Studio Booklet: Guayaquil, Ecuador. Social-ecological challenges in times of climate change. by MaHS-MaULP

Social-ecological challenges in times of climate change Landscape Urbanism Studio

Guayas River Delta, Ecuador

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1_ Introduction and Fieldwork

transect 10x100km 2_ Vision for the Guayas River Delta

3_ Strategic projects Cerrito de los MorreĂąos

Suburbio

Monte Sinai / Socio Vivienda

Daule

4_ Thesis Research 5_ Acknowledgements

four 5x5km sites & 13 individual site

1_Introduction and Fieldwork5

Introduction

Guayaquil – Ecuador’s main seaport – is a 70% self-built city located amidst the most biodiverse estuarine complex of the South Pacific. The city was founded at the confluence of the freshwater basins of the Daule and Babahoyo Rivers in the north, and the maritime environment of the Estero Salado and the Guayas River Estuary in the south. This unique location makes the Guayas River Delta not only the most complex and productive ecosystem of the country; it is also the most biodiverse environment of the entire South Pacific. Amidst the fragile riverine and estuarine environment, rapid urban growth led to the massive occupation of a number of flood prone areas (e.g. alluvial plains, streams, creeks and valley floors). Consequently, a range of riverbank communities is now exposed to water-related problems such as flooding, water logging, saline intrusion and pollution. Climate change will only worsen the situation. The city recurrently experienced the immediate consequences of a shifting climate and is considered one of the world’s coastal cities at highest risk of damaging floods in relation to climate change. In Guayaquil, climate change is impacting on the entire territory: threatening urban tissues and putting the fragile estuarine ecosystem under severe pressure. The impacts felt at different points within the wider estuarine landscape – from the upper freshwater basins to the lower estuaries – pose an array of social-ecological challenges to communities inhabiting the fragile landscapes. The design studio explores the present and future challenges of four 5x5km strategic sites along a transect of 10x100km in the Guayas River Delta with a socio-ecological lens and ditto agenda. The studio focuses on the ways in which rhythms of community-led incremental development can interplay with long-term amplitudes of ecological systems. It examines to what extent ongoing social and ecological dynamics (e.g. multi-household family arrangements, daily cycles of socio-economic practices and climate change induced ecological shifts) can be twisted to intertwine constructively ecological cycles and urban development waves to come.

Framing the Territory TRANSECT 10x100km

The transect crosses 3 major environments of the Guayas River Delta, that runs from an estuarine complex to a sweet water basin. These have been the object of abusive and exploitative monofunctional practices which have distorted the dynamics of the original ecosystems (mangroves, marshlands, tropical forests etc.) and threatened the biodiversity of the largest RB on South Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Pacific Coast. The southern tip consists of salty water, where there used to be massive mangrove forests that have been decreased by 50% in the last 35 years. The mangroves used to spread further north into the brackish lower estuaries of the Estero Salado. Tropical forest and seasonal dry forest were the original dominant landscapes further upstream. Environmental deterioration has been caused by intensive shrimp farming, urbanization and intensive cash crop agriculture resulting in tropical forest and mangrove deforestation. Future urbanization rates (now set at 1,6% for the major urban area of Guayaquil and 4% for the Daule region) will intensify the pressure on the environment, making water scarcity and food security serious issues.

Climate Change in the Guayas River Delta TRANSECT 10x100km

The severe pressure under which the different landscapes and riverbank settlements are under is worsened by already occurring climate change and its future unfolding if no action is taken. A ‘zero scenario’ condition (no action taken, showing a day in 2100) for the GRB would manifest the following interconnected effects: The predicted mean sea level rise in 2093 is of shortly under 1 m (88 cm: Jevrejeva et al. 2016). In the most extreme scenario, the increasing sea level - in combination with tidal amplification and aguajes (spring tides, +0,6m rise), increased precipitation and temporary higher sea levels in times of El Niño phenomenon (+0,5m) - will make a large amount of land unusable for living and production, flooding productive land and residential tissue. Areas under 3 metres will be the first to suffer from such flooding. Changing precipitation patterns have a direct effect on the salinity of estuarine waters and the tidal zone may be subject to a northward shift. The El Niño phenomenon does not only cause higher precipitation (+ 300% in 1998) , but also abnormally warm and less saline coastal waters, which will impact the mangrove ecosystem that requires a saline environment. Besides shifting salinity levels, extreme precipitation will also result in increased surface flooding and water-logging, with related effects of erosion if nothing is done to slow and orient run-off. Flooding is therefore not to be illustrated with a fixed number or event but is a result of a combination of complex processes.

However, El Niño will not be the only extreme event to intensify, but its counterpart La Niña is also expected to become more frequent and intense. In this case extreme drought will characterise the area and the provision of water for irrigation and domestic use will be hard to upkeep, especially if saline intrusion persists to the point of making the La Toma water station unusable. This situation will be further worsened by the already occurring temperature rise and UHI effects, which are more intense in the tightly laid out residential tissue of Guayaquil. The average air temperature of the Guayaquil territory has already risen by 2 degrees Celsius, past the point of no return, and is projected to increase 6 degrees Celsius more in the coming 75 years. The urban heat island effect - caused by evaporation, lack of vegetation and blocking of air flows by densely built-up areas - will further enhance this temperature rise. The temperature change will make it impossible for certain crops to grow, threatening food security. Temperature rise will also increase health issues, since it facilitates larval development of mosquitoes carrying diseases such as dengue.

CERRITO DE LOS MORREÃ&#x2018;OS

Fareeha Sheikh Amina Kaskar Mara Tomulescu

A demangroved & water-scarce southern tip

The fishing town of Cerrito de los MorreĂąos is located on the Chupadores Chico Island in the Gulf of Guayaquil. The village counts approximately 600 inhabitants and is surrounded by the brackish waters of the Pacific Ocean, and is reached after one and a half hours by canoe from Guayaquil. The communitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; main economic activities are crab catching and the fishing of the boca chica and oysters, which they sell on waterfront markets in Guayaquil. The village surrounded landscape covers more than 80 percent of the Ecuadorian mangroves, yet also experienced the adverse impacts of large-scale aquaculture (mainly shrimp farming) that have caused extensive reductions of protective mangrove forest and salt flats. In this extremely fragile landscape, the aqueous terrains of the estuarine ecosystem are extremely vulnerable for minor shifts in water temperature and salinity levels. Climate change has put even more pressure on the ecosystem, on which the artisanal fishing communities depend for their daily subsistence.

Fishing and crab catching territories

NOTATIONAL MAPPIN FISHING AND CRAB CATCHING Caminos de Pesca y Cangrejo

LEGEND: Community centre/ school Church Stores Single storey house Double storey house

“After the fishermen pass away, their spirits meet here again. They continue their conversations in the same place they use to come to in life.”

Water system Electricity generator

V Vegetable garden

Conversation cove

Playa

Ma ng ro ve

Cemetary V

e out er no ca

Mangrove

Hill “Potable water is sold for 35cents per 6gallons and are collected from the distribution points.”

Viewpoint

Cerritas de los Morrenõs Water tanks

Arrival jetty “Potable water is delivered to the island twice a month by boat from Guayaquil.”

“The water is pumped from two main tanks to four distribution points in the village.”

Community centre

Water tank

“The cemetary is built on top of an ancestral burial ground and archeological site.”

Cemetary

Village generator School

Boat yard

generator

Ancestral fishing pond

Decommissioned shrimp farm

“The community needs to decide on what the shrimp farms should be in the future, but it should be something meaningful.”

“The generator uses 18 gallons of diesel per day, the electricity is only on for a few hours in the evening.”

Mangrove

Morreños - Estero Salado - Ester Flow of goods and human capital Mangrove

Cerritas de los Morrenõs in the Guayas River

Mangrove Scale 1:2000 (A2)

DEPENDENCY AND EXCHANGE Dependencia and Intercambios

CERRITOS DE LOS MORREÑOS

Distruction of mangrove Use of Chemical Low Tide= Good Fishing Interaction between Ecosystem Pollution Crab & other acquatic inhabitant in danger

Disposal of Chemical & eutrophication of natural water ( excess of nutrient which induce growth of aquatic animals)

Crab catching

SECTIONS

EFFECTS ON FISHING ACTIVITIES Effectos en las Actividades de Pesca

Shrimp farm

High tide = reaction

SECTIONS

Fishing and crab catching territories

VARIATION OF LANDSCAPE: FAUNA AND FLORA Cambios del Paisaje: Fauna y Flora

Low Tide= Interaction between Ecosystem

Flow of goods and human capital

Cerritas de los Morrenõs in the Guayas River High vs. low tide = fish catching

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK STUDENT VERSION

SUBURBIO Bindi Raditya Purnama Yuying Sun Georgina Truter

Incrementally settled marshlands

The former informal and now consolidated settlements of Suburbio – formed between 1954 and 1984 – accommodate close to 600.000 inhabitants that account for almost 20% of the total metropolitan population of 3.2 million (INEC, 2017). The low-income settlements encroached on ecological fragile zones invading the Estero Salado. After living many years on stilts, bamboo homes were gradually replaced. Three to five decades of incremental densification and service provision turned incipient ‘squatted’ living spaces into amazingly consolidated neighborhoods.

However, the incremental land infill and urbanization buried natural

creeks and estuaries, separating and clogging the natural drains and overflow towards the river. Open and green spaces gradually dissolved through the pressure for new residential spaces and infrastructures dilapidated (due to its aging and salt intrusion) and need urgent retrofitting for the increased population density and to prevent waterlogging. As estuarine living spaces experience many overlapping cycles: from semi-diurnal tides, to spring and neap tides and aguajes, to decadal and extreme events. Located in a lower basin, on the long run the area is particularly vulnerable for sea-level rise. What socio-economic practices and activities can be found along the road and water networks? How do daily practices of the livelihoods interact with the overlapping ecological cycles? How do communities transform their living environment to cope with shifting ecological cycles?

MONTE SINAI / SOCIO VIVIENDA Mahmoud Al salti Modupe Osunkoyu Kofoworola Maria Skourdouli Marrije Van den Eynde

A threatened wildland urban interface

At the edge of the city of Guayaquil, the latest wave of urbanization is meeting the surrounding ChongĂłn Colonche mountain range with its seasonal dry forest. This latest urban frontier started to emerge after the end of the 1990s. The surrounding forest has gained a status of protection, which is ironically being violated by the national low-income housing programs of Socio Vivienda programs that house GuayaquileĂąos relocated from Suburbio, and incremental houses created on trafficked land. Settled on the valley floors of the Cordillera Chongon Colonche mountain range, the settlements are extremely vulnerable to flooding due to water run-off from the mountains.

DAULE Katerina Eleftheriou Shauni Marchand Xongxia Pu

Customary Ridged Fields ruined by Rice

The village of Daule stems from the ancient indigenous settlements of the Daulis and currently counts a population of 65.000 inhabitants . The settlement was founded on the floodplain of the Daule River north of Guayaquil: a river with a significant flow that rises from the Santo Domingo region with the name Peripa, supplying freshwater for the entire conurbation of Guayaquil. The areas main economic production comes from the rice fields, which is the main source of income for many low-income families working in the fields or in the piladoras. Yearly, Dauleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s paddy fields and crops are devastated by floods alternating with drought, which is amplified by the phenomenon of El NiĂąo and La NiĂąa. This has enormous consequences on the livelihoods and supplies of small farmers. While they depends on their rice crops for their daily subsistence, agriculture and the changing land cover of the riverbanks has also caused erosion and sedimentation downstream, leading to severe issues of soils and water management in relation to flood protection for the city of Guayaquil. What are the different socio-economic practices that lowincome communities develop? What are main ecological shifts found in the landscape? How are livelihoods affected by changing air temperature and precipitation patterns and what practices do they develop to cope with a shifting landscape and climate?

Cerritos de los Morrenos Pictured, visual descriptions of the island of Cerritos de los Morrenos. The village is located on a hill, and has the Settlement patterns advantage over other fishing villages of being on higher ground, protected from flooding and sea level rise. The and landscape commercial lansdcape is limited to peoples homes and is not palpably visible.

2_Vision for the Guayas River Delta 1

ECUADOR STUDIO

TRANSECT VISION

The transect vision foresees the recovery of original landscape logics by rebalancing the interplay of landscape, settlement and infrastructure. The main strategies are: (1) afforestation (mangrove, tropical forest) and integrated productive landscapes (integrated aquaculture, agro-forestry), (2) topographical manipulations to leave more space for water to flow, be harvested, collected and cleaned (e.g. soft dikes, socles, wetland parks, tidal parks, reservoirs, cut-and-fill), (3) diversifying open (public) space and built typologies according to degrees of wetness across the transect and according to range of specific water-related problems (e.g. surface flooding, water logging, pollution), (4) introducing and reinforcing alternative mobility systems (e.g. bus-rapidtransport for inter-town connections, bikeways for proximity connections, water-based movement for broader trajectories related to trade) to accompany the expected population increase and shift (of an expected 3,7 million to the Guayas province in which to the Northern towns double in population), (5) loosening of the built fabric to reduce urban heat island (UHI) effects and on-site upgrading in ways that are sensitive to the low-income populations inhabiting the most vulnerable areas by relying on pooling of extended networks, collective resources and land sharing principles.

3_Strategic Site Strategies and Projects 9

fareeha sheikh, amina kaskar, mara tomulescu

CERRITOS DE LOS MORRENOS SELF SUSTAINING GROWTH OF MANGROVE AND COASTAL COMMUNITIES

The fishermen from the Gulf of Guayaquil live in a symbiotic but also highly sensitive relationship with the surrounding mangrove forests and daily tides. The main strategy is to create renewable and self-sustainable food sources, potable and usable water, and alternative energy, and decrease the dependency on Guayaquil.

Fareeha sheikh

REVERSE COLONIZATION RESTRUCTURING (PRIVATE) SHRIMP PONDS TO A DIVERSIFIED (PUBLIC) MANGROVE LANDSCAPE

Ecuador with its number one produce, shrimp, has a stable economy in

the South of the Gulf. By half the farm being reforested into mangrove, it

terms of its export. The industry is booming and expanding in aquaculture.

becomes a biofilter. The effluent water then can be treated in the biofilter

Guayas is a host to the maximum number of shrimp farms in the whole of

before being discharged into the estuary. The integrated ponds bring along

Ecuador, they hide in the stretch of a rich green landscape, which has an

with it the possibility of diversifying within each farm area in terms of use

unmatched resilience to climate change, is a habitat to a variety of aquatic

and produce and it helps to change the section which today is made up

organisms and lives in the brackish water, the ‘mangrove’. But the way it has

of monoculture and speaks loudly about extensive exploitation of the land.

been treated before the mankind discovered its potential, is known to all by

The dikes of the farm are changed into boardwalks. The boardwalk concept

now. Guayas River Delta and its swampland (mangroves) are now vulnerable

invites people in, it makes the farm a place of interaction and the spatial

to the climate change scenarios, sea-level rise, loss of mangroves, polluted

quality changes from being private, controlled and a secluded space to

estuary and salt water intrusions to name a few. The first phase of the design

a land parcel that is public, inviting and without boundaries. The shrimp

strategy is to reforest the lost mangrove and make the coast resilient to sea-

farm will be a hub for new job opportunities for coastal communities like

level rise in the next 10 years. Since the shrimp farms have caused the most

Cerritos. The initiatives will pave way for Eco-Tourism and Research and will

deforestation, therefore, the vision revolves around the idea of the possible

empower the communities. The resultant achieved, will be a mosaic that

restructuring of the shrimp farm in order to produce a balanced interplay

breaks free from monotony and structures the fragmented rural coastal area

between the growth of aquaculture and mangrove. The aim is to reforest

of the Guayas Delta by dealing with the issue of a deteriorating ecology

50% footprint of every shrimp farm in the Gulf of Guayaquil through the

and stitches the landscape and water by incorporating and integrating the

restoration of hydrology to rehabilitate the sedimentation process. The

potential of the ‘Majestic Mangrove’.

conditions up North will also change due to strategic decisions made in

LIFE ON THE WATER

Latin America has a history of people living and sustaining livelihoods on the water. This was most dominantly seen by the Aztecs who lived, moved and worked on the water. Guayaquil in the past also had a strong tradition of living on the water, that has in recent times been diminished.

SUBURBIO

TRANSPORT

Boats provide a fully working transport within these regions that are dominated by water and mangrove.

AMINA KASKAR

BUSINESS

rainy season

REIMAGINING THE BALANDRAS

Cerritos de los M 3 6-7

Floating market: selling and buying goods. Cutting out the middle man and empowering the local fisherman as direct goods providers.

AQUACULTURE

Fishing and fish processing, crab catching, shell fish and oyster farming.

SPECIAL PROGRAMME Waste collection and distribution, water collection and distribution, tourism, floating villages and special boats for the transport of services/professionals such as healthcare, educations, skills sharing, carpenters for the making of boats etc.

ESTERO SALADA

REVISITING WAYS OF LIVING IN THE ESTERO SALADOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S AQUATIC SPACE

Isla Puna

Main passage from Cerritos to Suburbio

MARKET DYNAMICS

Diagram showing the exc building material, food, s the coastal villages, nam Guayaquil Port. The new shift the dependancy on new sel-sustaining coast

Waste collectors and distributors Fisherman Crab catchers Market Co-operative members Farmers Handiman - workers to make boats and houses Tour guides Craft Work in integrated shrimp farms

Diagram by Mara Tomule

NEW MARKET

POTABLE WATER

Rain water harvesting

MARKET

New Job opportunities Potable water

Waste to energy cycle Agriculture Transport

AGRICULTURE Fruit trees

New floating village

CHINAMPAS

CERRITOS

Agriculture Waste management Water treatment

AQUACULTURE Oysters Fish EXISTING SHRIMP FARM

FLOATING VILLAGE

Water collection and distribution Waste pick up and drop Fisherman and crab catchers Farmers

COASTAL DECIDUO

FRESHWATER CHINAMPAS

Unique landscape within region

Indigenous Aztec agricultural floating islands

REFORESTATION OF MANGROVE

WASTE MANAGEMENT

RAINWATER HARVE

REFORESTATION OF FRUIT TREES

Sewerage and organic waste used to fertilise the is collected in cat Citrus,is coconut, banana andin plantain trees Guayaquil has historically been evident of water and markets, promoting liquid urbanism and the way in which Water chinampasa city that lives on water; this and channeled downwar

Coastal defense mechanism; defense against the increase in sea level rise and increase in salt intrusion. This site is protected as it sits within the reforested mangroved region.

EXISTING SHRIMP FARM

WATER TREATMENT

There is no need for furt

MOBILITY AND MARKET ROUTE WATER SYSTEMin early Hispanic Ecuador mountain can accom Existing shrimp farm ponds used for collection Water is treated via a natural system, filtering the many of the indigenous practices the lastly, identifying the the Boats willwhere circulate via the existing creekhumans can appropriate water-based landscapesand The fresh water will pool into this exising shrimp reducing risk of erosion and storage of rainwater (reservoir) farm and will be circulated; the water will be

water through a treatment wetland with plants and sands that will clean the water before it

exchanging organic waste and collecting water,

agriculture and aquaculture. These goods will be filtered by the crucial chinampas andin thesustaining this clean water integration of water and trade was the livelihoods of the market as a space to utilise efficiently passes through to the reservoir.when The water will be POTABLE WATER and distribute sweat water taken to the market. will then be released into the brackish water

BRACKISH WATER CHINAMPAS

Brackish water plants - agriculture and mangrove

communities. The shift that Guayaquil has made away from water has put a Grey water is recycled and treated before it is creek that will flow into the estuary.

WATER SYSTEM

Rainwater run-off is passively treated through

a filtration wetland and collected and stored in dealing with water scarcity. reservoir

aerated and will have vegatative buffer around the ponds to prevent the contamination by mosquitos.

strain on communities, resulting in a disconnection between local fisherman,

of Aquatic Vegetation (emergent, rootedis collected by workers who carry the The outcomes ofWater these approaches are that of anTypes extended floating floating, submersed and free floating) market water from the reservoir in large water containers.

suppliers and consumers, leaving fisherman vulnerable and stuck in socio-

surrounding the reservoir ponds and waterlillies, at the market,the distributed to the other fishing and village that utilises networks of the fisherman and their canoes; the pondweed and duckweed will be planted to communities and transported to the areas further

released into the estuary. The chinampas clean and filter water.

economic dependencies.

(via the existing creek). The water will be sold

Cattails will will be rooted in the silt of the dykes

inland, for example Suburbio

protect against Dengue and Bllrushes and

Golden Cannas for markets facilitates the exchange of crab, fish,agriculture, ascleaning. well as services

This is especially evident in Cerrito de los Morrenos who face challenges WATER MOBILITY

such as transport to the city and the collection and recycling of waste.

Potable Water

from exposure to consequences inflicted by climate change; the increase in

The main priority for the market is the collection of water from the mountain

sea level rise, as well as being disconnected to services and goods. These

dam catchment and the distribution to the communities. This also creates

villages depend heavily on Guayaquil for amenities such as food, electricity

job opportunities and increased labour force for the people.

and potable water.

These approaches allow coastal villages such as Cerritos to remain connected

This project aims to democratise trade within the gulf, developing new

to amenities, allowing them to be autonomous and self-sustaining by

approaches in which productivity and exchange can be integrated into

inverting the relationship that they currently have with

water landscapes, being able to provide resilience to climate change as well

the main urban areas, allowing them to utilise their rich natural landscape

as the resultant effects upon the socio-ecological conditions of Guayaquil.

to source water, as well as to provide a preliminary defence from the risks of

These approaches include re-scripting indigenous Latin-American practices

climate change.

Organic waste

Food (Fruits)

BUSINESS

rainy season

dry season

Cerritos de los Morrenos 3 km

67 km

Floating market: selling and buying goods. Cutting out the middle man and empowering the local fisherman as direct goods providers.

AQUACULTURE

Fishing and fish processing, crab catching, shell fish and oyster farming.

ESTERO SALADA

Isla Puna

Main passage from Cerritos to Suburbio

MARKET DYNAMICS

Diagram showing the exchanges of water, building material, food, services etc. between the coastal villages, namely cerritos and the Guayaquil Port. The new proposal attempts to shift the dependancy on Guayaquil and create a new sel-sustaining coast.

Waste collectors and distributors Fisherman Crab catchers Market Co-operative members Farmers Handiman - workers to make boats and houses Tour guides Craft Work in integrated shrimp farms

Diagram by Mara Tomulesco, 2018

NEW MARKET

POTABLE WATER

Rain water harvesting

MARKET

New Job opportunities Potable water

Waste to energy cycle Agriculture Transport

AGRICULTURE Fruit trees

New floating village

CHINAMPAS

CERRITOS

Agriculture Waste management Water treatment

AQUACULTURE Oysters Fish MARKET

Exchange of goods and services

EXISTING SHRIMP FARM

FOATING VILLAGE

FRESHWATER CHINAMPAS

Solution to the increase in sea level rise and the protection of the coastal fishing villages.

Increase in salinity

WATER MOBILITY

Exchange of goods and services. Three boat typologies: Canoes 1) Fishing and crab catching 2) Waste collection Bigger boats 3) Water collection and distribution 4) Water transport 5) Waste distribution Novelty boats 6) Tourism

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Water collection and distribution Waste pick up and drop Fisherman and crab catchers Farmers

COASTAL DECIDUOUS DRY FOREST

Unique landscape within the mangrove coastal region

Indigenous Aztec agricultural floating islands

REFORESTATION OF MANGROVE

Coastal defense mechanism; defense against the increase in sea level rise and increase in salt intrusion. This site is protected as it sits within the reforested mangroved region.

BRACKISH WATER CHINAMPAS

Brackish water plants - agriculture and mangrove

WATER SYSTEM

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Sewerage and organic waste used to fertilise the chinampas

Citrus, coconut, banana and plantain trees

MOBILITY AND MARKET ROUTE

WATER SYSTEM

The fresh water will pool into this exising shrimp farm and will be circulated; the water will be filtered by the chinampas and the this clean water will then be released into the brackish water creek that will flow into the estuary.

RAINWATER HARVESTING

REFORESTATION OF FRUIT TREES

Boats will circulate via the existing creek exchanging organic waste and collecting water, agriculture and aquaculture. These goods will be taken to the market.

Grey water is recycled and treated before it is released into the estuary. The chinampas clean and filter water.

