‪ ,‬ذلك أن فترة حكمه تميزت بالتدابير القمعية بالرغم رمن‬ ‫إتنجازته التى تمثلت فى بدء البناء فى رمشروع تنهر الفرات لجلب المياه لمدينة حلب‪ ,‬والبدء فى رمشروع‬ ‫رمرفأ اللذاقية‪,‬و رمشروع بناء الطرق والمستشفيات‪,‬و رمشروع رمنح حق التصويت للنساء‪ ،‬و رمحاولة‬ ‫صياغة القواتنيين المدتنية الجديدة ‪ ,‬القواتنيين التجارية ‪,‬واقواتنين العقوبات‪ ,‬لكن رما جعله يخسر الدعم‬ ‫السياسى هو تنضوب الخزينة العارمة‪ ,‬رمما جعل العميد سارمى الحناوى يقود التنقلب العسكرى الثاتنى فى‬ ‫يوم ‪14‬أغسطس ‪ ,1949‬رثم أعتقل كل رمن "حسنى الزعيم" و"رمحسن البرازى" رئيس الوزاراء ‪,‬‬ ‫وأعدارمهما بعد عرضهما ارمام رمحاكمة عسكرية‪ ,‬رثم تم تعيين هاشم التاسى كرئيس للحكورمة المؤاقتة ‪,‬‬ ‫التى فى ظلها تم إعتماد اقاتنون إتنتخابى جديد‪ ,‬وسمح للمرأة بالتصويت فى إتنتخابات تنوفمبر عام ‪1949‬‬ ‫للمرة الولى‪ ,‬التى أصبح بمقتضاها هاشم التاسى رئيس الدولة‪ ,‬وبذلك عادت الحكورمة السورية‬ ‫للسياسين المدتنيين ‪ ,‬ورجع الجيش الى رثكاتنته رمرااقبا‪.‬‬ ‫حدث التنقلب الثالث فى سوريا يوم ‪28‬تنوفمبر ‪ , 1951‬حيث إتنقلب اللواء "أديب الشيشكلى" على‬ ‫العميد "سارمى الحناوى" وعلى "هاشم التاسى"‪ ,‬وذلك تنتيجة للتقارب السورى العرااقى ‪-‬المعتبريين‬ ‫كقوى أجنبية‪ -‬وعدم وجود اقيادة رمدتنية اقادرة على الحفاظ على‬ ‫السلطة ‪ ,‬وإستمرار المشكلت الاقتصادية رمن التضخم والبطالة‬ ‫وأعمال الشغب ‪,‬وكسر إتفاق جمركى دام سبع سنوات رمع‬ ‫اللبنايين ‪ ,‬لذلك اقام بالتنقلب الثالث رمن خلل إعتقال وزراء‬ ‫الحكورمة وتعيين "فوزى السلو" رئيس وزراء‪ ,‬تميز حكم‬ ‫الشيشكلى بديكتاتورية سافرة‪ ,‬حيث شدد اقبضته على الخدرمة‬ ‫المدتنية والمحاكم رثم ألغى جميع الحزاب عام ‪ ,1952‬رثم حاول‬ ‫رملء الفراغ السياسى عن طريق إتنشاء حزب حركة التحرير‬ ‫العربى عام ‪ ,1953‬رثم بعدها جعل شيشكيلي تنفسه رئيسا‬ ‫للجمهورية ‪,‬رثم في إستفتاء يوليو ‪ ، 1953‬وافق السوريون على‬ ‫‪271‬‬ ‫دستور جديد يجعل سوريا دولة تتبع النظام الجمهوري الرئاسي ‪ ,‬رمع الشيشكلي كرئيسا للبلد‪.‬‬ ‫حدث التنقلب السورى الرابع فى ‪ 25‬فبراير ‪ 1954‬بسبب إستبداد حكم الشيشكلى ‪,‬حيث عم الغضب‬ ‫ارجاء البلد رمن الطلبة السوريين وتم إلقاء القبض على العديد رمن كبار السياسة السوريين ‪ ,‬وخرجت‬ ‫المظاهرات وعمت الفوضى فى البلد ‪,‬فى إجتماع القادة السياسيين فى رمدينة حمص‪ ,‬سبتمبر عام‬ ‫‪,1953‬فأعلن الشيشكلى الحكام العرفية ‪ ,‬ولكن اقام رمجموعة رمن الضباط بالجيش السوري بإتنقلب‬ ‫ضده ‪ ,‬رمما جعله يفر الى لبنان‪ ,‬رثم تم تسليم حكم البلد لسلطة رمدتنية بقيادة "هاشم التاسى" كرئيس‬ ‫للجمهورية المؤاقتة ‪ ,‬رثم تم إتنتخاب "شكرى القوتلى" رئيسا ي للجمهورية رمرة اخري‪.‬‬ ‫ظهرت الصراعات ‪272‬بين العناصر السياسية المختلفة فى البلد بعد الطاحة بالشيشكلى‪ ,‬وتميزت‬ ‫فترة رما بعد التنقلب الرابع بنجا ح تنقل رمجلس الوزراء بين الئتلفات بين المحافظين رمن جهة‬ ‫والشتراكيين اليساريين رمن جهة أخرى ‪ ,‬على ان بدأ التوازن بتأرجح لصالح العناصر اليسارية ‪,‬خاصة‬ ‫‪ ,1956‬خاصة بعد العدوان البريطاتنى‬ ‫حزب البعث العربى الشتراكى والحزب الشيوعى السورى فى عام‬ ‫الفرتنسى السرائيلى على سيناء‪ ,‬وتنتج عن صعود العناصر اليسارية‪ ,‬تدعيم العلاقات رمع التحاد‬ ‫السوفياتى والدول الشيوعية الخرى‪ ,‬واقارمت سوريا بتواقيع عدة إتفااقيات للمقايضة وإتفااقيات رثقافية لتبادل‬ ‫البعثات ‪ ,‬وصفقات أسلحة ‪ ,‬فى المقابل ‪,‬أصبحت سوريا تنوعا رما رمعزولة رمن جيراتنها العرب‪ ,‬ولكن تحولت‬ ‫الحكورمة المصرية إلى اقيادة جمال عبد الناصر ‪ ,‬فجرت رمنااقشات حول الوحدة بين رمصر وسوريا عام‬ ‫‪271‬‬ ‫‪Country studies, “http://countrystudies.us/syria/12.htm”, 26/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪272‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/syria/13.htm” 26/02/2012.‬‬

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‫‪1956‬وعام ‪,1957‬عندرما أعلن حزب البعث صياغة رمشروع للوحدة رمع رمصر ‪,‬بالرغم رمن أن حزب‬ ‫البعث العربي الشتراكي عرف أن عداء عبد الناصرللحزاب السياسية سيعني تنهاية وجودها‬ ‫القاتنوتني ‪ ,‬وستكون المجموعة الكثر تأرثر فى سوريا هم الشيوعيين ‪ ,‬حيث تنظرائهم في رمصر‬ ‫يتعرضون للضطهاد‪ ,‬وبالنسبة للجاتنب المصرى ‪,‬كان عبد الناصر رمترددا في التحاد رمع سوريا‬ ‫المضطربة ‪ ,‬إل أتنه وافق بعد أن أاقنعه الوفد السوري لخطورة التهديد الشيوعي‪ ,‬وبذلك أعلن اتحاد‬ ‫‪273‬‬ ‫سوريا ورمصر تحت رمسمى الجمهورية العربية المتحدة فى الول رمن فبرايرعام ‪. 1958‬‬ ‫على أن الخلفات ظهرت بسرعة فى الجمهورية المتحدة ‪ ,‬حيث كان رمن شروط "عبد الناصر"‬ ‫للتحاد ‪ ,‬أن يكون شكل التحاد رمتكارمل بين البلديين‪ ,‬وليس شكل فيدرالى كما يرى السوريون ‪ ,‬وأيضا‬ ‫وجد السوريون أتنفسهم رمهيمين رمن اقبل المصريين فى الحكورمة و البرلمان كنتيجة لعتماد التمثيل فى‬ ‫البلدين على النسبة السكاتنية لكل بلد وسرعان رما وجدت تنفسها سوريا التي تهيمن عليها رمصر أاقوى‬ ‫وأكثر كفاءة‪ ,‬وبذلك أصبحت الجمهورية العربية المتحدة رممثلة فى جمال عبد الناصر‪ ,‬المسيطر عليه‬ ‫الصل ح الشتراكى القائم على التأرميم والصل ح الزراعى كما طبق فى رمصر‪ ,‬كما هيمن المصريون‬ ‫على عدد كبير رمن الوظائف الدارية الهارمة فى سوريا ‪ ,‬واقد تم تعيين "عبد الحكيم عارمر" للشراف‬ ‫على السياسة فى سوريا‪ ,‬كل رما سبق‪ ,‬دفع للقيام بإتنقلب عسكرى خارمس بقيادة "عبد الكريم النحلوى"‬ ‫فى درمشق فى ‪28‬سبتمبر ‪ 1961‬تنتج عنه إتنفصلل سوريا ورمصر‪.‬‬ ‫الفترة التى تلت رمرحلة الوحدة‪ ,‬تميزت بحدوث العديد رمن التنقلبات المتتالية‪,‬‬ ‫البداية كاتنت عندرما اشتد الجدل بين جميع القوى والفصائل السياسية ‪,‬رثم شاركوا‬ ‫بأستثناء الشيوعيين والفصائل الموالية لعبد الناصر‪ ,‬فى اتنتخابات عارمة لختيار‬ ‫البرلمان الجديد‪,‬الذى تميز بسيطرة المعتدلين والمحافظيين‪ ,‬ذلك البرلمان أتنتخب‬ ‫"تناظم القدسى" رئيسا للجمهورية‪ ,‬ورمعروف الدواليبى كرئيس للوزراء‪ ,‬اقارمت تلك‬ ‫الحكورمة بإلغاء رمراسيم التأرميم ولكن تنجحت الحكورمة الجديدة فى إرضاء القليل وتنفير الكثير ‪,‬رمما أدى‬ ‫الى حدوث إتنقلب عسكرى سادس يوم ‪28‬رمارس ‪ ,1962‬رمما تنتج عنه إستقالة الرئيس ورمجلس الوزارة‬ ‫‪,‬والوظائف التنفيذية والتشرعية للحكورمة‪,‬اقابل هذا التنقلب الجديد رمظاهرات فى جميع المدن الكبرى‬ ‫تندد بذلك‪,‬رمما ادى الى إتنقلب عسكرى سابع يوم ‪5‬ابريل تم فيه تنفى ضباط الجيش السبع رمن التنقلب‬ ‫السابق ‪ ,‬وعودة "القادسى" لمهام الرئاسة رثاتنية‪ ,‬على أتنه فى سبتمبر عام ‪, 1962‬حدث تفجيرات‬ ‫إرهابية ورمظاهرات طلبية تنتيجة للخلفات بين أتنصار عبد الناصر ورممن يرفضون عبد الناصر‪,‬‬ ‫وعين خالد الظم رئيسا للوزراء الجدد رمن اقبل القدسى‪,‬على أتنه اقام أربعة رمن ضباط الجيش الذى كاتنوا‬ ‫فى المنفى بإتنقلب رثارمن فاشل فى اوائل عام ‪ ,1963‬رثم ذهبوا الى المنفى رمرة أخرى ‪ ,‬وتم بعدها تطهير‬ ‫الجيش‪ ,‬على أن واقع اتنقلب أخر يوم ‪8‬رمارس رمن تنفس العام يسمى بثورة الثارمن رمن رمارس ‪1963‬‬ ‫بقيادة اعضاء حزب البعث في الجيش و الشعب و تمكن حزب البعث رمن بسط تنفوذه و سيطرته علي‬ ‫البلد‪ ,‬وفى يوم التاسع رمن رمارس رمن تنفس العام ‪,‬أصبح "صل ح الدين البيطار" رمؤسس حزب البعث‬ ‫العربى الشتراكى رئيس الوزراء و"كون رميشال عفلق" رئيس الدولة ‪ ,‬فى الستة أشهر اللحقة عن‬ ‫التاريخ السابق ‪ ,‬تغييرت وزارة البيطار أكثر رمن رمرة تنتيجة لجدل تكوين الحكورمة و حدوث العديد رمن‬ ‫الضطرابات التى يتم سحقها رمن اقبل اللواء "أرمين الحافظ" رمن حزب البعثيين الجدد ‪ ,‬رثم فى الفترة رما‬ ‫بين رمايو ‪ 1964‬وفبراير ‪ ، 1966‬كاتنت هناك تغييرات رمتكررة رمن الحكورمة رمما يعكس التنافس على‬ ‫السلطة داخل حزب البعث‪,‬و اقمعت بشدة أعمال الشغب في بعض المناطق الحضرية والمدن ‪,‬كما‬ ‫اقمعت المظاهرات الطلبية ‪ ،‬والمظاهرات المؤيدة لعبد الناصر‪,‬خلل هذه الفترة واصلت هيمنة "أرمين‬ ‫حافظ" على المشهد العام ‪ ،‬ولكن إرثنين آخرين رمن الجنرالت البعثيين اقارما بالتنقلب على اقيادات‬ ‫الحزب رمثل رميشل عفلق وأرمين حافظ في ‪ 23‬فبراير ‪،1966‬وهما "صل ح جديد" ‪ ،‬و"حافظ السد"‪.‬‬ ‫جدير بالذكر ان رمصر وسوريا اقد إشتركتا فى حربيين رمعا الولى عام ‪1967‬رمتحالفة رمع رمصر‬ ‫والردن‪ ,‬تنتج عنها إحتلل أسرائيل لهضبة الجولن ‪ ,‬رثم الحرب الثاتنية هى حرب اكتوبر ‪1973‬‬ ‫‪273‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/syria/14.htm” 26/02/2012.‬‬

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‫إستعادت كل رمنهما أجزاء رمن الراضي المحتلة ‪ ,‬ال اتنهما اختلفا رمعا ي بعد الحرب‪ ,‬حيث دخلت رمصر‬ ‫في رمفاوضات رسمية رمع اسرائيل و هو رما رفضته سوريا‪ ,‬رمما جعلها تقود جهة الهجوم على رمصر رمع‬ ‫الدول العربية‪.‬‬

‫عهد عائلة السد فى الرئاسة السورية‪.‬‬ ‫أول‪ :‬حافظ السد‪.:(2000-1971) 274‬‬ ‫كما ذكرتنا أتنفا‪,‬أن إرثنان رمن الجنرلت فى حزب البعث الشتراكى هما‪ :‬صل ح جديد‪,‬‬ ‫وحافظ السد اقد اقام بإتنقلب داخل الحزب ضد اقيادات الحزب والنظام الحاكم فى تنفس‬ ‫الواقت‪ ,‬واستمرا رمعا فى اقيادة سوريا حتى حرب ‪ ,1967‬حيث إتنهما اختلفا رمعا ي بعد هزيمة سوريا في الحرب‪ ,‬و‬ ‫تصاعدت الخلفات بينهما شيئا فشيئا الي أن اقام حافظ السد بإتنقلب اخيريسمى الحركة التصحيحية فى‬ ‫‪17‬تنوفمبر ‪ , 1970‬فيها تخلص السد رمن جميع خصورمه ورمعارضيه فى حزب البعث‪ ,‬وتم تعين الحكورمة فى‬ ‫‪ 19‬رمن تنفس الشهر‪ ,‬وكان السد فيها رئيس الدولة و رئيس الوزراء ووزير الدفاع‪ ,‬وتنصف رمجلس الوزارة رمن‬ ‫البعثيين وبها توازن بين أعداد الشتراكيين والناصرين و المستقلين والشيوعيين‪ ,‬وفى ‪ 23‬تنوفمبر ‪,1970‬‬ ‫إجتمعت الحكورمة للمرة الولى ‪ ,‬وفى رمقابلة صحافية ‪ ,‬زعم السد "ان التغيير فى الحكورمة ليس تنتيجة لتنقلب او‬ ‫تنتيجة للصراع السياسى على السلطة اوالتنقسام‪ ,‬ولكنه تنتيجة تطور طبيعى فى حركة الحزب الثورى"‪ ,,‬فى بداية‬ ‫حكمه ‪,‬حظي السد بتأييد شعبي كنتجة لصلحاته الاقتصادية وتطوره للجيش على النهج الحديث ‪ ,‬ووضع‬ ‫دستور سوريا الدائم عام ‪,1973‬هذا بالضافة الى إتنتصار الجيش فى عهده فى حرب ‪1973‬ارمام أسرائيل‪,‬إل ان‬ ‫شعبيته تارثرت فى عام ‪, 1982275‬حيث واقعت أحداث رمجزرة حماة‪,‬حيث سيطرت المعارضة رممثلة فى الخوان‬ ‫المسلميين فى رمدينة حماة‪ ,‬فتدخل الجيش بأرمر رمن الرئيس حافظ السد‪ ,‬حيث تدخل الجيش النظارمي والقوات‬ ‫المدربة تدريبا ي اقاسي اي ‪ ,‬بالضافة إلى وحدات رمن الرمن السري للقضاء على المعارضة واجتثارثها‪ ,‬وكان للجيش‬ ‫كارمل الصلحيات لضرب المعارضة وتأديب المتعاطفيين رمعها‪ ,‬وفرضت السلطات تعتيما على الخبار لتفادى‬ ‫الحتجاجات الشعبية والداتنة الخارجية‪,‬واقضى على المعارضة ولكن على حساب اللف رمن القتلى‪ ,‬وبذلك تمكن‬ ‫رمن التخلص رمن حركة الخوان المسلميين المعارضة ‪,‬وبذلك إتنفرد بالسلطة لمدة ‪30‬عارما حتى وفاته‪.‬‬ ‫ثانيا‪ :‬بشار السد )‪ -2000‬الن(‪.:‬‬ ‫كان يبلغ رمن العمر ‪34‬عارما و ‪10‬أشهرفى واقت وفاة والده في ‪ 10‬يوتنيو عام ‪ ,2000‬رمما جعل رمجلس الشعب‬ ‫السوري يعدل الدستور بإجماع أعضاءه لخفض الحد الدتنى لعمر الرئيس رمن ‪ 40‬عارما ي إلى ‪ 34‬عارما ي لتمكينه‬ ‫كقيادي في حزب البعث العربي الشتراكي رمن عرض ترشيحه على رمجلس الشعب لمنصب الرئاسة‪ ,‬وبذلك‬ ‫أصبح أول رئيس عربي يخلف والده‪ 276‬في حكم جمهورية‪ ,‬جدير بالذكر أتنه تولى الحكم رمصادفة حيث توفى‬ ‫اخيه الكبر باسل السد‪ -‬الذي كان رمن المفترض أن يخلف والده فى الحكم ‪ -‬اتنتخب رئيسا ي للجمهورية في ‪10‬‬ ‫يوليو ‪ 2000‬عبر إستفتاء شعبي واسع ورمظاهرات رمؤيدة وداعمة غطت سوريا باكملها‪ ,‬حدث اتنفراج في بداية‬ ‫عهده في رمجال الحريات وسميت تلك الفترة الوجيزة بربيع درمشق‪ ،‬حيث إستجاب الرئيس السد لكل رمطالب الشعب‪,‬‬ ‫‪274‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/syria/18.htm” 26/02/2012‬‬

‫‪275‬‬ ‫‪Syrian human rights committee “http://www.shrc.org/data/aspx/d3/53.aspx” 27/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪276‬‬ ‫‪Cnn “http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0006/10/bn.01.html ” 27/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪274‬‬

‫وحدث التنفتا ح على الصعيد الاقتصادي في البلد فى عهده‪ ،‬حيث سمح بفتح فروع للمصارف الجنبية وسسمح‬ ‫للمواطنين فتح حسابات بالعملت الجنبية ‪ ,‬رمما كان له تنتائجه على المستوى المعيشى للسوريين‪ , ,‬وتم إعادة‬ ‫اتنتخابه لولية رئاسية أخرى فى ‪2007.‬‬

‫الثورة السورية ‪.2011‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫بدأت الحتجاجات السورية ضد تنظام القمع فى رمنتصف شهر رمارس فى رمدينتى درعا جنوب درمشق حيث‬ ‫بدأت الحتجاجات بسبب اقيام المخابرات السورية باعتقال ‪15‬‬ ‫طفل رمن عائلة أبازيد بسبب كتابتهم عبارات الحرية على‬ ‫رمدرستهم ‪ ,‬رثم بعد ذلك تظاهر اللف أرمام الجارمع العمري الكبير‬ ‫في درعا‪ ,‬الذى صحابه عنف رمن اقبل اقوات الرمن السورية رمن‬ ‫خلل إطلق النيران الحى على المتظاهريين ‪,‬أطلق اقنابيل‬ ‫رمسيلة للدرموع وذلك للتفريق المتظاهريين‪ ,‬رثم إاقتحام المدرعات‬ ‫رمدينة دراعا‪ ,‬كنتيجة لهذا التصرف سقط رمئات القتلى واللف المصابيين‪ ,‬رثم وصلت حمى الحتياجات الى‬ ‫رمدينة حماة السورية ‪ ,‬التى اتنتهت بمذبحة حماة الشهيرة فى ‪ 23‬يوليو رمن تنفس العام على يد القوات‬ ‫العسكرية السورية أرثر حصارها ‪ ,‬واستمرار فض التظاهرات بالساليب القمعية رمستخدرمة الجيش السورى‬ ‫النظارمى ‪ ,‬وعلى صعيد أخر ظهر الرئيس السورى بشار السد فى أواخر شهر أبريل ليعلن عن اصلحات‬ ‫فى النظام السياسى‪ ,‬على ان المظاهرات إتنتشرت فى جميع أتنحاء البلد رمنها المؤيد للمعارضة‪,‬‬ ‫والحتياجات ورمندد بالتصرف الدرموى تجاهها ورمنها رمؤيد للرئيس بشار السد‪ ,‬رمازالت حتى تللك اللحظة‬ ‫تستمر المظاهرات والحتياجات رمستمرة فى المدن السورية حتى وصلت الى العاصمة السورية درمشق‬ ‫وأرمام السفارات السورية فى رمختلف دول العالم‪ ,‬جدير بالذكر اتنه تم اتنشقاق عدد ضباط رمن الجيش السورى‬ ‫يسمون أتنفسهم بالضباط الحرار ضد الساليب القمعية التى تحدث فى المدن السورية تجاه الشعب السورى‬ ‫‪ ,‬كما إتنعقد فى أسطنبول رمؤتمر التنقاذ الوطنى‪ ,‬الذى تنال دعما دولية‪.‬‬

‫نظام الحكم السورى‪:‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫تتمثل طبيعة الحكم فى سوريا بكوتنها تتبع النظام الجمهورى و هى تحت سيطرة حزب البعث ذو الطابع‬ ‫الستبدادى العسكرى فى الحكم رمنذ ‪. 1963‬‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫لقد تم إبرام الدستور السورى فى ‪ 13‬رمارس ‪ 1973‬؛ حيث أن سوريا رمنذ عام ‪ 1963‬و هى تحكم بقاتنة‬ ‫الطوارىء الذى يخفى جميع الحقوق الدستورية‪.‬‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫تتكون السلطة التشريعية فى سوريا رمن رمجلس الشعب فقط و تتكون الجمهورية السورية رمن ‪ 14‬رمحافظة هم حلب‬ ‫‪ ,‬درمشق و دورما‪ ,‬حمص‪ ,‬اللذاقية ‪ ,‬حماه ‪ ,‬طرطوس ‪ ,‬الراقة ‪ ,‬دير الزيور‪ ,‬السويداء ‪ ,‬الحسكة ‪ ,‬درعا ‪ ,‬ادلب و‬ ‫القنيطرة‪.‬‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫فيما يخص الحزاب السياسية السورية ‪ ,‬فهى تتكون رمن الجبهة الوطنية التقدرمية التى بمثابة المنظمة الشارملة‬ ‫لجميع الحزاب الحكورمية و على رأسها حزب البعث )الحزب الحاكم( و الحزب الشتراكى الوحدوى و التحاد‬ ‫الشتراكى العربي السورى و الحزب الشيوعى السورى الذى يضم كل رمن ‪ :‬الحزب السورى القورمى و الحزب‬ ‫الوحدوى الشتراكى و أحزاب أخرى غير رمعترف بها رمن الحكورمة و فى الغالب رما تكون أحزاب رمعارضة و‬

‫‪275‬‬

‫أخيرا هنال أحزاب كردية غير شرعية‪ .‬ان الجبهة الوطنية التقدرمية هى بمثابة رمنتدى حيث يتم فيه تقرير‬ ‫السياسات الاقتصادية و التوجهات السياسية للدولة‪ ,‬و رمع ذلك فالجبهة الوطنية تمارس سلطة غير رمستقلة بسبب‬ ‫هيمنة و سيطرة حزب البعث على الحكم‪.‬‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫إن الدستور السورى يمنح حزب البعث رمهام القيادة فى الدولة و يعطى صلحيات و سلطات واسعة للرئيس ‪ .‬إن‬ ‫الرئيس وفقا لغستفتاء شعبى تحددت رمدة وليته لتكون ‪ 7‬سنوات و هو ايضا الرمين العام لحزب البعث و زعيم‬ ‫الجبهة الوطنية التقدرمية‪.‬فهو عبار عن إئتلف رمن ‪ 10‬أحزاب سياسية تابعة للدولة ‪ ,‬فمن اختصاصاته تعيين‬ ‫الوزراء و إعلن الحرب و حالت الطوارىء و تعديل الدستور‪.‬‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫لقد إشترط الدستور السورى فى عام ‪ , 1973‬إن يكون الرئيس رمسلما و لكن ل يحق له ااقرار الدين السلرمى‬ ‫كدين رسمى للدولة و رغم ذلك فالمصدر الرئيسى للتشريع هى الشريعة السلرمية‪ .‬النظام القضائى فى سوريا هو‬ ‫رمزيج رمن التشريعات و القواتنين العثماتنية و الفرتنسية و السلرمية رمع وجود رثلث رمستويات للمحاكم ‪ ,‬رمحاكم‬ ‫‪277‬‬

‫الستئناف و رمحاكم ابتدائية و المحكمة الدستورية العليا و المحاكم الدينية رمسئولة عن القواتنين السرية ‪.‬‬

‫ الشعب‪:‬‬‫‪-‬‬

‫ينتمى الشعب السورى للعرق السارمى ‪ ,‬يتكون السكان رمن ‪ %90‬رمن المسلمين و ‪ %74‬رمنهم سنة و ‪%16‬‬ ‫رمجموعات إسلرمية أخرى رمنها العلويين و الشيعة و الدروز و ‪ %10‬رمسيحيين و هناك بعض المجتمعات‬ ‫اليهودية السورية‪.‬‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫أن اللغة العربية هى اللغة المستخدرمة على تنطاق واسع يتكون العرب رمن ‪ 500,000‬فلسطينى و حوالى رمليون‬ ‫لج ىى عرااقى‪ .‬كثير رمن المثقفين السوريين يتحدرثون اللغة الفرتنسية و التنجليزية ‪ ,‬يتحدث الكراد باللغة الكردية‬ ‫المحظورة الذين يمثلون ‪ % 9‬رمن السكان و يسكنوا شمال شرق سوريا‪.‬‬

‫اول‪ :‬الركراند‪:‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫التقديرات لعدد الكراد في سورية تختلف على تنطاق واسع‪ ،‬ولكن يعتقد أتنهم يؤلف حوالي ‪ 9‬في المئة رمن‬ ‫السكان‪ .‬على الرغم رمن أن بعض الجماعات الكردية القبلية عاشوا في البلد لعدة أجيال ‪ ،‬ووصل العديد رمن تركيا‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫بين عارمي ‪ 1924‬و ‪ ،1938‬عندرما حاول "رمصطفى كمال" لبرارمج الصل ح اقوة له على الكراد هناك ‪.‬‬ ‫الكراد هم شعب القبائل المستقلين والذين يتحدرثون لغتهم الخاصة ‪,‬يعيشون بشكل رئيسي في رمنطقة واسعة‬ ‫رمن المناطق الجبلية شمال غرب ايران‪ ،‬شرق تركيا‪ ،‬وشمال العراق‪ ،‬هم شعب رمتماسك والعلاقات بين القبائل‬ ‫رمعقدة والفخر العميق في تاريخهم وتقاليدهم‪ .‬رمعظم الكراد هم رمن المزارعين وبعض سكان المدينة هم وغيرهم‬ ‫رمن البدو الرحل الذين يقودون اقطعاتنهم بعيدا في الجبال في فصل الصيف وترعى لهم على الراضي المنخفضة‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫في فصل الشتاء‪.‬‬ ‫إن رمعظم الكراد رمن المسلمين السنة وعدد اقليل جدا رمن المسيحيين والعلويين‪.‬‬ ‫‪277‬‬ ‫‪Us department of state “www.state.gov” 28/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪276‬‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫بالنسبة لمعظم الكراد‪ ،‬سواء العريقة في سوريا أو وصلوا رمؤخرا‪ ،‬فالولء القبلي أاقوى رمن الولء الوطني للدولة‬ ‫سواء سوريا أو للرمة الكردية‪ .‬اتنهم ل يثقون تقليديا رمن أي حكورمة‪ ،‬ل سيما في درمشق‪ .‬ورمع ذلك ‪ ،‬فقد خففت‬ ‫الاقارمة الهادئة تنسبيا في سوريا والستيعاب التدريجي عدم رثقتهم في السلطات السورية‪(1).‬‬

