Studio Booklet Nairobi, Kenya. Water and Forest Urbanisms to Address Climate Change by MaHS-MaULP

SPRING STUDIO 2020

Water and Forest Urbanisms to Address Climate Change

Nairobi, Kenya

Master (of Science) Human Settlements Faculty of Engineering and Department of Architecture Promoters: Viviana dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Auria, Bruno De Meulder, Kelly Shannon Extra studio guidance: Khalda Imad Mubarak El Jack

Academic Year 2019-2020

ÂŠ Copyright KU Leuven Without written permission of the thesis supervisors and the authors it is forbidden to reproduce or adapt in any form or by any means any part of this publication. Requests for obtaining the right to reproduce or utilize parts of this publication should be addressed to Faculty of Engineering and Department of Architecture, Kasteelpark Arenberg 1 box 2431, B-3001 Heverlee. A written permission of the thesis supervisors is also required to use the methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 0_ Studio Challenge 1_ Fieldwork

three 5x5km sites NDENDERU KIKUYU ONGATA RONGAI

2_Research 3_ Beyond the Forest: Seeding the Future of West Nairobi Benjamin Baggott, Santiago Cortinez, Zeeshan Javaid Ghani, Khanh Nguyen, Silvia Parra, Natalia Recalde

4_ Compensation Ecosystem Connectivity Darina Andreeva, Md Rafiqul Islam, Hagar Faggal, Rachid Garcia, Grace Kamweru, Luis Villadiego

5_ Inhabiting the Forest Plateaus Fahri Abdala Reyes, Loverina Cuz, Daniela Garcia Rojas, Karmen Hoge, Sharmin Kabir Shimul, Gaarith Williams

6_ Acknowledgements

0_ Studio Challenge Studio brief & Kenya

SPRING STUDIO 2020

Water and Forest Urbanisms to Address Climate Change Nairobi (Kenya) & Cantho (Vietnam) Viviana d’Auria, Bruno De Meulder, Kelly Shannon Jeroen Stevens, Khalda El Jack, David Njenga, Linh Vu

The visible and forecasted consequences of climate change are evident in territories

experiencing increased rapid population growth that is happening at the expense

across the globe. Increased temperatures and frequency and intensity of storms is

of nature. Climate change is manifested in terms of water scarcity and critical loss

bringing waves of both flood and drought. In deltaic and coastal cities, sea level

of biodiversity. The western part of the city is witnessing rapid transformation. The

rise and saline intrusion also pose major threats. There is a necessity to develop

largest catalysts of transformations are populist urban projects that are meant to

urbanism strategies which adapt to impacts of climate change,increasingly

‘free Nairobi’ from the menace of the traffic congestion. The selected sites lay in

vulnerable environments and address the changing relations of nature/ culture,

the western foothills of the Nairobi Metropolis of the Kiambu, Kajiado and Nairobi

rural/ urban and production/ consumption.

counties. For the two northern cases of Ndenderu and Kikuyu, occupation was dominated by sedentary agricultural communities while the southern case of

The spring studio 2020 will work on two cities which are facing major challenges in

Ongata Rongai pastoral communities occupied areas bordering the National Park.

relation to both climate change and increasing urbanization. The focus will be on

Located on the border between Kiambu and Nairobi, the Ndenderu site interweaves

peri-urban expansions—regions which are chronically under studied despite the

‘Kianda landscapes’ that emulate agricultural valley settlements practiced by the

fact that they are actually the frontier of urbanization. The impacts of transformation

Agikuyu people. Their indigenous system of subsistence agriculture and settlement

and intervention in these areas is incredibly strategic. At the same time, radical

is threatened by the rapidly growing real estate market and water scarcity due to over

intervention is simultaneously easier than in core urban areas, since they are not

consumption. A little further southis Kikuyu, a town expanding at the confluence

consolidated and do not have the inertia that results from previous investments.

of newly constructed highway and railway infrastructures, fragmenting it into an

Hence,they are the laboratories for new forms of urbanity that balances ecology

urban archipelago. The third site, Ongata Rongai,sits in the lowlands of Ngong Hills

and economy. Peri-urban expansions are frontiers to establish new and feasible

that form a transition to the Athi-Kapiti plains which were formerly recognized

relations between nature and culture. Forest and water are two main components

as the Kitengela conservancy area. Now an emerging vibrant town, Ongata

for agro-urban balances to re-develop. The studio will develop strategies across

Rongai, adjacent to the Nairobi National Park and previously home to the pastoral

scales—from the territorial to the urban to the project. There will be group work in

Maasaitribe, is confronted by dilemmas of urbanization. The predominant pastoral

addition to individual project development.

communities still own most of the land, but new sedentary forms of urbanization pose a stark contrast to their indigenous practices. This is more evident by rising

In each city, there will be a focus on three peri-urban sites. In Nairobi, the city is

human-wildlife conflicts that expose the neglect of harmonious coexistence of

Nairobi, Kenya

Cantho, Mekong Delta, Vietnam

both man and wildlife. The Nairobi studio is hence an exercise of interpreting

of orchards. Land is slightly higher in this area, making it more suitable for trees

‘modernity’ and accommodating urbanization frameworks where design processes

(the roots of which simultaneously strengthens the land). The particular land

prescribe future development scenarios that are inscribed within the territories and

condition of Phong Dien is evidently related to the river system (confluences along

respect both their ecological and social attributes.

the Cantho River). The city envisions “ecological urban development” in this area. Finally, south of the city, is the recently booming area of Cai Rang which has been

In Cantho, the city must urgently respond to the ever-increasing prospect of sustained

rapidly urbanizing due to the massive investment in bridge and road infrastructure.

inundation, severe effects of sea level rise (and salination) and vulnerability of both

The highway from HCMC (and continuing to Ca Mau) lands in this area. Urban

its settlement and agricultural landscape, which is the core identity of the Mekong

development in this area is squeezed in between industrial zones further south

Delta as a whole. As capital city of the Mekong Delta, Cantho will also continue

and the Cantho River. Large boulevard structures superimpose an asphalt order

to receive a large part of the internal migration in the Mekong Delta (including

upon the originally fine mazed organic water register of the area where formal and

increasing numbers. of climate change refugees). Although accommodating more

informal patterns of urbanism co-develop. For all three sites, the essential question

than a million inhabitants, Cantho remains a provincial city in an agricultural

becomes: what new forms of development can adapt to the predicted consequences

environment, where nature is omnipresent. As for all environments in the Mekong

of climate change and work with new economies which capitalize on the rapidly

Delta, the water system is the register for the spatial structure as well as for the

changing context while balancing with nature and ecology?

ecological structure. The chosen sites encircle the urban core and are all rich agricultural areas that are undergoing ad/ or slated for substantial transformation. Northwest of the city is O Mon, an area designated by the government for extensive urban expansion. In the 2013 master plan of Cantho, the ‘new town’ of O Mon was intended to become the administrative center (of city and province), an ambition that in the new revision of the master plan has been tempered. The area has historically been structured on a fine-meshed water system for rice production, with linear settlements following the alluvial high banks. Along the Cantho River, southwest of the city, is Phong Dien, a rural district that is founded on a rich mosaic

Nairobi

Surveyed under the direction of the Director of Surveys, East Africa Protectorate, in 1909, reproduced and printed for the War Office by the Ordinance Survey, Southampton, 1910

ÂŠ Retrieved by Pauline Bezemer, 2019, British Archives

Kenya

1_ Fieldwork three 5x5km sites

FIELD_WORK_SHOP Water & Forest Urbanisms Kiambu & Kajiado Counties, Kenya

The intensive 11 day-long investigation with 34 international (hailing from 11

For all three sites, the essential question becomes: what new forms of development

countries) and Kenyan students focused on interpretative mapping and the posing

can adapt to the predicted consequences of climate change and work with new

of design research questions for three 5 x 5 kilometer sites: Ndenderu, Kikuyu

economies which capitalize on the rapidly changing context while balancing with

and Ongata Rongai. Three sites, all inscribed in the western peri-urban counties

nature and ecology? For each of the 27 posters, groups developed site specific

of Nairobi with varying spatial and ecological landscape structures, were chosen

questions that serve as the captions for the visual component.

for study. As Nairobi capital continues to expand as a foci for urban growth, the chosen sites constitute primary locations in which this urban expansion meets rural livelihoods in varying landscape structures. The agriculture-dominated kianda [valley] landscapes of Ndenderu, underground water towers and forests of Kikuyu, and pastoral lands of Ongata Rongai are undergoing and/ or slated for substantial transformation. In each site, there were three lenses from which to understand existing logics and frame questions for future development:

1. consumptive landscapes: with a focus on settlement systems; 2. productive landscapes: with a focus on topographical vegetal, water and soil conditions;

3. typology: with a focus on archetypal components of the territory. There were also three types of drawing methods:

1. annotated plan and sections; 2. process diagram; 3. collage.

Schedule Saturday

15 February

Depart Brussels/Arrive in Nairobi

Sunday

16 February

Tour of Nairobi North, Eastlands and South

Monday

17 February

Introduction and Lectures at TUK

Tuesday

18 February

Visit to UN Habitat Headquarters

Wednesday

19 February

Fieldwork Site A – Ndenderu/Kabete Area

Thursday

20 February

Fieldwork Site A – Ndenderu/Kabete Area

Friday

21 February

Fieldwork Site B – Kikuyu/Gitaru/Lower Kabete Area

Saturday

22 February

Fieldwork Site B – Kikuyu/Gitaru/Lower Kabete Area

Sunday

23 February

Free Day

Monday

24 February

Fieldwork Site C – Ongata Rongai

Tuesday

25 February

Fieldwork Site C – Ongata Rongai

Wednesday

26 February

Back to Nairobi CBD/Working Day

Thursday

27 February

Internal Review at Nairobi Railway Museum

Friday

28 February

Exhibit/Presentation at Nairobi Railway Museum

Saturday

29 February

Tour of Nairobi National Park/Depart Nairobi

Sunday

01 March

Arrive in Brussels

The Ndenderu site interweaves â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Kianda landscapesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; that emulate agricultural valley settlements practiced by the Agikuyu people. Their indigenous system of subsistence agriculture and settlement is threatened by the rapidly growing real estate market and water scarcity due to over consumption.

SITE A

NDENDERU 32

consumptive landscapes + annotated plan/ section

Consuming Topography

Loverina Cruz (KUL) Md Rafiqul Islam (KUL) Winnie Amondi Sawo (TUK) Victor Omondi Ongor (TUK)

Ndenderuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s landscape is choreographed by steep valley slopes and river systems that structure agricultural activities. The interplay of the water and topography is crucial for the agricultural production of Ndenderu, influencing landscape appropriations and consumption patterns. How are natural landscape systems influencing consumptive landscape appropriations?

consumptive landscapes + collage

Where is the balance?

Hagar Faggal (KUL) Mohammed Leruk (TUK) Matimba Ngobeni (WITS) Natalia Recalde (KUL)

Rapid Urbanization has engulfed Ndenderu area, threatening indigenous landscape appropriations and practices. Increasing densification is probably the biggest casualty of the rapid landscape transformations. How are current modes of human consumption of nature shaping (in) balanced landscapes?

consumptive landscapes + process diagram

(Re)working the land

Sharmin Kabir Shimul (KUL) Bob Nyachiro (TUK) Victor Kiprop (TUK) Silvia Parra (KUL)

Ndenderuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s natural landscape has catered for a rich diversity of agricultural uses. How are different inhabitants working these lands, appropriating and re-creating the valleys and slopes?

productive landscapes + annotated plan/ section

A farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s productive land

Daniela GarcĂa-Rojas (KUL) Gaarith Williams (KUL) Daniel Matata (TUK) Victor Obinge (TUK)

While rapid urbanization in Ndenderu has critically reduced rural activities, individual agricultural and economic actions can positively impact local and territorial contexts, while even interacting with the global market. How does a particular plot of land in Banana Hill embody multilayered productive landscapes and macro-networks?

productive landscapes + collage

Western Bypass market relations

Fahri Abdala-Reyes (KUL) Karmen Hoge (KUL) Paul Mumbo Musili (TUK)

The Western Bypass construction comes with heavy land speculation, while providing new opportunities for connecting and integrating Ndenderu to the city of Nairobi. The new linkage also allows to connect roadside markets with the entire market network of Nairobi. What kind of market network could the Western Bypass through the Ndenderu-Wangige valley system establish?

productive landscapes + process diagram

Water prints

Elizabeth Agwa (TUK) Darina Andreeva (KUL) Rachid Garcia Elmosri (KUL) Felix Wambua (TUK)

Ndenderu is a peculiar territory of dispersed river valleys,directly correlating to anthropogenic cycles of use and appropriation. While wider valleys seem to host more centralized supply systems of reticulation pipes and springs, narrow ones rely more on decentralized boreholes and open waterways. How do these diverse water systems intertwine and interact?

typology + annotated plan/ section

Spatial disparity across valley system

Grace Kamweru (KUL) Luis Villadiego (KUL) Jepchumba Lagat (TUK) Victor Kipkoech (TUK)

Land use in Ndenderu and its surroundings is defined by its topographical and administrative characteristics, where clear border divisions can be seen due to these phenomena. How do the topography and planning regulations influence the typology of housing, infrastructure, and land use?

typology + collage

Transitions of appropriation

Emma Brecher (WITS) Zeeshan Ghani (KUL) Santiago Cortinez (KUL) Beatrice Mwangi (TUK)

Different patterns of landscape appropriation are affecting the thresholds between individual properties and the common territory. Regarding the linear settlement structures of the area, how do diverse thresholds impact socio-economic associations in the urbanizing valleys of Ndenderu?

typology + process diagram

Water equity?

Benjamin Baggott (KUL) Khanh Nguyen (KUL) Ernest Ndungu (TUK)

The privatisation of water supply through boreholes has given the majority of the population access to a reliable water source. However, has monopolisation and privatisation of water opened up new avenues for both environmental and social abuse?

Kikuyu is a town expanding at the confluence of newly constructed highway and railway infrastructures, fragmenting it into an urban archipelago. Occupation was dominated by sedentary agricultural communities and it is home to Ondiri Swamp, a highly exploited underground watersource for Nairobi and neighboring counties, that some call an underground water tower.

SITE B

KIKUYU 46

consumptive landscapes + annotated plan/ section

A Withering Wetland

Benjamin Baggott (KUL) Khanh Nguyen (KUL) Ernest Ndungu (TUK)

The Ondiri Wetland is known to many as an â&#x20AC;&#x153;underground water tankâ&#x20AC;? making it an important water source to dependents such as adjacent industries, Kikuyu Springs and Nairobi City. How can new strategies be implemented in and arround the Ondiri Wetland to counter its current perception and use as a dumping ground and free water source, to one that is preserved, recognised and celebrated for its ecological importance?

consumptive landscapes + collage

Forest Consumption

Grace Kamweru (KUL) Luis Villadiego (KUL) Jepchumba Lagat (TUK) Victor Kipkoech (TUK)

Urban development in Kikuyu sub-county is gradually threatening the limited forest resources in the area. Housing, new roads, railways expansion and other infrastructural development has led to a significant decrease of forest resources in the urban areas. New settlements and use of charcoal fuel in the rural areas also exacerbate this threat. How do we create a balance between human development activities and existing biodiversity?

consummptive landscapes + collage

Dead Ends

Elizabeth Agwa (TUK) Darina Andreeva (KUL) Rachid Garcia Elmosri (KUL) Felix Wambua (TUK)

The urbanized valley of Ongata Rongai, home to the Mbagathi river, is replete of dead ends, abrupt enclosures, fences and barriers. How has this patchwork of dead ends emerged over time? And what challenges does it pose for future urban development and design?

consumptive landscapes + process diagram

Water communities

Emma Brecher (WITS) Zeeshan Ghani (KUL) Santiago Cortinez (KUL) Beatrice Mwangi (TUK)

The water consumption patterns through natural source pumping, boreholes and municipal pipelines affect community relationships and value associations in the water catchment and distribution areas. As the town environs continue to grow and their need for water increases, how can these consumption patterns be spatially manipulated to enhance social relationships?

productive landscapes + annotated plan/ section

Ecology or economy?

Sharmin Kabir Shimul (KUL) Bob Nyachiro (TUK) Victor Kiprop (TUK) Silvia Parra (KUL)

The green house business of Kikuyu, both subsistence and industrial, has exponentially grown over the last years due to decreasing land sizes and reduced returns on open farmlands, causing environmental deterioration of natural water resources. What strategies need to be developed to create more environmentally friendly farming techniques across the Kikuyu landscape?

productive landscapes + collage

Industrial Ecosystem

Loverina Cruz (KUL) Md Rafiqul Islam (KUL) Winnie Amondi Sawo (TUK) Victor Omondi Ongor (TUK)

Growing industry in and around Kikuyu is putting profound pressure on natural reservoirs, water towers and landscapes of the area. How do these industries produce a new urban landscape, attracting new towns, developing centralities, and establishing economic circularity? How could industrial production be designed and controlled to restore and maintain the areaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ecological integrity?

productive landscapes + process diagram

Valley resistance

Hagar Faggal (KUL) Mohammed Leruk (TUK) Matimba Ngobeni (WITS) Natalia Recalde (KUL)

The valley around Kikuyu town comprises of a rich series of wetlands and forests creating unique conditions for a variety of (potentially exploitative) economic activities including subsistence agriculture, large scale industries and high density housing. What strategies need to be considered to protect the natural logics of the valley system in the face of increasing production cycles?

typology + collage

Mobility typologies

Daniela GarcĂa-Rojas (KUL) Gaarith Williams (KUL) Daniel Matata (TUK) Victor Obinge (TUK)

The rapid urbanization of Kikuyu area has been framed by the construction of new mobility networks that heavily contrast with previous rural and peri-urban roads. Which new building typologies have and can emerge along Kikuyuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rapidly densifying infrastructural systems?

typology + process diagram

Mutating typologies

Fahri Abdala-Reyes (KUL) Karmen Hoge (KUL) Paul Mumbo Musili (TUK)

As the Kikuyu landscape continues to be subdivided by large infrastructural projects, it has shaped an archipelago of mutating urban morphologies and housing typologies, each closely bound up with its distinct placement in the landscape. How can new flexible forms of urbanization be designed to accommodate this continuously changing urban landscape?

Ongata Rongai, sits in the lowlands of Ngong Hills that form a transition to the Athi-Kapiti plains which were formerly recognized as the Kitengela conservancy area. Now an emerging vibrant town, Ongata Rongai, adjacent to the Nairobi National Park and previously home to the pastoral Maasai tribe, is confronted by dilemmas of urbanization. The predominant pastoral communities still own most of the land, but new sedentary forms of urbanization pose a stark contrast to their indigenous practices. This is more evident by rising human-wildlife conflicts that expose the neglect of harmonious coexistence of both man and wildlife.

SITE C

ONGATA RONGAI 60

consumptive landscapes + annotated plan/ section

An Emergent Cosmopolis?

Fahri Abdala-Reyes (KUL) Karmen Hoge (KUL) Paul Mumbo Musili (TUK)

Throughout its swift urbanization history, Ongata Rongai has accumulated cultural and social diversity. How is this co-existence of various ethnic groups orchestrated and accommodated by the urban landscape? Which spaces, activities and services bring people together and encourage them to coexist?

consumptive landscapes + process diagram

Scrambling for Rongai

Daniela GarcĂa-Rojas (KUL) Gaarith Williams (KUL) Daniel Matata (TUK) Victor Obinge (TUK)

Ongata Rongai presents itself as a rapidly evolving, half-complete settlement, where conventional classification categories prove inadequate when compared to actual land use. What is the relationship between localized practices, land speculation and infrastructure development over time? What complexities emerge from overlapping logics of formal and informal development?

productive landscapes + annotated plan/ section

Flows of Production

Emma Brecher (WITS) Zeeshan Ghani (KUL) Santiago Cortinez (KUL) Beatrice Mwangi (TUK)

The market network economies of Kajiado County have different flow structures defined by the relationship between trader, product and stakeholders within the local, national and international markets. What are the different production network systems affecting markets in the Kajiado County stretching from the Ngong Hills to Nairobi?

productive landscapes + collage

Disjointed Landscape

Benjamin Baggott (KUL) Khanh Nguyen (KUL) Ernest Ndungu (TUK)

What are the economic and environmental factors that led to the rapid urbanisation of Ongata Rongai? Why did this result in an urban environment that is highly fragmented and unequal in terms of access to land and resources?

productive landscapes + annotated plan/ section

Constructed Meat Market

Grace Kamweru (KUL) Luis Villadiego (KUL) Jepchumba Lagat (TUK) Victor Kipkoech (TUK)

The economy of the city of Ongata Rongai depends largely on the meat market and the construction industry. Nevertheless, urban development is gradually replacing pasturelands, which results in the permanence of informal livestock pens within the city and reduced grasslands. In what way can space be redistributed to reorganize informality in the construction and the meat industries of Ongata Rongai?

typology + annotated plan/ section

Streets-Gates-Users

Elizabeth Agwa (TUK) Darina Andreeva (KUL) Rachid Garcia Elmosri (KUL) Felix Wambua (TUK)

As the Kikuyu area continues to lay out large infrastructural investments, the relation between building faรงades and people change in terms of permeability throughout different neighborhoods. How could varying porosities influence community development across the neighborhoods of Kikuyu?

typology + annotated plan/ section

Urban Barcode

Hagar Faggal (KUL) Mohammed Leruk (TUK) Matimba Ngobeni (WITS) Natalia Recalde (KUL)

Interweaving natural and man-made structuring elements have informed different settlement morphologies across the multiple landscapes of Ongata Rongai. As the city continues to expand, how can this barcode of morphologies and typologies, bound by rivers and roads, inform different settlement growth patterns?

typology + process diagram

Mutating Landscapes of Use and Coverage

Loverina Cruz (KUL) Md Rafiqul Islam (KUL) Winnie Amondi Sawo (TUK) Victor Omondi Ongor (TUK)

With the construction of new road and railway infrastructures, Ongata Rongai is facing acute conflicts between urban sprawl and indigenous Maasai pastoral practices. How have land use and cover such as rangelands, croplands, forests, riverines, bare grounds and built up sites, transformed? Which adaptive practices have these mutations provoked?

typology + collage

Railway junctions

Kabir Shimul Sharmin (KUL) Nyachiro Bob (TUK) Kiprop Victor (TUK) Parra Silvia (KUL)

Massive road and railway infrastructures are currently superimposed on the formerly rural landscapes of Ongata Rongai. How is this vast infrastructural metamorphosis impacting its rural-urban surroundings? How is it radically transforming the natural and built landscape of Ongata Rongai?

2_Research Topics Thesis research

FAHRI ABDALA REYES

Towards a new coexistence in West Nairobi. The dimensions of multiplicity of coexistence.

Collaborative Coexistence

2005). Moreover, the same author points out to the synergy that

The west side of Nairobi, far from conflict areas (after the political crisis

coexistence brings. “Fortune’s smile together with the ongoing threat

of 2007 and 2008); is where land values have risen generating urban

of ‘xenophobic’ violence elsewhere in the country (and displacement

pressure. “Land conversions in the Nairobi rural-urban fringe is eating into

from conflicted areas) have helped to generate a powerful and peaceful

agricultural” (Aggrey 2010, 2), moreover, it has taken advantage of vast

‘vernacular cosmopolitanism’” (Landau 2005, 59). In my point of view,

natural resources present in the plateaus and valleys systems. However,

this peaceful coexistence described by Landau is feeble, based on the

the rapid urban population growth means new challenges. First, the

competition for water and agricultural soil, both are fragile environments

communities face the coexistence challenge between the new and the

facing the climate change.

old. Second, the meaning of coexistence takes the broadest sense of the term; for instance, the challenges are present between nature and city,

In West Nairobi, even today, the compartmentalisation of territory as a

indigenous species and non-native species, traditional productive areas

result of colonisation process, create inequalities in the access to land; for

and land speculation, human and wildlife; also, the relationships among

instance, between large portions of land related to large scale agricultural

different communities.

productions and well-organized neighbourhoods in the rich zones, there is a remarkable urban growth, generating agglomeration in some areas

As a starting point in the context of coexistence, we should also pay

and underused lands in others. In the fieldwork, we gathered statements

attention to the idea of tension for places. Does coexistence mean that

from those who own middle-size lands in Kikuyu plateau and who see the

there is a spatial competition? Most of the cases of coexistence in cities

growth, as an opportunity for their own businesses.

involves competition of space, that means, that the concept is fragile, and it is constantly developing. Also, we can point out to the fact that the coexistence could be carried out in a rugged environment, creating hopelessness for the situations that would not change. For instance, one of the studied areas during the fieldwork was Ongata Rongai, where there is a well-known tension between different ethnic groups; Landau defines this tension as a peaceful coexistence (Landau

ÂŠ Benjamin Baggott

1. Untitled. 2020. In Ongata Rongai a feeble coexistence between the grazing activities and the rapid growth of the city.

“My father bought the land after independence; he subdivided the land among my brothers and sisters. I used to live in Nairobi and now I want to enjoy my retirement in nature, but [in the next few years] I want to build a flat and rent out rooms here”. Women, 65 years old, February 2020.

While those who come to live in these areas see West-Nairobi as an extension of the planned European quarters, on the other hand, people

The idea behind this research paper deals with the tension between

who inherited large portion of lands, see the improvements in connectivity,

agricultural production and the rapid urbanization in West Nairobi, which

through the by-pass, as a commercial opportunity for commercializing

demands to define a new type of coexistence in the area. According to

their products. They hope to improve their lives, and, at the same time,

Aggrey, “the reduction in farm sizes has not lead to reduction in the value

they become aware of the need of the environmental protection.

of agriculture production” (2010, 2), that means that to abandon the large scale production (for instance, coffee) becomes an opportunity to create

Rethinking coexistence for the west side of Nairobi, also, means to

a new productive landscape which includes production and urbanization

consider personal aspirations. The diversification is not related much to

as a new type of coexistence. “As an artifact, [the] landscape can form

the question of erasing colonisation legacy, rather to new ways of sharing

a flexible framework for the integration of heterogeneous elements”

of space (Médard 2010). A vision for West Nairobi should consider

(Lipsch and Venneman 2012, 86).

different types of living and of producing. Collaborative coexistence does not mean an already known perspective of the territory, trying to create a

Moreover, I point out that rethinking coexistence involves the idea of

collage of diversities. I state that coexistence without competition, means

redefining boundaries and scale of the interventions in urban landscapes.

to create new spaces, neither the old nor the new: something genuinely

“Boundaries may also be ‘political’ or ‘administrative’, that is artificial

new.

divisions between inside and out, which may or may not correspond to natural ‘ecological’ boundaries or edges” (Dramstad et al. 1996, 27).

Rethinking coexistence challenges to find cases where the competition

Can collaborative coexistence define new boundaries and a new scale of

will be limited by the idea of collaboration. “A city or infrastructure

urban projects? The scope of this paper attempts to define a framework

solely predicated on separation, predictability and control is ultimately

through cases that depend on natural elements, beyond administrative

doomed to fail” (Lipsch and Venneman 2012, 87). Focusing on this idea,

boundaries, involving large portion of land such as a basin, a stream or

the studied cases will help to understand the coexistence as an energy

a butterfly’s migration route across North America. The following cases

that reduces negative impact and, also, as a catalysator for resolution of

are an invitation to evaluate the large natural structure to be taken into

urban issues. On the other hand, I state that coexistence might imply not

account into urban intervention, in order to open a discussion about the

only attributes, but also (as in the case of Ongata Rongai) resignation.

impact of the natural features in our urban projects.

ÂŠ Gaarith Williams

ÂŠ Silvia Parra

2. Untitled. 2020. Large scale of green housings is hurting water supply in the north of West-Nairobi.

3. Untitled. 2020. The plateaus have been urbanized aggressively by newcomers from other parts of Nairobi.

01_Rethinking the heritage landscape. NATIONAL ROYAL PARK

The first case concerns the idea of natural heritage in metropolitan context. The National Royal Park (hereinafter, NUP) is an example of historical conservation, legal protection, and collaborative relation with urban areas. NUP is a proto case of an ecological urban park of “2 700 hectares characterized by both - leaved and mixed forests and an open grass-dominated landscape” (Elmqvist et al. 2004, 312), which is known for its reserve of oaks that, until today, are supplying timber for the royal navy (Erixon et al. 2018).

14th century

2. © Abdala-Reyes 5.

4. © Visit Stockholm

Stockholm, Sweden.

4km Urbanization Green areas NUP

Heritage landscape management: the historic narrative regarding the park is an important frame for preservation. National policies since the 14th century have been enacted to prohibit, to expropriate and to protect the natural reserve (Elmqvist et al. 2004), all of them related to oak exploitation for ship building (Erixon et al. 2018) (Elmqvist et al. 2004). NUP represents a unique case of productive and heritage landscape management over time. Moreover, as Uggla states, the park represents ancient and contemporaneous ideals (2014).

8. © Christer Fredriksson

6. © Elias Martin

4. Visit Stockholm. Untitled. Unknown

Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge hosted different seabird and shorebird species which migrate along the east coast. Visit Stockholm, Accessed June 14, 2020, https://www.visitstockholm.com/see--do/attractions/royal-national-city-park/

5. Abdala, Fahri. Gateway National Recreation Area. 2020

In 1972, the Gateway National Recreation Area was declared as a National Park to protect the remaining areas in a highly densely populated city.

6. Elias Martin. The Waffle-Bakers Shop at Djurgarden. Around 18th century. The forest has been recovered by the citizens as a heritage landscape.

Oceans Bridge, Accessed June 14, 2020, https://www.oceansbridge.com/shop/uncategorized/the-waffle-bakers-shop-at-djurgarden

7. Unknown. Untitled. 2009.

Siberian Jays take a relevant role in the maintenance of the oak reserve.

Scanbird, Accessed June 14, 2020, http://www.scanbird.com/Birds/Europe/Orioles%20-%20Finches/Siberian%20Jay%20(Lavskrige)/ slides/Lavskrige_SWE4061.html

8. Fredriksson, Christer. Sunbathers and swimmers in summer at Brunnsviken Lake. Unknown. Urban activities took place in the park, the ecological reserve must coexist with the citizens.

Getty Images, Accessed June 14, https://www.gettyimages.fi/detail/photo/sunbathers-and-swimmers-in-summer-at-high-res-stock-

photography/148848756

Furthermore, regarding ecological coexistence on the park, the preservation of oak trees is closely linked with the existing wildlife, in particular the interaction jay-oak where the birds (jay) play the role of a gardener (Erixon et al. 2018). As a consequence, Erixon at al. and Elmqvist et al. point out that the preservation of birds depends of the promotion of well-connected large patches of conifers, understanding that the latest are the natural environment for nesting (2018) (2004). “The lack of other effective inter-patch acorn dispersers makes the oak dominated landscape fragile” (Elmqvist et al. 2004, 722).

The created narrative regarding the history is an important frame to preserve this park, which works as a natural structure in the city (Uggla 2014). “The area’s history, with its transformation from agricultural landscape to royal hunting ground, has contributed to the park’s specific landscape, which combines open land and forest” (Uggla 2014, 373).

02_Rethinking the scale. THE FISHERMAN FOREST

Contrary to what one might think, productivity can save the landscape. It is broadly recognised that the given relationship along a stream can generate different interactions. “Water equals power. The capture, storage and distribution of water inextricably bind physical and social processes into a thorny relationship between nature and society” (Shannon 2007, 6). The good management of water in a large-scale could promote peace and diplomatic relation among States. Moreover, in a small-scale the relation among communities, which usufruct from the same stream – are also replicated, in a smaller scale, as the same relationship among communities.

1989- today

10. © Abdala-Reyes

Kasennuma Bay, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan.

7km Urbanization Mount Murone Forestry areas, Oyster farms

The third case is an example of coexistence among the forests, the rivers and the ocean. “A fisherman of the Kesennuma Bay introduced the famous phrase, ‘The forest is a lover of the sea’” (Yanagi 2019, 33). Shigeatsu Hatakeyama – an oyster farm of Kasennuma Bay- who points out that the lack of iron on the sea reduces the quantity of plankton on the bay, which is its main aliment (Yanagi 2019). According to the fisherman, the research made by Katsuhiko Matsunaga supported the planting trees movement upstream of rivers that he has promoted (UN News 2017). “Freshwater from the terrestrial area has a strong influence on the Fe [iron] concentrations in surface seawater in the coastal areas, especially close to the river mouths.” (Yamamoto, et al. 2020, 12).

13.

11.

9. NHK. Untitled. Unknown.

Shigeatsu Hatakeyama is the oyster farmer who promotes the reforestation of areas 20km away. He is the one who coined the idea that the forest is the lover of the sea: mori wa umi no koibito in Japanese. Getty Images, Accessed June 14, http://jffsf.org/2019/the-fisherman-and-the-forest/

10. Abdala, Fahri. Mt. Murone and the Bay. 2020.

The relationships among the elements along the river create a new type of coexistence between communities.

11. Unknown. Untitled. Around 2011.

View of oyster farms over the bay from Karakuwa Peninsula.

United Nations, Accessed June 1, https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2017/05/feature-grandpa-oyster-offersexample-of-sustainable-ocean-business/

12. Unknown. Untitled. Around 2011.

The floating oyster farms were affected by the shortage of Fe in the bay.

United Nations, Accessed June 1, https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2017/05/feature-grandpa-oyster-offersexample-of-sustainable-ocean-business/

13. Unknown. Untitled. Unknown.

12.

The trees were planted in 1989 at an elevation of 895m above the sea level.

“Many trees must be cut down to build new houses [after the earthquake of 2011](…) I think this is a great opportunity to care for the forests by rebuilding houses with local trees [cedars planted since WWII], light will reach into the forests, revitalizing the forest, rivers, and finally, the ocean as well” (Hatakeyama 2011).

Web-Japan, Accessed June 14, https://web-japan.org/nipponia/nipponia24/en/feature/feature07.html

(Nipponia 2015); “also planting the idea of environmental conservation in the minds of people living in the river basin” (Nipponia 2015). The project for improving productivity began in 1989 by planting broadleaves species 20km away from the oyster farms.

“Fishermen and residents are engaged in reforestation actives planting broadleaf trees” (Yanagi 2019, 34). The fisherman highlights the interaction between people when they all together protect the forest and the river environment

03_Rethinking the boundaries GATEWAY RECREATIONAL AREAS & THE BUTTERFLY PROJECT

The second case is about defining the territory in relation to the coexistence between land and the wildlife migration. The cases can act as a theorical framework to redefine both the concept of territory and landscape-scale intervention when the wildlife is taken into account as part of the productive process. Migrations flows take large portion of land, which natural boundaries are more related to natural elements than to administrative boundaries. Wellknown are the migratory routes of species all over the world and conservation efforts to preserve them.

1972

15. ©Abdala-Reyes

14. ©Don Riepe

New York, New Jersey, & St. Louis USA

10km Urbanization Green areas National Park

The Gateway National Recreational Area (hereinafter, GNRA) is an example of coexistence between a national park and a dense coastal urban population, facing threats to a greater extend from outside of its boundaries, such as pollution or presence of non-native species (Mahan et al. 2009). “GNRA is a complex mosaic of natural and cultural resources and recreational facilities interwoven with New York City neighbourhoods and small New Jersey towns” (Mahan 2015, 51). Thus, “The Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge (…) provides excellent nesting, migrating, and wintering habitats for over 300 species of shore-, land, and water birds” (Brown et al. 2001, 208).

18.

16.

14. Riepe, Don. Untitled. 2019

Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge hosted different seabird and shorebird species which migrate along the east coast.

All About Birds, Accessed June 14, 2020, https://www.allaboutbirds.org/news/city-birding-escapes-where-to-go-and-what-to-see-innew-york-city/

15. Abdala, Fahri. Gateway National Recreation Area. 2020

In 1972, the Gateway National Recreation Area was declared a National Park to protect the remaining areas in a highly dense populated city.

16. Unknown. Jamaica Bay. Unknown.

View from the Jamaica Bay towards Manhattan.

17. © Valentín Rahmet

Van Alen , Accessed June 14, 2020, https://www.vanalen.org/projects/envisioning-gateway/

17. Rahmet, Valentín. Marine Park. Unknown.

In GNRA, the interactions between the natural reserve and the urban structures coexist, at timest, in an asymmetric relation. The ecological remnants are atn risk due to the expansion of the city. Google , Accessed June 14, 2020, https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/p/

18. Unknown. Untitled. Unknown.

Overview of Fort Wadsworth in Staten Island.

Marinas , Accessed June 14, 2020,https://marinas.com/view/lighthouse/j6amj_Fort_Wadsworth_Light_Lighthouse_Staten_Island_NY_ United_States

AF1QipOvOtvf0TYO9zVmouJuhezNjN2uIQmyjRckEqt1=h1440

The national park promotes a short-distance migration network of birds on the estuarine shoreline. “A finely fragmented habitat is normally perceived as continuous habitat by a wide-ranging species, whereas a coarsely fragmented habitat is discontinuous to all species” (Dramstad et al. 1996, 45). As a consequence, the wildlife refuge of Jamaica Bay depends on the preservation of the rest of the pieces of the mosaic, which, at the same time, are remnants of an ancient landscape no longer found in this populated area.

no longer belong to administrative boundaries. Following the same logic, we should agree that the urban landscape ecology should consider larger scale of migratory flows. As an example, Jamaica Bay depends on Gateway but also, on the several wildlife refuges along the East-Cost.

In this case, the territory is defined by routes, flows and nesting places which

Conclusions Why design putting emphasis on nature should be the correct answer? Urban actions based on ecological network obliges to think large scale actions taking into account, for instance, animal migration: “The concrete space constituted by such networks and frontiers had more in common with a spider’s web than with geometrical space” (Lefebvre 1993, 193). The movement and flows of animals, plants, water, wind, and energy make functional the spatial pattern (Dramstad et al. 1996).