EXISTING SHRIMP FARM

Existing shrimp farm ponds used for collection and storage of rainwater (reservoir)

POTABLE WATER

Rainwater run-off is passively treated through a filtration wetland and collected and stored in reservoir Water is collected by workers who carry the water from the reservoir in large water containers. (via the existing creek). The water will be sold at the market, distributed to the other fishing communities and transported to the areas further inland, for example Suburbio

Sewerage is collected and used for: 1) Energy & Electricity (biogas and methane production) 2) Fertiliser for the Chinampas

WATER TREATMENT

Water is treated via a natural system, filtering the water through a treatment wetland with plants and sands that will clean the water before it passes through to the reservoir. The water will be aerated and will have vegatative buffer around the ponds to prevent the contamination by mosquitos.

Water is collected in catchements on the mountain and channeled downwards by smaller streams. There is no need for further infrastructural work as the mountain can accomodate large flows of water, reducing risk of erosion and flooding.

Types of Aquatic Vegetation (emergent, rootedfloating, submersed and free floating) Cattails will will be rooted in the silt of the dykes surrounding the reservoir ponds and waterlillies, pondweed and duckweed will be planted to protect against Dengue and Bllrushes and Golden Cannas for cleaning.

Potable Water

WATER MOBILITY

Organic waste

FLOATING VILLAGE

Organic waste Food (Fruits)

Electricity Organic waste

Water cleaning

MARA TOMULESCU

AUTONOMOUS OUTPOST REVISITING WAYS OF LIVING IN THE ESTERO SALADO’S AQUATIC SPACE

The strategic project tackles the scarcity of resources and their

fruit trees and plant species that will function in a permaculture system. The

interconnectivity in one of the main coastal villages located in the Estero

chosen species need the least water from irrigation, as well as provide the

Salado, Cerritos de los Morrenos. Looking at water scarcity, that has been

most nutrition and calories for the villagers. Brackish water species, such as

one of Guayaquil’s constant problems, food security, energy sufficiency and

taro, are used in the lower areas of the village in order to reduce fresh water

skill-based education, the proposal consists in an autonomous village that

consumption, as well as to be part of an integrated agriculture-aquaculture

will become the estuary’s outpost and model for reducing dependency on

system. Using these agricultural systems will reduce the need for fertilizers,

the city, self-sufficiency and climate change adaptation practices.

as an ecological cycle is created between the various types of agriculture.

In the face of rising sea level and increase in precipitation and future El Nino

In order to reduce dependency on the city for fuel, as well as reduce climate

Events, the design proposes a managed retreat of the village upwards the

change impacts, the design proposes use of renewable energy systems.

hill along which Cerrito has developed, in order to protect from future floods,

The first strategy is to transform the village into a solid waste collection

as well as to leave room for nature’s most resilient barrier, the mangrove.

point, that will further on transform the waste into energy through a waste-

The project’s strategy is to take advantage of the increase in precipitation and

to-energy plant. Secondly, in order to provide sufficient energy, agrivoltaics

El Nino events by proposing individual roof rainwater harvesting systems

are used on the agricultural plots that grow root vegetables and need less

and several collection reservoirs along the hill that gather water through

solar exposure (sweet potatoes, yams).

run-off from the slope. The reservoirs provide part of the necessary potable

The project proposes the village to become a self-sufficient outpost and a

water for the village through a slow-sand filtration system, while the rest of

model for the other communities, therefore a new community center and a

the water is used for irrigation.

new school are implemented along the public area of the village (at the foot

As lack of water was one of the main factors leading to the village’s lack of

of the hill). These will serve as knowledge and education centers, enabling

agricultural practices, harvesting water will lead to food security. The project

the villages throughout the estuary to acquire new skills and knowledge

proposes to implement agroforestry along the hill, using local vegetable,

related to sustainable practices – agriculture, water harvesting, energy.

1000 inhabitants

WATER ENERGY WASTE FOOD 200L/capita/day 1,38 KWH/capita/day 1,13 kg/capita/day 2000 cal/capita/day

COASTAL DEFENSE mangrove

prevention against salt intrusion

WASTE-TO-ENERGY 60 % of energy

(1,13kg waste/capita/day - Ecuador)

AGRIVOLTAICS 40 % of energy

INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE /AGRICULTURE taro & fish, brackish water 400 % of calorie need/pers/day

(provides shade, prevents evapotranspiration)

taro 10056 kg/ha | 977 kcal/ha | BW 3 m3/t

solar energy waste collection

irrigation high tide energy provision

low tide

providing education and healthcare

PERMACULTURE BIOINTENSIVE FARMING root vegetables sweet potatoes, cassava, yams 35 % of crops 300 % caloric need/pers/day

grey water - soil nutrition

PERMACULTURE garden plants (tomatoes, spring onions, melon, watermelon) 40 % of crops 200 % caloric need/pers/day

RAINWATER HARVESTING irrigation & potable water (slow sand filtration) 850 000 L/year 100 % irrigation need 15 % potable water need RAINWATER HARVESTING domestic roof rainwater harvesting normal DRWH - 85 % potable water need

PERMACULTURE fruit trees (citrics, coconut, banana, platains) 25 % of crops 130 % calorie need/pers/day

citrics BW 100 m3/t coconut BW 2m3/t banana BW 93m3/t plantains 6720 kg/ha | 536 kcal/sqm | BW 27m3/t

irrigation

taro - fish nutrient

aquaculture - soil fertility

SALINE SOIL AGRICULTURE Lycium trees - goji

YUYING SUN, GEORGINA TRUTER, BINDI RADITYA PURNAMA

SUBURBIO RESILIENT URBAN ARCHIPELAGO

Estero Salado, the first urban frontier, where initially low-income communities seeking access to Guayaquil city invaded the mangrove and filled the estuary creeks. The strategic 5x5km project proposes the re-naturalization and expansion of creeks in the most waterlogged areas creating an archipelago of urban islands. The different islands will host a variety of civic functions and densification typologies, floodable zones, sustainable sanitation interventions and pedestrian friendly mobility corridors

YUYING SUN

RE-MANGROVING THE EDGE STRENGHTENING URBAN LIVELIHOODS IN A MEANDERING ENVIRONMENT

Surburbio was full of mangroves in the past,but it is now one of the most dense urban areas in Guayaquil due to the deforestation and rapid

Water management system

When the tide is high,the tidal pool converted by vacant plot can store extra

urbanisation.The urban edge is facing severe challnges like the flooding

water to protect the higher zone.When there is low tide and has too much

caused by sea-level rise and daily tides,water logging and lack of public

rain water,the water can be guided by the bioswales system,collected by

activities.The strategy combines with reintroducing mangroves,soften the

water collectors inside neighourhoods,cleaned by mangroves and charged

urban edge as well as providing systems like the water management and

back into the river through the creeks.This is how the system of bioswales-

public spaces to give proper solutions to all the issues.

water collector-tidal pool-creek is formed.

According to the existng topography and the prediction of sea-level rise,the edge is divided into three parts:reforestation zone(<3m),floodable zone(3.5m),safe zone(4.5m).From the

inner urban fabric to the water

edge,the standard of soft engineering goes higher.

Public space system

Multiple productive activites are introduced to the site to prevent the deforestation from happening again.By keeping the existing church,some of the community functions remain.Several platforms and catwalks are designed to live together with the mangroves,providing special experience of “living with mangroves”.Small markets are built for fisherman to sell,and children have playgrounds in the mangroves.

On the other side of

the river,in order to make full use of the local food culture, “city kitchen” is designed in the middle of the community clusters,to improve the production of the site while providing work for women.

ACTIVITIES

ORGANIC COMMUNITY

PRINCIPLE

BIOSWALE

TIDAL POOL WATER COLLECTOR

GREEN POCKET

PRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY

WATER STAGE

CITY KITCHEN

WATER CHANNEL PUBLIC SPACE

CREEK

MODEL

SAFE ZONE(4.5M)

FLOODABLE ZONE(3.5M)

REFORESTATION ZONE(<3M)

EXISTING RIVER

REFORESTATION ZONE

GEORGINA TRUTER

SHAPING THE ISLAND URBAN LIFE ON THE CREEK

This project is located on an important landmark site and crossing point

The urban archipelago will form a cluster of islands connected through the

on a new creek proposed in the urban archipelago strategy. The waterway

new water and landscape network, each with a distinct civic function. The

cuts through the existing waterlogged cemetery and sports academy site,

Shaping the Island project proposes a mixed-use urban hub, with education,

connecting the inner creeks to the main estuary and creating new routes

recreation and community programmes that compliment the existing

and interchange points for water and land based mobility. Pedestrian and

cemetary and public infrastructure functions. In order to introduce the new

cycling pathways will meander along the raised riverbanks and cross over

creek and repopulate the most vulnerable estuary edges with mangrove,

the water with a raised bridge. The waterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s edge is proposed as terraced

some residents will be relocated into denser residential developments

floodable topography aforested with mangroves to oxygenate, filter

with floodable and flexible use ground floors along the creek edge and

and slow-down the increased surface run-off and rising tides. Proposed

proposed BRT routes. The project includes a second residential typology

floodplains will double as sportfields where excess stormwater can be

that encourages in-situ incremental densification. Both typogies includes

channeled to and allowed to permeate into the ground. The predominantly

rainwater catchment, urban farming or landscaped roofs and solar panels.

asphalt road network is transformed into a more varied and permeable

The consolidation of the built tissue, the rehabilitation of the estuary and the

network of bioswales, community gardens and non-motorised transport

addition of quality public spaces aim to mitigate the risks posed by climate

only streets. Avenues of trees are proposed along these routes to provide

change and strengthen the socio-economic life of the inner Guayas as a

the necessary reprieve against the rising temperatures caused by the urban

vibrant urban centrality.

heat island effect.

BINDI RADITYA PURNAMA

REVIVING PUERTO LIZA THE RE-APPEREANCE OF A BURIED WATER HUB IN A WATER-LOGGED AREA

In the 20 th century, there was a port called Puerto Liza by the end of branches of Estero Salado, that connects the city with all ports along the estuary. The project proposal is to revive back that port due to bigger concept of suburbia as urban archipelago. The location of the project is the old creek that was filled with land is having trouble with water clogging, due to a very low level that is below the fluctuate tidal situation of the estuary in a daily basis. A topographical strategy implanted to deal with the problem of sea level rising and extreme condition such as El Nino. The edge of estuary is proposed to be filled again with mangrove to control salt and oxygen level in estuary and preventing settlements to occupy the shore. The proposal is also to promote the alternative usage of the existing urban grid, such as bioswale to enhance water absorption to the aquifer. The settlement that was taken for digging the canal is resettled locally with 4-stories housing with a permeable ground floor and solar panel, urban farming roof, and water harvesting installation. These strategies to promote the new urban environment with water transportation, public transportation, pedestrian friendly and higher densification to adaptwith problems that happened and projected in Guayaquil.

MODUPE OSUNKOYA KOFOWOROLA, MAHMOUD ALSALTI, MARIA SKORDOULI, MARRIJE VAN DEN EYNDE

MONTE SINAI RETHINKING THE WILDLAND URBAN INTERFACE

In the wake of a wave of relocations and migrations, the latest urban frontier invaded the previously productive haciendas at the foot of the Chongรณn mountain range and Papagayo reserve in the north of Guayaquil. The strategic proposal is to increase the density of the urban landscape and to create a productive and recreation landscape edge to address bioclimatic and seasonal water influxes or shortages.

MODUPE OSUNKOYA KOFOWOROLA

DE-BLOCK A CHANGE IN CITY MODEL

The strategy for the inner tissue of Chongon Colonche mountain range is

open green infrastructure that reduces air pollution, provide important

to organize and distribute public space as a system of connection between

habit for bio-diversity, road greening and active public facilities like school,

organized urban tissues. This system includes de-blocking and de-asphalts,

institution, theatre, library, Religious Centre, Health Centre, open space,

urban cluster and Roofscape.

urban agriculture, social programs, shopping center. The economy within the environment is not left out, a design of the single family garden house,

De-blocking and De-asphalts - Surfacescape: The compact and heavily

poultry, the mobile market is also embedded in the design.

the projected rise in temperature causing urban heat island effect (UHE)

Roofscape:The view of the roof is designed to add to the landscape of the

asphalted urban tissue with lack of access to public facilities coupled with by 6 degrees Celsius in 75 yearsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; time was put into consideration. The

environment with facilities that will solve climate change effect. The collective

design concept adapted is replacing Asphalt with a permeable surface that

design of the roof includes a green roof that will cool the heat of the building,

absorbs stormwater runoff, soft mobility, afforestation, urban agriculture,

a solar panel designed to reduce the artificial generation of energy and

public facilities that creates a system of social relationship among users and

energy carrying capacity for each new building, rainwaterharvesting that is

environment.

piped into the building after filtration process while the reinforced existing structure is upgraded.

Urban cluster: The design of a new urban cluster is formed using de-block

and de-asphalt strategy provided with huge new building typology that is resilience to climate change, reinforced existing structures, and public facilities. Massive afforestation and existing trees are used to form a green corridor. This urban cluster has different multi-family building block with

re, play area

sland

Single family farming

ach. The strathas numerous tive capacity.

Green Roof

Play area Urban Cluster/ Offices, Health clinic, meuseum, social center.

Rain water harvesting

Asphalt

Urban cluster/Library, health centre, etc

Self developing little houses with the new ones

and facilities obility ban fabric oods and er.

SECTION Urban cluster containing public infrastructure

Solar panel and green roof

Huge public building (School, health clinic, Museum, play area) Urban cluster

Huge public building (social area,office, theatre)

Open public space

Soft mobility

le surface and

ks of com-

r with huge

m of urban

mate change

Permeable Surface

Existing housing typology

Urban Agriculture

Self sustaining housing typology

New housing typology

DIAGRAM/ PICTURES Surfacescape

Roof scape to promote smart surface

Newly planted tree-Linden Tree

Source: greenrooftechnology.com

Exisiting Tree

Canopy Tree

Source: pradip-watercrisis.blogspot.be/2009/08/ rainwater-harvesting-in-kolkata.html

Permeable Surface with tree canopy Source: Author field work, 2018

Source: https://www.truegridpaver.com/blog/6-unique-uses-for-permeable-pavers/

Mobile Market Source: Authors Fieldwork 2018

Source: https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/rooftopsolar-panel-green-roof-626688632

Living Roof Source: Amber Freda Home & Garden Design.

Urban Agriculture in University of San Francisco Source: https://www.usfca.edu/arts-sciences/undergraduate-pro40 by 20m pitch on 4story building n Guangxi

Livelihood

Poultry farming inbetween space Source: Authors Fieldwork 2018

MAHMOUD ALSALTI

URBAN ENTOMOPHAGY A POTENTIAL OF FOOD AND FEED RESOURCES

Socio-Vivienda is the place where people were forced to move after being

As there are 83 edible species of insects in Ecuador, this tradition

relocated from Suburbio, living under really bad conditions. As population

(Entomophagy) still exists specially in Amazon, and it is important to involve

is growing rapidly, an increase in food consumption specially for meat is

local and indigenous people in order to gain traditional and ecological

expected by 9% in 2030, which will also lead to an increase in prices for

knowledge resulting in economic values. Practice and research will take

agricultural crops, beef, pork and poultry more than 30% in 2050.

place in the site itself through a partnership with ESPOL University by training programs and workshops.

My project is to transform Socio-Vivienda into a new food production site that can find a way to sustain rather than destroying the eco-system using

The site offers a new extraordinary public space for the congested urban

insects as a new resource for food and feed, which plays an important role

tissue where people are able to experience this process from production to

in human food security. An intermix of activities that connect urban to rural

consumption as it also offers a new market and a restaurant where they can

and stop urban sprawl from crossing the edge into the wild urban interface.

try and buy the products as part of the consumer acceptance strategy.

After moving people to an improved housing along the edge of the

In terms of ecology, the production of edible insects produces less Green

urban fabric, existing plots will be used as agricultural and farmable lands.

House Gas emissions than the production of livestock which accounts 18%

Harvesting will take place in the forest which will start on reclaiming the site

of human-induced emissions, and harvesting it can be integrated effectively

hosting a variety of edible insects. Artificial breeding sites are used to make

in pest management strategies

the process more efficient. A manipulation of the topography to bring water into the site, creating ponds that serve as egg-laying sites.

MARIA SKORDOULI

TOWARDS A GREEN ENERGY PATHWAY BIOMASS SUPPLY POTENTIALS FOR ENERGY USE

The area is located in a previous floodplain (10m submerged) occupied

stay in the area. The energy crops are appropriate for tropical climates, such

by informal settlements living with no basic infrastucture. Using the cut and

as sorghum, wheat, corn and barley. Sugarcanes are cultivated along the river

fill techique, the excavation of the artificial lake and the expansion of the

bangs with the irrigation system embedded into the soil, so as to prevent

canal that serve as flooding mechanisms, helped to form the new elevated

evaporation or partial inundation. Finally, the Biomass Center’s ground floor

landscape that gradually connects the new densified urban frontier with the

serves as an extension of the public space; a public promenade gazing at

water edge. In precipitation of increased water levels the ‘blue structure’

the new lake.

will accomodate the shift to water transport system. The Biomass Center becomes the main catalyst for the area.

The Urban Forest: The wildland-urban interface in this part serves as the continuation of the green belt reviving the dry, deciduous forest. By

The Urban Frontier: After the relocation in higher safer ground, the new

reintroducing local species to bring in biodiversity, the extreme phenomena

residential housing is proposed on the main road with commercial use in

are mitigated and at the same time, the high tree canopies provide shadow

the ground floor including a BRT stop. The previously trafficked land on the

and foster the microclimate. The public spaces are articulated by the tree

hill is reforestated and protects the new housing complex from landslides.

masses, creating a plethora of resting or activity areas or highlighting paths.

Also, the rainwater runoff is collected and used for the irrigation of urban

In terms of materiality, the permeable groundcovers allow water to infiltrate

agriculture in the community towers.

the ground, recharge the aquifer and thus, prevent pluviar flooding. The water run-off discharges are directed in two ponds and re-used for the irrigation of

The Biomass Center: The new ‘think-tank’, in cooperation with the existing

the park. Working in a bigger system , the philosophy of renewable energy

Polytechic University, secures the energy supply for the whole area. It is a local

through the Biomass Centre is supported by the community itself. The

source of energy collecting the agricultural and forestry residues from the

collection of the Urban Forest’s residues (wood, seeds), as well as the green

surroundings, along with the cultivation of energy crops and the collection

waste point, enhance the ‘nursering’ of the urban space and the learning

of green waste from the settlement itself. The variation of the supply chain

process in terms of renewable waste feedstock.

provides storage for seasonal availability. The decomposition of the organic waste produces fertizer for agricultural use and biogas for electricity. Therefore, the Biomass Center creates job opportunities and iniciatives to

MARRIJE VAN DEN EYNDE

RE-MODELLING THE NEW URBAN EDGE A MODAL SHIFT FOR THE CITY

The current state of the section reads as different timeframes as it shows

tissue. (1) Every second road is asphalted. This structures bigger dimensioned

the gradual take-over of fragile nature by the urban tissue. The building

blocks and allows the middle road to become a soft mobility axis. (2) The

blocks are under-dimensioned and will face development problems when

soft mobility road is densely planted with trees, aerating the interior of the

they continue to densify. The imbalance between infrastructure and housing

new block. A perpendicular axis heightens its porosity even more. (3) Public

tissue, the lack of service provision and the reinforcement of the urban heat

squares are developed along the soft mobility axis to stimulate the modal

island effect need urgent intervention. The responding Strategic Urban

shift. (4) An inner courtyard that consists of shared agricultural land and fruit

Project is twofold. There is (1) the provision of a multi-purposed structure

trees is a structure for new tissue to be built around. The new typologies are

and (2) a strategy of densification. Firstly, the structure contains the existing

soportales with collective towers on top that assure social structures to be

overpopulated school. The building offers at the same time the backdrop

maintained. Public funding finances the ground floor structure which also

for a BRT station with connected bike parking. By inscribing the structure in

has the basic services, the towers are realized through pooling of resources

the topography its roof forms the start of a soft mobility bridge crossing the

of the small communities. The old trees (mapped in advance), new trees

busy BRT road, connecting the urban tissue with the extraordinary programs

and open spaces structure the densification as much as possible.

in the interface. Secondly, some basic rules are laid out to densify the urban

TYPOLOGY The ingredients below are combined into buildings of different sizes that will gradually replace the existing tissue. The size depends on the pooling of the current inhabitants Collective tower: privately owned

MULTIPURPOSE EDGE STRUCTURE

Rental housing

The building houses the overpopulated school and forms a backdrop for the busstation. The roof of the school forms a bridge for the soft mobility.

Public soportales

way giving middle road to

ASPHALTED ROADS Every other muddy road is converted into an asphalted road to start reblocking the currently small city blocks.

PUBLIC SQUARES Iconic Ceibo trees highlight the locations of the public squares.

Private soportales Green roofs, roof agriculture

ed with trees, erpendicular g block.

typologies. t is planted ees to keep it

oft mobility s to the axis as es of transport.

ROUTE TO ESPOL Every BRT stop is connected to a special program lying in the inbetween. Here it is connected to the technical university.

TREE NURSERY Trees are propagated and grown to usable size. Then they are replanted in the neighbourhood according to social forestry principles.

BIOSWALE The depression on the site is converted into a permeable zone that is embedded in a public park.

SOFT MOBILITY AXIS A bicycle road is followed by high canopy trees and forms the main axis in this section

HONGXIA PU, KATERINA ELEFTHERIOU, SHAUNI MARCHAND

DAULE REVIVAL OF THE RURAL: A NEW CENTRALITY IN A DIVERSIFIED LANDSCAPE

In the most northern part of the transect, the rice basin of the region has interspersed built landscapes housing various farming communities. The projected vision for Daule includes densification strategies, new typologies for housing that can work with the agricultural strategies for the area, new public services and infrastructure projects in support the new network of centralities located along the river.

HONGXIA PU

REFINING THE RIVERFRONT A NEW WATER MARKET COMMUNITY

Daule – as a necklace for the further expansion of urbanization – inevitably has to become a new center. The project is along the Daule river edge, where is more valuable when El Niño and La Niña comes. Working with the existing typology and commercial streets and markets, there are two integrated systems that aim to tackle both the ecological and economic issue in Daule. By creating three different water resilient zones, taking advantage of its typology, it will reshape the riverfront. The completely flooding zone will leave more space for the river and for the water transport and port. The seasonal flooded park integrates with the existing commercial system and the water system will create a new waterfront open space for people. The commercial system with the existing open streets markets, new floating markets and rooftop water harvesting on the important markets will channeling to the seasonal park. The water system will connect a sequence of water catchment and cleaning system with the urban water collecting ponds, bioswale and rooftop water harvesting system, which will form a complete water system from the river to the inner city to face to the increasingly severe climate change. By doing so, it will frame two integrated system and a series of open space which can give the identity to this area.

KATERINA ELEFTHERIOU

RETHINKING THE WATERCYCLE WATER TREATMENT BY CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS IN A NEW URBAN LANDSCAPE

This project is located in a creek of Daule river, where three different tissues

detention time and the water level is achieved as well as the protection from

meet and deals with the wet and dry season. From the south to the north side,

flooding of the -closer to the river- urban tissue. Moreover, the soil around

we meet the existing old fabric, the waterfront and the newer urban tissue.

the wetlands and around the places with biggest slopes is porous in order

From the research and the fieldwork done arises the problem of flooding in

the water in the aquifers to be regulated from the urban runoff and the rise

this area mostly because of the different levels of the river water in the wet

of the river water. A new lake has also been created after taking advantage

and dry season, and even more when extreme phenomena such as El NiĂąo

of the topography in the area aiming at the water harvesting from the rain

occur. The strategies followed taking into consideration the challenges that

and the urban runoff.

the site already experiences and also the challenges that will arise due to

Considering the 1m rise of the river in the wet season, the more than 2 m rise

the climate change future. Moreover, the migration that is about to happen

of the water in the extreme precipitation during the El Nino phenomenon

from the south to Daule led to the strategic densification of the city.

in 1988 and also the intensification of these extreme phenomena due

The strategy involves the creation of constructed wetlands alongside the

to climate change, the removal of the built tissue located up to the 5 m

river. The wetlands work as an artificial waste and river water treatment

contour from the river was decided. Hence, this space has been replaced

system. They consist of swallow ponds and bioswales channels which have

by the wetlands and the new tissue which has been developed in stilts or

been planted with aquatic plants and which rely upon natural microbial and

floodable ground floors so as to be prevented from the water rise. In the

biological processes to treat the water and discharge it -after its filtration-

inner tissue, the densification of the area up to 4 floors and the replacement

back to the river so as to improve the quality of its contaminated water. By

of the dense built houses with open spaces and new patches and paths with

manipulating the topography the control of the flow direction, the liquid

masses of trees were decided.