‫ثانيا‪ :‬الرمن‪:‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫الررمن هم أحفاد أتناس عاشوا فى القواقاز رمنذ القرن السادس ق‪.‬م ‪ .‬إن عدد صغير رمنهم اقد استقر فى البلد لجيال‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫طويلة و لكن الغالبية جاءت كلجئين رمن تركيا رما بين ‪ 1925‬و ‪. 1945‬‬ ‫إن العرب القورميين لهم تارثير و اضح و رملموس فى تشكيل الحياة السياسية السورية و ذلك على غرار الررمن‬ ‫الذين وجدوا أتنفسهم ل يشاركون بشىء فى الحياة السياسية رمما جعلهم يشعرون يالوحدة و الغربة ‪ ,.‬لذا فقد‬ ‫هاجرت أعداد كبيرة رمنهم فى الستينيات و السبعينيات‪.‬‬

‫ثالثا‪:‬السنة‪:‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫إن اكبر جماعة دينية فى سوريا هم المسلمون السنة ‪ ,‬حيث يمثل السوريون العرب الصليون ‪ %80‬رمنهم و‬ ‫البااقى رمن الكراد و التركمان و الفلسطينيون و الشراكسة ‪ .‬غالبا رما يمتهن السنة رمعظم المهن فى البلد و ينتمون‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫لمعظم الجماعات الجتماعية و الحزاب السياسية‪.‬‬ ‫هناك رمحافظتان فقط ل يمثلون الغلبية بهما هما رمحافظتا السويداء )حيث الغلبية رمن الدروز( و اللذاقية‬ ‫) الغلبية رمن العلويين(‪.‬و فى الحاشكة يمثل السنة الغالبية و لكن رمن الكراد و ليس العرب ‪.‬‬

‫رابعا‪ :‬الشيعة‪:‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫يساهمون بنسبة ضئلة فى الحياة السياسية ‪ ,‬هم رمن الجماعات الدينية الاقل تعليما و أعضائها رمقاورمون للتغيير ‪.‬فى‬ ‫الرمور الدينية ‪ ,‬يوجهوا أتنظارهم لمراكز الشيعى فى العراق خاصة كربلء و النجف و ايران ‪ .‬ففى الحرب‬ ‫العرااقية – اليراتنية تحالفت سوريا رمع إيران فى رمواجهة العراق الرمر الذى اتنعش و حسن رمن وضع الشيعة‬ ‫السوريين‪ .‬ورمع ذلك ‪ ،‬فقد إعتبرت الحكورمة السورية عودة الحذر رمن الحماس السلرمي الشيعي في سورية‪،‬‬ ‫وإتخذت خطوات لتخفيف ذلك ‪.‬‬

‫خامسا‪:‬العلويون‪:‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫لقد إستمر العلويون لقرون اكثرأاقلية سورية رمستغلة و رمقهورة ‪ ,‬حيث كاتنوا رمزارعين رمستأجرين لدى رملك‬ ‫الراضى رمن السنية ‪ ,‬و لكن بعد تولى الرئيس السد رمقاليد الحكم و حاشيته فى عام ‪ 1970‬تحسنت ظروف‬ ‫العلويين تحسنا رملحوظا‪.‬‬

‫‪278‬‬

‫‪278‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sytoc.html” 28/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪277‬‬

‫ أشكال من العلقات السورية العربية قبل الثورة‪:‬‬‫العلقات السورية اللبنانية ‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫تأخذ العلاقات السورية – اللبناتنية صورة الدولة السورية المهيمنة على السياسة الخارجية اللبناتنية و احتللها‬ ‫لجارتها الصغيرة لمدة رثلرثين عارما ‪ .‬حيث يوجد فى لبنان حوالى ‪ 15,000‬رمن القوات السورية الى جاتنب‬

‫‪‬‬

‫)حزب ا( المتواجد فى جنوب لبنان الذى يتلقى دعم سوريا و إيران ككوتنهم شيعة‪.‬‬ ‫و يرجع الوجود السوري فى لبنان رمنذ ‪ 1967‬عند إتندلع الحرب الهلية اللبناتنية بين المسلمين و المريوتنيت‬ ‫)المسيحيين(فى عام ‪ ,1965‬الطارمعين فى المزيد رمن المشاركة و السلطة السياسية ‪ .‬تولى الحكم المريوتنيت‬ ‫و طلبوا رمساعدة سوريا و دعمها لهم ‪ ,‬أرسل الرئيس السد اقوات فى لبنان لحماية المريوتنيت ظنا رمنه أتنه اقد‬ ‫يسيطر عليهم و بهذا المواقف أرثار الرئيس الاسد حفيظة الدول السلرمية لدعمه للمريوتنيت المسيحيين ‪ ,‬و اقد‬ ‫‪279‬‬

‫‪‬‬

‫استمرت الحرب لمدة ‪ 15‬عارما‪.‬‬ ‫إتنتهت الحرب بتواقيع إتفااقية الطائف تحت رعاية بعض الدول العربية و على رأسها المملكة العربية‬ ‫السعودية ‪ ,‬و تتضمن التفاق إعطاء المسلمين المزيد رمن المشاركة فى الحياة السياسية و تحسين صورة‬

‫‪‬‬

‫العلاقات الللبناتنية – السورية‪.‬‬ ‫و لكن فى عام ‪ 2005‬حدث حادث ل يحمد عقباه على العلاقات بين البلدين ‪ ,‬حيث إغتيال رئيس الوزراء‬ ‫اللبناتنى رفيق الحريرى‪ ,‬رمما زاد رمن كراهية الشعب السورى للبنان و رمطالبته بسحب القوات السورية رمن‬ ‫لبنان و ذلك لشارة أصبع التهام لسوريا و رمسئوليتها عن الحادث ‪ .‬لم يكن اغتيال الحريرى هو السبب‬ ‫الوحيد لمطالبة اللبناتنيين بخروج القوات السورية رمن لبنان ‪ ,‬فقبل عام رمن إغتيال الحريرى بدأ السورية‬ ‫يتذرمرون رمن الوجود السورى فى لبنان و يطالبون باعادة تعريف العلاقات بين البلدين ‪ ,‬فقد تدخلت سوريا‬ ‫فى الشئون اللبناتنية ‪ ,‬فالدستور اللبناتنى يحدد رمدة ولية الرئيس لمدة ‪ 6‬سنوات و لكن تدخلت سوريا لتمد رمدة‬ ‫الرئيس "ايميل لحود" لثلرثة سنوات‪ .‬و لكن بعد تولى سعد الحريرى الحكم إختلفت تنظرته و سياسته تجاه‬ ‫العلاقات السورية اللبناتنية حيث أدرك أن رمن المصلحة اللبناتنية هو اقيام علاقات رثنائية ذات طابع تعاوتنى رمع‬

‫‪‬‬

‫سوريا و حفظ السيادة اللبناتنية ‪(2) .‬‬ ‫إن السؤال الذى يطر ح تنفسه هو ‪ ,‬هل هناك إرمكاتنية لقيام حرب أهلية رمرة اخرى ؟؟ و رما هو الدور السورى‬ ‫فى ذلك ؟؟ فقد اقال البعض أن القبضة الحديدية السورية تحفظ جميع الحماعات رمعا و اذا أزالت تلك القبضة‬ ‫فاتنها سوف تكون على راقاب بعضهم البعض رمرة أخرى‪.‬‬

‫العلقات السورية – العراقية‪:‬‬ ‫‪279‬‬ ‫‪Committee on Foreign relations, “www.cfr.org” 20/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪278‬‬

‫‪‬‬

‫هناك رثلث رمحاور أساسية تدور فيها العلاقات بين البلدين ‪ ,‬رمحور‬ ‫المتمردين و تسللهم عبر الحدود السورية للعراق و رمحور اللجئين‬ ‫العرااقيين و اخيرا المحور الخاص برغبة سوريا فى وجود حاكم اقوى‬

‫‪‬‬

‫فى بغداد ‪.‬‬ ‫إن سوريا تتبع سياسة ) العين العمياء( على اقمع المتمردين الذين‬ ‫ستسللون عبر حدودها للعراق رمهربين رمعهم السلحة و رمد ذلك رمع‬ ‫إبداء سوريا للقيام بالمساعدة فى القضاءعلى المتمردين ‪ ,‬فدورها‬ ‫هارمشى و يكاد يكون غير رملموس ‪ .‬و رمن التهارمات الموجهة لسوريا ايضا أتنها تساعد بعض عناصر حزب‬ ‫البعث العرااقى فى التسلل عبر حدودها و النوع الخر رمن المتمردين رممثلين فى عناصر القاعدة المتسللين‬

‫‪‬‬

‫رمن الخليج عبر سوريا لدخول العراق و ايضا بعض عناصر السنة ‪.‬‬ ‫أرما فيما يخص اللجئين العرااقين فى سوريا فهم يمثلون عقبة فى تسوية العلاقات بين البلدين ‪ ,‬فيوجد فى‬ ‫سوريا فوق المليون لجىء عرااقى رمما زاد عدد السكان فى سوريا بنحو ‪ . % 6‬يزداد عدد اللجئين العرااقيين‬

‫‪‬‬

‫لسوريا بحوالى ‪ 40,000‬شهريا ‪ ,‬رمما يؤرثر على الاقتصاد السورى و الضغط على البنية التحتية السورية‪.‬‬ ‫و اخيرا ‪ ,‬سوريا تريد رجل عرااقى اقوى اقادر على ابقاء العنف فى الختيار و رمنع اقيام كردستان عرااقية‬

‫‪‬‬

‫رمنشقة و خنق أى رمحاولة ليجاد اتنفتا ح سياسى حقيقى فى العراق‪.‬‬ ‫اخيرا و ليس اخرا ‪ ,‬هل ستنجح البلدين فى إيجاد طرق للتغلب على رمعواقات تسوية العلاقة بينهما ؟؟‪,‬‬

‫‪280‬‬

‫العلقات السوريه‪-‬السرائيليه‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫تأزم العلقات‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫تأزم العلاقات بين سوريا و اسرائيل يأخذ العديد رمن المحاور‪ ,‬بداية بتدعيم بشار السد لحزب ا و حماس‬ ‫الذى يعلن صراحة رفض الحوار رمع اسرائيل‪ ,‬و علاقة الصدااقه‬ ‫فى ذلك الحين بين سوريا و ايران )رمما وضع الرثنين فى اقائمة‬ ‫الدول الراعيه للرهاب(‪ .‬فى عام ‪ 2007‬ضربت إسرائيل‬ ‫رمفاعل تنووى سورى هناك‪ .‬هيج صل ح جديد ‪-‬السابق لحكم‬ ‫عائلة السد‪ -‬المشاعر للفلسطنييين لدرجة تصاعد الوضع الى‬ ‫حرب ‪ 1967‬التى لم تكن درمشق رمستعده لها و التى اسفرت عن‬ ‫خسائر فى رمرتفعات الجولن‪ .‬و رغم أن حافظ السد تعلم‬ ‫الدرس و تجنب الصراع رمع اسرائيل و لكن جاء ابنه بشار أخذا‬ ‫المزيد رمن المخاطر رغم رمعرفته أن فتح اشتباك رمع إسرائيل‬ ‫ستكون كاررثية بالنسبة لسورية وتنظارمه‪.‬‬

‫‪280‬‬ ‫‪United State institute of peace “www.usip.org” 20/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪279‬‬

‫هضبه الجولن‪:‬‬

‫‪282281‬‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫الجولن أرض عربية سورية تقع في أاقصى جنوب غرب سورية على ارمتداد حدودها رمع فلسطين المحتلة‪.‬‬ ‫تقدر رمساحته بـ ‪ 1800‬كم رمربع‪ .‬وله شكل رمتطاول رمن الشمال إلى الجنوب على رمسافة ‪ 80-75‬كم‪ ،‬بعرض‬

‫‪‬‬

‫رمتوسط يتراو ح بين ‪ 18‬و ‪ 20‬كم‪.‬‬ ‫تقع كتلة جبل الشيخ في شمالي الجولن‪ ،‬وتفصله عن البقاع الجنوبي في لبنان‪ .‬ويفصل وادي تنهر اليررموك‬ ‫العميق في الجنوب بين الجولن ورمرتفعات عجلون والردن الشمالية الغربية‪ .‬وأرما في الغرب‪ ،‬فإن هضبة‬ ‫الجولن تطل على سهل الحولة وبحيرة طبريا بجروف اقاسية‪ ،‬في حين يقع وادي الراقاد في الشرق بين‬

‫‪‬‬

‫الجولن ورمنطقة حوران‪.‬‬ ‫ولمواقع الجولن الجغرافي المتوسط أهمية كبيرة‪ ،‬جعلت الجولن رمنطقة عبور القوافل والجيوش والشعوب‪،‬‬ ‫وجعلته رمسر ح صراع دائم على رمر العصور‪ .‬و ظهر ذلك كله في الوضاع البشرية للمنطقة‪ ،‬وأتنماط‬

‫‪‬‬

‫العمران‪ ،‬والحوال الاقتصادية‪.‬‬ ‫يقع رمعظم الجولن على ارتفاعات عارمة تراو ح بين ‪ 950‬و ‪ 1300‬م فوق سطح البحر‪ .‬ويقسم رمن حيث‬

‫‪‬‬

‫الرتفاعات التضريسية إلى رمنطقتين رئيسيتين تتبعهما تضاريس رثاتنوية‬ ‫المنطقة الشمالية ‪:‬وتتراو ح ارتفاعاتها بين ‪ 600‬و ‪ 900‬م فوق سطح البحر‪ ،‬وتتبعها تنهايات وأاقدام جبل‬‫الشيخ الجنوبية الشراقية التي يزيد ارتفاعها على ‪ 1500‬رمتر‪ .‬وتتزايد ارتفاعات هذه المنطقة بالتجاه تنحو‬

‫‪‬‬

‫الشمال حيث تبدأ كتلة جبل الشيخ‪،‬‬ ‫وبالتجاه تنحو الشرق حيث يزيد ارتفاع سلسلة جبال الجولن عن ‪ 1000‬رمتر‪ ،‬ويصل ارتفاع اقمة تل بير‬ ‫عجم إلى ‪ 1155‬رمتر يا فوق سطح البحر‪ ،‬في حين تتنااقص الرتفاعات باتجاه الغرب والجنوب الغربي حيث‬

‫‪‬‬

‫المنطقة التضريسية الثاتنية‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬المنطقة الجنوبية ‪:‬وتتراو ح ارتفاعاتها بين ‪ 300‬و ‪ 600‬م فوق سطح البحر‪ ،‬وتتبعها الراضي المنخفضة‬

‫‪‬‬

‫دون ‪ 300‬م في سهل الحولة أو بحيرة طبريا‪ ،‬والوااقعة على ارتفاع ‪ 212‬م دون سطح البحر‪.‬‬ ‫كان إحتلل رمنطقة الجولن أحد الهداف الرئيسية للحرب التي شنتها إسرائيل في ‪ 1967‬ضد الدول العربية‪.‬‬ ‫واقد غزت إسرائيل الجولن خلل هذه الحرب واحتلت رمنه رما رمساحته ‪ 1250‬كم رمربع‪ ،‬وفيها المنطقة‬ ‫رمنزوعة السل ح ورمساحتها ‪ 100‬كم رمربع‪ .‬ويدخل في هذه المساحة المحتلة أجزاء صغيرة رمن جبل الشيخ‬ ‫هي النهايات الجنوبية الغربية لسلسلة هذا الجبل‪ .‬وتدخل هذه الجزاء ضمن إطار "الجولن المحتل" تجاوزاي‬ ‫‪283‬‬

‫للمفهوم الجغرافي‪.‬‬

‫‪284‬‬

‫مصالح المن السرائيليه فى الجولن‪:‬‬

‫‪281‬‬ ‫‪Israel’s Pessimistic View of the Arab Spring, Daniel Baymn,‬‬ ‫‪“http://www.twq.com/11summer/docs/11summer_Byman.pdf” 20/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪282‬‬ ‫‪Syria ministry of Finance “http://www.syrianfinance.org/arabic/main/about-syria/2113.html” 20/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪283‬‬ ‫‪United states department of state “http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/103703.pdf” 21/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪284‬‬

‫‪280‬‬

‫‪‬‬

‫لقد احتلت اسرائيل هضبة الجولن بالساس لمصلحه اسراتيجيه لتوفير "وسادة الجغرافية" بينها و بين‬

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫سوريا‪ ,‬وكان يقوم على عده عوارمل العسكرية بجاتنب رما تتيحه رمن رمزايا‪,‬ورمنها‪:‬‬ ‫أول‪ :‬السرائيليين الذين يعيشون بالقرب رمن الحدود السوريه فى وضع رمتدن رمقارتنه بسوريا‪.‬‬ ‫رثاتنيا‪ :‬اقلق إسرائيل العسكري رمن التحاد السوفيتي حيث كاتنت سوريا تتقلى المساعدات رمنها‪ ,‬رمما يجعل‬

‫‪‬‬

‫السرائليليون فى حاله تأهب دائمه واضعين أعينهم على العلاقات السوريه‪-‬السوفيتيه طوال الواقت‪.‬‬ ‫رثالثا‪ :‬بعد حرب ‪ 1967‬بدأت إسرائيل ااقارمة الزراعة عميقة داخل المستوطنات في هضبة الجولن‪ ,‬تقدم‬ ‫الطائرات الحربية والصواريخ الحمايه بسهوله إلى جبال الجولن‪ ,‬حيث لم يكن هناك اى تبدل لطلق النار‬ ‫بين اسرائيل و سوريا على هضبة الجولن رمنذ حرب ‪ .1973‬علوة على ذلك شهد الجولن تحولت‬ ‫ااقتصادية هائلة في ظل الحتلل السرائيلي‪.‬‬

‫العلقات السوريه‪-‬اليرانيه‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫‪‬‬

‫خلق التنافس التاريخى لسوريا رمع العراق فرصا فى تحسين‬ ‫العلاقات السوريه رمع ايران‪ ,‬التحالف السورى اليراتنى الذى‬ ‫يعتبر دائما "زواج رمصلحه"‪ ,‬كما أن كل البلدين وضعت اقيمة‬ ‫أعلى على المصالح الستراتيجية المشتركة بدل رمن الاقليمية‬ ‫والثقافية والدينية في السنوات الخيرة‪ .‬رمما فيه رمن اقلق رمشترك‬ ‫حول العراق و دعم بالنسبه لحزب ا فى لبنان و اسرائيل‬ ‫التجزره جغرافيا فى المنطقه ل يمكن اتنقلبها بسهوله‪.‬‬ ‫و لقد تزايد النفوذ اليراتنى فى سوريا لبعد اخر‪ ,‬عبر التقرير‬ ‫الخيره لتزايد الستثمارات و التجاره لها هناك‪ .‬سواء كان ذلك فى رمجال التصنيع او الطااقه‪ .‬كما توسع‬ ‫التعاون العسكرى بينهما‪ ,‬حيث فى زياره الرئيس اليراتنى احمدى تنجاد فى عام ‪ 2007‬إلى سوريا لقد أعطى‬ ‫رمساعدات عسكريه بقيمه ‪ 1‬بليون دولر‪.‬‬ ‫لكن الوضع إختلف بعد اقيام الثوره السوريه حيث أدان الرئيس رمحمود أحمدي تنجاد "القتل والمجزرة" في‬ ‫سوريا‪ ،‬في أاقوى اتنتقاد حتى الن رمن ايران حملة حليفتها الرئيسية ‪.‬واضاف "إتننا تندين عمليات القتل والمذابح في‬ ‫سوريا ‪ ،‬سواء كاتنت لقوات الرمن ‪,‬الناس اوالمعارضة" ‪ ،‬واقال احمدي تنجاد "لدينا صيغة واضحة لسوريا والذي‬ ‫هو لجميع الطراف على الجلوس رمعا والتوصل الى تفاهم‪ ...‬ولذلك عمليات القتل هذه ل يمكن حل أي رمشاكل ‪،‬‬ ‫وعلى المدى الطويل سوف يؤدي الى طريق رمسدود "‪.‬‬ ‫حذر رئيس الوزراء التركي رجب طيب اردوغان ايران"ل يفسد" القيادة السورية واقال اردوغان "ل أستطيع أن‬ ‫أاقول كان هناك توتر رمع إيران ولكن حذرتنا رمنهم )اليراتنيون( أن" الدارة السد تحصل على التشجيع "‪.‬‬ ‫جعلت طهران الحفاظ على علاقات جيدة رمع أتنقرة أولوية في السنوات الخيرة ‪ ،‬وتعتبر تركيا حليفا لرفضها تنفيذ‬ ‫العقوبات التي فرضها الغرب بسبب برتنارمجها النووي المثير للجدل‪.‬‬ ‫ولكن في الشهر الخيرة وإتنتقدت طهران اتنقرة حول رموافقتها على إستضافة رادار للتنذار المبكر كجزء رمن‬ ‫الناتو تنظام الدفاع الصاروخي‪ .‬وتقول طهران اتنه يهدف إلى حماية النظام في إيران العدو اللدود لسرائيل‪.‬‬ ‫التحاد الوروبي اقد اتهمت إيران بمساعدة سوريا في حملتها على الحتجاجات المناهضة للحكورمة ‪ ،‬رفضت‬ ‫طهران التهام بأتنها "ل اساس لها"‪.‬‬ ‫‪The Israeli-Syrian Conflict, Joyce Lawrence “http://irps.ucsd.edu/assets/012/6361.pdf” 26/20/2012.‬‬

‫‪281‬‬

‫تصريحات أحمدي تنجاد هي الولى للذهاب ضد السياسة الرسمية تجاه التنتفاضة السورية التي وضعتها‬ ‫الجمهورية السلرمية بقيادة آية ا علي خارمنئي‪ ,‬وادعى ان الضطرابات في سوريا "رثورة وهمية" رملفقة رمن اقبل‬ ‫‪285‬‬ ‫الوليات المتحدة والصهاينة‪.‬‬

‫‪ ‬العلقات السوريه‪-‬الترركيه‪:‬‬ ‫ا( علقات تاريخيه‪:‬‬ ‫‪ -1‬محافظة هتاي هي إحدى رمحافظات تركيا‪ .‬عاصمتها رمدينة أتنطاكية‪ .‬تبلغ رمساحتها ‪ 5,678‬كم ‪ 2‬ويبلغ‬ ‫عدد سكاتنها ‪ 1,253,726‬تنسمة كما يبلغ رمعدل الكثافة السكاتنية ‪/220‬كم ‪ .2‬تقع في جنوب تركيا‪.‬‬ ‫كاتنت هاتاي تعرف بـلواء اسكندرون حتى عام ‪ ،1939‬حين إاقتطع رمن سوريا أيام التنتداب الفرتنسي على سوريا‪ ،‬وتم‬ ‫ضمه إلى تركيا بعد استفتاء رمشكوك في صحته تنظم عام ‪ 1939‬في هاتاي‪ .‬شارك في الستفتاء عشرات اللف‬ ‫رمن التراك الذين تنقلوا على شاحنات رمن تركيا للمشاركة فيه واقاطعته الغلبية العربية‪ [1].‬اقارمت تركيا بتغيير‬ ‫كافة السماء رمن عربية إلى تركية‪ .‬عام ‪ 1921‬كان التراك يشكلون أاقل رمن ‪ 20‬في المئة السكان في الاقليم‪ ،‬إل‬ ‫أن السياسة الفرتنسية المنحازة للتراك‪ ،‬والتخطيط القديم لسلخ اللواء لرضاء الحكم التاتوركي‪ ،‬رغبة بالتقليل‬ ‫رمن خسائر رمعاهدة سيفر أرسى سياسة تتريك رمقنعة خلل فترة التنتداب الفرتنسي في العشرينات للاقليم‪ ،‬ورمع فصل‬ ‫الاقليم حسب اقرار عصبة الرمم كان عدد سكان اللواء ‪ 220‬ألف تنسمة‪ 105 ،‬آلف رمنهم رمن العرب‪ ،‬وتوزع‬ ‫البااقون حينها على العرق التركي )‪ 85‬أليفا( والكردي )‪ 25‬أليفا( والررمني )‪ 5‬آلف( حاليا‪ ،‬يسكن الاقليم حوالي‬ ‫رمليون تنسمة‪ ،‬ل يوجد أي تعداد للنسبة العربية رمن سكاتنه بسبب السياسة التركية القمعية للاقليات القورمية‪ ،‬ويشكو‬ ‫الاقليم رمن القمع الثقافي واللغوي والرثني الذي تمارسه تركيا عليهم والتمييز ضد الاقلية العربية لصالح العرق‬ ‫التركي في كل المجالت وهو رمتابعة تنحو التتريك الكارمل للواء السكندرون‪.‬‬ ‫‪286‬‬

‫‪ -2‬سياسات مائيه‬

‫وشكت سوريا رمنذ فترة طويلة بأن رمخطط التركى لبناء سلسلة رمن السدود عبر تنهر الفرات العليا كجزء رمن‬ ‫رمشروع جنوب شرق التناضول ‪ ،‬وحررماتنها رمن المياه في الزراعة التي تعتمد عليها بشكل كبير‪.‬‬ ‫في عام ‪ 1988‬اقال الرئيس الراحل تورغوت أوزال ‪'' :‬تنحن ل تنقول رماذا يفعل العرب رمع النفط ‪ ،‬لذلك تنحن ل‬ ‫تنقبل أي ااقترا ح رمنهم حول رما يجب فعله رمع رمياهنا''‪.‬‬ ‫في العام تنفسه تتعرض تركيا لضغط رمن جاتنب درمشق للتواقيع على إتفااقيه لتقاسم المياه‪,‬واقال الرئيس أوزال ''النفط‬ ‫هو لهم ]العرب[ ‪ ،‬والماء ‪ ،‬كل الماء لنا[ في إشارة إلى أتنه كان يعتزم استخدام سل ح المياه ضد رمناورة السد‬ ‫الماكرة باستخدام حزب العمال الكردستاتني‪.‬‬ ‫ول يشكو السوريين حول كميات المياه لكن تنوعيتها حيث إن سلسلة السدود التي بنتها تركيا على رمنبع تنهر‬ ‫الفرات يعني أن المياه التى تصل الى سوريا اقد استخدرمت عدة رمرات‪ ،‬وبالتالي فإن بها زيادة فى الملوحة و بذلك‬ ‫‪285‬‬ ‫‪Al arabiya “http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/10/22/173119.html” 28/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪286‬‬ ‫”‪Water is behind Turkey Syria Border Tension Adel Darwish “http://www.mideastnews.com/water001.html‬‬ ‫‪26/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪282‬‬

‫تأذى المحاصيل ‪ ،‬فضل عن التسبب في تآكل الضفاف رمنذ تشغيله بشكل أسرع وحررماتنهم رمن الطمي‪ ,‬واقالت‬ ‫تركيا إتنها ليس لديها رما ينااقش حتى تنهى سوريا دعمها لحزب العمال الكردستاتني‪.‬‬ ‫في عام ‪ ، 1989‬عندرما زاد الرئيس دعم السد لحزب العمال الكردستاتني ‪،‬أواقفت تركيا تدفق المياه الى سوريا‬ ‫والعراق بحجة اتنها تحتاج الى ‪ 30‬يورما لملء بحيرة اتاتورك وإختبار السد‪ .‬ودفعت هذه الخطوة الى اجتماعات‬ ‫عاجلة في لندن بين بغداد و درمشق لتخاذ تدبير عاجل لمواجهة تركيا‪.‬‬ ‫لذلك كان هناك تواقعات تهديدات الحرب على الحدود بين تركيا وسوريا رمن الخبراء الستراتيجيين أتنه الصراع‬ ‫المقبل في الشرق الوسط على المياه وليس النفط‪ .‬وفي عام ‪ 1996‬زار وفد عرااقي درمشق لمنااقشة سبل رمواجهة‬ ‫تركيا و إستخدام أتنقرة سل ح المياه ضد سورية والتي سوف تؤرثر في تنهاية المطاف على العراق‪ .‬فتعارض بين‬ ‫سورية وتركيا رمن تناحيه و إشراك العراق رمن تناحيه اخرى‪ ,‬رمما يجعل الرمور أكثر تعقيدا في المنطقة‪.‬‬ ‫‪-3‬تدعيم للرهاب‬ ‫كان رمن أسباب تأزم العلاقات السوريه التركيه الساسيه هوتدعيم سوريا إلى حزب العمال الكردستاتنى)‪(PKK‬‬ ‫فى تركيا‪ ,‬وهي جماعة كردية اتنفصالي هناك تنزاع بينها و بين الجيش التركى لفتره طويله رمن الزرمن ‪ ،‬واقد أحرز‬ ‫هذا التهام ضد سوريا رمرارا وتكرارا‪.287‬‬

‫ب( العلقات الحاليه‬ ‫‪ -1‬بداية اعاندة التقرب فى العلقات السوريه الترركيه‬ ‫في أعقاب التواقيع على إتفااقات أضنة ‪ ،‬كاتنت هناك تطورات في العلاقات بين سوريا وتركيا في فترة زرمنية‬ ‫اقصيرة جدا‪ .‬كاتنت النتيجة المباشرة للتفاق على إغلق رمعسكرات تدريب حزب العمال الكردستاتني في سوريا‬ ‫وإتنهاء الدعم اللوجستي للمنظمة‪ .‬إتفق الطرفان على أتنه "سيتم إتنشاء خط هاتفي رمباشر ‪،‬وسيتم تعيين رممثلين‬ ‫خاصين في البعثات الدبلورماسية في كل بلد" وعقدت اجتماعات رمنتظمة رمن اقبل اللجنة الرمنية المشتركة‪ .‬وهناك‬ ‫زيادة في الزيارات الدبلورماسية في رمختلف العلاقات حتى عام ‪ ، 2000‬يمكن أن تنتحدث عن فترة لبناء الثقة في‬ ‫العلاقات بين البلدين‪ .‬رمع يوتنيو ‪ ، 2000‬حضور الرئيس التركي احمد تنجدت جنازة حافظ السد ورمما العلاقات‬ ‫بين البلدين‪ ,‬كما واقعت الدولتان على اتفاق للتعاون الرمني‪,‬و فتحت صفحه جديده للعلاقات الثنائيه‪.‬‬ ‫و لكن كان على البلدين حل اقضية المياه واقضية الحدود ‪ --‬هاتاي ‪ --‬بين البلدين أول وأعد إعلتنا المبادئ التي‬ ‫‪288‬‬ ‫تضمن إحترام وحدة أراضي وسيادة كل بلد و أزرمة المياه بينهما‪ ,‬كما ردد وزراء الخارجيه على كل الجاتنبيين‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -2‬التعاون العسكرى‬ ‫في الماضي ‪ ،‬دعمت سوريا حزب العمال الكردستاتني ضد تركيا ‪ ،‬وسمح لحزب العمال الكردستاتني لتجنيد‬ ‫السوريين الكراد للقتال ضد تركيا‪.‬ولكن لقد تغير ذلك بعد سوريا أن اقررت طرد "عبد ا اوجلن" زعيم اقوة‬ ‫حزب العمال الكردستاتني خارج البلد في عام ‪، 1998‬عندرما هددت تركيا بغزو سورية‪ .‬بعد عام ‪ ، 1998‬بدأت‬