New form of linkage Another example is the city of St. Louis (in the USA) which has encouraged the creation of a huge mosaic of gardens in the city; most of them, in private yards, promoting pollination and refuge for the monarch butterflies, which migrate along the route through North America. “They need places to rest and milkweed plants for females to lay their eggs on” (Beatley 2017, 40). The efforts to create a mosaic by 300 gardens in the city demonstrate collective effort and an honest coexistence between human and wildlife. In this case, it is the city, on the way between agricultural fields and the National Park (Mark Twain), which decided to promote becoming a linkage instead of becoming an interference. Therefore, the case of St. Louis responds to one of the features described by Dramstad et al.: “the contribution to the overall system” (1996, 24). Does coexistence mean that there is a spatial competition? It does, however, the creation of new spaces, different to the existing one, attempt to build a collaborative coexistence. For instance, the case of NUP (National Royal Park in Stockholm) aims to preserve a heritage landscape, giving new uses to this gigantic oak reserve. Moreover, its borders and the city’s borders become blur, given rise to an urban park, which, contrary to other examples in the global north, is a unique case of a gigantic patch preserved over the centuries. NUP guides the narrative of Stockholm until today, following the tacit agreement among the citizens who have decided to reinvent its historical

As a consequence, the boundaries of a landscape changed and, at this moment, it is time, as a planner, to have different views over the territory: to look again at the nature and its features. Natural reserves such as GNRA, located in a highly densely populated area, is an example of remaining patches which are interconnected by its fauna. In this case, each part depends on the another, becoming all together a wintering habitat for migratory species.

landscape. It is also a successful case of coexistence between citizens and their heritage; understanding that to preserve the patrimony means to preserve the old rather than to accept the new. It means to unveil natural elements that could improve the life of those who have decided to preserve this large green patch in the city. Thus, reinforce the coexistence based on collaboration instead of competition. Can collaborative coexistence define a new scale of urban projects? Actions based on urban ecology invite to rethink the size of the interventions of urban projects. How to define the scale of interventions related to productivity? The answer given by the Fisherman Forest case is that the landscape structure can define boundaries where to intervene. It invites to look around at where the productive areas are and to seek the different elements that affect the productivity. For instance, in the Kasennuma Bay, it is not only fishermen taking care of forests, rather, the vision includes, for instance, all the communities along the stream: woodcutters, rice farmers, small settlements on both the hill and the bay. This case is rich in types of coexistence, between food and environment,

At the same time, the case of GNRA emerges as the last chance for the wildlife in an overpopulated territory of New York. Patches related to each other by the wildlife integration is what the preservation of these pieces of lands in the bay makes strong. This could draw a lesson for areas already overpopulated in Nairobi. For instance, today, as MĂŠdard states, natural elements serve as borders in some cases separating poor from other urbanizations (2010). Pieces of forests are seen as a static barrier that divide rather than connect. The case of GNRA shows how separate natural elements in the territory can be joined by invisibles strings. Probably, for the West-Nairobi, the case of St. Louis is more useful as this project promoted the social integration in this segregated racial city. The gardens were spread out in different areas of the city without any distinction. The collective effort became real when different types of communities had the same interest. In this case, the coexistence between human and wildlife, built through new spaces in the city, besides of promoting pollination, have created something new, more related to a multiple collaboration than a competition for the same space.

timber production and fishermen activities, communities; joined by the stream and its tributaries; reinforcing the idea that improving the productivity should include a vision further the regular borders. A new Coexistence in West-Nairobi The west side of Nairobi should be re-founded respecting the visible and invisible natural linkages of the territory. Through the examples of a collaborative actions along the landscape structure, such as the Fisherman Forest or the NUP, West-Nairobi could improve the strengths of its rich natural territory, making stronger the diversities of coexistences present there. By lessons learnt from the studied cases, it is relevant to come up with innovative spaces of coexistence and with bigger scale of intervention. The more people involved, more durable solutions for facing climate change. Doubtless, water, related to a conservation and promotion of a productive landscapes, is the agglutinating element of this territory. West-Nairobi should be re-founded based on the sacredness of its streams, valorizing the events along them and preserving the sacred goods that the streams bring.

19. Unknown. Untitled. Around 2014

Map of the gardens in the city (modifed by the author). St. Louis , Accessed May 17, 2020, https://www.stlouis-mo.gov/ monarchs/

20. Radicalcartography. Map of racial distribution in St. Louis, 2010. 2011.

White people represented by red color and afro-descendant represeted by blue color.

Radical Cartography , Accessed May 21, 2020, http://www. radicalcartography.net/index.html?chicagodots

References Books and scientific articles : Shannon, Kelly. 2007. “Indigenous Landscape Urbanism: Sri Lanka’s Reservoir & Tank System.” Journal of Landscape Architecture 2, no. 2 6-17. Landau, Loren. 2005. “Becoming ‘Cosmo’: Displacement, Development and Disguise in Ongata Rongai .” Africa 85, no 1 59-77. Aggrey, Daniel Maina Thuo. 2010. “Community and Social Responses to Land Use Transformations in the Nairobi Rural-urban Fringe, Kenya.” Field Actions Science Reports, 2010, Field Actions Science Reports. Elmqvist, Colding, Barthel, Borgstrom, Duit, Lundberg, Andersson, et al. 2004. “The Dynamics of Social-ecological Systems in Urban Landscapes: Stockholm and

and Avrin Dave. 2001. “Managing Birds and Controlling Aircraft in the Kennedy Airport–Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge Complex: The Need for Hard Data and Soft Opinions .” Environmental Management 28, no. 2 207-224. Beatley, Timothy. 2017. “The Butterfly Effect.” Planning 83, no. 10 40-41. Yamamoto, Mitsuo, Dan Liu, Keitaro Fukushima, and Katsuhide Yokoyama. 2020. “The influence of freshwater from terrestrial sources on the concentrations of iron in Kesennuma Bay, Japan, after the 2011 tsunami.” Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science Vol.233 . Lipsch, Joris, and Daniël Venneman. 2012. “The City as Productive Landscape.” Le Journal Spéciale’Z, 82-87,197.

the National Urban Park, Sweden.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Lefebvre, Henri. 1993. The production of space Henri Lefebvre ; transl. by Donald

1023 308-22.

Nicholson-Smith. Oxford : Blackwell.

Uggla, Yiva. 2014. “Protecting Urban Greenery: The Case of Stockholm’s National

Médard, Claire. 2010. “City planning in Nairobi, The stakes, the people, the

City Park.” City&Community 13, no. 4 360-380.

sidetracking .” Nairobi Today 25-60.

Dramstad, Wenche E., Richard T. T. Forman, and James D. Olson. 1996. Landscape

Yanagi, Tetsuo. 2019. Integrated Coastal Management in the Japanese Satoumi:

Ecoloy Principles in Landscape Architecture and Land-use Planning. Cambridge:

Restoring Estuaries and Bays. Amsterdam: Elsevier (S&T).

Cambridge : Harvard university. Graduate school of design. Erixon Aalto, Hanna, Lars Marcus, and Jonas Torsvall. 2018. “Towards a SocialEcological Urbanism: Co-Producing Knowledge through Design in the Albano Resilient Campus Project in Stockholm.” Sustainability 10, no. 3 717. doi:http://dx.doi. org.kuleuven.ezproxy.kuleuven.be/10.3390/su10030717. https://search-proquestcom.kuleuven.ezproxy.kuleuven.be/docview/2110080910?accountid=17215. Mahan, Carolyn, James Vanderhorst, and John Young. 2009. “Natural Resource Assessment: An Approach to Science Based Planning in National Parks.” Environmental Management 43 no. 6 1301-1312 . Mahan, Helen. 2015. “ Fulfilling the Promise of “Parks to People” in a Changing

On-line documents and websites : Nipponia (2015). March 15. Accessed May 28, 2020. [online] Available at: https:// web-japan.org/nipponia/nipponia24/en/feature/feature07.html. UN News (2017). May 30. Accessed May 28, 2020. [online] Available at: https:// news.un.org/en/story/2017/05/558352-feature-grandpa-oyster-offers-examplesustainable-ocean-business. Nakazora.wordpress (2010) . May 25. Accessed May 28, 2020. [online] Available at: https://nakazora.wordpress.com/tag/japanese-fishermen-planting-trees/.

Environment: The Gateway National Recreation Area Experience.” The George

Service, Jiji Press English News. (2012). “Japan Fisherman Receives U.N. Forest

Wright Forum 32, no. 1 51-58.

Heroes Award.” Tokyo. [online] Available at: https://jen.jiji.com/

Brown, Kevin, R. Michael Erwin, Richmond Mole E, P. A. Buckley, John T. Tanacredi,

Hatakeyama, Shigeatsu, interview by UN University (2011). Interview with

Shigeatsu Hatakeyama, Mori wa Umi no Koibito (June). [online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhaVXrUhkHU

DARINA ANDREEVA

INDIGENOUS AND SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE Human-made and Natural systems coexistence

Urban - Rural. Border blur

metropolis) can reduce ecological footprint. (Quayle 1997) Moreover, as noted by

Nowadays, world faced the expansion of urban tissue into non-urbanized areas of

Julia Watson, indigenous technics supported, preserved and applied in the rural

the past. The consequences of climate change, flood, drought, pollution, temperature

areas retain model of proper sustainable human and ecological system coexistence.

rising became evidentially true. Complex patterns of urbanization, implementation

“… indigenous philosophy and vernacular architecture generates sustainable,

of variety programs, economic activities, intersection of interests made a landscape

climate-resilient infrastructure.” (Julia Watson 2020)

highly fragmented patchwork and reduced productivity for both: agriculture and

For instance, western part of Nairobi used to be a productive landscape with

pastoral practices. Power of culture, progress and mainstreams shape human-made

agriculture and grazing fields as the main sources of feed for city of Nairobi.

systems along with transforming the way how ecological systems work. (Cronon

However, peri-urban expansions launch the processes of productive land

1991) Hence, original forms of occupation, pastoral landscape, indigenous

vanishing, alienated patches of ecosystem do not provide enough vital resources

practices, small-scale agriculture and traditional land use management depend on

for the habitats. Therefore, at the expense of nature sprawling of settlements, there

natural resources are at risk of extinction.

is a continuous transformation of indigenous landscape into a highly dense city.

Generally, there is a strong pattern of interdependencies between of urban tissue

Current land use management does not respect common values of the territory,

development processes and the fact that borders between Urban and Rural convey to

link between human-made and natural systems disappeared. Thus, what kind of

indistinct. (Cronon 1991) Spatially, in many high-density habitat territories crossing

land use management and landscape design could allow indigenous practices and

of programs, reflection of economic activities made reading and understanding of

subsistence agriculture to coexist with modern forms of urbanization?

urban and rural landscapes as a common entities – things are overlapping. (Bruno

Goal of these case studies is to indicate possible options of land use in three scales:

De Meulder; Kelly Shannon 2019)

City, Town and Rural, as hybrid landscapes, in order to protect or recall indigenous

From researches of Quayle Moura, it becomes evident that integration between

landscapes and apply it to Nairobi western part. As a guideline, different types and

Rural and Urban are vital for the future development and survival. Term “Urban

scales of indigenous productive landscape will be underlined trough the frame of

countryside” and “Rural metropolis” defined by Moura describes high necessity of

Urban countryside and Rural metropolis in three case projects: City – Istanbul,

hybrid landscape between Rural and Urban for the commonwealth. Particularly,

historical center, Town – Middlesbrough, former industrial land, Rural - Mexico

all users as part of society should be responsible for their private land and do not

City, chinampas.

diminish common interests of natural resources by their actions. Hence, reasonable management of a land use, such as integration of agriculture as rural features into a city (Urban countryside) and support of the region communities (Rural

R N BA

Rural scale RU RA LM ETR OP O LI S Collage CPULs “Urban countryside & Rural metropolis” apply to Nairobi. Designed by author.

City scale

CPULs

Town scale

E D I YS R T N U O

01_Case 1 City scale YEDIKULE URBAN GARDENS

2016

Image 1. Yedikule garden (Orhan Ayyüce 2016)

Turkey, Istanbul

Çağlar Gümüş, Esra Sert

Historically, Istanbul has a 1600-year-old practice of urban agriculture. However, due to continuous grow of the city population, settlements spread out to the historically non-urbanized fabrics, in the past – urban agriculture fields. Also, policy of the city did not take in account benefits of food supply provided by these vegetation fragments in the city in the last century, most of them already disappeared. (Sara Rasouli 2012) One of the positive illustrations of preserved urban agriculture in Istanbul represented by Yedikule Urban Gardens is a heritage site along the Theodosius Walls. These market gardening of vegetables are integral part of historical

building pattern, that plays a role of the link between continues indigenous practices of urban agriculture and modern world. Long procedure of Yedikule Urban Gardens protection and renovation convey to the citizens reinvention of lost historical fabrics together with functional model of city development. (Elifnaz Durusoy; Duygu Cihanger 2016) Besides, accordingly to the theory of Urban countryside by Quayle Moura, these vegetation islands in dense cities could decrease environmental effects. Generally, cities patterns consist of interwoven historical traces of the past, decisions of the present and transforming models of the future. Hence, in

Image 4. History of urban agriculture (Clive Foss; Paul Magdalino 1990)

Image 2. Urban gardens in Istanbul (Elifnaz Durusoy; Duygu Cihanger 2016)

Image 5. The gardens of the walls (Author Unknow 2013)

Image 3. Yedikule garden plan (AURA Design Studio 2016)

projecting the future, the analysis of the past could bring methods and ideas of an indigenous urban planning for supporting sustainable model of city efficiency. Thus, regards to Nairobi Urban part, it could be noticed that indigenous techniques of agriculture in Ndenderu and Kikuyu, pastoralism in Ongata Rongai were pushed out from the city centers. Example of Istanbul urban gardens demonstrates that indigenous elements should belong to a modern city as a vital source of coexistence of human-made system and nature. Hence, small elements of previous land use traditions could make a difference for the more resourceful city development.

02_Case 2 Town scale GREEN AND EDIBLE MIDDLESBROUGH

2007

Image 6. CPULs Middlesbrough (“Carrot City - Middlesbrough Urban Farming Project”)

England, Middlesbrough

Katrin Bohn, Andre Viljoen

Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes (CPULs) is a theory, implemented by Katrin Bohn and Andre Viljoen, that describes connection of productive land in urban tissue by creating infrastructure of open urban spaces and network of connected agricultural spots, which can support building environment around. (André Viljoen; Katrin Bohn; Joe Howe 2005) Project of Urban farming completely transformed earlier industrial town. Middlesbrough become a space of experience, where intervention of continues agricultural into town fabrics delivered new opportunities for the town food supply and public spaces as well. Hence, not occupied spaces were chosen for

productive landscape, residents who are willing to grow food were identified. Thus, selected spaces and opportunities were connected together into a new Continuous Productive Urban Landscape. (“Carrot City - Middlesbrough Urban Farming Project”) Therefore, three main advantages could be highlighted for methodology of CPULs are: protection of bio-diversity, saving the amount of resources used to produce food and waste cycling management. (Bohn and Viljoen) Also, the scale of a Town is in between City and Rural scales, hence, both theories of Urban countries and Rural metropolis could be found in the project, for instance,

Image 9. Urban agriculture (“Carrot City - Middlesbrough Urban Farming Project”)

Image 7. Urban agriculture (“Carrot City - Middlesbrough Urban Farming Project”) Image 8. CPULs methodology (André Viljoen; Katrin Bohn; Joe Howe 2006)

integration of urban agriculture and support of communities. In case of Kenia, requirements for more efficient food supply are very complex. Especially, when urbanization pattern eats up productive landscapes that provided food on the past. In the scale of a town, opportunity to preserve and use not occupied by urbanization spots are higher the in the city centers. Thus, empty spots could be connected into productive agricultural landscape in Ndenderu and Kikuyu regions and regards Ongata Rongai region, indigenous occupation of animal husbandry could be reinvented to original land.

03_Case 3 Rural scale THE XOCHIMILCO ECOLOGICAL PARK

2016

Image 10. Part of the remaining chinampa network at Xochimilco today (Oscar Ruíz)

Mexico, Mexico City

Mario Schjetnan

Mexico City was founded by Aztecs in the territory of lakes and famous for its irrigation agricultural system of canals – chinampas. However, colonizers drain the lakes towards the Gulf of Mexico. (Vitz 2018) Also, during the centuries city was growing and changed the size from 300,000 inhabitants in Aztecs time to 22,000,000 currently. (Felipe Correa; Carlos Garciavelez Alfaro 2015) Thus, indigenous occupation, one of the most bio-diverse ecological systems in the world is endangered. Nowadays, Mexico City, suffering from the flooding, is the city under water table, and only small expanse of water could be found on the previous place of

the lakes. However, last centuries active debates about value of the lakes and indigenous chinampas systems were evoked. Today, this is the area of protection of indigenous chinampas practices and renovation of the lake system. (Vitz 2018) For instance, project of “The Xochimilco Ecological Park” designed by Mario Schjetnan. On the one side, the project includes renovation of water body along with flora and fauna of the place. On the other side, indigenous ancient methods of food production were preserved. (MXCity 2016) In rural scale, ecological and human-made systems interacted and interwoven the most, with privileges of nature. Consequently, the value of natural resources

Image 13. Tenochtitlan map (Felipe Correa; Carlos Garciavelez Alfaro 2015)

Image 11. Chinampas (Unknown authtor)

Image 14. Unique species. Axolotls (Unknown authtor)

Image 12. The Xochimilco Ecological Park (Figueroa 2016)

is especially vital for these areas. Preserving and high responsibility for the land use management in these areas are crucial for the environment. Situation with chinampas in Mexico City display the real value and possible damages that could happen if artificial systems interrupt natural process. This example is one of the most demonstrative for the whole area of western part of Nairobi. Since this region still has the most valuable resources of water system, forestry, biodiversity, and productive indigenous landscape that work together as one system. Destroying this system elements means that survival of the communities in these territories is in danger. However, as it was identified by

Quayle Moura, people living in Rural metropolis should be supported and be able to survive on the goods received from a land. Hence, proper policy is required to make a difference for that cases. (Quayle 1997)

Conclusions

Three examples from different parts of the world highlight possible ways of

As was emphasized before, the borders between Urban and Rural are blurring.

coexistence between modern urbanization processes and indigenous productive

There is no strict edge between them, it cannot be easily identified where starts

landscape in City, Town and Rural scales. The main focus of the case projects is

one and finishes another. However, patterns still remain different. Generally, three

based on implementation of indigenous agriculture practices. Surely, in different

cases describe gradient from one scale to another, from high-dense City to a less

context, productive indigenous landscape could be represented by other feathers,

habited Rural regions. Built model of continues productive landscape in three scales

such as a pastoral land in Ongata Rongai, for instance. Apparently, these examples

and projects is one of the methods to bring a link of connectivity between Urban

do not try to bring back the past, but to learn from indigenous communities, from

countryside and Rural metropolis, between still existed ecological gems of Nairobi

history traces, from reading landscape the way how human-made system could

and highly urbanized city centers. Consequently, these actions could create a strong

become a coherent part of nature. “Our past could show us how we can feed

net of indigenous productive landscape alone of three scale of urbanization together

ourselves, and still leave a room for nature.” (Attenborough 2019) Case theories

with new public space and local food maintenance. Thus, reconsideration of all three

and projects could be applied to Nairobi western part in a way to rethink land use

entities of Rural, Town and City scales in Nairobi western part as a common system,

management according to sustainable indigenous practices.

which overlaps, supports each other and provides new balance path of coexistence

Firstly, in Rural scale, there is an opportunity to preserve or renovate the natural

between human and nature, with the help of continues indigenous landscape, is the

elements and indigenous landscape, such as water system, forestry, grazing land,

main recommendation learned from the case projects.

agriculture. However, provision of proper land use management is essential, to

Moreover, in the frame of Anthropocene, actions should be taken seriously. “Not so

give a chance for rural communities to have benefits from taking care of their and

much a potent plan as another informed plea for humanity to act as stewards of the

common land, do not diminishing natural resources of commonwealth. (Quayle

biosphere rather than owners.” (Edward O. Wilson 2016) Illustrations of Nairobi

1997) Secondly, in Town scale, alter of dispersed settlements development, which

and case studies could help to rethink our settlements to response for the problems

could bring drawbacks to natural systems and for communities consequently.

of climate change and the way how cities constructed in general. “We are at a unique

Also, support and introduce features of rural lifestyle: indigenous agriculture and

stage in our history. Never before have we had such an awareness of what we are

pastoral land for the continuation of productive landscape from rural areas to more

doing to the planet, and never before have we had the power to do something about

urbanized, as a buffer between urban and rural. Thirdly, in City scale, restructure

that.” (Attenborough 2001)

rules of urban tissue growing, find a space for historical traces of small-scale fragments of vegetation in city fabrics, such as an urban agriculture or streets for cattle.

References André Viljoen; Katrin Bohn; Joe Howe. 2005. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. ———. 2006. CPULs. Attenborough, David. 2001. The Blue Planet. ———. 2019. Our Planet. From Deserts to Grasslands. AURA Design Studio. 2016. “Landscape Design and Landscape Project Between

and Geography. Figueroa, Gabriel. 2016. “The Xochimilco Ecological Park.” https://mxcity. mx/2019/02/datos-esenciales-del-parque-ecologico-de-xochimilco/gabrielfigueroa-xochimilco-6/. Julia Watson. 2020. Lo-TEK, Design by Radical Indigenism. MXCity. 2016. “Datos Esenciales Del Parque Ecológico de Xochimilco.”

Yedikule Belgradkapı.” https://www.aurads.com/islerimiz/yedikule-belgradkapi-

Orhan Ayyüce. 2016. “Istanbul’s Farmers Fight to Keep Historic Urban Agriculture.”

arasi-cevre-duzenleme-ve-peyzaj-projesi/.

https://archinect.com/news/tag/710233/yedikule-bostanlari.

Author Unknow. 2013. “The Gardens of the Walls.” http://istanbulenphotos.

Oscar Ruíz. n.d. “Part of the Remaining Chinampa Network at Xochimilco Today.”

canalblog.com/archives/2013/11/06/28376144.html.

https://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/home/water-in-valley-of-mexico.

Bohn, Katrin, and André Viljoen. n.d. “The Edible City: Envisioning the Continuous

Quayle, Moura. 1997. “Urban Countryside / Rural Metropolis.”

Productive Urban Landscape (CPUL).” Vol. 4. Accessed June 10, 2020. www.fieldjournal.org. Bruno De Meulder; Kelly Shannon. 2019. Urban Landscapes in High-Density Cities: Parks, Streetscapes, Ecosystems. “Intensive and Promiscuous Occupation of Landscapes.” Edited by Bianca Maria Rinaldi; Tan Puay Yok. “Carrot City - Middlesbrough Urban Farming Project.” n.d. Accessed June 10, 2020. https://www.ryerson.ca/carrotcity/board_pages/city/middlesbrough.html. Clive Foss; Paul Magdalino. 1990. “The Walls of Constantinople, Reconstruction.” http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01955/html/index160.html.

Sara Rasouli. 2012. “The Role of Urban Agriculture in Sustainability of Urban Design Practices in Istanbul.” Unknown authtor. n.d. “Axolotls.” https://diertjevandedag.classy.be/amfibieen/ salamanders/molsalamanders/axolotl.htm. ———. n.d. “Chinampas Cross Section.” http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws. com/68/flashcards/985068/jpg/-0181329505282683.jpg. Vitz, Matthew. 2018. A City on a Lake: Urban Political Ecology and the Growth of Mexico City.

Cronon, William. 1991. Nature’s Metropolis. Chicago and the Great West. Edward O. Wilson. 2016. Half-Earth: Our Planet’s Fight for Life. Elifnaz Durusoy; Duygu Cihanger. 2016a. “Distribution of Urban Gardens through Istanbul, Prepared with the Help of Information Coming from the Records of Kaldjian and Google Earth.” ———. 2016b. “Historic Landscape vs. Urban Commodity?: The Case of Yedikule Urban Gardens, İstanbul.” Felipe Correa; Carlos Garciavelez Alfaro. 2015. Mexico City: Between Geometry

SANTIAGO CORTÍNEZ

Re-thinking Water Equity A multi-scale ethical approach to the water issue

The water scarcity problem

affected by climate change, pollution and the depletion of underground

The water question in Kenya has been a problematic issue for decades.

sources. If we are going to address the water issue in terms of the current

Although improvements have been made since the 1970s, raising

environmental crisis, the human consumption perspective regarding

water access from 28% to 43% in the 1990s, recent years have shown a

water scarcity is not enough.

decline of improved water sources accessibility in certain areas (Sambu

Water equity is a concept that encompasses human practices and

and Tarhule 2013). This problem is accentuated when looking at the

principles, as the definition of “equity” is associated with Human Rights.

difference between urban and rural access to clean water, with 82% and

Recent literature, however, has replaced ‘equity’ for ‘ethics’, shifting the

52% respectively (Sambu and Tarhule 2013).

focus from the human perspective to an environmental one (Wilder and

Particularly interesting is the case of Kikuyu, a western suburban area of

Ingram 2018). In his 2009 work, Adrian Armstrong defines four principles

the city of Nairobi, that despite being called the ‘water tower of Nairobi’

for a better understanding of water equity in a broader sense:

for holding the largest reserves of water in the valley, faces similar water

1. By taking water from one system, we are denying its potential use for

challenges to that of the rest of sub-Sharan Africa (Kilonzo, et al. 2019).

other ecosystems.

West Nairobi heavily relies on underground water sources, making

2. Water extraction affects the hydro-morphological system downstream.

extraction through boreholes a lucrative business for some, that do not

3. Water is inherently a landscape component, and by altering water

necessarily translate into good-quality of water. However sustainable

distribution, landscapes are destroyed or disturbed.

underground extraction might be, in general terms for rural areas, it

4. As a source of life, quality is as important as quantity. (Armstrong 2009)

comes not without issues: considerable investment is required if the

Through the study of three cases in three different scales and approaches

land is not appropriate, over-extraction threatens with source depletion,

to the water issue in the built environment, I discuss the possibility of

and water quality is observed to be diminishing as pollution increases

understanding water equity in a broader sense over projects sensitive to

(MacDonald and Calow 2009).

the West Nairobi context.

In a context of water scarcity in a place like West Nairobi, one might ask why water is becoming harder and harder to come by, especially clean water sources. Certainly, there is a global governance crisis regarding water access, but in terms of water equity, not water scarcity (Wilder and Ingram 2018). Nevertheless, access to clean water resources has been

ÂŠ Santiago CortĂnez

Ondiri Swamp, Kikuyu, 2020

01_Water for the people WATERBANK SCHOOLS

2013

Kenya

PITCHAfrica

However, underground water extraction may not applicable everywhere due to terrain morphology, source depletion or pollution. In these cases, and considering the rainfall regime, rainwater harvesting becomes a feasible solution. As the nonprofit organisation, PITCHAfrica states, “In Kenya there is seven times the amount of rain falling than is needed by the population” (Walker 2015). With this in mind, the group PITCHAfrica designed and constructed two rural schools in Kenya with rain harvesting facilities.

The choice of appointing schools as water harvest centres is not arbitrary: in rural communities, schools are usually places where the community gathers. To incorporate the water component creates a new meaning for these places, involving and educating the community in the water catchment process. These two schools (Usaso Nyro School and Enanda Highschool) were built in 2013 by PITCHAfrica and consist of several buildings that collect rainwater with their roofs. The water is later drained to water tanks and filtered with special filtering pots made by the community.

©APSAIDAL

It is important to acknowledge that, given the project’s scale, a limited amount of people can be served. For this reason, is better applicable –but not limited to- rural environments. However, the Uaso Nyiro School collects annually around 350,000 litres of clean water (Turnbull n.d.), which can sustain close to 3,500 people if we consider a base minimum of a 100 litre per day (United Nations 2014).

Only major urban areas within West Nairobi are provisioned with clean piped water. In the case of Kikuyu, only 63.6% of the population is being supplied by the Kikuyu Water Company (Kilonzo, et al. 2019), extracting water from the Kikuyu Springs. In more rural areas, where water is more difficult to come by, a community-centred solution with a rainwater catchment system might be a feasible solution.

02_Water for the soil TANNER SPRINGS PARK

2010

ÂŠStudio Dreiseitl

Portland, Oregon

Atelier Dreiseitl

As already mentioned, the depletion of underground sources is one of the main issues due to borehole overuse, along with the increasing soil pollution. In this regard, to be ethical about this method of consumption is to consider the replenishment of underground water sources sustainably. In Kenya, with the lack of green public spaces in urban areas, the absorption of runoff rainwater is both a social and an environmental problem.

The Tanner Springs Park in Portland, designed by Atelier Dreiseitl in 2010, collects rainwater runoff from the asphalted streets, storages it in a pond where it is filtered by reeds, and then is absorbed by the soil, recharging the underground sources with clean water. By opening this absorption process to the public, Tanner Springs becomes an education project in itself.

57 Â© Studio Dreiseitl

03_Water for the surface ANFA QUARTIER VERT

2012

©Agence Ter

Casablanca, Moroco

Reichen & Robert & Associés, Agence Ter

Considering the fairly dry climate of Casablanca, Morocco, the Anfa Quartier landscape project by Agence Ter, is thought as a water management urban park, sensitive to the rainfall regime. This urban project is centred around a central park designed to be an ‘ecosystem network’ for the entire area through the use of hydrophilic plants, fresh gardens and wooded strips (Agence Ter n.d.).

In its essence, the Anfa Quartier is a mix-programmed project structured around a water management park in a former airstrip, that not only reclaims nature within the urban environment but incorporates water, bringing life to the surface ecological systems. One might argue that the water management system presented in the project may not be enough, however, the idea of bringing life to the urban form through water systems remains relevant.

ÂŠ Agence Ter

In contrast with the highlands of West Nairobi, the area around Ongata Rongai has a savanna-like climate, where animal herding is still being practised. A project sensitive to the ecological systems through the use of water could be tremendously beneficial to the animals grazing and migrating, added to the benefit of incorporating much needed green areas within the city.

Conclusions

From the three approaches to the water question, I argue that water equity, due to the current climate crisis already presented, should incorporate a broader ecological scope; addressing water security for present and future communities imply to rethink the way water is consumed, as we are embedded in a larger ecological system. The strategies of the presented projects aim to solve different issues regarding water ethics: human consumption in isolated areas (Waterbank Schools), replenishment of underground sources (Tanner Springs Park) and revitalization of surface ecology (Anfa Quartier Vert). Taken in consideration West Nairobiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s complex natural and built environment, added to the ever-pressing water situation that affects Sub-Saharan Africa, the three scales of the projects studied become a flexible solution to different situations, tackling issues that go beyond water equity: community building, public space and sustainable urban development. There is an opportunity to go beyond the water equity-human approach by restoring natural water sources and ensuring good water quality for life to thrive; taking a step further to build urban-natural structures for both humans and non-humans. Water ethics can become a better way of planning and designing territories through a water-based strategy in contexts where this resource is endangered.

References

Agence Ter. n.d. Casablanca / The green quarter of ANFA. Accessed June 13, 2020. https://agenceter.com/en/projets/casablanca-quartier-vert-danfa/. Armstrong, Adrian. 2009. “Viewpoint - Further Ideas towards a Water Ethic.” Water Alternatives 2 (1): 138-147. Kilonzo, Winfred, Patrick Home, Joseph Sang, and Beatrice Kakoi. 2019. “The Storage and Water Quality Characteristics of Rungiri Quarry Reservoir in Kiambu, Kenya, as a Potential Source of Urban Water.” Hydrology 6 (4): 93. MacDonald, A.M., and R.C. Calow. 2009. “Developing groundwater for secure rural water supplies in Africa.” Desalination 248 (1): 546-556. Sambu, D.K., and A. Tarhule. 2013. “Institutional water reforms in Kenya: an analytical review.” Water Policy 15 (5): 777-793. Turnbull, David. n.d. Waterbanks / PITCHAfrica. Accessed June 13, 2020. https:// www.apsaidal.com/waterbanks-pitchafrica/. United Natios. 2014. International Decade for Action ‘Water for Life’ 2005-2015. Accessed June 13, 2020. https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml. Walker, Connor. 2015. PITCHAfrica Creates Water-Harvesting Campus and Stadium for Communities In Need. Accessed June 12, 2020. https://www.archdaily.com/616304/pitchafrica-creates-water-harvestingcampus-and-stadium-for-communities-in-need. Wilder, Margaret, and Helen Ingram. 2018. “Knowing Equity When We See It: Water Equity in Con¬temporary Global Contexts.” In The Oxford Handbook of Water Politics and Policy, by Ken Conca and Erika Weinthal. New York: Oxford University Press.

BENJAMIN BAGGOTT

AGROFORESTRY

Introduction

systems multiple social, environmental and economic benefits can be realised.

Nairobi like many other cities in the global south is threatened by climate change,

Within agroforestry there are three main classifications:

ecological collapse, a growing population, water scarcity, urban sprawl and an

•

Slivoarable: The combination of trees and crops.

increased need for food production. Due to high birth rates and rural urban

•

Silvopastoral: The combination of trees and livestock

migration, Nairobi has an annual population growth of 4%. (Hope 2012) In order

•

Agrosilvopastoral: Is the integration of trees, crops and livestock.

to accommodate this rapid population growth, the city of Nairobi has expanded uncontrollably into the surrounding agricultural landscape. As the agricultural

In conventional agriculture, the removal of trees is common practice. Which in

landscape is progressively replaced by urbanisation, Nairobi’s food production,

turn results in erosion, reduction of ecological efficiency and loss of biodiversity.

water resources and world renowned ecology is all put under immense pressure.

(Fazenda da Toca 2019)The negative effects of erosion are particularly felt in hills and valleys, which is of concern to the undulating landscape of West Nairobi.

Despite this outward expansion, valuable portions of Nairobi’s agricultural and ecological history are still intact. By encouraging the city, landowners and residents to adopt different techniques that actively promote the preservation of it’s valuable ecological and agricultural landscape, Nairobi will be in a stronger position to confront the multiple challenges brough about by climate change and a growing urban population. Agroforestry is a land use principle that that can go a long way in helping the city of Nairobi conserve it’s agricultural and natural landscapes. Agroforestry is the integration of trees and other perennial shrubs into agricultural systems. (Agroforestry Research Trust 2018)Simply put, it is the combination of forestry and agriculture. Standard agricultural practices are usually concerned with maximising short term yields. While agroforestry tries to emulate natural systems through the combination of trees and farmland. By mimicking natural ecological

Baggott ÂŠ Benjamin

Urbanisation in West Nairobi (2020)

Trees on farmlands have multiple benefits for both crops and animals. As the roots of trees extend much farther than that of annual crops, water is able to permeate the soil with more ease, leading to less waterlogging and runoff, reducing the chance of erosion.(Laffan 2020) Trees have the ability to take up water in deeper layers of the soil that cannot be reached by the crops, this is significant as nutrient rich water that would otherwise be lost to ground water is recirculated back into the system. The canopies of trees act as windbreaks, lowering the rate of evaporation for the surrounding vegetation, mitigating the effects of droughts. (HĂźgel 2017) Canopies of trees also act as a shelter, which increases animal welfare and promotes biodiversity. By allowing trees to be a part of the agricultural landscape, farmers have the ability to diversify their income sources. For example trees can provide fodder for livestock, food through fruit and nuts, firewood and timber. As the case studies show, agroforestry is an a flexible concept that can be adapted to the varying plot sizes and climate biomes of West Nairobi.

Â© Alexander Watson

Aerial View of an Agroforestry Farm (2019)

01_Agroforestry TAYLORS RUN

Michael Taylor

Merinos in the pasture land Taylors run is a 688ha holding in the Northern Tablelands of NSW, Australia. Since 1840 the farm has been an important producer of high quality merino wool and for the last three generations has implemented Agroforestry principles. (Laffan 2020)The farm is run holistically with an emphasis placed on preserving and enhancing the natural resources of the farm. The additional 260 000 trees, consisting of native eucalyptus and exotic pines as well as NH hardwoods, provide much needed shelter for the sheep and other livestock from the extremities of both summer and winter. The trees help reduce wind chill that would otherwise cause severe loss of young stock during winter. (Laffan 2020)

@Jennifer Laffan

Established trees on the farm

1840

@Jennifer Laffan

NSW, Australia

Restored Brook

Preparing pine logs for sale. The trees are also an important source of revenue for the farm, especially when there is a drough and stock numbers are low. The fast growing pines are harvested each week depending on the demand and the shade providing hardwood trees are selectively chosen and milled for timber purposes. As well as being essential to the economic sustainability of the farm, the trees help create a resilient landscape. By correctly spacing trees and planting them on the contours, pasture growth is encouraged, wind protection prevents excess soil evaporation and as the trees grow they contribute to the organic matter of

https://regenfarming.news/training/d/205

Trees planted along the contours the topsoil, allowing for deep penetration of water. The trees also add to the aesthetics of the farm and as a result the farm has become a popular destination for tourist seeking to experience nature and the agricultural landscape. (Laffan 2020)

diverse revenue stream to help mitigate this rapid outward urbanisation.

Many farmers in Kenya need to have multiple sources of income in order to survive. (Mwaniki, et al. 2015) As a result property is often sold to real estate investors who develop the land and remove the agricultural function. If done correctly, agroforestry has the potential to provide farmers with enough of a

02_Agroforestry FAZENDA DA TOCA

Diniz Family

Fazenda da Toca is a 2300 ha farm in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Since 2009 it has become a large scale organic production hub that currently has four primary agricultural operations all managed independently in partnership systems but with the same underlying philosophy of land regeneration. These are; laying poultry, dairy cows, grains and agroforestry. (Fazenda da Toca 2019) By understanding that all these agricultural systems can work in symbiosis, a sustainable and regenerative productive landscape is created that has a diversity of income sources. The farm has implemented an Agrosilvopastoral system, it

https://fazendadatoca.com.br/

2012

https://fazendadatoca.com.br/

https://fazendadatoca.com.br/fazenda-da-toca-um-case-internacional-no-combate-as-mudancasclimaticas/

SĂŁo Paulo, Brazil

has done so by combining dairy cattle, grains, avocado trees and honey. The main economic source for this system is milk production and by combining the cows with other forms of agricultural production, multiple benefits have been realised for the farm. (Fazenda da Toca 2019) The additional tree coverage provides shade, silage as a by-product of sorgum processing and importantly additional high value products such as avocado, timber and honey. This diversity of production encourages a variety of ecosystem services such as, bee pollination, nutrient recapture, water retention and importantly carbon sequestration.

https://fazendadatoca.com.br/

The drawing above is a representation of the pasture area in Fazenda da Toca. The paddocks are dispersed in between rows of forests planted in a north-south direction, this provides shade for the cattle throughout the day. Two types of avocado trees were chosen, Fortuna Avocado and Avocado Hass, so that fruit can be produced throughout the year. Different varieties of eucalyptus trees were planted alongside the avocado trees to ensure a permanent supply of flowers, for the production of honey throughout the year. (Fazenda da Toca 2019)

The architecture of the grain production is much the same as the pastoral system with the only difference being, in the summer there is a cultivation of sorghum intercropped with lab beans and in winter oats is planted alongside millet. Crop rotating within the structure of the trees, allows the soil to recover and replenish itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nutrients, ensuring a resilient and productive future for the farm.

Much like the wester regions of Nairobi, the province of Sao Paulo has been subjected to intense land degradation. Farms like Fazenda da Toca provide an environmentally beneficial and economically viable alternative to the destructive practices of deforestation, monoculture and stripping of resources.