SHAUNI MARCHAND

REINFORCING THE AGROPOLIS LIVING WITHIN THE EDIBLE LANDSCAPE

The strategy for Daule is a superposition of 3 rational systems: a dike-

space through agripunctural interventions. Simultaneously, agriculture is the

system, a city-system and a watermanagement-system, complemented by

element that prevents the city from spreading. By subdividing the former

a diversified landscape creating an agricultural mosaic.

rice field-grid and redistributing it into the hands of the community, a shift from export and industrial food chains to circuits of local production and

The dike-system: a play of microtopography

Inspired by the existing dike system, the manipulation of topography is used

consumption, happens. The heterogeneity of the land will stabilize yield, enrich the ground and promote diet diversity.

as a design tool to create diverse conditions and determine the use of the land. The difference in levels distinguishes between land for habitation and for production, between land considered as safe and unsafe, preventing from the impact of horizontal and vertical flooding.

The water management system: wet and dry

At the scale of the agricultural fields, water is guided by ground manipulations towards strategic low points. Serving as collection ponds for agricultural purposes and allowing water to recharge the aquifer. Concerning the urban

The city-system: food guides the way

development, a first treatment happens at the scale of the houses, a second

Where scattered old and structured new urban development meet,

through canals and a third in constructed wetlands. These are integrated

agriculture is the element that guides the shaping of the city. Allowing new

public areas complementing the urban tissue, as well in wet as in dry season.

structures, constructed around a productive courtyard, to be gradually infilled, and allowing the existing tissue to further develop itself by preserving public

4_Thesis Research 1

wendy chavez | Mahs RESEARCH THESIS

Socio-Ecological Conflicts and the Challenges of Climate Change Case Study: Cerrito Los Morreños, Gulf of Guayaquil

This thesis research inquires the inter-relations among stakeholders in the Gulf of Guayaquil, explaining how the conflicts in the aquatic space are played out in this contested territory. In the light of climate change, there is urgency for a change of behavior to protect the ecosystem. Intensive fieldwork carried out in the Gulf of Guayaquil is a fundamental part of this research, that explore the ecosystem known by its bio-diversity that operates under a stewardship system that allows Associations to exploit and protect the mangrove area through a mechanism called “Sustainable Use and Custody Agreements”. However, during the exercise of this ecological stewardship, conflicts raise with other actors that also share the space and that endanger the mangrove and therefore, the livelihoods of the communities. These actors are: (i) the independent fishermen that don´t belong to the stewardship system and only come to use the space but not to protect it, (ii) the shrimp farms that cut mangrove and pollute the water of the estuary, and (iii) the government institutions that do not apply sanctions and are known for a weak support to law enforcement. The area is susceptible to climate change effects, that are already being manifested and that are going to increase the existing conflicts among actors. Thus, this research explains how these conflicts get amplified under the pressure of climate change and how urgent it is to start designing real adaptation measures to protect the sustainability of humans and the environment.

Construction of shrimp farms and mangrove deforestation Satellite images from 1984 (above) and 2018 (below)

fareeha sheikh

Integrating Aquaculture and Mangroves

(Source: (Cornejo 2007)

A Balanced Interplay, in the case of Guayas River Delta

Forests are a part of the urban structure and are considered to be on an auto natural restoration cycle hence they are exploited and thought to rejuvenate on its own. The observed reliance of an urban area on a nearby productive forest is based on the scenario where the production and demand bar soars high while nothing is being given back to the natural setting (De Meulder and Shannon 2014). The coastal mangrove forests have been a victim. They were cleared in either the name of urbanization or stabilizing the economy with intensive shrimp farming. The swampland once considered as a useless piece of landscape present along the coastal and tidal plains has been treated in a way that proved to be detrimental for the urban area that was in the vicinity, as the protective shield was weakened it paved (Left) Estimated loss of mangrove in the future the path for strong tidal waves to intrude the premises of the city. The tale of the deadly coastal waves has been heard by the world as of now since many countries (Right) Crab Catchers from have experienced tsunamis which the manmade dikes were not able to prevent. Cerritos are vocal about the contamination the effluent waThe current climate change scenarios globally have brought essential awareness to a ter causes to the estuary. Posing long-forgotten relationship of (mangrove) forests and the city. serious threats to their profesAs most of the countries in the world, Ecuador has also fallen into the trap of sion of artisanal fishing seeing mangroves which live in the brackish water, as the necklace of the coast which was not precious enough to keep. Guayas River Delta today has patches of mangrove forests which have been colonized by the shrimp farms. 1969-1999 more than 100.000 hectares of shrimp farms were established in the Gulf of Guayaquil (CLIRSEN 2007) and in 2018 a total of 112.819 hectares of shrimp farms, out of which 60% were in Guayas Province, resulting in around 60% of mangrove loss (Ministry of Aquaculture Database 2018). On one hand, it is now dependent on an economy that hides in the mangroves

View overlooking the estuary from Cerritos de los Morrenos

The concept of Eco-tourism is not new to the islands of the coast in the Gulf of Guayaquil as Cerritos de Los Morrenos is also trying to build some ground for it by organizing tours through the island and the estuary but it needs more framework that it actually booms and facilitates the community.

and feeds on it and on the other hand the country understands the global war against climate change. Which suggests that the Guayas Region will be the first to experience flooding due to sea-level rise and will also be the first in Ecuador to lose mangrove on an accelerated rate due to saltwater intrusion and as well as the regular occurrence of the extreme events of El Nino and La Nina will affect the salinity levels of the brackish water (Cornejo 2007). As an afterthought of all the misery caused by the manmade interventions Decree 1391 in 2008 was passed which stated that no more shrimp farm concessions will be given which was reverted by Decree 852 in 2016 which stated, the concessions will be given but for 20 years. This constant oscillation between saving the world or saving the economy leads to a contested niche which paves way for the people to cut down a few more hectares of mangroves. The deltas are sensitive in terms of their cycle and the ecological structure, mangroves being the most important part of them need to be preserved and reforested. Due to deforestation caused by the shrimp farms near the coast in the Gulf of Guayaquil, there is an irregularity in the pattern of the tidal waves and the sediment deposit. The sediment necessary for the mangrove is carried up North towards Guayaquil and is changing the topography making it prone to flooding as intertidal flats have been reduced in the Southern Region (Barrera Crespo 2016). While on the other hand constant clearing of the Mangrove forest even after regular checks by the stewards from the coastal communities is affecting the productivity of the forest in terms of crab catching and fishing, whereas the estuary is being polluted by the harmful wastewater from the shrimp farms. The livelihood of the coastal communities like that of Cerritos de Los Morrenos is largely dependent on the healthy existence of the mangrove. Currently, there are no new opportunities and the market is already

saturated with the available livelihoods. If these scenarios are not taken care of today then the doom story is not very far away which points towards the fact that the estuarian productivity will be affected which will lead to illegal aquaculture and at the same time affecting the livelihood of artisanal fishermen (Cornejo 2007). In short, shrimp is the number one export of Ecuador as of 2017 (Revista LĂderes 2017) while it is failing to answer questions about monoculture, resilience and a dying ecology. But what is needed is not a therapeutic recovery plan which heals oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s conscience of planting a mangrove sapling in the face of growing threats of climate change but an entire strategy that is suited to mitigate climate change and which does not affect the economy of the country that heavily depends on the productive landscape of the mangrove. Hence the research, through various cases seeks for the structure that speaks about the intertwined growth of the mangrove forest with aquaculture to promote an urbanity which has the potential to provide a framework that can work for the tropical zones.

After a steady cycle of shrimp farm colonization from 1960s to 2018, communities and professionals look for a reverse strategy to mitigate climate change

01(a)_Naturally Restored Mangrove and Hydrology

Bay of Jiquilisco is home to an extensive Mangrove Forest in Central America. The area is designated as a Ramsar Site and also UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (Ramsar 2005). But somehow during the years, the stretch of 632 sq.km started to lose its forest due to climate change, pollution and exploitation. The community living in the forest understood the importance of the forest and started a union named the Mangrove Association which joined hands with national and international partnerships to work for the restoration of the degraded forest (ANA LUISA AHERN 2018).

Maintaining Natural Water Flows The community along with the expertise from the partners tested the strategy of EMR (Ecological Mangrove Restoration) on a 200 Acre patch of land known as El lloron, which was unproductive for quite some time. Through the principles developed by MAP to reinforce the disturbed hydrology, they started clearing up the canals which had been blocked due to extreme floods in the past. After some time the life could be seen on the site with sprouts of mangroves.

EcoViva - MAP (2010) (https://news.mongabay.com)

Bay of Juquilisco, El Salvador

(http://ecoviva.org)

Ecological mangrove restoration

(http://ecoviva.org) (https://news.mongabay.com)

Regenerating Natural Cycles The main focus is to bring the natural structure in place and later allow and give nature its due time to thrive so that the process is more sustainable as compared to a strategy that involves constant vigilance. As soon as the natural cycles came back to life, the barren land showed progress in a couple of years evident from the satellite images.

Education through Events The community now holds events where they engage and cook seafood which they harvest from the mangrove to prove that they sustain and live off the mangrove, whereas the local association teaches the people to understand the importance of the ecological systems of the mangrove and gives them a maximum markup in terms of the catch of the aquatic species (MARTHA PSKOWSKI 2017).

01(b)_Naturally Restored Mangrove and Hydrology abandoned shrimp farm rehabilitation The project was initiated by MAP (Mangrove Action Project), it is an organization which is keen to rehabilitate the mangrove forests in Asia and their work revolves around the idea of CBEMR (Community Based Ecological Mangrove Restoration). Many abandoned shrimp farms exist in the mangrove forests which are neither productive nor they are turning back into mangrove because of the dikes that still protect its boundaries which restrict the movement of water through the ponds. The main aim of this project was to look at disused/ abandoned shrimp ponds and think of a strategy to promote the natural restoration of the mangroves through the tidal water that carries all the nutrients, sediments as well as seeds for the restoration. And by restoring the natural cycle the Mangrove Eco-system will be revived (IUCN 2013).

Brownfield Sites Shrimp Ponds later prove to be contaminated pieces of land in the productive forest of the mangroves where the soil has been exploited to its core and the quality of the soil has been completely lost due to the constant use of chemicals to increase either the production of the shrimp or to simply protect it from the disease. These sites hence become a place where the mangroves forest can be reforested as it was previously mangrove but it requires measures and strategies that bring the landscape naturally.

(http://mangroveactionproject.org)

Langkat Regency, Northern Sumatra, Indonesia

MAP (2013)

(http://mangroveactionproject.org)

Meandering Creeks In order to achieve a natural restoration different breaches were widened and similarly narrowed to maintain a tidal prism which means to control the volume and movement of water leaving /entering the pond premises. In the natural system, creeks are important as they are places which hold the maximum number of nutrients as well as allow tidal flushing and sedimentation. It is like a path for water movement to deliver and deposit necessary ingredients for the mangroves to thrive.

(http://mangroveactionproject.org)

Livelihoods The communities took ownership of the reforested mangrove area and they were able to benefit from the product of the mangrove e.g. fishing of aquatic organisms, use of available mangrove timber as well as herbal tea and fried crackers made from the leaves of the mangroves. This proves the rehabilitation that started as a process to mitigate climate change was able to solve a lot more issues then it was comprehended to resolve, in terms of community knowledge, new livelihoods as well as ownership of the mangrove.

(http://pronaturaveracruz.org)

(http://mangroveactionproject.org)

Breached Dikes The dikes of the particular shrimp pond were further broken down in order to allow tidal water to flow through the pond and create its own course. Further, the water path was decided strategically so that the sluice gates that already existed on the pond do not hinder the progress by discharging that water in an unorganized way. This method also involved the study of the tidal waves for further strengthening the process and understanding about the cycle of the water.

Educating the Community and Participation During the restoration process, the communities also took part in planting saplings where necessary and hence they were educated through proper research and were able to own the process in a much better way. A Mexican technique of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;chinampasâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; has been also used by Pronatura Veracruz in Mexico in which a raft of different sizes is prepared from logs filled with grass and mud from the land where it is placed in water and later mangrove saplings are placed. The process takes around 10 years to get the mangrove to a mature state but as soon as the chinampa is built it shows signs of life as flora and fauna start to use it as habitat.

02_Mangrove as the Mediating Figure Mangroving

Kelly Shannon, Bruno Demeulder

Ca Mau province has both fresh water and salt water mangroves which were destroyed by the domestication and the colonization of the land. The manmade interventions disturbed the gradual transition between land and water while the topography was constantly being changed into ponds with the introduction of dikes and canals into the land which also involved the deforestation of the mangrove forest. Large portions of the Ca Mau peninsulaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water regime that are shifting from fresh to brackish and salt water are systematically being converted into an endless mosaic of shrimp farms or micro-shorelines. Myriad shades of blue are encased in small dikes that give the landscape the appearance of a shimmering, cracked mosaic (De Meulder and Shannon 2013).

(source: Authors)

Ca Mau, Vietnam

Future of Ca Mau With the increase in population to around 500,000 in 2030 and the climate change predictions the authorities (SIURP- Southern Institute of Urban and Regional Planning) were concerned about the damages the current scenarios might cause to the city in the near future. Irregular sedimentation, river erosion and as well as the exploitation of the soil can be seen making the urban land prone to flooding as well as promoting monoculture with the constant degradation of the mangrove forest in order to domesticate the land further Therefore, strategies with a design are devised to restore the ecology.

(source: Authors)

Reprofiling Systematic profiling is done in order to maintain a balance between the green and blue mesh. Through the cut and fill principle, again new topographies have been created to achieve a section that works in cohesion with the reforested mangroves and similarly, the aqua/agriculture ponds are more embedded in the topography and do not overpower by its design or by the appearance on the edge. The section becomes more diverse and integrates the mangroves. As the forest now becomes the structuring element in the urbanization of the city and creates the needed balance between the process of domestication and colonization of the land due to manmade interventions (De Meulder and Shannon 2013).

Balanced Interplay (Diversification) The intervention with mangrove afforestation will protect the land from erosion and similarly will help diversify in the ponds with crops and aquaculture. This would free the more inland plots for sustainable aqua-agricultural production (including cleansing oyster and mussel production) (De Meulder and Shannon 2013). The entire scheme breaks the streak of monoculture from either being a rice field or a shrimp pond. The proposed afforestation programme aims to reintroduce a variety of conditions and uses the forests (mangroves, orchard systems or linear plantation structures on dikes, parks and so forth) as mediating figures. Afforestationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s robust spatial frame intents to create not so much a simple grid comprised of just one green and blue, but instead it generates a pattern of variegated greens, blues, greys, browns and color scale between (De Meulder and Shannon 2013).

03_Integration and Water Treatment Agrosoledad farm

Integrated/ Separate Ponds Mangrove Forest proved to be a saviour for the shrimp after the recent studies hence in the integrated system, the shrimps are raised in the ditches between the rows of mangrove trees that have been planted on platforms where water is exchanged only when needed for the management of the shrimp and other aquatic organisms (Binh et al. 1997; Nguyen2000; Tran 2005). In associated systems, usually referred to as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;separated systemsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; in Vietnam (Johnston et al.2000b), both the water and the mangrove area cover wider areas; the mangrove mostly on one platform. In the separate system, a dyke clearly separates the shrimp ponds from the mangrove plantation which is used as a biofilter for the farm effluent (Gautier 2002). The pond ratios can be from 30% to 50% mangrove. It is stated that the existence of the Mangrove next or in the pond helped to eradicate or prevent the regular and deadly diseases from the shrimp.

(Bosma 2016)

The shrimp farms are responsible for the most mangrove clearings throughout the world. Initially, concessions were given backed by the general misconception that the mangrove forest is nothing more than a swampland. With these scenarios building up about climate change came in strategies to integrate the aquaculture with mangroves. Many case studies are available in Far- East who have already adapted to the integrated methods. This one example from Latin America counts as a promising case of the integration of the blue and the green. It is a farm in the Sinu Estuary which is changing the face of shrimp farming in Latin America, where it is still a struggle to make the process of aquaculture environment friendly.

(Gautier 2002)

Sinu Estuary, Columbia

(Gautier 2002)

Mangrove Biofilter The Agrosoledad Farm, Columbia uses the separate pond system where they use the Mangrove as a biofilter for the effluent water. Through a combination of dikes, the water is directed into the (mangrove) biofilter and is recirculated and partially reused. They have included a 12 Ha Mangrove Forest in the premises of the farm for the treatment of the water. The re-circulation of water helped to restrict a certain type of algae from entering into the ponds which proved to be beneficial for the health of the shrimp. This helps to improve the quality of water in the estuary and maintains a healthy eco-system in the co-presence of the shrimp farm and the mangrove (Gautier 2002).

Research and Education The arrows mark the position of the water sampling centers that have been established in different parts of the estuary which check the quality of water near the farm. This also serves as an opportunity in the farm to further make efforts to promote research and education through setting an example by practice. It becomes another way of community integration which will help them to understand and take part in the protection of the forest.

(Gautier 2002)

Rich Mangrove Habitat By intertwining the two (pond and mangroves), the farm owners witnessed a rise in the number of organisms that existed in the Mangrove. The bird community along with it other aquatic organisms have the ability to pave way for eco-tourism to happen and not only that they also provide natural fertilization to the water that is being discharged in the estuary. The idea of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Eco-tourismâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; makes a shrimp pond open to the general public which today has no access to the barred and protected grounds. No routes are provided or allowed neither through the water nor through the mangroves which makes their presence more controversial and questionable.

04_Eco-Tourism isla santay Guayaquil, Ecuador

(http://www.guayaquilesmidestino.com)

Isla Santay is an Eco-Village, sixth declared wetland of Ecuador with a total extension of 4.705 hectares. Since February 20, 2010, the Island became a Protected Area and is part of the National System of Protected Areas as a National Recreational Area (Guayaquil es mi Destino 2015). Located near the main city of Guayaquil and is connected by an 840m long pedestrian bridge. The scheme is set amongst the wetlands and the connection through the bridge and the boat promotes the idea of tourism.

(http://www.guayaquilesmidestino.com)

Boardwalk An entire trail has been laid through the Mangrove Reserve which takes the tourists through the diverse/productive eco-system. The reserve is a haven for birdwatchers as well as the crocodile hatchery that comes while one is experiencing the journey on the boardwalk. The boardwalk becomes an important element in the concept of eco-tourism as it allows the people to feel the landscape closely while enhancing the overall experience of the journey that is truly embedded in the heart of the forest. While one is strolling through the lush green mangrove it is quite possible to witness rare species of flora and fauna elevating the experiential quality of the boardwalk in itself.

Conclusion

Reverse Colonization A section through a shrimp showing existing scenarios and possible changes through the studied design strategies, where mangrove is integrated to restructure aquaculture practices in the Gulf of Guayaquil. The coastal region of the Guayas River which has been colonized by the growing population of the shrimp farms whereas the communities like that of Cerritos de Los Morrenos who are dependent on the existence of the mangrove forests and its vast eco-system have been long affected by its deterioration. As mentioned in the beginning the shrimp export has become a huge portion of the economy and it will be very naïve to suggest that the aquaculture can from now on be a part of history. In the current scenario, the requirement is that of a balanced equation, an integrated plan where the aquaculture and the mangrove can benefit from each other and neither of the two become a hindrance in each other’s progress. Through the mentioned case studies, the research shows that it is not a farfetched idea to bring the two (Mangrove and Aquaculture) together and that they coexist in harmony. Latin American examples make the thought process more stable and the goal more reachable as the authorities in Ecuador now are also standing with the communities to build a future that is more resilient. In March 2018, a pact has been signed in Ecuador by seafood producers about moving towards zero antibiotics in shrimp production, namely SSP (Sustainable Shrimp Production). The brackish water landscape (mangroves) in the Guayas Delta today are protected by the stewards that look after them but less or no responsibility lies on the shoulders of the shrimp producers as they don’t rely on the productivity of the forest and they gain their necessary funds by the meeting the global demands of shrimp by extensive farming fueled by the use of chemicals and antibiotics. However, once there is a serious decline in the mangrove hectares by 2030 as suggested by the reports (Cornejo 2007), which means that nothing will be able to protect the farms from the monstrous waves or the shrimp will die off from the diseases that flow with the polluted estuarian water. Its high time that we move towards a synergy. Various strategies discussed, explain the power of rehabilitation of natural systems. Starting with the process of sedimentation, if 50% footprint of every shrimp farm in the Gulf of Guayaquil turns back into mangrove through the restoration of hydrology it means the sediment will be deposited where it needs to rest. The conditions up North will also change due to strategic decisions made in the South of the Gulf. If the major portion of the sediment that is coming with tidal waves is taken by the mangroves which right now is not the case, the Urban Frontier will undergo less topographical changes and will also be protected by a mangrove cover which will be restored by an effective and sustainable strategy.

By half the farm being reforested into mangrove, it becomes a biofilter. The effluent water is being treated in the farm itself and similarly its cutting down on the hazardous effects it has on the estuary. The integrated ponds bring along with it the possibility of diversifying within each farm area in terms of use and produce and it helps to change the section which today is made up of monoculture and speaks loudly about extensive exploitation of the land. Fish, crab, molluscs and other native species that are present in the mangrove can be farmed organically. Lastly, the communities have different long canoe routes to the region where they fish and catch crab for survival today in the estuary. By providing routes through the shrimp farm the dikes become more than just being a protective wall. The boardwalk concept invites people in, it makes the farm a place of interaction and the spatial quality changes from being private, controlled and a secluded space to a land parcel that is public, inviting and without boundaries. The shrimp farm will be a hub for new job opportunities for coastal communities like Cerritos. Through the Eco-tourism that will flourish on its grounds coordinated with the Research and Education Centers, which have the potential to make community participation a rigorous activity. Similarly, the economy will remain stable with all the new production methods and exports with the revised costs of premium quality achieved through the practices of organic aquaculture (Joffre et al. 2015). The resultant achieved, will be a mosaic that breaks free from monotony and structures the fragmented rural coastal area of the Guayas Delta by dealing with the issue of a deteriorating ecology and stitching the landscape and water by incorporating and integrating the potential of the ‘Majestic Mangrove’.

2030 2018

Bibliography Books and Articles

Websites

Barrera Crespo, P D. 2016. “Delft3D Flexible Mesh Modelling of the Guayas River and Estuary System in Ecuador.”

ANA LUISA AHERN. 2018. “Mangrove Restoration Beginning to Bear Fruit.” https://ecoviva.org/mangrove-restoration-beginning-to-bear-fruit/.

Binh, C T, M J Phillips, and H Demaine. 1997. “Integrated Shrimp mangrove Farming Systems in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam.” Aquaculture Research 28 (8). Wiley Online Library: 599–610.

Guayaquil es mi Destino. 2015. “Santay Island National Recreational Area.” Turismo Y Promoción Cívica EP. http://www.guayaquilesmidestino.com/en/ nature/out-of-guayaquil/Santay-Island-National-Recreational-Area.

Bosma, Roel H, Tin H Nguyen, Audrie J Siahainenia, Ha T P Tran, and Hai N Tran. 2016. “Shrimp based Livelihoods in Mangrove Silvo aquaculture Farming Systems.” Reviews in Aquaculture 8 (1). Wiley Online Library: 43–60.

IUCN. 2013. “Post-Tsunami Mangrove Rehabilitation in North Sumatera and Riau Provinces.” http://mangroveactionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/ Photo-Essay_Part_1_N_Sumatera.pdf.

Cornejo, Pilar. 2007. “Ecuador Case Study: Climate Change Impact on Fisheries.”.” Human Development Report 2008.

MARTHA PSKOWSKI. 2017. “Communities Band Together to Protect El Salvador’s Last Mangroves.” https://news.mongabay.com/2017/05/ communities-band-together-to-protect-el-salvadors-last-mangroves/.