‫‪287‬‬ ‫‪Graham, Edward, Terrorism and Borders, http://www.mideastinfo.com/archive/paper1.htm 12/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪288‬‬ ‫‪Tür,Özlem, TURKISH-SYRIAN RELATIONS – WHERE ARE WE GOING?, Middle East Technical University,‬‬ ‫‪Ankara,http://www.ucm.es/info/unisci/revistas/UNISCI%20DP%2023%20-%20TUR.pdf 16/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪283‬‬

‫سوريا الى إتخاذ إجراءات صاررمة ضد حزب العمال الكردستاتني الشبكات المتبقية وإاقارمة أفضل العلاقات رمع‬ ‫تركيا‪ .‬بناء على أوارمر أوجلن ‪ ،‬واتنتقل رمعظم المتمردين لحزب العمال الكردستاتني في جبال اقنديل في شمال‬ ‫العراق‪.‬‬ ‫إتنشاء حزب العمال الكردستاتني الكردي العراقى في سوريا في سبتمبر ‪ .2003‬واستهدف هذا الحزب كان‬ ‫رمستهدفا رمن اقبل الدوله ‪ ،‬كالحزاب السياسية الكردية الخرى في سوريا‪ .‬ألقي القبض على رمئات رمن أعضائها‬ ‫واقمعت اجتماعات حزب التحاد الديمقراطي على أيدي اقوات الرمن السورية‪ .‬واقتل بعض رمؤيدي حزب التحاد‬ ‫الديمقراطي ‪ PYD‬خلل تنظيم احتفالت رأس السنة الكردية في رمدينة الراقة بالقرب رمن حلب في رمارس‬ ‫‪. 2010‬وعلى الرغم رمن هذا ‪ ،‬عبد ا أوجلن‪ ،‬زعيم حزب العمال الكردستاتني المسجون حاليا ‪ ،‬ل يزال إيجابي‬ ‫عن سوريا ‪ ،‬أشار أن "سوريا لن تشارك في رمفهوم إبادة الكراد" ‪ ،‬في بيان تنشرته وكالة أتنباء رموالية لحزب‬ ‫العمال الكردستاتني‪.‬‬ ‫سورية تحتفظ بعلاقات جيدة رمع تركيا اتنطلاقا رمن اقلقي حيال القورمية الكردية ‪ ،‬التى تشكل تهديدا في كل البلدين‪.‬‬ ‫سوريا تخشى خصوصا أن رمنطقة الحكم الذاتي الكردية الجديدة في العراق اقد يؤرثر على الكراد في سوريا تنفسها‪.‬‬ ‫ااقتناع الضطرابات في المدينة الوااقعة شمال شرق سوريا رمن القارمشلي في عام ‪ 2004‬درمشق الى إتخاذ إجراءات‬ ‫أشد ضد القورميين الكراد‪ .‬الكراد هم أكبر أاقلية عراقية في سوريا ‪ ،‬رمع رمجتمعهم ‪ 3‬رمليين تشكيل ‪ ٪ 16‬رمن‬ ‫السكان‪ .‬إن الحكورمة السورية تنتقد بشدة الفدرالية في العراق ‪ ،‬وتفضل الحكورمة العرااقية المركزية القوية‪ .‬خلفا‬ ‫لتركيا وايران وسوريا ليس لديها اقنصلية في إاقليم كردستان شمال العراق‪.‬‬ ‫واقد تنمت العلاقات بين البلدين أيضا بسبب السياسة الخارجية لتركيا حزب الحاكم )حزب العدالة والتنمية‬ ‫‪ .( AKP‬وبدأ التقارب التركي السوري رمنذ أن جاء حزب العدالة والتنمية السلرمي إلى السلطة في عام ‪.2002‬‬ ‫سابقا في عام ‪ ، 1999‬وكاتنت سوريا اقد واقعت على رمعاهدة أضنة للتعاون الرمني رمع تركيا‪ .‬سبع سنوات رمن‬ ‫التقارب في ظل حزب العدالة والتنمية اقد جلبت تنحو تعزيز كبير للعلاقات السورية التركية‪ .‬ولقد أسفر ذلك على‬ ‫تأشيرة رمرور بين سوريا وتركيا والجتماعات المشتركة على رمستوى وزاري‪ .‬خلقت هذه العلاقات الجيدة‬ ‫تغييرات إيجابية بالنسبة للكراد في سوريا ‪،‬الكراد في كل البلدين لم تعد هناك حاجة لتأشيرات الزيارات عبر‬ ‫‪289‬‬ ‫الحدود‪.‬‬ ‫‪-3‬اللجييين السوريين فى ترركيا‬ ‫فر أكثر رمن ‪ 19000‬سورى الى تركيا رمنذ بدء الحملة الوحشيه للحكورمه لمناهضة الحتجاجات بضرب شمال‬ ‫سوريا في يوتنيو‪ .‬اليوم أكثر رمن ‪ 7600‬رمنهم يعيشوا في المخيمات التي ترعاها الحكورمة التركية‪ .‬وحكمة الرئيس‬ ‫بشار السد تصعد حملتها العنيفة في سوريا على الرغم رمن الداتنة الدولية ‪ ،‬واللجئين هنا يبدو أن يستقر كأتنها‬ ‫تبقى طويل‪,‬حيث أعرب احد الجئيين إن "اذا كان هناك سلرمة ‪ ،‬وسنذهب إلى البيت ‪ ،‬ولكن لماذا يجب أن تنذهب‬ ‫للموت؟"‪ ,‬و يعرب اخرون إتنهم ل يمكنهم العوده إل اذا كان بشار رميت‪.‬‬ ‫يقول المسؤولون فى تركيا إتنهم رمستعدون لمواصلة تقديم المساعدات التنساتنية رما دام هناك حاجة إلى ذلك‪ .‬اقد‬ ‫اقضت تركيا رما ل يقل عن ‪ 15‬رمليون دولر إتنشاء وصياتنة ستة رمخيمات للمدتنيين‪ ،‬ويقول المسؤولون الذين‬

‫‪289‬‬ ‫‪Wilgenburg,Wladimir van, Is Syria Cooperating Militarily with Turkey Against the PKK?,‬‬ ‫?‪http://www.jamestown.org/programs/gta/single/‬‬ ‫‪tx_ttnews[tt_news]=36863&tx_ttnews[backPid]=26&cHash=ce489b07b1 18/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪284‬‬

‫يمتنعون عن وصف التهارمات باتنها "اللجئن"‪ .‬وهم يصرون على أن السوريين هي "الضيوف" الذين سيعودون‬ ‫الى ديارهم رمرة اخرى حين تاخذ التنتفاضة في سوريا رمجراها‪.‬‬ ‫توترت العلاقات بين تركيا و الحكورمه السوريه )بشار( و تنزلت الى ادتنى رمستويتها رمنذ سنوات‪ ,‬بسبب‪ :‬دور‬ ‫تركيا فى استيعاب اللجئيين ‪,‬رمع توجيها التنتقاد الصريح لحكورمة السد‪ ,‬رمع السما ح للمعارضه السوريه فى كل‬ ‫رمن المجلس الوطنى السورى)حزب سياسى( و الجيش السورى الحر)رميليشيا رمناهضه للحكورمه( للتنظيم فى‬ ‫تركيا‪.‬‬ ‫و لقد إعتل هذا التوترعندرما اقارمت رمجموعات رمؤيدة للحكورمة بالهجوم على السفارة والقنصليات التركية في‬ ‫سوريا‪ .‬في ذلك اليوم تنفسه ‪،‬علقت جارمعة الدول العربية عضوية سورية ‪ ،‬رمشيره الى إستمرار العنف ضد‬ ‫المدتنيين وفشل الحكورمة في رمتابعة وتنفيذ خطة السلم التي وافقت على يوم ‪ 2‬تنوفمبر‪.‬‬ ‫و بذلك كان الجو هادئا للجئيين فى تركيا بعيدا عن الصراعات العنف فى سوريا ‪,‬ل أحد يعرف على وجه اليقين‬ ‫‪290‬‬ ‫رمتى يعود اللجئيين السوريين إلى ديارهم ‪ ،‬ولكن احتماليه العوده هو طمو ح على المدى الطويل‪.‬‬

‫العلقات السوريه‪-‬المريكيه‪:‬‬ ‫خلفية عن تاريخ العلقات السورية – المريكية ‪:‬‬‫‪ :1944-1835‬بدأت العلاقات رسميا فى ‪ ,1835‬بإرسال أمريكا لقنصلها فى حلب و سوريا فى ذلك الواقت‬ ‫كانت تابعة للمبراطورية العثمانية ‪ .‬بعد الستقلل السورى فى ‪ 1941‬أسست الوليات المتحدة اقنصلية فى‬ ‫دمشق و فى عام ‪ 1944‬إعترفت الوليات المتحدة بسوريا كدولة مستقلة و عينت )جورج ودسورث( سفير لها‬ ‫‪ :1991-1974‬عادت العلاقات بين البلدين فى يونيو ‪ 1974‬بعد انجاز اتفاق )فك الرتباط( بين سوريا و‬ ‫إسرائيل ‪ .‬كانت سوريا على اقائمة الدول الراعية للرهاب من اقبل الوليات المتحدة منذ بداية القائمة عام‬ ‫‪ 1979‬و و ذلك لرعايتها و دعمها المستمر لجماعات و منظمات ارهابية و كما تعرضت للعديد من‬ ‫العقوبات ‪.‬فى عام ‪ ,1986‬سحبت الوليات المتحدة سفيرها من دمشق و واقعت على سوريا عقوبات إدارية‬ ‫جديدة ردا على محاولة سوريا تفجير طائرة اسرائيليية و عاد السفير المريكى مرة أخرى لسوريا عام ‪1987‬‬ ‫كرد فعل لفعال سوريا اليجابية ضد الرهاب كطردها منظمة )ابو نضال( من سوريا و المساعدة فى الفراج‬ ‫عن رهين أمريكى‪ .‬فى عامى ‪ 1991-1990‬تعاونت سوريا مع الوليات المتحدة فى حرب الخليج و تعاونتا‬ ‫أيضا فى إبرام إتفااقية الطائف فى نهاية الحرب الهلية بلبنان‪ .‬فى عام ‪ , 1991‬وافق الرئيس حافظ السد على‬ ‫حضور الرئيس المريكى ‪ G.W.Bush‬مؤتمر للسلم فى الشرق الوسط و حضور المفاوضات مع إسرائيل ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ :2008-2003‬توترت العلاقات مرة أخرى و ذلك بالغزو المريكى للعراق فى ‪ 2003‬و الذى إستتبعه أيضا‬ ‫فرض عقوبات ااقتصادية على سوريا فى ‪ 2004‬و إزدادت العلاقات سوءا فى ‪ 2005‬بإغتيال رئيس وزراء‬ ‫لبنان الحريرى و يرجع توتر و تدهور العلاقت لرفض سوريا طرد عناصر كانت تابعة لصدام حسين من‬ ‫سوريا و كذلك لتدخلها الدائم فى الشئون اللبنانية و ايضا لدعمها و تأييدها للقادة الفلسطينيين فى سوريا ‪.‬‬ ‫فى أكتوبر ‪ ,2008‬كانت هناك عملية عسكرية على الحدود العرااقية – السورية و واقعت خسائر سورية عديدة‬ ‫‪291‬‬ ‫و فأمرت الحكومة السورية بغلق المركز الثقافى المريكى و مركز اللغات المريكى‪.‬‬ ‫‪290‬‬ ‫‪NewYork “http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/15/world/middleeast/refugees-from-syria-settle-in-for-long-wait‬‬‫‪in-turkey.html?_r=1 “ 13/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪291‬‬

‫‪United States department of State, “http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm” 16/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪285‬‬

‫الرهاب ‪:‬‬‫تنظر الوليات المتحدة لسوريا على أنها دولة ديكتاتورية و هى متهمة بارتكاب جرائم ضد النسانية و تاريخيا‬ ‫كانت تدعم جماعات إرهابية و حتى الن‪.‬‬ ‫لم تدخل سوريا فى عمليات ارهابية مباشرة منذ عام ‪ ,1986‬لذا يصنفها بعض الخبراء بانها تدعم الرهاب‬ ‫دعما سلبيا ‪.‬‬ ‫وفقا للتقرير القطرى لوزارة الخارجية المريكية و أن التحقيقات التى أبرمتها المم المتحدة فى إغتيال الحريرى‬ ‫تتضمن بعض المسئولين السوريين و وفقا ايضا لوزارة الخارجية ‪ ,‬إن سوريا تدعم حزب ا سياسيا و‬ ‫دبلوماسيا و تسهل فى مرور المساعدات اليرانية لحزب ا من خلل سوريا كما تدعم الفلسطينين المتشددين‬ ‫السلمين بالسلحة و تقدم لهم الدعم اللوجستى‪.‬‬ ‫منذ عام ‪ 1980 – 1998‬و هى تدعم حزب العمال الكردستانى ‪ PKK‬الذى يسعى لدولة كردية مستقلة و يستغل‬ ‫سوريا ككقاعدة لعملياته ضد تركيا‪.‬‬ ‫فيما يلى سنتناول بعض النتهاكات السورية ‪:‬‬ ‫‪-1‬‬

‫‪-2‬‬

‫المقاتلين الاجانب فى العراق‪ :‬هم جماعة يعتمدون و يتحركون وفقا لليديولوجية و يتسللون عبر‬ ‫سوريا فى أعداد صغيرة و كثيرا ما يقوموا بعمليات إنتحارية و إثارة بعض أعمال العنف‬ ‫الصارخة فى العراق ‪ .‬مقرهم من دول حليفة للوليات المتحدة مثل السعودية و ليبيا و بعض دول‬ ‫شمال افريقيا كالجزائر و المغرب و تونس‪ .‬تشير التقارير أن معظم أعمال العنف فى العراق‬ ‫تكون بواستطهم و هم أيضا يتوافقوا مع القاعدة فى العراق و تعتبر الحدود السورية فى غرب‬ ‫‪292‬‬ ‫العراق تقطة دخولهم و اقد وصلت تلك الحركة اقمتها ما بين ‪. 2007-2005‬‬ ‫محاولت تفاجير السفارة المريكية فى دمشق ‪ :2006‬كانت هناك محاولت لتفجير السفارة فى‬ ‫دمشق و لكن اقامت القوات السورية بإحباطها و اقالت إنه عمل ارهابى فقط و لم تقدم نتائج‬ ‫التخقيقات و إتهمت السياسة الخارجية الوليات المتحدة إنه مسئولة عن الحادث‪.‬‬

‫العقوبات القتصادية‪:‬‬‫يعانى الاقتصاد السورى و الميزانية العامة نظرا لنقص تصدير الغاز و ذلك بسبب العقوبات المريكية‬ ‫و تواقع صندوق النقد الدولى أن الاقتصاد السوري سيقل بنيبة ‪ %2‬هذا العام و يمكن تقسيم العقوبات‬ ‫المريكية للتالى‪:‬‬ ‫عقوبات ناتجة من تمرير اقانون محاسبة سوريا و السيادة اللبنانية عام ‪ 2003‬الذى يمنع‬ ‫‪-1‬‬ ‫الصادرات المريكية لسوريا واقع بوش فى ‪ 12‬ديسمبر ‪ 2003‬على القانون الصادر من مجلس‬ ‫النواب براقم ‪ 1828‬و يبرم القانون فى حالة عدم تواقف سوريا عن دعم الجماعات الرهابية‬ ‫الدولية و إنهاء احتللها للبنان و التواقف عن تطوير أسلحة الدمار الشامل و الكف عن دعم و‬ ‫تسهيل العمليات الرهابية فى العراق و دخل حيز التنفيذ فى ‪ 11‬مايو ‪ 2004‬و حيث تم حظر‬ ‫‪293‬‬ ‫الذخائر و المواد ذات الستخدام المزدوج‪.‬‬ ‫عقوبات تأخذ شكل القرار التنفيذى من الرئيس و فهى تمنع المواطنين السوريين و المؤسسات‬ ‫‪-2‬‬ ‫السورية الوصول للنظام المالى المريكى و ذلك لمساهماتهم فى إنتشار أسلحة الدمار الشامل‬ ‫‪292‬‬ ‫‪Committee on Foreign relations “http://www.cfr.org/syria/state-sponsor-syria/p9368” 19/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪293‬‬ ‫”‪Alfred B. Prados, Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues “http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/IB92075.pdf‬‬ ‫‪01/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪286‬‬

‫‪-3‬‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫بالتعاون مع القاعدة و طالبان و مثيرى العنف فى العراق ‪ .‬ومن أمثلة ذلك تجميد الصول‬ ‫المريكية المملوكة "رامى مخلوف" ابن عم الرئيس بشار ‪ ,‬و يعد رامى مخلوف رجل أعمال‬ ‫سورى اقوى و احد المساهمين فى "سوريا تل " ‪.‬‬ ‫عقوبات ناتجة من القانون الوطنى المريكى ‪ Patriot Act‬و هى تخص البنك التجارى السورى‬ ‫فىعام ‪ , 2006‬امر الرئيس بوش بقطع الحسابات القائمة مع البنك التجارى السورى بسبب‬ ‫المخاوف من غسل الموال‪.‬‬

‫العلقات الحالية ‪:‬‬ ‫منذ عام ‪ , 2009‬و تحاول الوليات المتحدة اصل ح العلاقات مع سوريا و إيجاد مساحات للمصالح‬ ‫المشتركة و الاقلل من التوترات الاقليمية و دعم السلم فى الشرق الوسط ‪ .‬تدور تلك المجهودات‬ ‫حول لقاعات من مسئولين فى الكونجرس و السلطة التنفيذية )الرئيس( مع الرئيس السورى و عودة‬ ‫السفير المريكى فى دمشق "روبرت فورد"‪.‬‬ ‫فمن القضايا التى يمكن أن ل تتفق عليها البلدان هى تحالف سوريا مع ايران و دعمها لحماس و حزب‬ ‫ا و كما ترغب واشنطن فى الحصول على مساعدة سوريا للتأثير على إيران فى برنامجها النووى و‬ ‫إستقرار العراق مقابل رفع العقوبات و الضغط على إسرائيل لعادة الجولن لسوريا‪.‬‬ ‫فى السابيع الولى من الثورة السورية ‪ ,‬كان مواقف الوليات المتحدة يؤمن أن بشار السد سيستجيب‬ ‫بفاعلية لمطالب شعبه و لكن مع سوء الحوال فى سوريا و زيادة إنتهاك الحقوق و الحريات ‪ ,‬تبدل و‬ ‫تغير مواقف الوليات المتحدة و ليطالب الرئيس السد بالتنحى عن السلطة كما شجع ايضا و ساند بقوة‬ ‫توصية من مجلس المن تدين الحملة التى شنها بشار السد ضد السوريين و تزيد من العقوبات‬ ‫الاقتصادية ضد سوريا فى سبتمبر و أكتوبر ‪.2011‬‬ ‫من الملحظ فى السطور السابقة أن العلاقات بين البلدين كانت تتراو ح بين الصعود و الهبوط و يمكن‬ ‫استنتاج العوامل الوؤثرة فى أخذ العلاقة تلك الوتيرة و هى العلاقة مع اسرائيل و ايضا الوضع فى‬ ‫‪294‬‬ ‫المنطقة ) الشرق الوسط ( من تحالفات ة تكتلت‪.‬‬

‫مستقبل الثوره‪:‬‬ ‫السينريوهات المتوقعه للثوره السوريه‬ ‫‪- (1‬بالرغم رمن رمرور حوالى عام رمن بدء التظاهرات ضد الحكورمة فى سوريا إل ان اقيام حرب رمدتنية رمتواقعة جدا‬ ‫رمن تغيرات اخلاقية واستراتيجية‪.‬‬ ‫ ورمن المتواقع فى الكثير رمن دول الغرب وبعض الحكورمات العربية وكذلك المعارضة السورية ارمكاتنية سقوط‬‫حكورمة بشار السداو رما اطلق عليه س اتنهار رمسيطر عليه س‬ ‫ طبقا لوجهة النظر تلك ‪ ،‬ازدياد الضغط رمن كل النواحى فى تنفس الواقت ورما يؤدى الى اتنهيار الحكورمة ورمؤيديها‬‫داخل وخارج البلد‬ ‫ولكن يجب الخذ فى العتبار ‪ 3‬رمشاكل يمكنها ان تعطل ذلك التنهيار‬

‫‪294‬‬ ‫‪BBC, "http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8519328.stm” 20/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪287‬‬

‫أول‪ :‬رمازالت السد تتمتع بالسيطرة على الجيش والنخبة‪ .‬وترى روسيا أن سوريا على خطأ استراتيجية ل غنى‬‫عنها وإتنضمت إليها الصين بالتصويت فى الرمم المتحدة ضد حكورمة السد‪.‬‬ ‫رمن تناحية اخرى تدعيو إيران لمنطقة السد لما فى ذلك رمن اقنا رمهمة رمهمة فى التدعيم العمراتنى > طهران <‬ ‫لجماعة حزب ا ضمن رمقاوتها ضد إسرائيل‬ ‫ثانيا ‪ :‬إن العنف المصاحب للتنهيار تتجاوز الحدود الخلاقية والستراتيجية بالنسة للغرب‪.‬تناهيك عند الشعب‬‫السورى والصراعات الطائفية التى تفرق بين العلويين وغيرهم رمن الاقليات ‪،‬رمما يضاعف التوترات فى لبنان‪.‬‬ ‫ثالثا ‪ :‬إلى جاتنب ذلك سوف تضيف تنتائج حركات الجئين عنصر اخر لعدم الستقرار للزرمة التنساتنية‪.‬‬‫لذلك الن هناك رمثلث الخطر بين إيران ‪ ،‬حزب ا ‪ ،‬وحكورمة السد ‪ ،‬ورمن تناحية اخرى تنلوم التصويت الصينى‬ ‫‪295‬‬ ‫والروسى فى رمجلس الرمن وعنف السد فى رما سحبه الى المنطقة رمن خطر‪.‬‬

‫‪ ( 2‬و رمع شعور إدارة أوبارما بالستياء بسبب تصاعد العنف في سوريا ورمع رمنع وصول إجراءات اكثر صرارمة‬ ‫ضد الحكورمة السورية رمن اقبل روسيا والصين فى رمجلس الرمن بتعطيل التصويت على "رمضاعفة الجهود" لدفع‬ ‫الرئيس السوري بشار السد رمن السلطة‪.‬‬ ‫الرمر الذى جعل الخبراء فى سوريا بعيدا عن رمجلس الرمن تواقع اقيام حرب اهليه اقريبه‪ ,‬لذلك سعت إدارة أوبارما‬ ‫لتجاوز الفيتو رمن اقبل روسيا والصين اقبل يوم رمن اقرار رمجلس الرمن دعم خطة الجارمعة العربية للتوصل إلى‬ ‫تسوية سياسية في سوريا‪ ,‬و دعت هيلرى كلينتون إلى حق النقض على رما يحدث فى رمجلس الرمن و التى‬ ‫وضعت اللوم على روسيا و الصين بشكل رمباشر فى تصريح لها فى بلغاريا اقائلة "هذه الدول التي ترفض دعم‬ ‫خطة الجارمعة العربية تتحمل المسؤولية الكارملة عن حماية النظام الوحشي في درمشق" واضافت " أتنه رمن المؤسف‬ ‫بعد كل هذا العمل إلى أن رمجلس الرمن لديهم تصويت ‪(3)." 2-13‬‬ ‫كما ذكر الخبير السورى أتندرو جيه تابلر يقول أن "اذا لم تنحصل على اقرار رمتفق عليه‪ ،‬سيكون الوضع إلى حد‬ ‫كبير رمثل رما كان خلل الحرب الباردة‪ ".‬رمن دون اقرار رمن الرمم المتحدة‪ ،‬حذر تابلر‪ ،‬اقد اقوى ااقليمية وعالمية تبدأ‬ ‫حربا بالوكالة رمن اقبل الرهان على الفصائل المختلفة داخل سوريا‪ ،‬وبالتالي تفااقم الوضع‪ .‬لكن حتى لو كان رمجلس‬ ‫‪296‬‬ ‫الرمن ل يصدر اقرارا‪ ،‬تابلر يقول ليس هناك رما يضمن أن تنظام السد سيلتزم به‪.‬‬ ‫ولكن حتى رمع السيدة كلينتون ورمسؤولين اخرين بالدارة وعدت إلى زيادة جهودها لمنع الحكورمة السورية رمن‬ ‫الحصول على أسلحة إضافية وتضييق الخناق على المتظاهرين‪ ،‬وإاقتر ح بعض الخبراء فى سوريا إن الوليات‬ ‫المتحدة اقد تضطر إلى أبعد رمن ذلك‪ .‬فعلى أاقل تقدير إن تعطى رموافقة ضمنية على تسليح المعارضة السورية‪.‬‬ ‫ورمن شأن هذه الخطوة أن تؤدي إلى حرب أهلية‪ .‬ولكن يمكن أيضا تعيين هذا المسر ح لحرب بالوكالة المحتملة في‬ ‫رمنطقة رمضطربة‪ ،‬رمثل الوليات المتحدة وحلفاؤها في أوروبا والخليج رمرة أخرى في المعارضة السورية ضد‬ ‫‪295‬‬ ‫‪New York times “http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/07/opinion/in-syria-we-need-to-bargain-with‬‬‫‪the-devil.html?ref=syria” 09/02/2012.‬‬ ‫‪296‬‬ ‫”‪Committee on foreign relations, “http://www.cfr.org/syria/security-council-showdown-syria/p27245‬‬ ‫‪24/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪288‬‬

‫السد وحكورمتة المدعورمه رمن إيران وروسيا‪.‬‬ ‫و على عكس ما حدث فى ليبيا يرفض المسؤولون توقع ندخول عسكريا اخر‪ ,‬حيث‪ :‬كان المسؤولون في إدارة‬ ‫أوبارما رمصرة حتى الن على أن الوليات المتحدة لن تتدخل عسكريا في سوريا‪" .‬اتنظروا‪ ،‬ل تنتواقع آخر ليبيا"‪.‬‬ ‫و لقد ذكر "روبرت رمالى" رمدير برتنارمج الشرق الوسط و شمال افريقيا فى رمجموعة الزرمات الدوليه‪ :‬أن اذا‬ ‫‪297‬‬ ‫استمر السد بهذا الشكل سوف تتوسع دائرة المعارضه لتشمل المملكة العربية السعودية واقطر وتركيا ‪.‬‬

‫‪ (3‬رمن المتواقع ايضا عن تنطاق السيطرة القتال المتصاعد في سوريا بين الحكورمة واقوات المتمردين والعنف‬ ‫المتصاعد تنتجه لحصول الناس على المزيد رمن السلحه و في اليام المقبلة‪ ،‬إذا لم تنحصل على اقرار رمتفق عليه‪،‬‬ ‫رثم سوف يكون الوضع يشبه إلى حد كبير كاتنت عليه خلل الحرب الباردة‪.‬‬ ‫أتنها تأتي في المقام الول رمن رمجموعتين‪ :‬وبعض هذه المنشقين عن الجيش الذين اتنضموا للجيش الحرة السورية‪،‬‬ ‫والتي كاتنت رموجودة رمنذ الصيف الماضي‪ .‬رثم لديك غيرهم رممن يطلقون على أتنفسهم الجيش السوري حرة ولكن‬ ‫رمن السكان المحليين الذين هم المسلحة وهي في جوهرها وحدات الدفاع المدتني الذين يساعدون على حماية‬ ‫المتظاهرين رمن تنيران القناصة وجهود عسكرية أخرى رمن القوات الموالية للنظام‪ .‬واتنه رمن أن المجموعة الخيرة‬ ‫المدتني الذي تنما في تنطاق أتنشطتها‪ ،‬ل سيما في المناطق الحدودية بالقرب رمن لبنان و الحدود السورية اللبناتنية‪.‬‬ ‫هذه المناطق هي خارج سيطرة الحكورمة‪ .‬وذلك لن في هذا المجال كنت اقادرا على تهريب أسلحة عبر الحدود‬ ‫رمن لبنان‪ ،‬وأيضا لتنه كان الجيش السوري الحرة اقادرة على رمداهمة رمستودعات السلحة لتأرمين السلحة لتدرمير‬ ‫الدبابات والمدرعات الثقيلة الخرى‪ .‬لقد كان النظام غير اقادر على تأكيد سيطرتها‪ .‬الوضع يتدهور بسرعة‪ .‬في‬ ‫كثير رمن أجزاء البلد‪ ،‬وليس هناك عمليا تمرد كارمل المسلحة النظام الذي كان عليها أن ترسل في المؤسسة‬ ‫العسكرية في القوة الكارملة للتعارمل رمعها‪ .‬وهذا ل يعني أن النظام غير اقادر على استعادة بعض رمن تلك المناطق‪،‬‬ ‫لكنها لم استعادت كل رمنهم‪ .‬الن والعصيان هي في ضواحي درمشق وحلب‪ ،‬وهذا ليس خبرا سارا بالنسبة للنظام‪.‬‬ ‫وأعلن وزير الخارجية الروسي"سيرغي لفروف" أن رموسكو لن تدعم أي اقرار لمجلس الرمن الدولي يهدف إلى‬ ‫تغيير القيادة في سوريا‪ .‬في هذه الرثناء‪ ،‬وزيرة الخارجية الرميركية "هيلري كلينتون" تحضر رمحادرثات رمجلس‬ ‫الرمن لحث بعض الجراءات على سورية‪ ،‬جنبا إلى جنب رمع وزراء الخارجية الفرتنسي والبريطاتني‪ .‬يبدو أن‬ ‫رمواجهة رمن الطراز القديم الحرب الباردة‪ ,‬اذا لم تكن بدأت بالفعل‪.‬‬ ‫فإتنه في الوااقع إذا لم تنحصل على اقرار رمتفق عليه‪ ،‬رثم سوف يكون الوضع يشبه إلى حد كبير كاتنت عليه خلل‬ ‫الحرب الباردة‪ .‬عندرما يكون لديك للرمم المتحدة في السجن‪ ،‬فإتنه رمن السهل جدا ان تنصل الى الكفا ح الوكيل حيث‬ ‫لديك رمختلف القوى في المنطقة أو حتى على الصعيد العالمي يراهن على بعض الفصائل داخل البلد‪ .‬ويمكن أن‬ ‫يكون رمن حيث أتننا تنسير‪ .‬ولكن رمن الصعب تجنب ذلك حتى لو كان لدينا اقرار‪.‬‬ ‫رمشروع القرار الذي يجري تعميمه الذي تمت صياغته رمن اقبل المغرب ينص أساسا على خطة الجارمعة العربية‬ ‫لتحقيق تحول سلمي في سوريا على رمدى عدة أشهر في خلله الرئيس السوري بشار السد سيتنحى عن رمنصبه‪.‬‬ ‫‪297‬‬ ‫‪NewYork times “http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/06/world/middleeast/obama-administration‬‬‫‪continues-push-for-change-in-syria.html?_r=1&ref=syria” 16/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪289‬‬