03_Agroforestry THE PICASSO FOOD FOREST

2012

ÂŠ Google Earth, adapted by author

http://www.fruttortiparma.it/foodforest_en.html

Parma, Italy

Fruttorti Di Parma

The Picaso Food Project is a communal experimentational food garden that uses principals of Agroforestry to provide a biodiverse public garden that also acts as a pantry to the city. It is essentially a 4500m2 public park where the trees other than providing an aesthetic function also produce food and shelter for the surrounding urban environment. (FRUTTORTI DI PARMA 2019) The park is still young and will take more time to develop fully, however it was designed to grow into a forest with seven distinct layers, mimicking a natural forest environment.

The Picasso Food Forest is an important public amenity that provides the residents of Parma with the opportunity to have a deeper interaction with nature, healthy eating habits and a better understanding of food growth. With active participation from the surrounding community the forest has contributed to the development and fostering of the neighbourhood community. (FRUTTORTI DI PARMA 2019) As Nairobi continually expands into itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s western agricultural fringes public space becomes increasingly sparce. (Hope 2012) Implementing public spaces like

1. The canopy layer: Large fruit and nut trees upwards of 9m tall. 2. The sub-canopy layer: This layer mostly consists of fruit trees such as pear, pomegranate and apple trees between 3 and 9m tall.

3. The shrub layer: The Picasso food gardens shrub layer consists of fruit bearing 4.

woody plants such as blackcurrant, gooseberry, raspberry and blackberry shrubs reaching a maximum height of 3m. The herbaceous layer: Is the most diverse, with edible vegetables such as artichokes, broad beans, sunflowers and brassicas. It also is also inhabited

http://www.fruttortiparma.it/foodforest_en.html

The Picasso Food Forrest will help preserve some of the agricultural landscapes and traditions while importantly providing the residents of Nairobi with much needed public space Seven Layers of the Picasso Food Garden

2019

http://www.fruttortiparma.it/foodforest_en.html

2016

2014

http://www.fruttortiparma.it/foodforest_en.html

2012

by multiple aromatic medicinal plants.

5. The ground cover layer: performs a similar function to that of the herbaceous 6. 7.

layer, although not reaching the same height. Plants such as mint, lemon balm, strawberry and oregano are commonly found throughout the garden. The underground layer: Many edible plants such as garlic, sweet potato and onions and multiple fungi inhabit this layer. Other than providing food, many plants prevent soil compaction and improve the structure of the soil. The climber layer: Inhabits all of the layers listed above and adds to the productive value of the garden. The Picasso food garden has climbing plants such as cucumbers, kiwi fruit, hops and grapes.

Conclusions

Nairobi is confronted with questions of how to mitigate the effects of climate change,

reforested but with the additional benefit of producing food. (Hügel 2017)

how to produce more and better for a constantly growing population and how to provide an environment for social equity and sustainability. All of which need to be tackled

As the case studies have shown, agroforestry is a variable technique that

with urgency in order to ensure he long term survival and sustainability of Nairobi.

has multiple applications and can be used in both large (Fazenda da Toca) and small-scale applications (The Picasso Food Garden). Land in western

Soils and water systems around the world are being degraded at a rapid pace due

Nairobi needs to be both economically viable and environmentally beneficial.

to intensive and unsustainable farming techniques, while vast tracts of precious

Agroforestry is a land use principle that provides farmers with a diverse

natural landscapes, particularly forests are being consumed in the search of more

source of income while having the benefit of regenerating the landscape.

arable land. (Agroforestry Research Trust 2018) It is essential that land use practices

By having a variety of income sources as is seen in Fazenda da Toca and

in Nairobi conserve, diversify and sustain economic, human and natural resources.

Taylor Run, farmers will be less vulnerable to climate issues such as drought.

Over the past two decades, agroforestry has gained traction as a viable alternative

Despite the benefits of agroforestry, it still struggles to compete with conventional

to monocultures. Multiple studies have emphasised that agroforestry has the

large-scale agricultural practices. This is mainly due to policy makers the world

potential to reap substantial financial and ecological rewards. (Hügel 2017)

over providing subsidies for short term crop productivity rather than sustainable land use practices. (Agroforestry Research Trust 2018) It is important to note

By following natures’ example of multi-layered ecosystems, the benefits of

that in order for agroforestry to work a complex synergy between crops and trees

agroforestry include; prevention of soil erosion and flooding, restoration

needs to be achieved. The predominant benefit of agroforestry over conventional

of degraded landscapes, increased levels of biodiversity, the provision

farming is how it is able to mitigate global environmental issues, however, it is not

of habitat corridors between fragmented ecosystems and sequestration

a straightforward as an intrinsic balance is required for successful agroforestry

to occur. For example, a certain combination of trees and crops may grow in

large

amounts

carbon

from

the

atmosphere.

(Hügel

2017)

unison, where a different tree-crop combination may fail as they both compete With rising levels of carbon in the atmosphere it is essential that systems are

for scarce resources, such as water. (Hügel 2017) Agroforestry is thus highlighted

put in place that reduce and absorb as much carbon dioxide as is possible. A

as a complex system, and further research will need to be carried out that will

multi-layered landscape of agroforestry can on average sequester 6.9 tons of

help build a framework for farmers in determining what combination of trees

carbon per hectare per year which is comparable to landscapes that have be

and crops will be most productive in the varying landscapes of West Nairobi.

References Agroforestry Research Trust. 2018. About Agroforestry. Accessed June 10, 2020.

sd.PDF.

https://www.agroforestry.co.uk/. de Carvalho, Raul Antonio Dias . 2015. COURTYARD HOUSING AS A SUBTROPICAL URBAN DESIGN MODEL. Brisban: Queensland University of Technology. Fazenda da Toca. 2019. Regenerative Agriculture Project in Toca. Accessed June 10, 2020. https://fazendadatoca.com.br/conheca-o-mais-novo-projeto-deagropecuaria-regenerativa-organica-na-toca/. FRUTTORTI DI PARMA. 2019. “The Picasso Food Forest.” FRUTTORTI DI PARMA. Accessed June 11, 2020. http://www.fruttortiparma.it/foodforest_en.html. Hope, Kempe Ronald. 2012. “Urbanisation in Kenya.” African J. Economic and Sustainable Development 1-26. Hügel, Stefan. 2017. “Ruvial Publication Series .” Ruvial . September . Accessed June 10, 2020. https://tore.tuhh.de/bitstream/11420/1430/7/RUVIVAL_Publication_ Series_Volume_1.pdf#page=6. Laffan, Jennifer. 2020. Preparing for Drought. Sydney: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries . Morales, , Manuel de Solà. 1992. Public Spaces/Collective Spaces. Barcelona: La Vanguardia. Mwaniki, Dennis , Elizabeth Wamuchiru, Baraka Mwau, and Romanus Opiyo. 2015. “Urbanisation, Informality and Housing Challenge in Nairobi: A Case.” Semantic Scholar . Accessed June 02, 2020. https://www.rc21.org/en/wp-content/ uploads/2014/12/G2_Dennis-Mwaniki.pdf. Oyugi, Maurice Onyango, and Owiti K’Akumu. 2007. “Land Use Management Challenges for the City of Nairobi.” Urban Forum Vol. 18 94-113. Paddison, Ronan. 2001. Handbook of Urban Sudies . London : SAGE Publications. Stren , Richard, and Mohamed Halfani. 2003. “Wilson Center .” The Cities of Sub Saharan Africa: From Dependancy to Marginality. August 4. Accessed June 01, 2020. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/publication/

LOVERINA CRUZ

SLOW TOURISM Towards sustainable tourism development of West Nairobi

Defining slow tourism Globally, tourism is a fast-growing industry with diverse products link to environment, history, and culture. With tourism’s strong connection with nature, the impacts of tourism in the environment are more remarkable. In this regard, new forms of tourism are tied up with sustainability. Ecotourism, cultural, heritage, health and medical tourism are tourism types motivated by environmental protection, but at the same time, personal and social well-being (Assaf, Baloglu and Oh 2016). Emerging from the same driving factors was slow tourism, a new concept originating from Cittaslow movement in Italy in the late 1990s. In its early notions, the ‘slow’ in slow tourism was emphasized through ‘movement’ and ‘consumption’ (Go and McGrath 2106). Dickinson and Lumsdon (2010) define slow tourism as “a conceptual framework that involves people who travel to destinations more slowly overland, stay longer and travel less and who incorporate travel to a destination as itself an experience and, once at the destination, engaged with local transport options and slow food and beverage, take time to explore local history, culture and support the environment” (pp. 1-2). Lipman and Murphy (2012) distinguished ‘slowness’ in consumption through slower travel, less transport and mobility. These definitions explore slowness more in human travel behavior and why people engage in slow travel. However, the research focuses more on slow tourism’s contribution to a more sustainable development of landscape, and in the case of Nairobi’s peripheral areas, to regenerate and retain the identity of its territory amidst challenges in relation to climate change and urbanization.

Little towns in Ancient Umbria (2013). An example of slow travel itinerary in Italy

(http://slowitaly.yourguidetoitaly.com/2013/05/5-charming-little-towns-in-ancient-umbria/)

Tourism in Kenya

tourism framework, the case studies presented best practices that can be applied in

According to Kenya’s National Tourism Blueprint 2030, tourism sector contributes

the context of Ndenderu, Kikuyu and Ongata Rongai, and how these practices can

10.5% to the country’s Gross Domestic Product, and more importantly, in job creation

contribute to sustainable development of peri-urban landscape.

with multiple backwards and forward economic linkages. Most of the country’s tourism is nature-based and about 10% of its land area has been appropriated for wildlife conservation and development of ecotourism based on wildlife viewing. Popular National Parks such as Lake Nukuru, Nairobi, Tsavo, Masai Mara, an Amboseli are the main gateways for safaris. Although Kenya’s tourism heavily relies on wildlife, the coastal areas and unique indigenous cultural heritage also provide comparative advantage for tourism development. However, there was a decline in tourism arrival associated partly with the country’s political turmoil and reduction of the quality of Kenya’s tourism product. There was unplanned and disorganized spreading of hospitality facilities resulted in severe resource degradation (Akama 1999). This, together with a lack of competitiveness in tourism product offerings with other African countries, has led to attaining lower levels of tourism demand in recent years. Kenya’s capital, Nairobi, also receives decent numbers of visitors because of its historical and wildlife attractions. But the urban core has been transformed to a highly commercialized area and preceded to a modern culture supported by leisure products including casinos and nightlife. Thus, the peri urban areas of Ndenderu, Kikuyu and Ongata Rongai are seen as the new tourism locations, as the areas carry several popular attractions (e.g. Ngong Forest, Kiserian Markets). Interesting landscapes, growing horticulture and floriculture industries and indigenous practices were also discovered during fieldwork. Within the slow

(https://magicalkenya.com/)

(Odunga, Pius & Maingi, PhD, Shem 2011)

Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tourism primarily revolves around national parks and reserves.

01_Becoming Rural SUICHANG TEA VILLAGE

2018

(https://www.portfoliomagsg.com/article/luxe-life-in-beijing.html)

(https://elenakayes.com/2014/01/11/suichang-part-i-tea-waitress/)

Suichang County, Zhejiang, China

Wei Ke

Rural tourism in China has been an effective catalyst of promoting industrial reconstructuring, agricultural development and rural upgrading. In the early stages of the country’s rural tourism development, the government encouraged establishment of village-level tourism programs to maintain ‘rurality’ of the village landscapes, local customs and culture, which are the key components of rural tourism in Suichang (Huang and Ryan 2013). Suichang is a small agrarian village located in Lishui, a mountainous region of Zhejiang Province. Suichang is known as the origin of both Qiantang and Our rivers and for its picturesque forest landscape, gold mine and quality tea products. In 2005, the governor

carried out rehabilitation at the village level, starting with dilapidated village houses. Many of the houses were abandoned as locals migrate to cities for better economic opportunities (Huang and Ryan 2013).

(https://www.portfoliomagsg.com/article/luxe-life-in-beijing.html)

Beijing-based architecture firm, Chiasmus Partners, designed a plan to restore the village with the slow tourism model, akin to ‘pensione’ concept in Europe, referring to Italy’s small hotels and guest houses (Kalkreuth 2019). As some mass tourism projects caused displacement of locals and villages converted to gentrified inns, the redevelopment of Suichang Tea Garden Village aims to retain history and traditions of the villagers. Original houses will be renovated to add extra rooms for hospitality, as the locals will remain in their own homes. One important aspect to maintain the identity of the landscape is avoiding ‘cement plus steel’ rural building style to guard against visual destruction. Aside from selling local produces like tea, bamboo shoots, honey and herbs, the locals will also be part of hospitality teams, for instance, acting as chefs and tour guides. This becomes possible through establishment of shareholding cooperative organizations (or village-based associations). In this autonomous enterprise model, households need not to obtain individual business licenses. The whole village will work as a unified corporation, as tourist will be received unanimously through cooperative association, and then allocated to individual homes. The restoration of the houses is tied in a sustainable economic model, where individual households turn into hospitality operations offering accommodation, food and beverage (Huang and Ryan 2013). In a county scale, the government created a unified brand of ‘Suichang Commune’, a tourism marketing strategy that carries the traditional rural image of Chinese villages and farming activities in the 1950s. The brand was applied in different levels, at the county level, village level and individual households, to convey the authentic nature of Suichang landscape (Huang and Ryan 2013).

Ndenderu’s Tea and Coffee Plantations

(https://www.pinterest.co.kr/pin/144959681736529160/)

Together with horticulture, coffee and tea constitute over half of Kenya’s economy in total trade export earnings (Karugu 2006). The district is suitable for farming because of the combination of fertile soil, suitable climate and well-developed infrastructure. Tea production continues to grow as Kenya remains one of the leading supplier of black tea worldwide. Coffee production, on the other hand, has been affected by drought and has drastically decline over recent years.

(Google Earth 2020)

Most parts of Ndenderu and Limuru were called ‘white highlands’, derived from the British and Europeans settlers who eventually established residence, coffee and tea plantations, cereal farms and ranches in the area. To date, several coffee and tea farm estates owned by European settlers still operate in Kiambu incorporating tourism such as tours and homestay. Such tours enable visitors to pass through various small towns, an opportunity to showcase Kenyan rural life. Other small-scale farms are also operated by the locals that continue to use indigenous practices in growing and harvesting tea and coffee products.

https://www.viator.com/fr-BE/tours/Nairobi/Private-Day-Trip-to-Kiambethu-Tea-Farm-in-Limurufrom-Nairobi/d5280-15254P28

The ‘Suichang Commune’ framework can be well applied in the development of tourism in Ndenderu to showcase rural landscape, early colonial village life, and local’s traditional farming methods and produce. Further, the rehabilitation of villages, in the case of Ndenderu, small scale farm estates can meet the basic needs of dining and lodging at locals’ homes.

02_Growing Sustainably DIE GARTEN TULLN

2008

(Google Earth 2020)

Tulln an der Donau, Austria

Franz Gruber and Thomas Uibel

Lower Austria has more than 2000 years of floral history, and ‘garden tourism’ attracting 3 million visitors yearly. A diverse network of show gardens was created in Lower Austria to showcase and connect different garden cultures from private gardens, historical gardens, theme parks, adventure gardens, and other emerging garden types. This network operates under the ‘Nature in Garden’ movement, which also conducts activities for landscape development and ‘ecological gardening’. Different garden shows are open to the public and offers inspiration in settings of Austria’s diverse garden types: palace gardens, monastic gardens, and contemporary gardens in private homes (Nature in the

Garden 2012). The initiative also aims to raise awareness in making gardens and green spaces more ecological following set of principles and guidelines: • Banning use of peat, pesticides, chemical, synthetic fertilizers • Growing variety of indigenous, regionally typical and ecologically-valuable plants • Using beneficial insects and ecologically valuable garden elements • Composting, mulching, use of rainwater and other recycling techniques • Growing varieties of plants resistant to diseases and pests • Growing herbs, fruits and vegetables in home gardens

(https://wp.eghn.org/en/die-garten-tulln-2/)

Die Garten Tulln was one of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Nature in the Gardenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; showcase project in Austria in 2008. The show garden is the first ecological horticultural show in Europe and hosts more than 50 show and theme gardens in a 10-hectare site located in Tulln, Austria (Nature in the Garden 2012). The garden became a permanent facility and now includes other facilities like treetop walk and adventure playground. There are interesting garden examples now in Die Garten Tulln that Kikuyu floral industry can take inspiration from. For instance, The Garden in a Changing Climate grows plants with drought agreeability as rainfall becoming fewer during summer and winter. The plants have lower water needs, and irrigation facilities were constructed to direct flow of water uses to save water. Another type is wood roof gardens that displays greening of roofs strategies that can be adopted to urban environment. More than ornamental value and benefits, these plants are drought tolerant and urban air resistant, and have valuable contribution to citiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; biodiversity. The Earthworm garden shows the importance of natural cycle to improve gardens. Earthworm humus improve soil life and helps decomposting garden and kitchen waste, thus reducing the need for pesticides and fertilizers (Nature in the Garden 2012).

84 (https://www.floraldaily.com/article/9009113/kenya-higherdemand-prices-this-women-s-day/)

Floriculture has been identified as a niche tourism product under Kenya Vision 2030. Over the last decade, there has been a steady increase in floral export, selling flowers to more than 60 countries worldwide. The biggest exporter of roses is the European Union, with a share of about 35%, whereas approximately 50% goes to Dutch Auctions, placing Kenya as one of Europe’s top suppliers (Kenya Flowel Council n.d.). In Kenya, roses are grown in greenhouses on large monoculture farms (Benoit 2019). One of the largest floriculture farms in Kenya is Magana Flowers Kenya located in Kikuyu, down south of Unduri Swamp. The farm is operating in a fully hydroponic rose farm composed of 43 green houses and grows 3 categories of roses, in large head-size, richer color and longer vase-life sizes. Despite floral demand and in place facilities, floral industry in Kikuyu is still primarily dedicated for export and has not been tap for tourism purposes (Kuragu 2006). Taking from The Garten Tulln experience, Kikuyu can explore variety of floriculture products that is appropriate in Kenya’s weather. Water scarcity is a big problem in Kikuyu as industries compete for water use. Despite existing system of water towers and reservoirs, water supply system is not established, and domestic water use is predominantly directed from these natural sources. The prolification and dispersed planning of industries also contribute to water pollution. Floriculture is an industry that mainly depends on water, thus types of plants and cultivation must ensure protection of water sources in Kikuyu. Applying The Garten Tulln’s principles of banning the use chemical pesticides and exploring growing plants that overcome climate change impacts (e.g changes and decreases in water supply, increase drought, increase flooding) can be a sustainable solution to Kikuyu’s floriculture industry. Further, investments on rain-fed floriculture and other water recycling programmes will reduce pressure from natural water resource consumption. As Kenya’s weather will not permit all year flower farm display, the gardens can be converted to other uses such as public park, events place and similar to the case presented, garden exhibitions and model projects that can showcase Kenya’s commercial and indigenous floral products and ecological practices.

03_Remaining Maasai IL NGWESI

1996

(https://journeysbydesign.com/destinations/kenya/laikipia-central-highlands/il-ngwesi-lodge)

Laikipia, Kenya

Lakipiak Maasai

In the early 1990s, the Maasai community of Il Ngwesi Group Ranch started to engage in wildlife tourism as a way to improve their livelihood while maintaining pastoral practices. To reduce sole dependence on pastoralism, the Maasai utilized wildlife (or livestock) in the form of community-based wildlife tourism enterprise (Harrison 2001). In the community level, the key benefits of this diversification are obvious in improved social infrastructure and economic security. In the long run, tourism also brought promotion of Maasai culture and preservation of pastoral lands. The co-existence of tourism and utilization of pastoral activities is evident in the case of Il Ngwesi II Group Ranch in Laikipia District, Rift Valley

Province of Kenya. Il Ngwesi Group II Ranch is just one of the 29 wildlife tourism enterprises operating in Laikipia, together with other tourist properties of private cattle ranches, wildlife conservancy and forest reserves. Much of the area of Il Ngwesi II Group Ranch is conservancy and in 1996, Il Ngwesi Lodges were built targeting luxury tourist market (Harrison 2001). Cultural Bomas were also constructed separately from the lodges to provide fee-paying tourists view of Maasai life and cultural performances. Today, 60% of the area is set aside for tourism and wildlife, and 40% as grazing land (Harrison 2001).

(http://ilngwesi.com/content/visit/)

Community Based Enterprises Il Ngwesi is centered on community-based tourism and it has yielded positive socio-economic and livelihood benefits for the Maasai community. Through eco-friendly activities, tourism was used to conserve wildlife, uphold Maasai culture and developed community social infrastructures (Harrison 2001). World Tourism Organization identify community-based tourism as a model of tourism development which encourages local participation and benefit sharing. Il Ngwesi is owned, managed and staffed entirely by Maasai communities. Profits from the lodge and donations from tourists provided funds for construction

of school and health buildings, supported school fees and acquisition of land for grazing. Many Maasai women were also given livelihood opportunities in producing beadworks for market sale, set up souvenir shops at the lodge and financial capital to run small businesses (Harrison 2001).

(http://ilngwesi.com/content/visit/)

Ongata Rongai’s predominant land activity is livestock farming where majority of the residents, mostly outside Ongata Rongai’s core district, still practices Maasai pastoralism. There are areas where small and medium scale agricultural farming are mixed in communal ranches. The area’s vastness and proximity to Nairobi City provides competitive advantage in expanding meat industries, but also tourism activities. There are several tourist attractions in the area: Ngong Hills, Giraffe Sanctuary and Oloula Forest, but it is the rich Maasai culture that can provide distinct identity to Ongata Rongai in positioning itself as a major tourist destination outside Nairobi.

Conservancies like Il Ngwesi are mostly found adjacent to National Parks as they are former group ranches that were consolidated to become wildlife conservancy mixed with sustainable ecotourism activities. The case of Il Ngwesi can be wellapplied in the remaining group ranches that are now subject to land subdivision and privatization due to urbanization pressures. Converting private ranches to conservancies will help preserve Maasai’s pastoralist activities, as well as diversify economic livelihoods by employing Maasai as administrative staff, tour guides, rangers, etc. Maasai’s indigenous pastoralism requires large land tracts, and land consolidation will help facilitate animal movement within conservancies.

Wildlife viewing remains to be the major tourist attraction but research clearly shows that there are other tourism product offers in West Nairobi. Taking account climate change and urbanization challenges, integrated development of ‘slow’ tourism circuit in West Nairobi can be a variant new industry that can mitigate these challenges but at the same time, promote tourism products of landscape and culture unique to Ndenderu, Kikuyu and Ongata Rongai.

Ndenderu’s tea and coffee plantations, Kikuyu’s floriculture and Ongata Rongai’s pasturelands can be merged into one ‘slow tourism’ destination scheme for West Nairobi. The focus will be the improvement of existing tourism destinations and developing new tourism products showcasing each of the area’s major offer. The component can be one integrated infrastructure development of tourism sites to connect them as one tourism circuit. Because all tourism offers are nature and culture-based, slow tourism can be harnessed as a strategy to create interest in rural areas in Kenya. Slow travel itinerary in the circuit can be a solution to growing problems in West Nairobi as it can create growing interest in rural African villages, heritage and culture, improve accessibility and enhance environmental consciousness. Socio-economic benefits will also spread to the local communities.

Conclusions

As observed during fiieldwork, Nairobi’s western peripheral areas have experienced

Categorially speaking, slow tourism is manifested in travel behavior processes.

drastic land use/cover changes because of rapid urbanization and climate change

But in the cases presented, slow tourism was placed in tourism already present

impacts on productivity patterns and practices. Prolonged periods of low rainfall

in Ndenderu, Kikuyu and Ongata Rongai: tea and coffee plantations, floriculture,

and drought have caused crop failure in some agricultural areas in Ndenderu

and wildlife-pastoral based tourism. The projects above show how slow tourism is

and Kikuyu, prompting development from agriculture to industrial, housing,

closely tied to ecology and sustainable development. The examples of immersion

quarrying, mining, among others. Especially evident in Ongata Rongai is land

to Kenya’s rural life, viewing wildlife and growing climate resilient crops shows how

disaggregation resulting from privatization, subdivision and commercialization of

tourism can lead to ‘sustainable production and promotion’ of natural and cultural

communal rangelands. The predominantly nomadic pastoralist rural population

landscape without posing threats to people and ecology. The approach of time,

has alternatively managed livestock in private parcels leading to environment

activities and awareness involve not only low carbon footprint but involvement in

degradation and pollution.

authentic local experience. Tourists use ‘time’ in immersing to daily life, staying in local accommodations, and personalizing services through experience in traditional

Like many developing countries, Kenya has embraced tourism as a major socio-

practices and taste of local products. This form of ‘slow consumption’ can reduce

economic tool to alleviate poverty in creation of jobs and supporting linkages

pressure on other extractive industries evident in Ndenderu, Kikuyu and Ongata

(Ministry of Tourism 2017). As seen worldwide, tourism/mass tourism created

Rongai.

negative impacts linked to lack of planning of large-scale infrastructures, land conflicts and uncontrolled environmental management. Mass tourism exerted

It is noteworthy to mentioned how slow tourism tied with community participation

carrying capacity of destinations and put tremendous pressure on their natural and

exemplify best practices of sustainability that brings about social equity, economic

cultural environment. Factors like seasonality of demand and commercialization

benefits and environmental conservation.

of experience make mass tourism impacts even worse. The presentation of the

peripheries, community-based tourism practices can provide benefits to locals

cases above aimed to provide opportunities in exploring ways of how tourism/slow

through increase income and business opportunities, access to communal social

tourism can be utilized as an alternative form of tourism to protect West Nairobi’s

infrastructures like schools, hospitals, water, electricity, transport and market, but

unique agriculture and wildlife, historical and cultural resources. The practice

more so on empowerment and stewardship of territory and traditional practices.

of slow tourism deviates from the notion of ‘mass tourism’ where there is major

The substantial involvement of local community in tourism planning, from

‘consumption’ of climate, nature, culture and people of host cities. On the other

identifying resources to be maintained and enhanced, to developing strategies

hand, the cases above show tourism as a preservation tool of natural and cultural

for operation and management, improves communities’ well-being and sense of

landscape amidst climate change and urbanization challenges.

identity and connection with landscape and heritage.

When applied in West Nairobi’s

References Books and scientific articles : Akama, John S. 1999. “The Evolution of Tourism in Kenya.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 6-25. Assaf, George, Seyhmus Baloglu, and Haemoon Oh. 2016. “Motivations and Goals of Slow Tourism.” Journal of Travel Research 205-219. Dickinson, Janet, and Les Lumsden. 2010. Slow Travel and Tourism. London: Earthscan. Go , Guiver, and Peter McGrath. 2106. “Slow Tourism: Exploring the Discourses.” Dos Algarves: A Multidisciplinary e-Journal 11-34.

Benoit, Lea. 2019. Kenyan Roses in a Global Market. October 30. Accessed May 8, 2020. https://mambo.hypotheses.org/1808. Kalkreuth, Sophie. 2019. “Slow Tourism.” Portfolio. April 24. Accessed May 7, 2020. https://www.portfoliomagsg.com/article/luxe-life-in-beijing.html. Kenya Flowel Council. n.d. Kenya Flower Council. Accessed May 8, 2020. http:// kenyaflowercouncil.org/?page_id=92. Ministry of Tourism. 2017. “National Tourism Blueprint 2030.” Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife. September. Accessed May 6, 2020. http://www.tourism.go.ke/wpcontent/uploads/2018/06/NTB2030-Web-Version-1.0-1.pdf.

Harrison, Paul. 2001. “Good Pasture and Paying Guests: Prospects for Symbiosis of Pastoralism and Wildlife Tourism at Il Ngwesi II Group Ranch, Kenya.” Dissertation, London. Huang, Songshan, and Chris Ryan. 2013. Tourism in China: Destinations, Planning and Experiences. Bristol: Channel View Publications. J. Guiver, and P. Mcgrath. “Slow Tourism: Exploring the Discourses.” Dos Algarves: A Multidisciplinary E-Journal 27, no. 27 (2016): 11-34. Karugu, Winifred N. 2006. An Assessment of the Effects of Technology Transfer on Gender Roles within a Community: The Development of Tea and Coffee Production among Smallholder Farmers in Kiambu District, Central Province Kenya. ATPS Working Paper Series No. 44, Nairobi: African Technology Studies Network. Lipman, Margo B., and Laurie Murphy. 2012. “Make Haste Slowly: Environmental Sustainability and Willing Workers on Organic Farms.” Slow Tourism: Experiences and Mobilities 84-98. Nature in the Garden. 2012. “INTERREGIVC-Project Hybrid Parks.” Situation Report. Oh, Haemoon, A. George Assaf, and Seyhmus Baloglu. “Motivations and Goals of Slow Tourism.” Journal of Travel Research55, no. 2 (2016): 205-19. On-line documents and websites :

RACHID GARCIA ELMOSRI

NEW ENERGY LANDSCAPES From facility to public asset

Introduction

to people under energy poverty situation, which accounts for over 1 billion people

As climate change and the well-known rapid urbanization process is happening,

today (The Guardian, 2019)

new patterns of energy production and distribution need to be introduced. A

Today and in the future, energy production facilities can become a public space,

transition to clean/renewable energies is needed to battle climate change since

and/or energy can be generated in a decentralized way, for example in backyards

energy production of means such as coal constitutes around …% of the total

or rooftops.

emissions of CO2. .

In this paper, three cases are going to be presented, all of them in the context of

Such infrastructures require a considerable amount of space, either if clustered or

developed economies and located on the upper-northern hemisphere, although

distributed and usually, their introduction may be seen by some “something bad

a reflection on the potential of the adaption of principles and means of energy

for the landscape”, but on the contrary, they can be an opportunity to innovate and

production in developing and/or tropical countries is going to take place in the

transform the context for good (Van Beek & Vermaas, 2011).

conclusion.

Since these alternatives generate few or no emissions of polluting substances, human proximity is feasible, and therefore additional programs and uses can be introduced. In most of the cases, energy production usually takes place isolated from the public realm either for sanitary/security purposes or just because of its scale and location is not near to human settlements, for example, the Taichung Power Plant, in Taiwan, a heavy polluter of carbon dioxide or the Gansu Wind Farm in China, the largest wind farm in the world, which in 2015 wasted 39% of its capacity and its isolated location in the Gobi desert, far away from the large concentration of population in the coast prevents the wind farm to address the problem of massive coal production in the countries’ large metropolises (Hernández -New York Times, 2017). When it comes to ownership and/or administration it is usually carried by a public or private enterprise, which means that access to energy can be more sensitive to market logic. New means of renewable energy are making possible to allow people and communities to be more independent from this logic and also to give access

Figure 1. Holmes, Damian (2017) Energy, Climate and Environmental Park | Solrødgård Denmark | C.F. Møller Landscape

01_Case 1 Program overlapping ENERGY, CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PARK

2013

Figure 2. Panoramma. Due, Jacob (2017)

Solrødgård, Hillerød Syd, Denmark

C.F. Møller Landscape

The Hillerød Utility Company set the goal to integrate water purification, biomass, geothermal heat production a recycling station, and test sites for solar and wind energy. The concept was developed around turning a “necessary burden” into a public asset, and investigate how each component creates synergies with other pieces of the puzzle. (Birney, 2020) An important characteristic of the project is the educational factor, which means that clean energy production is visible to the public realm and explicitly demonstrated in specific zones, thus looking for “spreading the message put in practice”. The slopes become Biocorridors, the first layer. This layer articulates the ecosystem around the main

wetland and defines the program’s structure. Along these corridors, blue corridors allow water runoffs to be channeled into the wetland zones. The following layer is the zoning, with the water treatment plant as the largest and most centric part, with the different means of energy generation around and with the social/educational components in the center as well as observation decks and pedestrian and cycling paths inside. Another important factor is both the operational and financial efficiency, as Henning Gade, Project Manager of the company states: “We consider it an important task to create a plant that is as financially sustainable as possible. The new plant will generate electricity and

Figure 3. Functional zoning and bio-corridors. Holmes, Damian (2017) Energy, Climate and Environmental Park | Solrødgård Denmark | C.F. Møller Landscape

use wastewater as a resource to a much greater extent than previously. If we can also affect people’s waste behavior, it can further optimize our operation and reduce expenses...” The water treatment plan intervention was conceived as part of the landscape, as the facility seems to emerge from the ground, its rooftop becomes part of the park, and its facades are transparent in order to allow the visitor to see the process of the treatment. (ArchDaily, 2019) Key points: Public space-oriented, Overlapping of programs and uses, Social involvement (education factor), Financial and operational efficiency. These model’s key points can be implemented anywhere but their potential

can be better exploited with a of mix of uses, local cooperation and a strong institution that can ensure that the overlap of programs is creating synergies and where the landscape is thought based on user experience and safety. In the Kenyan context, the diverse potential of renewable energy means of production can facilitate the overlapping of programs to be feasible. On the other hand, the lack of public spaces and ecosystem fragmentation in the periurban area of Nairobi plus its rapid urbanization can increase the possibility that public space as such will be attractive and that the education factor can play a role in the choice of the means of energy production as energy poverty decreases.

02_Case 2 Energy decentralization NAGELE ENERGY MASTERPLAN

2018

Figure 4. Masterplan. FABRICations (2017)

Nagele, The Netherlands

FABRICations and BETA

This masterplan comes from the latest initiative carried by the Chief Government Architect of the Noordoostpolder municipality “Energy Lab Nagele” which comes from the initiative started in 2009 to revive the town through a bottom-up approach and with a sensitivity to the town’s modernist cultural heritage. “Energy is no longer an abstract concept coming from afar, rather it is something everyone could welcome in their backyard” - Fabrications, 2018. It aims to “secure a sustainable future by making Nagele energy self-sufficient through an innovative system of energy collection and storage. Something critical for the conception of the concept is the reciprocal development of collective facilities in the village core and large- scale energy production beyond

the forest fringe. (FABRICations, 2018). FABRICations’ proposal utilizes four different means of energy generation, wind, solar, biogas and algae farming. Not all of them are there to generate electricity but they have a particular purpose: Biomass: Processes both green and organic waste to generate energy specially for domestic use; Algae Farming: Produces heat that will be used to warm swimming pools and green houses. Key points: Energy decentralization/Communal production, Diverse means of energy production, New energy and a recovered landscape as catalysts for innovation and entrepreneurship, Energy and public space synergies (One motivates the other one).

Figure 5. Scheme FABRICations (2017)

In the context of the periurban area of Nairobi, this example can bring some ideas that can be applied. Firstly, the decentralization of energy and communal production, Kenya has a rate of 82% of its population living under energy poverty or no access at all (Moss, 2017), and the construction of an electrical grid may require an additional amount of resources that make it harder to found, and also to supply in distant contexts. Energy decentralization is feasible under the context of a sunny country through solar energy and also in an agrarian context, through biomass Diverse means of energy production is needed both to secure energy but, specially on the case of biomass, to prevent a counterproductive effect for a clean

environment. Biomass is specified due to its abuse can lead to deforestation or environment destruction (Field, Campbell & Lobell 2007). Energy has always been a driver for production and industrialization, it is needed in order to thrive. Having energy, among other aspects, in the center of development policies is a must. Clean energy can be attractive to people and, as in the first case was mentioned, its location of production can be a public space as well. An important factor that is more explicit in Nagele is that the energy produced is used to operate the public facilities, this principle can also be used in Nairobi and anywhere.

03_Case 3 Energy innovation GOWANUS LOWLINE: ENTRY “DOMESTIC LAUNDRY”

2011

Figure 6. Curtain Mattress Bustler.(2011)

Brooklyn, New York City

AGER Group

The Gowanus Lowline Competition, launched in 2011, had as its main interest the value of the urban development of post industrial urban lands (e-architect, 2011), studio AGER’s design approach is based on a healthy working industrial ecology where wastes are recycled, resources conserved, and community regenerated based on the existing foundations of a site. Among the language used for the site bioremediation “Curtain Mattress” is the one that relates to new energy generation mechanism (Buslter Editors, 2011). This process is carried out by a mechanism called Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC), which is a mechanism that uses contaminated soil as a fuel to generate energy.

The Curtain Mattress is composed by a geotextile retaining wall, a sliding walkway, and the LED display (woven into the geotextile membrane), integrated with the MFC. This membrane will be powered by contaminated water, and the greater the contamination levels the more power generated for the LED lighting. The LED lighting becomes a performance indicator, which informs passerby of the level of soil contamination, thus becoming also an indicator (Buslter Editors, 2011). Bruce Logan (2013) suggests that Microbial Fuel Cell can be better applied to wastewater treatment by distilling ammonia out of water, so that concentration

Figure 7. Microbial Fuel Cell sceme. Ross, Philippa (2011)

gradients could be established with ammonia to generate power in a systems similar to a flow battery. Logan also states that 5% of the energy produced in the United States is used for water infrastructure, he proposes that a truly sustainable mechanism that generates energy through it can help the wastewater to be not waste anymore. Among the main challenges is to build the enormous quantity of liter systems required for this process, something that hasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t been done yet, therefore this lack of experience means that we canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have a clear perspective of the Microbial Fuel Cell system.

The Microbial Fuel Cell is a promising mechanism that could be applied in any country on Earth once its challenges have been solved. The way is implemented in the Gowanus Lowline is interesting as an indicator, but it implies that in order to operate in another scale the river has to be polluted. This is not what the designers mean certainly, but its application must be beyond that, in cases such as wastewater coming from large urban centers, it could be quite useful to generate energy in wastewater plants that will provide energy to such plants, as professor Logan (2012) mentions.

Conclusions

New Energy Landscapes come in multiple forms, and until today there are enough

In a context as Nairobi’s, where space has been consumed in favor of urbanization,

mechanisms of sustainable energy generation enough to be applied in almost every

program overlapping helps to leverage spatial resources, provides more and

kind of climate conditions. Nairobi has the great potential because of its location

interesting public spaces, takes advantage of waste, and helps to reduce the mostly

and natural conditions, it also faces the problem of a demographic boom that the

unpleasant surrounding contexts of facilities.

state can’t completely cop with since it has little resources. This research provides two concepts that can be applied in cities with similar economical conditions as Nairobi: Decentralization and Program Overlapping. Decentralization: As in the case of Nagele, it helps to those communities in energy poverty far from the great urban cores, this reduces the cost of the construction of the grid and also may make them more independent of companies, since many live in a situation of informal economy, incomes are not constant and some people cannot afford to pay electric bills. In the context of a city like Nairobi, sun is always present, therefore ensuring a yearround generation. Program Overlapping: In this concept, two aspects are included, one is the diversity of mechanism of generation in a single place, and the other one is roughly program overlapping. In the three cases mentioned, program overlapping is the essence of their idea. In the Hillerød and Nagele cases, there’s not only a diversity of mechanisms in generation, but also the facilities become a public asset. In the first case, it is more public space oriented, and it plays an educational role as well, in the case of Nagele, energy production also is inserted in the public realm but with a more explicit integration of synergy, for example, agriculture in the site produces material for biomass energy while algae farming helps to heat the water sports facilities. Program Overlapping is also present in the Gowanus Lowline case, as it serves as an indicator of the levels of pollution.