CLIRSEN. 2007. “Actualizacion Del Estudio Multitemporal de Manglares, Camaroneras Y Areas Salinas En Las Costa Continental Ecuatoriana Al Ano 2006.” Centro De Levantamientos Integrados De Recursos Naturales Por Sensores Remotos Quito, Ecuador. Gautier, Dominique. 2002. “The Integration of Mangrove and Shrimp Farming: A Case Study on the Caribbean Coast of Colombia.” Report Prepared under the World Bank, NACA, WWF and FAO Consortium Program on Shrimp Farming and the Environment. Work in Progress for Public Discussion. Published by the Consortium.

Ramsar. 2005. “El Slvador Designates Second Ramsar Site.” Revista Líderes. 2017. “El Camarón Se Consolida Como El Principal Producto de Exportación,” December. http://www.revistalideres.ec/lideres/camaronecuador-principal-producto-exportacion.html.

Harvey, Brian, Doris Soto, Joachim Carolsfeld, Malcolm Beveridge, and Devin M Bartley. 2017. “Planning for Aquaculture Diversification: The Importance of Climate Change and Other Drivers.” FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Proceedings No. 47. Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7358e.pdf. Joffre, Olivier M, Roel H Bosma, Arnold K Bregt, Paul A M van Zwieten, Simon R Bush, and Johan A J Verreth. 2015. “What Drives the Adoption of Integrated Shrimp Mangrove Aquaculture in Vietnam?” Ocean & Coastal Management 114. Elsevier: 53–63. Meulder, Bruno De, and Kelly Shannon. 2013. Water Urbanisms East: Emerging Practices and Age-Old Traditions. Water Urbanisms East. Park Books. Meulder, Bruno De, and Kelly Shannon. 2014. “Forests and Trees in the City: Southwest Flanders and the Mekong Delta.” In Revising Green Infrastructure: Concepts Between Nature and Design, 427–49. CRC Press. freely. Warne, Kennedy. 2011. Let Them Eat Shrimp. doi:10.5822/978-1-61091-024-8.

AMINA KASKAR

Ecologies of Riverbank Markets in the Guayas Basin The critical impact of water on the commercial landscape of Guayaquil and approaches for a new market typology for villages in the gulf.

It is within ‘markets’ that we are able to catch a glimpse of the complexities behind Fieldwork photograph (Kaskar, 2018)

the day-to-day labour of the productive industry within the city. With more than 60% of the population of Guayaquil working in informal commerce within the city, the whole city can be seen as a market devoted to the ‘local’ economy based on redistribution and reciprocity (Flynn & Lydon, 2018). The streets are taken over by trade, establishing a commercial environment at various scales (Lawrence & Castro, 2006). This commercial life is structured by the relationship that the markets and trade have with water and specifically the connection the growing city has with the Guayas and Daule Rivers in both proximity and dependency. The markets are an integral structure for which the livelihoods of artisanal fisherman and crab catchers depend (Figure 1). The negotiation between landscape and people is important in understanding the commercial landscape of the city as it unveils a deep connection to the water system not only through its dominant fishing and aquaculture trade, but also for the transport of goods and people, the collection of waste, as well as for recreation (Figure 2 & 3). In this paper, I will explore the market as being inherently characterised by its Figure 1. Crab arrival point and selling arena at the Caraguay Market The Caraguay market is an important crab selling point where many fisherman come to sell their ‘planchas’ (packages of crab).

waterscapes, beyond the traditional endeavour of fishing. In order to do this, I will reframe the term ‘riverbank market’, as not an actual market, but rather as a concept for which to explore new approaches in which productivity and exchange can be more integrated into water landscapes, being able to adapt to its shifting landscapes and providing resilience in the face of changing climatic conditions and

the resultant effects upon the socio-ecological setting of Guayaquil.

(Kaskar, 2018)

Figure 2. Riverbank markets as a relationship between trade and water 30-40 fisherman go out to fish from the Playita del Guasomo. Pictured, Tonduka, who fishes from the morning until midday, after which he comes to sell at the market. His catch has decreased by half over the past 7 years due to the water getting warmer as a result of climate change.

Figure 3. Men on their canoes collect waste on the banks of the Estero Salado

Main Market Area: Sellers rent cubicles to sell fish that they have bought from fishemerman in the morning. Sellers work independantly to the fisherman

09:00am-16:00am

Guayaquil has historically been a city that lives on the water and even today several organisational systems are related to water (Figure 5). However, the shift away from

Restuarant and shop owners Personal buyers

Family fishing co-operatives from Guayaquil and Suburbio

water has put a strain on the communities and local fisherman. Many markets, even though they are rooted along the water depend on road-based transport. There is a tension in the way in which goods are delivered and the distances in which they need to travel (Figure 8). This results in disconnects between the local fisherman, the suppliers and the consumers; leaving the fisherman vulnerable, exploited and

(Kaskar, 2018)

stuck in socio-economic dependencies. This is evident in the coastal fishing villages in the gulf of Guayaquil. The community of Cerritos de los Morrenos is one of the largest of these communities and serves as an outpost for the other fishing villages (Figures 6 & 7). Located within the mangroves

Sells catch to itermediary party

and brackish estuaries, these communities rely on fishing and crab catching for

Direct sale

their livelihoods (Figure 9). However, they face several challenges being exposed to

Fisherman from smaller fishing villages in the gulf

the first wave of consequences inflicted by climate change; the increase in sea level rise, as well as being disconnected to services and goods. These villages depend heavily on Guayaquil for amenities such as food, electricity and potable water. They also depend on the markets in Guayaquil, especially the Caraguay market for the selling of crabs (Figure 4). This exchange exists not only for food and goods but also as a means for which the community has access to medical or educational services and facilities. They also rely on the trade of building material and waste (Figure 10).

04:00am-06:00am

Fisherman from Playita de Guasmo

Fisherman from the 50 fishing and crab catching co-operatives

Figure 4. Riverbank markets in Guayaquil Today, when looking at riverbank markets such as the Mercado de Caraguay or Playita de Guasmo, it is evident that there are specific organisational systems related to the water; networks of social capital and structured cooperatives that extend beyond the logic of the physical space of the market. These systems determine in which areas fisherman are allowed to fish and establish a general code of conduct. A membership fee needs to be paid to join.

Fieldwork drawing (Kaskar, 2018)

Figure 5. Historical relationship between trade and water in Guayaguil Guayaquil has historically been a city that lives on the water. This can be seen in many of the indigenous practices in early Hispanic Ecuador where the integration of water and trade was crucial in sustaining the livelihoods of the communities. From the end of the 19th century onwards, most families in the Gulf of Guayaquil depended on direct use of mangroves for the provision of timber raisin and charcoal which were in great demand by the growing city of Guayaquil. These settlements would occupy the gulf for several months and the families would live on large boats called ‘balandras’. These boats were also used to transport mangrove timber to the city of Guayaquil, where they were immediately sold (Schonig 2015) .

PALESTINA

SANTA LUCIA

SALITRA

NEW MARKET SANTA CLARA MARKET

DAULE

(https://i.pinimg.com/originals/07/

MERCADO MINCIPAL MARCISOS

NOBOL

E UL DA R

RI Rice and spices Fruit and vegetables Fish Crab Sweets Restaurants

GUAYAQUIL MARCADO DE CARAGUAY

Panga

Dorado

PLAYITA DEL GUASMO ESMERALDA

PUESTO DE MARSISOS SUBURBIO

Shells

Catfish Corbina Moharas

Tuna Corvina

PUERTO ROMA

CERRITO DE LOS MORRENOS

AYA S

RIV

Figures 6 & 7. Cerritos de los Morrenos Life within the community and the relationship between the built form and the water. markets ports commercial areas

PUNA

rice fish road-based transport water-based transport

Figure 8. Networks and productive flows of markets in Guayaquil

(Kaskar, 2018) Fieldwork photograph

Seabass languistines

MARSCISOS MONTABAYO SANTA ROSSA

Fieldwork photograph (Kaskar, 2018)

Covial

Fieldwork drawing (Tomelescu, 2018) (Tomelescu, 2018) Fieldwork drawing

Figure 9. Productive routes of coastal villages within the gulf There are 35 fishing villages located in the gulf consiting of approximately 1200 people. These communities depend on the estuaries and the mangroves to catch fish and crab.

Figure 10. Cerritos dependancy on and contribution to Gauayquil city This diagram illustrates the types of services and goods that Cerritos has to source from Guayaquil, as well as the fish and crab they sell at the markets. These flows show the inputs and output of resources, with the inputs outweighing that of the outputs.

In this case, the market needs to serve as a means for Cerritos to remain connected to facilities, allowing these smaller villages to be autonomous. This study is important in defining the market typology as something that is able to align or democratise the ability to trade in Guayaquil. Thus, I have identified three approaches for this ‘riverbank market’ concept. Firstly, it is critical to inquire about indigenous practices and historical precedents that demonstrate the relationship between ‘markets’ and water, secondly, to look at liquid urbanism and the way in which humans can appropriate water-based landscapes and lastly, identifying the market as a space to utilise and distribute water efficiently when dealing with water scarcity.

(Windapo,2015)

Fieldwork photograph (Kaskar, 2018)

The commercial landscape as a reflection of climate and environmental change Pictured, various commercial typologies that exist in Guayaquil; from a single man selling gas, the mobile street vendors in Suburbio, street hawkers on the pavement in Daule to the large market infrastructure of the Caraguay market. Speaking to the fisherman and the sellers, they all expressed a shared distress about how climate change is affecting their sales; this is either through fish moving away to cooler, cleaner, saltier water or crabs changing colour due to the condition of the water and how this affects the local supply and demand chains.

Fieldwork photograph (Kaskar, 2018) Fieldwork photograph (Kaskar, 2018)

Fieldwork photograph (Kaskar, 2018)

Cerritos de los Morrenos Pictured, visual descriptions of the island of Cerritos de los Morrenos. The village is located on a hill, and has the advantage over other fishing villages of being on higher ground, protected from flooding and sea level rise. The commercial lansdcape is limited to peoples homes and is not palpably visible.

(https://www.alphatravelvn.com/aztec-floating-gardens/mexico-tenochtitlan-as-imagined-by-diego-rivera-chinampas-the-city-s-floating-gardens-aztec-floating-gardens-5/)

01_Re-scripting Indigenous Water and Market Practices

The study of current native practices and use of long-established knowledge is crucial in a world where predominant approaches to development have brought so many problems. Contemporary societies should look to past indigenous societies for valuable insights and lessons on how to more efficiently use resources and improve various management systems (Medina 2014). Similarly to Guayaquil, many Latin American cities used to be water-based and with strongly interconnected productive and organisational systems. This is most evident in the early Mesoamerican period and the dawn of the Aztec empire. These civilisations carried out a systematic programme of construction that responded to the need to sustain its large population by creating a system of uniformally arranged floating agricultural islands, called ‘chinampas’ (Medina, 2014).

The success of this system relied of the

manpower provided to grow produce and goods for the Aztec community; the main market of Tlatelolco, as well as several others cities (Ancient Origins, 2014). These indigenous practices are useful in understanding self-sustaining measures for ensuring food security as well as practices of sustenance farming and as a way to economically empower native communities. The Acztecs also had valuable lessons for waste management that could be implemented today (Medina, 2014).

The Aztec Empire and its floating islands, ‘chinampas’ The city was laid out on a grid plan consisting of ‘chinampas’. To build the chinampas, the Aztecs staked out rectangles enclosures of usually 2,5m x 30m in size in shallow water beds surrounding the city. The fenced-off area was then filled with mud, lake sediment and organic material, until it rose above the water level of the lake. Trees were planted to “anchor” each chinampa. Most residents lived on chinampas, where they also grew their crops. Lake channels surrounded all four sides of each chinampa and were wide enough for a canoe to navigate. These channels provided crop irrigation and an easy way to transport products to the market (Medina, 2014).

(http://slideplayer.com/slide/7580843/)

(Ancient Origins, 2014) (Ancient Origins, 2014)

‘Chinampas’ and waste management systems The Aztecs disposed of all organic wastes in the chinampas, such as food leftovers and agricultural residues, which fertilized the crops. Further, the most valuable fertilizer used on the chinampas was human excrement. The excrement was so valued that the city had a network of public latrines from which it was collected and eventually sold at the city’s main market. By using human excrement to fertilise the crops, the Aztecs were also able to create a healthier living environment as the city’s wastewater would have also been treated (Medina, 2014).

01_Re-scripting Indigenous Water Practices XOCHIMILCO ECOLOGICAL PARK

Mario Schjetnan (1995)

(Gropo de Diseno Urbano, 1993)

The Xochomilico Ecological park is a project that was profoundly shaped by Columbian myth and pre-colonial history with a continued attention to both social and environmental needs (Beardsley, 2002). The project is a good example of the integration of environmental restoration, recreation and productive landscapes, consisting of a park, a flower market and 3000-hectares of a pre-conquest landscape consisting of chinampas (GDU, 1995). The project was complex and had to deal with the sinking of the islands, flooding and the growing of invasive plants, through the combination of urban and ecological design as well as the protection of the site’s historical nature. Schjetnan described the site as having the ‘last traces of living myth’ something that can be attributed to the way in which the people of Cerritos inhabit their space, through the principles and legends of Don Goyo - ‘entering a landscape of dreams, a living archaeology which has to be recovered, explained, celebrated and conserved” (Potgieter & Purinton, 1998).

(Gropo de Diseno Urbano, 1993)

Chinampas (Gropo de Diseno Urbano, 1993)

Masterplan (Gropo de Diseno Urbano, 1993)

Xochimilco, Mexico

(Mxcity 2016)

Integrated Ecosystem The ecosystem restoration was guided by hydraulic conditions; polluted surface water was treated at new sewerage facilities and large reservoirs were created to control storm water runoff. The chinampas were restored, acknowledging the historical significance of the islands, as well as addressing the need for a productive landscape. Canals were dredged to reopen them to gondolas used by local families (GDU, 1995).

(Chan, 2012a)

Schjetnan’s public parks are an expression of his long-standing ambition for environmental justice through the connectionof public space with infrastructure improvement, helping to integrate the marginalised into society and providing them with the basic ‘urban rights’ (Beardsley, 2002).

(Gropo de Diseno Urbano, 1993)

The design embodies the transformation of the site through agriculture and urbanisation, arguing for a “new conception of metropolitan ecologies” generated by the underlying economic and environmental pressures of the site (Beardsley, 2002).

02_Liquid Urbanism: Living with Water

Fieldwork photograph (Kaskar, 2018)

Rhythms and flows of water mobility and service distribution systems

In Guayaquil urbanisation is occurring rapidly with most people moving further north of the city to higher land. However, due to large population growth there are limitations placed on the availability and access to land. The United Nation asks the question - will there be enough land to go around? - Arguing that by the year 2050 about 70% of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population of 10 billion people will be living in cities (Marsh, 2016). As discussed, water is an essential element in many activities carried out in Guayaquil, unfortunately most water bodies that run in the city are grossly under-utilised and have been channelised, and most of the population use them as waste dumping sites. The channelization and dumping of waste into these water bodies cuts them off from city life and prevents them from being important features in the city for human engagement (Windapo, 2015). Along with this, issues such as flooding occurs. Due to climate change and the rising sea levels, people will be forced to live with and on water. We need to think of new ways of urbanising to accommodate population growth that solves the problem of inner-city densification, as well as the dependency that the locals have on water resources. There is great value in preserving unique communities like Cerritos, as there are things that can be learnt from the resourcefulness of settlements in designing the terrain of water. For instance, moving away from hard infrastructure to less expensive systems that draw their power from local knowledge and resources in a manner that empowers communities by involving people in the creation and management of their settlements (Windapo, 2015).

Liquid urbanism in the mangroves Cerritos is located in the coastal estuaries surrounded by mangrove with a current population of 600 people. The people use the resources of the mangrove to their advantage by engaging in activities like fishing and crab catching. Most of their homes are built on stilts and raised platforms.

(http://www.bangkok.com/magazine/5-floating-markets.htm)

(Windapo,2015)

(https://www.elespanol.com/deportes/futbol) (https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/01/world/asia/floating-schools-in-bangladesh.html)

Floating Infrastructure Soft infrastructure helps in blurring the boundary between city and water. It has an ability to house a diversity of functions, using a multifunctional approach to infrastructure that responds to contemporary society, mostly in disadvantaged contexts. It can be used for service delivery to settlements who lack basic water, electricity, sanitation. This provides long term measures to climatic conditions integrating the built environment and water to employ ideas of liquid urbanism (Windapo, 2015). The built environment can be integrated with water for public spaces, urban farms, tourist centres, markets, schools and other special programmes. For instance, the floating school in Bangladesh tackles the disruption of school caused by annual flooding (Yee, 2013).

02_Liquid Urbanism: Living with Water

Rhythms and flows of water mobility and service distribution systems

MAKOKO NEIGHBOURHOOD HOTSPOTS

Fabulous Urban (2014)

Makoko, Lagos, Nigeria

(https://divisare.com/)

In Lagos, settlements on water are usually ostracised, regarded as unsightly and disregarded by the government as they are labelled slums. Although Makoko has its challenges, it demonstrates how the resources produced by water can sustain a community if harnessed appropriately (Windapo, 2015).

(Fabulous Urban, 2014)

(Jibril, 203)

The Makoko Neighbourhood Hotspot was designed as a technical and social infrastructure serving as an infrastructure hub providing urban services such as biogas linked community toilets and as a business incubator promoting waste-toenergy principles (Swiss Architects, n.d).

Preparation for biowaste for the inlet (Fabulous Urban, 2014)

Visual Representation (Fabulous Urban, 2014)

Biogas and water treatment (Fabulous Urban, 2014)

Visual Representation (Fabulous Urban, 2014)

Decentralised facilities The Neighbourhood Hotspot project uses an urban strategy of developing 23 node buildings all over Makoko that house a variety of services. Each hotspot provides water, electricity and sanitation to the community through sustainable means by harvesting rainwater and recycling human waste into biogas energy for cooking and charging batteries. The hotspots provide kitchens, clinics and recycling centres and thus become independent structures that can help to legitimise Makoko as an important resource for the settlement (Windapo, 2015). The project also demonstrates ways in which floating infrastructure can be resilient towards flooding and deterioration. The Neighbourhood Hotspot initiative is a good precedent on the implementation of decentralized strategic, yet low-cost interventions (Swiss Architects, n.d).

Fieldwork photograph (Marchand, 2018)

03_Collective Waterscapes: Addressing Water Scarcity

Guayaquil is facing a major problem with water pollution as well as access to potable water. The main power plant located near Daule, La Toma, pumps water from the Daule river to provide water to the city. However, in the 90â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, the quality of the water has declined due to the increase in salinity caused by the rising salt intrusion caused by climate change (World Folio, 2015). The estuaries, are also heavily polluted, with the Estero Salado being contaminated with organic and solid waste (Whitehead, 2016). This situation led the municipality to form a project to privatise services for provison of potable water and management of the sewerage system (World Folio, 2015).

Techniques for the catchment of water through natural dams could be implemented if sensitively managed so as to not disturb the natural landscape of the area. This sort of harvesting has been done succesfully in many eastern countries for thousands of years. For instance, Sri Lanka has one of the finest indigenous hydraulic systems in the world. Sri Lanka is a country prone to water scarcity, however by using a sophisticated network of small tanks connected by canals to large reservoirs, they are able to collect and redistribute water, replenish soils, and balance the needs of the entire ecosystem (Shannon & manawadu, 2014). There is a special mountainous landscape in the gulf near Cerritos where this sort of technique could be applied.

Drinking water condition in Guayaquil Privatised potable-water distribution companies provide water to cities; transported by trucks. Other rural settlements depend on small-scale rainwater harvesting. Coastal villages depend on boats to transport water tanks to their villages.

Fieldwork photograph (Kaskar, 2018)

The coastal villages are surrounded by estuaries filled with brackish water, and they dont have access to sweet water, even though the percipitation rate in the gulf is higher than that of the cities. The technology for desalination processes are expensive and complicated for these rural landscapes.

Fieldwork photograph (Kaskar, 2018)

For communites, such as Cerritos, access to water would require the transport of water in tanks from the city. In additon, each household also harvests rainwater from their roofs. However, in both cases the quality of the water is poor and not healthy enough to be consumed.

Learning from Eastern systems of water harvesting Similarly to the Sri Lankan system, the pictured Indian “Zabo” refers to the “impounding runoff water” used for both drinking water an the irrigation of forests, horticulture, agriculture, fishery and animal husbandry. Water resource development, water management and protection of environment are inherent aspects of the system. This efficient land-water management system helps the communitites who suffer from water scarcity. This system has an inbuilt water harvesting and recycling systems with a conservation base to control soil erosion, properly manage soil fertility and provide sufficient fresh water (Sharma & Sharma, 2004).

(Singh & Singh 2012)

(Shekar ,2009)

(Singh & Singh 2012)

Water harvesting ponds Ponds are dug to harvest the water. The bottom surface of the pond is properly rammed to minimize the loss of water through seepage. Protected forest lands, on hilltops, act as catchments and water is channelized through inlet channels from the catchment area. The sharing of harvested water between different families or clans is done through mutual negotiations as the water flows through the different plots (Shekar, 2009).

03_Collective Waterscapes: Addressing Water Scarcity CLIMATE SMART WATER

Climate Adaptation UNDP (2011)

(UNDP Climate Change Adaptation, 2016)

Restoring an ancient hydraulic system to improve water access & climate-resilience in Sri Lanka

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Strenghthening the resilience of post-conflict recovery and development to climate change risksâ&#x20AC;? The project, is introducing climate-smart policies and actions by supporting the rehabilitation of 34 ancient water tanks in Sri Lanka, reintroducing ancient features of the water tanks that were lost over the centuries and upgrading and adapting them to new climatic conditions. Today, Sri Lanka is faced with climate change challenges, similar to Guayaquil, such as higher temperatures, heavier and more irregular rains, and longer droughts. As a result many farmers are accumulating debts. The social needs of the community needs to be balanced with those of the entire ecosystem. The project is trying to achieve this by reviving techniques used in ancient time to ensure a defnse to climate change into the future. Rehabilitating tanks will make communities more self-sufficient, allowing them to produce a surplus of crops from home gardens and rice (UNDP Climate Change Adaptation, 2009).

Tanks Diagrams showing the position of the tanks in relation to certain productive territories and villages as well as their position within the topography. The sophisticated system of tanks, canals and reservoirs kept a perfect ecological balance and was able to mitigate droughts, cool down temperature and save water (Shannon & Maawadu,2007).

(Biodiversity Sri Lanka, 2017)

(Shannon & Maawadu,2007)

(UNDP Climate Change Adaptation, 2016 )

Walawe Basin Maps showing the upper and lower Walawe basin showing the distribution of operational and abandoned tanks and canals (Shannon & Maawadu,2007).

(https://archinect.com/)

(UNDP Climate Change Adaptation, 2016)

(Shannon & Maawadu,2007)

Reviving ancient systems The tanks were built in cascading systems, using the natural inclination and topography of the land, full of small watersheds. They kept the natural cycle of water through soil, vegetation and atmosphere. The tanks were equipped with features to prevent floods, preserve water and control evaporation (UNDP Climate Change Adaptation, 2009).

Conclusion

The approaches highlighted within these three case studies emphasise elements aimed at performing a wide range of resilient functions against the prevailing consequences caused by climate change. They illustrates the means for which rural villages, such as Cerritos, can remain connected to amenities, allowing them to be autonomous and self-sustaining by inverting the relationship that they currently have with the main urban areas. That instead of being highly dependent on the urban areas for access and services, rather that the coastal areas are able to utilise their rich landscape to source water, as well as to provide a preliminary defence from the risks of climate change. The landscape at the Southern tip of the Gulf is a very important asset that will not only self-sustain itself but could possibly provide valuable resources for other areas in Guayaquil. These projects demonstrate the potential in rural landscape urbanism which as the case studies show are most commonly derived from indigenous practice. Through the research, floating infrastructure, emerges as a common typology for ways of living with water. We can look at many case studies, not only from Latin America, but from around the world including Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, China and Nigeria that have historically been drawn towards water, working together, instead of against it. Many specialised techniques for doing this can be seen in communities living on boats, house built on silts and floating buildings using raft-like systems. These are gesture of gently touching the landscape and not over-exploiting it. Floating settlements can potentially be a solution to growing problems of rapid coastal migration and population growth, climate change and marine ecology imbalance; addressing sea level rise, illegal fishing, coastal development, coastal protection and exploited resources. The idea of floating infrastructure is to imagine

that the city could be temporarily expanded to allow for sporadic population increases from tourism or refugees and the patterns of daily migration by fisherman, shrinking back down again when they leave. More and more seeing a move away from city centres and a towards a fluidity of space. In Guayaquil the people have already started improvising to deal with the effects of flooding and have created management systems to compensate for lack of service provision. People are initiating waste management projects by collecting waste on canoes along the estuaries to deliver to the depots. This self-organisation is something that drives the resilience of the city of Guayaquil. What if the riverbank market could be something that belonged to the people, that could use the methods highlighted to become something integrated with the water, floating, utilising the networks of the fisherman and waste collectors on their canoes, creating a hub for collective exchange of crabs, fish, agriculture, potable water, services and professional skills, electricity and the collection and recycling of waste. The market could be something decentralised and flexible that forms part of a network of markets distributds along the estuaries connected to floating or water-based settlements. Using the current mode of the water mobility experience to accommodate a selfsustaining economical model for the community. Based on this, it can be concluded that, globally there is a drive for discovering systems that work with issues of climate change, population increase and poor infrastructure delivery. The implications this can be used to re-script our conceptions of what our cities can be in the future. It will be futile to build barriers to these issues, as these barriers do not address the complex matrix of the activities within cities.