‫ولكن ليس هناك ضمان بأن تنظام السد‪ ،‬حتى لو صدرت رمن اقبل المجلس‪ ،‬ستذهب رمعه‪ .‬اتنها على الرجح لم يكن‬ ‫كذلك‪ ،‬وكنا ل يزال في تنفس الوضع‪.‬‬ ‫الروس رمشيرا إلى ابقاء ليبيا على أتنه خطأ كبير رمن جاتنبهم لتنهم لم يستخدرموا حقهم في النقض لمنع رمجلس الرمن‬ ‫رمن إصدار اقرار الذي أدى إلى اقوات حلف شمال الطلسي رمساعدة المتمردين على الطاحة رمعمر القذافي‪.‬‬ ‫ارمتنعت عن التصويت على الروس والصينيين‪.‬لن الروس اقد اقالوا أتنهم لن يسمحوا في سوريا‪ ،‬لتنهم يعتقدون أن‬ ‫الوليات المتحدة اقاد شاحنة رمن خلل الثغرات في القرار‪ .‬هناك الكثير رمن السباب التي تجعل روسيا اقد يكون‬ ‫العكس في الواقت الحالي‪ .‬لديهم اتنتخابات الرئاسية والروس لديهم علاقات ورثيقة على رمدى سنوات رمع سوريا‪.‬‬ ‫ورمن الممكن ان تنرى رما اذا كاتنت الوليات المتحدة وروسيا اقادرة على التوصل إلى تنوع رمن التفاق على سوريا‬ ‫في اليام المقبلة‪ .‬إتنها ل تبدو واعدة جدا في الواقت الراهن‪.‬‬ ‫يبدو أتنه إذا كاتنت الوليات المتحدة وروسيا ل يمكن التوصل الى اتفاق بشأن هذه المسألة‪ ،‬وكلها سياسة "إعادة‬ ‫ضبط" رمن إدارة أوبارما سوف يأتي تحت السؤال‪.‬‬ ‫لما له رمن آرثار واسعة النطاق‪ .‬اقد تتمكن رمن رمحاولة لتحديد بعض الرمور التي يرغب الروس في المتاجرة‬ ‫لتصويتهم‪ .‬اقد الروس ايضا ان تننظر في الحالة السورية‪ ،‬ويدركون أتنهم يراهنون على الحصان الخاسر‪ ،‬الذي‬ ‫‪298‬‬ ‫التراك والعرب اقد وصلنا إلى تحقيق‪.‬‬ ‫الحرب البارده الدائره الن فى سوريا او على حسب اقول بعض الخبراء ان اذا ارمتلكت ايران سعة السلحه‬ ‫النوويه رمن المتواقع ان تسعى الدول العربيه ايضا لتطوير السلحه النوويه‪ ,‬خاصة رمع وجود اسرائيل فالمنطقه ‪ ,‬و‬ ‫‪299‬‬ ‫ذلك بعيدا عن رغبة إسرائيل فى الحصول السلحه النوويه بسبب إيران‪.‬‬ ‫و هناك رمن إعتبروا أن رمجلس الرمن يعتبر كحائط صد سوريا و يشجع بذلك إسرائيل على رمهاجمة إيران‪ ,‬رمع‬ ‫إستمرار إسرائيل للمجادله حول حياز إيران للسلحه النوويه‪ ,‬و رما يفعله رمجلس الرمن يزيد رمن فرص الهجوم‬ ‫السرائيلى‪.‬‬ ‫ترسل تلك الفوضى الدبلورماسيه رساله لقيام رمشاكل إاقليميه‪ ,‬رمن أرمثلتها الزرمه اليراتنيه النوويه كما اقال الخبراء‬ ‫الدبلورماسيين‪.‬‬ ‫واتخاذ روسيا جاتنب الصدااقه في المنطقة‪ ،‬و رمع حكورمة السد‪ ،‬يمكن لسرائيل أن يتوصل إلى تنتيجة رمفادها أن‬ ‫رمن المحتمل أن يتكرر السيناريو ذاته في حالة القوى العالمية )بما في ذلك روسيا( وكان للمحاولة رمرة أخرى‬ ‫التفاوض رمع إيران‪.‬‬ ‫"عجز رمجلس الرمن على التصرف رمع سورية يزيد رمن إحتمال ضربة إسرائيلية على إيران"‪ ،‬كما يقول رمايكل‬ ‫دويل‪ ،‬وهو رمسؤول سابق في الرمم المتحدة الن رمتخصصة في شؤون الخارجية والرمنية في جارمعة كولورمبيا في‬ ‫تنيويورك‪" .‬العنف يولد العنف‪ ،‬وإذا كاتنت المصارف سوريا الى حرب أهلية‪ ،‬والتي يبدو كل رمن المرجح الن أن‬ ‫إسرائيل اقد تشهد عدم استقرار رمتزايد كغطاء أو كحافز إضافي للتصرف"‪.‬‬ ‫واضاف "هذا صحيح تمارما"‪ ،‬ويضيف‪" ،‬إذا كان رمجلس الرمن هو غير وظيفي‪".‬‬ ‫‪298‬‬ ‫“ ‪Committee on foreign relations “http://www.cfr.org/syria/security-council-showdown-syria/p27245‬‬ ‫‪20/02/2012.‬‬ ‫‪299‬‬ ‫‪Independent “http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-the-new-cold‬‬‫‪war-has-already-started--in-syria-7440620.html” 14/02/2012.‬‬

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‫حسابات إسرائيل على إيران ليست سوى رمنطقة واحدة حيث أصداء النقض )الفيتو( رمن اقبل روسيا والصين لقرار‬ ‫رمجلس الرمن بشأن سوريا رمن المرجح أن يكون شعر‪ .‬ظهرت روسيا تدرك الرثر بارسال وزير الخارجية‬ ‫الروسي "سيرجي لفروف" إلى درمشق للقاء الرئيس "بشار السد"‪.‬‬ ‫واقال السيد "لفروف" لوسائل العلم الروسية ان الرئيس السد يريد أن ينهي العنف في بلده وستقدم اقريبا‬ ‫خطة للصل ح بما في ذلك وضع دستور جديد وإجراء اتنتخابات حرة‪ .‬لكنها واصلت تقارير عن هجمات التي‬ ‫تشنها القوات الحكورمية ضد السكان المدتنيين‪ ،‬ول سيما في رمدينة حمص المحاصرة‪ ،‬لتحميل حتى لفروف اختتم‬ ‫‪300‬‬ ‫زيارته‪.‬‬ ‫بناءا على ما سبق من سينريوهات متوقعه يجب اثارة سؤال‪ :‬لماذا تدعم روسيا سوريا و ما مصلحتها هناك؟؟‬ ‫فلقد ذهب ارثنين رمن كبار المسؤولين الروس‪ ،‬وزير الخارجية الروسي سيرجي لفروف ورميخائيل فرادكوف‪،‬‬ ‫ورمدير الستخبارات الخارجية‪ ،‬إلى درمشق‪.‬‬ ‫وكاتنت رمهمتهم ليس لدفع بشار السد رمن السلطة وتنقدم له المنفى في روسيا‪ .‬بدل رمن ذلك‪ ،‬كان الحديث عن‬ ‫الحوار رمع المعارضة‪ ،‬وتقدم في إستفتاء على دستور جديد‪ ،‬وجارمعة الدول العربية استئناف لها "الستقرار"‬ ‫رمهمة‪ .‬روسيا‪ ،‬رمن جاتنبها‪ ،‬والواقوف جنبا إلى جنب رمع شركة الصين في رمجلس الرمن الدولي‪ ،‬ورمنع إداتنة رسمية‬ ‫للنظام السوري‪ ،‬أي تدخل خارجي عسكري‪ ،‬أو أي عقوبات ضدها‪.‬‬ ‫المقبلة في واقت رمتأخر جدا في اللعبة‪ ،‬ل بد رمن رمحاولة للمصالحة أن تفشل‪ .‬الحرب الهلية في سوريا اقد بدأت في‬ ‫الوااقع‪ ،‬وأتنها لن تنتهي اقريبا‪ .‬أعطت أرمريكا وأوروبا وتركيا ودول الخليج بالفعل السد اعترض‪.‬‬ ‫ولكن اقد الوساطة الروسية وإذا كاتنت لديه فرصة "لفروف وفرادكوف" اقد حان لدرمشق الصيف الماضي‪ ،‬أو‬ ‫حتى في الخريف الماضي‪ ،‬واستمروا في المجيء في تمرين رمن الدبلورماسية المكوكية‪ .‬تنظرا لدور روسيا‬ ‫باعتبارها الحليف السوري التقليدي وتمده بالسل ح‪ ،‬وربما كان أكثر تنجاحا رموسكو كصاتنع سلم رمن أتنقرة‪.‬‬ ‫ويفسر في ركثير من الحيان موقف روسيا في سوريا رمن حيث أهمية سوريا لموسكو‪ .‬صحيح أتنه تم وضع‬ ‫سوريا في اقلب الستراتيجية للشرق الوسط‪ ،‬والذي يربط بين رموسكو لعائلة السد تنعود أربعة عقود‪.‬‬ ‫ل شيء رمن هذا‪ ،‬ورمع ذلك‪ ،‬ينبغي أن يكون رمبالغا فيه‪ .‬سوريا ليست حليفا‪ ،‬وطرطوس هو رمرفق الرمداد البحرية‬ ‫بدل رمن اقاعدة بحرية‪ ،‬والقيمة الجمالية للتجارة السلحة في روسيا رمع سوريا خلل العقد الماضي بلغت تنحو‬ ‫‪ 1.5‬رمليار دولر‪ ،‬الرمر الذي يجعل درمشق في رموسكو سابع أكبر عميل‪.‬‬ ‫لفهم رمواقف رموسكو رمن سوريا‪ ،‬ورمصادر خلفها رمع الغرب وعدد رمن الدول العربية‪ ،‬على المرء أن يأخذ تنظرة‬ ‫أوسع‪.‬‬ ‫في العام الماضي‪ ،‬إرمتنعت روسيا في رمجلس الرمن على ليبيا رمنطقة تصويت حظر الطيران‪ ،‬وبالتالي السما ح‬ ‫لتمرير القرار‪ .‬اقريبا رما كان يوصف بأتنه حماية للمدتنيين البرياء رمن رمجزرة في بنغازي تحولت إلى حرب حلف‬ ‫الناتو في الخارج ضد الحكورمة الليبية‪ ،‬والتي أدت في تنهاية المطاف في الطاحة بنظام القذافي واقتل الديكتاتور‬ ‫جنبا إلى جنب رمع العديد رمن أتنصاره وعدد الرجح رمن المدتنيين‪ .‬التي ذهبت الجراءات العسكرية للناتو وراء‬ ‫طريقة لشروط اقرار الرمم المتحدة ل يبدو أن يزعج الحكورمات الغربية‪.‬‬ ‫‪300‬‬ ‫‪The Christian science moniter “http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Foreign-Policy/2012/0207/Why-UN‬‬‫‪gridlock-on-Syria-could-encourage-Israel-to-attack-Iran” 13/02/2012.‬‬

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‫الحكورمة الروسية هو المحافظ علنا‪ ،‬بل يمقت الثورات‪ .‬هذا‪ ،‬رمع ذلك‪ ،‬هو أكثر رمن رمجرد رمواقف لخدرمة رمصالح‬ ‫ذاتية عقائدية‪ .‬عندرما الكررملين ‪ -‬أو رمكتب فرادكوف ‪ -‬يبحث في الصحوة العربية‪ ،‬ويرون التحول الديمقراطي رمما‬ ‫يؤدي رمباشرة إلى السلمة‪.‬‬ ‫إذا اقياسا الغرب التاريخي هو ‪ 1848‬في أوروبا أو ‪ ،1989‬لن لهم ‪ 1917‬في روسيا‪ .‬ويستشهدون تنتائج‬ ‫التنتخابات الخيرة في توتنس ورمصر خصوصا‪ .‬وهم يشيرون إلى أن رمرحلة رما بعد القذافي ليبيا تعيش حالة رمن‬ ‫الفوضى‪ ،‬رمع الكثير رمن أسلحة النظام السابق تجد طريقها إلى أيدي تافه‪ .‬رمن وجهة تنظرهم‪ ،‬يمكن أن التنتفاضة‬ ‫في سوريا يكون لها عوااقب أكثر سوءا رمن حيث العنف الطائفي وإرمكاتنات للتأرثير على الدول المجاورة للعراق‪،‬‬ ‫لبنان وإسرائيل خاصة‪.‬‬

‫الثورات هي سيئة بما فيه الكفاية‪ ،‬في رأي الكررملين‪ ،‬ولكن رمحاولت للتدخل في حروب الدول الخرى المدتني ل‬ ‫يمكن إل أن الرمور سوءا‪.‬‬ ‫الروس يقدرون إن الوليات المتحدة واقوى غربية أخرى ستتدخل عسكريا فقط اذا كان يمكن الحفاظ صفر خسائر‬ ‫أتنفسهم‪ ،‬كما هو الحال في ليبيا‪ .‬سوريا‪ ،‬ورمع ذلك‪ ،‬هو حالة أكثر صعوبة‪ .‬وتسليح جيش سوريا الحرة وتزويدها‬ ‫الستخبارات لن يكون كافيا لغلبة على اقوات السد‪ .‬واحتمال توسيع تنطاق الحرب رمع المشاركة العربية والتركية‬ ‫يلو ح في الفق‪.‬‬ ‫يمكن لهذه الحرب رمعنى إل إذا كاتنت أول عمل درارمي أكثر خطورة‪ .‬الروس يشتبهون بأن السبب الحقيقي للضغط‬ ‫الغرب على درمشق‪ ،‬ليس لسراقة طهران رمن حليفها الوحيد في المنطقة‪ .‬وراء هذا النشاط رمن دول الخليج‪ ،‬ل سيما‬ ‫اقطر‪ ،‬في المسألة السورية وترى رموسكو ان تصاعد تنفوذ إاقليمي في المملكة العربية السعودية‪ ،‬المنافس اللدود‬ ‫ايران في المنطقة‪ .‬تركيا "العثماتنية الجديدة" طموحات وتلعب أيضا دورا‪ .‬رما هي الكثر اقلقا رمن الروس تقريبا‪،‬‬ ‫ورمع ذلك‪ ،‬هو أن إسرائيل اقد تضرب إيران‪ ،‬سحب في الوليات المتحدة‪ ،‬وبالتالي إرثارة حرب كبيرة رمع ايران في‬ ‫واقت رما هذا العام‪.‬‬ ‫اقد صاتنعي السياسات الروسية لديها تنقطة أو ارثنين عندرما رمنااقشة سياسات الخرين‪ .‬التي يحتاجون إليها‪ ،‬ولكن‪،‬‬ ‫لنعود وتننظر في بلدهم‪.‬‬ ‫تسليم السلحة إلى بلد يمر الحرب الهلية المدرمرة‪ ،‬على حد سواء سياسيا ورمعنويا‪ .‬رمواجهة كل رمن أرميركا‬ ‫وأوروبا‪ ،‬حتى لو السياسات الغربية رمضللة‪ ،‬ورمن الواضح أن على طرفي تنقيض رمع رمصالح أوسع تنطااقا في‬ ‫روسيا‪ .‬تقول اقطر أن اسكت ليس فقط غير دبلورماسية‪ ،‬ولكن غير حكيم‪ .‬ويتشاجرون علنا رمع تركيا والمملكة‬ ‫العربية السعودية لبد رمن تجنبها‪.‬‬ ‫إلى هذا‪ ،‬واقد يقول البعض أتنه‪ ،‬بعد أن خسر ‪ 4‬رمليارات دولر في التسلح الليبي وغيره رمن العقود والتي تواجه‬ ‫احتمال خسارة رمبلغ رمساو في التجارة السورية المحتملة‪ ،‬ورموسكو ليس لديها خيار آخر سوى اتخاذ رمواقف رمتشدد‪.‬‬ ‫‪301‬‬ ‫وسيكون رمن المؤسف إذا‪ ،‬في تنهاية المطاف‪ ،‬هذا الجدل السائد‪.‬‬

‫‪301‬‬ ‫”‪New York times “http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/10/opinion/why-russia-supports-assad.html‬‬ ‫‪27/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪292‬‬

‫و أخيرا‪ ....‬اقالت وزيرة الخارجية الرمريكية "هيلري كلينتون" يوم الثلرثاء أتنه يمكن القول أن الرئيس السوري‬ ‫بشار السد رمجرم حرب‪.‬‬ ‫واقالت في جلسة للجنة بمجلس الشيوخ ردا على سؤال أحد العضاء "اقد تقدم رمبررات تشير الى أتنه ينتسب لهذه‬ ‫الفئة‪".‬‬ ‫لكنها أضافت أن استخدام رمثل تلك الوصاف "يحد رمن الخيارات المتاحة لاقناع الزعماء بالتنحي عن السلطة‪".‬‬ ‫وسئلت كلينتون ايضا عما اذا كاتنت تعتقد أن السد في طريقه للخروج رمن السلطة في اخر الرمر فقالت "اعتقد‬ ‫ذلك‪ .‬لكن رما ل اعرفه هو كيف احدد اخر الرمر‪".‬‬ ‫وحضرت كلينتون السبوع الماضي رمؤتمر "اصداقاء سوريا" الذي عقد في توتنس بحضور دول غربية وعربية‬ ‫ودعا السد الى واقف اقتل المدتنيين في حملته على التنتفاضة المناهضة لحكمه‪.‬‬ ‫لكن العالم الخارجي ارثبت عجزه عن واقف القتل في سوريا حيث ادى اقمع الحتجاجات التي كاتنت سلمية في بادئ‬ ‫الرمر إلى تمرد رمسلح‪.‬‬ ‫وتضع لجنة بالرمم المتحدة اقائمة بأسماء رمسؤولين سوريين اقد يجري التحقيق بشأن ارتكابهم جرائم ضد التنساتنية‬ ‫‪302‬‬ ‫في إطار القمع الوحشي للحتجاجات السلمية‪.‬‬

‫الموضوع الثانى‪ :‬الهند‪.........‬شمس الشرق الصاعد‬ ‫هناك الكثير رمن القوى الجديده صاعده فى هذه الواقات فى رمختلف دول العالم سواء كان ااقتصادا ام سياسيا‪ ,‬رمما‬ ‫يجعل القوى الكبرى و تنتحدث هنا خاصه عن الوليات المتحده الرمريكيه‪ ,‬و ذلك التغير فى رميزان القوى يجعلها‬ ‫تعيد النظر فى العلاقات رمع تلك الدول و إتخاذ الجراءات المناسبه لردعها رما اذا كاتنت تشكل خطرا على توازن‬ ‫المجتمع الدولى‪ ,‬و كاتنت رمن تلك الدول الصاعده إاقتصاديا الهند ولكن كاتنت العلاقه السائره بين الدولتين علاقه‬ ‫تعاوتنيه و إتخذت شكل جيدا رمما جعل الوليات المتحده الرمريكيه تنظر إليها كوسيله كعاده التوازن لمنطقه جنوب‬ ‫ووسط اسيا او للضغط على اخرى‬

‫نبذة جغرافية عن الهند‬

‫‪302‬‬ ‫‪Reuters “http://ara.reuters.com/article/topNews/idARACAE81R0KV20120228” 24/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪293‬‬

‫رمواقع الهند يتميز بتنوعه الجعرافى ‪ ,‬حيث يحتوى على رمجموعة رمتنوعة رمن التضاريس‪ ,‬ساعد فى ذلك كوتنها‬ ‫سابع أكبر بلد رمن حيث المساحة الجغرافية واقبل التنقسام كان يطلق عليها شبه القارة الهندية ‪,‬رمما يوضح رمدى‬ ‫ضخارمتها حيث تبلغ رمساحتها ‪ 3,287,263‬كم رمربع حاليا‪ ,‬يحد الهند رمن الشمال كل رمن دولة تنبيال)‪,(Nepal‬‬ ‫ودولة بوتان)‪ ,(Bhutan‬و بأضافة جبال الهيماليا يعتبروا تنقاط حدودية رمع دولة الصين)‪ ,(China‬ويحد الهند‬ ‫رمن الغرب دولة باكستان)‪ (Pakistan‬ورمن الشرق دولة بنغلديش)‪) (Bangladesh‬باكستان الشراقية سابقا( ‪-‬‬ ‫فيما سبق كاتنتا رمتحدتين رمع الهند تحت لواء واحد – ويحد الهند رمن الغرب دولة بوررما)‪ (Burma‬وخليج البنغال)‬ ‫‪ ,(Bay of Bengal‬ورمن الجنوب جزيرة سرى لتنكا )‪(Srilanka‬والمحيط الهندى‪ ,‬بالضافة الى بحر العرب)‬ ‫‪ (Arabian Sea‬فى الجنوب الغربى‪ , 303‬جدير بالذكر ان اسم الهند رمشتق رمن "هندوستان" التى تعنى بالفارسية‬ ‫"أرض الهندوس" ‪.‬‬

‫تاريخ الستعمارالوربي فى الهند خاصة الستعمار البريطانى‪.‬‬ ‫كما جلب التنوع الجغرافى وتنوع الثروات الطبيعية الثراء لهل‬ ‫الهند‪,‬كما جلب أيضا الستعمار الوروبى التى عاتنت رمنه الهند فيما‬ ‫بعد سنين طوال‪ ,‬حيث فى عام ‪ , 3041498‬جاء الرحالة البرتغالى‬ ‫"فاسكو داغارما" ) ‪ ( Vasco da Gama‬إلى الهند بحثا عن التوابل‬ ‫ولنشر الدين المسيحى ‪ ,‬وجلب رمعه السيطرة البرتغالية على الهند‪ ,‬التى‬ ‫‪ ( Gao‬كمركزا للسيادة السياسية والتجارية‬ ‫أتخذت رمن جيب جوا )‬ ‫أستمرت لمدة تزيد عن أربع اقرون‪ ,‬رثم فى عام ‪ 1600‬ادى التنافس‬ ‫الاقتصادى بين الدول الوروبية الى تأسيس الشركات التجارية رمثل‬ ‫شركة الهند الشراقية فى أتنجلترا و الشركة المتحدة للهند الشراقية‬ ‫فى هولندا التى تأسيست عام ‪ , 1602‬وكان الهدف رمنهما كسر أحتكار‬ ‫البرتغاليين لتجارة التوابل فى الهند‪ ,‬فى ظل ذلك تمكنتا الشركتان‬ ‫على حد سواء رمن تأسيس تجارة المستودعات على طوال الساحل الهندى ‪,‬ساعدهم فى ذلك ترحيب الحكام الهنود‬ ‫بيهم كفرصة للتخلص رمن البرتغاليين رمثل رما حدث عام‪1619‬عندرما سمح "جهاتنجير" لهم بالتجارة فى أراضى‬ ‫ولية غوجارات‪ ,‬على ان أصبح وكلء الشركة التنجليزية أكثر تعارمل وألفا للعادات واللغات الهندية ورمع الهنود رمما‬ ‫أعطى لهم رميزة عن بقية الوربين و خاصة الفرتنسيون الذين حاولوا فى عام‪ 1664‬كمحاكة لمنافسيهم الوروبيين‬ ‫تأسيس رمصلحة تجارية فرتنسية فى الهند ‪,‬على أن رمحاولتهم رمنيت بالفشل‪ ,‬رثم فى عام ‪,1717‬أعطى الرمبراطور‬ ‫المغولى )فاروق سيار ‪ ( Farrukh Siyar‬البريطاتنيين رمنحة تقدر ب ‪ 38‬اقرية اقرب كلكتا ) ‪ (Calcutta‬فى‬ ‫الجنوب وفى الغرب ‪ -‬حيث كاتنت شبه القارة الهندية تقع تحت حكم المغول فى لك الواقت ‪ -‬كتقدير وأعتراف بمدى‬ ‫أهميتهم فى أستمرار التجارة الدولية وتأرثيرها على الاقتصاد البنغالى‪ ,‬حيث جلب البريطاتنيون رمعهم الذهب والفضة‬ ‫والنحاس لدفع تكاليف المعارملت ‪ ,‬رمما ساعد على سهولة سير تنظام اليرادات المغولى‪ ,‬وايضا زيادة الفوائد‬ ‫التى تعود على الحرفيين والتجار المحليين ‪,‬وكنتيجة لتلك المنحة تمكن البريطاتنيون رمن إدارة المناطق الخاصة‬ ‫بهم بقواتنيهم المدتنية والجنائية‪ ,‬واقد تمكن البريطاتنيون رمن هزيمة رمنافسيهم فى الهند وهما )هولندا و فرتنسا( ‪,‬‬ ‫ويرجع ذلك إلى زيادة أعداد البريطاتنيين فى الهند رمقارتنة بالجاليات الفرتنسية والهولندية فى الهند‪,‬وزيادة‬ ‫كثافتهم السكاتنية ‪ ,‬وأيضا أتنتشارهم فى رمناطق هارمة كبورمباى تتنشر حولها المصاتنع ‪ ,‬تلك المناطق اصبحت فيما‬ ‫بعد رمراكز للمناطق الدارية البريطاتنية أو الرئاسيات ‪ ,‬وأيضا التفوق السياسى البريطاتنى‪ ,‬و تنجد بالضافة إلى‬ ‫التفوق الفعلى والررمزى‪ -‬التى يقصد بيها القيم البريطاتنية الثقافية والممارسات الجتماعية التى أدت إلى تعاون‬ ‫الهنود رمعهم خاصة‪ ,‬وتنلحظ أيضا أن الشركة البريطاتنية استخدرمت اقوات تعرف بأسم )سبيوز ‪ , (sepoys‬وهى‬ ‫‪303‬‬ ‫”‪Central intelligence agency “https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html‬‬ ‫‪15/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪304‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/15.htm” 15/11/2011.‬‬

‫‪294‬‬

‫اقوات بريطاتنية رمدربة يعمل تحت أرمرتها الهنود كجنود ‪ ,‬وذلك لحماية تجارتها ‪ ,‬ساعدهم على ذلك سعى الحكام‬ ‫المحليين الى تثبيت سلطتهم الاقليمية ‪,‬على أن تفوق البريطاتنيون فى الهند ‪,‬لم يكن بدون رمواجهات رمن الجاليات‬ ‫الوربية الخرى فى الهند كالفرتنسيين‪ ,‬حيث اقارمت رمواجهه رمفتوحة بينهما كنتيجة لرغبة كلتا الشركتيين لوضع‬ ‫رمرشحهم الخاص كحاكم‪ ,‬ولكن بعد صراع طويل أستمر رمن عام ‪1744‬الى عام ‪ ,1763‬رثم تم تواقيع السلم فى‬ ‫باريس ‪ ,‬وحصل البريطاتنيون على اليد العليا فى السلطة و بدعم الفرتنسيين فى رمواجهه الخرين فى الصراع على‬ ‫خلفة المغول فى الهند‪ ,‬رثم كاتنت رمعركة بلسى ‪ Plassey‬عام ‪1757‬التى هزم فيها البريطاتنيون المغول بمساعدة‬ ‫الهنود الساخطيين على حكم المغول‪ ,‬كما تكرر ذلك فى رمعركة بوكسار ‪ Baksar‬عام ‪, 1765‬كنتيجة لذلك أعطى‬ ‫الرمبراطور المغولى )شاه علم( للشركة حقوق الدارة على البنغال وبيها وأوريسا ‪ ,‬تلك المنحة جعلت رمن‬ ‫الشركة اقوة ذات سيادة على البنغال‪ , 305‬رثم تغلل الوجود البريطاتنى فى الهند رمن خلل الغزو و ضم الراضى‬ ‫والبعثات التبشرية و أاقارمة رمشروعات حيوية للتصال والموصلت رمثل التلغراف والسكك الحديدية وسياسات التعليم‬ ‫والممارسة التى كاتنت تهدف بالساس إلى زيادة التنقسام الداخلى‪ ,‬وأخيرا استغلل التمرد الهندى ضد حكم المغول‬ ‫فى شبه القارة الهندية ‪ ,‬وفى ذلك الصدد تنلحظ تعدد دوافعهم رمن التجارة والرمن وحماية رممتلكاتهم رمن‬ ‫التهديدات الخارجية التوسعية والحفاظ على صناعتهم الوطنية وأخيرا الرغبة فى الستقرار الداخلى و اتنتقلت‬ ‫السلطة رمن رمجرد سلطة و حكم شركة تجارية الى سلطة بريطاتنية عام ‪ 1858‬وأعتبرت شبه جزيرة الهند رمن‬ ‫رممتلكات الرمبراطورية البريطاتنية التى ل تغيب عنها الشمس‪.‬‬