100

References Van Beek, Paul- Vermaas, Charles (2011)- Landscapology: Learning to Landscape

Reimagining the Pastoral Paradigm for the Twenty First Century Bloomsbury

the City

Visual Arts

East Bay Municipal Utility District (2008). Anaerobic Digestion of Food Waste

________________________________________

(PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency.

Images

Field B, Christopher - Campbell, Elliot - Lobell, David- Biomass energy: the scale of the potential resource- CELL PRESS

Holmes, Damian (2017) Energy, Climate and Environmental Park | Solrødgård Denmark | C.F. Møller Landscape

Bustler. (2013) “Gowanus Lowline: Connections - Entry “Domestic Laundry”.” Bushttps://bustler.net/news/2320/gowanus-lowline-connections-entry-domesticlaundry The Guardian (2013) “Global Renewable Energy Initiative Aims to Bring a Billion People in from the Dark.” https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/

https://worldlandscapearchitect.com/energy-climate-and-environmental-parksolrodgard-denmark-c-f-moller-landscape/#.XufQXUXHxPY FABRICations (2017) NEWS: Shortlisted for the Nagele Energy Lab competition https://www.fabrications.nl/shortlisted-for-the-nagele-energy-lab-competition/

sep/13/global-renewable-energy-initiative-aims-to-bring-a-billion-people-in-

Ross, Philippa (2011) Breakthrough for bacterial hydrogen production

from-the-dark.

https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/breakthrough-for-bacterial-hydrogen-

New York Times- Hernández, Javier C.(2017) “It Can Power a Small Nation. But

production-/3000628.article

This Wind Farm in China Is Mostly Idle.” The New York Times.

Bustler.(2011) “Gowanus Lowline: Connections - Entry “Domestic Laundry”.”.

https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/15/world/asia/china-gansu-wind-farm.html.

Due, Jacob (2017) Solrødgård Water Treatment Plant https://www.archdaily.

E-architect- McManus, David, and Adrian Welch. (2020) “Gowanus Competition

com/923853/solrodgard-water-treatment-plant-henning-larsen

New York: Brooklyn Design Contest - E-architect.”

https://bustler.net/news/2320/gowanus-lowline-connections-entry-domestic-

https://www.e-architect.co.uk/competitions/gowanus-by-design.

laundry.

Logan, Bruce (2012) “Microbial Fuel Cells & METs.” Microbial Fuel Cells METs. “https://sites.psu.edu/microbialfuelcells/. Moss, Todd, and Madeleine Gleave. (2014) “Seven Graphics That Explain Energy Poverty and How the US Can Do Much More.” Center For Global Development. February 18, 2014. https://www.cgdev.org/blog/seven-graphics-explain-energypoverty-and-how-us-can-do-much-more. BASTA Urbanism. (2017)”Projects: Nagele.” https://www.basta-urbanism.nl/kopievan-p-bna-licht-verdicht. Birney

Vickery,

Margatet

(2020)

Landscape

and

Infrastructure

101

HAGAR FAGGAL

Urban Agriculture Insights of Green-Grey Intertwine

Introduction

engaged in the urban agriculture process, they then sell their products in the streets

Over the last decades, the world has been facing a huge growing dilemma of food

as vendors throughout the informal settlements. (Karanja 2007) Beside urban poor

scarcity and insecurity, especially in the Global South Region. The ongoing rural-

who use urban agriculture for survival reasons, also Kenyan medium and high

urban influx is rapidly diminishing the agricultural lands and thus, decreasing

income communities use urban agriculture for producing their fresh various crops.

productivity. As the world faces accelerating urbanization, it’s verified that more

Despite the fact that urban farming plays an important role in a good percentage

than half of the global population lives in urban centers and cities today. In Africa,

of the public’s income, food security, and reuse of urban biological wastes, Kenya

43% of the population live in urban areas. (CSIS 2018) Thus, urban agriculture is

experiences a shortage of efficient plans and policies for urban agriculture in Nairobi

becoming an important mean of cultivation in a lot of areas, specially the countries

and other cities and peripheries. This triggers the irregular cultivation on public

of high poverty rates. Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya, has been facing tremendous

lands by some people, and the spontaneous existence of livestock throughout the

urban growth throughout the last decades, like the majority of the African cities. In

settlements. This irregular integration of livestock increases the risk of disease spread

Nairobi, agriculture has always been people’s main occupation, and their livelihoods

contamination to surrounding people. Additionally, people irrigate their crops

were based upon their rural lifestyles. However, as the agricultural productivity

with impure sewage water due to the lack of clean obtainable water. (Omondi 2018)

and profitability faced notable decline and people started selling their farmlands,

The following case studies show some worldwide examples of urban agriculture and

the area faced rapid urban sprawl and many areas are now transformed to urban

how different cities managed to intertwine farming activities within urban contexts.

centers. Therefore, multiple groups have been reinforcing urban agriculture in Nairobi capital and peripheries, as it’s the way of interweaving agriculture within these urban areas. Urban agriculture has been a way of securing food and income for a large group of people who did not have the chance of being recruited in an official employment. (Omondi 2018) Therefore, a lot of families in Nairobi who have in-migrated from rural areas to urban centers in search for income opportunities, urban agriculture has been their mean of bringing their agrarian practices in to their environment. Hence, chicken, sheep and livestock are found roaming through the streets fragmentally, and private farming plots are scattered along the roads. Nairobi’s urban farmers use their crops for both, economic income and their own household use to feed their families. The urban poor women are mostly the ones

102

ÂŠphoto by author

Private productive landscapes around settlements, Nairobi, 2020

103

01_Rooftop Farming VERTICAL AND ROOFTOP AGRICULTURE GAIN MOMENTUM

2011

Cairo, Egypt

SCHADUF

As most, if not all, of the informal dwellers in Cairo originally come for rural areas in Egypt as Upper Egypt and Delta, their original livelihood practice is farming. Hence, the project purposes to bring farming back to life in various areas and settlements in Cairo, especially for low-income communities to provide them selfsufficiency and food security. Schaduf started their project of installing soil-less hydroponic farming on the rooftops of the Cairo’s compact urban settlements. (Dalakian 2012) Sherif Hosny, the cofounder of Schaduf and the project, explains that Cairo holds a massive amount of vacant rooftops, in addition to high rate of unemployment, and its climate is also very suitable for farming productivity.

104

These factors together make rooftop cultivation a perfect intervention so people would make better use of their roofs as a new productive and social space for building inhabitants to meet and children can use the space to play. Additionally, as proximate buildings start to grow plantations on their rooftops, the plants absorb the CO2 emissions thus decrease the temperature of the areas’ microclimate. (KALAN 2014)

ÂŠ GIZ ÂŠ Valentina Cattane

This method of urban agriculture is very applicable in Nairobi, as the city comprises the same factors of unemployment, suitable climate, and unused rooftops in areas of flat-roof buildings. This application would strongly support the urban poor in Nairobi to self-sustain their food production. Besides, as Nairobi faces very high temperatures in summer, the intervention would regulate the climate in the involved areas.

105

02_Urban Food Gardening DE VOEDSELTUIN - THE FOOD GARDEN

2015

ÂŠMenno Leutscher

Rotterdam, The Netherlands

LOLA

The Food Garden Rotterdam was designed on a former industrial wasteland, for a main target of providing the vulnerable individuals and families with adequate, maintained food security. The project is of 7000 square meter area, which grants the vulnerable and unemployed individuals potentials for volunteering and participating in the cultivation and production process in the garden. The harvests of the garden could then be used by people in need as the homeless, the food bank of Rotterdam, in addition to the volunteers. The volunteers profit from their productions as they can sell them around, which also reinforces their social networks and cohesion. (Inherit 2017) The project creates strong social

106

inclusion for the community as it engages diverse people from the neighborhood to co-work in the garden. The vulnerable participating inhabitants are supported to turn to active producers of fresh fruits and vegetables that can be used by everyone. (RIVM 2017)

ÂŠ LOLA Landscape Architects

As Nairobi comprises a huge percentage of urban poverty and unemployment, a similar project within the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s grey urbanism would maintain food accessibility to the low-income communities. Furtherly, a lot of vacant spaces in-between buildings have great potentials to turn to productive spaces where the diverse unemployed including youth, men and women would coordinate in producing yields for the whole community. The way the gardens gradually interweaved between the buildings, connecting them with aesthetic and productive spaces is very inspiring to understand and apply within the Nairobi urban settlements.

107

03_Rural-Urban Integration SONGZHUANG ARTS AND AGRICULTURE CITY Beijing, China

On the Eastern periphery of Beijing, the project introduces a new approach of intertwining rural life within urban settlements. Agriculture is already a crucial part of the Songzuan’s local economy, as about 55% of the area consist of agricultural lands. However, rapid urbanization started destroying the agricultural plots, declining the agrarian productivity. Thus, the project aims to maintain the food security of Beijing’s urban fringes and generate self-sufficient communities. To do so, the plan allocates farmlands and agricultural productive landscapes right in the center of the project, while surrounded by the proposed urban developments on the productive lands’ fringes. (DeOliveira 2017) The proposed community

108

SASAKI 2012

structure is made up of clusters interlinked with pedestrian paths, bikeways, transit system and cohesive technology system. Inhabitant were relocated within their neighborhoods with their same neighbors and social networks, and the existing farmland were integrated into the plan. The new housing system of clusters is connected with surrounding services. (SASAKI 2012) Reviewing this project is insightful for understanding bigger-scale planning of agro-urban settlements and rural-urban integration.

The project’s intention of interlinking new urban settlements with existing and proposed landscapes is great, however, it could have been more suitable for the area to use the existing settlements and propose new units within the existing landscapes, instead of creating a whole new plan from scratch and bringing it in to the area. By attaining that, it would also be applicable within the context of Nairobi’s peripheries to cluster the existing and proposed settlements within the area’s productive landscapes.

109

Conclusions

Introducing urban agriculture and peri-urban agriculture is noted to be an

of unemployed youth engages them in a productive and profitable practice.

effective way of getting agriculture back to life in urban centers and rapidly

Additionally, common urban agricultural spaces create new social networks for

urbanizing areas. The discussed 3 methods of applying urban agriculture used

people of same neighborhoods and nearby ones. Private and semi-private urban

different techniques to attain more or less the same vision of food security. It’s a

agricultural spaces are also crucial. It’s significant for families and individuals to

fact that Nairobi’s rural practices are declined and urban settlements took over

have an independent source of food. The current pandemic crisis and lockdown

agricultural lands. Adding to that, a huge percentage of urban dwellers in Nairobi

accentuated the importance of self-sufficiency. A lot of Nairobi’s urban dwellers

today are facing food insecurity. Thus, when planning to re-engage agricultural

rely on street vendors and open markets to buy food for their families and

practices with Nairobi’s urban areas, different approaches of urban agriculture

themselves including vegetables and fruits. In similar situations, self-reliance

should be used accordingly. The intertwining of the productive plantations in

for productivity ensures the family’s food security during these time frames.

between the settlements in Nairobi also affects the microclimates of these areas as the greeneries decrease the surrounding temperatures. Urban Agriculture within Nairobi is often recognized, however, in very inefficient and unhealthy means. As most of the inhabitants of Nairobi and its peripheries are originally farmers, interpolating community food gardens, farmlands, rooftop farming, allotment gardens, backyard plots and other productive landscapes encourages the former farmers to relive their main occupation. Beside the ongoing privatization of the agricultural plots in the peri-urban areas, the conjoining of communal gardens of different scales reinforces the social inclusion of the community. As Nairobi comprises a huge group of marginalized urban poor, homeless and unemployed, these urban agricultural interventions help turn their lives to more productive and socially inclusive people. The urban poor secure their access to food throughout their own cultivation and production. Meanwhile, selling their products maintains an economic income for them. The homeless people have access to the public products and yields of the gardens. Besides, the participation

110

References

CSIS. 2018. “No Title.” Urban Food Security in the Global South: Three Ideas. Dalakian, Glen. 2012. “Schaduf Sows Sustainable Development with Rooftop

Prové, C. 2013. “Did You Say Urban Agriculture in Ghent? An Exploratory CaseStudy.” Rural Economics and Management Master of: 75.

Farming in Egypt.”

RIVM. 2017. “Food Garden Rotterdam Fights Back against Social Exclusion.”

DeOliveira, F L. 2017. “Green Wedge Urbanism: History, Theory and Contemporary

SASAKI. 2012. “No Title.” Songzhuang Arts and Agriculture City.

Practice.” In GREEN WEDGE URBANISM: HISTORY, THEORY AND CONTEMPORARY PRACTICE.

Veen, E J. 2015. Community Gardens in Urban Areas: A Critical Reflection on the Extent to Which They Strengthen Social Cohesion and Provide Alternative Food.

Dubbeling, Marielle. 2010. “Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture and Forestry

Community Gardens in Urban Areas: A Critical Reflection on the Extent to Which

as a Strategy for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation,” 3. http://

They Strengthen Social Cohesion and Provide Alternative Food. http://search.

sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1656agricultureforestry.pdf.

ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lah&AN=20153289130&site=ehost-

Gawad, Iman O. 2014. “The Rise of Rooftop Gardens in Informally Developed Areas in Egypt: Exploring the Abilities and Boundaries.” ArchCairo, 208–23. Hordijk, Michaela, and Isa Baud. 2011. “Resilient Cities: Cities and Adaptation to Climate Change.” Media, no. January: 111–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-0070785-6. Inherit. 2017. “Voedseltuin (The Food Garden).” 2017. Voedseltuin (The Food

live. Weckenbrock, Philipp, Peter Volz, Nicolas Cressot, and Jocelyn Parot. 2016. “Introduction to Community Supported Agriculture in Europe.” Overview of Community Supported Agriculture in Europe, 8–11. Year, New. 2015. “Urban Agriculture Case Studies – Which Do You Think Will Make the Biggest Difference to Global Food Security?”

Garden). KALAN, JONATHAN. 2014. “The Rooftop Revolution.” Karanja, Nancy. 2007. “International Urban Agriculture Spotlight :,” no. July 2017. Keane, Michael, and Wen Wen. 2014. “Managing Creativity on the Margins : A Comparative Study of Beijing ’ s Songzhuang Art District and Hangzhou ’ s White Horse Lake Creative Eco-City.” Korth, Marcel, Ruth Stewart, Laurenz Langer, Nolizwe Madinga, Natalie Rebelo Da Silva, Hazel Zaranyika, Carina Van Rooyen, and Thea De Wet. 2014. “What Are the Impacts of Urban Agriculture Programs on Food Security in Low and MiddleIncome Countries: A Systematic Review.” Environmental Evidence 3 (1): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-3-21. Omondi, Samuel. 2018. “URBAN AGRICULTURE: THE NEGLECTED GEM FOR FOOD SECURITY IN KENYA,” no. October.

111

ZEESHAN JAVAID GHANI

The disappearing biodiversity in the emerging economy of Nairobi Three appraoches for re-thinking coexistence between urban and nature

A Rising Conflict

being consumed by the urban sprawl. All these problems are further accentuated

Emerging as the second fastest-growing city in Africa, Nairobi has seen tremendous

by the governments ‘Kenya Vision 2030’. To fulfill the Kenya Vision 2030 goal of

growth — both in terms of its physical built environment and its influence on the

transforming Kenya into “a newly-industrialized middle-income country” many

socio-economy of the country — creating an unbalance between the urbanized and

new infrastructure projects (railways, roads, power grids, and power plants) are

the natural landscapes (“Tracking Africa’s Progress In Figures” 2014).

being funded in Nairobi often undervaluing the natural landscape (Welz 2019). In recent years the country has taken up the initiative of adopting the green concept in

Originally called ‘Enkare Nairobi’ – Cool waters – by the Maasai community, Nairobi

Kenya vision 2030, however, little evidence proves the use of policies to apply green

was a source of fresh clean water to the area and its surrounding. The position

concepts on different individual and institutional strategies (Bessy Eva and Henry

of Nairobi was a key anchor point in the ecosystem of its diverse surrounding

2018).

landscapes consisting of natural forest, rivers and streams, wetlands, grasslands, valleys, and the savanna. It provided clean water, food, and shelter to hundreds

The increasing urbanization is putting growing pressure on the natural landscapes

of different species of wildlife animals and many ethnic communities in the area

for resources – water, land, wood, food – while simultaneously over-consuming it.

(United Nations 2009). With the introduction of the railway system in 1899, the

Along with increasing demands the unbalanced urbanization has come with a rise

city started growing with industrial influences, providing goods and materials

in air and water pollution, depleted cultivated lands, declining soil fertility, climate

throughout the region (Cybriwsky 2013). When Nairobi became the capital of the

change, water shortage, human-wildlife conflicts, and cultural loss. In this context,

newly independent state of Kenya in 1963, it took the new identity with it and soon

it is no surprise that Nairobi has been ranked among the top ten cities with the

became the center of the country’s industrial ambition.

highest livability decline rate in the past decade (“The Global Livability Index ” 2019)

Being the hotspot for rural-urban migration and having lenient land-use policies, Nairobi physically expanded at the expense of the natural landscape. Many of the forest, rangelands, and bushlands were lost in the making of roads and other infrastructure. The city outskirts had already been seeing a receding forest cover being replaced by coffee plantations (United Nations 2009). Most of the agricultural land is being converted into residential areas. The wetlands are drained, along with the rivers being used up for industries, and the savanna under threat of

112

Socio-economic Benefits of Biodiversity Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fast-growing economy is driven by sectors (agricultural ~34% of GDP and tourism ~9% of GDP) that are mainly dependent upon the conservation of biodiversity (Thornton 2010; World Bank 2019). Thus, failing to conserve biodiversity not only has ecological impacts but also significantly damages the socioeconomic environment. It becomes important for Kenya to maintain biodiversity not only in the rural regions but also in its main cities like Nairobi. A lot of ethnic communities (such as Masaai, and Kikuyu) in Nairobi are dependent

ÂŠ USGS/NASA

upon biodiversity as a source of food, lifestyle, culture, and ties to traditions. A loss in biodiversity has forced many communities to relocate or change their way of life. Biodiversity in Nairobi can improve the living conditions and human welfare by creating ecosystem services which are supplying raw materials (food, wood), Nairobi urban area concentrated around the railway station while the the northwest hills, and the south savanna is mostly inhabited by the ethnic communiteis, 1986

benefits from improves ecological process (soil formation, water purification, pest control) and cultural services (tourism, educational or aesthetical) (Baggethun and Lopez 2014).

Rethinking Coexistence Studying the growth of Nairobi, it becomes clear that the city might not be able to sustain its biodiversity. It is important to study how different approach towards implementation of projects, design and policies can open paths towards rethinking coexistence between man and nature. To start thinking about coexistence between man and nature, it is important to point out where the current system fails. The degradation of the natural systems can be linked uncontrolled urbanization, however, these factors are backed by lack of ÂŠ USGS/NASA

funds, weak authority, undervaluing ecological impacts, changing land-use policies, and a weak institutional framework (Makathimo and Guthiga 2010). The paper explores how through different scales and approaches the biodiversity Major urban growth of Nairobi towards west and south pushing away the enthnic communities. The protected areas are now on the edge of the growing urbanization, 2018

can be improved to have a positive impact on the socio-economic environment of Nairobi. In addition, the paper acknowledges the need for growth of Nairobi, and investigates how the growth can be sustainable through these different approaches.

113

01_Rethinking Community Participation

Failure of top-down approach The first approach concerns the relation between micro-meso scale ecosystems and different communities directly or indirectly dependent upon it. With a rich rural background, many of the communities in Nairobi â&#x20AC;&#x201C; such as Kikuyu (farmers in the highlands), the Masaai (pastoral farmers in the savanna) - have been living as a part of the ecosystem for centuries. However, suffering from a top-down approach, the policy-making process often overlook many of these ecosystems and the needs of the communities dependent upon them. With no strict land use policies regarding these ecosystems the agricultural valleys are transforming into residential settlements, the wetlands are consumed by industries and greenhouses, the forest are cut down for land, the pastoral grounds are being fragmented for new housing societies. In some cases, the land is overtaken by informal settlements. The loss of the ecosystems has greatly affected the communities who have been collectively using the land in a sustainable way.

114

Neglected impacts lead to large consequences The impacts from the loss of ecosystem are not only ecological but also social and economic. Communities suffer by losing their means of income, their way of living, traditions, and culture. With the fear of never being compensated for the loss of ecosystems, many of the communities are selling their ancestral lands and moving away. Taking advantage of this situation, the land is being bought private investors who tend to develop it for the higher-income populations socially excluding and marginalizing these communities. If they don’t move away, they are forced to find a new way of living and income. While some people

manage to benefit from the change, majority fail to adopt and recover from the ecological loss.

115

01_Rethinking Community Participation MELLO BARRETO ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATIONAL PARK

1986

Rio De Janeiro, Brazil

Fernando Chacel

Social awareness lead to big change Within the context of a large urban city, the project shows recovery of a loss mangrove ecosystem, and how urban development can be combined with nature conservation through community involvement. As the city saw rapid urbanization, the ‘protected’ mangrove forest was cleared for new real estate development. Along with new luxurious buildings the site also hosted growing informal settlements. In 1980s the government recognized the importance of the lost ecosystem and started taking actions. The Mello Barreto Education Park was part of this initiative along with two other projects - the Peninsula and Gleba F. Together these projects were aimed at recovering the lost mangrove forest,

116

preserving the belt around the lagoon, purifying the water, educating the locals, and improving soil quality (Herzog and Finotti 2013). For the creation of the park, the local authorities teamed with the resident associations (ACIBARRA) in creating social awareness on importance of indigenous ecosystems. The team worked on the process of ecogenetics – the recovering of landscapes using specimens from the original ecosystem (Chacel 2001). An innovative approach at the time, ecogenetics proved to help raise social awareness of indigenous biodiversity and its aesthetic potential in natural landscape (Nassauer 1997).

Aerial view of the Lagoon and its belt in 2012,

Involving community In the context of Nairobi, the park sets an example of how communities can get involved, be educated, and help in recovery of the ecosystems around them. The parks success is credited greatly to the involvement of the resident association. By spreading awareness of the indigenous plants and wildlife, the locals realized the importance of the lost ecosystem and the positive effects it can have. With the recovery of the entire Lagoon belt, the locals were able to have access to cleaner water, better sanitation, improved flora and fauna. In doing so, the park not only served an ecological function but also a social one (Herzog and Finotti 2013).

Creating a resilient boundary Sitting on the edge of the Tijuca National Park and the Lagoon, the strategically placed parks creates a soft edge between the urban and the nature. While providing many social recreational spaces and educational service, it is less threatened by the infrastructural development and protects the National park from the growing urbanization. Similarly, Nairobi has a lot of potential for such strategically placed projects that can be develop into an indigenous ecosystem while protecting the area against aggressive city expansion

117

02_Rethinking Natural Values

Decentralizing governance Since two of the main protected areas (Karura Forest and Nairobi National Park) in Nairobi were gazetted long before the independence, today these areas are under the strong pressure of being dominated by the uncontrolled urbanization. Karura Forest

The management of these areas are under different government agencies. Despite the law being clear about restriction on development in any protected areas, these agencies are often pressurized or incentivized to sell the land to the government to allow building new infrastructure in the protected areas (Welz 2019). This is possible as the established centralized management can overlook the needs and values of the protected areas and serve in favor of the government decision. Often there are many protests from the environment protection agencies regarding the decisions of the government, but they are left unheard. Without the decision-making power the environment protection agencies and other stakeholders often turn to environmental law which often obscured the interest of nature behind the developmental and human interests (Sands 2012; Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;donnell and Talbot-Jones 2018). The approach of decentralizing the management has its advantages but it comes with a lot of challenges. It needs a restructuring of the institutional framework, a new way of protecting nature under law, and identifying stakeholders with their roles. With the approach the goal should be not just protecting the area but making it sustainable and beneficial for all the stakeholders involved.

118

Oloolua Forest

Nairobi National Park

Ecological Environment of Nairobi; showing the major natural features and the main protected areas (Karura forest, Nairobi National Park, Oloolua Forest) in Nairobi City County.

New wind turbines and power station built on top of the nature reserve Gnong hills. The hills have been the grazing grounds for many Masaai villages in the vacinity. Due to development and land-use the Masaai are finding new grazing grounds towards the south.

The excessive tourism in National Nairobi Park creating a small traffic jam. The park is a source of great income for the governement, however the over utilization of the touristic capacity of the park is slowly damaging the wildlife. This not only affects the local communities but will affect the tourism in the long term

Impalas standing under the new Railway line project passing through the Nairobi National Park. After many protests, the track kept its direction however it was raised on pillars to allow wildlife movement.

A residential apartment being constructed on the Gitathuru Rive in Karura forest. The foundation of the building touches the river, breaking the by-laws and pollution the environment.

119

02_Rethinking Natural Values WHANGANUI RIVER

2017

New Zealand

Whanganui Iwi

Human rights for the river The case of Whanganui River is one of the first natural resource to be given legal identity, with rights and duties equal to a legal person (Davison 2017). Under the Te Awa Tupua act 2017, a treaty was signed between the Maori tribe of Whanganui and the Crown. This Act creates a new governance framework for the river, while recognizing its entire 290km stretch, its catchment area, and metaphysical elements as a whole entity (O’donnell and Talbot-Jones 2018). The case presents a new governing framework consists of Te pou Tupua, who is responsible of acting and speaking on behalf of rivers well-being. Acting as a guardian, Te pou Tupua consists of two representatives working together, one from the crown and one from the Whanganui tribe. In addition to Te pou Tupua, the new legislation offers the support of and advisory group (Te Karewao) and a strategy group (Te Kopuka na) which will develop, review, monitor and

120

approve implementation of strategies. The strategy group consist of up to 17 key stakeholders of which some are; different tribes linked to the river, representatives from the energy and power scheme, tourism, conservation, wild games, and government representatives. The focus of this strategy group is collaborative planning and management of river catchment area (O’donnell and Talbot-Jones 2018). The case is an example an inclusive framework rather than an exclusive one. It expands the legal framework creating a nested management community (TalbotJones 2017). In addition to the legal rights, the Crown is responsible to support the Act through a series of payment.

Inclusive framework The case can claimed to be successful as it changes the management system through legislation with minimum disruption and settles the long standing claims of the Whanganui tribe (Talbot-Jones 2017). The fact that the Te awa Tupua Act is created on a national level also helps with creating a powerful alternative institutional arrangement, which is mutually accepted by both the crown and the tribe, while simultaneously decentralizing the authority by engaging also engaging series of actors, stakeholders, and communities (Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;donnell and TalbotJones 2018).

ÂŠ Getty Images

Apart from creating a strong legislation, the act also recognizes and respects the Maori relationship with nature. The Maori view nature as an ancestor, and with the Act the government has gained support of the local communities in protecting the source of water. The river is source of tourism, games, energy, and domestic water. By this act the government secures its supply of water (Iorns Magallanes 2015)

ÂŠ John Webber

Using this case as an example the government of Kenya can introduce a more inclusive framework and institution that is serving the interested and values of multiple key stakeholders. Many of the protected land has ancestral ties to the communities such as Kikuyu swamp, Oloolua forest, and Nairobi National Park/Savanna. The government of Kenya can greatly benefit by working with the communities and tribes in protecting these areas. It can be productive for the government as it reduces the number of oppositions, engages with every stakeholder, and keep the metaphysical value of the land intact. The implementation of such a framework can be challenging in the bureaucratic environment of Kenya, however it is essential to decentralize the control over protected areas and recognize their values as more than open land. Working with local communities has been proven successful for the Kenyan government when they trained the Masaai to protect the wildlife from poachers rather than hunting them. (Coren 2014)

The tribe have a long history with the river, as they have been its guardian for over 700 years.

121

03_Rethinking Urban Spaces

The focus of the policies regarding wildlife and nature has been on the areas with the least human presence. Yet with the acquired data, Tyrrell (2019) and his team show that certain wildlife can be higher in areas with substantial human presence. For example, the fragmented green spaces of Nairobi (Urban parks, forest reserves, national parks, and as well as the residential gardens) together hold as many species of birds as the Maasai Mara National Reserve (Tyrrell, Toit, and Macdonald 2019). Subsequently the green spaces in areas with more human presence are left untreated and slowly eaten away by built environment. The urban spaces get more congested creating climate change, pollution, waste problems, and traffic jams. As the city grows, residence move away from the central business district (CBD). More traffic jams are caused as residents commute daily for more than 2hrs to reach CBD (Wairimu 2019). The re-drawing of Nairobiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s boundaries, extending it numerous times indicates the uncontrolled growth (United Nations 2009). With a binary vision of nature and urban, the city fails to protect its green areas, improve living quality and uncontrol the urban growth.

ÂŠ https://nairobiplanninginnovations.com/

Fragmented green areas A new city plan, strategically integrating green spaces into the urban environment is one of the most important approach towards coexistence. Due to uncontrolled growth of Nairobi, its once planned layout has now turned into a fragmented landscape of natural habitats, informal settlements, protected areas, residential, and commercial.

ÂŠ Martin Ledant

With the rapid urbanization and high demand for food, it is important to stop overlooking the urban and agricultural areas for conservation. The city planners and authorities need to start focusing on creating a broader biodiversity system involving an interchange between nature and humans rather than a dichotomy.

122

123

03_Rethinking Urban Spaces TIRANA 2030 (TR030)

2017

ÂŠ www.stefanoboeriarchitetti.net

Tirana, Albania

Stefano Boeri Architetti

A long term vision pivoted around nature The Tirana 2030 is a vision of new era for the city of Tirana, which has been approved by the city council. With the plan the architect aims to control development, create improved infrastructure, incorporate green corridors, and enhance urban spaces. The plan follows the main theme of reconquering the landscape through a balance between the city and nature (Stefano Boeri Architetti 2017). Under the central theme the plan uses the natural dimension in several different

124

ways. New continuous orbital forest is created around the city, which includes protected parks, water bodies to preserve biodiversity, ecological corridors along the rivers, and a smaller orbital forest for mobility. The larger orbital forest will dictate the new development taking place. While the smaller orbit near the center will triple the green spaces in the city center. The project plans to launch new small urban centers near the periphery, extending the network of services while reducing the chaotic density of the city center (Stefano Boeri Architetti 2017).

Nature guiding the urbanization Compared to the existing situation, the plan significantly reduced the forecast development in favor of accessible green spaces with mix activities. It uses the orbital forest and other green spaces to restrain urban sprawl and guide the future developments. With strategic spatial projects it activates many of the urban spaces and tries to create a balance of urbanization throughout the plan. Using a large green structure Nairobi can connect its park and other green spaces, creating a continuous flow for the nature rather than being choked by urban spaces. This continuous flow can also help with the traffic problems of Nairobi.

The project also demonstrate how Nairobi can develop its peri-urban areas through a network of new urban centers without damaging the landscape. It also helps with reducing the congestion in the CBD. The ecological corridors along the river help purify the water and keep the biodiversity of the area. Nairobi’s growth is unavoidable, however learning from such plans and visions Nairobis’ urban development can be guided and integrated with the natural landscapes.

125

Conclusions

As Nairobi continues to grow in the same fashion it will keep destroying the

doesn’t stop the city from having strategic projects as case 1 or changing governance

biodiversity, increasing the divide between the city and nature. In order to have a

framework as in case 2. Even regarding case 3, Nairobi needs a urban plan

sustainable growth, Nairobi needs to pull back from its industrial principals and

intertwining the green spaces and the urban fabric together. The implementation of

work on a more holistic approach which includes an ecological aspect. This can be

such large scale development can be carried out in phases.

challenging as natural resource depletion is seen as an unavoidable outcome for developing nations with an increasing population, high foreign debt, uneducated population, and industrial capacity to grow. (National Research Council 1992)

References

The benefits of preserving biodiversity has already been mentioned. In this regard,

Baggethun, Erik Gomez, and Berta Martin Lopez. 2014. “The Socio-Economic Costs

the three approach for coexistence of man and nature will help Nairobi and Kenya

of Biodiversity Loss.” Lynchos 3 (January). https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264189188-

improve the living conditions of its population. The approaches work on different

graph28-es.

scales (neighborhood, national, city) with different key drivers (community,

Bessy Eva, Kathambi, and Mutembei M Henry. 2018. “Determinants of Compliance

government, urban planners), but they have common goals towards creating a sustainable environment by conserving and integrating biodiversity in urban and governance framework. These approaches demand new way of thinking about cities, the importance of biodiversity, the way of conservation and restoration, and urban planning appropriate to the context. This in the broader context help bring social justice, diversity and sustainability in the future of Nairobi (Grimm and Schindler 2018).

with Governance Instruments for Adoption of Green Concept in Environmental Management: Case of Nairobi.” Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences 12: 28–38. http://www.innspub.net. Chacel, Fernando Magalhães. 2001. Landscaping and Ecogenesis. Rio de Janeiro: Fraiha. Coren, Michael J. 2014. “Saving Lions By Appointing Masai Warriors As Their Protectors.” Fast Company [Online], May 5, 2014. https://www.fastcompany.

As Nairobi is a key element to achieving the Kenya Vision 2030, a fourth pillar of

com/3029791/saving-lions-by-appointing-massai-warriors-as-their-protectors.

ecology should be introduced in the Vision. Proper land-use policies should be

Cybriwsky, Roman A. 2013. Capital Cities around the World : An Encyclopedia of

implemented in the city, limiting the city growth, and developing the peri-urban areas with sensitivity towards the biodiversity. Often due to scanty funds available, cities are not able to take drastic efforts towards preserving the biodiversity. This

126

Geography, History, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. Davison, Isaac. 2017. “Whanganui River given Legal Status of a Person under

Unique Treaty of Waitangi Settlement .” NZ Herald, March 15, 2017. https://www. nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11818858.

Talbot-Jones, Julia. 2017. “The Institutional Economics of Granting a River Legal

Grimm, Nancy B., and Seth Schindler. 2018. “Nature of Cities and Nature in Cities: Prospects for Conservation and Design of Urban Nature in Human Habitat.” In Rethinking Environmentalism: Linking Justice, Sustainability, and Diversity. MIT Press.

stefanoboeriarchitetti.net/en/project/tirana-030-2/.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327883338_Nature_of_Cities_

and_Nature_in_Cities_Prospects_for_Conservation_and_Design_of_Urban_ Nature_in_Human_Habitat. Herzog, Cecilia P., and Ricardo Finotti. 2013. “Local Assessment of Rio de Janeiro

Standing.” https://doi.org/10.25911/5D51451CE3A2E. “The Global Livability Index .” 2019. Thornton, Philip K. 2010. “Livestock Production: Recent Trends, Future Prospects.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 365 (1554): 2853–67. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0134. “Tracking Africa’s Progress In Figures.” 2014. Tunis. www.afdb.org/statistics.

City: Two Case Studies of Urbanization Trends and Ecological Impacts.” In

Tyrrell, Peter, Johan T. Toit, and David W. Macdonald. 2019. “Conservation beyond

Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Challenges and Opportunities:

Protected Areas: Using Vertebrate Species Ranges and Biodiversity Importance

A Global Assessment, 609–28. Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-

Scores to Inform Policy for an East African Country in Transition.” Conservation

94-007-7088-1_29.

Science and Practice 2 (1). https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.136.

Iorns Magallanes, Catherine J. 2015. “Nature as an Ancestor: Two Examples of

United Nations. 2009. “Nairobi and Its Environment.” In Kenya, Atlas of Our

Legal Personality for Nature in New Zealand.” VertigO - La Revue Électronique

Changing Environment, 160. United Nations Environment Programme.

En Sciences de l’environnement [Online]. https://journals.openedition.org/

Wairimu, Annastacia. 2019. “Nairobi Ranked World’s 4th Most Congested City

vertigo/16199?lang=en.

- Kenyan Wallstreet Nairobi Metropolitan Area Transport Authority Released

Makathimo, Mwenda, and Paul Guthiga. 2010. “The Case of Nairobi River Basin.” Nassauer, Joan Iverson. 1997. “Cultural Sustainability: Aligning Aesthetics and Ecology.” In Placing Nature: Culture and Landscape Ecology. Island Press. National Research Council. 1992. “Biodiversity Research: The Socioeconomic Context.” Conserving Biodiversity. O’donnell, Erin L, and Julia Talbot-Jones. 2018. “Creating Legal Rights for Rivers: Lessons from Australia, New Zealand, and India.” Ecology and Science 23. https:// doi.org/10.5751/ES-09854-230107.

a Report That Stated That Vehicles Stuck in Traffic Have Potentially Cost Kenya Almost $1 Billion a Year in Lost Productivity.” Kenyan Wall Street, September 25, 2019.

https://kenyanwallstreet.com/nairobi-ranked-worlds-4th-most-congested-

city/. Welz, Adam. 2019. “How Kenya’s Push for Development Is Threatening Its Famed Wild Lands.” Yale Environment 360, April. https://e360.yale.edu/features/howkenyas-push-for-development-is-threatening-its-prized-wild-lands. World Bank. 2019. “Kenya | Data.” 2019. https://data.worldbank.org/country/KE.

Sands, Philippe. 2012. “On Being 40: A Celebration of ‘Should Trees Have Standing?’” Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 3 (0): 2–3. https://doi. org/10.4337/jhre.2012.02.01. Stefano

Boeri

Architetti.

2017.

“Tirana

2030

.”

2017.

https://www.

127

KARMEN HOGE

Social Forestry The Giving Trees

Forests in Peri-Urban Nairobi

pollinate and support our peri-urban farms and green spaces” (Onyango 2015).

Kenya’s native forests have historically been, and continue to be, threatened by urban

While forests in peri-urban Nairobi foster resiliency to climate change, they also are

development. The British viewed Kenya as a place of agricultural potential, and the

indispensable sources for water, food, and firewood for the inhabitants, and thus,

native forests were cleared to make way for tea plantations and indigenous forests

the conservation and regeneration of the forests is vital for Nairobi and its growing

were replaced with exotic trees to construct new houses (Films for the Humanities

population.