Bibliography Books

Books

BEARDSLEY, John, “Landscape, architecture and urbanism” in: TRULOVE, G. James, Ten Landscapes: Mario Schjetnan, Rockport Publishers, Gloucester, 2002, pp.60-73

SINGH, K. Raj, SINGH, Vidya & RAJKHOWA, Chandan, “Zabo: a traditional way of integrated farming” in: DEKA, Bidyut. C, CHATTERGEE, Dibyendu, et al. (eds.), Resilient shifting cultivations: challenges and opportunities, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Nagaland, 2012 pp. 1-5

POTGIETER, Matthew & PURINTON, Jamie, Landscape narratives: design practices for telling stories, John Wiley and Sons, Inc, New York, 1998, pp. 39 Articles

Articles

SHANNON, Kelly & MANAWADU, Samitha, “Indigenous landscape urbanism: Sri Lanka’s reservoir & tank system, in: Journal of Landscape architecture , 2007 (2)2, pp. 10-11

SCHONIG, Daniel, DIETRICH, Stefan, MULLER, Nora & PUALI, Hieronymus, “The prawn that falls asleep is carried away by the current – 100 years of transformation in the mangroves of Ecuador”, Transformation2015 – People and the Planet in the Anthropocene, Stockholm pp.6-7.

SHARMA, U. C. & SHARMA, Vikas, “The ‘Zabo’ soil and water management and conservation system in northeast India: tribal beliefs in the development of water resources and their impact on society – a historical account of a success story” in: RODDA, C. John & UBERTINI, Lucio (eds.) The basis of civilisation – water science?, International Association of Hydrological Science Publication, Wallingford, 2004, pp.184-191 Websites

Websites

Ancient Origins, “Chinampas, the floating gardens of Mexico, 2014 [03 June 2018, Ancient Origins; http://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-americas/ chinampas-floating-gardens-mexico-001537

SHEKAR, Raj, “How to create a farm pond for water storage”, 2009 [03 June 2018, India Water Portal; http://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/how-createfarm-pond-water-storage]

FLYNN, Julie & LYDON, Mike (eds.), “Mercado: Lessons from 20 markets across South America”, 2014, [03 June 2018, Issu; The Mercado Project: Street Plans Collaborative, pp. 8: https://issuu.com/streetplanscollaborative/docs/ mercados-final-sm]

Swiss Architects, “Fabulous Urban: Makoko neighbourhood hotspot” n.d. [1 June 2018, Swiss Architects: https://www.swiss-architects.com/en/fabulousurban-zurich/project/makoko-neighborhood-hotspot?nonav=1]

Grup de Diseno Urbano, “Xochimilico Ecologcial Park”, 1995; [03 June 2018, GDU; http://gdu.com.mx/english_gdu/?portfolio=parque-ecologicoxochimilco] LAWRENCE, G. Pareena & CASTRO, Sandra, “Government intervention in street vending activities in Guayaquil, Ecuador: a case study of vendors in municipal markets” in: Prob.Des [online] (37)144, 2006, pp145-170 [03 June 2018, Scielo; http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_ arttext&pid=S0301-70362006000100007] MARSH, Jenny, “Living on water: Are waterborne cities more resistant to climate change?”, 2016 [03 June 2018, CNN; https://edition.cnn.com/2016/07/20/asia/ water-cities-jason-pomeroy/index.html] MEDINA, Martin, “The Aztecs of Mexico: a zero waste society, 2014 [03 June 2018, Our World; http://www.resilience.org/stories/2014-04-29/the-aztecs-ofmexico-a-zero-waste-society/]

The WorldFolio, “In 15 years, Guayaquil has brought drinking water to 100% of the municipality”, 2015 [03 June 2018, WorldFolio; http://www.theworldfolio. com/news/in-15-years-guayaquil-has-brought-drinking-water-to-100-of-themunicipality/3820/] UNDP Climate Change Adaptation, 2016 [03 June 2018, Youtube; https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=nR8OkABdXww] WHITEHEAD, Frederika, “Ecuadorians tired of waiting for a clean-up of Guayaquil’s filthy waters”, 2016 [03 June 2018, The Guardian; https://www. theguardian.com/global-development/2016/may/26/ecuador-veolia-clean-upguayaquil-water-sanitation-pollution] WINDAPO, Bayo, “Part 1: How to live and work with water in the future city”, 2015 [03 June 2018, FutureLagos; http://futurecapetown.com/2015/09/futurelagos-living-with-water/#.WxDaei-PBEI] YEE, Amy, “Floating Schools’ Bring Classrooms to Stranded Students”, 2013 [03 June 2018, The New York Times; https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/01/world/ asia/floating-schools-in-bangladesh.html]

tomulescu mara

(Coastal) Rural Migration in the Guayas River Estuary The Resource-Migration Nexus

Coastal Rural Migration Rural migration has been the focus of many fields since the industrial revolution, and the causes vary from rural poverty, the promise of new and better opportunities and lack of resources. It’s this diminishing or lack of resources and the impact on migration that will be the focus of this paper while looking from the lens of coastal migration and the dependency of rural settlements in coastal areas on more developed areas for resources. “Island abandonment is not a new phenomenon” (Luetz & Havea, 2010) and the problems leading to this encompass various pressures such as having large coastal areas in comparison to the total available land, storm surges and rising sea level that can cause erosion and contaminate the freshwater aquifer (Luetz & Havea, 2010). Water challenges and climate change impacts (uncertainty and variability) are “push factor multipliers” (Jagerskog & Swain, 2016) along with social, economic and political factors. In areas that have limited or no capability to deal with climate change and water scarcity, migration increases also due to factors such as diseases spreading easily, limited infrastructure, limited access to knowledge, information and education and healthcare, subsistence development are all factors that lead to (coastal) migration.

ENERGY solar panels 5/90 functional

SHELTER building materials

WATER potable water 2x/month

ECONOMY tourists

EDUCATION young generation migration

WATER potable water tanks 4 distribution points 0,30 cents/ 5gallons

WASTE MANAGMENT non-reusable solid waste

high tide low tide

FOOD SECURITY shop merchandise

ECONOMY fish&crab

EDUCATION&HEALTHCARE teachers&medical personnel

WATER individual rainwater harvesting

GENERATOR 17:00 - 24:00

Cerrito de Los Morrenos

(such as illness, lack of water, etc.) and as the boats are only able to cross the

The village of Cerrito de Los Morrenos is located in the interior central

due to fuel costs. Therefore, the community avoids sending too many boats

estuary of the Gulf of Guayaquil, where small fishermen communities have

to the city, and trips for multiple purposes are made, leading to periods of

established on the edge of mangrove islands. The fishermen communities

food and water scarcity and to limited access to education and healthcare.

are environmental custodians of the mangrove areas included in the Ramsar

With the expected rising sea level and rainfall and accentuated future El

Wetland of International Importance, the village of Cerrito de Los Morrenos

Nino events, the village is prone to island abandonment if the “business

being the main head of these communities. Lack of potable water is one

as usual” continues. The following case studies will relate to water scarcity

of the problems in all the communities living in the estuary and issues such

management and food security, rural development through self-sufficiency

as energy, waste management, and education have been tackled in various

(resources and economy) and access to education and self-development,

ways by several NGO’s working in Cerrito de Los Morrenos.

aiming to reduce migration, promote rural development and preserve local

Water scarcity, food security, and development opportunities are one of

identity.

estuary towards Guayaquil only during high tide and return during low tide

the main issues in the village, along with access to healthcare, education, and information. Currently, out-migration is not the main issue in the village, although access to better education and opportunities is pulling some of the young generations to migrate towards Guayaquil or towards Germany, using the existing connection with the German NGO, Schtuztwald, involved in developing the village. The village has access to potable water, food, healthcare and education through daily or semi-weekly boats that bring resources to the village. This daily or semi-weekly migration is one of the main issues in the village, as scheduled arrivals or departures aren’t prepared for unexpected events

photo by Amina Kaskar

01_Water scarcity and food security management

Water is the most important resource on Earth and access to water could be considered a human right (Sarner, 2016). Migration and water scarcity have been related, historically, to nomads searching for water and resources for their livestock (Jagerskog & Swain, 2016) and nowadays water, food security and energy are very much intertwined, leading to poverty lack of education and other resources. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The loss of livelihood due to increasing water scarcity and variability could force those affected to migrateâ&#x20AC;? (Jagerskog & Swain, 2016) and lack of water is becoming more and more problematic due to climate change. This, in turn, will lead to lack of food security, which has caused for many people to move across borders. Various guiding principles have been given for better water managing to prevent conflict and migration due to water scarcity such as better and cheap methods of water harvesting and more efficient methods of irrigation for agriculture and crop management. (Sarner, 2016) (Deshingkar )

personal fieldwork photo

photo by Amina Kaskar

Cerrito de Los Morrenos depends on the city of Guayaquil for potable water and food provision. The cost of fresh water (30 cents/5 gallons), the lack of water infrastructure and soil salinity prevent the community to develop large-scale agricultural practices. A few households have started growing local fruit trees, but not even for subsistence. Therefore, the village survives from the local fishermenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s daily catch and from the food brought by boats from the main city. With climate change impact and depleting fish resources, relying on crab and fish catching as a source to combat the lack of food security is no longer an option.

01_Water scarcity and food security management harvesting agriculture https://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/img/7c99b700-8cd4-457b-9969-c4e90f15d298/ A14LAacAR-01.jpg

Formosa, Argentina, Latin America

Water scarcity migration The project addresses migration due to water scarcity its connection to lack of food security. Located in Argentina, the project is destined for the communities living in Choco Seco, in the Banado La Estrella, a large wetland of great biodiversity. People in Choco Seco have migrated along this territory according to annual rainfall patterns, their migratory patterns being related to various supply water points. Changes in land tenure, industrial growth, and waterlogging have forced them to live a sedentary lifestyle. The project aims to tackle this migration issue by creating a Centre for Water Harvesting and agricultural production that will allow the community to harvest water during the rainy season that will be later on used either as a source of potable water, either as a way to irrigate the crops during the dry season. The design uses the water centerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s roof as a roof rainwater harvesting system using soft systems such as slow sand filtration and manual pumps.

Red Comunidades Rurales

43 https://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/img/507d111a-625e-4fa2-be04-05835c7a81ac/A14LAacAR-04.jpg

https://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/img/94c76236-9a58-4b99-8289-bb8da50069d3/ A14LAacAR-06.jpg

https://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/img/75be6d3c-fc88-4a62-84eb-06c8ef8bafbe/A14LAacAR-05.jpg

https://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/img/99bd48d384c4-4e65-9665-1d779776a912/A14LAacAR-02.jpg https://src.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/img/60bad2da-82814cab-8514-67bec3ef331e/A14LAacAR-07.jpg

Food security Food security is tackled through harvesting water for agricultural irrigation. The crops will be irrigated through a system comprising two reservoirs that will store water during the dry season, water that will be pumped, using soft systems such as solar pumps, to the agricultural land. Depending on the different types of created landscape, the project proposes agroforestry for the catchment area raised on beds allowing water to circulate through channels, orchards along the water community centre that will create shade for the cistern tanks, greenhouses to protect the seedlings from the sun and dry climate and to harbour a nursery for native species , the open reservoirs will be protected from evaporation through use of aquatic plants, while areas surrounding the reservoir are destined to crops that need a larger quantity of water (water farming).

photo by Amina Kaskar

02_Resilience and self-sustainability

FAO’s report on migration claims “migration should be a choice, not a necessity” (FAO, Migration, Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016). In order to respond to rural migration issues, the need is to turn to a sustainable rural development and climate change adaptation techniques in order achieve resilient rural areas. By focusing on agriculture, self-sustainability and rural development the causes of migration, such as poverty, food insecurity, unemployment and lack of natural resources, can be addressed. Communities that have resilient livelihoods are better at adapting to various impacts and “diversifying vibrant agricultural livelihoods is therefore essential to enable people to strengthen self-reliance”. (FAO, Migration and Protracted Crises, 2016). Other ways to create resiliency and prevent migration is by addressing issues of access to natural resources, building for natural disasters and creating employment opportunities. Better management of resources implies better management of water, food, agriculture, and energy. Employment opportunities can be created through developing new skills that can lead to alternative livelihood sources, reducing pressure on the natural resources and “making the communities less vulnerable to climate change effects” (Elis, Haws, Mendiola, & Hemil, 2010).

photo by Amina Kaskar photo by Amina Kaskar

personal fieldwork photo

The village of Cerrito de Los Morrenos, with the help of various NGOs, is aiming to become a selfsustainable village. Currently, in terms of energy, the village benefited from a European donation and installed several solar panel systems throughout the village that are out of service due to bad maintenance. Since the solar panels are defective, the village relies on energy supply from a dieselbased generator that provides electricity only eight hours per day. In terms of waste disposal, solid waste is a major issue in the village since there is no way to dispose of it. Efforts are made to recycle waste, but the majority of it has to be taken to the main city by boats, contributing to transport costs. Grey and black water disposal is another issue that the village faces. Part of the community benefits from eleven individual dry toilets provided by an NGO, but the remainder of the villagers dispose the liquid waste into the estuary. In terms of livelihood and job opportunities, the 80% of the men in the village have as main occupation fishing and crab catching. The community took action in economic diversification by promoting eco-tourism and hosting tourists in their homes.

02_Resilience and self-sustainability jintai village reconstruction

Rural Urban Framework

https://images.divisare.com/images/c_limit,f_auto,h_2000,q_auto,w_3000/v1445880217/bylbwoolmxg8c7it2zc3/rural-urban-framework-jintai-village-recostruction.jpg

Nan Jiang, Sichuan, China

Self-sustainability The project proposed by Rural-Urban Framework with the support of the local government and various NGOs is designed to prevent migration following the natural disasters of the Wenchuan Earthquake and the landslide and floods that followed that left the villagers homeless. The proposal consists of a self-sustainable village from various perspectives - water harvesting, waste and wastewater management energy and agriculture. The project reduces pressure on the energy sources by using renewable energy methods such as a biogas system that converts human and animal waste, as well as by using less invasive and energy consuming methods to treat and provide water. Each house is equipped with a water harvesting system and a greywater recycling system that is, further on, led to a constructed wetland that purifies and further on discharges the water into the natural water system. Energy is provided through biogas systems by converting human and animal waste. The aim of the project is to create a sustainable ecological cycle and, by having these systems in close proximity, an interdependence cycle is created in the community. Food security is tackled through individual agriculture systems that have been positioned on the roofs, due to lack of available land, while local economy is encouraged by having family owned workshops in the dwellingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s open ground floors.

https://www.archdaily.com/882714/jintai-village-reconstruction-rural-urban-framework/59f91843b22e38224600000b-jintai-village-reconstruction-rural-urban-framework-image

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https://www.archdaily.com/882714/jintai-village-reconstruction-rural-urban-framework/59f91690b22e384533000009-jintai-village-reconstruction-rural-urban-framework-image

02_Resilience and self-sustainability kichwa anangu community

https://caaporarq.com/Napo-Wildlife-Center

Orellana Province, Ecuador

https://caaporarq.com/Napo-Wildlife-Center

The Kichwa Anangu Community is located in the Amazonian region of Ecuador, on the bank of Napo River in Yasuni National Park. The community is responsible for the conservation of approximately 20,000 hectares of tropical humid forest. The community currently is focusing on developing and promoting skills such as handcrafting, clothing and new building techniques, along with eco-tourism amenities such as the Napo Wildlife Centre and the Napo Cultural Centre. Having a sustainable community is one of their focus, therefore the Napo Wildlife Centre and Cultural Centre benefit from a biogas system that converts kitchen waste into biogas used for cooking and organic fertilizer that will be further on used in the educational model farm and the community farms. Energy is provided through solar panels and solid waste is sorted and deposited in a recycling center.

02_Resilience and self-sustainability isla santay

https://iwanatrip.com/detalle/%C3%81rea-Nacional-de-Recreaci%C3%B3n-Isla-Santay/1477

https://www.eluniverso.com/sites/default/files/isla_santay.jpg

Guayas Province, Ecuador

Located on the Guayas River, Isla Santay is an eco-tourism based village that benefited from the Guayaquil Ecologico project. The Island receives around 500,000 tourists per year and, through the project, various ecological systems were implemented to reduce the communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s impact on the environment. Energy is provided through solar panels; solid waste is recycled, and grey and black water are treated in a treatment plant. Local economy is improved through handcrafting and clothing manufacturing. Both the Kichwa Anangu Community and Isla Santay are examples of developing a resilient and self-sustainable community through broadening economical practices by protecting and enhancing the natural environment while trying to reduce their impact on it through ecological ways of living.

personal fieldwork photo

03_Managing migration through education

FAO’s guidelines on reducing rural poverty, which is one of the main causes of rural migration, consist, amongst others, “investing in people and fostering skills that can be used in agricultural and non-agricultural activities” (FAO, Reduce rural poverty, 2018). Research focusing on education and rural development conveys that lack of education is linked with hunger, hinders rural development and wealth while limiting the improvement of livelihoods (Acker & Gasperini, 2009). Lack of food security has been linked to insufficient knowledge of production methods and nutritional facts and studies have shown that the level of education of farmer was related to farm productivity. “Knowledge and capacity development not only serve to increase productivity, but also build people’s identity and enable them to participate fully in social and political life” (SIDA, 2000 in (Acker & Gasperini, 2009)

photo by Amina Kaskar

photo by Bindi Raditya Purnama personal fieldwork photo

Cerrito de Los Morrenos currently has a school for students until the age of 15 and teachers arrive by boats every day. Access to skill-based education is limited, therefore job opportunities are limited, most of the young men becoming fishermen. For better education or more advanced education, young members of the communities migrate towards the city and remain there for the duration of their education or further on.

03_Managing migration through education TAMBILLO CULTURAL CENTER

Caa Pora Arquitectura

https://caaporarq.com/Palenque-Tambillo

Tambillo, Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador

Preserving the local indentity through education The project is located in Tambillo, a village in the mangrove forests of north-western Ecuador, that provides a civic space destined for the community to preserve its tradition and to transmit it to future generations. The aim of the project is to host various activities and become an important hub for artisans, workshops and environmental issues that Tambillo is affected by and its neighboring villages. The proposal aims to offer the village new socio-economic perspectives through social and ecological education while enhancing local traditions and craftsmanship and providing new skills for the local community. The community center will also focus on training carpenters and laborers in working with local light materials such as wood and earth, disaster resistant materials.

https://caaporarq.com/Palenque-Tambillo

03_Managing migration through education SEMILLA CENTER

Caa Pora Arquitectura

Seeding agricultural practices Located in the Cantangallo community, an agricultural-based community, the project proposes an agricultural center that can become an outpost of agricultural knowledge for the community and the surrounding areas. The project tackles rural development from a knowledge-based approach by firstly trying to educate the community and teach better agricultural practices, and further on, share this knowledge with the neighboring communities by designing the center as a new destination for agricultural tourism.

https://caaporarq.com/Centro-Semilla

Cantagallo, Manabi Province, Ecuador

Conclusion

Migration is a complex issue that has its fundaments in resource scarcity

management have a great impact on the environment and on reducing

such as water, food, and energy, that is further on amplified by lack of access

water and energy usage.

to knowledge, education, employment and livelihood diversification.

Rural development can be achieved through good water, food, and energy

The projects showed above tackle migration in different ways.

management, and it can be improved through developing economical

Harvesting Agriculture proposes soft water harvesting systems that enable

practices either by reaping benefits from the surrounding nature, either

agricultural development leading to food security and water security for the

through education by enhancing local identity, by learning new skills that

migratory communities that were forced to lead a sedentary life.

built a more resilient community or by improving already existing knowledge

The Jintai Village Reconstruction focuses on a self-sufficient village with water

that can lead to better practices.

harvesting systems, energy provision, waste management and agricultural

Cerrito de Los Morrenos is a village that could benefit from all these

practices, while the eco-villages in Ecuador promote a sustainable village

practices. Surrounded by nature that is protected by law and included in

that reaps benefits from the surrounding nature by developing a tourism-

the Ramsar Convention of Wetlands, the community has already started

based economy and, therefore, diversifying their livelihoods.

diversifying its economic practices by promoting eco-tourism, practices that

The cultural centers located in Tambillo, and, respectively, Cantangallo look

can, further on, be developed and enhanced. Dependency on the main

at migration through the lens of education. In the first project, Caa Pora

city Guayaquil, for water, partially for food, solid waste management and

proposes a center that will preserve the local identity, as well as educate

construction materials and fuel for energy, can be tackled through various

people in new skills that will promote a resilient community, while in the

ways. Systems that harvest water for potable use and for agriculture can be

second project, the same design office, takes advantage of the local

implemented. Renewable energy sources could reduce the dependency on

knowledge and enhances it through education that can be further on

the city while taking advantage of natural conditions. Focusing on promoting

spread to other communities.

knowledge and skill-based education could lead to economic development,

Several conclusions can be drawn from the case studies and the

enhancing new agricultural practices, reducing the dependency on the

complementary literature. Firstly, water is the most important resource and

city for construction materials by promoting usage of local ones, while the

lack of water is linked with lack of food, and, further on, with lack of rural

village could become a great node of sharing this knowledge with the other

development. Water scarcity can be tackled by using soft systems that either

existing communities.

use renewable energy or take advantage of the environmental conditions, be it rainfall patterns and quantity or landscape conditions through run-off harvesting. Food security can be achieved by using efficient irrigation systems, context, and landscape specific crops, as well as crops that require less water or are able to cope in a less hospitable environment such as saline soils, salty water. Further on, renewable energy and using soft technology is a critical issue for reducing the impact on the environment, as well as reducing costs in an impoverished rural environment, while solid waste and wastewater

Bibliography Books

Arquitectura: https://caaporarq.com/Palenque-Tambillo

Acker, D., & Gasperini, L. (2009). Education for Rural People The Role of Education Training and Capacity Development in poverty reduction and food security. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Comunidad Anangu. (n.d.). Sostenibilidad. Retrieved from Comunidad Anangu: http://www.comunidadanangu.org/sostenibilidad/

Bolchover, J., & Lin, J. (2013). Rural Urban Framework: Transforming the Chinese Countryside. China: Birkhauser.

Deshingkar , P. (2006, July). Improved Livelihoods in Improved Watersheds: Can Migration be Mitigated? Retrieved from ODI: https://www.odi.org/ publications/52-improved-livelihoods-watersheds-migration

Mortuza, S. A. (1992). Rural-urban migration in Bangladesh: Causes and effects. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag.

FAO. (2016). Migration and Protracted Crises. Retrieved from FAO: http://www. fao.org/publications/card/en/c/1f0b0ede-3dd7-4ba3-9a2e-331109c9bed3/

World Economic Forum. (2011). Water Security - The Water-Food-Energy Climate Nexus. Washington: ISLAND PRESS.