‫الحرركات الستقالية‬ ‫‪ ‬كاتنت البداية فى رثورة الجنود الهنود ‪ ,‬حيث تصاعد الستياء الهندى البريطاتنى تجاه السياسيات الاقتصادية‬ ‫والجتماعية ولكن رما أرثار تلك الحركة التمردية هما سببين أساسيين ‪ :‬إستخدام القوات البريطاتنية لخراطيش رمن‬ ‫دهون حيواتنات تلخف العقيدة السلرمية والهندوسية على السواء‪ ,‬والسبب الثاتنى رميل الجنود المسلميين فى‬ ‫الجيش البريطاتنى‪ -‬الهندى إلى حكم المغول السلرميين ‪,‬رمما أدى إلى تمرد الجنود الهنود فى عام ‪ 1857‬ولكن‬ ‫البريطاتنيون تنجحوا فى اقمعها بعد رمناوشات ورمعارك ‪‘ ,‬اقتل فيها الكثيرون رمن الجاتنبين حتى استسلم المتمردون‬ ‫الجنود فى ‪21‬رمايو ‪ 1858‬ورمنهم رمن فر الى تنبيال‪ ,‬و‘يذكر إن حركة التمرد تلك هى البداية فى سلسلة رمن‬ ‫الحركات الستقالية‪ ,‬حيث فى العقود التي تلت رثورة الجندي الهندي شهدت تلك الفترة تنمو الوعي السياسي ‪,‬‬ ‫وبروز القيادة الهندية على المستويات الوطنية والاقليمية الذين بدأوا يفكروا فى أتنفسهم بأعتبارهم "أرمة" رغم‬ ‫الختلف فى الدين واللغة والطائفة ‪ ,‬حيث بدأت تهيمن على خطابتهم الشكوى الاقتصادية التي أتنشأها‬ ‫الستعمار البريطاتني واقلة الفرص أرمام الهنود فى رمقابل البريطاتنيون فى الهند‪.306‬‬ ‫‪ ‬أدت أحداث رمثل إاقرار اقاتنون الصحافة العارمية في عام ‪ ،1878‬فضل عن تخفيض الحد الدتنى للسن لرمتحاتنات‬ ‫الخدرمة المدتنية في عام ‪ 1876‬في رموجة رمن المعارضة رمن الهنود رمن الطبقة المتوسطة فتم تشكيل عدد رمن‬ ‫الحزاب السياسية الصغيرة التي خرجت في الشوارع لتنظيم إحتجاجات ورمسيرات‪,‬ولكى يتفادى البريطاتنيون‬ ‫تصاعد الحداث كما حصل فى رثورة الجنود الهنود‪ ،‬اقرر البريطاتني لتوفير رمتنفسا للسكان المحليين حيث يمكنهم‬ ‫رمنااقشة رمشاكلهم السياسية‪ ,‬لذلك اقام القائد البريطاتنى هيوم بعد الحصول على رموافقة البررمان البريطاتنى‬ ‫بأستشارة القادة المحليين الهنود وبدأ العمل رمن أجل أتنشاء تنظيم سياسى هندى ‪ ,‬التى تشكلت فى عام‬ ‫‪1885‬وتعرف بأسم "حزب المؤتمر الهندى الوطنى" حيث تم عقد رمؤتمر فى بورمباى فى ديسمبر رمن تنفس العام‬ ‫‪ ,‬وتعتبر الجلسة الولى رمن المؤتمر التى ترأسها باتنيرجى ‪ W.C.Bonnerjee‬وأتنتخب أيضا أول رئيس‬ ‫للمنظمة‪ ,‬بادئ ذى بدء ‪ ,‬تصرف الحزب كمؤيد للحكورمة البريطاتنية ‪ ,‬وكاتنت أهدافها فى واقت رمبكر هى ‪:‬السعى‬ ‫للحصول على تعاون جميع الهنود‪ ,‬والقضاء على رمفاهيم التحيز فى العقيدة والعرق والطائفة‪ ,‬ورمحاولة لتشكيل‬ ‫وحدة وطنية‪ ,‬والعمل على حل المشاكل الجتماعية فى البلد‪ ,‬وإعطاء المزيد رمن حصة المناصب للمواطنين‬ ‫‪305‬‬ ‫‪Country studies, “http://countrystudies.us/india/16.htm” 17/11/2011‬‬

‫‪306‬‬ ‫‪History of india “http://www.indohistory.com/sepoy_mutiny.html” 27/02/2012‬‬

‫‪295‬‬

‫المحليين فى الشؤون الدارية‪ ,,,,‬ولكن رمع رمرور الواقت غير حزب المؤتمر الوطنى رمواقفه وأصبح رمن أكبر‬ ‫أحزاب المعارضة للحكورمة البريطاتنية‪.307‬‬ ‫‪ ‬كاتنت البداية عام ‪ 1917‬وخاصة بعد الخلف بين المسلمين والهندوس فى الحزب الذى تنتج عنه تأسيس حزب‬ ‫الرابطة السلرمى والهم الذى تنتج اتجه القورمية هو حادرثة تقسيم البنغال عام ‪ , 1905‬حيث دخلت بريطاتنيا‬ ‫الحرب العالمية الولى رمما جعلها تتبع سياسة "العصا والجزرة" رمع‬ ‫الهنود و بعد اتنتهاء الحرب و تقديرا لدعم الهند خللها ‪ ،‬واستجابة‬ ‫لمطالب اقورمية رمتجددة‪ .‬في ‪ ، 1917‬أدلى "إدوين رموتنتاجو"‪ -‬وزير‬ ‫الدولة لشؤون الهند – بما يعتبر بإعلن تاريخي في البرلمان إن السياسة‬ ‫البريطاتنية في الهند ستكون ذات ارتباطا رمتزايدا رمن الهنود في كل فرع‬ ‫رمن فروع الدارة والتطوير التدريجي لمؤسسات الحكارمة رثم فى واقت‬ ‫لحق عام ‪ 1919‬أدخلت رمبدأ الوضع المزدوج للدارة ‪ ،‬الذى ينتخب‬ ‫المشرعين المسؤولين الهندي ويتااقسم السلطة رمع البريطاتنيين المعيين ‪,‬‬ ‫كما حدرثت بعض التغييرات الحقيقية على رمستوى الوزارات رمثل الزراعة والحكم المحلي ‪ ،‬والصحة ‪ ،‬والتعليم‬ ‫‪ ،‬والشغال العارمة ‪ ,‬حيث تم تسليمها الى الهنود ‪ ،‬في حين أن الوزارات الكثر حساسية رمثل التمويل‪،‬‬ ‫والضرائب‪ ,‬والقاتنون والنظام كاتنت للمسؤولين البريطاتنيين‪.‬‬ ‫‪ ‬لكن اقوضت تلك الصلحات بمجوعة رمن القواتنين تسمى اقواتنين روليت او ‪ , Rowlatt‬التى تتشابه رمع الحكام‬ ‫العرفية ‪ ,‬حيث ينص على أسكات الصحافة‪ ,‬وإعتقال الناشيطين السياسيين رمن دون رمحاكمة ‪,‬و أعتقال أى رمن‬ ‫الفراد المشتبه بهم فى جريمة التحريض دون أرمر اقضائى‪ , ,‬ايضا حق التفتيش بدون إذن اقضائى ذلك عرف‬ ‫فيما بعد بالقواتنيين السوداء ‪ ,‬لذلك تنادى "المهاتما غاتندى كررمشاتند" بالعتصام السلمى اى واقف العمل على‬ ‫الصعيد الوطنى ‪ ,‬على أن تزايد الستياء الشعبى فى ‪13‬أبريل ‪1919‬فى رمدينة ارمريتسار بولية البنجاب‪ ,‬جعل‬ ‫الجيش البريطاتنى يأرمر بأطلق النار على رمسافة اقربية بشكل عشوائى فى حشد رمن العزل رمن أطفال وتنساء‬ ‫ورجال ‪ -‬كاتنوا اقد أجتمعوا فى جالتنول باغ )‪( Jallianwala Bagh‬للحتفال السلمى وتقديم احتجاجهم على‬ ‫القواتنيين السوداء وأيضا لتقديم احتجاجهم سلميا ضد الضطهاد رمن اقبل الحكورمة الهندية البريطاتنية ‪ ,‬وتعتبر‬ ‫رمذبحة جالتنول باغ واحدة رمن أكثر العمال اللإتنساتنية رمن الحكام البريطاتنيين في الهند حيث رمات فى تلك‬ ‫المذبحة ‪379‬رمن المواطنيين أغلبهم رمن النساء والطفال وأصابة ‪ 3081500‬على الاقل‪.‬‬

‫غاندى و إستقلل الهند‪:‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫فى عام ‪ 1924‬تولى المهاتما غاتندى)‬ ‫‪ (Mahatma Gandhi‬اقيادة حزب المؤتمر‬ ‫الوطنى الهندى‪ ,‬وكاتنت البداية لفلسفة اللعنف‬ ‫اقبل ذلك التى أصبحت حركة الكفا ح رمن أجل‬ ‫الستقلل‪ ,‬حيث يرى غاتندى اتنه لجل حصول‬ ‫الهند على إستقللها لبد رمن أتباع سياسة العتصام السلمى ‪ ,‬حيث ركز عمله العام على رمواجهة الستعمار‬ ‫رمن تناحية و النضال ضد الظلم الجتماعى رمن تناحية أخرى ‪,‬كما إهتم بشكل خاص بمشكلت الفلحيين‬ ‫والعمال والمنبوذين ‪ ,‬واقد اقرر أن يقوم بجولة فى الهند ضد اقواتنين روليت وخاصة بعد رمذبحة جولتنولباغ‬ ‫‪307‬‬ ‫‪History of india “http://www.indohistory.com/first_meeting_of_indian_national_congress.html” 27/02/2012‬‬

‫‪308‬‬ ‫‪Amritsar massacre “http://www.amritsar.com/Jallian%20Wala%20Bagh.shtml” 27/02/2012.‬‬

‫‪296‬‬

‫فى عام ‪ 1920‬وذلك للدعوة إلى العتصام السلمى ‪ ,‬فى تنفس العام أصبح حزب المؤتمر الهندى الوطنى‬ ‫حركة جماهيرية ‪ ,‬وإتحدت الوليات الهندية تحت راية غاتندى ‪ ,‬رمما دفع القوات البريطاتنية إلى أعتقاله عام‬ ‫‪ ,1922‬حتى ‪ ,1924‬ذلك لن المهاتما غاتندى اقد إرمتنع عن الطعام ‪21‬يورما فى السجون البريطاتنية لذلك‬ ‫أطلقت القوات البريطاتنية سراحه‪ ,‬بعدرما إتفقت رمعه على تمثيل المنبوذين فى المجالس وبذلك إرتفعت شعبيته‬ ‫في السياسة الهندية كما وصل إلى اقلوب وعقول الناس العاديين ‪ ،‬وكسب الدعم له رمن جميع الطوائف‬ ‫والفئات الشعبية جميعها وكان يؤرمن بأن التقدم الجتماعى والحرية ل ينفصلن ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ ‬فى عام ‪ ,1925309‬إعتمد حزب المؤتمر الهندى الوطنى اللغة الهندية كلغة رسمية للهند ‪ ,‬رثم فى تنفس العام تم‬ ‫العلن عن لجنة سيمون التى تقتر ح إصلحات دستورية فى الهند ‪ ,‬ولكن اقرار رمقاطعة لجنة سيمون‬ ‫ورمقاطعة البضائع البريطاتنية فى عام ‪ , 1928‬ادى إلى السما ح إلى عقد رمؤتمر لجميع الحزاب لجل صياغة‬ ‫دستور الهند ‪ ,‬واقد تم اقبوله رمن جميع الحزاب والشرائح الهندية المختلفة رماعدا الشريحة السلرمية ‪ ,‬فى عام‬ ‫‪ 1929‬بدأت المحادرثات بين غاتندى وأيرون الحاكم البريطاتنى فى الهند وفيه يطالب غاتندى بأستقللية كارملة‬ ‫للهند ‪,‬رثم فى عام ‪ 1930‬تم الدعوة إلى العصيان المدتنى ‪ ,‬رثم فى عام ‪ 1930‬تم الدعوة إلى رمسيرة غاتندى‬ ‫للعصيان المدتنى وفى تنفس العام تم إعتقال اقادة حزب المؤتمر ‪ ,‬كرد فعل لذلك أعلن الحزب ان اللجنة هيئة‬ ‫غير رمشروعة وعارض رمؤتمر المائدة المستديرة‪ ,‬وطالب بحق الهند بالستقلل‪ ,‬رثم فى عام ‪ 1931‬تحدى‬ ‫غاتندى القواتنيين البريطاتنية التى كاتنت تحظر إستخراج الملح ‪ ,‬حيث اقاد رمسيرة شعبية توجه بها إلى البحر‬ ‫لستخراج الملح رمن هناك‪ ,‬رمما اواقع السلطات البريطاتنية فى رمازق ‪ ,‬ولكنه أتنهى ذلك بعدرما توصل الطرفان‬ ‫الى رمعاهدة تعرف بأسم رمعاهدة غاتندى – أيروي‪ ,‬رثم تم أطلق سرا ح اقادة الحزب و تم دعوة الحزب إلى‬ ‫رمدولت لمنااقشة رمستقبل الهند ‪ ,‬تم أعتبار غاتندى رمخول للتفاوض تنيابة عن‬ ‫حزب المؤتمر‪.‬‬ ‫على فى عام ‪ 1932‬تم أعتقال غاتندى وإستمرار سياسة العنف رمن جاتنب‬ ‫‪‬‬ ‫القوات البريطاتنية ‪ ,‬حتى تم إتفاق بوتنا الذى يضمن رمقاعد للطبقات‬ ‫الجتماعية المنبوذة ‪ ,‬جدير بالذكر أن غاتندى اقد إرمتنع عن الطعام لمدة‬ ‫‪21‬يورما عام ‪,1933‬رثم بعدها بعام إتنسحب غاتندى رمن حزب المؤتمر ‪ ,‬وذلك‬ ‫بعد تعديل الدستور الهندى لجعل سياسة اللعنف رمن العقائد الساسية ‪,‬و تفرغ للمشكلت الاقتصادية التى‬ ‫كان يعاتنى رمنها الريف الهندى‪ ,‬وولكنه عاد الى الحياة السياسية عام ‪1941‬حيث تنادى بالعصيان رمجددا‬ ‫إحتجاجا على إعلن بريطاتنيا إن الهند دولة رمحاربة لجيوش دول المحور دون أن تنال أستقللها‪ ,‬وازاء‬ ‫الخطر الياباتنى المحدق حاولت السلطات البريطاتنية المصالحة رمع حركة الستقلل الهندية ‪,‬فأرسلت بعثة‬ ‫كريس على أرمل تهدئة الوضع و أحتواء الزرمة السياسية ‪,‬و فى عام ‪ 1943‬فخطر لغاتندى فكرة دخول الهند‬ ‫فى حرب شارملة ضد دول المحور على أرمل تنيل أستقللها بعد ذلك ‪ ,‬فخاطب‬ ‫البريطاتنيين بجملته الشهيرة "اتركوا الهند وأتنتم أسياد"‪ ،‬لكن هذا الخطاب لم‬ ‫يعجب السلطات البريطاتنية فشنت حملة إعتقالت ورمارست ألواتنا رمن القمع‬ ‫العنيف كان غاتندي تنفسه رمن ضحاياه حيث ظل رمعتقل خلف اقضبان السجن‬ ‫ولم يفرج عنه إل في عام ‪ 1944‬ورمعه تنهرو‪ ,‬رثم باتنتهاء عام ‪ 1944‬وبداية‬ ‫عام ‪ 1945‬ااقتربت الهند رمن الستقلل وتزايدت المخاوف رمن الدعوات‬ ‫التنفصالية الهادفة إلى تقسيمها إلى دولتين بين المسلمين والهندوس‪ ,‬الرمر‬ ‫الذى رفضه غاتندى بشدة وادى الى إغتياله فيما بعد على يد بعض المتعصبيين الهندوس فى ‪ 30‬يناير عام‬ ‫‪.1948‬‬ ‫‪ ‬كاتنت بداية النهاية فى يوم ‪16‬أغسطس ‪ , 1946‬حيث حدث أعمال شغب طائفية تنتجت عنها رمذابح طائفية رمروعة‬ ‫فى شمال شبه القارة‪,‬وبدأ اتنه رمن الفضل تقسيم الهند كبديل عن حرب أهلية رمحتملة‪ ,‬وفى يوم ‪ 3‬يوتنيو‬ ‫‪ ,1947‬أعلن الحاكم البريطاتنى العام على الهند " لويس رموتنتياتنن ‪ "Louis Monttaen‬عن اقرار لتقسيم‬ ‫‪309‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/20.htm” 10/12/2012.‬‬

‫‪297‬‬

‫الرمبراطورية البريطاتنية الهندية إلى دولتى الهند وباكستان‪ ,‬وسيتم عرضه على البرلمان البريطاتنى للموافقة‬ ‫عليه ‪ ,‬رثم وافق البرلمان على رمنح الستقلل للهند فى ‪14‬أغسطس ‪ 1947‬رمع صيحات "تحيا الهند ‪JAI‬‬ ‫‪ "HIND‬رمن جميع أتنحاء الهند‪.‬‬

‫ نظام الحكم فى الهند‪:‬‬‫في القرن ال ‪ ،20‬على الصعيد الوطني تم بدء الكفا ح رمن أجل الستقلل والذي أطلقه رمؤتمر الهند الوطني وغيره‬ ‫رمن المنظمات السياسية‪ .‬اقاد الزعيم الهندي المهاتما غاتندي المليين رمن الناس في حملت وطنية للقيام بالعصيان‬ ‫المدتني الغير عنيف‪ .‬وفي ‪ 15‬أغسطس ‪ ،1947‬حصلت الهند على إستقللها رمن الحكم البريطاتني‪ ،‬ولكنها في‬ ‫الواقت تنفسه تم تقسيم رمناطق الغلبية المسلمة لتكوين ولية رمنفصلة اطلق عليها باكستان‪ .‬وفي ‪ 26‬يناير ‪،1950‬‬ ‫أصبحت الهند جمهورية وأصبح الدستور الجديد حيز التنفيذ‪ .‬واجهت الهند رمنذ الستقلل تحديات رمن التعصب‬ ‫الديني‪ ،‬والطبقية‪ ،‬والرهاب و رمتمردي التنقسمات المحلية وخصوصا في ولية جارمو وكشمير وشمال الهند‪.‬‬ ‫الهند لم تقم بحل النزاع الاقليمي بينها وبين الصين‪ ،‬والذي تصاعد في عام ‪ 1962‬إلى حرب بين الصين والهند‪،‬‬ ‫وباكستان‪ ،‬الرمر الذي أدى إلي حروب ‪ 1971 ،1965 ،1947‬و ‪ .1999‬الهند هي أحد العضاء‬ ‫المؤسسين للرمم المتحدة )كالهند البريطاتنية(‪ ،‬وحركة عدم التنحياز‪ .‬في عام ‪ ،1974‬أجرت الهند تجربة‬ ‫تنووية تحت الرض‪ ،‬وخمس تجارب في عام ‪ ،1998‬وجعل ذلك رمن الهند دولة تنووية‪ .‬حدرثت إصلحات‬ ‫ااقتصادية كبيرة ابتداء رمن عام ‪ 1991‬حولت الهند إلى واحدة رمن أسرع الاقتصادات تنموا في العالم‪ ،‬زائدا رمن‬ ‫‪310‬‬ ‫تنفوذها على الصعيد العالمي‪.‬‬

‫الستقل ل‬ ‫منذ الستقلل‪ ،‬واجهت تحديات الهند من العنف الديني والرهاب وحركات التمرد النفصالية الاقليمية‪ ،‬وخاصة‬ ‫في ولية جامو وكشمير وشمال شرق الهند‪ .‬منذ ‪ ،1990s‬أثرت الهجمات الرهابية العديد من المدن الهندية‪.‬‬ ‫الهند والنزاعات الاقليمية التي لم تحل مع جمهورية الصين الشعبية‪ ،‬والتي‪ ،‬في عام ‪ ،1962‬تصاعدت في‬ ‫الحرب الصينية الهندية‪ ،‬ومع باكستان‪ ،‬مما أدى إلى حروب في ‪ 1965 ،1971 ،1947‬و ‪.1999‬‬ ‫الهند هي دولة مسلحة بأسلحة نووية‪ ،‬وبعد أن أجرت تجربتها النووية الولى في ‪ ،1974‬تلتها خمس تجارب‬ ‫أخرى في عام ‪ 1998‬من ‪ 1950s‬إلى ‪ ،1980s‬تليها الهند السياسات الشتراكية مستوحاة‪ .‬كان مكبل‬ ‫بالصفاد الاقتصاد عن طريق تنظيم واسعة النطاق‪ ،‬والحمائية والملكية العامة‪ ،‬مما يؤدي إلى تفشي الفساد‬ ‫والنمو الاقتصادي البطيء‪ .‬ابتداء من ‪ ،1991‬وإصلحات ااقتصادية كبيرة حولت الهند إلى واحدة من أسرع‬ ‫الاقتصادات نموا في العالم‪ ،‬وزيادة لها نفوذ عالمي‪.‬‬

‫الدستور‬ ‫إن دستور الهند ‪ ،‬هو من أطول وأكثر الدساتير المستقلة في العالم شمول‪ ،‬والذي دخل حيز التنفيذ في ‪ 26‬يناير‬ ‫‪ .1950‬مقدمة الدستور تعرف الهند باعتبارها دولة ذات سيادة‪،‬‬ ‫وإنها جمهورية اشتراكية وعلمانية وديمواقراطية‪ .‬تمتلك الهند مجلسين تشريعيين برلمانيين يعملوا‬ ‫بنظام وستمنستر البرلماني‪ .‬كان يوصف شكل الحكومة عادة بال "شبة التحادي" مع وجود مركز اقوي‬

‫‪310‬‬ ‫‪John Farndon. (1997). Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited.‬‬

‫‪298‬‬

‫ووليات اضعف‪ [25]،‬ولكن نما بصورة متزايدة فيدراليا منذ اواخر عام ‪ 1990‬كنتيجة للتغيرات السياسية‬ ‫والاقتصادية والجتماعية‪. 311‬‬

‫رئيس الدولة‬ ‫رئيس الهند هو رئيس الدولة ينتخب بطريقة غير مباشرة من اقبل المجمع النتخابي لمدة خمس سنوات‪.‬رئيس‬ ‫الوزراء هو رئيس الحكومة‪ ،‬ويمارس معظم الصلحيات التنفيذية‪ .‬ويعين من اقبل رئيس الجمهورية ]رئيس‬ ‫الوزراء بحكم القانون يدعم من حزب أو تخالف سياسي يضم غالبية المقاعد في مجلس النواب‪ .‬وتتألف السلطة‬ ‫التنفيذية من الرئيس‪ ،‬نائب الرئيس‪ ،‬ومجلس الوزراء )المجلس الذي يعمل كلجنة تنفيذية له(ء‪ .‬أي وزير يحمل‬ ‫منصب وزير يجب أن يكون عضوا في أي من مجلس البرلمان‪ .‬أو في النظام البرلماني الهندي‪ ،‬تخضع السلطة‬ ‫التنفيذية إلى السلطة التشريعية مع رئيس الوزراء ومجلسه حيث يكون مسئول مباشرا أمام نواب المجلس‬ ‫‪312‬‬ ‫البرلماني‪.‬‬

‫السلطة التشريعية‬ ‫السلطة التشريعية في الهند هي مجلسيين برلمانيين ويتكونوا من مجلس الشيوخ ويسمي ‪Rajya‬‬ ‫‪ Sabha‬ومجلس النواب ويسمي ‪) Lok Sabha‬مجلس الشعب(‪ .‬مجلس ‪ Rajya Sabha‬هو هيئة دائمة‬ ‫وتتكون من ‪ 245‬عضو يعلمون لمدة ست سنوات متعااقبة‪ .‬ينتخب معظمهم بطريقة غير مباشرة من الولية‬ ‫والمشرعيين الاقليمين طبقا لنسبة عدد السكان في الولية‪ .‬يتم مباشرة انتخاب ‪ 543‬عضوا من ‪ 545‬عضوا‬ ‫بمجلس ‪ Lok Sabha‬عن طريق التصويت الشعبي لكي يمثلوا الدوائر النتخابية المستقلة لمدة خمس‬ ‫سنوات‪ .‬ويتم انتخاب العضوان الخران من المجتمع النجلو هندي من اقبل الرئيس‪ ،‬لو رأي الرئيس ان المجتمع‬ ‫‪313‬‬ ‫لم يكن ممثل علي نحو كاف‪.‬‬

‫السلطة القضائية‬ ‫الهند لديها ثلث مستويات اقضائية متكاملة‪ ،‬يتكون من المحكمة الدستورية ويرأسها رئيس المحكمة الدستورية‬ ‫في الهند‪ ،‬وواحد وعشرون محكمة عليا وعدد كبير من المحاكم البتدائية‪ .‬وللمحكمة الدستورية‬ ‫اختصاص أصلي بالقضايا المتعلقة بالحقوق الساسية ‪ ،‬النزاعات بين الوليات والمركز‪ ،‬الستئناف علي المحاكم‬ ‫العليا‪ .‬وهي مستقلة اقضائيا‪ ، ،‬وتملك القوة لتصدر اقوانين وتعارض اقوانين النقابة والولية التي تتعارض مع‬ ‫‪314‬‬ ‫الدستور‪ .‬كما أن الدور المطلق كمفسر للدستور هو أهم مهام المحكمة العليا‪.‬‬

‫‪311‬‬ ‫‪Dutt, Sagarika (1998). "Identities and the Indian state: An overview". Third World Quarterly19 (3): 411–434.‬‬

‫‪312‬‬ ‫‪- Election of President. The Constitution Of India.‬‬

‫‪313‬‬ ‫‪The parliament of india “www.parliamentofindia.gov.in.” 2011-11-28.‬‬

‫‪314‬‬ ‫‪Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Union Judiciary: The Supreme Court".Constitutional Government‬‬ ‫‪in India (2nd ed.). S. Chand.‬‬

‫‪299‬‬

‫الحزاب‬ ‫الهند هي الدولة الديمقراطية الكبر من حيث عدد السكان في العالم‪ .‬وبالنسبة لمعظم فترة ما بعد الستقلل‪،‬‬ ‫والحكومة التحادية كان يقودها المؤتمر الوطني الهندي‪ .‬تم السيطرة علي السياسة من اقبل العديد من الحزاب‬ ‫الوطنية بما فيهم المؤتمر الوطني الهندي‪ ،‬حزب ‪ Bharatiya Janata‬وحزب الهند الشتراكي‬ ‫)الماركسي(واحزاب إاقليمية مختلفة‪.‬منذ عام ‪ 1950‬إلى عام ‪ ،1990‬فيما عدا فترتين اقصيرتين‪ ،‬والمؤتمر‬ ‫الوطني الهندي تمتع بأغلبية في البرلمان‪ .‬وكان المؤتمر الوطني الهندي خارج السلطة بين عامي ‪ 1977‬و‬ ‫‪ ،1980‬عندما فاز حزب جاناتا في النتخابات بسبب سخط الرأي العام بشأن حالة الطوارئ التي أعلنها رئيس‬ ‫الوزراء انذاك "انديرا غاندي‪" .‬في عام ‪ ،1989‬اقام ائتلف الجبهة الوطنية بقيادة "جاناتا دال" تحالفا مع‬ ‫ائتلف الجبهة اليسارية بالفوز في النتخابات ولكن تمكن من البقاء في السلطة لمدة عامين فقط‪ .‬وحيث أن‬ ‫انتخابات ‪ 1991‬لم تقدم لي حزب سياسي أغلبية‪ ،‬شكل المؤتمر الوطني الهندي حكومة أاقليةبرئاسة رئيس‬ ‫‪315‬‬ ‫الوزراء "ناراسيمها راو" وتمكنت من استكمال مدة الخمس سنوات الخاصة بها‪.‬‬

‫النتخابات‬ ‫السنوات من ‪ 1996‬الي ‪ 1998‬كانت فترة اضطراب في الحكومة التحادية مع عدة تحالفات ذات تأثير‬ ‫واقصيرة الجل‪ .‬حزب بهاراتيا جاناتا شكل الحكومة لفترة اقصيرة في عام ‪ ،1996‬تليها الجبهة المتحدة التي‬ ‫استبعدت كل من حزب بهاراتيا جاناتا والمؤتمر الوطني الهندي‪ ،‬وفي عام ‪ 1998‬شكل حزب بهاراتيا‬ ‫جاناتا تحالف وطني ديمواقراطي مع العديد من الحزاب الخري وأصبح أول حكومة غير تشريعية لتكمل مدة‬ ‫الخمس سنوات كاملة‪ .‬في في النتخابات الهندية عام ‪ ،2004‬فاز المؤتمر الوطني الهندي بأكبر عدد من مقاعد‬ ‫مجلس النواب وشكيل حكومة ائتلفية أطلق عليها التحالف التقدمى المتحد‪ ،‬وبدعم من مختلف الحزاب ذات‬ ‫النزعة اليسارية وأعضاء المعارضة لحزب بهاراتيا جاناتا‪ .‬جاء مجددا التحالف التقدمى المتحد إلى السلطة‬ ‫في النتخابات العامة التي جرت عام ‪ ،2009‬بينما انخفض علي نحو كبير التمثيل السياسي للحزاب ذات‬ ‫النزعة اليسارية مع الئتلف‪ .‬أصبح "مانموهان سينغ" أول رئيس وزراء منذ "جواهر لل‬ ‫‪316‬‬ ‫نهرو "في ‪ 1962‬الذي يعاد انتخابه بعد النتهاء من مدة الخمس سنوات كاملة‪.‬‬