& Sciences, Group, and M-Net 2010). The destruction of the forest was an attempt to “tame the land” (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, Group, and M-Net 2010). After independence, much of the public land in Kenya was privatized and given away as briberies when the government needed favors (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, Group, and M-Net 2010). Today, the rapid growth of Nairobi’s urban population is increasing pressure on land. With high property prices in the city and the availability, low prices and flexible land-use policies in the outskirts, peri-urban Nairobi is experiencing large-scale landscape transformations (Aggrey Daniel Maina 2010). The sprawling urban development is engulfing the remaining natural forests in the peripheries of Nairobi. During our fieldwork, we noticed the inhabitants are eager about the new opportunities that come with urban development, forgetting about the importance of the natural land. Forests across the globe provide essential ecological, environmental and social amenities, and many people depend on forest resources for daily survival (Schusser 2016). Akshay Vishwanath, a Friends of Nairobi National Park board member, states that the “rapidly growing and polluted city does need ‘lungs’ to provide clean air, a filtration system for clean water, and a biological system for the insects that

128

ÂŠ Karmen Hoge

Ndenderu, Kenya, 2020

129

Introducing Social Forestry

forest and the community that ensures the sustainability and long-term care for the

Social forestry offers an alternative approach to achieve climate goals while

forest. The introduction of social forestry into Nairobi’s urban design agenda offers

engaging the community and addressing the needs of the population. While there

the opportunity to conserve and regenerate peri-urban Nairobi’s natural resources

are several definitions for this practice, one of the most adopted definitions of social

while engaging the community

forestry, also known as community or participatory forestry, is defined by the FAO as “the promotion of self-help management and use of trees and perennials to

This is explored through the presentation of three social forestry cases, from

sustainably improve the livelihoods of local people, especially the poor, generally

Ethiopia, Bangladesh and Romania. These cases show that, while the forest is the

using methodologies (called “participatory”) which involve beneficiaries in project

product of social collaboration and the protection of the forest is ensured by the

design and implementation” (Peluso, Turner, and Fortmann 1994, 9). Social forestry

people, the forest provides various degrees of protection to the people in return.

projects often involve landless people, and while the extent of local participation

These cases provide relevant lessons that promote the implementation of social

and management varies – from the planning stages to the planting and care of

forestry in Nairobi’s urban agenda as a way to structure the creation of a healthy

individual trees - all social forestry projects aim to deliver shared benefits to the

ecological framework that can accommodate sustainable urban growth.

entire community (Barnard and Foley 1984). In many cases, social forestry projects intend to provide immediate benefits to the community such as food sources and income generation. They also offer long-term ecological and environmental benefits such as land protection, climate resilience and water resource management. In the meantime, the planting and upbringing of the forest strengthens and empowers the community, creating a sense of pride, ownership, and stewardship that connects the people with the land. This essay aims to demonstrate that in social forestry, people build and protect the forest, and in turn, the forest protects and gives back to the people. Social forestry pays attention to the needs of the population and gives the community the power to act upon these needs. It creates an understanding of the importance of the forest, both symbolically and environmentally. It is this synergic interaction between the

130

ÂŠ Karmen Hoge

Kikiyu, Kenya, 2020

131

01_From Protecting the Church to Protecting Biodiversity CHURCH FORESTS OF ETHIOPIA

2002 - current

South Gondar, Ethiopia

Tree Foundation

Like peri-urban Nairobi, urban development and land-use changes in South Gondar, Northern Ethiopia are also threatening the function of ecosystems and biodiversity. The forests that once covered the Northern Highlands of Ethiopia have succumbed to the pressures of population growth, and the nearly the entire region has been cleared for agriculture and cattle grazing (Bahnson n.d.). Less than 3% of the native forests remain intact (Bahnson n.d.) and these last forests are found in small patches, each centered around a church (Cardelús et al. 2017). Belonging to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, these forests have managed to persist over the years as they are considered to be sacred places, with the church

132

acting as “shadow conservation” (Cardelús et al. 2017, 726) for what remains of South Gondar’s biodiversity (Cardelús et al. 2017). It is estimated that twenty thousand minuscule sacred church forests are scattered across the Ethiopian Highlands (Bahnson n.d.). However, the isolation and lack of biodiversity of these small forests make them extremely vulnerable to human disturbances and edge effects, with little potential to regenerate (Cardelús et al. 2019).

A pilot project was initiated by two forestry specialists aiming to educate priests about how valuable their forests are and how to conserve them (Bahnson n.d.). The priests brought forward the idea to replicate the inner wall, that forms a courtyard around the church, to build a secondary outer wall that surrounds the forest, protecting the forest and its wildlife and giving it space to expand (Bahnson n.d.). Local villagers, who care deeply for the church, volunteered to collect stones from the surrounding agricultural fields to build the new wall (Bahnson n.d.). Since then, this idea has been replicated to conserve many church forests across South Gondar.

The church forest is a form of “community-based protection” (Klepeis et al. 2016, 715), where religious practices require local communal land that is effectively protected due to external institutional traditions (Klepeis et al. 2016). The forests are vital in protecting the church in the same way that they are protected by their relationship with the church. The church forests already behaved as a community gathering point, however the conservation of them brought new meanings as an ecologically important place as well as a symbol biodiversity conservation. Culturally important and respected institutions in peri-urban Nairobi, such as the church and education, be also used to protect regenerate the native forests.

133

02_From Protecting the Land to Protecting Heritage A FOREST FOR EACH SCHOOL

2009 - current

Transylvania, Romania

Accor & PUR Project

The history of Transylvania’s forest declining forest cover is similar to that of Kenya’s. For centuries, Transylvania was a prosperous region due to its rich natural environment (Akeroyd 2016). The Saxon Villages formed farming communities, where the villagers used sustainable and traditional methods to live in harmony with the land (Accor 2020). During the communist regime, both the forests and wood-pastures were cleared for large-scale agriculture and timber industries (Drăgan, Mureşan, and Benedek 2019), leaving abandoned deforested rural landscapes vulnerable to erosion and degradation (PUR Project 2016). Today, the farms scattered across the Transylvanian countryside are under financial

134

pressure and many families are departing to live in urban locations (Accor 2020), as the degrading land no long provides sustainable living conditions. As natural regeneration is insufficient alone to prevent soil erosion and regenerate a biodiverse forest, a social forestry project was initiated to provide tree saplings to the landowners of affected plots (PUR Project 2016). With a strong focus on education and raising ecological responsibility, local school children plant trees with the guidance from local forestry specialists (Accor 2020). Additionally, an orchard with native traditional fruit is planted in each schoolyard, according to old Saxion tradition, and is taken care of by the students (PUR Project 2016).

ÂŠ https://www.mihaieminescutrust.ro/en/heritage/

Like in Kenya, the community respects education and this ssociation to the school helps in protecting forested lands. This social forestry project is needed to help increase economic viability and provide sustainable living conditions in the Transylvanian countryside. While a primary goal of this project is to restore the natural richness of the Transylvanian rural landscape, the reforestation has an important cultural and influential component. The involvement of school children in the tree planting and maintenance of school orchards communicates the cultural heritage to future generations. The dynamics between the local forestry specialists and school children creates a level of awareness and ecological

responsibility that ensures that the forests will be cared for and not abandoned. In this case, social forestry returns to the community by protecting and restoring cultural heritage. By incorporating the tree planting and sustainable land management principles into the education system, the forest acts as a symbol of commitment to the future. The new urbanization in peri-urban Nairobi comes with the development of new neighbourhoods and new schools, where the integration of social forestry into the educational curriculum can be a powerful instrument.

135

03_From Protecting Livelihood to Protecting the People COMMUNITY BASED ADAPTATION THROUGH COASTAL AFFORESTATION

2009-2013

©UNDP Bangladesh

©Bangladesh Forest Department 1999

Barguna and Patuakhali, Chittagong, Bhola, and Noakhali, Bangladesh

UNDP Global Environment

While Bangladesh barely contributes to global emissions, lying at the node of three river basins, this small coastal country is severely threatened by climate change (Rawlani and Sovacool 2011), with increasing frequency and severity of natural disasters (Nath, Jashimuddin, and Inoue 2016). Bangladesh’s coastal mangrove forests historically supported many species of flora and fauna (Hoq 2014) and acted as a buffer to mitigate the shocks of incoming storms (Rawlani and Sovacool 2011). The mangrove ecosystem supplies valuable forest products and food sources and supports the livelihood of 3.5 million local people (Hoq 2014), however, it is rapidly degrading due to competing land uses and various

136

socioeconomic threats (Nath, Jashimuddin, and Inoue 2016), including jhum, the traditional farming practice shifting cultivation (Nath, Jashimuddin, and Inoue 2016), where forests are cleared, cultivated for a short period of time and fallowed for a long period (Hossain 2011). Moreover, rising sea levels are detrimental to the mangroves (Gilman et al. 2008) and could put up to 30 million people living in the coastal belt at risk of displacement (Belt 2011). With the effects of climate change and the deteriorating state of Bangladesh’s forests placing its impoverished population at tremendous risk, Bangladesh, a pioneer is social forestry practices, can offer valuable lessons to social forestry development in

ÂŠ ICCCAD 2016

The Community Based Adaptation through Coastal Afforestation project recognizes that the direct participation from the people, farmers and fishers is required for serious and long-term benefits (Rawlani and Sovacool 2011). This project aims to dually mitigate the impacts of climate change while expanding the livelihood options for four especially vulnerable coastal communities (UNDP Bangladesh 2007). The first component of this pilot project is to mobilize the community in the establishment of large-scale plantations of both mangrove and non-mangrove trees. As fishing and farming are the main sources of income (Rawlani and Sovacool 2011), the second component is to expand the

livelihood options of the community through the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Forest, Fish, Fruitâ&#x20AC;? model (UNDP Bangladesh 2007). This model aims to accommodate landless families and integrate food production and aquaculture into the plantations (Rawlani and Sovacool 2011). This project generates continuous income for the community by producing short-term and long-term resources, and as these income sources require a healthy forest, it simultaneously assures preservation of the forest. The communities, formerly considered a threat to the health of the forests, are now the protectors of the forests. With the people depending on the forest for their livelihood and protection of the land, the forest has a new meaning as a place

137

Conclusions The Future of Social Forestry in Kenya

women said that they had to walk further and further to get clean drinking water

These three cases of social forestry present the mutally beneficial relationship

and firewood, that they needed food and better income (Films for the Humanities

between the people and the land created by social forestry: The forests in Ethiopia

& Sciences, Group, and M-Net 2010). In response, Wangari Maathai suggested

protect the churches while the church simultaneously protects the forest. In

that the women plant trees, and this was the beginning of social forestry in Kenya

Transylvania, the regeneration of the forests protects its cultural heritage, and in

(Green Belt Movement 2020).

Bangladesh, the dependency on the forest for income assures its well-being and enables it to protect the land in the future.

Karura Forest was protected in 1932, however development continuously decreased the size of the forest (Onyango 2015). It was previously known as a place of land-

While forests are essential for the conservation of natural resources and reducing

grabbing and crime (Friends of Karura 2020). In 1998, when large section of

vulnerability to climate change, these three cases demonstrate that social forestry

Karura Forest were cleared for development, members of the GreenBelt Movement

is designed to create sustainable living conditions for the community. It is well

organized “protest-visits” (Njeru 2012, 22) to plant trees. The tree planting continued

understood in science and in literature that forests are required for ecological

to become a main demonstration method to save the forest, and protestors would

urban development, however social forestry is what brings this understanding to

plant trees at entrances demanding that the government give the forest back to

the community.

the public (Maathai 2007). From this, the coalition Friends of Karura Forest was formed.

Moreover, the stewardship, ownership and pride created through social forestry practices bring a symbolic importance to the forest. While the forests were initially

Although the fight to protect Karura Forest is not over, the “guerilla tree planting”

created to address the needs of the community and the environment, the act of

(Manji 2017, 192) became a symbolic representation of the struggle against land-

planting trees empowers the community. Across the globe, there is a lack of

grabbing in Kenya. As seen in the three cases, the transformations that come with

support for the engagement of small or vulnerable communities in environmental

social forestry are more than ecological and economic - the social forest becomes a

movements (Green Belt Movement 2020). Social forestry allows local communities

place of expression and a symbol of hope for the future. Karura Forest shows that

to participate in the battle against climate change, bringing a new meaning to the

social forestry is already on its way in Kenya, and with the lessons from these three

forest as a democratic space.

cases, social forestry has the potential to introduce new visions in the sustainable planning of peri-urban Nairobi.

Karura Forest Reserve is an example of a series of social forestry practices in the northern outskirts of Nairobi, where tree planting led to political changes. Karura Forest is a symbolic place for the people living in Nairobi as well as for those that fought for its protection. Wangari Maathai, the founder of Kenya’s GreenBelt Movement, is largely responsible for the protection of Karura Forest. The GreenBelt Movement began in 1977, initially not as a movement, but as a solution to the needs of rural women in Kenya (Green Belt Movement 2020). The

138

139 Â© https://www.greenbeltmovement.org/node/652

References Books and scientific articles :

10.1007/s10745-016-9868-z.

Aggrey Daniel Maina, Thuo. 2010. “Community and social responses to land use

Maathai, Wangari. 2007. Unbowed: A memoir: Anchor.

transformations in the Nairobi rural-urban fringe, Kenya.” Field Actions Science Reports. Akeroyd, John R. 2016. “Transylvania: biodiversity, living tradition and future prosperity.” Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov, Series IV: Philology Cultural Studies 9 (1):83-100. Barnard, Geoffrey, and Gerald Foley. 1984. Farm and community forestry: London : Earthscan. Cardelús, C. L., C. L. Woods, A. B. Mekonnen, S. Dexter, P. Scull, and B. A. Tsegay. 2019. “Human disturbance impacts the integrity of sacred church forests, Ethiopia.” PLoS ONE 14 (3). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0212430. Cardelús, Catherine L., Peter Scull, Alemayehu Wassie Eshete, Carrie L. Woods, Peter Klepeis, Eliza Kent, and Izabela Orlowska. 2017. “Shadow conservation and the persistence of sacred church forests in northern Ethiopia.” Biotropica 49 (5):726-733. doi: 10.1111/btp.12431.

Manji, Ambreena. 2017. “Property, conservation, and enclosure in Karura Forest, Nairobi.” African Affairs 116 (463):186-205. doi: 10.1093/afraf/adx006. Nath, Tapan Kumar, Mohammed Jashimuddin, and Makoto Inoue. 2016. Community-Based Forest Management (CBFM) in Bangladesh. Vol. 22: Springer International Publishing, Cham. Njeru, Jeremia. 2012. “Mobilization and protest: the struggle to save Karura Forest in Nairobi, Kenya.”

African Geographical Review 31 (1):17-32. doi:

10.1080/19376812.2012.681294. Peluso, Nancy Lee, Matt Turner, and Louise Fortmann. 1994. Introducing Community Forestry: Annotated Listing of Topics and Readings, Community Forests. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rawlani, Amireeta, and Benjamin Sovacool. 2011. “Building responsiveness to climate change through community based adaptation in Bangladesh.” An International Journal Devoted to Scientific, Engineering, Socio-Economic and

Drăgan, Magdalena, Gabriela-Alina Mureşan, and József Benedek. 2019. “Mountain

Policy Responses to Environmental Change 16 (8):845-863. doi: 10.1007/s11027-

wood-pastures and forest cover loss in Romania.” Journal of Land Use Science 14

011-9298-6.

(4-6):397-409. doi: 10.1080/1747423X.2020.1719224.

Schusser, Carsten. 2016. “Community Forestry.” In Tropical Forestry Handbook,

Gilman, Eric L, Joanna Ellison, Norman C Duke, and Colin Field. 2008. “Threats to

edited by Laslo Pancel and Michael Köhl, 2117-2143. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer

mangroves from climate change and adaptation options: a review.” Aquatic botany

Berlin Heidelberg.

89 (2):237-250.

UNDP Bangladesh. 2007. Community-based Adaptation to Climate Change

Hoq, M. E. 2014. Management strategies for sustainable exploitation of aquatic

through Coastal Afforestation Project Factsheet. Dhaka, Bangladesh: UNDP

resources of the Sundarbans mangrove, Bangladesh.

Bangladesh.

Hossain, Md Rejwanul. 2011. “An overview on shifting cultivation with reference to Bangladesh.” Scientific Research and Essays 6. doi: 10.5897/SRE11.1282. Klepeis, Peter, Izabela Orlowska, Eliza Kent, Catherine Cardelús, Peter Scull, Alemayehu Wassie Eshete, and Carrie Woods. 2016. “Ethiopian Church Forests: A Hybrid Model of Protection.” An Interdisciplinary Journal 44 (6):715-730. doi:

140

On-line documents, films and websites : Accor. 2020. “Romania, Mihai Eminescu Trust.” Vincent Rabaron, accessed May 31 2020. https://accor.purprojet.shop/projects/56.

Bahnson, Fred. n.d. “The Church Forests of Ethiopia - A Mystical Geography.”

ICCCAD. 2016. “Community-based Adaptation to Climate Change through

Emergence Magazine, accessed June 13 2020. https://emergencemagazine.org/

Coastal Afforestation in Bangladesh.” AP-PLAT, accessed June 13 2020. https://ap-

story/the-church-forests-of-ethiopia/.

plat.nies.go.jp/plan_implementation/casestudies/db/2016-case-study-2-1/index.

Belt, Don. 2011. “The coming storm.” National Geographic, accessed June 13 2020. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2011/05/bangladesh/ Films for the Humanities & Sciences, Films Media Group, and M-Net. 2010. Wangari Maathai : For Our Land. New York, N.Y.: Films Media Group. Friends of Karura. 2020. “The Karura Forest Reserve.” World Press, accessed May 28 2020. http://www.friendsofkarura.org/the-karura-forest-researve/. Green Belt Movement. 2020. “What We DO.” accessed May 27 2020. http://www. greenbeltmovement.org/what-we-do. Onyango, Protus. 2015. Kenya’s Karura Forest, symbol of GreenBelt Movement, suffering death by 1,000 cuts. Endangered Environmentalists. Accessed May 27 2020.

https://news.mongabay.com/2015/04/kenyas-karura-forest-symbol-of-

greenbelt-movement-suffering-death-by-1000-cuts/ PUR Project. 2016. “Mihai Eminescu Trust.” Vincent Rabaron, accessed May 31 2020. https://www.purprojet.com/project/mihai-eminescu-trust/.

Photo references: Department, Bangladesh Forest. 1999. Map showing the forest of Bangladesh

html. Klepeis, Peter, Izabela Orlowska, Eliza Kent, Catherine Cardelús, Peter Scull, Alemayehu Wassie Eshete, and Carrie Woods. 2016. “Ethiopian Church Forests: A Hybrid Model of Protection.” An Interdisciplinary Journal 44 (6):715-730. doi: 10.1007/s10745-016-9868-z. Mihai Eminescu Trust. 2020. “Heritage.” Mihai Eminescu Trust, accessed May 31 2020. https://www.mihaieminescutrust.ro/en/heritage/. Mirza, Raïsa. 2015. “People gather at the church in Aunara underneath old growth trees to mourn the loss of the Archbishop of Bahir Dar region.” Africa’s Geographic, accessed May 31. https://africageographic.com/stories/ethiopias-church-forests-2/. PUR Projet and Christian Lamontagne. 2016. “Mihai Eminescu Trust.” PUR Projet, accessed May 31 2020. https://www.purprojet.com/project/mihai-eminescu-trust/. The Green Belt Movement. 2014. “Celebrating The Third Anniversary for Wangari Maathai.” The Green Belt Movement, accessed June 15 2020. https://www. greenbeltmovement.org/node/652. UNDP Bangladesh. 2011. Communities Adapt! Planting Trees to Fight Climate Change. IDB Bhaban, Agargaon, Dhaka, Bangaldesh: Community Based Adaptation to Climate Change through Coastal Afforestation

Dodds, Kieran. 2018a. “Debre Mihret Arbiatu Ensesa church surrounded by woodland and fields.” Panos Pictures, accessed June 14 2020. https://library. panos.co.uk/stock-photo/debre-mihret-arbiatu-ensesa-church-surrounded-bywoodland-and/search/detailmodal-0_00245196.html?dvx=1519. Dodds, Kieran. 2018b. “Mekame Selam Kolala Meskel church, surrounded by fields.”. Panos Pictures, accessed June 14 2020. https://library.panos.co.uk/stockphoto/mekame-selam-kolala-meskel-church-surrounded-by-fields-forest-land/ search/detailmodal-0_00245204.html?dvx=1519.

141

GRACE NYAGUTHII KAMWERU

TOWARDS WATER EQUITY IN NAIROBI Three approaches of water–sensitive adaptations for Kikuyu

Water scarcity: The global and regional perspective

right to health and the right to clean water, citing water’s notable role in COVID 19

According to UNEP (2020) over 40% of the world population is affected by water

response (OHCHR 2020).

scarcity, with about 1.4 billion people living within river basins where the rate of use exceeds that of recharge. Human activities contribute to 80% of waste water

Nairobi water: The dissipating resource

that is discharged into these rivers and seas without treatment (UNEP 2019). The

Nairobi, Kenya’s capital is particularly under a major water crisis marked by water

environmental dimension of the sustainable development goal (SGD) 6 ‘Clean water

scarcity and contamination in some of its water sources. Its main water supply is the

and sanitation’; has been targeting how water-related ecosystems such as forests and

Ndakaini, Sasumua and Ruiru dams and Kikuyu springs found in Kiambu County;

wetlands and their biodiversity can be restored and preserved, by preventing

and from rivers that flow within Tana river watershed fed by springs recharged in

deforestation and by reducing pollution can collectively improve water supply

the Aberdare mountain forest further north (Pravettoni 2011; Jenkins 2019) The

and quality. A rising global population brings about effectual socio-economic

management of Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company (NCWSC) revealed

development and a zestful consumption pattern where water use has been increasing

a 25% shortfall of water supply to Nairobi, and a lamentable situation where only

at 1% annually for four decades now, according to world’s water development report

a half of the 5 million Nairobi City inhabitants have access to piped water (BBC

by United Nations (2019).

News 2019). According to Jenkins (2019), 40% of the city’s limited water supply is

Due to the surging domestic and industrial demands, the world’s water development

lost to pipe leaks and illicit connections; leaving most Nairobi residents to rely on

report further projects that the consumption rate could increase by 20-30% by 2050,

water kiosks, boreholes, water tankers and from mkokoteni (handcarts) filled with

a situation which could jeopardize communities due to climate change. The outgoing

5-litre jerrycans pushed by vendors. Boreholes have also been monopolized over

UNESCO envoy for water in Africa and third President of Kenya, His Excellency

time leading to serious enviromental and social abuse marked by overextraction

Mwai Kibaki, expressed optimism in the tremendous efforts Africa is making

of groundwater, cases of contamination at the source and overpricing. Following

towards transforming water challenges through purposeful actions (Daily Nation

the poor state of ground water drilled from boreholes within Nairobi, the County

2020). He however lobbies for long-lasting solutions especially now when water-

government moved to halt issuance of approvals of commercial boreholes in the

related afflictions have been compounded by the prevalent COVID 19 pandemic;

city (Nairobi News 2019).

where water is playing a prominent role to forestall imminent danger. Advocacy by most governments for citizens to practise handwashing to avert the corona virus, is however being frustrated by the biting water crisis in most cities (Standard Digital 2020). The United Nations human rights body emphasizes the linkage between the

154

ÂŠ Sharmin Shimul, 2020

Water Scarcity in Nairobi, 2020 Dire water shortage in informal settlements in Nairobi has revealed inequalities, where only a fifth of them have access to piped water leading them to rely on informal water vendors (Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor 2018). Small scale water providers in the city include; tap-water vendors (39%), water kiosks (23%), borehole vendors (18%), push-cart vendors (11%) and tanker trucks (9%) (UNDP 2011). Some of these vendors have been reported to take advantage of the situation by charging unreasonable prices to Nairobi residents (Ambani 2018).

155

Kikuyu waterscape: A territorial lifeline

used to dump industrial effluents, sewage and agricultural run-offs, and private

Kikuyu springs aquifer is an important public water source found on the upper

greenhouse owners encroached its edges by installing multiple illegal pumps; which

plateaus found on the north-western territory of Nairobi Metropolitan region, and

collectively contributed to its contamination and water over-extraction (Zhu 2019).

a major supply of water to the city. High rate of urbanization of Kikuyu peri-urban

However, through the relentless conservation efforts by Friends of Ondiri volunteers

town, human induced land use changes, encroachment of Ondiri swamp and the

and local farmers, the swamp ecosystem is on a noticable path to recovery (Zhu

Kikuyu springs by farms, greenhouses and industries has soured groundwater

2019). Several tree planting programs have been implemented, hefty penalties are

extraction; posing a concern of the Kikuyu aquifer’s sustainability. Water Resource

being issued to polluters and many native bird species have since returned.

Authority is the body mandated to allocate, apportion and manage water resources in Kenya (Water Resources Authority (WRMA) 2018). To ensure fairness, effective

Water urbanism: Framing the future of Kikuyu waterscape

use and equitable supply, WRMA ascertains the quantity and quality of surface and

In the quest to regenerate the ecology of Kikuyu, a peri-urban town undergoing

ground water sources, and also protects those resources under threat. Kikuyu springs

expansion and loss of biodiversity; its water and forest resources shall play a

aquifer was one of the groundwater resources found under threat, which led to its

crucial role to spread urbanity. Its expansion provides a new frontier where new

gazettement in 12th June, 2013 as a groundwater protection zone and conservation

settlements could be anchored within new, strategic and alternative forms of water

area (WRMA 2020). Ondiri swamp is another significant water source found in

management; imagined through landscape design to combat climate change and

Kikuyu, deemed as Kenya’s deepest freshwater swamp, which helps to recharge the

foster sustainability (Rojas, De Meulder and Shannon 2015). This study seeks

Kikuyu springs aquifer, and is a source of Nyongara river, which feeds into Nairobi

to address the persistent deforestation and poor agricultural activities in rural

river and Athi river, that flow through Nairobi city, hence branding Kikuyu as

metropolis of Kikuyu. It is intent in finding sustainable ways of managing storm-

Nairobi’s water tower (Zhu 2020). Following a prolonged drought in Kenya in 2017,

water in the urban countryside of Kikuyu where urbanization rate is higher than

most of Nairobi piped water supply could not keep up with the demand, which

in the rural side due to creation of impervious surfaces. Lastly, the study is seeking

forced the Nairobi County government to diversify its water sources. According to

for a long-term solution to water pollution caused by industrial effluents from

Thomson Reuters Foundation (2018), the county officials focused on rehabilitating

Magana industries, from greenhouses and from farm run-offs that often get into

the wetlands, dams and swamps close to Nairobi, with Ondiri swamp being on

Ondiri swamp and the rivers. Therefore this research pursues alternative water

top focus. Their initiative was backed up by grassroot efforts of local residents and

management techniques in Kikuyu; from the household to the territorial scales

conservationists such as ‘Friends of Ondiri’; a group of local volunteers.

using water-sensitive strategies that are envisioned through the three case studies

For so long the wetland had been covered by invasive species, was conveniently

below found in Brazil and Australia.

156

Ondiri Swamp, 2020 In the past, the swamp was a lake with clear glassy surface and surrounded by thick forests on its edges. Following deforestation and over-exploitation during the colonial era, the swamp rapidly transformed into a bog-like swamp with floating peat as a result of contaminants. Development of industries and green houses on its shores has escalated the water pollution; despite being a source of rivers that feeds Nairobi City downstream.

157

01_Scalable Water Management AGUA CARIOSA

2016-2017

Rio De Janeiro, Brazil

Ooze Architects

Agua Carioca is a project in Rio de Janeiro by Ooze architects. It sought to address water challenges across scales; from one household, through different sizes of favelas up to the city scale. This followed a history of rivers pollution with solid waste and sewage as they passed through the city into Gaunabara Bay. The design addressed poor water quality, scarcity and regeneration of the environment using three adaptable approaches of rainwater harvesting, septic tanks and constructed wetlands. The scalable water management process targeted the remote and informal neighbourhoods (favelas), where the City’s water and sewage infrastructure could not penetrate (Ooze 2017).

158

A series of constructed wetlands and water recycling solutions within different scales of neighbourhoods were developed. Constructed wetlands are proven and effective in treating waste water naturally, through sub-surface flow cells and are cheaper than the conventional treatment plants (Asian Development Bank 2015; Ooze 2017). In 2016 the first pilot project commenced for a household scale system at the home of the famous Brazilian Landscape Architect, Roberto Burle Marx. Planting design was used where wetland plants, tropical trees and bedding plants, accentuanted the function and aesthetics of the project.

A bathroom prototype was installed with the recycling system, whereas a rainwater collection unit was installed for the guest house roof, a new septic tank, a constructed wetland for cleaning the household waste water and a water storage tank that stored recycled water and run-off were also installed. The site is now used by scientists and is open for public exhibitions and research on landscape design, botany and nature conservation (Ooze 2017). Four other designs were developed and a city vision, ranging from one school of about 900 students; a small favela model for 150 homes; a medium-sized favela model for 600 homes and a larger favela model, the size of a district for 20,000 homes.

The designs were systematic and they intergrated all spatial, social, ecological and technical aspects of the sites across scales. They also portrayed potential to transform the entire city on a long-term basis (Ooze 2017). Nairobi has a similar warm tropical climate as that of Brazil; that is deemed favourable for the natural waste water treatment as advocated by this project. The scalable use of constructed wetlands could be used to polish waste water naturally from the households, the greenhouses and the industries found in Kikuyu. This would ensure that the Ondiri swamp and rivers on site have cleaner water. To curb water scarcity, rainwater harvesting could help in water usage.

159

02_Waste Water Treatment WHARF STREET URBAN PARK

2006-2008

ÂŠ Syrinx, 2017 (https://www.syrinx.net.au/portfolio/wharf-street)

Cannington, Western Australia

Architects: Syrinx

The Wharf street urban park is a water sensitive urban design project by Syrinx architects implemented in 2008 in Cannington city in Western Australia. The park serves dual functions by managing storm water from the neighbouring urbanized area before discharge into Canning River and also provides user experience and recreation to the area residents (Syrinx 2017). A constructed wetland system consisting of surface and sub-surface flow vegetated marshes, bio swales and cascades is incorporated to ensure efficient management of storm water. The park restores the ecological link between the City and the Canning river enhanced by green corridors consisting of wetland

160

fringe plants, meadows, shrublands, woodlands and wetland vegetation. Recreational activities are supported by incorporation of picnic and barbecue areas, viewing decks and urban furniture. Besides the western region of Nairobi lacking urban parks for recreation, most of its water sources such as rivers and wetlands are under a serious threat of pollution. The waste water treatment strategies advocated by this case study could be adapted in Kikuyu to treat domestic, industrial and agricultural waste water.

The project was awarded for excellence, research and innovation for storm water management in 2015. The notable outcomes include application of best practice of improving quality of storm water before discharge into the river as per the area’s set guidelines for absorbed particles. By revegetating the foreshore of Canning river, it helped to create new ecologies and sustain the local biodiversity through the matrix of woodlands, wetlands and shrublands incorporated. The cycling and pedestrian paths within the park helped to encourage the locals to explore the new ecologies of the wetlands and river’s foreshore (Syrinx 2017).

The landscape design was innovative, contemporary and functional to link the urban park to the urbanized zone; and added aesthetics to the site. Similar interventions in Kikuyu could be applied where constructed wetland parks could be incorporated to polish effluents from the greenhouses and from Magana flower industries before discharge into the swamp and rivers, respectively. Kikuyu town also lacks an urban park where the local residents can have leisure time. The proposed wetland parks could be designed so as to provide user experience of recreation and education to the park visitors.

161

03_Water-Sensitive Urban Design WHITE GUM VALLEY SUBURB

2017-2018

ÂŠJosh Byrne & Associates and Landcorp (Cooperative Research Centre, 2017)

Perth, Western Australia

Landcorp

White Gum Valley is a suburb in Fremantle in Western Australia comprising of 80 households, that was developed to demonstrate water sensitive strategies from the household scale to the city scale. The approach included construction of a communal reservoir whose source of water was from rain-harvesting; helped the community to reduce on water use by 70%. A groundwater network system helped to boost garden irrigation, rain gardens and provided a source of water for the drip irrigation systems of individual home gardens. An filtration basin that was developed to manage storm water was transformed into a public urban park for recreation (Coorperative Research Centre 2017).

162

Water-wise principles as applied here could be assimilated in Kikuyu. In the urban cores, community reservoirs could be used to supply water to neighbourhoods so as to discourage over-extraction of groundwater through wells and boreholes. Water efficiency and recycling can be realized by harvesting of rain water and by use of drip irrigation in orchards and farmlands in rural Kikuyu to minimise wastage of water. Infiltration basins and rain gardens could be strategically located to manage run-offs from impervious surfaces within the town. Such spaces could be used as urban parks or as plazas where residents of Kikuyu engage in leisure activities.

©Josh Byrne & Associates and Landcorp (Cooperative Research Centre, 2018)

Josh’s House is an innovative example of a household-level water sensitive urban design approach by Josh Byrne & Associates in collaboration with Landcorp. It demonstrates an exemplary method of water efficiency through rain water harvesting and storm water management; which could be replicated by housing developers in the world over (Cooperative Research Centre 2018). Kikuyu town is urbanizing very fast. The future housing expansions as well as existing ones could be remodelled to adapt into water-wise homes. Grey water could be treated within the lots and recycled to provide water for irrigation of gardens and orchards.

Landscape designs at the household scale could be strategically manipulated to support the water efficiency approach by mass planting so as ‘to hydrozone’ and minimise water demands. Drip irrigation could also assist in micro management of water in irrigation. Permeable pavements were used in the landscape to assist in storm water percolation; a viable strategy that could be applied in kikuyu in transforming most of its walkways, plazas and other impervious surfaces into porous surfaces, so as to encourage infiltration of storm water which will assist in groundwater recharge of the Kikuyu aquifer.

163

Conclusions Actualizing water equity in future planning and urban design projects in the Nairobi

2 are a proven and natural process of dealing with industrial waste water before

Metropolitan region is critical, especially now when the country is facing climate

discharge into the environment; they would be applicable in Kikuyu by the Magana

change. To achieve this, there needs to be collaboration of efforts by government,

flower industries.

water providers, the private sectors such as industry owners and the community. The

Reclamation of Ondiri swamp and the riparian zones around the town will

Government of Kenya should integrate water equity concerns within their climate

help in restoring the natural biodiversity that was present before the region was

action plans, to fund and to implement water sensitive projects in order to create

transformed by urbanization. This will go a long way to combat climate change

more resilient communities. Thus, more investments in water infrastructure such

through carbon sequestration and will also help in maintaining the groundwater

as community reserviors and water pans to boost water supply, and constructed

levels of the Kikuyu aquifer. This will ensure long term provision of water in the

wetlands for effective waste water treatment; is advocated by this study. On the other

region and the larger Nairobi Metropolitan region; hence the region will sustain

hand, the community can augment these efforts through conservation programs

its brand as Nairobi’s water tower to help forestall water scarcity in the City. New

by practising water sensitive agro-urbanism where they harvest rain water, use of

urbanization should be in tandem with the water sensitive approaches advocated by

natural fertilizers to boost yields and by planting new forests and groundcovers

this research. Application of green architecture techniques to help manage water at

within their farms to help in combating climate change and soil conservation,

the building scale will assist the territorial strategies. For instance, water recycling,

respectively.

rain water harvesting, use of green roofs, porous pavements and rain gardens will

There is need to strengthen the resilience of watersheds and to regulate water

go a long way in supporting this vision.

availability and quality in the western block of Nairobi metropolitan region. This ambition lies on the efforts of protection and restoration of water-related ecosystems

References

such as forests, wetlands and soils, and their biodiversity. When such conservation efforts are complemented by water infrastructure, could go a long way to forestall water shortage, consequently boosting food security, improving livelihoods of farmers and other agro-economic sectors (UNEP 2020). This research pursues scalable water management through rain-water harvesting, reliance on communal reservoirs to minimize ground water extraction, and use of common water pans for farming in the rural metropolis of Kikuyu. This study recommends reforestation, new agricultural techniques such as use of drip-irrigation to minimize water use and use of natural fertilizers for farming in

Ambani, Sylvania. 2018. “How vendors are minting money from Nairobi water crisis.” Nairobi News, December 18: https://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/news/howvendors-are-minting-money-from-nairobi-water-crisis-video. Asian Development Bank. 2015. “Improving Mobility, Improving Resilience; “SHANGHA|| HOUTAN PARK: LANDSCAPE AS A LIVING SYSTEM.”.” Partnership forum: Innovation fore Resilient ans Smart communities. Shanghai, May 20.

Kikuyu region of Kiambu County. The study envisions urban design strategies such

BBC News. 2019. “Nairobi water: What’s behind severe shortages?” November 2:

as creation of bio swales and rain gardens within the urban countryside of Kikuyu to

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50253189.

manage storm water and use of constructed wetlands to polish industrial effluents

Cooperative Research Centre. 2018. Josh’s House. Case Study, Fremantle, Western

and farm run-offs before discharge into Ondiri swamp and the rivers.The industrial sector should be enhanced so as to compliment this initiative by utilizing effective waste water treatment facilities. Constructed wetlands as seen in case studies 1 and

164

Australia: CRC for Water Sensitive Cities. Coorperative Research Centre. 2017. White Gum Valley: A waterwise way of living. Case Study, CRC for Water Sensitive Cities.

Daily Nation. 2020. “Reminiscing a memorable tenure as UNESCO Africa water envoy.” Rethinking Water, May 5.

pdf. UNEP. 2019. Better sewage treatment critical for human health and ecosystems.

Jenkins, Matt. 2019. “Africa’s First Clean Water Fund is Already Seeing Success.” The

April 5. Accessed May 7, 2020. https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/

solutions to Nairobi’s water shortages start upstream in the Tana River., August 31:

story/better-sewage-treatment-critical-human-health-and-ecosystems.

https://www.nature.org/en-us/magazine/magazine-articles/nairobi-water-fund/.

UNEP. 2020. GOAL 6: Clean water and sanitation. Accessed May 5, 2020. https://

Nairobi News. 2019. “Kenya: Be Warned! Water From Most Boreholes in Nairobi

www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/sustainable-development-goals/why-do-

Not Fit Human Consumption.” All Africa Global Media, July 1: https://allafrica.

sustainable-development-goals-matter/goal-6.

com/stories/201907010026.html. OHCHR. 2020. Kenya’s informal settlements need safe water to survive COVID-19. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/COVID19_ RighttoWaterKenya.aspx. Ooze. 2017. Agua Cariosa: Design Proposals. Accessed May 23, 2020. http://www. aguacarioca.org/designproposals. Ooze. 2017. Agua Cariosa: Our approach. Accessed May 23, 2020. http://www. aguacarioca.org/our-approach.

United Nations. 2019. “World Water Development Report 2019.” https://www. unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2019/. US Water Alliance. 2020. The Pillars of Water Equity. Accessed May 19, 2020. http://uswateralliance.org/wec/framework. Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor. 2018. Nairobi: Supporting service provision to a fast-growing population. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.wsup. com/where-we-work/kenya/nairobi/. Water Resources Authority (WRMA). 2018. Water Resources Situation Report.

Ooze. 2017. Agua Cariosa: Pilot-Sitio Burle Marx. Accessed May 23, 2020. http://

https://wra.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/National-Water-Situation-

www.aguacarioca.org/pilot.

Report_2017-18.pdf, WRMA procedure for data entry and data transfer.

Ooze.2017. Agua Cariosa: What are Constructed Wetlands? . Accessed May 23,

Water Resources Authority. 2020. Kikuyu Springs Aquifer Groundwater

2020. http://www.aguacarioca.org/what-are-constructed-wetlands.