FAO. (2016). Migration, Agriculture and Rural Development. Retrieved from FAO: http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/1f832358-2be7-4dd5-9bd6198b8f96afea/

Articles Charan, D., Raj, K., Chand, R., Joseph, L., & Singh, P. (2010). At the Frontline of Climate Change: Adaptation, Limitations and Way Forward for the South pacific Island States. In W. L. Filho, Climate Change Impacts and Adaptatin Strategies for Coastal Communities (pp. 69-86). Hamburg: Springer. Crush, J. (2013). Linking Food Security, Migration and Development. International Migration, vol.51, Issue 5, 61-75. Elis, S., Haws, M., Mendiola, J., & Hemil, M. (2010). Sustainable Small-scale Mariculture Ventures as a Comparative Climate Friendly Livelihood Alternative in Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. In W. F. Lihlo, Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Coastal Communities (pp. 31-42). Hamburg: Springer. Jagerskog, A., & Swain, A. (2016). Water, Migration and how ar they interlinked. Stockholm. Luetz, J., & Havea, P. (2010). “We’re not Refugees, We’ll Stay Here Until We Die!” - Climate Change Adaptation and Migration Experiences Gathered from the Tulun and Nissan Atolls of Bougainvile, Papua New Guinea. In W. L. Filho, Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Coastal Communities (pp. 3-29). Hamburg: Springer.

FAO. (2018, June 4). Reduce rural poverty. Retrieved from FAO: http://www.fao. org/about/what-we-do/so3/en/ Lafarge Holcim Foundation. (2014, March 31). Harvesting Agriculture: Community center for water harvesting and agriculture. Retrieved from Lafarge Holcim Foundation: https://www.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/projects/ harvesting-agriculture Ministerio de Desarollo Urbano y Vivienda, Ministerio del Ambiente. (2013, June). Proyecto Guayaquil Ecologico. Retrieved from Ministerio de Desarollo Urbano y Vivienda: https://www.habitatyvivienda.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/ downloads/2015/06/PROYECTO-GUAYAQUIL-ECOLOGICO.pdf Rural Urban Framework. (2017, November 2). Jintai Village Reconsruction / Rural Urban Framework. Retrieved from Archdaily: https://www.archdaily. com/882714/jintai-village-reconstruction-rural-urban-framework Sostenibilidad. (2018, June 4). Retrieved from http://www.comunidadanangu. org/sostenibilidad/

Sarner, E. (2016). Effects of Water Scarcity, Food Production and Migration. Journal of Water Management and Research, 245-248. Taylor, E., & Yunez-Naude, A. (1999). Education, Migration and Productivity An Analytic Approach and Evidence from Rural Mexico. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Websites Caa Pora. (n.d.). Centro Semilla. Retrieved from Caa Pora Arquitectura: https:// caaporarq.com/Centro-Semilla Caa Pora. (n.d.). Napo Wildlife Center. Retrieved from Caa Pora Arquitectura: https://caaporarq.com/Napo-Wildlife-Center Caa Pora. (n.d.). Proyecto de Palenques Culturales. Retrieved from Caa Pora

georgina truter

Urban Migration in Guayaquil A city shaped through migration

“Migration has always had the potential to challenge established spatial images. It highlights the social nature of space as something created and reproduced through collective human agency and, in so doing, reminds us that, within the limits imposed by power, existing spatial arrangements are always susceptible to change.” (Lawson 2000, pg. 177; Rouse 1991)

Guayaquil: A city in flux

Guayaquil is a vibrant and diverse city that has expanded exponentially in the last century due internal migration in Ecuador. This essay explores the different waves of migration, how these migrants contributed to the production of the urban environment in the form of self-built and incremental neighbourhoods, the contrast with state-led development projects and the resultant socio-spatial dynamics. The imperative of this paper is to highlight the dualistic and fluid nature of migration as a force that continues to shape the city. The research is based on urbanism, social geography and migration theory in combination with fieldwork interviews and observations. Finally, the essay includes case studies of urban development projects in similar Latin American contexts, to premise a conceptual base for finding alternative ecological and socially sustainable solutions to the challenges facing Guayaquil’s more vulnerable societies.

Urban Migration in Ecuador

Ecuador is a relatively small country with approximately 16 million people. The population of the country increased fivefold between 1950 and 2010: ‘the urban population expanded tenfold, the rural population twofold, and the rate of urbanization increased from 29 per cent to 63 percent. By 2010, the Guayas province housed almost 48 percent of the national population.’ (Royuela & Ordóñez 2015, pg. 4) Guayaquil is Ecuador’s main port and largest city with approximately 2, 6 million inhabitants (INEC 2011). Although not the administrative capital of the country, Guayaquil is considered to be the main economic hub and urban centre for a nation that is still predominantly agrarian based. Industrialisation and the degradation of the agricultural sector caused a lot of internal migration. Since the 1950s the city has been transformed through multiple waves of migration. Like many Latin American cities, Guayaquil is

(monashhq.com.au)

(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2011.11.001)

Aerial view of Guayaquil: Guayas river and the Malecon, 1922. Source: Julio Estrada Icaza Collection. A. Delgado (2011)

Aerial view of Guayaquil: Guayas river and the Malecon, 2015. Source: Author unknown - Depositphoto user: jkraft5 (2015).

Understanding Migration

(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2011.11.001)

marked by inequality and informality as poorer citizens struggle to access the city. Approximately 70% of Guayaquil has evolved as self-built dwelling environments (Peek, 2017; El Expreso, 2016). To understand the urban development of Guayaquil is therefore to understand the flows of migration that led to the incremental expansion of the city and the government’s response in the form of consequent state-led urban development and housing projects.

“First, transnational research highlights the incessant dialectical interplay of desires, identities and subjectivities in multiple sites in order to understand the process of belonging, exclusion and affiliation that are produced through migration.” (Lawson 2000; Grasmuck and Pessar 1991; Rouse 1992; Mountz and Wright 1996; Smith and Guarnizo, 1998.)

Lawson highlights the importance of understanding the narratives of migration to provide insights on how places of migration are treated, stating that ‘mobility produces ambivalent development subjects. Recent research is re-theorising the places of migration as deterritorialized households, labour markets and communities that explode singular concepts of uniform and contiguous origins or destinations of migration’ (Lawson 1999, pg. 261). She frames her research on migration in Ecuador within the broader argument of transnational theory on the plural identities and complexities produced through migration within a particular political-economic context. Lawson refers to Remaking the City, a work produced by Radcliff and Westwood in 1996, as a study on how migration influenced popular affiliations to specific regions or cities in Ecuador. The economic crisis in the early 1980s led to the institution of many neoliberal economic reforms, international trade agreements and the dollarization of the local currency in the bid to encourage investment. The embrace of neoliberalism intensified the consumerist and modernist discourse driving the image of the city as a place of democracy, opportunity and upward social mobility. Politically, it placed housing centre stage as a method for social reform.

Guayaquil Metropolitan area. Source: Adapted from Verrewaere and Wellens (2010). Redrawn by A. Delgado (2011) pg. 518.

Within this neoliberal agenda migration produces highly contradictory realities for the poorer migrant that does not deliver on the promises of modernity. Once relocated to the urban setting, migrants are subject to the simultaneous complexity of ‘assimilation’ and ‘marginalisation’ that define their access to the city. The process of migration places an individual in an ambiguous and tenuous state that necessitates the most adaptable and efficient use of assets and a dependence on social networks.

Urban-bound migrants are often forced to make an existence in the more vulnerable and risk-prone areas of the city, as is the case in the incremental settlements included in this study. Ironically, it is exactly the ‘state of between-ness’ in which migrants have the critical edge due to the very disruptions and perspectives that migration produces’, that provides them with the resilience to settle in these more precarious landscapes (Lawson 2000, pg. 174).

Guayaquil: A city in flux

Guayaquil is the product of multiple trajectories of migration. Urban migration is inextricably embedded in a specific political-economic and cultural context; the timeline below briefly outlines the major events, projects and policies that frame the discussion:

Source: Section and Timeline by author. Information reproduced from varios sources as per references.

(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2011.11.001)

Guayaquil historical urban growth, main physical features and infrastructure. Source: Adapted from Verrewaere and Wellens (2010). Redrawn by A. Delgado (2011) pg. 521

This essay outlines the development strategies followed in the establishment of two incrementally developed neighbourhoods from different periods, namely Suburbio which was mainly established between the 1950s and the 1990s and Monte Sinai which has developed since the 1990s. These two settlements will be placed in tension with the government housing projects, Socio Vivienda I,II & III, implemented from 2010 onwards. The analysis is coupled with fieldwork interviews to highlight the non-linear and complex trajectories of poorer residents who migrate to the city. The study highlights the need for more adaptive and multi-dimensional pro-poor policies and design.

(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2011.11.001)

1976

2018 Aerial map of Guayas Innerburbs, 1961 and 2015. Source: Unknown. O. Peek (2018).

Suburbio: from Mangrove to Metropolitan Hub

2018

Suburbio, 1976 and 2018. Source: C. Moser (2009), Fieldwork photos: G. Truter (2018)

Following the economic crisis and subsequent decline of the agricultural industry in the 1930s, many rural based Ecuadorians started to migrate to the city. The ‘banana boom’ in the 1950s and construction of the new port in the 1960s turned Guayaquil into a booming economic and residential centre, intensifying the stream of migration and exacerbating the need for housing close to the city. In search of more affordable and less crowded alternatives to living in the city centre, the first urban dwellers start to invade the estuarine swamplands of Estero Salado, west of the business district. This marks the beginning of the Guayas innerburbs today known as Suburbio (Delgado 2011).

facing ground floor spaces have been converted into shops, workshops, beauty salons, food kiosks, creches, etc. and upper floors accommodates multi-family homes. Sometimes the streets are permanently or temporarily closed for soccer matches, markets or playgrounds (Peek 2017). Otherwise, the streets are bustling with peddlers and entrepreneurial service providers, and act as an important extension of the home and business space. Despite the fact that most of the smaller tributaries of the estuary has been filled in, some residents still have an active relationship with the water. Small fishing or waste collection cooperatives operate in the area, alongside formal waste collection and recycling companies.

The process of creating a ‘home of one’s own’ was arduous and perilous, and entailed the clearing of tracts of mangrove in the estuary (Peek 2017; Moser 2009). Land ownership was tenuous and plots were initially bought from dubious middlemen. In the first two decades the landscape was dotted with small bamboo houses on stilts, only accessible and serviceable via raised walkways. In time, people started to fill in the estuary around their foundations. Community committees were formed to negotiate with the local municipality for the infill of streets and the provision of basic services. With the introduction of water and electricity grids, bamboo houses were rebuilt as brick houses and the area continued to densify as more migrants arrived and the next generations followed. Soon land availability became limited and original dwellings were subdivided to accommodate the growing population.

The anthropological research of Caroline Moser documents the process of incremental development in Suburbio over several decades and the social dynamics involved in this form of city-making. Her work highlights the importance of social networks and role of the home as a key economic asset for poorer inhabitants.

Today Suburbio is a consolidated and densely populated urban district that houses 20% of Guayaquil’s population in a variety of dwelling typologies. In many cases, street

In time Suburbio has become to a large extent the social and cultural hub for many citizens, even once they have moved away or have been relocated. Between the 1980s and 1990s almost 15% of the population migrated abroad, mostly to North America and Europe (Jokish 2014). But the remittances sent back to Ecuador accounts for a lot of the investment in local properties and has had an undeniable impact on the incremental urbanism of areas like Suburbio. The distribution of wealth through extended social networks also applies locally. An interview with a local fisherman revealed the continued reliance on the estuary as a source of income and the interdependent relationship with family members still living in fishing villages in

Self-employed traders rely on the density, street life and active social networks to ensure a sustainable income.

(http://esterosalado.blogspot. com/2014/07/las-familias-que-habitan-en-las-casas.html)

Street becomes an extension of the home, business and recreation space.

Unless otherwise stated all images are fieldwork photos: G. Truter (2018)

Increased Aguajes Flooding. Source: William Orellana / El Telegraph (2014)

the lower estuary. To this extent, Suburbio has evolved from few stilt houses in the mangroves to a bustling crossing point in the local and regional territory. But the area now faces increasing challenges in terms of climate change. Local residents experience more frequent flooding due to the impending sea level rise and climate change related weather events like El Niño and El Niña, and average temperatures in the Guayaquil territory has already risen by 2°C. On an infrastructural level, the quality of the self-built residential tissue and poorly maintained services are resulting in systems failure, structural instability and increased pollution of the estuary. Ongoing in situ densification has its limits and exacerbates the infrastructural shortcomings and security of the area (Peek 2017). The area requires more structured densification strategies, ecologically sustainable solutions for the provision of services and climate change mitigation, and the provision of civic amenities. Nonetheless, Suburbio provides valuable insights to the diversity and adaptability of urban systems required by lower income citizens.

Elsie Pata:

Fishing Cooperative:

Salado shortly after getting married and moving to

Puerto Lisa in the Estero Salado. The cooperative

Elsie Pata and her husband bought a plot in Estero

the city at age 21. They have been living there for almost 50 years and were amongst the first people to start living in the mangrove. Their first house was a 3x4m bamboo house on stilts and they had to carry all their water and supplies by foot along

the narrow walking bridges. Over the years, they started filling in the foundations.

Elsie is a lawyer and has played an active role in

the local community committee. She has been instrumental in coordinating negotiations with the

municipality to continue filling in the streets and

supply basic services. When they were connected to the water grid in the 1980s, they rebuilt the house they now live in with a small shop on the

street. In recent years, they split the house in two to

create a small living unit for her daughter’s family. Elsie is still active in the committee which has since

transformed from a political entity to a community

aid organisation, assisting with childcare and the financial support of single mothers.

The small fishing cooperative operates out of

is part of an extended family network with ties to

the fishing villages in the lower estuary, Suburbio and Socio Vivienda. The men go out to fish around

Isla Puna and Cerritos de los Morenos, where their

families are originally from. The pollution in Estero Salado are pushing them to fish further south, often

staying out for 3-4 days. Many moved to Suburbio when they were younger and have operated from there for many years. The fish is brought back to

this small bay to be cleaned before another family member peddles it to the neighbourhood, either

by bicycle or small canoe. The fishmongery is

combined with recycling and waste collection. All the proceeds are shared between the extended

family on the islands and in Suburbio. Many fishermen in the innerburbs were forced to

relocate to the Socio Vivienda when the Gauyaquil

Ecologico was implemented. Consequently, the fishermen rent a room in Suburbio while their

families remain in Socio Vivienda, which in time has had detrimental impacts on family structures.

Monte Sinai, Renaldo Quinonez III. Source: Fieldwork photo G. Truter (2018)

Aerial photos of Monte Sinai and Cerro Blanco nature reserve, 2002 and 2010. Source: Google Earth Pro.

Monte Sinai: Repetition of Past Mistakes or New Urban Horizon?

In 1992, León Febres-Cordero was elected as the new mayor of Guayaquil, marking the start of a series of neoliberal development frameworks in a bid to draw more investment. In 1997, the Guayas province was hit hard by El Niño and an influx of rural-urban migration ensued, putting enormous strain on the city’s housing stock. The expansion of the northern periphery happened via the booming market-related development of middle class housing and the ‘informal’ development of former farmland (haciendas) into saleable plots for self-built units, in an area known as Monte Sinai. These plots are sold to low-income citizens by informal ‘developers’ with suspect connections to the local authorities. Similar to the initial residents of Suburbio, land-owners were not provided with a title deed or any basic services. Monte Sinai developed incrementally since the 1990s until further expansion was stopped by the national authorities in 2010. The area was ringfenced with the establishment of the Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco nature reserve. The occupation of available open plots within the development borders are ongoing. Fieldwork interviews indicated that there were some inhabitants who had migrated from the city centre (mostly people who were not eligible for social housing) and a few who had migrated back to Ecuador from abroad, but the majority of new property owners were rural migrants from the coast of Monabi and the highlands. The open land around the settlements is being used for small-scale agriculture, but only for personal consumption. Similar to the initial invasion of the Estero Salado, both the establishment of the Monte Sinai settlements and later the state-led Socio Vivienda housing schemes resulted in

the large scale clearance of natural vegetation. The undulating topography of the Monte Sinai settlements means that plots have to be carved into the hills, leaving the area prone to flooding and landslides. Many of the houses are built on stilts initially and then slowly the foundations are filled in. The struggle for consolidated streets and basic services is reminiscent of the incremental urban development process of Suburbio. However, unlike Suburbio, the local community has not yet formed the same strong political committees. Instead, social development and mobilisation is initiated by local NGOs like Hogar de Christo. Hogar de Christo provides education and institutional support, but also experiments with building technologies and housing development models. Many of the bamboo stilt houses dotting the landscape are prefabricated houses that can be bought for 1200 USD. They have also launched a ‘sites and services’ project on land owned by the Hogar de Christo cooperation, which includes various funding models for self-built or turn-key houses. Although their work is interesting in the context of addressing the need for affordable and varied housing and financing models, their projects do not yet address the need for well considered urban design strategies and climate change mitigation. Their business model also raises questions on the role of and political-economic interest of non-government third parties providing ‘social’ housing.

Inhabitants are extending and rebuilding their houses with brick incrementally. Lack of basic services and flooding remain some of the biggest issues. Unless otherwise stated all images are fieldwork photos: G. Truter (2018)

The edge of the settlement is used for small scale farming.

Isabel: (Monte Sinai â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Renaldo Quinonez III) Isabel bought a plot in Monte Sinai in 2011 from a

Hogar de Christo (NGO) sells prefabricated bamboo houses.

land trafficker, after moving back from Spain. She

continued to pay the land trafficker for two years, until a new law was passed against land trafficking

as a result of a conflict between the national and local governmentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; housing policies.

Until 2017 the area was flooded so frequently, the water tankers could not drive in the area and she Small home-shops have opened in the settlement.

had to fetch water by foot. Initially her house was raised on stilts, but she filled it incrementally. In

the last two years the municipality raised and filled

Hogar de Christo: experimental sites-and-services scheme.

in the streets, and created drains for stormwater, even though it is not connected to a system. She

pays a local waste collector to take her waste to the main road, which is tarred and serviced by formal garbage removal trucks.

Almost 80% of the people living in her area are independently employed, either as entrepreneurs Other small business enterprises have been located on bigger routes.

or construction workers. In recent elections, the government started to build more public infrastructure in exchange for votes.

Hogar de Christo: testing new materials and construction techniques, including the reinterpretation of traditional and locally sources materials.

(http://suarezsalasconstructores.com/129-proyecto-socio-vivienda/)

Aerial photo of Socio Vivienda II. Source: Suarez Salas Construction.

Aerial photos of Socio Viviendas, 2013 and 2016. Source: Google Earth Pro.

Socio Vivienda: Relegated to the Edge

In 2007, president Rafael Correa comes into office. He declared war on corruption in local authorities and implemented large scale public expenditure projects like the Malecon 2000, which eventually led to other waterfront projects like Guayaquil Ecologico. The government launched the ‘Revolucion Urbana (Urban Revolution)’ in line with the ‘Buen Vivir national plan’, aimed at providing dignified housing (vivienda digna) and improved access to basic services for all Ecuadorians (Peek 2017, pg. 216). To this end the Ecuadorian state invests 660 million USD into the social-interest housing markets, 30 times more than previous government contributions. (Peek 2017; Klaufus & Cedres, 2014). State-led housing project Socio Vivienda I was constructed in 2010 and Socio Vivienda II in 2013. Approximately 6000 people were forced to migrate to the new housing developments, as the occupation of land in Monte Sinai was forcibly stopped and many waterfront residents from Suburbio were relocated to clear land for the new linear parks of the Guayaquil Ecologico. Although the proclaimed intention of Socio Viviendas was to provide more dignified housing, the relocation of residents relegated them to the urban periphery, far from centres of opportunity. The forced migration fractured the social networks and family structures that underpin the livelihoods of many low-income citizens. In addition to their loss of income, inhabitants were now burdened with a monthly down-payment on a house with no title deed and without having received any compensation for the seizure of their former property. The rigidity of planning policies prohibited the adaptation of homes into more versatile assets, although many people implemented illegal transformations regardless. The poor quality of the design and construction brings into the question the real motive for

large scale social-interest housing provided through private-public partnerships. The shortcomings of the monotonous singular housing typology and lack of quality public space or civic amenities meant that many residents of the Socio Viviendas either migrated back to Suburbio (to even more crowded living arrangements) or they commute regularly, sometimes even daily, for work or social engagements. Fieldwork interviews highlighted the discomfort caused by poor consideration of bioclimatic conditions, issues of insecurity due to unemployment and isolated streetscapes, and the feeling of vulnerability without a title deed to stave future relocation. The case of the Socio Viviendas proves the need to re-evaluate former pro-poor social housing strategies as an alternative to the existing social-interest government housing schemes. Professionals need to re-engage in the creation of more diverse and versatile urban environments for lower-income communities (Peek 2017).

Single storey repetitive housing typology does not accomodate different family arrangements. Despite strict planning restrictions, some home owners have started extending and personalising their facades.

Uninhabited streets become insecure left-over spaces littered with waste.

Poor quality materials and lack of proper design to mitigate extreme heat and precipitation.

Unless otherwise stated all images are fieldwork photos: G. Truter (2018)

Doris:

Raquel Molina:

Vivienda II 4 years ago. She pays 30 dollars

family when they were relocated from Suburbio

Doris was relocated from Suburbio to Socio monthly as a down payment on her single storey 7x15m house, in addition to her service bills. She

does not have a title deed yet, she can apply

after 5 years but even then it’s a lengthy process. Even though it’s government housing, they feel vulnerable for evictions and the services are not all connected or constant. The water connection is cut Crime and insecurity is a big issue for residents, especially those living close to the boundaries of the development.

Inhabitants are slowly transforming the space with plants and creating economic opportunities.

daily and the sewerage system floods regularly. She has managed to find a job as a cook in the city centre, but most of her neighbours lost their

entrepreneurial incomes when they left Suburbio and remain unemployed. The peddlers in Suburbio

had built extra storage space in their homes, but

Raquel Molina moved to Socio Vivienda II with her to make way for the Gauyaquil Ecologico’s linear

parks. She has settled in well in the new house

because their extended family was relocated to the same block in Socio Vivienda, but the house is uncomfortably hot and their water supply is cut

off daily during the hottest hours between 12:00

and 17:00. She runs a small shop from the front room, but their main source of income is from her

husband’s peddling of blankets and home wares

in Suburbio. He still goes back to Suburbio daily

with his tricycle cart since this is where he has an established clientele.

they had no space in Socio Vivienda. Doris still returns to Suburbio weekly to see her parents and extended family that still lives there, and to shop

closer to the centre. Socio Vivienda II still has very

little public amenities or shops, but is at least well Many civic and public activities are relegated to the edge, like the church in the background. But the edges are highly patrolled, isolated and inhospitable places.

connected to the city by public transport.

Addressing Socio-Ecological Challenges:

(https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=latinamericanurbanism)

Case studies of urban development projects in similar Latin American contexts, to premise a conceptual base for alternative forms of urbanism in the face of everincreasing migration and urbanisation.

‘Inhabiting Otherness: a versatile urban model, Intervention Proposal for Riberas del Bravo. Project by Stavros Kousoulas. Urban Asymmetries, Juárez Study Group, 2012’. Source: Sohn, H. The Urban Asymmetries research and design program was conducted at the Delft School of Design from 2007-2013.

Riberas del Bravo, México City

Riberas del Bravo and Ecatepec de Morelos are two examples of large scale neoliberal social-interest housing settlements built in Mexico to house migrant workers in anticipation of the mass industrialisation of the modern city. Both areas are marked by social problems, vacancy and urban decay. These two proposals present more holistic urban strategies to address the shortcomings of the initial masterplans. ‘Inhabiting Otherness: a versatile urban model’ reinterprets existing typologies to allow more innovative and self-sustaining practices of urban agriculture, public programs and self-employment opportunities. ‘Reactivating Wastelands’ explores the role that local housing and workshop cooperatives can play in partnering with various governmental agencies to provide alternative forms of urbanisation.

‘Reactivating Wastelands. Intervention Proposal for urban cooperatives in Ecatepec. Project by Tania Guerrero and Taufan ter Weel. Urban Asymmetries, Ecatepec Study Group, 2009’. Source: Sohn, H. The Urban Asymmetries research and design program was conducted at the Delft School of Design from 2007-2013.

(https://www.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/projects/den-city)

(http://www.landezine.com/index.php/2013/11/cantinho-do-ceu-complex-urbanization-by-boldarini-arquitetura-e-urbanismo/)

Cantinho do Céu Complex urbanization project by Boldarini Arquitetura e Urbanismo. Source: Photo by © Fabio Knoll. Diagram: Insitu relocation and redensification, new mobility plan, landscape and ecological sustainability plan. Source: © Boldarini Arquitetura e Urbanismo.