‫ اقتصاند الهند‪:‬‬‫اتبعت الهند لجيل كارمل رمنذ ‪ 1950‬حتى ‪ ،1980‬سياسات رمتأرثرة بالشتراكية‪ .‬تــم تقييــد الاقتصــاد بنظظظام شظظامل‪،‬‬ ‫أدت سياسية الحماية والملكية العارمة إلي إنتشار الفساد وبطظظء النمظظو الاقتصظظادي‪ .‬ورمنــذ عــام ‪ 1991‬اتنتقلــت البلــد‬ ‫إلى نظام اقائم على السوق‪ .‬تغيرت السياسة في عام ‪ 1991‬بعد حدوث أزرمة حـادة فــي ميظظزان المظظدفوعات‪ ،‬وأدي‬ ‫إلي التشديد علي استخدام التجارة الجنبية والسـتثمار الجنــبي رمنـذ ذلـك الحيـن كج زء رمكمـل لاقتصـاد الهنـد‪ .‬و‬ ‫ببلــوغ متوسظظط الناتظظج القظظومي الــي رمعــدل تنمــو اقــدره ‪%5.8‬ــ طــوال العقــدين الماضــيين‪ ،‬أصــبح الاقتصــاد رمــن‬ ‫بين السرع نموا في العالم‪ .‬تملك رثاتني أكبر اقوة بشرية بعدد ‪ 516.3‬رمليون فرد‪.‬رمن حيــث التنتــاج‪ ،‬يمثــل القطــاع‬ ‫الزراعي ‪ ٪ 28‬رمن الناتج المحلي الجمالي‪ ،‬والقطاع الخدرمي والصناعي يشكل ‪ ٪ 54‬و ‪ ٪ 18‬على التــوالي‪.‬‬ ‫وتشمل المنتجات الزراعية الرئيسية الرز والقمح والبذور الزيتيــة‪ ،‬والقطــن‪ ،‬والجــوت والشـاي واقصـب الســكر‪،‬‬ ‫والبطــاطس‪ ،‬والماشــية والجظظاموس المظظائي الظظبري والغنــام والمــاعز والــدواجن والســماك‪ .‬تشــمل الصــناعات‬ ‫‪315‬‬ ‫‪Bhambhri, Chandra Prakash (1992). Politics in India 1991-92. Shipra Publications. pp. 118, 143.‬‬

‫‪316‬‬ ‫‪Patrick Dunleavy, Rekha Diwakar, Christopher Dunleavy. The effective space of party competition.‬‬ ‫‪(PDF) London School of Economics and Political Science.‬‬

‫‪300‬‬

‫الرئيسية‪ :‬المنسوجات‪ ،‬الكيماويات‪ ،‬والصناعات الغذائية‪ ،‬الصلب‪ ،‬ورمعــدات النقــل‪ ،‬الســمنت‪ ،‬التعــدين‪ ،‬البــترول‬ ‫اللت والبررمجيات‪ .‬وصلت تجارة الهند إلى حصة رمعتدلة تنسبيا ‪ ٪ 24‬رمن إجمالي الناتج المحلي في عام ‪،2006‬‬ ‫رمقارتنة ب ‪ ٪ 6‬في عام ‪.1985‬ــ وصلت حصة الهنــد رمــن‬ ‫التجارة العالميــة إلــى ‪.٪ 1‬ــ وتشــمل الصــادرات الرئيســية‬ ‫علــي رمنتجــات البــترول‪ ،‬المنســوجات‪ ،‬الحجــار الكريمــة‬ ‫والمجــوهرات‪ ،‬البررمجيــات‪ ،‬الســلع الهندســية‪ ،‬الكيماويــات‬ ‫والمصنوعات الجلديــة‪ .‬وتشــمل الــواردات الرئيســية النفــط‬ ‫الخام واللت والحجار الكريمــة والســمدة والكيماويــات‪.‬‬ ‫أن إجمــالي الناتــج القــورمي للهنــد ‪ 1.237‬تريليظظون دولر‬ ‫أمريكي‪ ،‬رمما يجعلها الدولة الثانية عشرة كأكبر ااقتصاد في‬ ‫العالم أو رابع أكظظبر اقـوة شـرائية رمـن خلل ضــبط أسـعار‬ ‫الصرف‪ .‬وبالنسبة لترتيب الهند رمن حيث دخل الفرد حيــث‬ ‫اتنه يبلغ ‪ 1،068‬دولر أرمريكي فتعد في المرتبة ‪ 128‬فــي‬ ‫العـــالم‪ .‬فـــي أواخـــر ســـنة ‪ ،2000‬بلـــغ رمتوســـط النمظظظو‬ ‫الاقتصظظادي فــي الهنــد ‪%7.5‬ــ فــي الســنة رممــا سيضــاعف‬ ‫رمتوسط الدخل في خلل عشر سنوات و بــالرغم رمــن النمــو‬ ‫الاقتصادي المهم للهند على رمدى العقود الخيرة‪ ،‬إل أتنهــا ل تــزال تحتــوي علــى أكظظبر كثافظظة للفقــراء فــي العــالم‪،‬‬ ‫وإرتفاع رمعدل سوء التغذية بيــن الطفــال دون ســن الثالثــة )‪%46‬ــ فــي عـام ‪(2007‬ــ أكــثر رمــن أي بلــد آخـر فــي‬ ‫العالم تنسبة السكان الذين يعيشون تحت خط الفقر طبقا للبنك الــدولي ؛ رمــن ‪ 1.25‬دولر فــي اليــوم )تعــادل القــوة‬ ‫الشرائية‪ ،‬وبعملة الروبية‪ 21.6 .‬في اليوم في المناطق الحضرية و ‪ 14.3‬روبيــة فــي المنــاطق الريفيــة فــي عــام‬ ‫‪ (2005‬اتنخفض رمن ‪ ٪ 60‬في عام ‪ 1981‬إلى ‪ ٪ 42‬في عام ‪ 2005‬ورغم أن الهند تجنبت المجاعات في العقود‬ ‫الخيرة‪ ،‬فإن تنصف الطفال يعاتنون رمن تنقص في الـوزن‪ .‬و هـو واحـدا رمـن أعل ى المعـدلت ف ي العـالم‪ ،‬واقرابـة‬ ‫ضعف رمعدل جنوب صحراء أفريقيا‪ .‬تتم رمرااقبة الصلحات عن كثــب حيـث رمـن الممكـن أن تصـبح الهنــد هارمـة‬ ‫للاقتصاد العالمي‪.‬تواقع تقرير جولدرمان ساكس ان " في الفترة بين ‪ 2007‬حتي ‪ ،2020‬سيضاعف تنصيب الفــرد‬ ‫رمن أجمالي الناتج القورمي اربع رمرات"‪ ،‬وأن ااقتصاد الهند سيفوق ااقتصـاد الوليظظات المتحظظدة بحلــول عـام ‪،2034‬‬ ‫ولكن ستظل الهند دولة رمنخفضة الدخل لعدة عقود‪ ،‬حيث ان تنصيب الفرد أاقل بكثير رمن غيره رمن أاقراتنة في الدول‬ ‫النامية السظريعة النمظو الاقتصظادي‪ .‬ولكــن إذا كــان يمكــن تحقيـق هــذا النمــو‪ ،‬يمكـن أن تصـبح رمحركــا للاقتصـاد‬ ‫العالمي‪ ،‬ورمساهما أساسيا في توليد تنمــو التنفــاق‪ " .‬ورغــم أن الاقتصــاد الهنــدي تنمــا بــإطراد علــى رمــدى العقــدين‬ ‫الماضيين ؛ كان النمو رمتفاوتا عند المقارتنة بين رمختلف الفئات الجتماعية‪ ،‬والمجموعــات الاقتصــادية‪ ،‬والمنــاطق‬ ‫الجغرافية‪ ،‬والمناطق الريفية والحضرية‪ .‬ااقتر ح البنك الــدولي أن رمــن أهــم الولويــات هــي إصــل ح القطــاع العــام‬ ‫والبنية التحتية والتنمية الزراعية والريفية‪ ،‬وإلغاء لوائح العمل‪ ،‬والصــلحات فــي الوليــات المتخلفــة‪ ،‬وفيــروس‬ ‫‪317‬‬ ‫تنقص المناعة البشرية ‪ /‬اليدز‪.‬‬

‫الطوائف الدينية فى الهند‪:‬‬ ‫لجل فهم الهند والطبيعة البشرية المكوتنة لها‪ ,‬لبد رمن فهم المعتقدات و الممارسات الدينية التى لها تأرثير كبير‬ ‫على الحياة الشخصية والجتماعية لمعظم الهنود‪ ,‬حيث تتسم الهند بوجود عدد كبير رمن المعتقدات الدينية كنتيجة‬ ‫لتعدد الطوائف الدينية التى يصل عددها على الاقل الى ‪ 8‬طوائف دينية كبرى ‪ ,‬هذا بالضافة الى أن الدياتنات‬ ‫الهندية لها جذور تاريخية عميقة يصل عمر الواحد رمنها ‪ 3184500‬عارماي على الاقل‪ ,‬رمما ادى الى آرثراء التراث الدينى‬ ‫‪317‬‬ ‫‪Inclusive Growth and Service delivery: Building on India’s Success‬‬ ‫‪“http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/DPR_FullReport.pdf” 11/12/2011.‬‬

‫‪318‬‬

‫‪301‬‬

‫الهندى‪ ,‬رمثل الهندوسية التى تعتبر أاقدم الدياتنات التى توجد فى الهند ‪ ,‬تاليها البوذية الهندية و الجنيوية ‪ ,‬وأيضا‬ ‫هناك الدياتنات التى لها جذور خارجية رمثل الزرداسثتية ذات الجذور اليراتنية‪ ,‬وهناك أتنتشار للدياتنات رمن خلل‬ ‫التصال رمثل السلم رمن خلل الفتوحات السلرمية فى بلد الشرق الاقصى ‪,‬و الدياتنة المسيحية رمن خلل‬ ‫الحركات التبشيرية‪,‬وأخير هناك الدياتنة اليهودية رمن خلل التصالت التجارية بين رمنطقة البحر البيض المتوسط‬ ‫والساحل الغربى للهند ‪ ,‬وتنلحظ فى هذا الصدد ‪:‬إن الديان الهندية تتطور بأستمرار وفقا لمقتضيات الحياة‬ ‫العصرية رمع الحتفاظ بلمحة الماضى ‪ ,‬وبذلك يعتبر الجاتنب الدينى رمن أهم جواتنب التاريخ الهندى والحياة‬ ‫العصرية‪.‬‬ ‫أول‪ :‬الهندوس ‪.Hindus‬‬ ‫الهندوسية هي أاقدم دياتنات الهند وأكبرها رمن حيث عدد رمعتنقيها وبالتالى هو دين الغلبية‪ ،‬حيث تصل تنسبة‬ ‫الهندوس فى الهند الى ‪ %80.5‬رمن رمجموع الشعب الهندى البالغ عدده ‪ 1,189,172,906‬تنسمة‪ 319‬وبالتالى‬ ‫ينتشر الهندوس فى جميع الوليات الهندية ‪ ,‬و للهندوسية أرثر كبير في كل رمظاهر الحياة الهندية ‪ ,‬حيث يسيطر‬ ‫الهندوس على جميع تنواحى الحياة السياسية والاقتصادية رمنذ الستقلل ‪ ,‬وداخل الهندوسية هناك عدة فرق أو جماعات‬ ‫لكل رمنها شكل عبادة خالص رمثل‪ :‬جماعة رمن يعبدون اللهة شيفا‪ ,‬ورمن يعبدون اللهة فيشنا ‪ ,‬ورمن يعبدون اللهة‬ ‫شاكتى‪ ,‬ورمن يعبدون اللهة رارما ‪ .........‬وهكذا ‪ ,‬وتنلحظ أيضا فى هذا الصدد اقيام الحياة الجتماعية للهندوس‬ ‫على فكرة الطبقات‪ ،‬وهو تنظام اقديم في الهند يسمى "فارتنا" وبناء عليه يقسم المجتمع إلى الطبقة البيضاء‬ ‫وهي طبقة "البرهميين" وتضم القساوسة والعلماء‪ ،‬والطبقة الحمراء "الكاشتري" وهم الحكام والجنود‬ ‫والداريون‪ ،‬الطبقة الصفراء "الفيزية" وهم الفلحون والمزارعون والتجار‪ ،‬وأضيفت طبقة رابعة في رما بعد‬ ‫وهي الطبقة السوداء "السودرا" وهم العمال المهرة كالخزافين والنساجين وصاتنعي السلل والخدم‪ ،‬كما ظهرت‬ ‫الدتنيا ويعارملهم "البرهميون" بقسوة ويتجنبون حتى‬ ‫طبقة خارمسة أدتنى رمن "السودريين" وهم رمن يقورمون بالخدرمات‬ ‫لمسهم‪ ،‬ويعرف هؤلء بالمنبوذين أو "الشودرا"‪ ،‬ورغم إلغاء هذه الطبقة اقاتنوتنيا عام ‪ 1950‬وإطلق اسم أطفال‬ ‫‪.320‬‬ ‫ا عليهم فإتنهم يحبذون تسمية أتنفسهم بالمنبوذين‬ ‫ثانبا‪ :‬المسلمون ‪.Muslim‬‬ ‫يعد السلم هو دين أكبر أاقلية فى الهند ‪,‬حيث يبلغ تنسبة المسلمين فى الهند تنحو ‪ %13.4‬رمن رمجموع سكان‬ ‫الهند‪ ,‬وينقسمون رما بين شيعة وسنة‪ ,‬وأكبر تعداد المسلمين اى حوالى ‪ %52‬رمن المسلميين يعيشون فى وليات‬ ‫الشمال كولية أوتار براديش ‪ Uttar Pradesh‬التى يوجد بها رما يقرب بربع رمسلمى الهند‪ ,‬وأيضا ولية جارمو‬ ‫وكشمير ‪ Jammu & Kashmir‬وجزيرة لكشاد دويب ‪Lakshadweep‬التى يمثل المسلمون تنحو رثلثى‬ ‫سكاتنها‪,‬و أيضا ولية بيهار ‪ Bihar‬و ولية البنغال الغربية ‪.West Bengal‬‬

‫ثالثا‪ :‬المسيحيون ‪.Christian‬‬ ‫يمثل المسيحيون فى الهند رثاتنى أكبر أاقلية بعد المسلميين حيث تصل تنسبتهم الى ‪ %2.3‬رمن رمجموع السكان‪,‬‬ ‫ولقد إتنتشرت الدياتنة المسيحية رمع البعثات التجارية الغربية‪ ,‬وبعد دخول التنجليز على أن المسيحية دخلت الهند‬ ‫فى عام ‪ 52‬رميلديا)‪ (1‬ويتبع المسيحيون وفقا لكنائس رمتعددة رمنها الكنيسة الرورماتنية الكارثوليكية والبروتستاتنتية‪,‬و‬ ‫يتركزالمسيحيون في ولية كيرال ‪Kerala‬و ولية تارميل تنادوا ‪ Tamil Nadu‬وجياو ‪ Goa‬فى الجنوب‪ ,‬كما‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/38.htm” 29/11/2011.‬‬

‫‪319‬‬ ‫” ‪Central intelligence agency “https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html‬‬

‫‪06/12/2011.‬‬ ‫‪320‬‬ ‫‪Al jazeera “http://www.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/26E5C34E-6367-4A9A-AC21-9F2DE080672C.htm ” 20/11/2011.‬‬

‫‪302‬‬

‫يشكل المسيحيون أغلبية في رثلث وليات صغيرة في الشمال وهم ‪,‬ولية تناجلتند ‪ , Nagaland‬وولية‬ ‫رميزورام ‪، Mizoram‬و ولية رميغاليا ‪.Meghalaya‬‬

‫رابعا ‪ :‬السيخ ‪.Sikh‬‬

‫‪19‬‬

‫تبلغ تنسبة السيخ فى الهند ‪ %1.9‬رمن رمجموع السكان‪,‬‬ ‫حوالى ‪ %79‬رمنهم يتركزوا فى ولية البنجاب المستقلة‪ ,‬ورما‬ ‫يقرب إلى ‪ 3‬رمليون سيخ يعيش خارج الولية ‪ ,‬وحوالى ‪4‬‬ ‫رمليين سيخ يعيشون خارج الهند ‪ ,‬رمما يجعل السيخية دياتنة‬ ‫عالمية ذات أصوال هندية رمدفوعة بالنجا ح الاقتصادى‬ ‫والطمو ح ‪,‬وأيضا يعتبروا اقوة أاقلية كبيرة داخل الهند كنتيجة‬ ‫لتأرثيرهم الكبير فى القوات المسلحة والشؤون العارمة لما‬ ‫يقرب ل ‪ 400‬العام السابقة‪,321‬و الدياتنية السيخية تقوم على‬ ‫أتباع تعاليم ‪ 10‬رمعلمين روحيين‪ ,‬وبعد إستقلل الهند ‪ ,‬طالب‬ ‫السيخ بولية خاصة بهم ‪ ,‬فأاقارمت الحكورمة الهندية عام‬ ‫‪ 66‬ولية البنجاب التى يحكمها السيخ بشكل شبه جزئي ‪ ,‬وذلك لوجود‬ ‫المدينة المقدسة للسيخ"أرمرتسار" هناك‪ ,‬جدير بالذكر رئيس وزراء الهند‬ ‫الحالى "رماتنموهان سينغ" رمن السيخ‪.‬‬ ‫خامسا‪ :‬رطوائف ندينية أخرى‪.‬‬

‫هناك دياتنات أخرى فى الهند يصل تنسبة عدد رمعتنقيها كلهم حوالى ‪%1.9‬‬ ‫رمجموع السكان فى الهند رمنهم يهود ‪ Jews‬يبلغ تنسبتهم ‪ %0005.‬رمن‬ ‫رمن‬ ‫السكان‪ ,‬رمعظهم يعيش فى ولية رميزورام ‪ Mizoram‬وولية رماهراسترا‬ ‫‪Maharashtra‬و الزرادستتية ‪ Zoroastrianism‬البالغ تنسبة رمعتنقيها فى الهند حوالى ‪ %0.01‬يعيش ‪%79‬‬ ‫رمنهم فى ولية رماهاراسترا ‪ Maharashtra‬و رمعظم البااقى فى ولية غوجارات ‪ Gujarat‬بالضافة إلى الجينون‬ ‫‪ Jain‬البالغ تنسبتهم أاقل رمن ‪ %1‬رمن السكان على ان رمعظهم رمن الغنياء فى الهند كنتيجة لعملهم فى التجارة‬ ‫والمداولت المالية‪,‬وبالتالى يعتبرون رمن الطبقة العليا رمن الناحية الجتماعية والاقتصادية‪ ,‬ولهم رمساهمات ل‬ ‫يستهان بيها فى التراث الهندى‪ ,‬وأخير هناك البوذيون ‪ Buddhist‬بنسبة سكاتنية تقل عن ‪ %1‬رمن رمجموع السكان‬ ‫يعيش رمعظمهم بجبال الهيماليا على الحدود الهندية الشراقية بأعداد صغيرة‪ ,‬والبوذية تعتبر رمن الدياتنات الهندية‬ ‫القديمة بعد الهندوسية‪ ,‬وتمييز البوذية الهندية بأتنها تعاليمها رمختلطة رمن الهندوسية والبوذية رمعا رمما أدى الى‬ ‫أتنحسارها‪.‬‬

‫الحروب الطبقية والعنف الدينى‪.‬‬ ‫‪321‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/58.htm” 28/12/2011.‬‬

‫‪303‬‬

‫بالرغم رمن أن الخلفات بين البلدين "الهند وباكستان" لها جذور تاريخية عميقة ‪,‬ال ان سياسات الحكورمة‬ ‫المركزية رما بعد الستقلل زادات رمن حدة الخلفات‪ ,‬حيث سياسات الحكورمة المركزية فى رمجتمع الهند ‪-‬الذى‬ ‫يتسم بعدم رمجاتنسته فى الغالب‪ -‬حام الجدل حول لما يقال عنها رمن اقبل المعارضة بأن سياسات الحكورمة المركزية‬ ‫ل تستجيب للحتياجات المحلية رمما اوجد الصراع والعنف فى ولية جارمبو وكشمير وولية بنجاب‪ ,‬واقد حاولت‬ ‫اقيادة المؤتمر التدخل ‪,‬إل ان تدخلها اتى بنتيجة عكسية رمما زاد رمن حدة الصراع‪.‬‬

‫المواجهة فى ولية بنجاب الهندية‪.‬‬ ‫كاتنت بداية المواجهات عام ‪,1973‬عندرما أصدر حزب"اكالى دال"العليا – الممثل الرئيسى للسيخ الذى يقوم‬ ‫على إعطاء السيخ صوت سياسى‪,‬وإرتباط الدين بالسياسة – لقرار يدعو الى أتنشاء رمنطقة "الحكم الذاتى‬ ‫للسيخ"رمع دستور خاص بيها رمما رجع إلى الذهان حلم السيخ فى أتنشاء دولة خاصة بهم تسمى"خالستان" وذلك‬ ‫تنتيجة لوعد الحكورمة المركزية بذلك عام ‪, 1970‬ودعا الحزب أيضا الى تنقل رمدينة "شاتنديغار"الى البنجاب لتكون‬ ‫عاصمة الدولة الجدية‪ ,‬وايضا طالب بتخصيص أكثر رملءرمة لحتياجات المياه والتنهار التى تستخدم فى الرى‬ ‫‪,‬والعديد رمن المطالب الخرى كأعتبار رمدينة" أرمريتسار"‪-‬التى تحوى المعبد الذهبى المقدس‪ -‬رمدينة رمقدسة ‪,‬‬ ‫والسما ح للسيخ بأرتداء "صابر الحتفالية "الخاص بهم على الخطوط الهندية للطيران‪ ,‬ووضع اقاتنون أدارة يجعل‬ ‫جميع عابدى اللهة جير"‪ "Gurdwares‬تحت إدارة واحدة‪.‬‬ ‫احتدرمت المنافسة الساخنة بين أعضاء حزب "أكالى" و المؤتمر الهندى الوطنى رمن أجل السيطرة على‬ ‫رمجتمع البنجاب‪ ,‬حيث وجد المؤتمر الوطنى الهندى أتنه رمن الفضل تشجيع الصولية السيخية وذلك رمن خلل‬ ‫تعيين "جاتنزال سينج" وزيرا للشئون الداخلية للدولة فى الفترة رمن)‪ (1980-1982‬بعدرما كان رئيس وزراء ولية‬ ‫بنجاب فى الفترة)‪ , (1972-1977‬وأيضا فتح اقنوات أتصال رمع المتشدد السيخى "بهندرلنوا ‪" Bhindranwale‬‬ ‫على أرمل أن يؤدى ذلك إلى زيادة النقسام داخل حزب "أكالى دال" المنقسم بالفعل ‪ ,‬ولكن تبين فيما بعد أن ذلك‬ ‫كان خطوة سيئة ‪ ,‬حيث بحلول ربيع عام ‪, 1984‬استولى بهندرلنوا واتباعه على "اكال تاكت ‪ "Akal Takht‬او‬ ‫رما يعرف ب"عرش ا الذهبى" فى العقيدة السيخية التى تواجه المعبد الذهبى واقد اقام بتحويله الى رمقر ورمستودع‬ ‫للسلحة للمتشددين السيخ‪ ,‬والقيام بأعمال العنف والقتل ضد الهندوس فى البنجاب‪ ,‬رمما جعل رئيسة وزراء الهند‬ ‫"أتندير غاتندى"تعلن حالة الطوارئ فى رمنطقة البنجاب وارسال الجيش اليها ‪ ,‬وبعد حصار استمر رثلرثة أيام‬ ‫رمتصلة دارمية ‪ ,‬درمر رمقر "اكال تاكت" ولحقت بعض الضرار بالمعبد الذهبى‪ ,‬وساقتل "بهندرلنوا" والمئات رمن‬ ‫أتباعه‪ ,‬وأرثارت أعمال الجيش فى البنجاب أستياء واسع المدى بين السيخ فى جميع أتنحاء الهند‪ ,‬وكنتيجة لذلك‬ ‫أغتيالت "أتندير غاتندى "على يد حراسها السيخ فى ‪31‬أكتوبر ‪ ,1984‬رمما اطلق أعمال الشغب والنهب والقتل ضد‬ ‫السيخ فى جميع أتنحاء الهند ‪ ,‬وكاتنت رمحصلة القتلى السيخ فى أعمال الشغب أكثررمن ‪ 2700‬سيخ‪.‬‬ ‫فى عام ‪ 1985‬حاول راجيف غاتندى‪ -‬بعدرما تولى رئاسة الوزارة خلفا لوالدته أتندير غاتندى‪ -‬وحاول وضع حد‬ ‫لزرمة بنجاب رمن خلل التواقيع على أتفاق رمع عضو حزب"أكالى دال" المعتدل "هاركند سنيج لنغول‬ ‫‪ ," Harchand Singh Longowal‬أذعن ذلك الوفاق لمطالب أعضاء حزب"أكالى دال" ودعا الى أتنتخابات‬ ‫لرئاسة حكورمة ولية البنجاب لوضع حد لسيطرة الحكورمة المركزية على حكورمة الولية‪ ,‬والذى كان رمفعل رمنذ‬ ‫عام ‪ 1983‬و اقوبل هذا التفاق بتأيد واسع النطاق فى الهند‪ ,‬وذلك ظهررمن خلل التأييد الشعبى للحكورمة الجديدة‬ ‫المشكلة رمن أعضاء حزب "أكالى دال" المعتدليين‪ ,‬على الرغم رمن ذلك كله رمنى الوفاق بين" غاتندى‪-‬لنغول"‬ ‫بالفشل ‪,‬ذلك لعدم وفاء راجيف غاتندى بالتزارماته كنقل رمدينة شاتندريغار الى البنجاب كما هو رمنصوص عليه‪,‬‬ ‫وكنتيجة لذلك تقلصت شعبية حكورمة حزب "أكالى دال" بقيادة "سوجريت سينغ باراتنال ‪Surijt Singh‬‬ ‫‪ "Barnala‬وزادت التنقسارمات داخل الحزب‪,‬واقلت فعالية جهودها لمحاربة المتشددين‪ ,‬وفى عام‪ 1987322‬تم‬ ‫استبدال السفارة البنجابية بحكم الرئيس‪ ,‬تنلحظ فى هذا الصدد إتنتشار العنف رمن اقبل المتشددين السيخ فى الفترة‬ ‫رمن‪ 1980s‬الى ‪, 1990s‬واصبح القتل والسطو والعنف وسيلة للحياة فى البنجاب ‪ ,‬وكما أصبحت أجراءات الشرطة‬ ‫‪322‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/117.htm” 08/11/2011.‬‬

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‫أكثر اقمعا ‪ ,‬ورمرت خمس سنوات رمن حكم الرئيس كان القبض على المقيمين فى البنجاب بشكل عشوائى ‪ ,‬حتى‬ ‫تقلص العنف فى عارمى ‪, 1994,1993‬وإن لم يقل حدة التوتر بين الطراف‪.‬‬