Protection. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://wra.go.ke/projects/kikuyu-springs-

Pravettoni, Riccardo. 2011. “Water supply and demand in Nairobi.” GRID-Arendal. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.grida.no/resources/8199. Rojas, C., B. De Meulder, and K. Shannon. 2015. “Exploring the potentials of an interplay between settlement patterns and water management.” Habitat International 48, pp. 177-187 ISSN 0197-3975 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.03.017. Standard Digital. 2020. “City water crisis a drawback in war on covid-19.” March 27:

https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001365842/city-water-crisis-a-

drawback-in-war-on-covid-19.

ground-water-conservation/. Zhu, April. 2019. “The Return of Ondiri Swamp: Exploited for years, these vital wetlands near Nairobi are blooming anew thanks to a remarkable grassroots effort.” Atlas Obscura, August 14: https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/kenyaondiri-wetlands-nairobi-grassroots-conservation. Zhu, April. 2020. “The Case of Ondiri Swamp: Citizen Environmentalism is not dead.” Goethe-Institut. May. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.goethe.de/ins/ ke/en/kul/dos/sus/21847352.html.

Syrinx. 2017. Wharf Street. Accessed May 24, 2020. https://www.syrinx.net.au/ portfolio/wharf-street/. Thomson Reuters Foundation. 2018. “Nairobi looks for new water to ease its growing thirst.” Reuters, June 12: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenyawater-climatechange/nairobi-looks-for-new-water-to-ease-its-growing-thirstidUSKBN1J8269. UNDP. 2011. Small-Scale WaterProviders in Kenya: Pioneers or Predators? August. Accessed May 20, 2020. http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/ Poverty%20Reduction/Inclusive%20development/Kenya%20paper%28web%29.

165

NATALIA RECALDE

Rural-Urban Metabolism

Landscapes in transition The peripheries of west Nairobi are going through an intense process of territorial change where diverse dynamisms are re-structuring the landscape in multiple layers: new economies, social transformation and rapid land use change are paired with ecological degradation. Main drivers of this transition are population growth, internal migration and fragile planning regulations, embedded into neo-liberal economic processes (Abuya et al. 2019). Originally a rural area characterized by agricultural production, extensive tea and coffee plantations provided subsistence for local people. Moreover, crop plantations that supported the livelihood of local rural inhabitants also provided food for the entire city of Nairobi. In current times, land conversion in the Nairobi rural-urban fringe is leading to the reduction of agricultural land to urban uses, reducing the quality and quantity of farming. High demand of housing and profitable real-estate values are the gears of constant land subdivision, transforming agricultural productive land into consumptive residential and commercial uses. Nowadays, the territory of west Nairobi is a metamorphosis of the rural and the urban, a landscape full of tension where traditional rural customs crash with modern urban ways of living. “The urban-rural interface or ‘grey’ area where farming co-exists, often uneasily, with the expansion of built-up areas” is the place of “structural transformation, intended as the transition from largely agrarian economies with most of the population engaged in farming, to a concentration of employment in manufacturing and services” (Tacoli and Agergaard 2017, 7-8). As a consequence of this uncontrollable and unpredictable structural transformation of the landscape, food security and environmental resources are in severe hazard as well as population vulnerable to the threat of climate change.

166

ÂŠ Natalia Recalde

Ndenderu, 2020. Scattered high density developments are mixed with patches of farming land and small scale housing in the rural-urban fringe of West Nairobi.

167

In order to grasp the complexities of Nairobi’s territorial metabolism is necessary to go beyond the dichotomy of city and countryside, like Brenner and Schmid propose in their article ‘The Urban Age in Question’: “There is no longer any outside to the urban world; the non-urban has been largely internalized within an uneven yet planetary process of urbanization. Under these conditions, the urban/rural binarism is an increasingly obfuscatory basis for deciphering the morphologies, contours and dynamics of sociospatial restructuring under early twenty-first century capitalism” (2014, 751). They also denote that a new vocabulary of urbanization is needed to adequately capture the changing nature of urbanization processes. Consequently, in the context of landscape transformation of Nairobi’s peripheries, the question arises: what design strategies can overcome the urban vs. rural antagonism to potentiate production, industrialization and living in an ecological balanced environment? The selected projects presented in the next section are useful to explore how design interventions can address some spatial, social and ecological issues of rural-urban fringes in Nairobi. The theoretical project Agronica is a vision for a form of agrarian urbanism, where productive land is constant and infrastructure is ‘weak’ and temporary. Following, the adaptation of the traditional rural settlement Kibbutz Hatzor is an example of collective living in agrarian settlements in the twenty first century. Finally, the Women’s Opportunity Center is a model of sustainable constructed and culturally appropriate social infrastructure with a powerful effect in the development of women in African communities.

168

ÂŠ Natalia Recalde

Ongata Rongai, 2020. Highways are built through neighborhoods with inexistent urban infrastructure. Intense relations with the city create non-farming job opportunities and commercial activities that highly depend on the consumption of local resources.

169

01_Productive Urbanism AGRONICA

1995

https://placesjournal.org/article/history-of-agrarian-urbanism/?cn-reloaded=1

Non Built

Andrea Branzi

Dissolution of the urban figure into a productive landscape Agronica is a theoretical project exploring the relationship of city and countryside based on the potential hybridization of agriculture and urbanism. Developed by the Italian architect Andrea Branzi, proposes a model of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;weak urbanizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, a concept developed as a social critique of the contemporary city on the basis of postmodernist philosophy. The proposal takes into account the variabaliblity and indeterminacy of the the way in which the forces of the economic system shape the landscape, resulting in a diffuse territorial organization that blurres the dichotomy of the urban and the rural.

170

An adaptable, reversible constructive system of light and mobile infrastructures allow the productive landscape to be the primary medium of the urban form. Considering Nairobiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s necessity to preserve productive land capacity and assure food security, his theoretical proposal can lead to explore design systems that support intense forms of production in parallel with high population density, where agricultural landscapes shapes the urban structure.

http://searching00.blogspot.com/2013/10/agronicaandrea-branzibiennale2010.html

http://architettura.it/architetture/20020219/

‘Weak’ architecture Agronica was exhibited through a model surrounded by mirrors, to create the effect of infinite landscape continuity of the theoretical framework of the project. In the model, a continuous and homogenous flat agricultural surface is the background where a grid of pillars frame transitory forms of architecture. The set of colummns support a variety of elements such as pergolas, antennas, solar panels, sunshades and floating platforms, on a productive modular system focused on adaptability and minimun contact to the ground. The system could be expanded or dismantled with almost no impact on the fields.

Buildings are represented as open and flexible containers of a wide set of functions, freed from symbolic and typological architectural connotations and transformed into lighter objects analogous to furniture. This generic and ephemeral architecture and urban form creates a situation of stable uncertainty, a model of ‘weak urbanization’ that denies a classical approach of final state stable perfection. In Nairobi, weak architecture could structure light, adaptable and reversible constructive systems that can adjust to changes without causing damage to the productive and ecological value of the landscape.

171

02_Collective Living KIBBUTZ HATZOR

2014

http://rafisegal.com/kibbutz-hatzor/

Hatsor Ashdod, Israel

Rafi Segal A+U

A collective productive community The Kibbutz is a cooperative and self-sufficient settlement typology that emerged in Israel in the 20th century. Meaning in Hebrew “gathering”, they were based on social equality and sharing: land was owned collectively, work division managed equally and daily life was shared communally. The spatial layout reflected this organization, having in the core the collective spaces of the community, surrounded by dwelling units and the the agrarian landscape. Due to socio-economic changes and the spread of capitalism in the past decades, Kibbutzs experienced a radical transformation, shifting away from

172

collective lifestyle towards a more private one, centered around the family household and suburban models of subdivision. “The insertion of this privatized and individualized typology into the delicately balanced collective space and life of the kibbutz devastated and damaged the kibbutz’s physical and social landscape” (Segal 2016). The project presented here aims to accommodate new neighborhoods in the existing community of 600 members in Kibbutz Hatzor, preserving the kibbutz’s unique landscape, relation to open space and notion of collectivity.

http://www.arpajournal.net/an-architecture-of-collective-living/

Adapting traditional settlements to contemporary times Conflicting urban-rural dynamics in Nairobi can benefit from collective models of housing and production. In the project, to achieve the goal of combining individual and shared ownership, a neighborhood model (in blue surrounded by a red rectangle) of private single-family homes set within the agrarian landscape is supported by the cooperative structure of the kibbutz (in green). Individual homes continue to be part of the productive cooperative in a model of ‘degrees of collectiveness’, stabilizing the social structure in a gradient that goes from private spaces to shared life.

Balance of private and shared spaces The new neighborhood consist of clusters of houses organizaded in an ‘L’ shape and surrounded by collective square yards, where shared facilities like vegetable gardens, bike parking and play areas are located. While the car is relegated to the perimeter road, houses and open spaces are connected with pedestrian and bike paths. The roof is the framing collective urban element that shapes the cluster, and also have the role of harvesting solar energy. Cooperative housing typologies can be a way to put a stop to land subdivision in the outskirts of Nairobi.

173

03_Infrastructure for Development WOMEN’S OPPORTUNITY CENTER

2013

https://sharondavisdesign.com/

Kayonza, Rwanda

Sharon Davis Design

Socio-economic empowerment Located in a semi-rural town in the peripheries of the Rwandan capital city, this Community Center is an infrastructure for the local community, empowering women through access to knowledge, cooperation and opportunities for growing. The design brings support for Kayonza’s social infrastructure and civic realm by providing classrooms, community public space, a farmer’s market, lodging facilities and more. The goal is to support the development of local capabilities: a demonstration farm teaches women to produce income from the land through organic techniques geared towards commercial production.

174

Earth walls and green roofs make place for animal pens where women learn to raise livestock, along with food storage and processing methods that can be used to run their own food cooperatives profitably. A market showcases the center’s economic potential, where women sell the products produced on site and generate additional income. As many as 300 women participate learning entrepeneurship skills and energizing the local subsitence agriculture economy through female empowerment. As well, Nairobi is in much need of social infrastructure and public spaces to built civic relationships and development.

https://architizer.com/

https://www.archdaily.com/

Context-appropriate architecture The circular pavillions are the main architectural element of the center, structured following vernacular Rwandan villages organizing principles. They provide intimate classrooms with perforated brick walls that allow for passive cooling and solar shading, providing sustainable comfort inspired in indigenous traditional huts. Bricks for the construction of the center were made by the local future users using materials found in the site, transfering innovative low-cost building techniques to women.

Sustainable urban services The project is built with environmentally sustainable features that could be replicated beyond the community center. Rain water is collected from the roofs, filtered and pumped with solar generated power. Animal waste is transformed into biogas fuel for cooking, while composting toilets provide fertilizer for the local farm and market. Experimentation and demonstration of locally appropiate technologies can work in peripherial areas of Nairobi to transform informal urban services into sustainable and locally maintained techniques.

175

Conclusions Multi-scalar territorial changes and dynamic processes of socio-spatial

Increased population through natural growth and immigration on the outskirts

transformation are taking place in West Nairobi’s peripheries, challenging the

of Nairobi carry alterations in the social fabric of the site. “Entry of newcomers

conceptual duality of city/urban and rural/countryside. This contested fringe

who are individual-oriented rather than communal-oriented has complicated

(both in spatial and theoretical terms) of heterogeneous condition requires a re-

local settings in the Nairobi fringe” (Thuo 2013, 123). New generations no longer

conceptualization of urbanization, in order to capture the complex metabolism of

feel attached to rural customs, and farming land is replaced by gated quarters and

the landscape. These transformations are made visible in the rapid land use changes

electric-fence-protected private spaces. To counter this conflicting dynamics, the

happening in the area, where farming land and forest cover are spatially shrinking

example set by Kibbutz Hatzor could be useful, considering how the design adapts a

in favor of private housing development and road infrastructure expansion. In

traditional rural settlement into contemporary dwellings, preserving the collective

order to promote more socially just and ecologically viable forms of settlement

and agrarian character of the landscape. The typology of housing clusters gives clues

and production, some lessons are learned from the above presented projects.

on how to combine private and shared spaces in a cooperative productive system, integrated into networks of sustainable mobility and open-ended architecture.

Andrea Branzi’s work breaks the rural-urban duality and demonstrates that agrarian production and urbanization could be part of the same spatial system.

Both social and urban infrastructure should accompany urbanization processes, in

Considering Nairobi’s necessity to preserve productive land capacity and assure

order to support coherent communities, civic development and healthy environments.

food security, his theoretical proposal can lead to explore design systems that

The Women’s Opportunity Center is a powerful example for Nairobi’s villages

support intense forms of production in parallel with high population density, where

on how to create spaces for interaction, learning and development of economic

agricultural landscapes shapes the urban structure. Moreover, acknowledging the

capacities. Creating social infrastructure that provides education in sustainable

indeterminacy of how the economic system shapes the territory, he designed flexible

farming techniques, income generating skills and community empowerment is

and mobile infrastructure and buildings. Consistent with the fluid conditions of

crucial for socio-economic development in the rural-urban fringe. Moreover, the

constant renewal in contemporary Nairobi, this form of weak architecture could

project is built with sustainable features that could be introduced into communities

structure light, adaptable and reversible constructive systems that can adjust to

to complement the poorly provisioned urban services. Low-cost techniques for water

changes without causing damage to the productive and ecological value of the

harvesting, composting, solar energy, biogas and construction material manufacture

landscape. Beyond Agronica, Branzi’s theories of weak urban forms and non-

can be replicated to protect ecological resources and address climate change.

figural fields are relevant to the debate on ‘ecological urbanism’ (Waldheim 2016). .

176

References Books and scientific articles :

architizer.com/projects/womens-opportunity-center-rwanda/

Kabuya, Dennis, Maurice Oyugi, and Edwin Oyaro. 2019. “Management of the

Branzi, Andrea. 2002. “Eindhoven, un modello di urbanizzazione debole”. Available

Effects of Land Use Changes on Urban Infrastructure Capacity: A Case Study of

at: http://architettura.it/architetture/20020219/

Ruaka Town, Kiambu County, Kenya.” Civil and Environmental Research 8 (4),

Frac Centre. 2004. “Guide de l’exposition Andrea Branzi du 15 octobre au 30

158–90.

décembre

2004”.

Available

at:

http://www.frac-centre.fr/upload/document/

Brenner, Neil and Christian Schmid. 2014. “The ‘Urban Age’ in Question.”

journaux_expos/2004/FILE_4cc945aebc2e9_branzi_32p_v3.pdf/branzi_32p_

International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 38 (3): 731–55.

v3.pdf

Martínez Capdevila, Pablo. 2016. “Towards a weak architecture: Andrea Branzi and

Preitte, Mateo. 2013. “AGRONICA/Andrea BRANZI/biennale2010”. Available at:

Gianni Vattimo”. Cuadernos de Proyectos Arquitectónicos 6: 147-150.

http://searching00.blogspot.com/2013/10/agronicaandrea-branzibiennale2010.

Martínez Capdevila, Pablo. 2019. “Demystified Territories: City Versus Countryside in Andrea Branzi’s Urban Models”. In Planning Cities with Nature, 29-43. Tacoli, Cecilia, and Jytte Agergaard. 2017. Urbanisation, Rural Transformations and

html Segal, Rafi. 2016. “An Architecture of Collective Living” ARPA Journal. Available at: http://www.arpajournal.net/an-architecture-of-collective-living/

Food Systems: The Role of Small Towns. International Institute for Environment

Segal, Rafi. n.d. “Kibbutz Hatzor”. Available at: http://rafisegal.com/kibbutz-hatzor/

and Development. http://pubs.iied.org/10806IIED

Sharon Davis Design. n.d. “Women’s Opportunity Center”. Available at: https://

Thuo, Aggrey and Daniel Maina. 2013. “Exploring Land Development Dynamics

sharondavisdesign.com/project/womens-opportunity-center-rwanda/

in Rural-Urban Fringes: A Reflection on Why Agriculture Is Being Squeezed Out

Waldheim, Charles. 2010. “Notes Toward a History of Agrarian Urbanism”.

by Urban Land Uses in the Nairobi Rural-Urban Fringe?” International Journal of Rural Management 9 (2), 105–34.

Places Journal. Available at: https://placesjournal.org/article/history-of-agrarianurbanism/?cn-reloaded=1

Thuo, Aggrey. 2010. “Community and Social Responses to Land Use Transformations in the Nairobi Rural-Urban Fringe, Kenya.” Field Actions Science Reports. The Journal of Field Actions, no. Special Issue 1, 0–10. Waldheim, Charles. 2016. “Weak Work: Andrea Branzi’s ‘Weak Metropolis’ and the Projective Potential of an ‘Ecological Urbanism’”. In Ecological Urbanism revised edition, 114-121. On-line documents and websites : ArchDaily. 2013. “Women’s Opportunity Center / Sharon Davis Design”. Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/433846/women-s-opportunity-center-sharon-davisdesign?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_all Architizer. n.d. “Women’s Opportunity Center, Rwanda”. Available at: https://

177

NGUYEN NHAT NINH KHANH

Circular Economy and its Externalities as Solutions for Resilient Cities In the context of Nairobi and its periphery

The externalities of Circular Economy

state, especially the huge pressure on the environment. Intending to improve that

Cities are striving for sustainability while its population keeps growing. The

situation and developing the country, on June 10, 2008, President Mwai Kibaki

population is rising meaning the increasing demand for energy and other resources

launched Vision 2030, a long term blueprint toward the achievement of sustainable

that nature cannot afford. As resources are finite, it is of high importance to seek

development in the country which is promoting the implementation of Circular

for an alternative for the traditional linear â&#x20AC;&#x153;take-make-disposeâ&#x20AC;? economic model.

Economy (Koech and Munene 2020)

To this end, a closed cycle of materials and energy approach that helps maintain the value of resources (Petit-Boix and Leipold 2018) has been studied and applied in the past decades worldwide. By turning goods that are at the end of their service life into resources for others, closing loops in the industrial ecosystem, and minimizing the waste of materials (Minson 2016), the Circular Economy concept is expected to help maximize economic profit while reducing the environmental pressure. Nonetheless, besides its economic and environmental benefits, Circular Economy also exerts positive impacts on the social aspect, which are usually neglected. In fact, the externalities of the circularity concept can help mitigate many global social issues. Never before are human beings as vulnerable as at the moment under pandemic caused by Coronavirus, because of not only the invisible spread of the virus that affects our health but also the codependency among countries in food and other essential supplies. This raises the alarm about food security. Also, overpopulation and rapid urbanization have caused unemployment and shortage of affordable housing. Particularly in Kenya, over the years, it is believed that the country is exploiting its natural resources in an unsustainable manner (Koech and Munene 2020). Also, with an increasing population living in informal settlements and under unemployed status, Kenya has to deal with the complication of housing and welfare

178

A multi-actor, multi-level, multi-phase, and multi-pattern process The periphery of Nairobi, in strategic location proximity to the capital city yet with many large-scale informal settlements, has a lot of reasons and potentials to focus on the shift to the Circular Economy. This concept is an integration of a variety of disciplines ranging from business to natural sciences (Petit-Boix and Leipold 2018). In the scope of spatial research in this paper, the execution of circular economy can happen in many scales varied from city-scale to neighborhood-scale and in many phases, involve many actors including governmental, nongovernmental and private sectors. For instance, a strategic master plan for the entire area that allocates functional components to optimize the efficiency of the flow of materials should be done by the municipalities. Meanwhile, private-driven varied-scale projects (grassroot initiatives) should be also stimulated to infill the issues left by the top-down solutions. Multiple projects run by multiple actors in multiple scales will become a collective effort to help complete the assignment of the ambition to transit to a Circular Economy in the territory.

Possibility to address social issues in Nairobi This paper is expected to go beyond the common perspective when looking at the Circular Economy and emphasize its externalities (understood here as the capability to address social issues). Three specific social issues will be analyzed and used as examples to reveal its social sustainability potentials other than commonly known environmental sustainability. To be specific, three challenges including unemployment, food security and housing crisis reflect in three cases study and thus applying to the context of the periphery of Nairobi. These cases study are chosen

Kirchherr, et al., 2017

based on the combination of 3 dimensions: social issues, scale, actors involved.

“A circular economy describes an economic system that is based on business models which replace the ‘end-of-life’ concept with reducing, alternatively reusing, recycling and recovering materials in production/distribution and consumption processes, thus operating at the micro level (products, companies, consumers), meso level (eco-industrial parks) and macro level (city, region, nation and beyond), with the aim to accomplish sustainable development, which implies creating environmental quality, economic prosperity and social equity, to the benefit of current and future generations.”(WEF 2018)

179

https://africawebtv.nl/

01_Job accessibility

Decentralizing Nairobi As a monocentric city, the fact that a lot of people living outside Nairobi but traveling there daily to work or looking for a job has the pressure on the employment provision in the capital city of Kenya, also it causes the traffic congestion and time inefficiency (Avner and Nakamura 2018). Also, the youth unemployment rate in Kenya is significantly high 18.34% (“Unemployment, Youth Total (Modeled ILO Estimate) - Kenya | Data” n.d.). The circular economy concept applied in the master plan can help allocate the industrial, agricultural zones thus decentralizing Nairobi and maximizing the benefit of the material.

180

NDENDERU

KIKUYU TOWN

NAIROBI CENTER

ONGATA RONGAI

Increased workforce At the same time, recycle process on the one hand reduce the natural resources extraction but need more human resources to collect, classify, and process the used materials on the other hand. Along with the 70% reduction in gas emission, the shift to the Circular Economy is believed to increase the workforce by 4% in each country according to research by 7 European countries (Minson 2016). That is to say, applying circularity in the city scale will provide more local jobs to help deal with unemployment and massive centralization, and develop satellite cities/towns.

181

01_Job accessibility ALMATY CIRCULAR ECONOMY

ÂŠ FABRICations

Almaty, Kazakhstan

Scale: City scale Actor: Municipality Circularity in Almaty is a strategic plan to develop the city by focussing on whatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s already available, and altering the design of new products and assets to pursue a more sustainable development. It includes not only strategic spatial plans to allocate and introduce programs but also a comprehensive social and political approach to orient and encourage the involvements of the private sector and grassroot level.

182

FABRICations 2019

Local job opportunities Circularity in Almaty focuses on 3 sectors including agriculture and food processing, industry, and construction. For example, in agriculture sector, soil enhancer and packaging industry whose products are made from residue are developed in the proximity of the farms. Local markets to are introduce to encourage the trade and consumption local food. These interventions, which are more or less top-down solutions will open more job opportunities for local people.

183

02_Self-sufficiency

Vulnerability due to food insecurity People worldwide are dealing with food security, especially in urban areas where people rely on non-local products yet they are not fully aware of the issue. Moreover, in Kenya where there are a lot of informal settlements, daily meals become a big deal. 2020 is a one of the recent years when Kenya has faced the worst food insecurity. Even before the COVID-19 pandemic knocked on its door, the country faced a devastating desert locust invasion coupled with the constraints posed by excessive rainfall experienced from October 2019 (“Why COVID-19 Is Another Blow for Kenya’s Food Security” n.d.).

184

Moreover, Kenya relies on rice and wheat which are estimated 90% and 75% imported respectively. Coronavirus outbreak has led to closed markets and disruptive food delivery (“Why COVID-19 Is Another Blow for Kenya’s Food Security” n.d.). As a consequence, extreme food production deficit and increase price become a blow for Kenya’s food security. Subsistence farms are practiced yet remain fragmented annd insufficient. Therefore, it is of high importance that people start to be aware of that issue and have initiatives to tackle it in microscale. At the same time, the focus on the daily basis has neglected the demand to socialize and improve spiritual life and the need for amelioration of living quality.

The closed cycle of urban agriculture makes it possible to partially improve the food resource, take advantage of the limited spaces in the urban fabric and bring about the possibility to foster solidarity in the neighborhood.

185

02_Self-sufficiency AGRO CITÉ – R-URBAN

Atelier d’architecture autogérée

Colombes - France

since 2008

Neighborhood scale Actor: Municipality, Community

Taking advantage of the limited space in urban areas and the closed cycle agricultural concept, agrocité is collective urban agriculture and cultural site. Practicing composting, collecting rainwater, and producing solar energy, hydroponic horticulture, phytoremediation helps reduce the cost and encourage the consumption of the local food. Moreover, it is not only about producing food but also about fostering education and social solidarity

186

Self-operating community project Agro Cite was supposed to be replaced by a car park by the Municipality of Colomes when the funding ended in 2016. The project was successful to connect the “mix of people, from different origins and social backgrounds, exchanging gardening tips”. However, it is essential to acknowlegde the capacity to be self-operating of a community project as well as the communication between governmental and non-govermental actors.

187

ÂŠ Jeroen Stevens

03_Housing affordability

In Kenya, it is very popular that people are long-term tenants or live in informal settlements. It is estimated that 60% of the population live in informal settlements. Coupled with the limited access to land, the housing capacity cannot afford the rising population and the land speculation makes it unaffordable for the citizens. To be specific, the housing deficit in Kenya stood at 2 million (2012) and grows at the rate over 200,000 units per year. Moreover, the living condition is another concern when families live in overcrowded houses typically with one room and lack of ventilation (â&#x20AC;&#x153;Housing Poverty in Kenya: Slums & Vulnerable Communitiesâ&#x20AC;? n.d.).

188

Providing sufficient accommodation at a reasonable price by introducing a new ecosystem of sustainable living is an ambitious but feasible solution. Thinking about the recycling of materials, housing units, renewable energy and emphasis on the collective lifestyle is an interpretation of the circularity, which not only helps ease the stress on the natural resources but also the financial pressure on these tenants.

189

03_Housing affordability URBAN VILLAGE PROJECT

2018

Worldwide

EFFEKT, SPACE10

Scale: Scaleable Actors: Private Sector The project extended the definition of circularity from only “traditional” sustainability (meaning environmental sustainability) to wilder scope such as human and financial sustainability. Urban Village project introduces an assemblable/disassemblable housing module that can help not only lengthen the lifespan of the materials but also reduce the price. Also, the house can adapt to family growth instead of moving again and again,

190

which strengthens the sense of belonging to the neighborhood. It is also aimed to replace the invest-sell model with the subscription cycle where people can subscribe to their homes (meaning various sectors: plan, structure, utilities, furniture), thus eliminating the need for expensive down payments, while simultaneously turning their subscription into equity stock, that is adjusted to the housing market valuation.

Apparently, this “dream” scenario is too theoretically perfect to be completely realized and able to address all the issues just by one solution. In reality, there are more challenges to reach the stability of the model to make it work smoothly, not only about the huge capital investment but also the uncertainty of the society. However, this is essential to recognize its sense of feasibility and the possibility to be refined and applied in the future.

191

Conclusion

Circular Economy as an umbrella concept for sustainable development Not only in Kenya but also all around the world, Circular Economy has been the strategy supported by both the public and private sectors and applied in various fields for the more sustainable development regarding the overexploitation of natural resources. Although the term is no longer new, it is still a long way to go, especially for developing countries. Considering the context of these countries, it is potential and essential to follow circularity concept now that it has capacity to address not only economic and environmental problems but also social ones. Circularity is definitely not such a perfect answer that could tackle all the issues at once. There are also a number of socio-economic and environmental risks other than its seeable potential benefits (Geissdoerfer et al. 2017). For instance, material circulation is known to produce a degradation of the material quality, requiring additional energy and resource inputs that are often disregarded (Cullen 2017). Or the shared economy is questioned about its deterioration of secure employment despite more job provision (Malhotra and Van Alstyne 2014). However, it is undeniable that the circularity concept is an effective solution to achieve ecological as well as social and economic sustainability. Circular Economy is a complex yet flexible â&#x20AC;&#x153;umbrellaâ&#x20AC;? concept that can be interpreted and applied in varied ways, in varied scales. Should circularity become holistic strategy in city development, this complex multi-actor, multi-level, multiphase, and multi-pattern process (Marin and De Meulder 2018) will be a possible direction for the future.

192

References

Books and scientific articles :

On-line documents and websites :

Avner, Paolo, and Shohei Nakamura. 2018. “Spatial Distributions of Job Accessibility

“ALMATY CIRCULAR ECONOMY – Kazakhstan | FABRICations.” n.d. Accessed

, Housing Rents , and Poverty in Nairobi , Kenya.” World Bank Policy Research

June

Working Papers 8654 (November).

economy-kazakhstan/.

Cullen, Jonathan M. 2017. “Circular Economy: Theoretical Benchmark or Perpetual

“The Urban Village Project.” n.d. Accessed June 14, 2020. https://www.

Motion Machine?” Journal of Industrial Ecology 21 (3): 483–86. https://doi.

urbanvillageproject.com/.

org/10.1111/jiec.12599.

14,

2020.

https://www.fabrications.nl/portfolio-item/almaty-circular-

“Unemployment, Youth Total (% of Total Labor Force Ages 15-24) (Modeled ILO

Geissdoerfer, Martin, Paulo Savaget, Nancy M.P. Bocken, and Erik Jan Hultink.

Estimate) - Kenya | Data.” n.d. Accessed May 8, 2020. https://data.worldbank.org/

2017. “The Circular Economy – A New Sustainability Paradigm?” Journal of

indicator/SL.UEM.1524.ZS?locations=KE.

Cleaner Production 143: 757–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.048.

“Why COVID-19 Is Another Blow for Kenya’s Food Security.” n.d. Accessed June

Kirchherr, Julian, Denise Reike, and Marko Hekkert. 2017. “Conceptualizing the

13, 2020. https://theconversation.com/why-covid-19-is-another-blow-for-kenyas-

Circular Economy: An Analysis of 114 Definitions.” Resources, Conservation and

food-security-135567.

Recycling 127 (September): 221–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.005. Koech, Michael K, and Kaburu J Munene. 2020. “Circular Economy in Kenya.” In

“Housing Poverty in Kenya: Slums & Vulnerable Communities.” n.d. Accessed June 13, 2020. https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/country/kenya/.

Circular Economy: Global Perspective, 223–39. Springer Singapore. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-981-15-1052-6. Malhotra, Arvind, and Marshall Van Alstyne. 2014. “The Dark Side of the Sharing Economy ... and How to Lighten It.” Communications of the ACM 57 (11): 24–27. https://doi.org/10.1145/2668893. Marin, Julie, and Bruno De Meulder. 2018. “Interpreting Circularity. Circular City Representations Concealing Transition Drivers.” Sustainability (Switzerland) 10 (5). https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051310. Minson, Andrew J. 2016. “Circular Economy.” Nature 531 (1): 435–38. https://doi. org/10.4324/9781315270326-38. Petit-Boix, Anna, and Sina Leipold. 2018. “Circular Economy in Cities: Reviewing How Environmental Research Aligns with Local Practices.” Journal of Cleaner Production. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.05.281. WEF. 2018. “Circular Economy in Cities: Evolving the Model for a Sustainable Urban Future.” World Economic Forum White Paper, 29.

193

SILVIA PARRA

URBAN AGRICULTURE: The panacea to save planet earth? Lessons for Nairobi, from agricultural sustainable development study cases arround the globe: Rosario, Beijing, and Brussels

Global context: The disease In front of sickness symptoms, a disease must be studied to find a cure for it. In this metaphor, the symptoms are portraited in the current global context, a warmer one. The planet has fever, why?

2020). If this occurs, more people will need to be feed. In spite of this, land-use changes in one of the food production places of the city are happening, threatening the food security of the population. Located in the North West of Nairobi’s city center, in the valley system of rivers formed

Humans are spreading, however, what it seems to be affecting the planet is

in the surrounding areas of Ndenderu, the former farming plots are being

human negligence, of how to understand the wisdom of nature and co-live with

converted into new different types of urbanization. In parallel, also the natural

it. Some indigenous, scientists, writers, activists, and many other humans that

resources are being consumed, such as the forest around the valleys and the

have understood the importance of respecting that balance, have been trying to

water of the subsoil due to the excess extraction of it by boreholes. The vulnerable

warn and teach others for many years. The current context of global warming, for

inhabitants and former farmers face many urban challenges due to the precarious

example, was predicted to happen for almost 40 years ago (Marshall 2006). As proof

economical system that comes from the social inequality, the abandonment

of it, in the IPCC report of 2014, was published how the Anthropogenic greenhouse

of public governmental presence, the lack of basic infrastructure, and many

gas (GHG) emissions are evidently higher now than in the pre-industrialization

other socio-economic reasons that are occasionating the improvisation of

era, which has triggered the increase in the economy and the population (IPCC

local urban solutions to survive (Thuo 2010). Thereby, urban sprawl and social

2014). Additionally, the natural resources are being over-consumed due to the

inequality are directly affecting the ecological system and the productive one.

increase of population needs, and not only. Deforestation is massively happening,

The symptoms are clear.

preventing that natural process of CO2 absorption to occur, also affecting land productiveness for food production (Leahy 2019). “The Anthropocene” is planet earth’s current disease, or commonly named “The human epoch”. The planet is sick, and it’s our fault.

Nairobi’s symptomps Consequently, in Kenya’s capital, the described global context seems to be the same. With an estimated population percentage growth of 4%, it could be expected that in 5 years, Nairobi’s population could arrive at more than 5 million inhabitants (WPR

194

1. UA multifunctional aspects

Urban agriculture: The solution? With urban population growth, food security is a hot topic to address (FAO 2005). In order to solve it, urban agriculture (UA) is reshaping some current urban scenarios around the world (Feifei et al 2009). In that order, multifunctionality has become a key concept towards the effectiveness of agricultural sustainable development (Peng et al 2015). For this research, the UA multifunctionality balance is being critically analyzed between the Social, Ecological, Economical, and Political aspects

(SEEP). On the other hand, for the case of Peri-Urban Agriculture (PUA), the multifunctions are the ones of UA, plus the Territorial, Industrial and Institutional dimensions as is described in Fig.1 (Yang et al 2016).

Social, Ecological, and Economical aspects

In summary, the interpretation and importance of this concept in this study go

= Political aspect

UA Multifunctional aspects

2. PUA multifunctional aspects

towards the understanding of how urban agriculture sustainable development

enhancing the balance between multifunctional aspects in their territories, and how these selected study cases in Rosario, Beijing, and Brussels, cope with the Nairobiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s current and future urban context regarding the food security for the city. For further research, the study cases could be mapped inside the triangle graph by using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), which is the method to determine the index weight of each project concerning the social, economical and ecological functions (Peng et al 2015).

196

UA Multifunctional aspects

Territorial, Industrial and Institutional aspects

PUA Multifunctional aspects

ÂŠ Silvia Parra

projects around the globe have become a mechanism to address food security by

Fig. 1. UA and PUA sustainable development functions. Edited by the author based in: Peng et al. 2015. Multifuncionality assesment of urban agriculture in Beijing City, China; and Yang et al. 2016. Peri-urban agricultural development in Beijing: Varied forms. innovative practices and policy implications

ÂŠ Silvia Parra

Ndenderuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s landscape, Nairobi. 2020. Made by the author.

197

Case study reading

01_Case title PROJECT TITLE

Context similarities

Study case solution

Study case

Immage Study case context

Immage Study case solution

Nairobi

Designer / Promoter

Immage Nairobi’s context

Immage Nairobi’s potential

Comparative text between study case and Nairobi

Text description of Nairobi’s potential regarding the study case

Year

Project location

Project process context in time

Project multifunctional aspects analysis Project plan or section

Text project sustainable development achievements

Left page: Study case analysis

198

Right page: Study case analysis in comparison to Nairobi’s context

01_Social resilience PROGRAM OF URBAN AGRICULTURE (PAU) Rosario, Argentina

Rosario Municipality 2002

Currently still running

Fig. 2. Becoming resilient: process of Rosario’s study case. Made by the author based in Lattuca. 2012. La agricultura urbana como política pública: el caso de la ciudad de Rosario, Argentina. Agroecología 6: 97

UA Multifunctional aspects Fig. 4. Multifunctional aspects in Rosario’s study case. Made by the author based in Lattuca. 2012. La agricultura urbana como política pública: el caso de la ciudad de Rosario, Argentina. Agroecología 6: 97

UA sustainable development achievements with the project1: • Environmental and socio-spatial improvement of abandoned areas through the recovery of it with orchards. • Public space recovery through the new concept of “Orchard - Park”, and the plazas through the fairs and markets. • Implementation of urban policies assuring land tenancy for the orchards, through the multistakeholder agreements efficiency. • Positive impacts on the ecology, the landscape, and the environment. • Social innovation and Social Capital • Socio-spatial-ecological resilience in Rosario • Society skills improvement in food production. • Poverty reduction in Rosario. Fig. 3. “The sustainable paths”. Made by the author based in “Espacios Agroecológicos Urbanos de Rosario” with the base Map of the Municipality of Rosario.

200

1.Based in Lattuca. 2012. La agricultura urbana como política pública: el caso de la ciudad de Rosario, Argentina. Agroecología 6: 97

Extreme poverty and hunger

PAU in Rosario. Source: Soler. 2015. Le Programme d’Agriculture Urbaine de la ville de Rosario en Argentine

Nairobi

Buenos Aires, 2001. Manifestations due to the economic crisis. Source: EL PAÍS

Social innovation by enhancing the landscape’s capacity © Programa de Agricultura Urbana de Rosario, Argentina

Crisis

Argentina

Urban growth

Nairobi, April 10 2020. “Residents desperate for a planned distribution of food for those suffering under Kenya’s coronavirus-related movement restrictions push through a gate and create a stampede, at a district office in the Kibera slum of Nairobi”. Source: www.voanews.com

Argentina is divided by provinces, giving political autonomy to each of them. Overall, the country has a very complex history, facing many crises during the time, creating a sense of social activism, grassroots initiatives, and collectivism to address the consequences of political decisions (Lattuca 2012). In the case of 2001 crisis, was consequence of the neoliberalism of the epoch (Ferrer 2012). However, even if a crisis comes with high human costs, sometimes a paradise borns from hell (Soler, 2019). Evidently, Rosario’s Urban agriculture project is proof of it. Rosario’s study case multifunctionality analysis, proof to be a resilience case

Ndenderu’s food production landscape, Feb. 2020. Made by the author.

and an example for Nairobi, due to their similar crisis context, and how the sustainable development strategy the study case used, could be evaluated for further implementation in Nairobi’s territory. That strategy was mainly focused on the involvement of the community in the production process, supported by the Municipality to assure land tenure for the orchards, enhancing the territory’s potential and protecting its natural ecosystem. One of the main emergencies Nairobi needs to address is social inequality. Poor and vulnerable people need urban solutions to address hunger, and the support of governmental policies will need to reach that goal, as Rosario’s has portraited.

201

02_Peri-Urban Agriculture (PUA) XIAOTANGSHAN DEMONSTRATION PARK OF MODERN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

Beijing Municipality

Beijing, China

2004

Fig. 5. Process of PUA implementation in Beijing. Made by the author based in multiple bibliography referenced at the end.