Cantinho de Céu Complex, Sao Paulo

The Cantinho do Céu Complex urbanization project by Boldarini Arquitetura e Urbanismo is set in an incrementally developed waterfront neighbourhood of Sao Paulo, Brazil. The area faced similar issues as Suburbio; residents living in flood-prone water edges, pervading pollution due to a lack of sanitation, limited public space and a need for improved mobility. A cost effective and multi-functional solution was developed in consultation with the local community. The project included the relocation of the most vulnerable residents to denser living units within the inner tissue that could be adapted over time. The waterfront edges were converted to floodable sport fields, outdoor community spaces for recreation or trade, a bicycle and pedestrian route, a new public transport route and a biofilter stormwater system.

‘Urban Regeneration through Densification’, Den-City Competition Entry by Lucía Zunino and Maya Karenina Wilberger, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argentina.

Den-City, Córdoba

The ‘Urban Regeneration through Densification’ proposal was submitted for the international Den-City design competition. The project is set in Córdoba, Argentina. Compact vertical biomass, rainwater collection and recycling plants are proposed as modular and multipliable in situ service provision stations for selfbuilt neighbourhoods. These energy stations are complimented with structural frameworks and building materials from recycled plastics for incremental housing All structures are raised to create more public space.

Conclusion:

References:

In conclusion, the outcome of this paper is to highlight the dynamic nature of lowerincome neighbourhoods as complex crossing points of different migration trajectories. The temporality and range of these trajectories differ, but they play a key role in how the city continues to be shaped. Within the context of a specific political-economic context, migration also drives or counter-acts socio-economic and political agendas.

[1] Delgado, A. (2011) ‘Guayaquil’, J. Cities, Elsevier, doi:10.1016/j.cities.2011.11.001. (Accessed 16th of April 2018) [2] Jokisch, B. (2014) ‘Ecuador: From Mass Emigration to Return Migration?’, Migration Information Source – The online journal for Migration Policy Institute, available at https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/ecuador-massemigration-return-migration. (Accessed 26th of April 2018) [3] Lawson, V. (1999) ‘Questions of Migration and Belonging: Understanding of Migration under Neoliberalism in Ecuador’, International Journal of Population Geography, Volume 5, pg. 261-276, Department of Geography, University of Washington, Seattle. [4] Lawson, V. (2000) ‘Arguments within geographies of movement: the theoretical potential of migrants’ stories’, The Progress in Human Geography lecture, nr. 24.2, Department of Geography, University of Washington, Seattle, pg. 173 – 189. (Accessed 25th of April 2018) [5] Moser, C. (2009) ‘Ordinary Families, Extraordinary Lives: Assets and Poverty Reduction in Gauyaquil, 1978 – 2004’, Brookings Institution Press, Washington. [6] Peek, O. (2015) ‘Freedom to dwell or autonomous urbanism?Dwelling strategies of 2nd generation users under eviction in Guayaquil, Ecuador.’ Conference paper for SLAS 2015 Conference, KU Leuven. [7] Peek, O., Hordijk, M. & D’Auria, V. (2017) ‘User-based design for inclusive urban transformation: learning from ‘informal’ and ‘formal’ dwelling practices in Guayaquil, Ecuador’, International Journal of Housing Policy, Vol. 18, No. 2, pg. 204–232, available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19491247.2016.1265268. [8] Rai, L. et al. (2016) ‘Interweaving water and incremental tissue into a hybrid network: a reverse invasion of the Suburbio’, Academic thesis, Department of Architecture, KU Leuven. [9] Royuela, V. & Ordóñez, J. (2016) ‘Internal migration in a developing country: A panel data analysis of Ecuador (1982-2010)’, Papers in Regional Science 2016, available at doi:10.1111/pirs.12251 (Accessed 25th of April 2018) [10] Sohn, H. (2011) ‘Denationalization: The Subjugation of Mexico and its Capital City’, in Urban Asymmetries: Studies and Projects on Neoliberal Urbanization. (T. Kaminer, M. Robles-Durán, H. Sohn, eds.), 010 Publishers: Rotterdam, pp. 64-83. [10] Personal interviews conducted informally during a two week study trip to Guayaquil. The KU Leuven MaHS-MaUSP student group visited several sites, including Suburbio, Monte Sinai and Socio Vivienda. Thank you to Nelson Carofilis, Wendy Chavez and Olga Peek for assisting with the facilitation and translation of interviews.

Although the purpose of this essay is not provide an in-depth critique of different housing strategies, the brief analysis of self-built neighbourhoods in comparison with state-led housing projects aims to comment on the need for the state to reassess its role as the main provider of social housing. Neoliberalism has turned social housing recipients into credit subjects instead of providing multifarious and resilient urban environments within which citizens can craft their own identity and livelihood. An understanding of how migration impacts urban development is critical for the creation of more inclusive forms of urbanism in the face of unprecedented levels of migration and urbanisation predicted for the future.

BINDI RADITYA PURNAMA

Urban Water Management in Guayaquil

Purnama, 2018

Investigation and Adaptation of Climate Change and Sea Level Rises through Spatial Configuration

Settlements claiming the estuary, Suburbio, Guayaquil

Abstract This paper focuses on the water in Guayaquil, Ecuador. The first part of the paper is about water issues happening in Guayaquil, such as tidal fluctuation, climate change, El Nino, sea level rises, water clogging, fresh water sources, and direct water discharge effect that causes pollution and low oxygen level and sinking aquifer. The second part is about case studies of projects that related to water management, such as a proposal for Fucha River in Bogota, Cheong Gye Cheon restoration project, and bioswale prototype in the University of California Davis. The last part of the paper is about a research by design that can be applied in Guayaquil, specifically in Puetro Liza, Suburbio, with the focus of dealing with water problems.

(Google Earth, 2017)

(Masterplan Interagua, 2003)

Guayaquil 1961

Guayaquil 2017

Guayaquil and Water Issues Guayaquil is the largest and the most populous city in Ecuador, with around 2.69 million people in the metropolitan area, as well as the nation's main port. (Guayaquil, n.d.). The City of Guayaquil was founded in 1530 on the shores of the Estero Salado. Over the last few decades, the city has expanded dramatically and currently Guayaquil is the largest city in Ecuador. Urbanization presents a threat to the Estero Salado; the water is being contaminated with industrial and domestic wastewaters, garbage is being disposed of in the water body and the mangrove forest is being cut down and the shores occupied. Guayaquil has problem with water provision and sea water level, both current condition and future projected sea level rising. Both issues are linked and multiplying each other, including the change of river and salt intrusion.

2.5 m 0m -1 m

Tidal Diagram

Photos of different tidal situation in the Estero Salado

El NiĂąo Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a current of warm water that periodically flows along the Western coast of South America, usually with disastrous social and economic consequences in several areas of the littoral region and in all of Ecuador, including floods in cities, affecting water, wastewater and stormwater drainage systems, destroying highways, bridges, roads, agriculture, increase in sea level causing coastal erosion and an influx of debris to the beaches. (Aboussouan, 2003, page 9, retrieved from Witsenburg, 2007). The amount of water discharges was increased significantly in the event of El Nino 97-98.

3.5 m 0m

Purnama, 2018

Climate Change and El Nino

periodismoambientalucsg.wordpress.com

Seawater has different level throughout the day, according to moon table. In Estero Salado, the amplification is higher than normal sea. It fluctuates from -1 m from MSL to 2.5 m. (Stenfert J. , Bouman, Nolthenius, & Joosten, 2017) This affects the water transportation in a daily basis. Some of the big ships are not able to pass in the low tide situation due to high sedimentation in several spots in Estero Salado. (Barerra Crespo, 2016)

Purnama, 2018

Tidal Fluctuation

Studio Fieldwork, 2018

Sea Water and Flooding

El Nino Flood in Suburbio, according to a local settlement

El Nino in Guayaquil, 1997

Purnama, 2018

Water Clogging In Suburbio, Guayaquil, some areas have a very low topography, close to the current sea level. Due to physics of water that always in the same level, sea water sometimes is filling up the existing drainage, and come out in the road, especially in the high tide and wet season.

2.5 m 0m Water Clogging Diagram

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Due to many reasons, sea level rise occurs on different time and spatial scales. Sea level rise can be divided into global and local sea level rise. Warming of the Earth causes water to expand and the glaciers to melt which both lead to global sea level rise. Although globally the sea level has been rising 3.5 mm per year since 1993, it differs locally due to subsidence, global sea level fluctuations, winds, ocean circulation and water density.â&#x20AC;? (Stenfert J. , Bouman, Nolthenius, & Joosten, 2017) In Guayaquil, the rising of water level in Estero Salado is very apparent. According to a local resident in Suburbio, every year during the wet season, the flood can reach 40 cm from the road. It was not happening this frequent 10 years ago. There is also an assumption by local experts that analyses the land in Suburbio can be sinking because of lack of water in the aquifer.

4.5 m 3.5 m 2.5 m

Sea Level Rise +1m with El Nino

Sea Level Rise +1m with high tide

Purnama, 2018

Sea Level Rises

Simulation of Sea Level Rise + 1m and El Nino

Purnama, 2018

La Toma Water Plantation

Fresh Water Sources La Toma

Water Harvesting

Prediction of Salt Intrusion

Prediction of Salt Intrusion Purnama, 2018

Due to high rainfall in the wet season and lack of provided water by the government, local people are catching water from the rain and store it in a tank. This technique is very useful, especially in a remote place such as outside Daule city and in the Cerritos de Los Morenos.

Conventional Water Harvesting Practice in Ecuador

Purnama, 2018

The main collection of the drinking water supply for the city of Guayaquil is approximately 26 kilometers north of the city. The drinking water facility â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;La Tomaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; withdraws water from the Daule River and treats it. (Witsenburg, 2007) The facility is under threat of salt intrusion, now being prevented by Daule-Peripa Dam. (Stenfert J. , Bouman, Nolthenius, & Joosten, 2017) The salt intrusion is going stronger every year because of sea level rises.

Purnama, 2018

Direct Water Discharge Effect Pollution and Oxygen Level in Estuary Estuary contains a brackish water, a mix of salt water and fresh water. The direct discharge from urban run-off causes unbalanced oxygen level, that can threaten the ecosystem. Mangroves, on the other hand, is very useful to maintain the oxygen level. In Suburbio, mangroves have been cut off and changed into hard surface and settlements. Direct discharge of water also sometimes contains garbage that washed off from urban tissue to the estuary by a tidal wave.

Estuary Pollution by Settlements Purnama, 2018

Aquifer Although is not common for Guayaquil people to use well, aquifer level in Suburbio is suspected low and causing the land above is sinking. It happened because there is no water going to the aquifer because of hard surface and sewerage system that directed water flows to the estuary.

Aquifer Aquifer situation diagram

www.plataformaarquitectura.cl, 2016

Case Study Fucha River, Bogota The offices MOBO Architects, Ecopolis and Concreta were awarded in Colombia the first place in the public contest of ideas for the formulation of a strategic plan that addresses the Fucha river in an integral and multisectoral manner, one of the three tributaries that the Bogotá River has in the Colombian capital. (Valencia, 2016) The Fucha River is an urban canal that suffers the consequences of this separation between the city and life. The architect wrote that It is necessary to reconstruct these relationships through an alternative urban development that allows people to inhabit the river. (Valencia, 2016)

Illustration of the proposal

www.plataformaarquitectura.cl, 2016

The river and its natural systems are the backbones of their proposal. It weaknesses should be problems for the city and its inhabitants. Restoring it will allow the consolidation of a territory that integrates urban life with the ancestral ecosystem of the Bogotá savanna. (Valencia, 2016) The river is in strategic location among multiple

centralities, makes the river Fucha corridor an ideal place to promote a life-oriented development and sustainable urbanism. Densifying housing, ordering trade and cleaning the industry are the guide corridor, lines to follow. In the middle area of the considering the underutilization of the territory and its proposed networks, they promote urban revitalization through a strategy of low density and mixed use. The new density is compensated for by the creation of public spaces and micro-equipment in some of the current vehicular roads. (Valencia, 2016)

Reactivating river

www.plataformaarquitectura.cl, 2016

Master plan of Fucha River

In the recent urban developments, the low occupation of the land and the absence of commercial activities have resulted in fenced sets that turn their backs on water and life. They propose an architectural intervention to return the activity in front of the river and a landscape intervention to re-link life to the ecosystem. (Valencia, 2016) In the areas destined for new developments, they propose a type of city that is friendlier with life in the public space. Equipped neighborhood centers, commerce on the first floor and the eyes of its inhabitants on the street, make this a safer place. The height of the buildings decreases as it approaches the river, forming a favorable space for the proper development of natural systems. (Valencia, 2016) Through a network of green links, they connect the neuralgic points of the sector, such as facilities, parks, squares and nodes of metropolitan scale, to then achieve a transition between the urban transport system and a new development oriented to sustainable transport. These links prioritize the pedestrian, the urbanism of proximity and expand the area of influence â&#x20AC;&#x2039;â&#x20AC;&#x2039; of the natural systems of the river. (Valencia, 2016) The sum of the proposed strategies will serve to configure a true urban ecosystem. (Valencia, 2016)

seoulsolution.kr

Cheong Gye Cheon Restoration Project

Before Highway

Seoul is a capital city of South Korea with the population over 10 million people. In the old map of Seoul, Chong Gye Cheon was a main artery of the creek goes to the settlements. It was filled up and became a highway in 1990, as a solution of the creek that was very polluted by the local settlements. After several years, the district became dense with over 6,000 buildings and over 100,000 small shops. It became a nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biggest commercial area. But until 2002, since the highway started, CBD redevelopment stopped, population and employment reduced, and business headquarters moved to other areas. So, in 2002, the government decided to do this restoration project. The government believed that the restoration project can shift the paradigm of urban realm and management, while it also recovers the history and culture. The landscape concept is a gradual sequence from history, to culture and urban, and to nature, from west to east. It also includes reviving old bridges that were destroyed for the highway. For transport alternatives, they proposed to discourage driving cars to the city center, instead they improve public transport system.

After Highway (1990)

After Restoration (2005) Situation of Cheong Gye Cheon through time

seoulsolution.kr

Thermal analysis inside the project and nearby street

As a result of this project, in 2005, several benefits have been evaluated. For traffic jam, it just worsened a bit. The number of cars in and out reduces by 18%, while the public transport users increased by 13%. The air quality is improved, water quality is improved, noise level reduced, heat island effect relieved, and wind corridor is created. For ecology factor, the number of fish species is increased to 14 from 3, 18 species of birds are inhabiting here, and more than 40 species of insects detected. (In-Keun, 2006) Now, Cheong Gye Cheon is one of most visited tourist spots in South Korea.

(Xiao & Mcpherson, 2011)

Bioswale Prototype, University of California Davis The study site was located at the University of California Davis (UCD) campus. The campus is in the heart of the Central Valley, between the Coast Range to the west and the Sierra Nevada to the east. The climate is Mediterranean, summers are sunny, hot, and dry while winters are wet but not cold, it rarely snows. On average, 90% of the average annual precipitation 446.0 mm occurs between November and April. Moisture comes from the southern side of the study site (i.e. Pacific Ocean) owing to the influence of mountain ranges. The Sierra Nevada Mountain Range blocks moisture from the east. The soils of the study region are varied from loamy soils to heavy clay soils. The study site was in the southwest corner of parking lot 47A at the intersection of La Rue Drive and Dairy Road. The micro-topography of the parking lot was elevated and slightly sloped toward north and south sides for drainage. Runoff from the south side of the lot drained into the peripheral landscape along La Rue Drive, with overflow draining into the street. (Xiao & Mcpherson, 2011) Field installation. Photos were taken at different stage of the field installation. a) Before the bioswale installation, b) excavated pit, c) filled with engineered soil, d) compacted the soil, e) leveled the pit, f) tested the soil settlement, g) added tree to the system, h) finished site, i) both control and treatment sites were coved with mulch to match the surrounding land cover.

(Xiao & Mcpherson, 2011) Bioswale design

A treatment site included eight parking spaces and a buffer strip between the parking spaces and the bioswale. The north edge of the treatment site was the ridge of the parking lot where surface runoff was naturally divided to flow either to the north or the south. A native soil was excavated and replaced with engineered soil to form the base of the bioswale. A fine graded nonwoven geotextile was placed at the bottom, sides, and top of the engineered soil. The geotextile prevented fine soil/sediment from entering the system and reducing the systemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s porosity. During soil replacement, the engineered soil was packed with a tamping rammer liter Bloodgood London Plane tree was planted in the center of the bioswale. (Xiao & Mcpherson, 2011) Field experiment results indicate that the bioswale effectively reduced the amount of storm runoff and pollutant (i.e. minerals, metals, organic carbons, hydrocarbons, and solids) loading from the parking lot. The bioswale reduced runoff by 88.8% and the total loading by 95.4%. Individual water quality constituent reduction rates ranged from 86% for iron to 97% for nitrogen. Pollutant removal rates for minerals, metals, organic carbon, and solids were 95%, 87%, 95%, and 95%, respectively. The high porosity of the engineered soil provided more space to store runoff and better aeration to the tree root system with the compacted clay loam soil at the control site. (Xiao & Mcpherson, 2011)

Zona al sur de Guayaquil-Mapa 1955 Google Earth, 2017

Research by Design

Position of Puerto Liza in 1955

Site Location: Puerto Liza In the 20th century, there was a port called Puerto Liza by the end of the branches of Estero Salado, that connects the city with all ports along the estuary. The port now is buried and filled with an artificial land. The importance of small port is necessary to have for the city, according to the bigger concept for Suburbio as an urban archipelago, became the reason of reviving Puetro Liza.

Proposed position of new Puerto Liza

Zoom Earth, 2017

KUL Studio Landscape Urbanism, 2018 Suburbio Urban Archipelago Concept

Study site area

Water Problem as Spatial Guide The old creek that was filled with land is having trouble with water clogging, due to a very low level that is below the fluctuate tidal situation of the estuary in a daily basis. In some extreme condition, the water filled up from the existing drainage that discharges to the estuary. Because of this problem, the Puerto Liza project is proposed to be built by relocating the existing settlement to higher land. The old creek is brought back by digging the artificial land, and put it aside, to create higher topography along the creek. This strategy is to deal with the problem of sea level rising and extreme condition such as El Nino. The topography proposed is as high as 10m from current sea level, so it can hold up sea level rising plus El Nino in 2100. In this proposal, the edge of the estuary is proposed to be filled again with mangrove. The mangrove will help control the salt and oxygen

level in the estuary, as well as bringing back estuary ecosystem. Because the shore is becoming mangrove, it became limited for the human to interact directly with the estuary, especially discharging water directly. Learning from water clogging issue, having drainage that discharge to the estuary has become apparent that is ineffective. So, the proposal is to introduce alternative discharging methods such as bioswale and retention pond. The placement of bioswale is using the existing grid. The existing grid is analyzed superabundant, that also contributes the urban heat island because of the asphalt surface. Bioswale is a gently sloping vegetative swale designed to slow and reduce storm water runoff while filtering out pollutants.

The water that goes to bioswales are water that comes from rain and from settlement daily uses. It canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be too contaminated, so the water still needs to go to septic tank first before hits the bioswale. For heavy rain, bioswale cannot contain too much water, so the water can be over sometimes and need to be directed to a retention pond. The placement is using the existing urban tissue with lower land level from the surrounding, so the water from bioswale can be naturally flowing to it. Both bioswale and retention pond changes the direction of discharging from estuary to aquifer. This can prevent soil sinking that was happened because of lack of water in the aquifer.

Water Clogging Issue

Sea water in high tide state infltrate the land from existing sewage system

Housing Typology

Existing Condition

+3.5m - El nino + High tid

Solar Roof

+2.5m - High tide +0.0m - Sea Level

Urban Farming

-1.0m - Low tide

Raised Topography

To protect city from water infiltration

Open Ground

For flexible mobility

Proposal

+4.5m - El nino + High tid

5-storey max

+3.5m - El nino + High tid

Avoiding elevator

+2.5m - High tide +0.0m - Sea Level -1.0m - Low tide

New creek alignment

digging from low land area

Natural Water Edge

For regrowing mangroves and protection for water from settlements

Proposed Topography

Existing Topography

Puerto Liza Design Concept Water Waste Collection Point

Adapting building typology with Water Potential Because of the strategy is involving the relocation of existing settlements and future population growth, densification is needed. One of the strategies is to rebuild existing blocks into new building typology. The building can be 4-5 stories with open ground, to be more permeable and floodable situation. The roof can be used for urban farming, and to collect

rain water and to store it into water tank in the upper floor. The water can be used for daily usages such as plumbing and laundry. Using rain water in Guayaquil is effective since they have high rainfall

in wet season, and the source of current water in La Toma is having a threat of salt intrusion that needs to be moved into other location. The waste water of the building will use a local septic tank, and the water after it can be flown into the bioswale.

Puetro Liza

New Port for small scale water transportation

Maritime Academy Promoting local water human resources

Market

Water Harvesting Roof Tank

Using potential of high precipitation throughout the year

Daily Use

to reduce the only consumption from regional water source (La Toma)

Septic Tank

Purnama, 2018

Water Management

No Discharging To Estuary

Bioswale

Filtering and infiltrate water to aquifer

de + Sea Level Rises year 2100

Retention Pond

Excess water from bioswale will be filtered here to infiltrate to aquifer

Aquifer

To prevent land sinking

Housing, Relocation

Relocation for settlements that has been moved because of proposed creeks and natural corridor

BRT

Retention Pond

For excess water from bioswale, to drain it to aquifer

Bioswale

Transforming from existing asphalt infrastructure

Incremental Existing Growth

Conclusion Climate change is not only affecting only the rising of sea level, but also other problems such as salt intrusion, sedimentation of the estuary and river, and unpredictable rainfall that can change the water sources. In case of Guayaquil, the issues that related to water such as lack of aquifer and damaged ecosystem of the estuary are mostly caused by human intervention. The strategies of dealing with water issues can be more adaptation instead of prevention in terms of spatial configuration, such as creating soft edge and topography adjustment. Soft engineering is showing more promises to create balance and sustainable environment.

Bibliography Abdulla, F. A., & Al-Shareef, A. W. (2009). Roof rainwater harvesting systems for household water supply in Jordan. Desalination, 243(1-3), 195-207. Barrera Crespo, P. D. (2016). Delft3D Flexible Mesh modelling of the Guayas River and Estuary system in Ecuador. Biswas, A. K., & Tortajada, C. (2018). Assessing global water megatrends. In Assessing global water megatrends (pp. 1-26). Springer, Singapore. Guayaquil. (n.d.). Retrieved 5 31, 2018, from Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guayaquil In-Keun, L. E. (2006). Cheong Gye Cheon Restoration Project. Prominski, M., Stokman, A., Stimberg, D., Voermanek, H., & Zeller, S. (2012). River. Space. Design: Planning Strategies, Methods and Projects for Urban Rivers. Walter de Gruyter. Stenfert, J., Bouman, R. R., Nolthenius, R. T., & Joosten, S. (2017). Flood Risk Guayaquil: A critical analysis on inundations. Retrieved 5 31, 2018, from http://resolver. tudelft.nl/uuid:267caf81-5af3-4f0c-9c6a-e4f01571019b Valencia, N. (2016, January 27). MOBO Architects + Ecopolis + Concreta diseñarán la estrategia de intervención para el río Fucha en Bogotá . Retrieved from plataformaarquitectura: https://www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/781048/mobo-architects-plus-ecopolis-plus-concreta-disenaran-la-estrategia-de-intervencion-para-el-rio-fucha-en-bogota Watson, D., & Adams, M. (2010). Design for Flooding: architecture, landscape, and urban design for resilience to climate change. John wiley & sons. Witsenburg, F. (2007). The tragedy of the Estero Salado, Opportunities for Better Management. Retrieved 5 30, 2018, from https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/ object/uuid:fdf8edc0-e139-4e3c-96ae-b0ca73113161/?collection=research Xiao, Q., & Mcpherson, E. (2011). Performance of engineered soil and trees in a parking lot bioswale. Urban Water Journal, 8(4), 241-253.