‫التوتر بين الهندوس والمسلميين وأنفصلل باركستان‪.‬‬ ‫تحت حكم التاج البريطاتنى فى الهند‪ ,‬تنوعت سيطرة وحكم بريطاتنيا على أراضى الهند وباكستان‪ :‬رمن‬ ‫رمناطق حكم رمباشر‪,‬ورمناطق ستركت لحكم زعمائها المحليين بشرط ولئهم وتبعيتهم للتاج البريطاتنى‪ ,‬وهناك تنوع‬ ‫رثالث كتأجير رمنطقة كشمير الى عائلة أاقطاعية هندوسية بموجب اتفااقية )عقد أيجار بالمعنى الدق( لمدة ‪ 100‬عام‬ ‫ينتهى فى عام ‪ 1946‬على الرغم رمن ان غالبية الاقليم ينتمون الى الدين السلرمى‪ ,‬رمما اولد العديد رمن‬ ‫المشكلت ‪,‬بالضافة الى ذلك تجاهل المسلميين فى النظام التعليمى الغربى فى الهند وتعليهم رمبادئ الحساب‬ ‫والقراءة والكتابة رمما آدى الى فجوة رثقافية بين الهندوس والمسلميين و بالتالى سيطرة الهندوس على العديد رمن‬ ‫الموااقع والوظائف الهارمة فى الدولة‪ ,‬رمما أدى الى اقيادة العلماء والمصلحيين المسلميين لحركة ديوبند ‪Deboned‬‬ ‫الخاصة بزيادة وعى وعلم المسلميين كخطوة للتحرر والستقلل‪,‬فقام السيد أحمد خان عام ‪ 1863‬بأتنشاء جمعية‬ ‫علمية أدبية رمرفقة بمجلة ‪,‬الغرض رمنهما تنشر الراء الحديثة فى التاريخ والعلوم والاقتصاد وترجمة اهم الكتب‬ ‫التنجليزية الى اللغة الردية‪ -‬اللغة الرسمية لهل الشمال‪ -‬وأيضا آتنشا رمدرستين سسمح لجميع طوائف الهند‬ ‫بالتحاق بها‪ ,‬واسس رمعهد تعليمى عال لدرسة العلوم الحديثةعام ‪ 1875‬سيعرف الن بأسم "جارمعة عليكرة‬ ‫السلرمية"‪ ,‬رمن تلرميذها الب الروحى لباكستان الشاعر رمحمد‬ ‫أاقبال‪.‬‬ ‫فى ذلك الواقت‪ ,‬رمع بداية تأسيس حركات التحرر والستقلل‬ ‫رمن الحكم البريطاتنى ‪,‬تم أتنشاء حزب المؤتمر الوطنى الهندى‬ ‫عام ‪,1885‬الذى يميزه تمثيله لجميع فئات الشعب الهندى رمن‬ ‫جميع التجاهات والطوائف ‪ ,‬لذلك ضم العديد رمن زعماء الهند‬ ‫المسلمين و الهندوس رمثل‪:‬السيد أحمد خان ‪ ,‬و رمحمد على جنا ح‬ ‫كممثليين عن المسلميين الهند‪ ,‬إل أن المشكلت ظهرت رمن‬ ‫خلل تكشف لزعماء المسلميين لنوايا بعض القيادات الهندوسية‬ ‫للسيطرة فى حزب المؤتمر الوطنى الهندى رمن خلل عدة أرمور كان أبرزها ‪ :‬رفض القيادات الهندوسية أبقاء‬ ‫اللغة الدرية لغة رسمية فى المناطق الشمالية الغربة الهندية ‪-‬رمع رملحظة أن غالبية سكان تلك المنطقة يتكلموا‬ ‫الغة الدرية – رمما دفع بذلك السيد أحمد خان الى اقطع علاقته بالمؤتمر الهندى الوطنى ليؤسس عام ‪1906‬‬ ‫المؤتمر التعليمى السلرمى‪ ,‬والذى اتنبثق عنه حزب الرابطة السلرمية المنادى بقيام دولة خاصة للمسلميين‪ ,‬وفى‬ ‫عام ‪ 1920‬اتنضم رمحمد على تنجا ح إلى حزب الرابطة السلرمية ليكون رئيسا له بعدرما اقطع علاقته تنهائيا بحزب‬ ‫المؤتمر الوطنى الهندى ‪ ,‬وليبدأ رمرحلة يطالب بتشرعيات تضمن للمسلميين حماية دينهم ولغتهم‪ ,‬رثم واقعت العديد‬ ‫رمن الحداث فى أواخر ‪ 1920s‬و ‪, 1930s‬جعلت المسلميين يفكروا فى إتنشاء دولة رمنفصلة خاصة بهم‪.323‬‬ ‫فى عام ‪ , 1929‬دعا رموتيلل تنهرو جميع الحزاب إلى الجتماع فى رمؤتمر لاقترا ح غييرات فى النظام التنتخابى‬ ‫رمن شأتنها تؤدى إلى الستقلل‪ ,‬فى ذلك المؤتمر غالبية المندوبيين رمن الحزاب طالبوا بنهاية لنظام الدوائر‬ ‫التنتخابية المنفصلة‪,‬على العكس رمنهم ‪,‬طر ح رمحمد على جنا ح خمس عشرة تنقطة لحماية رمصالح المسلميين رمن‬ ‫خلل إتنشاء الضماتنات لمنع السيطرة التشرعية للهندوس وذلك رمن خلل إبقاء تنظام الدوائر النتخابية المنفصلة ‪,‬‬ ‫والذى اقوبلت بالرفض التام لجميع المقترحات‪ ,‬رمما جعل اى تعاون بين الهندوس والمسلميين فى حركة الستقلل‬ ‫تنادر الحدوث‪.‬‬ ‫فى عام ‪, 1930‬طالب الشاعر والفليسوف "رمحمد أاقبال" فى رمنطقة ا أباد ‪ Allahabad‬بأتنشاء تنظام كوتنفدرالى‬ ‫هندى يشمل دولة أسلرمية ‪ ,‬وذلك لن وجود حكورمة رموحدة غير وراد‪ ,‬ولذلك دعا المسلميين الى اتنشاء أرمة على‬ ‫‪323‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/12.htm” 18/11/2011.‬‬

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‫أساس وحدة العرق واللغة والتاريخ والدين والهوية وأخيرا المصالح الاقتصادية‪ ,‬وفى عام ‪ 1933‬أطلق على‬ ‫الدولة السلرمية –فى كتابه الن او أبدا‪ -‬أسم باكستان وهو عبارة عن الحروف الولى للوطان المكوتنة رمنها‬ ‫الدولة والتى طالب بضمها اليها وهن‪ :‬بنجاب‪ ,‬بلد السند‪ ,‬ايران ‪ ,‬أفعاتنستان‪ ,‬تركستان‪ ,‬و بلوستان‪.‬‬ ‫فى عام ‪, 1937‬أجريت اتنتخابات المجالس التشرعية المحلية‪ ,‬وفيها فاز حزب المؤتمر الوطنى الهندى بأغلبية‬ ‫سبعة رمقاطعة رمن أصل أحدى عشر رمقاطعة ‪ ,‬فإتخذ رمواقف اقاتنوتنى صارم بعد أتنشاء حكورمة أتئلفية رمع حزب‬ ‫الرابطة السلرمية فى وزارات المقاطعات‪ ,‬حتى فى رمقاطعات ذات أاقلية كبرى رمسلمة كولية أوتار براديش‪ ,‬على‬ ‫الرغم رمن ذلك ‪,‬اقام حزب الرابطة السلرمية بأتنشاء حكورمة إتئلفية رمع حزب الوطنى الهندى حتى فى رمناطق‬ ‫ذات أغلبية رمسلمة كبرى كمنطقة البنجاب‪.‬‬ ‫فى ‪ 23‬رمارس ‪, 1940‬فى أجتماع حزب الرابطة السلرمية السنوى بمدينة لهور ‪, Lahore‬أصدر رمحمد على‬ ‫جنا ح اقرار يعرف بأسم "اقرار لهور او اقرار باكستان" وفيه يرفض فكرة التحاد‪ ,‬و اى خطة للستقلل غير‬ ‫رمقبولة بدون تجميع المناطق ذات الغلبية المسلمة فى شمال وشرق وغرب الهند لتشكيل دولة رمستقلة ذات سيادة‪,‬‬ ‫واقد لاقى هذا القرار تأييدا ودعما رمن رمسلمى الهند‪,‬و تأييدا ودعما أكثر رمن رمسلمى المناطق ذات الغلبية‬ ‫الهندوسية والاقلية المسلمة‪.‬‬

‫رفض حزب المؤتمر الهندى الوطنى جميع‬ ‫رمقترحات التقسيم‪ ,‬ودعا الى إتنشاء دولة هندية‬ ‫رموحدة ذات حكورمة رمركزية اقوية تحت راقابة‬ ‫برلماتنية‪ ,‬رمما أدى الى النقسام بين حزب الرابطة‬ ‫السلرمية وحزب المؤتمر الوطنى الهندى ‪ ,‬و‬ ‫تنلحظ هذا الختلف رمن خلل تباين الموااقف خلل‬ ‫الحرب العالمية الثاتنية تجاه الحكم البريطاتنى‪ ,‬حيث‬ ‫إستقال وزراء حزب المؤتمر رمن وزارات‬ ‫المقاطعات إحتجاجا على عدم تشاوررمسبق رمع‬ ‫السياسيين الهنود اقبل إدخال الجيش الهندى فى‬ ‫المواجهات والحرب‪ ,‬كنتيجة لذلك دخل رمعظم‬ ‫اقيادات الحزب السجن ‪,‬وفقد الحزب تنفوذه السياسى على البريطاتنيين‪ ,‬فى المقابل‪ ,‬أتبع حزب الرابطة السلرمية‬ ‫رمسار التعاون وكسب الواقت لتعزيز اقوتهم السياسية ‪,‬حيث اقدرت بريطاتنيا ولء وبسالة الجيش الهندى و أعضاءه‬ ‫المسلميين البنجابيين‪ ,‬وكنتيجة لذلك كله ‪,‬أصبح هناك رثلث رمؤرثرات على رمستقبل الهند ‪:‬البريطاتنيين ‪,‬و حزب‬ ‫المؤتمر الهندى الوطنى‪ ,‬و حزب الرابطة السلرمية‪.324‬‬ ‫فى شهر غسطس رمن عام ‪, 1942‬أطلق غاتندى حركة "أترك الهند ‪ " Quit India Movement‬ضد‬ ‫الوجود البريطاتنى‪ ,‬أدان رمحمد على جنا ح تلك الحركة ‪ ,‬واعتقلت الحكورمة اللف رمن الفراد‪ ,‬وتم حظر حزب‬ ‫المؤتمر‪,‬فزدادت أعمال الشعب الطائفية‪,‬وفى عام ‪ 1944‬فشلت المفاوضات والمحادرثات بين غاتندى ورمحمد جنا ح‬ ‫كما فشلت المفاوضات والمحادرثات بين غاتندى والنائب البريطاتنى ‪ ,‬رثم فى يوليو رمن عام ‪, 1945‬و سياسة‬ ‫بريطاتنيا الجديدة المؤكدة على تراجع القوة البريطاتنية فى الهند رمع ضرورة البقاء على وسائل الدفاع الهندية‬ ‫لحماية الرمبراطورية البريطاتنية‪ ,‬لكن إتنتشرت الضطرابات العارمة فى الهند حتى وصل إلى تمرد اقوات البحرية‬ ‫فى رمدينة بورمباى ‪, Bombay‬استنتجت القيادة البريطاتنية بأن الستقلل هو البديل الوحيد والفضل لكى تحافظ‬ ‫بريطاتنيا على سيطرتها فى الهند‪ ,‬لذلك تم الدعوة إلى إتنتخابات ‪, 1946‬وفيها هيمن كل رمن حزب المؤتمر الهندى‬ ‫وحزب الرابطة السلرمية‪ ,‬فى البداية بدأ ان كل الطرفيين اقبل خطة تشكيل رمجلس الوزراء‪ -‬بالرغم رمن تحفظات‬ ‫‪324‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/13.htm” 18/12/2011.‬‬

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‫كثيرة‪ -‬إل أن سلوك القادة خلق شعورا بإتنعدام الثقة‪ ,‬كإعلن تنهرو أن حزب المؤتمر لن يكون رمقيدا بأتفااقيات‬ ‫بريطاتنية‪ ,‬اى كان واضحا أن حزب المؤتمر سوف يجعل وظيفة الغلبية فى الجمعية التأسسية فرصة لكتابة‬ ‫الدستور‪ ,‬هذا بالضافة إلى جدلية تشكيل الحكورمة المؤاقتة رمما دفع بمحمد تنجا ح إلى المطالبة بالمساواة بين‬ ‫الحزبيين فى ذلك ‪ ,‬اقوبل هذا الاقترا ح بالرفض رمن النائب البريطاتنى ‪ ,‬رمما دعا تنجا ح إلى رمقاطعة الحكورمة‬ ‫المؤاقتة‪ ,,‬رثم شرع النائب البريطاتنى فى تشكيل حكورمة رمؤاقتة بدون حزب الرابطة السلرمية‪ ,‬رمما جعل رمحمد‬ ‫جنا ح يدعو الى المظاهرات او العمل المباشر‪.‬‬ ‫فى ‪ 16‬أغسطس ‪ , 1946‬اتندلعت أعمال شغب طائفية بين المسلميين والهندوس‪ ,‬وخصوصا فى ولية البنغال‬ ‫وولية بيهاربطريقة غير رمسبواقة‪ ,‬رثم واقعت رمذبحة للمسلميين فى رمدينة كالكوتا ‪ ,‬وبالرغم رمن رمحولت التهدئة‪,‬‬ ‫أتنتقلت أعمال الشغب الطائفى وأرمتدت الى أرماكن أخرى‪ ,‬وأستمرت حتى عام ‪ , 1947‬وفى رمسعى لواقف العنف‬ ‫الطائفى ‪ ,‬سسمح لحزب الرابطة السلرمية بدخول الحكورمة المؤاقتة‪ ,‬ورمع بداية الخلفات بين الوزراء ‪ ,‬اصبيت‬ ‫الحكورمة المؤاقتة بالشلل‪ ,‬رمع طوفان شبح الحرب الهلية‪ ,‬تم تغيير النائب البريطاتنى فى فبراير عام ‪, 1947‬واقبلت‬ ‫الحكورمة البريطاتنية بالتقسيم والستقلل‪,‬كما اقبل حزب المؤتمر بالتقسيم رثمنا للستقلل‪ ,‬واقبل رمحمد على جنا ح‬ ‫بدولة باكستان أصغر ‪-‬تضم بنجاب والبنغال‪ -‬رمما كان يطالب بها‪ ,‬وفى ‪ 3‬يوتنيو ‪, 1947‬تم تقديم رمشروع اقاتنون‬ ‫إستقلل وتقسيم الهند الى رمجلس العموم البريطاتنى ‪ ,‬الذى وافق عليه يوم ‪14‬يوليو ‪ , 1947‬وبموجبه تم إتنشاء‬ ‫رمنطقتيين ذاتا سيادة رمستقلة فى شبه القارة الهندية‪ ,‬وكاتنت خطة التقسيم‪ -‬رمع رملحظة رمقاطعة حزب المؤتمر‬ ‫الوطنى الهندى‪ -‬كالتى ‪ :‬وليتى بنجاب والبنغال لدولة باكستان بعد رموافقة المجلس التشريعى‪ ,‬شرط رموافقة‬ ‫الهيئة التشريعية فى رمنطقتى السند وبلوستان لتنضمارمهما إلى باكستان‪ ,‬وعقد الستفتاء فى رمنطقة سيلهيت‬ ‫للتنضمام إلى باكستان ‪ ,‬رثم رمثلت رثلث وليات حدودية أكثر صعوبة‪ -‬رمن أكثر ‪50‬رمدينة تم تقسيمها بسهولة ‪ -‬تم‬ ‫عقد استفتاء بيهم هم حيدر أباد ذات الغلبية الهندوسية والحكم المسلم التى اتنضمتت إلى السيادة الهندية‪ ,‬ورمدينة‬ ‫جوتناغاد ذات الغلبية الهندوسية والرمير المسلم إتنضمت أيضا الى السيادة الهندية ‪ ,‬رثم بقيت ولية جارمو وكشمير‬ ‫التى سببت رثلث حروب رئيسية بين الهند وباكستان وجعلت العلاقات بين البلدين رمتوترة‪ ,‬على ان فى ‪14‬‬ ‫أغسطس ‪ 1947‬حققت كل رمن باكستان والهند الستقلل‪ ,‬ولكن ذلك لم بمنع تنشوب العنف الطائفى فى الهند التى‬ ‫رمازال يعيش بيها رمسلميين‪.‬‬

‫ تاريخ الصراع الهندى الباركستانى على اقليم ركاشمير‪:‬‬‫كاتنت و رمازالت العلاقات الهندية ‪-‬الباكستاتنية تأخذ رمن السياسات الخارجية الهندية‪ .‬ان الختلف اليديولوجى بين‬ ‫بين الدولتين و عدم النجا ح فى التوصل لحل بالنسبة لموازين القوى فى جنوب آسيا هو الذى حعل الزرمة تتفااقم‬ ‫على رمر السنين‪.‬‬ ‫و تعد رمشكلة )ااقليم كاشمير( رمنذ ‪ 1974‬رمن أصعب المشكلت فى العلاقات بين البلدين عندرما لو يوافق القادة‬ ‫الباكستاتنيون على تنازل باكستان عن ااقليم كاشمير للهند ‪ ,‬و اعلنوا الحرب على الهند ‪ ,‬رثم أعلن رمندوبى باكستان‬ ‫على حق المقيمين فى كاشمير على تقرير رمصيرهم رمن خلل إستفتاء وفقا لما وعد به )تنهرو( و رمجلس الرمن رمن‬ ‫خلل توصيات عام ‪ 1948‬و ‪ 1949‬و وفقا لتوصيات رمجلس الرمن تم واقف النار فى ‪ 1949-1-1‬و فى ‪18‬يوليو‬ ‫تم تواقيع رمعاهدة كراتشى بين البلدين تحت راقابة الرمم المتحدة ‪ .‬و اقد أاقضت عملية تعيين الحدود لعطاء سرتنجار‬ ‫و حوالى ‪ 139,000‬كيلورمتر للهند و ‪ 83,807‬كيلورمتر تحت سيطرة باكستان ‪ .‬رمنذ عام ‪ 1949‬و حتى عام‬ ‫‪ 2005‬ل تزال اقوات الراقابة العسكرية على واقف اطلق النار فى إاقليم كاشمير بين الهند و باكستان ‪.‬‬ ‫فى عام ‪ , 1952‬اتنتخبت الجمعية التأسيسية السلرمية فى كشمير و جارمو بقيادة الشيخ رمحمد عبدا التى صوتت‬ ‫لصالح التنضمام للهند ‪ ,‬و اعتبرت الهند هذا التصويت بمثابة الرغبة فى التنضمام للهند و اعترضت على إجراء‬ ‫أى إستفتاء‪ .‬رفض تنهرو المنااقشات الثنائية بين البلدين حتى عام ‪ 1963‬لكن تحت ضغط الوليات المتحدة و‬ ‫المملكة المتحدة وافق على اجراء رمفاوضات رمع باكستان على كشمير و رمواضيع اخرى ذات علاقة و لكن فشلت‬ ‫تلك المفاوضات‪.‬‬

‫‪307‬‬

‫فى صيف ‪ 1965‬عبر المتسللون المسلحين رمن باكستان خط رمنطقة و اقف النار و ازداد عدد المناوشات الهندية‬ ‫الباكستاتنية ‪ .‬رمع بداية أغسطس رمن تنفس العام زعمت الهىند أن باكستان ترسل رمتسللين فى رمنطقة سيطرة الهند‬ ‫على ااقليم كشمير‪.‬‬ ‫إن الصراع الثاتنى يتمثل عندرما هاجمت باكستان الخط الدولى للسيطرة فى جنوب غرب كشمير و جارمو و ردا‬ ‫على ذلك اقارمت الهند بالثأر رمن خلل همورمها على رمقاطعة )بوتنجاب( و فى تاشكنط فى اوزباكستان فى يناير‬ ‫‪ 1966‬اقارمت القوى المتحاربة بالموافقة على استعادة الوضع الراهن و حل المشكلت القائمة بالمفاوضات ‪.‬‬ ‫تتمثل الحرب الثالثة او الصراع الثالث بين الهند و باكستان فى ديسمبر ‪ ,1971‬حول بنحلديش الوااقعة فى شرق‬ ‫باكستان و لكنها أيضا كاتنت ذات صلة بااقليم كشمير و كان التنتصار العسكرى الهندى رمؤكدا‪ ,‬و اقد واقعتا الدولتان‬ ‫على اتفاق )سيمل( دون وسيط الذى تنص على اعادة الهند كل الراضى التى استحوذت عليها فى الغرب ‪.‬‬ ‫فى أواخر السبعينيات و أوائل الثمينيات كان هناك رخاء فى كشمير و جارمو تحت حكم الشيخ رمجمد و رمن بعده‬ ‫ابنه فاروق عبدا بعد ذلك ‪ ,‬توترت العلاقات رمرة اخرى عندرما تنشب صراع بين حكورمة سرتنجار و تنيودلهى و‬ ‫أدى ذلك لراقض حكورمة فاروق و اتهم الدبلورماسيين الهنود باكستان بمحاولة تدويل اقضية كشمير و اتنتهاك اتفاق‬ ‫سيمل‪.‬‬ ‫فى أواسط و أواخر الثمنينيات إزداد الوضع سوءا و أاقل استقرارا فى كشمير‪ ,‬و اقشات حكورمة فاروق فى رمواجهة‬ ‫الكشميرين المطالبين بالستقلل عن الهند و التنضمام لباكستان و إتنضمت فى حلف رمع رمؤتمر )راجيف غاتندى(‬ ‫فى اتنتخابات ‪.1987‬‬ ‫فى عام ‪ ,1999‬إستئنف الحوار بين البلدين و ذلك رمن خلل اجتماع رؤساء وزراء البلدين و تواقيع رثلرثة‬ ‫رمعاهدات ‪ .‬بعد الهجوم الرهابى على رمقر البرلمان الهندى ‪ ,‬اتهمت الهند باكستان فى التسبب فى ذلك لتعود‬ ‫التوترات رمرة أخرى فى ديسمبر ‪.2001‬‬ ‫فى ابريل ‪ , 2003‬عاد رئيس الوزراء )فاجباى( ليحيى العلاقات رمرة أخرى فى )سرتنجار( ‪ ,‬فى عام ‪2004‬‬ ‫وافق البلدان على )رمعادلة الحوار المركب( ‪ , 6+2‬الرثنان تدل على المنااقشات و المحاورات الخاصة بالسلم و‬ ‫الرمن فى كشمير و جارمو‪ ,‬و ست تنقاط أحرى خاصة بنقاشات تكتيكية و ادارية حول تنقاط رثنائية ‪.‬حتى عام‬ ‫‪ , 2006‬إتخذتا البلدان خطوات تنحو تنفسذ رمعادلة الحوار المركب و تقوية العلاقات الثنائية ‪.‬‬ ‫بعد التنتخابات الباكستاتنية فى ‪ ,2008‬اجتمع وزير الخارجية الهندى رمع رمع وزير خارجية باكستان لتطوير‬ ‫المعادلة و التأكيد على الحفاظ على واقف اطلق النار و زيادة التصالت الشعبية فيما بين البلدين‪ ,‬و لكن‬ ‫تفجيرات رمورمباى و الهجوم على السفارة الهندية فى كابول عام ‪2008‬أعادت التوترات رمرة اخرى‪ ,‬صممت‬ ‫‪325‬‬ ‫الهند بعد ذلك على ضرورة اقيام باكستان بمحاربة الرهاب ارمتسلل رمن خلل حدودها فى ‪.2010‬‬

‫أثر الصراع على أقليم كشمير على العلقات المريكية – الهندية‪:‬‬‫رغم أن الصراع لم يمنع الهند رمن التطور و الوصول لكزتنها اقوة آسيوية صاعدة بل عالمية ايضا‪ ,‬لكن احتمالت‬ ‫وصول الجاتنبين لحل للنزاع خافتة‪ ,‬لذا يرى البعض ضرورة لعب الوليات المتحدة دورا فى هذا الصراع و‬ ‫المساعدة فى اتنهائه رمن خلل توفير لكل الطرفين الوصول لتفاق ‪ ,‬فالمكافئات المحتملة هى السلم فى شبه القارة و‬ ‫الشراكة الستراتيجية بين واشنطن و تنيودلهى‪.‬‬ ‫اقد يمثل الصراع الهندى الباكستاتنى على إاقليم كشمير تهديدا على أرمن الوليات المتحدة‪ ,‬لتنه يأتى بدولتين تنوويتين‬ ‫رمتقاربتين و ايضا يمنع باكستان رمن التصدى للملشيات الرهابية الموجودة على ارضها و كذلك يثير شكوك‬ ‫‪325‬‬ ‫‪Committee on foreign relations “http://www.cfr.org/terrorism/kashmir-dispute-affects-security-south‬‬‫‪asia/p19805-“ 21/12/2011.‬‬

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‫باكستان حول تنشاط الهند فى أفغاتنستان ‪ ,‬رمما يؤرثر على رغبة أرمريكا فى تحقيق استقرار فى أفغاتنستان و رمحاربة‬ ‫الرهاب فى جنوب آسيا ‪.‬‬ ‫يتجه البعض لتفضيل عدم تدخل الوليات المتحدة فى المحادرثات الثنائية و الدبلورماسية بين البلدين ‪ ,‬و لكن يجب أن‬ ‫تلتفت لمحاربة المسئولين عن تفجيرات رمورمباى )عسكر طيبة( ‪ ,‬فعليها المزيد رمن التحقيقات و اجراء خطوات‬ ‫عسكرية و القبض عليهم ‪.‬‬ ‫يرى البعض الخر أن دور الوليات المتحدة هو تحسين الحتمالت المستقبلية لباكستان و ذلك رمن خلل رمقاورمة و‬ ‫رمواجهة العقبات فى تاريخ الرمريكية – الباكستاتنية رمن خلل الشراكة و بناء العلاقة على الشفافية لمحاربة الرهاب‬ ‫و السما ح للمزيد رمن وصول البضائع الرمريكية للسوق الباكستاتنى‪.‬‬

‫العلقات الهنديه ‪ -‬المريكيه‪:‬‬ ‫شهدت العلاقت الهنديه – الرمريكيه العديد رمن التطورات على رمر تاريخها‪ ,‬و اتسمت بالكثير رمن الصعود و‬ ‫الهبوط رمتأرثره بالحداث المختلفه‪ ,‬و السياسات المختلفه‪.......‬‬ ‫‪ -1‬تاريخ العلقات‪:‬‬ ‫رمع تنهاية الحرب الباردة وظهور السياسات الاقتصادية للهند أكثر تطلعا إلى الخارج ‪ ،‬أصبحت الوليات المتحدة‬ ‫ذات أهمية رمتزايدة بالنسبة للهند‪ .‬في رمنتصف ‪ ، 1990s‬كاتنت الوليات المتحدة الشريك التجاري الكبر للهند‬ ‫ورمصدرا رئيسيا للتكنولوجيا والستثمار‪ .‬سعى الطلب الهنود أكثر رمن أي واقت رمضى التعليم العالي في الوليات‬ ‫المتحدة ‪ ،‬وبخاصة في رمجالت العلوم والهندسة‪ .‬وعلوة على ذلك ‪ ،‬كان وجود الرميركيين الهنود والهنود أكثر‬ ‫رمن ‪ 1‬رمليون رمقيم في الوليات المتحدة عارمل في تلك العلاقة‪ .‬كما يرى بعض صاتنعي السياسة الخارجية الهند‬ ‫كدوله لها جذور ديمقراطية اقوية ‪ ،‬على الرغم رمن رمقارتنتها بالوليات المتحده تعتبر ديمواقرطيه حديثه تنسبيا‪ .‬على‬ ‫رغم رمن العلاقة التي كاتنت العلاقه رموجودة رمنذ عام ‪1947‬غير المتكافئة ‪،‬و لكن ظهر رمجالت للتقرب فى اوائل‬ ‫‪ .s’1990‬ورمع ذلك ‪ ،‬رأى بعض المرااقبين الهنود أن الوليات المتحدة لديها "أجندة سلبية" للهند فيما يتعلق‬ ‫بحقوق التنسان ‪ ،‬والبرتنارمج النووي ‪ ،‬ووتيرة الصلحات الاقتصادية‪ .‬وعلوة على ذلك ‪ ،‬كان التزام الهند رمنذ‬ ‫فترة طويلة لمبادئ عدم التنحياز لها تأرثير رمثبط على علاقاتها المتطورة رمع الوليات المتحدة‪ .‬ورمع ذلك ‪،‬اعتقدوا‬ ‫ان التحالف بينهما بعد ذلك رمحتمل‪.‬‬ ‫حتى عام ‪ 1971‬كاتنت سياسة عدم التنحياز لها تأرثير رمزدوج على سياسات الوليات المتحدة في جنوب آسيا‪ .‬من‬ ‫جهة ‪ ،‬إعتبرت واشنطن الستقرار الاقتصادي والسياسي الهندي لزم لمنع الدور الاقليمي المهم للنفوذ السوفياتي‬ ‫رمن الستسلم للشيوعية ‪ ،‬وبالتالي الوليات المتحدة اقدرمت رمساعدات ااقتصادية ودعم الهند خلل حرب عام‬ ‫‪ 1962‬رمع الصين‪ .‬من ناحية أخرى ‪ ،‬كاتنت سياسة عدم التنحياز التى تتبعها الهند جعلت الوليات المتحدة عام‬ ‫‪ 1954‬تتحالف رمع باكستان ‪ ،‬والتي اضهرتها كدعم المصالح الرمنية الغربية‪ .‬واقد جددت الوليات المتحدة‬ ‫وباكستان الحلف في عام ‪ ، 1959‬رمع رما يصحب ذلك رمن ضماتنات الرئيس دوايت أيزتنهاور لنهرو أتنه لن يستخدم‬ ‫السلحة الموردة إلى باكستان في أي حرب عدواتنية‪ .‬رفضت حكورمة الوليات المتحدة دعم باكستان اوالهند فى‬ ‫الحرب ‪ ، 1965‬علقت التحويلت العسكرية لكل البلدين‪.‬‬ ‫في عام ‪ 1971‬النزعات بين التحاد السوفياتي والوليات المتحدة والتحاد السوفيتي والصين ‪ ،‬والهند وباكستان‪,‬‬ ‫جعلت العلاقات بين الهند والوليات المتحدة تتراجع بشكل كبير‪ .‬في تلك السنة ‪ ،‬في حين أن واشنطن بدأت علاقة‬ ‫جديدة رمع بكين‪ ,‬فى حين واقعت رمعاهدة صدااقة تنيودلهي رمع رموسكو لمواجهة الوليات المتحدة والنفوذ الصيني في‬ ‫جنوب آسيا‪ .‬تدهورتالعلاقات و الزرماتفى شرق باكستان‪ ,‬و فشل اتنديرا غاتندي فى تغيير سياسيه الرئيس تنكسون‬ ‫واقتها اتجاه باكستان‪.‬‬ ‫سارت العلاقات بشكل سئ عارمتا فى اوائل السعينيات ‪ s’1970‬بين الوليات المتحده و الهند‪ ,‬و ادى ذلك الى‬ ‫خفض المساعدات الاقتصاديه و غلق الهند لبرتنارمج التنميه الرمريكى‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -2‬تطور العلقات‪:‬‬