PUA Multifunctional aspects Fig. 7. Multifunctional aspects in Beijing’s study case. Made by the author based in Cai, Jianming. 2006. “Peri-urban Agriculture Development in China”. Cities Farming for the Future.

Municipal Zoning Faraway Peri-Urban areas Xiaotangshan agropark location Sightseen gardens and resorts (Agroturism)

Outer Peri-Urban areas Inner Peri-Urban areas Urban areas

Fig. 6. Example of PUA in peri-urban Beijing. Edited by the author based in Yang et al. 2016. Peri-urban agricultural development in Beijing: Varied forms, innovative practices and policy implications.

202

3. PUA sustainable development achievements with the project2: • Integrating sustainable production with natural resource management to have better quality in the produced products. • Expanding market • Sophisticated and advanced knowledge in agriculture techonology • Positive economic impact • Enviromental awareness. • Entrepreneurship • More jobs and business opportunities • Food supply 2.

Based in Yang et al 2016. Peri-urban agricultural development in Beijin.

Urban sprawl

water, energy and food scarcity

2004

Duality between urbanization with new agricultural typologies in PU areas

Beijing

1992

Land use changes in peri-urban areas

Fig.8 1992 and 2004 land use changes in Beijing, China. Edited by the author based in: Due et al. 2014. Urban land market and land-use changes in post-reform China: A case study of Beijing.

Aponix aeroponic barrels in Agro Parks in Beijing. Sources: https://www.aponix.eu/ aponix-aeroponic-barrels-shown-tongzhou-park-beijing/ and https://nordregio.org/ urban-farming-in-china/

Nairobi

Fig.9 Ndenderu’s urban transformation since 1988. Edited by the author based in Abuya, Oyugi, and Oyaro. 2019 in Management of the Effects of Land Use Changes on Urban Infrastructure Capacity.

With extreme population growth and the industrialization of the rural areas triggering land-use changes in the former farming plots, the local municipality of Beijing decided to implement policies to address food security for the population (Cai 2006). The Peri-urban areas were zoned, and since then it could be said that PUA is reshaping Peri-Urban Beijing (Feifei et al 2009). Many Agroparks and Agrotourism projects are being constructed in the surroundings of Beijing since the last 20 years. Agrotourism is the most famous PUA activity and, the multifunctionality of these kinds of projects goes towards the duality between UA and urban development (Yang et al 2016).

Peri-urban Nairobi’s landscape, Nendenderu. 2020. Made by the author

Moreover, is important to mention the necessity of these new types of agriculture, occurred due to 3 main factors: The urban sprawl, the rural migrants arriving in the rural areas to work in the industry, and the land competition for different economic activities, as is also currently happening in Nairobi’s peri-urban areas (Cai 2006). Xiaotangshan’s agro park is an example of future larger scaler investments in agricultural technology, and with the case of Beijing of land-use transformations in Nairobi’s peri-urban areas, could potentially attract new investments to enhance not only the food production but also increasing the economy and technology, with the support of the municipality and multiple stakeholders.

203

03_Circular economy The Abattoir farm: FOODMET

BIGH

Brussels, Belgium

2015

Foodmet

Masterplan Abbatoir

Fig. 10 . Designing a project with a holistic urban approach source: Beckers. 2019. Aquaponics: a positive impact circular economy approach TO feeding cities. P.79

Foodmet location. Source: https://www.abattoir.be/ sites/files/content/page/fields/images/Masterplan.jpg

Fig. 12. Circular economy in foodmet.Made by the author based in Becekers. 2019. Aquaponics: a positive impact circular economy approach to feeding cities.

3. UA sustainable development achievements with the project3: • Enviromental: Healthy food, Treated water, Natural fertilisers, Biodiversity, Heat island reduce. • Social: Enviromental Awareness, Jobs • Social economy Fig. 11. Foodmet section edited by the author from: https://www.abattoir.be/sites/files/content/ page/fields/images/URBAN%20FARM%20WITH%20FOODMETLOGO.jpg 3. Based in Becekers. 2019. Aquaponics: a positive impact circular economy approach to feeding cities.

204

AQUAPONICS gardens (4,000 square meters in all). Rainwater is harvested, filtered and Well known to the Incas and used Designing an urban farm that used in the tanks too. Systems to in Chinese rice paddies, aquaponics follows positive impact circular filter and use water from fish tanks is a symbio tic combination o f for growing plants hydroponically economy principles requires the aquaculture (f ish farming) and considerably reduce the amount of hydroponics (growing plants creation of synergies between waste generated by the farm, unlike without soil). The system uses the farm, the building on which conventional fish-farming systems a bacterial process, with microit is located and the farm’s wider that discharge water into nature organisms filtering and breaking urban environment that is heavily contaminated with down the ammonia in fish urine to ammonia and antibiotics. create the nitrates that allow plants to use the nitrogen cycle to take The seemingly burdensome task nutrients from the water. For health reasons and to ensure of constantly monitoring the parameters of the highly the production of fish that are fi t to eat, very little water sensitive aquaponic ecosystem, with zero tolerance of from the plants is returned to the fish in the aquaponic antibiotics and chemicals, is in fact a guarantee of the system developed by BIGH. In fact, only condensed steam healthiness and quality of the fish and plants produced at from the greenhouse is returned to the tanks. Fish and the farm. The use of bumblebees to pollinate plants in the plants have indeed very diﬀerent needs in terms of the pH greenhouse and mites and other insects to combat pests is value of water (pH7 for fish and pH5 for plants). proof of the lack of harmful chemical inputs in the system, which works on a closed loop. Lastly, the CO2 emitted by the Water, an essential element in the circular economy, is fish is also recovered and fed to the greenhouse to help the the farm’s primary resource, along with CO2 and organic plants with photosynthesis. waste. The Recirculating Aquaculture System (RAS) uses a

Urban growth

New farming typologies

The BIGH aquaponic farming model

RAIN WATER

CONDENSATION WATER RETURN

Brussels

CO2

evaporation

Tampon

Sand filter

Reserve

EVAPORATION

CO2

WATER CONTAINING FISH WASTE

RAIN WATER SUPPLY

RAS aquaculture

PH7

Heat loss & CO2 capture.

Cultivation table

Biofilter

Hydroponics Tables PH5

Gutters

Assimilation by plants and natural pest control with beneficial organisms

Striped Bass

High tech farming in Foodmet. Source: https://salesguide.visit. brussels/en/musee/ferme-abattoir-bigh/

Fig. 12. High tech farming in Foodmet. Source: Becekers. 2019. Source: BIGH

Figure 4

Farmer in Nendenderu. 2020. Made by the author

Even if the European context is evidently different from Nairobi’s one, however, the similarity is always urban growth, being Brussels one of the most international cities of the world (Corijn 2015). Coping also with the former study case in Beijing, it seems that high tech technologies, aquaponics, and vertical farming are becoming the future of urban agriculture. From this case, what is interesting to evaluate is the circular economy they have created. As Steven Beckers said: “Designing an urban farm that follows positive impact circular economy principles requires the creation of synergies between the farm, the building on which it is located and the farm’s wider urban environment”. (Becekers 2019, 81)

Nairobi

Aquaponics: a positive impact circular economy approach to feeding cities.

Water supply in Ongata Rongai. 2020. Made by the author

This project is relevant to analyze to see the options that could be supported in Nairobi’s context in the future with a bigger investment. The current context of Nairobi is full of challenges that become opportunities to address those issues in different ways. Circular economies are based in the Cradle to Cradle (C2C) concept. Normally, the objective of sustainable development projects is to reduce the CO2 emissions, but in the C2C buildings, they attempt to create a mechanism to not only reduce Co2 emissions but also to works as a forest does, by implementing physical mechanisms in the building that generate a positive impact in the

205

Conclusions Even if the context of these four cities in the countries of Argentina, China, Belgium,

with the tools they have to work with.

and Kenya are completely different and are far away from one to the other, the cause of the disease is the same. Furthermore, from the study case analysis, that the crisis

Therefore, if the concept of â&#x20AC;&#x153;panaceaâ&#x20AC;? refers to something that will fix all the

and the necessities experienced by the increasing population are generated due to

problems (CD 2020). What is it?

the lack of collaboration between the people, the environment, and the politics, bringing social-economical inequality.

The main reflection of this research, based in the study cases, is that UA and PUA projects solution the food security thanks to the multifunctional collaboration

It would be interesting for further research to survey locals beneficiaries of the

between the people, respecting and enhancing the environment with the support of

projects, what does it means collaboration term to them, and how important it

local policies, increasing the economy for the ones that need it the most.

is, to understand from the sociological perspective the relation of it with social development.

I believe that the panacea are all of us and, the future of our territories depends on understanding it, to collectively contributing by using sustainable development

The 3 study cases were a success in their context because they managed to collaborate between many stakeholders, creating a multifunctional balance. One of those main actors was to have the support of local authorities and the active participation of local communities, to create urban sustainable development projects and address food security. Moreover, an important conclusion of this research, is that local policies were necessary to implement these projects. Without their support in any of the three study cases, It wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be achieved. As proof of it, in Rosario the urban agriculture topic was a common interest of some grassroots initiatives before the crisis of 2001 started, however, it only could take place and become a stronger project with the support of the municipality after the crisis occurred. Thanks to the landscape capacity with the initial hard work and knowledge of the vulnerable communities, the project could overlap with that background (Lattuca 2012). Moreover, another positive impact in the communities was the awareness of taking care of the environment through these projects, which is one of the most precious achievements. Learning is a very important process because new knowledge gives the power to the people to take more wise decisions also in the relationship with the environment. Humans can harm o cure, depending on what they decided to do

206

urban solutions to save the planet from ourselves.

RESHAPING PERI-URBAN BEIJIN. Open house international Vol 34, No2 Ferrer, Aldo. 2012. La construcción del Estado neoliberal en la Argentina. REVISTA DE TRABAJO. Lattuca, Antonio. 2012.La agricultura urbana como política pública: el caso de la ciudad de Rosario, Argentina. Agroecología 6: 97.

References

Peng, Jian; Liu, Zhicong; Liua, Yanxu; Hua, Xiaoxu; and Wangc, An. 2015.

Books :

of the Total Environment 537 (2015) 343–351. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.

Chaolin, Gu; Xiaohui, Yuan; and Jing, Guo. 2010. China’s master planning system in

scitotenv.2015.07.136

transition Case study on Beijing. 46th ISOCARP Congress 2010

Thuo, Aggrey. 2010. “Community and social responses to land use transformations

FAO. 2014. Ciudades más verdes en América Latina: Un informe de la FAO sobre

in the Nairobi rural-urban fringe, Kenya”. Field Actions Science Reports. URL:

Multifunctionality assessment of urban agriculture in Beijing City, China. Science

la agricultura urbana y periurbana en la región. E-ISBN 978-92-5-308251-3 (PDF)

http://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/435

FAO. 2005. THE STATE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE. Viale delle Terme di

Yang , Zhenshan; Hao, Pu; Liu, Weidong; and Cai, Jianming. 2016. Peri-urban

Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy IPCC. 2014. Climate change 2014 synthesis report. Solnit, Rebecca. 2019. A paradise built in hell: The extraordinary communities that arise in disaster.

agricultural development in Beijing: Varied forms, innovative practices and policy implications. Habitat International 56 (2016) 222-234. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. habitatint.2016.06.004 On-line documents and websites : Cambridge

Dictionary,

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/

panacea. Articles : Abuya, Dennis; Oyugi, Maurice and Oyaro, Edwin. 2019. Management of the Effects of Land Use Changes on Urban Infrastructure Capacity: A Case Study of Ruaka Town, Kiambu County, Kenya Beckers, Steven. 2019. Aquaponics: a positive impact circular economy approach TO feeding cities », Field Actions Science Reports [Online], Special Issue 20 | 2019 URL : http://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/5757

El PAIS. 2016. Argentina se aleja del fantasma de 2001. https://elpais.com/ internacional/2016/12/13/argentina/1481655800_716012.html Foodmet.

2020.

https://www.abattoir.be/nl/foodmet-een-markthal-vol-smaak.

Accessed: June 6 2020 Leahy, Stephen. 2019. “How to erase 100 years of carbon emissions? Plant trees lots of them”. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic. com/environment/2019/07/how-to-erase-100-years-carbon-emissions-plant-

Boyang, Gao; Weidong, Liu; Dunford, Michael. 2014. State land policy, land markets

trees/#:~:text=Carbon%2Deating%20trees,release%20oxygen%20into%20the%20

and geographies of manufacturing: The case of Beijing, China

air. Accessed June 6, 2020.

Cai, Jianming. 2006. Cities Farming for the Future, Urban Agriculture for Green

Marshall, Michael. 2006. “Timeline: Climate change”. Newscientist. https://www.

and Productive Cities.

newscientist.com/article/dn9912-timeline-climate-change/ Accessed: June 6 2020.

Dua, Jinfeng; Thill , Jean-Claude; B. Peiserc, Richard and Fengd, Changchun. 2014.

The noun project. www.thenounproject.com

Urban land market and land-use changes in post-reform China: A case study of Beijing

World Population Review. 2020. https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/ nairobi-population/. Acceseed: June 6 2020

Girón, Alicia. 2012. Feminismo: Quiebres y zurcidios en crisis. Feminismo y cambio social en américa Latina y el caribe. 43-56. Clacso: Buenos aires. Feifei, Zhang; Jianming, Cai & Gang, Liu 2009. HOW URBAN AGRICULTURE IS

207

DANIELA CAROLINA GARCIA ROJAS

NEW MOBILITIES / CHANGING LANES Sustainable movement on peri-urban Nairobi

Defining new lanes

pollution, road injuries and fatalities. Likewise, massive investments in new and

Urban planning of the 20th century had a protagonist: the car. The car-city paradigm

over-dimensioned road infrastructure and intra-regional railway connections are

was introduced in an exhibition called Futurama at the 1939 New York City World’s

radically reshaping the rural landscape of Nairobi. Taking this into account, many

Fair. The idea was to make buildings tall and thin so that down at the ground level

authors suggest that Nairobi needs a reliable, affordable integrated public transport

there would be space for much wider roads – mobility for mobility’s sake (Fleming

and non-motorized transport network that is safe and accessible to all income

2017). What they got were towers in a car park where people felt frightened to

groups (Robinson et al. 2019).

walk. Nevertheless, this car-city paradigm shaped not only the way in which we traditionally do urban planning, but whole the socioeconomic system in which we

However, the nature of the dispersion makes the planning and implementation

live today. That system reached developing countries, which, had to face this model

of an integrated public transport system a difficult task. Therefore, in order to

although they did not have the same social and urban dynamics and accessibility as

face the challenges of congestion, pollution, climate change and social equity,

New York. A model in which the car and the fuel companies were at the center of

Nairobi’s territory is demanding innovative networks for alternative transportation.

the industry and economy.

Similarly, and following the topic of dispersion, Nairobi’s inhabitants are also facing a challenge in which the boundaries of the countryside and the urban are becoming

In addition to the obvious privileged conditions in terms of urban morphology

blurred. The Dutch architect, urbanist, and theorist Rem Koolhaas has already

that New York may have with respect to a city in a developing country, they

stated that the dichotomy between the countryside and the cities have changed.

fundamentally differ in terms of density. The cities in developing countries are

He also indicates that for a long-time, urban solutions have been thought in order

mostly dispersed (Schaick and Speck 2008). That is the case of Nairobi, the capital

to address global challenges (Koolhaas 2020). Thus, due to rapid dispersion of

city of Kenya. Nairobi is the great nuclei of a metropolitan area where more than 9

cities over the territory, it is necessary to look at the areas where the city and the

million inhabit. The residents of Nairobi usually move around the territory using a

countryside are meeting.

combination of walking and minibuses to get around the city. Those minibuses are culturally relevant and visible in the everyday life of Nairobi. They are locally known as matatus. Although matatus are currently the backbone of the public transport for the whole metropolitan Nairobi, journey times are often long and unpredictable, and commuters are exposed to several hazards. With the resultant rise in usage of private vehicles, Nairobi is suffering from increased traffic congestion, air and noise

208

In this context, the landscape of peri-urban Nairobi, which is mostly productive,

from the city, attracted by both individual homes and reasonably priced real estate

is emerging as an environment where ecology, production and people coexist. As

(Kaufmann 2011). This phenomenon, in addition to considerable development of

a place of coexistence is made of many elements that move across and beyond it

major urban road infrastructures, gradually lead to a change in metrics. As the car

(Landau 2015). Managing those flows of movement while respecting the energy

became more widely used, business localization strategies shifted towards the city

and resources of the site is the challenge for new mobilities, and it is also the case

outskirts, amplifying the urban phenomenon (Chalas and Paulhiac 2008).

for new solutions being proposed for Nairobi. Consequently, Nairobi, is facing the challenge of foster the flow of people and Previous researchers on the relationship between the mobility and socio-spatial

resources, being inserted in this dynamic of dispersion, long distances, and excess

aspects have pointed that, among the many ingredients that constitutes the essence

of vehicular infrastructure. This is happening in part by following the worldwide

of any territory, there are three aspects whose relationship dynamics have changed

urban agenda of decreasing the use of diesel-based mobility and promoting the use

–a change that is causing the transformation the peri-urban contexts are currently

of non-motorized transport.

experiencing-. Those “ingredients” are (1) Functional centrality: A city spreads into its hinterland, of which it is the functional nuclei; (2) Morphology of the

This paper address three study cases on new forms of slow mobility. These already

built environment: A urban context is characterized by building density, forms

built urban projects are located in South America, China and New Zealand, and they

and infrastructures; and (3) Lifestyles: inhabitants have specific social practices

give us lessons on (1) modern technologies that do not use oil, (2) reuse available

(Kaufmann 2014). During the 20th century, centralities, morphology and lifestyles

and underused infrastructure, and (3) ecology networks that allow the contact with

fit together in the territorial dynamics. Pierre Veltz illustrated an analogy by saying

nature within built environments. The three case studies have a regional scale and

that these aspects dovetail like “Russian dolls” (Veltz 1996). Then, lifestyles were

are placed in developing peri-urban contexts. This last characteristic was selected

organized according to morphology, and the urban’s core functions were organized

with the aim of contrasting the cases with peri-urban Nairobi. Similarly, it was

in a hierarchical way. Also, the boundaries between the urban and the countryside

done framing the need and, more important, the possibility of changing lanes of

were highly defined, separating the urban activities from the productive ones

the mobility in peri-urban Nairobi.

and from the traditional ways of living. In other words, daily life was rooted in territories whose boundaries were multiple but nonetheless clear and relatively

Considering the rapid and recent construction of transport infrastructure in

fixed (Kaufmann 2014).

this peri-urban context, the main research question was: How can Nairobi take advantage of their infrastructural developments, and use them to promote more

Nowadays, the cities have spread into the countryside following modalities. Thus, following Veltz analogy, the Russian doll has burst. The relationship between what is nearby, what is connected and what is moving has changed, thus changing the very definition of “nearby,” “moving” and “connected” (or in relation with). Therefore, from a pedestrian standpoint, territories today are organized according to car metrics and measurements (Wiel 1999). The speed potential afforded by the automobile was overwhelmingly appropriated by households in order to live further

210

sustainable ways of living and urbanizing their territory?

ÂŠ Silvia Parra 2020

Means of transport in Ndenderu.

211

01_New energies in hilly contexts MI TELEFÉRICO

2014

La Paz–El Alto, Bolivia

César Dockweiler

Mi Teleférico is the longest aerial cable car urban transit system in the world. It is serving La Paz-El Alto metropolitan area in Bolivia, a region where 3 million people inhabit (Ministerio de Obras Públicas Servicios y Vivienda 2013). This system was planned to address certain urban issues that are also being dealt with in peri-urban Nairobi: (1) A precarious public transport system based on minibuses that cannot cope with the growing user demand. (2) The high cost in time and money of traveling between La Paz and El Alto, in the case of Bolivia. And, the same situation between Nairobi and Ndenderu, Kikuyu and Ongata Rongai, in Kenya. And (3) Chaotic traffic jam, with its subsequent environmental

212

and noise pollution. This system connects Las Paz and El Alto, which are completely conurbated. Likewise, they are separated by a steep slope about 400 meters tall and were previously only connected by winding congested roads. In this sense, this study case can be taken as an example for the transportation from Nairobi to Ndenderu, in which its territory, configurated by valleys and steep fertile slopes, is being crossed by roads that are usually congested. This impacts on a negative way in Ndenderu productive landscape and ecological balance.

Following this, the maximum distance between the connected spots in Mi Teleférico is 17 kilometers. In contrast, the center of Nairobi is, on average, 14 kilometers from the centers of Ndenderu, Kikuyu and Ongata Rongai. Thus, considering the similarities between both cases, could a cable car be an option to move through Ndenderu foothills? Mi Teleférico had to face great execution challenges, such as the impact on the landscape in visual terms, the privacy, and the lost jobs of the former minibus divers. Their proposal to cope with this was an extensive participatory process, in order to generate new jobs related to the new transportation system and the creation of an identity of the place.

In summary, Mi Teleférico is relevant for coming up with ideas for Nairobi, as they are both located in a similar peri-urban context, with fuzzy territorial limits and a hilly landscape. Furthermore, Mi Teleférico gives substantial lessons when talking about urban mobility transition in a developing country. This, due to the fact it is the first transport system to use electrical cable car as the backbone of the whole transit network. Therefore, the implementation of electric energy in transportation encourages to overcome from the fossil fuel tendency in mobility, while creating articulated systems.

213

02_Landscape regeneration through green networks DALANG GREENWAY

2014

ÂŠJingli 2018

Shenzhen, China

Shenzhen Government

Shenzhen has experienced 30 years of rapid urban development, especially in its central economic district. Meanwhile, its peri-urban areas have experienced a process of rural industrialization, which has resulted in large spontaneous developments of factories and urban villages (Qu, Fu, and Calabrese 2015). Dalang is one of these peri-urban enclaves. It is located right on the border of the CBD (central business district). It has been transformed from a green-rural field into an industrial area dominated by manufacturing industries. In recent years, the government of Shenzhen has envisioned a multiscale project, which would articulate the region, the city, and the neighborhoods through greenways.

214

This was proposed with the goal of regenerating ecosystems and recovering the human scale and the contact with nature. The program of greenways has been a success in China. In this context, the big difference from the study case and Nairobi may be the budget, the politic willing and the institutional capacity. Nevertheless, it is possible to think that nature recovers what belongs to it. The flows of the rivers, the wetlands and the footprints of the forests, framed by the topography, define the territory and allow the greenways to emerge in peri-urban contexts.

Main components of an integrated greenway system in Dalang

For instance, if a greenway system would be created in Kikuyu, it could help to mitigate the loss of ‘natural’ space that has been happening in urbanization projects that had come over the swamp, fragmenting the forest system. It also could provide scenic qualities in the landscape, as well as recreational functions while preserving the natural ecosystem. Such multipurpose greenways usually involve every territorial scale and planning levels (Fábos 2004). Therefore, a green network could frame the mobility between the Kiambu County, Kikuyu and Nairobi. Therefore, a greenway system in Kikuyu could work as an ecological framework, which varies greatly in scale, from small green streets that run through urban, peri-urban, and rural areas, to wider corridors that incorporate diverse natural, cultural, and landscape features. By connecting fragmented forests ecosystems, a greenway can facilitate the movement of the people of Kikuyu in and around the town framed by the forest system. It may integrate diverse urban functions, while providing aesthetic experiences. Furthermore, greenway system linking suitable patches of habitat is a promising strategy to maintain biodiversity, and fostering slow mobilities, such as walking and biking (Ahern 1995), and even animal crossing.

Planning proposals of an integrated greenway system in Dalang

The Dalang greenway, by connecting existing green routes and slow-traffic routes, give lessons that could be applied in peri-urban Nairobi, such as enhancing the accessibility to the greenway network by public transportation, allocating transit nodes along the existing public transportation routes. Also, it can be a reference case on making use of vacant spaces in both the urban context and the productive areas to create a public space network, by adding vegetation and diverse urban functions to such places, and connecting these scattered spaces in the compact urban areas. And finally, it can also be used as learning experience on developing secondary road networks within neighborhoods as

215

03_Infrastructure conversion into slow-mobilities networks OTAGO CENTRAL RAIL TRAIL

2000

South Island, New Zeland

Otago Central Rail Trail Trust

The Otago Central Rail Trail is a 152 km walking, cycling and horse riding track all off-road, that was built over a rail trail. The original railway line worked form the 1930’s to the 1980’s transporting old, due to it was a pastoral-farming and mine area (Ministry of Tourism 2009). In the early 1990’s, the segment between the towns Clyde and Middlemarch stopped working as a railway. At that moment, the New Zealand Department of conservation recognized its potential as a connecting facility, as this infrastructure bordered several small towns and agriculture fields areas that, by that moment, were reachable jut by car.

216

This study case can be taken as a model for using remaining infrastructures into slow-mobility systems to move through agropastoral landscapes. That could be the case of Ongata Rongai at the south of peri-urban Nairobi. Which has an excess of vehicle infrastructure that is pulling out the cattle, and putting the animals in risk as consequence of their presence over the roads. Therefore, as in Otago Central Rail Trail, which always has had the goal of maintaining the agricultural nature of the landscape, Ongata Rongai has the chance and the challenge to rethink the way their inhabitants and their main resource -the animals- move across the territory.

ÂŠ Otago Central Rail Trail Trust 2017

The Otago Central Rail Trail Trust, the community organization that join forces to recover the rail trail and use it as a slow-mobility path, organizes workshops with the villages and farmers to manage the balance between the new slow-mobility infrastructure, the tourism that this infrastructure attracts, and agriculture. Thus, in the case of Ongata Rongai, it could be possible to take advantage, for instance, of the residual spaces left beneath the new train infrastructure, allowing the flows of both animals and people across it at the ground level.

In addition, as it was demonstrated in the Otago case, reforming the lanes and giving space to the landscape to be enjoyed can be a boost for tourism and economic practices. Infrastructural systems work like artificial ecologies, controlling and regulating movements (Otago Central Rail Trail Trust 2017). Hence, the practice of re-using infrastructure can frame the grazing productive landscape in Ongata Rongai. In sum, the greatest lesson of the Otago Central Rail Trail for Nairobi is the capacity of the community effort on taking advantage of old and underused infrastructure in order to transform it into new lanes.

217

Conclusions In urban western contexts, following the urban global agenda on encouraging and

mobilities are forms of resistance. Therefore, changing lanes in Nairobi could lead a

using sustainable means of transportation, the bicycle has been the paradigm for

revolution in the ways the urban and the landscape meet.

new mobilities. Nevertheless, when focusing on developing countries and periurban contexts, it is necessary to understand their environment, their weather

Complex territories such as metropolitan Nairobi, cannot face the mobility revolution

conditions, geographies, customs, preferences, possibilities, and resources. Even

with single-use infrastructure, such as the bus system or the railway, because those

though I am highly enthusiastic on bicycles as a mean of transport, that I consider

monolithic and monopoly-based schemes end up thwarting elementary modes like

there is evidence showing it is possible to bike in all geographies, and that I truly

walking and cycling. Likewise, it is important to question in future research how to

believe that the bicycle is the mean of transport of the future, today the real and

integrate or make evolve the matatus system into the mobility revolution. I consider

tangible challenge for urban planners is to take advantage of what both the urban

that territorial planning can produce positive effects when the urbanistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s liberating

and the landscape can offer. The new mobilities must flow with the territory. This

intentions coincide with the real practice of people in the exercise of their freedom.

is in contrast with projects such as the intra-regional railway and new bypasses

The people of West Nairobi will benefit only if mobility structures are inclusive

in Nairobi, which have been built with large foreign capital investment and have

across demographic and economic sections of the population.

arrived as new forms of colonization.

Urban and transport planning across different scales must be articulated. If we started this document by stating that the car was the protagonist of the urban

Therefore, new sustainable mobilities are not only a response to climate change but

planning of the 20th century, we must finish stating that the urban planning of the

also a concrete way of developing the autonomy of the territories as a resistance

21st century must have new protagonist: the people.

action. The three study cases of this paper resulted from the coordination and synergy of governments and citizens that sought to inhabit while moving through peri-urban contexts. As Samir Bantal observed, â&#x20AC;&#x153;the countryside, a place many of us think of as stable and slow-moving is revealed as an incredibly agile and flexible realm, even more than any modern metropolisâ&#x20AC;? (OMA 2020. pp. 1). Hence, envisioning new forms of moving through the peri-urban Nairobi productive landscape is needed. For this, joining fragmented natural ecosystems and taking advantage of the underused infrastructures is a starting point. In an interview in 1982, Foucault stated that the three great variables of the spacetime are the territory, the communication, and speed (Allen 1999. pp. 4). This makes me question: In order to make a change in how we move, must we also change how we communicate and how we inhabit the territory? The most probable answer is yes, because the traditional forms of mobility have been shaped in a highly

Before we discard our bodies to become spiritual machines Before we replace our friends with synthesized substitutes Before we eliminate our emotions in favor of perfect logic Before we surrender our autonomy to smart objects, vehicles, and cities Let us pause (Feldman 2017)

competing system that demands high speeds. Thus, a truly deep shift in mobility needs an overall shift in the way we inhabit the territories. As aforementioned, new

218

Where can our feet take us?

References Adventure south NZ. 2019. “Otago Rail Trail Classic.” 2019. https://www.

———. 2014. “Mobility as a Tool for Sociology.” Sociologica 8 (1): 1–17. https://doi.

adventuresouth.co.nz/New-Zealand/Cycle-Trails/Otago-Rail-Trail-Classic.

org/10.2383/77046.

Ahern, J. 1995. “Greenways as a Planning Strategy.” Landscape and Urban Planning

Koolhaas, Rem. 2020. “Countryside, The Future.” 2020. https://www.guggenheim.

33: 131–55.

org/exhibition/countryside.

Allen, Stan. 1999. “Infrastructural Urbanism.” In Points + Lines, 4. New York:

Landau, Loren. 2015. “Becoming Cosmo: Displacement, Development and Disguise

Princeton Architectural Press.

in Ongata Rongai.” International Afrinan Institute.

Almeida, David. 2017. “How Are Cable Cars Improving Mobility and Reducing

Ministerio de Obras Públicas Servicios y Vivienda. 2013. “FICHA TECNICA DEL

Segregation

PROYECTO TELEFERICO.”

Latin

America?”

2017.

https://www.flickr.com/photos/

davidalmeida/16089218800/sizes/o/. Baratto, Romullo. 2016. “La Paz y El Teleférico Urbano Más Alto Del Mundo.” 2016. https://www.archdaily.pe/pe/758231/la-paz-y-el-teleferico-urbano-mas-alto-delmundo?ad_medium=gallery. Chalas, Y., and F. Paulhiac. 2008. La Mobilité Qui Fait La Ville. Lyon: CERTU Edition.

Cycleway Project.” OMA. 2020. “Countryside: The Future.” 2020. https://oma.eu/projects/countrysidethe-future. Otago Central Rail Trail Trust. 2017. “Otago Central Rail Trail.” 2017. https://www. odt.co.nz/features/holiday-guide/cycle-trails/otago-central-rail-trail.

Daoss, J. 2016. “Santo Domingo Station and Public Space.” 2016. https://www.flickr. com/photos/97765695@N04/28706882835/. Fábos, J.G. 2004. “Greenway Planning in the United States: Its Origins and Recent Case Studies.” Landscape and Urban Planning 68 (2–3): 321–42. Feldman, Lee. 2017. “CycleSpace.” Fleming, Steven. 2017. Velotopia. Edited by Nai010 Publishers. I. Rotterdam. Fu, B. 2014. “Greenway--Connecting a Livable Human Settlement for Migrant Workers in Rural-Urban Fringe Area.” Delft University of Technology. Herrero, Raul. 2016. “La Paz and Illimani Mountain from El Alto. 4,000 m.a.s.l. (Bolivia).”

Ministry of Tourism. 2009. “Investment for the Development of the New Zealand

2016.

https://www.flickr.com/photos/raulhcouto/30346288265/in/

photostream/. Jingli, Wang. 2018. “Greenway to Start Trial Operation.” 2018. http://www. eyeshenzhen.com/content/2019-06/18/content_22175128.htm.

Qu, Lei, Bang Fu, and Luisa Calabrese. 2015. “Beyond the Greenways: A PeopleCentered Urban Planning and Design Approach for Shenzhen, the ‘World Factory’ in Transition,” 519–30. https://doi.org/10.3390/ifou-d010. Robinson, Blake, Stefanie Holzwarth, Matteo Franceschi, and Christopher Kost. 2019. “Nairobi, Kenya: Accelerating Change in the Transport Sector.” 2019. https:// www.transformative-mobility.org/publications/nairobi-kenya-acceleratingchange-in-the-transport-sector. Schaick, Jeroen va, and Setfan van der Speck. 2008. “Urbanism on Track: Application of Tracking Techbnologies in Urbanism.” Amsterdam. TLMELO. 2014. “‘Mi Teleférico’ - Illimani Mount - La Paz - Bolivia.” 2014. https:// www.flickr.com/photos/tlmelo/15736547003. Veltz, Pierre. 1996. Mondialisation, Villes et Territoires. PUF. Paris. Wiel, M. 1999. La Transition Urbaine. Spirmont: Margada éditions.

Kaufmann, Vincent. 2011. “Rethinking the City.” Routledge and EPFL Press.

219

SHARMIN KABIR SHIMUL

CIRCULAR ECONOMY

220

01_Agro Food Park AGRO FOOD PARK EXTENSION

GXN + 3XN Architects, BCVA

Aarhus, Denmark

The first case study is the AGRO Food Park Extension in Aarhus, Denmark designed by William McDonough + Partners and GXN together with 3XN Architects, BCVA and Urland. It is the future of food and plant resources and is an innovative way to fuse agricultural practices with urbanity. The five focus areas of the Agro food Park Extension is healthy materials, clean energy, increased biodiversity, healthy air and clean water. It is a carbon positive city demonstration where physical elements, energies and resources flow in a loop of economic and ecological innovation and regeneration.

221

The lawn in the heart of AFP is a place for agricultural innovation and testing different production methods of crop cultivation. It is a combination of kitchen garden, beehives, energy crops, orchard and meadows. It is the communal place where people walk around to take a look at these various agricultural innovations.

223

Energy and resources remain within the system of this food park as they flow through different infrastructures. The biowaste and manures are reused for energy and irrigation while the excess heat from the infrastructure is used for the greenhouse production. Amenities like office space, gym, lounge and collaboration space surrounds the lawn with their shorter faรงade facing the street giving the feeling of connectivity in an urban context.

224

02_Self Sustaining Village REGEN VILLAGE

EFFEKT Architects

â&#x20AC;&#x153;ReGen Villageâ&#x20AC;?- a regenerative and innovative housing model is designed by EEFEKT Architects which acts as a solution for social, environmental and economic issues currently faced globally. t is a self-sustaining neighborhood design that can be placed in any place over the globe. It is a self-sustaining neighborhood design that can be placed in any place over the globe. Agriculture is one of the biggest reasons behind environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity which is why this housing model comes up with a sustainable agricultural model.

225

The design of this village model involves different forms of applied technology like energy positive homes, renewable energy, energy storage, door-step highyield organic food production, vertical farming, aquaponic, aeroponics, water management and waste to resource systems. The model also reduces the space occupied by human being by bringing in office and communal spaces closer to the dwellings. This will open up a new form of peri-urbanism and rural development that is sustainable for the environment and provides convenience to human life.

226

The dwelling infrastructures are placed around the communal and production spaces. 8 squares are connected with the housings and they are used for dropoffs and charging station for cars. Social spaces are created between the spaces of every built form to ensure a complete integration between food production and housing units.

227

03_Permaculture ZAYTUNA FARM Australia

Zaytuna Farm is an family friendly farm of 67 acres which is an extensive permaculture demonstration site that fronts Terania Creek opposite of the village of The Channon in Australia. The property contains 800meters of Creek frontage, numerous swimming holes and abundant wildlife. The landscape contains varied elements like high frost-free hill tops, ridges and valleys with both cleared paddocks and forest areas.

229

It is an ever-evolving ground research in practice where students can learn about different sustainable productive systems and real-life permaculture techniques and farming. Different farm systems that include animals, crops, trees, nursery, aquatics, irrigation, renewable energy, waste and recycling are other practices are incorporated with it. Other tasks include making compost and natural fertilizers from the leftovers of the farm. Pesticide-free farming and producing no waste is the key to permaculture farming. An integrated water harvesting system of multiple dams, ponds and swales with gravity irrigation is also designed throughout the site.

230

The infrastructures of this farm are made up of straw, bamboo and stylish upcycled shipping containers with passive solar aspect winder vented metal roofs. The electricity in the farm is generated by standalone off grid solar with generator back up, all toilets are state of the art composting toilets, all grey waste systems are gravel reed bed natural biological cleaning system all approved by the local government.

231

Conclusions Nairobi peri-urban areas suffer the consequences of land fragmentation and ill agricultural practices with environmental degradation. Land is a finite source and promoting multiple usage of a piece of land is very crucial to see any development. The Agro food park extension project shows how a small piece of land can be used fusing urbanity and agriculture to increase productivity and chances for innovation and entrepreneurship. The self-sustaining village model is a wonderful example of sustainable neighborhood design that uses resources and limit the area of impact that human being intervenes with their activities on a regular basis. The model shows how to inhabit in physical environment while allowing it to survive and not compromising human beings benefitting from it. Agricultural practices in peri-urban areas of Nairobi is threatening natural systems and wildlife. Zaytuna farm exhibits the practice of permaculture and how it can be applied in the reality that combines sustainable farming and construction methods. It involves a deeper understanding of how can the natural systems work in synergy with human activities and learn about pesticide-free farming.

232

References Global Architecture Archive, “ Agro Food Park Expansion in Aarhus by 3XN and GXN Architects”, (September 19, 2016), https://aasarchitecture.com/2016/09/agrofood-park-expansion-aarhus.html/,( Accessed 14th June, 2020) Santos, Sabrina, “Agro Food Park Expansion in Denmark to Combine Urbanity and

Agriculture”,(2016),https://www.archdaily.com/794507/agro-food-park-

expansion-in-denmark-to-combine-urbanity-and-agriculture,

(Accessed

14th

June, 2020) Kirk, Mimi, “The Danish food park that wants to nourish the world”, (November 01,2016),https://www.citylab.com/solutions/2016/11/agro-food-parkdenmark/506051/, (Accessed 14th June, 2020) WA CONTENTS, Netherlands Architecture News, “EFFEKT designs ReGen Villages that create New Sustainable Eco-system for Food and Energy production”, (May 24, 2016), https://worldarchitecture.org/articles/cemzg/effekt_designs_ regreen_villages_that_create_new_sustainable_ecosystem_for_food_and_energy_ production.html, (Accessed 14th June, 2020) Bush Jessica,”Finally an Eco-Village that is more than theory”,(November 7, 2019),https://www.buzzworthy.com/regen-eco-villages/ , (Accessed 14th June, 2020) Crockett,Lauren,“Innovative Self-Sustaining Village Model Could be the Future of Semi-Urban Living” ,(2016),https://www.archdaily.com/794167/innovative-selfsustaining-village-model-could-be-the-future-of-semi-urban-living,

(Accessed

14th June, 2020) Connolly, Andy, “My Permaculture Experience at Zaytuna Farm”, (June 05,2017), https://www.permaculturenews.org/2017/06/05/permaculture-experiencezaytuna-farm/, (Accessed 14th June, 2020) Dib, Jose, “My Visit to PRI Zaytuna Farm”, (December 18, 2013), https://www. permaculturenews.org/2013/12/18/my-visit-to-pri-zaytuna-farm/, (Accessed 14th June, 2020)

233

LUIS VILLADIEGO C.