MARRIJE VANDEN EYNDE

Urban heat island mitigation

(Palme, Lobato, Villacreses, & Macias, 2016, p. )

https://www.natura-medioambiental.com/

Approaches on three scales for the suburbs of Guayaquil, Ecuador

Urban heat island phenomenon The temperature increase of a city with respect to the rural environment surrounding it. In guayaquil this is for the moment 3 to 4 degrees (Palme M., Lobato, Villacreses, & Macias, 2016).

Urban heat-island effect

Today Guayaquil has already risen to two degrees Celsius in average heat. This negative heat-related implication of climate change is only the start of the predicted changes of 2.5 to 4 degrees. In densely built areas this is aggravated by the urban heat island effect, which indicates the temperature increase of a city with respect to the rural environment surrounding it. The world bank group defines the risk of extreme heat hazard to be high for the Guayas region. It means that a prolonged exposure to extreme heat, resulting in heat stress, is expected to occur at least once in the next five years (GFDRR, 2017). The increase in air temperature is associated with problems of health, comfort, energy, water and food production. The impact on the inhabitantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; health ranges from an increase in diseases (for example due to more mosquitoes that carry diseases like dengue) to death from heat. This is significantly underreported, since often the cause is related to a certain preexisting condition (UN-Habitat, 2011). But regardless of the lack of criteria to proof this, extreme heat is regarded the most deadly meteorological calamity (GFDRR, 2017). With an increasingly urban and a rapidly aging society, this statement will be more and more confirmed. In terms of comfort, nocturnal heat capacity evacuation diminishes 50 percent if the urban heat island phenomenon is not suppressed. Natural ventilation possibilities decrease with 30 percent (Palme, Natural ventilation: a mitigation strategy to reduce overheating in buildings under urban heat island effect in South American cities, 2017). Since the natural ways are not sufficient enough, people turn to mechanical cooling techniques. This has drastic implications on energy demands. This demand is heightened by two factors. Firstly, this South-American city will experience a tremendous economic growth, bringing the peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs and desires towards

1990

2017

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(wikimedia commons)

1970

City center Guayaquil The car-based city has highly polluted air and blocks the fresh cold breeze coming from the Guayas river and the sea.

The ever-expanding city reinforces the UHI The urbanization happens as a horizontal sprawl in the northwest and the south of the city centre, eating away important natural resources.

new comfort standards. Secondly, UHI is a recursive phenomenon: the warmer the environment, the higher the cooling demand of buildings. This means an increase in electricity consumption and a higher release of heat into the urban tissue. This relates back to an even warmer environment and so on (Palme, Lobato, Villacreses, & Macias, 2016). As the heat from hard surfaces, air and buildings is transferred to storm water, the increase in temperature is also released into rivers, lakes and streams. This thermal pollution goes hand in hand with other forms of water pollution that promote bacterial and fungal content (UN-Habitat, 2011). Just as this threatens clean water supply, rise in temperature also has an impact on food security. It creates a bad climate to produce certain crops, higher mortality of livestock, etc. The impact of urban heat waves is connected to so many topics that it might be one of the most important factors to take into account. Yet it still has not been taken up as standard consideration in urban planning for tropical regions.

influences the city has on weather, it is the presence or the absence of wind that has the greatest impact on the comfort of the local climate’ (Hough, 2004). The high rise buildings at the riverfront block the natural air flow coming from the Guayas river, preventing the breeze to mitigate the overheating of the city.

Specifics for Guayaquil

Besides all these general factors, there are certain specific ones for the Guayas basin and the city of Guayaquil. Guayaquil is very much car and motorcycle based. The introduction of the Metrovia has created a certain sense of sustainable transport in this asphalted megacity, but the generation of air pollution from automobiles is still very present. The pollution, particles and water vapour have an effect on the radiation budget and increase the air temperature (Echevarria Icaza & Van der Hoeven, 2017). Consequently, moving towards a modal shift is an important step this city has to take in combatting UHI. Another factor is the wind flows through the city. Michael Hough declares in Cities and Natural Processes ‘of all the

Limits to growth: the second urbanization wave

In the guayas basin ecological zones are under threat by the expansive urban growth and the additional productive land that is needed. The horizontal expansion of the city is a big contribution to the UHI effect. The focus of this paper will be on how UHI mitigation strategies can be applied on the zone of the second urbanization wave. This zone lies in the northwestern part of the city, on the foot of the chongon colonche mountain range. Further on this will be referred to as the Monte Sinai site. A hilly site that used to be planted with a rich forest, but slowly got eaten away by “formal” and “informal” urbanization. Because of its relatively recent development, this part of the city didn’t get the chance (yet) to fully evolve into an asphalted urban heat island. The site exists out of two types of tissue. The first type is the “informal settlement”, accessible via earth roads and a single hard surface artery. The second type is social interest housing sites. These are asphalt islands that landed into the green. They are reachable via a road that has only one purpose: serve its single destination. If urban planning doesn’t define the rules for further development, the site will slowly be covered with more and more asphalt. What are these side conditions of development in the light of UHI mitigation? This paper discusses possible adaptive urban design strategies on three levels: the region, the house and the neighbourhood.

01_Wildland Urban Interface Natural regional cooling sources

A regional balance The first scale is the regional scale and focuses on how to put a limit to the city growth. This demands to review the regional balance of the Guayas. The city must be green enough to prevent from overheating, but still maintain a certain density to ensure efficient transportation and service systems (Echevarria Icaza & Van der Hoeven, 2017). The optimal city size and density is hard to find, but if the endless expansion of the city is stopped and the existing open spaces are ensured, the effect of the urban heat island might be mitigated. The Monte Sinai site that is shown here is at the fringe of the city and an important site in terms of keeping this balance.

UN project To divert growth away from highly hazardous areas urban planners should rethink the wildland (sub) urban interface (WUI). This edge should be strengthened in order to prevent a further growing imbalance between the built world and nature. A project for such a ‘green belt’ for Guayaquil was set up in 2000 as part of the mitigation projects in cooperation with the UN. The project aimed for the creation of a green belt of 400 ha over the next fifteen years. Besides reforestation various projects of local and national interest would be placed next to the green belt. Inside the belt recreational and environmental education areas would find their place (UNFCCC, 2000). The project ended up in the box of sweet promises, next to the constitution of 2008 that granted constitutional rights to nature (Berros, 2015).

Informal settlement encroaching the green foothill

Protected bosque la prosperina and pastures, Monte Sinai

Socio Vivienda II, built into the protected forest

(own images)

Retention lake at the ESPOL university campus, Monte Sinai

Regional cooling sources In mitigating the UHI large-scale geographical elements are regarded as an important source for cities to remain cool. These elements can be mountains, forests, pastures, rivers, sea side and so on. The WUI should enhance and protect these cooling sources. From the WUI wide paths can run to the urban fabric so the coolness can migrate where needed (Echevarria Icaza & Van der Hoeven, 2017). On the Monte Sinai site, these elements are the hilly forests, the small creeks, lakes and pastures. Steps to protect this area have already been undertaken. The city council of Guayaquil made the ‘Bosque Prosperina’ into a protected forest and the ESPOL university that has its campus put up in this area started up reforestation projects. Still the limits were not respected. Not only by the ever-encroaching ‘informal’ tissue, but also by the governmental social housing (Socio Vivienda II and III). 93

01_Wildland Urban Interface CORREDOR ECOLOGICO

Diana Wiesner (2008)

Bogotá, Colombia

Mountain trail as land demarcation An example of the reinforcement of the WUI is the mountain trail at the edge of Bogotá. The first objective is blocking the chaotic urban growth of this Latin-American city. This goes along with the restoration of the precious ecosystem of the mountain. A second objective is bringing the people back into contact with their natural surroundings. By organizing and improving the accessibility for the different districts aligning the path, the connection is reestablished (Cox, 2013). The introduction of different modes of transport along the trail are key in combatting the urban heat island effect.

The power of knowledge It is remarkable that the project, that realized border agreements with districts along 53 km, is being built. Reassuring the viability of the project is one of the key components of the designer’s work. She engaged with different stakeholders and reassured the political will for the realization (Mountain trail for land preservation and urban demarcation, 2014). To organize the grassroots support, a foundation was established that joins the local knowledge of the community on the environmental challenges. Along the trail there are multiple scenarios implemented, adjusting their program according to the type of community. These communities live in a wide variety of settlements and have very different social profiles. But because of the usage of basic construction materials, it is possible for everyone to be part of the project. The most important community projects are the open air museum, open air classes and local plant nurseries. These are three educational components that aim for the people to be reintroduced to nature (Cox, 2013). The inhabitants recover values around these common spaces (Wiesner, 2013).

02_Climate responsive typologies

Dwelling comfort The second scale is the one of the building. In Guayaquil, definitely on the Monte Sinai site, it is common that all activities evolve around the dwelling: playing, eating, sleeping ánd working. A house is thus almost throughout a whole day maximally inhabited. This has a big influence on the anthropogenic heat gain, but also means that dwelling comfort is of an utmost importance. In Guayaquil, with an average annual temperature of 27.7 ° C, the comfort temperature is 26.4 ° C with upper and lower limits of 28.9 ° C and 23 ° C. Temperatures rise above these levels around the clock (Forero, Bioclimatic design of low cost housing. A methodological proposal for students of la carrera arquitecture, Guayaquil, 2017).

Building in the tropics

Unadjusted typologies The typology, the materials and the amount of greenery added (on roofs, facades or at the street level) defines how much the heat can be mitigated on this smallest scale. The typologies of the new built fabric are all almost exclusively low-rise single or two- story housing, except for Socio Vivienda III. Many typologies are built with the least ideal material choice, like the metal roofs in Socio Vivienda II (left bottom picture). It is only recently that energy policies for the built environment in Ecuador are being installed, regulating the transmittance value of the building materials. Greenery on the buildings is largely absent, even the government social interest housing has not foreseen in green roofs or facades. Only some productive vegetation finds their way in between the low-rise tissue.

www.eluniverso.com

Traditional ways of building In stark contrast with the generic unadjusted typologies to the left, traditional typologies adjust better to this hot humid climate. In the centre of Guayaquil for example Soportales buildings can be found all around. These buildings are equipped with porches or arcades that offer protection for rain and for sun. They form a type of canopy offering urban shade that attracts local economies and street vendors (Santana Moncayo, 2015). Another traditional example are the bamboo houses. The depicted house (bottom right picture) of Hogar de Christo reverts to the traditional building material to generate a cooler climate (The world bank, 2013). The typology allows daily activities to take place on the ground floor, protected from sun and rain.

02_Climate responsive typologies BIOCLIMATIC DESIGN IMPROVEMENTS

Boris Forero

Socio Vivienda II, Guayaquil, Ecuador

Red metal roofs! One of the social interest housing sites in Monte Sinai, Socio Vivienda II, has a complete absence of comfort through the usage of wrong materials: the red metal roofs. The houses are serving 2200 families, of which some have left already due to the bad circumstances. A study of three houses of Socio Vivienda and propositions for design illustrate how small changes can mean a significant improvement of the living conditions. The two most important factors to take into account on the level of typology are radiation and ventilation.

Materials and surfaces The housing solution of Socio Vivienda is not sufficient from the point of view of thermal comfort. The construction system is a composition of walls in cast concrete supported by a framework of aluminum. On top of that lies the reddish pre painted steel roofs. The transfer capacity of these materials are extremely high. Recommendations for hot humid climates are maximum transmittance levels in roofs of 1,1 W/m2 ºC. The steel covers reaches values of 5 W/m2 ºC. The mitigation of these effects can be done by the application of bright white paints on the steel covers, which decreases the absorptivity. Another possibility is the isolation of the metal cover.

(own image)

ÂŠ Boris Forero

Urban shade Since Ecuador is close to the equatorial line at two degrees of south latitude, the sun is radiating on all the exposed facades of the houses. This solar radiation must be blocked in order to avoid heat gain. It can be stopped for example by creating shade on the facades of houses through the planting of species of the tropical dry forest. Another way to reach the shading goal is to cover the space for expansion in front of the house. In this way the space canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be consolidated as well, something that happens often.

Natural ventilation The geometry of the envelope already allows an adequate ventilation of the spaces, because the air can flow freely above the low interior walls. But the load bearing walls of concrete prevent to further modify the envelope. The convective cooling that can be received during the night through the holes of the envelope can have a significant difference as the wind speed increases.

03_Forests and trees in cities Providing canopies and linkages

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…plant the void The void provides the linkages. The voids are the interior gardens, the urban parks, linear parks, urban forests and the streets. The width of the streets and their orientation (combined with the height of the buildings) are an important factor in letting through the cooling effect of the wind. Since the wind mostly comes from the southwest, according to the wind rose of Guayaquil, this is the recommended wind direction. In aiming to mitigate the UHI the “voids” must be as planted as possible, and especially consisting out of tree canopies enlarging the amount of urban shade (Echevarria Icaza & Van der Hoeven, 2017) and forming continuous ecologies. At the Monte Sinai site the balance between solid and void is completely absent. The building blocks are under dimensioned and an abundance of infrastructure is folded around these blocks without being accompanied by enough greenery.

Diversify the solid… The third scale connects the regional scale with the scale of the house. It is the morphology of the tissue and the balance between solid and void that has to be studied on this scale. The solid is a search for the ideal measurements of the building block, the mix of typologies and most of all the self-sufficiency of the block design. Monte Sinai consists of a very mono-functional tissue, with mostly the program of living. When this is reversed and there are plenty of options within the neighbourhood, the inhabitants will be less inclined to take their car to other places. In that way releasing less carbon dioxide and thus also contributing less to the UHI.

At the shore of the estuarine river small productive patches pop up, Suburbio

Every plot still has room for productive trees, Monte Sinai

Man-made canals form a green-blue infrastructure through the tissue

(own images)

Consolidated urbanized parts have little room for green anymore, Suburbio

Room for a natural frame The existing ratio of greenery per inhabitant is still not sufficient enough. In 2009 Guayaquil had 6 mÂ˛ of green per inhabitant, still 3 m2 below the absolute minimum of the World Health Organization. Compared to 1990, when it was a poor 1,12 mÂ˛ this Is already a big improvement (Delgado, 2013). Contrary to the consolidated urbanization in Suburbio that needs to find these spaces at the waterfront, Monte Sinai still has room in the tissue to put up a natural frame that steers development. Looking at existing traditions in the city, productive trees and small agriculture patches should make up a big part of this new natural frame.

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03_Forests and trees in cities RECREIO ECOLOGICAL CORRIDOR

EMBYA, Vaz & Martin (2015)

ÂŠ EMBYA

(https://archinect.com/)

Rio de Janeiro, Brasil

Connecting existing green The municipal government demanded a way to protect the parks in this urban area in Brasil. The urbanization has totally taken over this natural biome and the municipality wanted to restore that imbalance. In this way bringing the inhabitants back in touch with the nature that used to be there. The enormous ecological value of this zone is restored via three ways: connect, protect and expand. The strategies have been realized through several interventions (Geppetti, 2016).

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Planting is planning The section shows how on many different levels trees are implemented as a way to create a new frame for development and strengthen the ecologies. The importance of a timeframe in which the green grows is also added as an important factor of the project t (Geppetti, 2016).

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Conclusion

The mentioned projects are not solely designed to mitigate UHI effect and do not even explicitly mention it. This points out how the awareness of this effect must be heightened and that it must be taken into account in every project. Especially when designing in cities that have a certain climate. The following conclusion is an overview of the lessons learned. First of all, it is important to consider the typomorphology and material of the design in the initial planning stages. Otherwise the focus falls back on the use of technology. This happens often in combatting heat and enlarges the UHI, as mentioned in the introduction (Pattacini, 2012). During this first “information phase” it is important that the designer is surrounded by different disciplines and is informed on the basic guiding rules. What is the main wind direction in this particular area, what is the rotation of the sun, which are the indigenous evergreen plants, what are traditional ways of climate responsive building, etc. This knowledge of climate science and ecology needs to be brought into the planner’s standard consideration in order to create more liveable and healthy cities. Secondly, when the urban designer comes into the “design phase”, it became clear that the green blue infrastructure should become the main instrument of the designer to use as a frame for development. Planting becomes planning (Shannon & De Meulder, Forests and trees in the city: southwest Flanders and the Mekong Delta, 2014). The use of trees was touched upon in every scale. They are implemented to provide shade and to help cooling off by evapotranspiration. In planting the trees, all the stages of restoring the ecologies are important to take into account. Designers have to model as well how this extensive tree planting can be realized in a climate where there is no such thing as government support.

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The involvement of the community is a crucial step to get to this. In Bogotá this happened via the creation of a foundation that joined the different stakeholders. But other regions in the world teach us new ways of using human capital in reforestation. The concept of social forestry in Senegal is such an example. Through micro-financing farmers were motivated to plant trees, as much as they could manage. When they plant a tree, they become responsible for the maintenance but also reap the benefits of it. This did not only mean a major step in sequestration and a healthier environment, but also built awareness amongst those thousands of people. This educative component is one of the challenges for the design as well. This paper wants to conclude by considering the UHI impacts from a social point of view, which should run through both of the above-mentioned phases. It is really important to determine who is most endangered by the consequences of UHI and make them aware of possible mitigation ways. It is no coincidence that the soportales are located in the wealthier business district, while at the Monte Sinai the buildings almost ignore the climate related implications for design. The low-income guayaquilenos are pushed towards the hilly mountains in non-climate responsive typologies without many means to provide technological solutions. As Naomi Klein says in This Changes Everything, the movement for climate change should be first and foremost a social movement, in which climate justice and social equity are a central point (Klein, 2014). This still urgently demands for a fresh breeze through the city.

Bibliography Articles

Reports

Berros, M. V. (2015). The constitution of the Republic of Ecuador: Pachamama has rights. Arcadia, 11.

Palme, M., Lobato, A., & Carrasco, C. (2016). Global warming and urban heat island in South America. Los Angeles: PLEA2016.

Delgado, A. (2013, April). Guayaquil. Cities, 515-532. doi:https://doi. org/10.1016/j.cities.2011.11.001

Palme, M., Lobato, A., Villacreses, G., & Macias, J. (2016). Estimating the urban heat island effect in the city of Guayaquil. An international conference on urban physics. Quito: FICUP.

Echevarria Icaza, L., & Van der Hoeven, F. (2017). Regionalist principles to reduce the urban heat island effect. Sustainability, 9(5), 677. Pattacini, L. (2012). Climate and urban form. Urban design international, 17, 106-114. Santana Moncayo, C. A. (2015). Guayaquil, ciudad de soportales: una reflexion acerca de su importancia y su uso actual. Pasos, 681-696.

UNFCC. (2015). Ecuadorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intended Nationally Determined Contribution. Retrieved from United Nations Climate change: http://www4.unfccc.int/ submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Ecuador/1/Ecuador%20 INDC%2001-10-2015%20-%20english%20unofficial%20translation.pdf

Wiesner, D. (2013). Ecological and recreational corridor bogota mountain reserve. Project baikal, 84-87. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.7480/ projectbaikal.35.21.21

UNFCCC. (2000, November). Climate change National communication republic of Ecuador. United nations framework convention. Quito: National Climate Committee. Retrieved April 10, 2018, from https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/ natc/ecunc1.pdf

Books

Websites

Hough, M. (2004). Cities and natural processes. London: Routledge.

Cox, A. (2013). Corredor Ecologico. Retrieved from Landscape as urbanism in the americas: http://landscapeasurbanismamericas.net/corredor-ecologico/

Klein, N. (2014). This changes everything. Toronto: Penguin Random House. Shannon, K., & De Meulder, B. (2014). Forests and trees in the city: southwest Flanders and the Mekong Delta. In D. Czechowski, T. Hauck, & G. Hausladen, Revising green infrastructure: concepts between nature and design (pp. 427449). CRC Press. UN-Habitat. (2011). The impacts of climate change upon urban areas. In UNHabitat, Cities and climate change: global report on human settlements (pp. 65-90). London: Earthscan. Lectures Forero, B. (2018). Social interest housing and climate-sensitive design. Guayaquil.

Forero, B. (2017). Bioclimatic design of low cost housing. A methodological proposal for students of la carrera arquitecture, Guayaquil. Geppetti, E. (2016). Corredor Verde Recreio. Opgehaald van Biennal internacional de paisatge: http://www.arquitectes.cat/iframes/paisatge/cat/ mostrar_projecte.php?id_projecte=9880&lan=es GFDRR. (2017). Think hazard Ecuador. Retrieved from Think hazard: http:// thinkhazard.org/en/report/73-ecuador/EH Klein-Rosenthal, J., & Raven, J. (2017, July 18). Urban Heat And Urban Design â&#x20AC;&#x201D; An Opportunity To Transform In NYC. Retrieved from the Sallan Foundation: https://www.sallan.org/Snapshot/2017/07/urban_heat_and_urban_design_an_ opportunity_to_transform_in_nyc.php#.WxKcMJ8zZPZ Mountain trail for land preservation and urban demarcation. (2014, April 24). Retrieved from Lafarge Holcim Foundation: https://www.lafargeholcimfoundation.org/projects/mountain-trail-for-land-preservation The world bank. (2013, January 23). Ecuador Innovates with Bamboo Houses for the Low-Income Population. Retrieved from The world bank: http://www. worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2013/01/23/ecuador-innovates-with-bamboohouses-for-the-poor

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5_Acknowledgements 107

Landscape Urbanism Studio Social-ecological challenges in times of climate change Urbanized Deltas (Guayas River Delta, Ecuador) KU Leuven Teaching Team Tete Region, Zambeze River Delta (Mozambique) Prof. Bruno De Meulder, Wim Wambecq, Eliana Barbosa Taihu Basin, Yangtze River Delta (China) Prof. Kelly Shannon, Stefanie Dens Guayas River Delta (Ecuador) Prof. Viviana d’Auria, Olga Peek, Nelson Carofilis

Collaborators for Guayas River Basin (Ecuador) Studio preparation and fieldwork (in collaboration with the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, University of Guayaquil, Ecuador) Olga Peek, Nelson Carofilis

Lecturers in Fieldwork Daniela Hidalgo., Universidad Espiritu Santo, Guayaquil Boris Forero, Universidad de Guayaquil Alina Delgado, Universidad Espiritu Santo, Guayaquil Felipe Espinoza, Universidad de Guayaquil Mercy Borbor-Córdova, ESPOL Rodney Martínez, CIIFEN

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Other collaborators in Fieldwork (UG) Ivetheyamel Morales, Xavier Cornejo, Juan Sebastián Macías, Cármen Avila, Ana Franco, Jorge Coque, Marcela Blacio, Santiago Dick, Manuel Macías (Fundación Cerro Verde) Federico Koelle (Cerritos) Genaro Vera, Pia Dreher (Municipalidad de Guayaquil) María Monserrate Vélez (Hogar de Cristo) Olinda Maquilón, Eduardo Robles (Prefectura del Guayas) Fidel Egas (Manso) Ricardo Cevallos, (Isla Santay) Familia Parrales (Others) Doris Mercado, Taylor Mercado, Maria Erazo, Elsie Pata, Jaime y Leonor, Arturo Bolaños, Jenny Avila

Guest jurors at mid-review (27 March 2018) Prof. Joris Scheers, KU Leuven Annelies De Nijs, Agence Ter (France) Guido Geenen, WIT Architecten / KU Leuven Paulina Espinosa, KU Leuven Monica Rivera, KU Leuven

Cross-delta review & discussion (27 March 2018) Prof. Richard Plunz, Columbia University (United States)

Guest Jurors at final review (28 June 2018) Prof. Alexandre Baia, Universidade Zambeze (Mozambique) Esther Charlesworth Prof. Mercy Borbor Cordova, Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (Ecuador) Prof. Jeremy Foster, University of Virginia (United States) Aroussiak Gabrelian, University of Southern California (United States) Ludwig Hansen Prof. Alison Hirsch, University of Southern California (United States) Prof. Luis Lage, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane (Mozambique) Prof. Qing Li, Tongji University (China) Prof. Christian Nolf, Xi’An Jiatong Liverpool University (China) Frits Palmboom, Palmbout Urban Landscapes (The Netherlands) Florence Vannoorbeeck, Xi’An Jiatong Liverpool University (China) Prof. João Tique, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane (Mozambique)

Booklet layout & editing Olga Peek, Amina Kaskar, Mara Tomulescu

Studio entry to Rosa Barba University Competition Olga Peek, Georgina Truter, Mara Tomulescu , Bindi Raditya, Fareeha Sheikh

Model photography Bindi Raditya

Vinh Tran Trung, University of Architecture Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam)

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Spring 2018 www.mahsmausp.be