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‫بدأ تحسن العلاقات في عام ‪ 1977‬عندرما أصبح جيمي كارتر رئيسا للوليات المتحدة والحكورمة التي يقودها‬ ‫حزب بهاراتيا ديساي في الهند‪ .‬وجاءت هذه التواقعات إلى تنهاية رمفاجئة بعد عارمين عندرما غزا التحاد السوفياتي‬ ‫أفغاتنستان و صدور رمبدأ كارتر ‪ ،‬وإتنشاء اقوة للتنتشار السريع )وتسمى فيما بعد الوليات المتحدة القيادة الوسطى(‬ ‫‪ ،‬وأسطول المحيط الهندي ‪ ،‬والتوسع المزرمع لقاعدة بحرية في جزيرة دييغو غارسيا ‪ ،‬وترتيبات لتزويد باكستان‬ ‫رمع ‪ 3.2‬رمليار دولر أرمريكي في الجيش و رمساعدات ااقتصادية على رمدى خمس سنوات فقط كما يبدو التدخل‬ ‫المباشر في الوليات المتحدة وبلدان الخليج الفارسي والمحيط الهندي‪ .‬غذت هذه الجراءات عدم الستقرار في‬ ‫المنطقة ‪ ،‬ورأتها الهند كتهديد ارمنى لها‪.‬‬ ‫تمكنت علاقة شخصية بين أتنديرا غاتندي ورئيس روتنالد ريغان ‪ ،‬الذي أتنشئ خلل سلسلة رمن الجتماعات في‬ ‫أوائل ‪ ، 1980s‬البلدين تدريجيا للبدء في تحسين العلاقات الثنائية‪ .‬إعادة تقييم إدارة ريغان سياستها تجاه الهند‬ ‫واقرر توسيع رمجالت التعاون ‪ ،‬وبخاصة في المجالت الاقتصادية والعلمية ‪ ،‬كوسيلة لمواجهة النفوذ السوفياتي‬ ‫في المنطقة‪ .‬واشنطن تعتبر أيضا حالة تنيودلهي باعتبارها اقوة ااقليمية رئيسية في جنوب آسيا في ضوء أكثر‬ ‫رمواتاة‪ .‬رمن جاتنبها ‪ ،‬أدرك غاتندي أن الهند لم تتمكن رمن رمنع الوليات المتحدة رمبيعات السلحة إلى باكستان ‪ ،‬إل‬ ‫أن تحسن الحوار رمع الوليات المتحدة يمكن أن يفتح رمجالت أخرى رمن التفاعل الذي يمكن أن تستفيد المصالح‬ ‫الهندية‪ .‬وأعقب اتنديرا غاتندي تنجاحا كبيرا عام ‪ 1982‬لزيارة دولة للوليات المتحدة رمن خلل سلسلة رمن‬ ‫التبادلت رفيعة المستوى ‪ ،‬بما في ذلك الزيارات التي اقام بها جورج بوش تنائب الرئيس ووزير الخارجية جورج‬ ‫شولتز الى الهند‪ .‬بالضافة إلى ذلك ‪ ،‬في عام ‪ 1982‬بين الجاتنبين حل خلفهما بشأن ارمدادات الواقود واقطع الغيار‬ ‫لمحطة الطااقة النووية في تارابور‪ .‬في عام ‪ 1984‬اقررت الوليات المتحدة لتوسيع عمليات تنقل التكنولوجيا إلى‬ ‫الهند‪.‬‬ ‫استمر التجاه الحترار في العلاقات بين تنيودلهي وواشنطن رمع هذه الزيارات عام ‪ 1985‬وعام ‪ 1987‬رمن اقبل‬ ‫رئيس الوزراء راجيف غاتندي وزير إلى واشنطن‪ .‬وعلوة على ذلك ‪ ،‬وتقدير الوليات المتحدة للدور الهند كقوة‬ ‫للستقرار في جنوب آسيا تنمت ‪ ،‬دعمت واشنطن تتحرك لنيودلهي في سري لتنكا في ‪ 1987‬و في جزر‬ ‫المالديف في عام ‪ .1988‬في رمنتصف ‪ 1980s‬والمتأخرة ‪ ،‬والزيارات المتبادلة بين الوليات المتحدة وزير الدفاع‬ ‫وزير الدفاع الهندي يررمز برتنارمج رمتواضع ولكن تزايد التعاون في رمجال التكنولوجيا العسكرية ورمسائل دفاعية‬ ‫أخرى‪ .‬في عام ‪ 1989‬وصلت الوليات المتحدة للستثمار في الهند ‪ 1‬رمليار دولر أرمريكي‪.‬‬ ‫كاتنت الخلفات الواضحه بين الحكورمات الهندية والوليات المتحدة آراء رمتباينة بشأن طائفة واسعة رمن القضايا‬ ‫الدولية ‪ ،‬بما في ذلك أفغاتنستان ‪ ،‬وكمبوديا ‪ ،‬والشرق الوسط وأرميركا الوسطى‪ .‬كما ظل خلفات خطيرة حول‬ ‫سياسة الوليات المتحدة تجاه باكستان ورمسألة التنتشار النووي‪ .‬و إتنتقاد الوليات المتحده المتكرر للهند فى تقديم‬ ‫المساعدات التكنولوجيه لباكستان‪ ,‬خوفا رمن البرتنارمج النووى السرى الباكستاتنى فى ذلك الواقت‪ .‬لذلك حصرت‬ ‫الوليات المتحده على تواقيع الهند على رمعاهدة التنتشار النووى‪ ,‬و شجعت على تطوير البرارمج السلميه لديها‪.‬‬ ‫في اوائل ‪ 1990s‬ساعدت الصلحات الاقتصادية تنقلة تنوعية في العلاقات بين الهند والوليات المتحدة‪ .‬واقارمت‬ ‫واشنطن بدور فعال في تسريع ائتمان صندوق النقد الدولي ‪ 1.8‬رمليار دولر أرمريكي التي تم الحصول عليها‬ ‫تنيودلهي في يناير عام ‪ 1991‬للتعارمل رمع أزرمة الديون الخارجية المدفوعات حادة‪ .‬وغير ذلك رمن التفااقيات‬ ‫الاقتصاديه الثنائيه و المعوتنات الغذائيه‪.‬‬ ‫وكان التنسحاب السوفياتي رمن أفغاتنستان في عام ‪ 1989‬له عارمل اساسى الى اعاده واشنطن لتققيم علاقاتها رمع‬ ‫باكستان‪ ,‬و التقرب رمن تنيو دلهى‪ ,‬بسبب رمخاوف دارت حول برتنارمج باكستان للسلحة النووية وعلقت الوليات‬ ‫المتحدة رمساعدات عسكرية وااقتصادية لهذا البلد فى ‪ .1990‬و ذلك رمما ارا ح الهند‪ ,‬وبدأت واشنطن تأخذ تنهجا‬ ‫أكثر توازتنا في التعارمل رمع رمشكلة كشمير رمنذ ذلكك الواقت‪ .‬حثت كل الطرفين على حل النزاع بينهما بالطرق‬ ‫السلمية وفقا لحكام اتفاق سيمل‪ .‬بالضافه الى ذلك ‪ ،‬بدأت الوليات المتحدة تضغط على باكستان لواقف دعمها‬ ‫للتنفصاليين الكشميريين والبنجابية السيخ‪ .‬بالضافة إلى الجهود التي بذلتها سابقا لمنع تقديم المساعدة إلى‬ ‫الرهابيين السيخ في الوليات المتحدة في أعقاب التفجيرات الرهابية في بورمباي رمارس ‪1993‬‬ ‫و الذى كان رمعظمها بتحريض رمن باكستان‪.‬‬

‫‪310‬‬

‫شملت صور التعاون ارتفاع التعاون العسكري‪ ,‬عقد رمؤتمر الثنائي في الشؤون الرمنية الاقليمية ‪ ،‬لمنااقشة‬ ‫إرمدادات السلحة والتكنولوجيا العسكرية‪.‬‬ ‫في عام ‪ 1993‬ظهرت الهند والوليات المتحدة رملتزرمة بتحسين العلاقات والتعاون الثنائي على الرغم رمن‬ ‫الخلفات بينهما بسبب رفض الهند للتواقيع على رمعاهدة عدم اتنتشار السلحة النووية وعدم المشاركة في‬ ‫المنااقشات رمع الوليات المتحدة وروسيا والصين وباكستان لتنشاء جنوب آسيا خالية رمن السل ح النووي‪ .‬ورمع ذلك‬ ‫‪ ،‬وجهت واشنطن جهودها لضبط العلاقات بين تنيودلهي وإسلم آباد رمن أجل تجميد أو لفة ظهورهم برارمج‬ ‫السلحة النووية‪ .‬ورمع ذلك ‪ ،‬ظلت العلاقات رمتوتره بينهما لفتره ااقليميا و عالميا‪.‬‬ ‫إتنتقد بعض المحللين السياسيين الهنود الوليات المتحدة لتتبع "سياسة المسارين"‪ .‬رمن تناحية ‪ ،‬دعمت واشنطن‬ ‫إصل ح تنيودلهي الاقتصادية وسهلت القروض الدولية الى الهند ‪ ،‬ولكن ‪ ،‬رمن تناحية أخرى ‪ ،‬فإتنه واصل بل هوادة‬ ‫خطة التنضمام إلى اقوة الهند في تحقيق أهداف الرمم المتحدة رمنع اتنتشار السلحة النووية للدول ‪ ،‬واستخدم اقضايا‬ ‫حقوق التنسان لجبار الهند على تحقيق اهاف )اجندة( واشنطن‪ .‬رمعبريين عن خوفهم بظهور الوليات المتحده‬ ‫كقوه عظمى تحاول فرض رمعاييرها الخاصة لقيم الديمقراطية ‪ ،‬والتنسان حقوق التنسان ‪ ،‬والسواق الحرة‪.‬‬ ‫وتخشى الهند أن رؤية الوليات المتحدة لاقارمة تنظام عالمي جديد ‪ ،‬ليس فقط رمن شأتنه أن يضر بمصالح دول‬ ‫العالم الثالث ااقتصاديا وسياسيا ‪ ،‬ولكن أيضا الضرار رمحرك الهند لتصبح اقوة رائدة في تنظام رمتعدد الاقطاب‪.‬‬ ‫و بعد اتفاق الطرفيين ان رمستوى العلاقات وصلت الى أدتنى رمستويتها خلل عقديين‪ ,‬على الرغم رمن أن الوليات‬ ‫المتحدة أصبحت الشريك التجاري الرئيسي للهند‪ .‬وعلى هذه الخلفية ‪ ،‬زار رئيس الوزراء "راو" الوليات‬ ‫المتحدة في مايو ‪ 1994‬لجراء جولة رمن المحادرثات هادئ رمع الرئيس كلينتون لزيادة العلاقات الثنائيه‬ ‫الاقتصاديه بين البلدين‪ ,‬رمع تحديث التفاهم بشأن تنقل التكنولوجيا الرفيعة ‪ ،‬وتعزيز التعاون في رمجال الدفاع ‪،‬‬ ‫وإتنشاء رمبادرة الشراكة التجارية‪.‬‬ ‫في أوائل عام ‪ 1995‬بشرت الزيارات المتبادله بعلاقات اكثر استقرارا بين البلدين بشأن تصورات ارمنيه‬ ‫‪326‬‬ ‫واستثمارات في رمجال التصالت ‪ ،‬والرعاية الصحية ‪ ،‬والتأرمين ‪ ،‬والتمويل ‪ ،‬واقطاعات السيارات‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -3‬العلقات الحاليه‪:‬‬ ‫في باركستان ‪:‬‬ ‫عقد التبادلت سرية رمتعددة حول الطوارئ فى باكستان ‪ ،‬بما في ذلك اتنهيار الدولة الباكستاتنية وشبح الجيش‬ ‫الباكستاتني فقدان السيطرة على ترساتنتها النووية‪.‬‬ ‫يجب على الوليات المتحدة بشكل كبير شرط كل المساعدات العسكرية لباكستان في رمكافحة الرهاب رمستمرة‬ ‫تدابير رملموسة رمن جاتنب الجيش الباكستاتني ضد الجماعات التي تستهدف الهند والوليات المتحدة ‪ ،‬بما في ذلك‬ ‫في أفغاتنستان‪.‬‬ ‫يجب على الوليات المتحدة أن تستمر في تقديم المساعدة التقنية الى باكستان لحماية ترساتنتها النووية ‪ ،‬ورمنع تنقل‬ ‫هذه التكنولوجيا إلى أطراف رثالثة‪.‬‬ ‫يجب على الهند رمواصلة المفاوضات الثنائية رمع باكستان حول جميع القضايا المعلقة ‪ ،‬بما في ذلك رمسألة كشمير‪.‬‬ ‫وينبغي للهند رمحاولة لبدء رمحادرثات رثنائية رمع باكستان الهدوء على أفغاتنستان‪ ,‬وكذلك المنااقشات الثلرثية رمع‬ ‫افغاتنستان‪.‬‬ ‫في أفغانستان ‪:‬‬ ‫‪326‬‬ ‫‪Country studies “http://countrystudies.us/india/134.htm” 28/02/2012‬‬

‫‪311‬‬

‫ينبغي على الهند ‪ ،‬بدعم رمن الوليات المتحدة ‪ ،‬الستمرار في تكثيف علاقاتها رمع حكورمة أفغاتنستان في المجالت‬ ‫الاقتصادية والدبلورماسية والرمنية‪.‬‬ ‫يجب على الوليات المتحدة والهند تحديد رما إذا كان التدريب على تنطاق واسع لقوات الرمن الهندية سواء في‬ ‫أفغاتنستان أو في الهند ‪ ،‬وسيكون رمفيدا‪.‬‬ ‫على الصين وآسيا ‪:‬‬ ‫يجب على الوليات المتحدة تعرب عن دعمها القوي لصعود الهند السلمية بإعتبارها عنصرا حاسما رمن عناصر‬ ‫الرمن والستقرار في آسيا‪.‬‬ ‫يجب على الوليات المتحدة والهند كسب تعاون الصين بشأن المسائل ذات الهتمام العالمي والاقليمي‪ .‬ل رغبة‬ ‫لكلهما فى رمواجهة رمع الصين ‪ ،‬أو لتشكيل ائتلف حكورمي لحتواء الصين‪.‬‬ ‫وتنظرا الجراءات الصينية رمثير للقلق والمتحارمل رمنذ عام ‪ ، 2007‬ينبغي على الوليات المتحدة والهند وجيزة‬ ‫باتنتظام كل رمنهما الخر على تقييماتها لتكثيف المشاورات والصين على الرمن في آسيا‪.‬‬ ‫في الشرق الوسط ‪:‬‬ ‫يجب على الوليات المتحدة والهند التعاون على المبادرة رمتعددة الوجه لدعم التحولت الديمقراطية في الشرق‬ ‫الوسط رمع المصلحة العربية‪.‬‬ ‫يجب على الهند تكثيف المنااقشات رمع ايران بشأن الستقرار في العراق وأفغاتنستان‪.‬‬ ‫حول التعاون القتصاندي ‪ ،‬ينبغي على الوليات المتحدة والهند ‪:‬‬ ‫تعزيز الحوار الستراتيجي المشترك برئاسة وزيرة الخارجية الرميركية ووزير الشؤون الخارجية الهندية لتشمل‬ ‫الاقتصاد والتجارة‪.‬‬ ‫تبدأ المنااقشات حول اتفااقية التجارة الحرة ‪ ،‬ولكن اقد ل تكون رممكنا سياسيا في الوليات المتحدة لختتام‬ ‫المفاوضات في المدى القريب‪.‬‬ ‫بشأن تغير المناخ والتكنولوجيا والطاقة ‪ ،‬وينبغي للتعاون ‪:‬‬ ‫تركزت الجتماعات على ردم الخلفات وتحديد المجالت البداعية للتعاون‪.‬‬ ‫اجراء دراسة جدوى رمشتركة بشأن برتنارمج تعاوتني لتطوير الفضائية الطااقة الشمسية رمع هدف إيفاد اقدرة رمجدية‬ ‫تجاريا في غضون عقدين رمن الزرمن‪.‬‬ ‫على التعاون في مجال الدفاع ‪ ،‬يجب على الوليات المتحدة ‪:‬‬ ‫تدريب وتقديم الخبرة للجيش الهندي في رمجالت رمثل الفضاء وعمليات الفضاء اللكتروتني حيث ان الدفاع لدى‬ ‫الهند حاليا ضعيفة ‪ ،‬ولكن القطاع المدتني والقطاع الخاص لديه تنقاط اقوة‪.‬‬ ‫يجب على الوليات المتحدة أن تساعد على تعزيز صناعة الدفاع الهندية الصلية‪ .‬ينبغي على الوليات المتحدة‬ ‫التعارمل رمع الهند كمعادل لحليف للوليات المتحدة لغراض الكشف عن تكنولوجيا الدفاع وضوابط التصدير‬ ‫‪327‬‬ ‫للدفاع والسلع ذات الستخدام المزدوج ‪ ،‬على الرغم رمن الهند ل تسعى إلى علاقة التحالف الفعلي‪.‬‬ ‫‪327‬‬ ‫‪Committee on foreign relations “http://www.cfr.org/india/top-us-indian-strategists-agree-shared-national‬‬‫‪interests/p25873” 28/02/2012‬‬

‫‪312‬‬

‫العلقات الهنديه ‪ -‬الصينيه‪:‬‬ ‫رمنذ أكثر رمن ‪ 2000‬سنة حافظت شعب التبت الهوية الثقافية المتميزة ‪ ،‬واللغة ‪ ،‬والدين ؛‬ ‫في حين أتنه في عام ‪ ، 1949‬أخذت القوات المسلحة لجمهورية الصين الشعبية على المناطق الشراقية رمن المناطق‬ ‫التبتية‪ ،‬وبحلول رمارس عام ‪ 1951‬احتلت عاصمة التبت "لسا" وفرض حصارا على رمباتني الحكورمة التبتية ؛‬ ‫بينما في ‪ ، 1951‬تحت تهديد الحتلل العسكري ‪ ،‬واقعت حكورمة التبت اتفاق ينص على الحفاظ على هذه‬ ‫المؤسسة للدالي لرما والحكورمة الذاتية المحلية واستمرار النظام السياسي ‪ ،‬والحكم الذاتي لسكان التبت داخل‬ ‫الشعب بجمهورية الصين ؛‬ ‫في حين أن يوم ‪ 10‬رمارس ‪ ، 1959 ،‬ارتفع شعب التبت حتى في لسا ضد الحكم الصيني ردا على الجراءات‬ ‫الصينية لتقويض الحكم الذاتي وعلى شائعات تقول إن السلطات الصينية تعتزم إعتقال تنزين غياتسو ‪ 14 ،‬اقداسة‬ ‫الدالي لرما ‪ ،‬الروحية والزرمنية زعيم شعب التبت ؛‬ ‫في حين أن يوم ‪ 17‬رمارس ‪ ، 1959 ،‬بدأ جيش التحرير الشعبى الصينى هجورما على رمقر إاقارمت الدالي لرما ؛‬ ‫في حين لدى وصوله إلى الهند ‪ ،‬أعلن الدالي لرما أتنه يمكن ان يفعل اكثر في المنفى لبطل الحقوق وتقرير‬ ‫المصير للتبتيين رمما كان يمكن أن يفعل فى الراضي التي تسيطر عليها داخل القوات المسلحة لجمهورية الصين‬ ‫الشعبية ؛‬ ‫في حين كان في استقبال الدالي لرما رمن اقبل حكورمة وشعب الهند ‪ ،‬وشهادة على الروابط الثقافية والدينية ورثيق‬ ‫بين الهند والتبت والعجاب المتبادل للفلسفات اللعنف التي تبناها المهاتما غاتندي والدالي لرما ؛‬ ‫بينما تحت اقيادة الدالي لرما ‪ ،‬تغلبت التبتيين المحن والمصاعب لاقارمة رمجتمعات حيوية في المنفى في الهند ‪،‬‬ ‫والوليات المتحدة وأوروبا وأرماكن أخرى رمن أجل الحفاظ على الهوية الثقافية التبتية واللغة والدين ؛‬ ‫في حين أن رمجموعة الدالي لرما الى غرس الديمقراطية في المجتمع المنفى ‪ ،‬الرمر الذي أدى إلى إدارة التبت‬ ‫المركزية المنتخبة ديمقراطيا رمع الفروع التنفيذية والتشريعية ‪ ،‬فضل عن السلطة القضائية ؛‬ ‫في حين أن يوم ‪ 10‬رمارس في كل عام احتفال التبتيين الظروف التي أدت إلى الفصل بين الدالي لرما رمن التبت‬ ‫وكفا ح التبتيين للحفاظ على هويتهم في رمواجهة سياسات الستيعاب لجمهورية الصين الشعبية ؛‬ ‫رمرت السنين واقد أرسلت الوليات المتحدة الكوتنغرس رسائل اقوية وواضحة يدين اقمع الحكورمة الصينية لحقوق‬ ‫التنسان لسكان التبت ‪ ،‬بما في ذلك القيود المفروضة على حرية رممارسة الدين ‪ ،‬واحتجاز السجناء السياسيين ‪،‬‬ ‫واختفاء جدهون شويكييي تنييما ‪ ،‬والباتنتشن لرما ؛‬ ‫في حين أتنه في أكتوبر ‪ ، 2007‬تلقى تنزين غياتسو ‪ ،‬والدالي لرما رميدالية الكوتنغرس الذهبية تقديرا لجهود حياته‬ ‫لتعزيز السلم في جميع أتنحاء العالم واقرار غير العنيفة لقضية التبت ؛‬

‫‪313‬‬

‫في حين أتنه هو الهدف رمن حكورمة الوليات المتحدة ‪ ،‬بما يتمشى عبر إدارات الحزاب السياسية المختلفة ‪،‬‬ ‫لتعزيز الحوار الموضوعي بين حكورمة جمهورية الصين الشعبية والدالي لرما أو رممثليه رمن أجل الحصول على‬ ‫الحكم الذاتي الحقيقي لشعب التبت ؛‬ ‫في حين أخفقت رثماتني جولت رمن الحوار بين المبعورثين الخاصين للدالي لرما ورممثلين عن حكورمة جمهورية‬ ‫الصين الشعبية لتحقيق أية تنتائج رملموسة وجوهرية ؛‬ ‫في حين أن إدارة الوليات المتحدة رمن ‪ 2008‬تقرير اقطري الدولة لحقوق التنسان ينص على `]الصينية[‬ ‫الحكورمة سجل حقوق التنسان في رمناطق التيبت في الصين تدهورت بشدة خلل السنة‪ .‬واصلت السلطات في‬ ‫إرتكاب اتنتهاكات خطيرة لحقوق التنسان ‪ ،‬بما في ذلك العتقال والتعذيب التعسفية والحتجاز خارج تنطاق‬ ‫القضاء ‪ ،‬والاقارمة الجبرية‪ .‬القمع الرسمي لحريات التعبير ‪ ،‬وزيادة الدين ‪ ،‬وتكوين الجمعيات ‪ ،‬والتنقل بشكل‬ ‫رملحوظ بعد اتندلع احتجاجات في أتنحاء هضبة التبت في الربيع‪ .‬واصلت الحفاظ على التراث والتنمية فى التبت‬ ‫الفريدة الدينية والثقافية واللغوية التي ينبغي للقلق "؛‬

‫في حين اقدم رمبعورثو الدالي لرما في تنوفمبر ‪ ، 2008‬بناء على طلب رمن المسؤولين الصينيين ‪ ،‬على رمذكرة الحكم‬ ‫الذاتي الحقيقي لشعب التبت وضع الخطوط العريضة لخطة للحكم الذاتي يهدف إلى أن تكون رمتسقة رمع دستور‬ ‫‪328‬‬ ‫جمهورية الصين الشعبية‪.‬‬

‫البرنامج النووى الهندى ‪:‬‬‫إن للهند على المستوى الرسمى العديد من السهامات نحو انشاء برنامج نووى سلمى و الدليل على ذلك هو أنه‬ ‫فى عام ‪ ,1948‬اقدمت الهند توصية للجمعية العامة للمم المتحدة تشدد فيها على ضرورة وجود سيطرة فعلية‬ ‫على الطااقة النووية‪ ,‬فى عام ‪ , 1949‬السيد "بينجال رو" و هو العضو الدائم للهند فى المم المتحدة تولى‬ ‫رئاسة اللجنة الفرعية الخاصة بتقديم ااقترا ح لتقييد و منع انتشار السلحة النووية ‪ ,‬و فى عام ‪ 1978‬ااقترحت‬ ‫الهند اتفااقية دولية لحظر استخدام أو تهديد باستخدام السلحة النووية‪.‬‬ ‫لقد بدأت الهند مشروعها النووى فى مركز بهابها للبحوث النووية‪ ,‬الذى كان يعتمد بالساس على وفرة الثوريوم‬ ‫و اقد ساعدت الوليات المتحدة الهند فى مشروعها النووى السلمى و المدنى ‪ ,‬ظل المشروع النووى الهندى‬ ‫يتمتع بالطابع السلمى حتى نهاية الخمسينيات و لكن مع بداية السنينيات بدأت تطرأ تطورات عديدة على‬ ‫الستقرار فى المنطقة مما كان له تأثيره على برنامج الهند النووى و التجاه نحو السلحة النووي و ذلك لن‬ ‫الهند محاطة بمجموعة من التهديدات على أمنها القومى الممثلة فى باكستان و الصين و زادت الزمة تفااقما‬ ‫عندما كانت العلاقات الباكستانية – المريكية ودية و تعاونية‪ .‬فيما يخص الصراع الهندى الباكستانى على إاقليم‬ ‫كشمير و من بعده مشكلة بنجلديش ‪ ,‬فهذا أثار اقلق السلطة السياسية الهندية و كذلك بالنسبة للصين ‪ ,‬فقرب‬ ‫الهند من حزب بكين الشيوعى يسبب لها الكثير من الخطار و الهوال ‪ ,‬فالصراع الحدودى بين البلدين فى عام‬ ‫‪ 1962‬أثبت عدم جاهزية و استعداد القوات العسكرية الهندية و زاد من التوتر فى العلاقات بين البلدين‪ ,‬بعد‬ ‫مرور سنتين على الصراع أجرت الصين تجربة للسلحة النووية و مما جعل المسئولين الهنود يتسائلون عن‬ ‫مدى امكانية تنفيذ و نهج سياسات نووية‪.‬‬

‫‪328‬‬ ‫‪Committee on foreign relations http://www.cfr.org/human-rights/house-resolution-tibet-hr-226/p18759‬‬ ‫‪29/02/2012.‬‬

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‫كان الرد اافعل الدولى مختلط بين تأييد و شكوك ‪ ,‬فدول عدم النحياز أيدت المشروع الهندى و التقدم‬ ‫التكنولوجى الذى وصلت له الهند و بعثت فرنسا بتأييد ايضا و تشجيع للجنة الطااقة الذرية الهندية و لكن‬ ‫الوليات المتحدة كانت غير متحمسة بل و ساعدت على اعااقة و عدم دعم المشروع النووى الهندى ‪.‬‬ ‫استئنف مشروع الساحة النووية بتولى )انديرا غاندى ( السلطة فى ‪ , 1980‬و فى عام ‪ , 1983‬اقامت بعمل‬ ‫"برنامج متكام ل للصواريخ المواجهة" ‪ ,‬و فى عام ‪ ,1989‬اقامت بتجربة الصواريخ اقريبة و متوسطة المدى‪.‬‬ ‫فى ‪ 27‬يوليو ‪2009‬و اطلقت الهند أول غواصة تعمل بالطااقة النووية‪.‬‬ ‫انه من الواضح و الجلى أن الوليات المتحدة المريكية كانت ل تعارض البرنامج النووى الهندى و الدلة على‬ ‫ذلك كثيرة فمنها على سبيل الحصر ‪ ,‬عندما رفعت الوليات المتحدة العقو بات المقررة على الهند و باكستان‬ ‫نظير جهودهم فى مساعدة الوليات المتحدة فى حربها على الرهاب فى سبتمبر ‪ , 2001‬ايضا فى ‪ 2‬أكتوبر‬ ‫‪ , 2008‬واقعت الهند اتفااقا مع الوليات المتحدة ترفع فيه الوليات المتحدة العقوبات عن الهند التى كانت تنص‬ ‫على واقف التجارة النووية مع الهند و ذلك من خلل توفير المساعدة على الطاق النووية المدنية فى الهند و‬ ‫توسيع نطاق التعاون بين الوليات المتحدة والهند في مجال الطااقة وتكنولوجيا الاقمار الصناعية‪ .‬كذلك فان‬ ‫التحيز الشديد للوليات المتحدة لصالح الهند اقد يؤدى بسهولة شديدة لشعال التنافس النووى بين الهند و باكستان‬ ‫و بين الهند و الصين ايضا‪ .‬و اخيرا ‪,‬أن التفاق النووى بين الهند و الوليات المتحدة ل يحد من انتاج المواد‬ ‫النشطارية التى تنتجها الهند و ل من عدد السلحة النووية‪.‬‬ ‫رغم كل هذه الدلة و الدوافع سالفة الذكر ال ان هناك عدة تساؤلت اقد تثار‪ ..‬الى أى مدى ستستمر الوليات‬ ‫المتحدة فى اتباع تلك السياسة مع الهند؟ و ما الذى اقد يحدث لكى يجعلها تعدل عن تلك السياسة )سياسة‬ ‫‪330 329‬‬ ‫التهاون(؟‬

‫‪329‬‬ ‫‪India’s Nuclear Program, Volha Charnysh, “http://nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear‬‬‫‪weapons/issues/proliferation/india/charnysh_india_analysis.pdf”28/02/2012‬‬

‫‪330‬‬ ‫‪Committee on foreign relations “http://www.cfr.org/india/us-india-nuclear-deal/p9663” 29/02/2012‬‬

‫‪315‬‬