PRODUCTIVE FOREST RESTORATION Indigenous and subsistence agriculture

History of mixed growth

A productive green alternative.

Water and forest are fundamental elements that are part of the natural and urban

Pretending as urban planners to stop the activities that have been taking place for

landscape of Kenya. Nairobi, its capital, and the peripheral municipalities have

decades to provide new green and community spaces, thinking about sustainability

grown by leaps and bounds in recent decades, allowing cities to mix their activities

could be traumatic and complicated. However, many existing alternatives can

with the landscape of existing flora and fauna (Njoroge et al. 2011). Nevertheless,

carry out to improve the environment, maintain production, and contribute to the

on occasions, there have been many reasons why this growth has occurred in a very

creation of new green spaces to provide a complete ecological infrastructure.

particular way (Figure 1), allowing a productive landscape to combined between the

Indigenous and subsistence agriculture techniques could be an alternative to

urban and the rural. It is why agricultural, livestock, and urban development activities

achieve the purpose of this urban design proposal. Different indigenous cultures

have reduced the amount of forests, aquifers become over-saturated and polluted,

whose agricultural practices are quite predominant will relate to this document.

affecting their natural wealth and contributing to global warming (Thuo 2013).

Three case studies will evaluate, which will allow us to develop our research

Corruption, laws, and others aspect, have existed over the past few years have

by design proposal (Figure 2). Notwithstanding being different locations and

made the land use in and around Nairobi so diverse (Anderson 2001). Through the

kilometers away from Nairobi, these cases have similarities in altitude, latitude,

years, on the land, it is possible to find from the extensive agricultural and livestock

productivity, and consumption, which would make its implementation viable and

production lands in an industrialized way, to the small informal farms and plots

allowing a balance between the creation and protection of water and forests. At the

belonging to the families for their consumption or small-scale commercialization

same time, people can continue with their productive activities.

(Figure 1, 2) (Lado 1990). This latter situation has allowed the acquired land to be

Through existing and proposed plans, photographs, collages, sections, research,

exploited for its benefit, reducing the number of existing â&#x20AC;&#x153;non-productiveâ&#x20AC;? trees by

and analysis, it will seek to test alternatives to improve and recover forests and

houses with crops or animals.

water reserves, allowing a balance with flora and fauna.

234

a,b,c,e: Luis Villadiego. d: Gaarith Williams 2020

ÂŠ

e Figure 1: a) Gacuthi and Bama Forest b)Typical residential building on dense urban areas c) Formal agricultural landscape for tea plantation; d)Rural-Urban typology on informal farms) e) Contrast between forest and urban development, 2020

235

Ndenderu Valley System Case 2

Nairobi City

National Park

Ngong Hills

ÂŠLuis Villadiego, 2020

Ongata Rongai Savanna Case 3

Figure 2: Representation of cross section and land occupation according to topography, 2020

236

Kikuyu Plateau Case 1

01_ Increasing productivity in cornfields plateaus MILPA FOREST GARDENS

Mayan Culture

Millenary agroecological system An urban planning vision could be to increase forests by providing an ecological infrastructure and allow Nairobi communities to have the opportunity to maintain their agricultural productivity could generate a positive impact. The indigenous agroecological system on Milpa forest gardens used by the Mayan culture in the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico, could be a viable alternative.

2500 BCE

Yucatan peninsula, Mexico.

among others (Watson 2019). Their relief and type of soil based on plateaus, make them proper for agricultural activities (Bautista and Palacio 2012), and they even function as mammalian corridors (figure 3a) (Varela and Trabanino 2016). That situations are part of Nairobi’s landscape, where we can appreciate potential areas in which the agroecological system could be applied (figure 3 b, c, d).

The milpa forests in the Yucatan peninsula can found at altitudes between 1,500 and 2,840 meters, where it’s possible to find maize, beans, plantain, banana,

237

A long-lasting reforestation cycles The milpa cycle can take between 20 and 50 years, starting from a natural tree forest (figure 4a). In its first phase, part of the wood is cleaned and burned for planting from 2 to 3 years. In this phase, the trilogy of corn, beans, and squash planted (figure 4b). The second part, from 5 to 10 years, is for planting fruit trees such as plantain, banana, and papaya among the existing maize fields. Also, small trees like mango and avocado are part of the process (figure 4c).

238

A third phase could take from 10 to 15 years; mature trees serve as a canopy for small plantations, inhibiting undergrowth. In the fourth cycle, the forest transformed into a hardwood forest without underwood (figure 4d). The period starts again with plants typically cultivated from seeds saved (Watson 2019).

02_Recovering the valleys KIHAMBA FOREST GARDENS

Chagga Culture

Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Contacted in 1810 After

Before

Tree Layer Existing low productive valley landscape

Shrub Layer

Figure 5. ÂŠLuis Villadiego, 2020

Herb Layer

The productive landscape for the Nairobi valley system The Chagga culture lives in the Kilimanjaro mount. Its plantations develop between 800 and 2,300 mm, which means that its fields are mostly sloped and, at the same time, quite productive (Hawksworth and Bull 2006). In the Nairobi landscape, the slopes are quite predominant and repetitive in the complex river system of the city. Also, due to their similarities in location and altitude, the plantations species are similar as well. Four vegetation levels of plantations across the sloping terrain allow the development of this mixed activity between forests and crops. The highest level

made up of trees that provide shade and wood for multiple uses. In the following one, it is possible to find trees of medium height as medicinal or fruit plantations as the banana. A third level made up of plantation bushes such as coffee or beans and, finally, vegetable crops at the lowest level (Dagar 2018). In figure 5, it is possible to appreciate the distribution of the plantations of Chagga people (Hemp 2005), but for the research it is adapted to the local species of Nairobi (Bernard 2001).

239

Figure 6. ÂŠ Luis Villadiego, 2020

Reinforcing the forest An ambitious vision and to intensify green areas made up of forests, thinking about environmental and social sustainability. Nairobiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s complex topography allows both indigenous techniques to be applied to its plateaus and valleys in search of reinforcing forests while achieving productivity to promote the agricultural activities that usually carried out. Both Mayan and Chagga cultures have demonstrated for centuries that it is possible to carry out these sustainable techniques which could apply in the areas shown in figure 6.

240

It is even possible to carry out an organized structure of the plantations, in contrast to the random distribution of indigenous cultures, to guarantee a correct delivery and production that optimizes the possible harvesting of crops.

03_Livestock Forest SILVOPASTORAL SYSTEM FARMS

2000 BCE

Figure 7 ÂŠ Luis Villadiego, 2020

Northern Ethiopia

Tigrayan

Greening Productivity A technique practiced around the world to combat climate change, promote forest growth, increase land productivity by allowing livestock combined with reforestation, is silvopastoralism (Dagar 2018). The southern part of Nairobi in municipalities such as Ongata Rongai is characterized by its high livestock activity on mostly flatlands, being this one of its main economic activities. However, the livestock activity goes from being formal and industrial, to mixing in the urban landscape informally and without meeting safety standards (Figure 7).

Occasionally, due to the dry seasons, livestock must be moved to areas further north due to food shortages. However, to the north of Ethiopia, a neighboring country, an indigenous technique by the Tigrayan community seems to offer a solution.

241

Before

Working with local alternatives Species such as Cordia Africana, Eucalyptus Camalduleins, and Carissa Edulis, among others, also present in Kenya, are used by the indigenous people in northern Ethiopia to carry out her Silvopastoral techniques. Studies show that when indigenous people develop this technique with species such as Ficus Thonningii, create climatic-resilience, since it is a system that adapts to climate change, maintaining livestock production and environmental protection on locals backyards (Balehegn, Eik, and Tesfay 2015). These species also found in Kenya (Beentje H.J 1988), which would allow the technique to be applied

242

satisfactorily in the livestock area of Nairobi as an alternative to feeding and productivity problems. It can see how southeast of Nairobi, in the town of Ongata Rongai, wide-open fields are part of the livestock landscape, a potential area for silvopastoral and increase the number of livestock forests (Figure 8a, yellow texture). A substantial change will occur in the area if we compare the hypothetical case proposed in figure 8b. With the use of indigenous tree species, that, in turn, allow livestock to be fed as an alternative when the grass begins to scarce.

ÂŠ Luis Villadiego 2020

After

Conclusions Nairobi characterized by its topographic complexity thanks to its extensive

The images collected during the fieldwork demonstrate an apparent social inequality

savannahs and rugged and repetitive valleys with its multiple rivers, streams with

and little investment in small-scale crops that Kenyan families have, so proposing

vast forests. In the same way, its productive landscape is quite broad throughout

cultivation techniques and improving productivity at a low-cost way, turn out to

its entire length. The urban center of Nairobi, due to its dense population, and as

be an alternative for the population. It is evident, according to satellite maps and

a business center for the country region, demands many inputs. It is there where

illustrations, how large areas, regardless of their topography, can provide potential

neighboring municipalities such as Ndenderu, Kikuyu, and Ongata Rongai are

areas for agroforestry and Silvopastoral. In the most optimistic scenarios, it could

in charge of supplying the needs of the capital. However, the growth of urban,

considerably increase the number and density of forests in the region without

agricultural, and livestock productivity has threatened in recent decades the stability

neglect production.

of green areas and water. Maintaining large patches of dense consumed forest, and small patches of concentrated forest in between rural areas.

Modifications in the productive landscape in some areas such as Nairobi would depend on essential issues, like, political will, technical education, private

Many alternatives can be proposed and implemented on productive land to enhance

investment, among others. The transformation of the landscape by improving

their capacity and, at the same time, increase green spaces. Indigenous cultures

those weaknesses in any country could modify social and environmental welfare,

around the world, and which have existed for centuries, even millennia, allow us to

especially in underdeveloped countries. Therefore looking at these indigenous

have ideas of how we can attack reducing deforestation by creating intercropping

techniques as an alternative of productivity, could transform society and provide an

techniques. Systems such as agroforestry and silvopastoralism are practiced around

impressive solution, especially to the most vulnerable population.

the world in a very sophisticated and industrialized way in developed countries. However, indigenous cultures have been characterized by their practice and evident success, without the need for the machinery and infrastructure that civilized societies imply. The techniques proposed in this research are very similar to the Kenyan situation due to different characteristics such as geolocation and altitude. The location in the tropical region of these cultures and their temperatures may also be the reason why agricultural products are so similar to the Kenyan consumptive culture. Reasons that make these techniques become considered viable for applying in these soils, both in valleys and also savannas. Even planning engineering projects that take advantage of topographic complexity, could generate potential areas for new water reserves and thus have new artificial reserves that can optimize agricultural processes.

243

References Books and scientific articles : Anderson, David M. 2001. “Corruption at City Hall: African Housing and Urban

Resource in Development and Land Use Planning?” Land Use Policy 7 (3): 257–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/0264-8377(90)90039-2.

Development in Colonial Nairobi.” Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 36–

Njoroge, J. B.M., K. Nda’Nganga, K. Wariara, and M. G. Maina. 2011. “Characterising

37 (1): 138–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/00672700109511704.

Changes in Urban Landscape of Nairobi City, Kenya.” Acta Horticulturae 911: 537–

Balehegn, Mulubrhan, Lars O. Eik, and Yayneshet Tesfay. 2015. “Silvopastoral

43. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2011.911.63.

System Based on Ficus Thonningii: An Adaptation to Climate Change in Northern

Thuo, Aggrey Daniel Maina. 2013. “Exploring Land Development Dynamics in

Ethiopia.” African Journal of Range and Forage Science 32 (3): 183–91. https://doi.

Rural-Urban Fringes: A Reflection on Why Agriculture Is Being Squeezed Out by

org/10.2989/10220119.2014.942368.

Urban Land Uses in the Nairobi Rural-Urban Fringe?” International Journal of

Bautista, Francisco, and Gerardo Palacio. 2012. “Península de Yucatán.” In

Rural Management 9 (2): 105–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0973005213499088.

Geografía de Suelos de México, edited by P. Krasilnikov, F.J. Jiménez, T. Reyna,

Varela, Carlos, and Felipe Trabanino. 2016. “Traditional Chol and Tseltal Hunting

and N.E. García, 355–406. Ciudad de Mexico. https://www.researchgate.net/

Practices in the Bushland of Palenque: Implications for Mayan Zooarcheology.”

publication/255685775_Peninsula_de_Yucatan.

Pueblos y Fronteras 11(22), 165–91. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.22201/

Beentje H.J. 1988. Fig Trees (Ficus, Moraceae) of Kenya. Journal of the East Africa Natural History Society and National Museum. Vol. 76. Nairobi: Nairobi: East Africa Natural History Society and National Museum. Bernard, Kigomo N. 2001. “Forest Genetic Resources Working Papers State of Forest Genetic Resources in Kenya The Sub-Regional Workshop FAO/IPGRI/ICRAF on the Conservation, Management, Sustainable Utilization and Enhancement of Forest Genetic Resources in Sahelian and North-Sudanian Africa (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, 22-24 September 1998) A Co-Publication of FAO, IPGRI/SAFORGEN, DFSC and ICRAF.” http://www.fao.org/forestry/Forestry.asp. Dagar, Jagdish Chander. 2018. Agroforestry: Anecdotal to Modern Science. Edited by Vindhya Prasad Tewari. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7650-3. Hawksworth, David, and Alan. Bull. 2006. “Forest Diversity and Management.” Topics in Biodiversity and Conservation 2 (Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands): 46. Hemp, Claudia. 2005. “The Chagga Home Gardens-Relict Areas for Endemic Saltatoria Species (Insecta: Orthoptera) on Mount Kilimanjaro.” Biological Conservation 125 2 (ELSEVIER): 203–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.03.018. Lado, Cleophas. 1990. “Informal Urban Agriculture in Nairobi, Kenya. Problem or

244

cimsur.18704115e.2016.22.274. Watson, Julia. LO-TEK Design by Radical Indigenism. TASCHEN, 2019.

GAARITH WILLIAMS

Transition of housing forms (collective, co-housing) Understading ways of how we might live together

The high demand for affordable and well-located housing along with the development

an approach to how the lowlands of West Nairobi can be settled, and where human

of new mobility infrastructure has seen the rapid development of speculative

relations and natural systems can co-exist.

housing in the hopes of capitalizing on this new demand. The resultant urbanity is low investment, medium density settlements that sprawl across the landscape

These three tropes, Communal, Infill and Cluster living can be critically adapted

compromising two distinct ecological conditions; that of the valley, and that of

and applied to variety of conditions that can be found in west Nairobi.

the plateau, as well as the relationship between these respective natural systems. Disperse settlements also lowers access to economic and social opportunities as well as the potential for upward social mobility. The housing production of the regular market is monotonous and targets, in general, nuclear families. As such, housing production is not adapted to demographically defined changing of societal needs and economic possibilities. Examining the cases to follow is an attempt to understand and find new productive ways of human cohabitation with the natural environment and with each other. The cases thematically explore collective living defined as: ‘Communal living: with the land and with others’; through this case I attempt to understand a set of relations of the residents with each other and with the land. ‘Infill living: together on the street’; the street is a space for mobility, trade and social exchange. Building the urban wall capitalizes on the existing opportunity the street provides. In addition to this, illustrated here is the need for secondary public realms for other kinds of interaction, and where new communities can form. ‘Cluster living: communally settling the landscape’; leveraging on local building tradition as a means to capacitate and empower local tradesman. The project shows

246

Left: Photo introduction

Claiming territory: Unfinished buildings speculatively claim space in anticipation of new infrastructure. When demand increases the buildings are completed.

Settlement in the valley: Typical small farm, settlement development.

Rapid development: New housing developments in the valley.

Shifting use: buildings built for housing is adapted to serve many other functions.

247

01_Communal living: With the land and with others JYSTRUP SAWMILL (JYSTRUP SAVVÃ&#x2020;RK) Denmark

248

Vandkunsten Architects 1982-1984

Brief overview: Completed in 1984, this project can be seen as an exemplary case that demonstrates a tradeoff of individual private space for communal space. The building encloses an exterior productive landscape where communal responsibilities are shared. The private domicile are double banked to form a public interior street-like place. Comunal areas, such as kitchen, living areas, laundry rooms, workshop spaces, as well as music rooms are within this space and at the corner of the public interior. The spatial organisation here facilitates productive communal relations; however, not all residents have thrived here. With this model, high levels of participation and volentary work is demanded. This project begins to ask the folowing quesion: how can we begin to find new ways to prioritise the collective over the individual? Building collectivity: Pictured, the housing development is appropriately scaled to relate to the human scale and the contour of the landscape. The building reads and separate homes joined by a shared space. The glazed interior â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;streetâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; provides spaces to socialise and for children to play in all year round.

249

250

Separating elements: Evident in these drawings is a careful use of material, form and shadow to allow elements of the building to be perceived as separate elements to create an image of village as opposed to a monolith.

251

03_Infill living: Together on the street LA BORDA HOUSING COOPERATIVE Barcelona, Spain

252

Lacol 2014-2018

Brief overview: La Borda housing co-operative is organised by its residents to provide decent, non-speculative housing. This is formed through the implementation of a collective organizational structure. The project has 28 units varying between 40, 60 and 75 square meters. Communally shared facilities include; kitchen-dining room, laundry, multi-purpose space, health and care spaces, external and semi-exterior spaces. Community & Variety: Living units are organised around a large enclosed courtyard. Smaller units are placed on the south-facing facade to maximise its potential. Mixing a variety of unit sizes and types diversifies the socail make up of the community as opposed to modernist mulitiplication models based on the idea of the nuclear family.

Participation & Capacitation:

ÂŠ Google Earth

Involving the future / potential inhabitance of the project in very early stages was seen as key principle in developing the brief. As the project developed, so did the participants. The use of cross laminated timber construction was part of a strategy to fast track instruction and minimise wet trades to maximise the involvement of the community in the buildings production.

253

254

Personalisation & adaptability: Units are designed in a way to allow for relatively easy reconfiguration. This is done by a rationalizing of services, and shear walls as fixed components while internal walls, doors and windows are the same proportion. Activation & public hierarchy: The street facade of the building is activated with ground floor communal activity spaces and lettable commercial space. The interior courtyard, roof patio and multi-purpose space, provide a hierarchy and gradation of public spaces. The spaces provide opportunity for varying social groups and communities.

255

03_Cluster living: Communally settling on the landscape BENGA RIVERSIDE RESIDENTIAL COMMUNITY Tete, Mozambique

256

Francis Kéré 2018/2019

Brief overview: The Benga Riverside Residential Community aims to create a new neighbourhood typology and urban configuration that fosters an atmosphere of social inclusion among residents from distinct backgrounds. The project also strikes a symbiotic balance with the environment and the built fabric. The project includes a number of social facilities, educational, civic, and recreational.

257

Clusters: Buildings are grouped together to form protected communal spaces. Constructing a vernacular: Buildings are constructed to capitalise on local construction methods while simultaneously introducing new ways to use existing materials.

258

Conclusions The indicators and objectives for good housing and Responsive Environments (Bentley, 2015) have been extensively written about by Habraken, Turner and others; the cases studies here demonstrate ways of collective living. Co-housing and collective housing are much more than shared communal facilities. It is based on a set of complex social relations that have to be built through iterative social engagements. Expressed through Simone’s (2004) notion of ‘People as infrastructure’ where he speaks of the city as a space of complex social- spatial productive relations. A return to the notion of the public (urban) commons (Latour, 2017) is critical in creating a hierarchy of social equalizers. The importance of the streetscape in the global south is one such space; however a greater variety is required. The cases here show, enclosures / creation of these public space as sub-sets. These spaces are where communities and social bonds are created. Reflecting on this work in relation to the peri-urban life in west Nairobi, the first question is one of order. How can spatial practitioners create new orders that work with existing systems to create new relationalities for new potentials to emerge? The second question is one of efficiency. In such contexts where public infrastructure investments have to work hard, how can maximum value be extracted from limited means, how can a sense of ‘ownership’ and responsibility be transferred to the users? Thirdly, adaptability and valency. In a place that is rapidly changing, and uncertainty is constant how are environments able to adapt, and respond and attract new uses and programs?

Next page: Photo conclusion

259

Street Infill

Mixed use/ Medium rise development

Gated residential developments

Homestead/ Subsistance agriculture

260

References “AMAG 17 | KÉRÉ ARCHITECTURE.” n.d. Issuu. Accessed June 15, 2020. https://

Lefebvre, Henri, and Donald Nicholson-Smith. 1974. The Production of Space.

issuu.com/a.mag/docs/amag_k_r__teaser.

Malden, Ma ; Oxford: Blackwell.

“Architectural Project – La Borda.” n.d. Www.Laborda.Coop. http://www.laborda.

Ngugi Wa Thiong’o. (1993) 2004. Moving the Centre : The Struggle for Cultural

coop/en/project/architectural-project/.

Freedoms. Oxford Currey.

Arjun Appadurai. 1996. Modernity at Large : Cultural Dimensions of Globalization.

Richard De Satgé, and Vanessa Watson. 2018. Urban Planning in the Global South :

Minnesota: The University Of Minnesota Press.

Conflicting Rationalities in Contested Urban Space. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave

Bentley, Ian. 2015. Responsive Environments : A Manual for Designers. Abingdon, Oxfordshire ; New York, Ny: Architectural Press Is An Imprint Of Routledge. Brenner, Neil. 2018. “Debating Planetary Urbanization: For an Engaged Pluralism.”

Macmillan. Simone, A. 2004. “People as Infrastructure: Intersecting Fragments in Johannesburg.” Public Culture 16 (3): 407–29. https://doi.org/10.1215/08992363-16-3-407.

Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 36 (3): 570–90. https://doi.

Simone, A M. 2006. For the City yet to Come : Changing African Life in Four Cities.

org/10.1177/0263775818757510.

Durham: Duke University Press.

Dahir, Abdi Latif. 2020. “A Kenyan Painter Casts a Critical Eye on China’s Role in Africa.” The New York Times, February 21, 2020, sec. World. https://www.nytimes.

‌

com/2020/02/21/world/africa/michael-soi-kenya-china.html. “Francis Kéré. Radically Simple (Extract).” n.d. Issuu. Accessed June 15, 2020. https://issuu.com/arquitetura.marcelo/docs/radically_simple_low_res. “Kéré Architecture.” n.d. Kere-Architecture.Com. Accessed June 15, 2020. http:// www.kere-architecture.com/projects/benga-riverside-tete-mozambique/. “La Borda / Lacol.” 2019. ArchDaily. August 5, 2019. https://www.archdaily. com/922184/la-borda-lacol. Latour. 2018. Down to Earth : Politics in the New Climatic Regime. Cambridge: Polity Press.

261

3_Beyond the Forest: Seeding the Future of West Nairobi Benjamin Baggot, Santiago Cortinez, Zeeshan Ghani, Khanh Nguyen, Silvia Parra, Natalia Recalde

Despite being a relatively new city, Nairobi has been Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main urban centre since the early 20th century. The city has attracted many people across the country due to its vibrant culture, economic opportunities, lifestyle and landscape, all of whom have added its dynamic urban environment and rapid urban growth. In order to sustain this development, considerable

resources

are

being

consumed. Which leads us to ask: What feeds Nairobi? and where are these resources coming from?

The peri-urban areas of West Nairobi are not just an extension of the capital city, but rather a mosaic of landscapes that provides Nairobi with many of the valuable resources the city consumes. Here, the landscape rapidly changes from savannah to forest. This change is highlighted by three main ecological systems: the savanna, the Kikuyu water tower and the valley system of Ndenderu. These three areas are all interwoven with the city. A large portion of Nairobiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water is provided by the valley and wetland system of the Northwesten watershed, whilst food is being produced in the grasslands of the southwest and the agriculture rich areas of Ndenderu.

With a growing population and a desperate need for housing, large portions of West Nairobi are being eaten by a sprawling metropolis that pays little to no attention to the landscape it is embedded in and the natural resources it consumes, destroying a valuable landscape to the detriment of the city.

The

fragmented

urbanisation

consuming areas of high food production and ecological importance. As a result, Nairobi is at risk of losing its rich agricultural and ecological history as well as its main water resources. Increased

levels

deforestation,

minimal waste management, pesticides and overconsumption of water have all put Nairobiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water security under heavy pressure. What if the territory holds the key for the solutions?

Historical documentation has unfolded a landscape with multiple complexities and intricacies, revealing the loss of large forest and water ecosystems. These natural systems can build the framework for the reviving and upgrading of West Nairobi. By using the territoryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s potential, we take advantage of the natural elements already there, which is especially important in a place of scarce monetary resources.

Valuable portions of preserved landscape still exist. Nairobi National Park, the Ngong Hills and multiple forest reserves are highly biodiverse environments. Within this forest and savanna mosaic there is also an existing forest plantation system. The knowledge of where the historical forest was, provides a framework that supports the design of a healthy and productive urban landscape.

The reclamation of forest and pastureland will support an improved water management system and preserve resources while providing much needed public green space. Within the historical forest framework, existing agricultural landscapes are transformed to become productive forests through agroforestry practices. New urban environments are implemented, that comprise and combine the qualities of environmental protection, production, public space provision and improved accessibility.

Interventions such as grazing parks provide spaces for both animals and people. Open grasslands, sports fields and playgrounds can be used as public spaces to socialise with the community while sharing the area with animals. Pockets of forests compliment the grazing park system, working as water management infrastructure and also providing an ideal environment for social amenities. The parks connect the suburban areas and urban islands to the surrounding agricultural structure.

Creating publicly accessible paths that follow the lay of the land will help include forests and agricultural fringes into the public sphere, while also delivering substantial health benefits. To create ease of movement, the forested paths follow contour lines. The level landscape and the increased density of trees will help retain rainwater, allowing the run-off water to seep into the soil, reducing the farmers reliance on irrigation.

Community involvement is essential for planting and managing the forest reclamation projects throughout the territory. By actively involving the citizens through stewardship schemes, reforesting the landscape becomes a viable project. One example of this, is to encourage greenhouses

start

reforestation

programme around their infrastructure, in order to mitigate their negative impact on the land.

SITE A

NDENDERU 40

Silvia Parra Natalia Recalde

r Cu

t si n re

Urban sprawl

N de n i n atio

nderu

Water High demand in

Food Increase of built footprint

Housing Land subdivision in rural areas

Decrease in farmlands

Current situation in Nedenderu

Greenhouses Water scarcity Food scarcity Unproductive soil

Decrease in forest

Water contamination Climate change

Food security

Involve the community

Water management

Project goals

Protect and increase the forest

Preserve and increase productive land

Increase household per hectare

Increase soil

Incresase economy

Water management pockets

Cooperatives

Food security

Riparian forest

Mobility system for farmers

Market

Greenbelt

Involve the community

Water management

Protect and increase the forest

5*5

Preserve and increase productive land

Increase household per hectare

Increase soil

Incresase economy

Household rainwater harvesting

Vertical farming + incremental housing

Agricultural product processing

Forest guardians

Irrigation channels +

Individual project

Water Management pockets

Part of the 5*5 strategy

Cooperatives system

*pair team

Community-Based Organization CBO: Groupping households with the construction of new housing typologies

Process

Future landscape

Current

The system includes:

New housing typologies:

% tea % Corn

Incremental housing

% Yuca Vertical farming % Banana Equal profit for farming

% Avocado

% Potato % Napier grass

Self-consumption

5*5

dia m

ete

Mobility system for farmers

central collection point

hierarchy

Relevant facts: Diameter based in the ring of Leuven, which is principally used by soft mobility systems. Not all the valleys have to had bridges. The bridges were proposed only in the places needed to get the shorter distance to the nearest collection point.

Bridges to short distances

Collection points

Local market

Routes examples to proof â&#x20AC;&#x153;shorter distance proposalâ&#x20AC;?

Roads for small trucks to take the food from the rural to the market

Big trucks arrive only to the market to pick the food for Nairobi

Green belt

Planting trees around the most densified and urbanized areas enclosing them to stop urban sprawl

Part of the overall strategy

Forest guardians

*Video team

The main goal is to involve the community planting and taking care of the tress to reduce CO2 emissions and recovering soil productiveness for agriculture.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;We want to plant trees. But the problem is the dry season, someone has to take care of them and irrigate them, if not they are condemned to dieâ&#x20AC;?. Heard from a farmer, 2020.

The system includes:

SILVIA PARRA PABON

Individual project

Individual project zoom in

Irrigation Forest Individual project Sustainable development project based in the creation of natural irrigation channels, combined with forest and agriculture by using the seasonalities to harvesting water in the top of the north highlands. At the same time, households are encouraged to harvest rainwater.

Vertical farming + incremental housing

Commercial Path

Irrigation channels

Agricultural product processing

Current landscape

Over use of boreholes Plot subdivision Poluted river

Water scarcity

Rainwater harvesting for farming and forest

Use of water in the tanks

Natural recharge of ground water

NATALIA RECALDE MIRANDA

Existing landscape The ridges support both urbanization and agriculture. A distinctive urban tissue recalls the shape of the traditional rural town of Ndenderu. The continuity of the wetland ecosystem along the valleys is disrupted by road infrastructure. Remaining patches of riparian forest resist urbanization encroachment.

Ecological intervention Reclaimation of riparian forests as well as different types of productive reforestation are used to create landscape figures that delimitate urban growth. Ecological balance is restored transforming the roads into bridges to allow continuity of the wetland ecosystem.

Community involvement Local people are involved in the reforestation program with the creation of Community Forest Associations, cooperative farms and the invovement of educational institutions. Tree nurseries, plantation, irrigation and agroforestry practices are part of the activities taken care by residents.

Types of forest implemented From left to right (1) Existing forest: remaining patches of indigenous forest (2) Agro-forestry: combination of agriculture and tree plantation (3) Productive forest: sustainable production of timber (4) Water management forest: strategically located pockets of forest and vegetation for water catchment and cleaning.

A - Aâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

+55

+45 +30

Urban typologies In the circles from left to right (1) Densification of the existing tissue implenting housing+urban agriculture into urban voids (2) A new public park hosting social infrastructure in the form of communal centers and educational facilities for the development of local capacities (3) Social housing paired with social forestry practices to replace existing impoverished housing and recover riparian forests.

Productive urban landscape The value of the villages as urban centers is attained with the implementation of new urban tissues, urban agriculture and agro-forestry, public spaces and slow

Public spaces and social infrastructure to support rural-urban development The recovered wetlands and reforested valleys work as a public park connecting the urbanized ridges with paths and bridges, bringing people close to local nature. Much needed communal and educational infrastructure is introduced, promoting development of sustainable agriculture techniques and local economy

SITE B

KIKUYU 70

Benjamin Baggot Santiago Cortinez

BENJAMIN BAGGOTT

New Community Buildings New Built Fabric Existing Built Fabric Agricultural Landscape Agroforestry Existing Indigenous Forest IndigenousAgriculture Forest Reclamation

1:5000

Public Forested Park Agriculture

1:5000

Permanent Water Body 75

EXISTING ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE Urban Mixed Trees

Kikuyu Springs

Kikuyu Springs Indigenous Forest Reserve

ECOLOGICAL INTERVENTION Urban Mixed Trees

Railway Line Converted Into Public Park and Ecological Link

Agroforestry

Ecological Link

Indigenous Forest Reclamation

Existing Indigenous Forest

AGRICULTURE STRUCTURE

Agroforesrty

Communal Farms

Slow Paths

NEW BUILT FABRIC Residential and Commercial Spine

Residential and Commercial Spine

Mixed Used Perimeter Commercial/ Residential

Community Owned Tea Houses

Mixed Used Perimeter Commercial/ Residential

Educational Facilities Embedded in Forest Structure

SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE Subsistence Farming contained within the residential bocks

Agroforesrty

Communal Farms

Slow Paths

SECTION THROUGH THE VALLEY

COMMUNAL INFRASTRUCTURE Agroforestry

Indigenous Forest Reclamation

Slow Path

Communal Tea House

Agroforestry

COMMERCIAL EDGE Railway Line Converted Into Public Park and Ecological Link

Commercial and Residential Edge

e Subsistence Farming contained within the residential bocks

PRODUCTIVE HOUSING Commercial and Residential Edge

Subsistence Farming and Agroforestry Contained Within the residential bocks

SANTIAGO CORTINEZ ALBARRACIN

Reforestation strategy Previous & proposed situation

Ondiri Swamp, Kikuyu Santiago CortĂnez, 2020

Individual site Northeastern agricultural area of Kikuyu

Site development isometrics Existent, ecological strategy & urbanisation strategy

Existent situation Individual site

Ecological strategy Individual site

Productive strategy Individual site

Urbanisation strategy Individual site

SITE C

ONGATA RONGAI 100

Zeeshan Ghani Khanh Nguyen

101

ZEESHAN GHANI

102

103

Pastoral Lands

Suburban Landscape

Individual Site The landscape works with creatin urban islands for human population and allowing animals to use the rest; Ecological corridors, suburnan landscape, grazing parks, and pastoral landscapes.

104

100 150

200 250

Ecological Corridor

New forestry

Productive grazing parks

Densification

Urban Islands

Exisiting site

105

NHAT NINH KHANH NGUYEN

106

107

0 10

100

The uncontrolled urbanization has gradually eliminated the pastoral lands which is considered the identity of the Southwest of Nairobi, particularly Ongata Rongai. Also, ecouraging livestocks and devloping livestocks trade can help Ongata Rongai depends less on Nairobi. This project is to introduce a co-existence between humans and livestocks which, on the one hand, affords housing demands and increases living condition, and integrates pastural grounds in urban fabric on the other hand. By doing so, it is expected to encourage small-scale livestock herds and new concept of urban pasture. Urban islands, Suburban and grazing parks or ecological corridor seem to be seperate zones with different functions. Yet they are well connected by the movements of animals (at different levels) and the network of forestry extended to the very urban areas. Co-existence here is about not only integration but also the increased benefits.

108

Urban Islands

Suburban

Multi-function spaces

Pastoral lands

Social Infrastructures (schools,...)

Riparian pastoral lands

109

Urban fabric intervention Urban islands are to densify while houses are (able to be) upgraded in suburban and built forms are demolished in grazing parks

Productive and consumptive landscape Open lands can become either sport fields and playgrounds or grazing lands. New napier grass lands will not only benefit the animals but also provide people with more natural living environment.

110

New built forms New cooperative housing are proposed to accomomodate more residents in urban islands. Social and communal infrastructures are focused in the shared spaces such as grazing parks.

Human and non-human existence The projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s idea is to propose a new way of living where humans and animals or nature co-exist.

Urban Island Cooperative housing embedded with urban forestry

Productive pastoral lands Pastoral lands with napier grass

Suburban Low-density housing and new planted napier grass

Social infrastructures Schools and other communal buildings in the dense forest pocket

Multi-function spaces Sport fields/ Playgrounds/ Grazing grasslands

Riparian pastoral land Pastoral lands embedded with riparian forest and water resources.

111

4_Compensation Ecosystem Connectivity Darina Andreeva, Md Rafiqul Islam, Hagar Faggal, Rachid Garcia, Grace Kamweru, Luis Villadiego

Frame: Section and schematic zoning showing the physical properties as soil type,

Their rich red volcanic soil gives them a wide range of possibilities for different kind

temperature, elevation etc.

of vegetation growth from forests to grasslands.

Narrator:

The elevation ranges approximately from 1600m to 1900m and the temperature

From the highlands to the north west to the low grazing fields to the south east; the

circles from 10 degrees to 29 degrees through the year. Hence, this area is a potential

west fringe of Nairobi is very much diverse.

for multi-dimensional growth both for nature and people together.

Each group has their unique languages and cultural identity.

Frame: Pan down frame of Google Earth transition to the vision map. Forest, rivers Narrator: “Nowadays ecosystem connectivity has been disrupted”

Frame: Pan downframe of map explaining the fragmented ecosystem. Narrator: “Forest, swamps, rivers, streams have become isolated patches.”

Frame: Explaining different layers of territorial vision map Narrator: Now, letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s see how this landscape vocabulary can be translated into reality. Isolated patches were connected with new links. Forest extensions and pockets, Productive Landscapes like Grazing land, productive forest or orchards and agriculture fields will increase productive values of lands. Private forestry and canopies will provide shades to the built areas hence acting as heat absorbers in micro climate. The border between rural and urban starts to vanish. Agricultural activities are introduced into Urban parts, creating an Urban countryside. Concurrently, public facilities are provided into rural areas , which forms a Rural metropolis. Riparian settlements along the vital parts of the corridor will become a part of the landscape and support ecosystem conditions.

Frame:

possible future. So, this, this, this, and that could be merged into reality with all of

Conclusion for the video. Collage showing how it may look like if the proposals in

that.

vision can be realized. Narrator: This was the story of our three characters who walked us through the past to the

SITE A

NDENDERU 44

Md Rafiqul Islam Hagar Faggal

MD RAFIQUL ISLAM

Vision map Masterplan for the 5x5 site of Ndenderu. The main aim was to join the dispersed ecological patches together in a corridor that ties up the natural and man-made systems together. This proposal attempts to enhance the river valley system and indegenous agriculture coupling with agro forestry.

75 m

150 m

300 m

600 m

Master Plan of Individual Site (Ndenderu Junction) The site is a square with 1200m edge situated close to the Ndenderu Junction. The main site force is the river-valley system and the rich potential agriculture lands. The corridor extentions and new private and shared gardens and farmlands create a system of continued landscape corridor in this site.

Past

Present

Proposal

Section The topograpgy of ndenderu is mostly dominated by the ridges and valleys. In previous times, rivers used run through the valleys but with rise of unplanned urbanism, they got erased mostly. The settlement growth ate up forest and agriculture lands as well. The proposal tries to bring them back and connect them to the urban system in a more efficient way .

Corridor extension The dispersed patches are connected to make a continuous corridor.

New forestry The volume of the forests are increased and pockets continues inside settlements

New Urbanism Clustaring houses gives more accommodation with accessibility and open spaces.

Water Extentions Rivers are reconnected. Retention ponds are introduced for rainwater harvesting.

Courtyards Common courtyards are introdced to increase social sharing and accessibility.

Backyard Farming Backyards are transformed into flower and vegetable gardens for productivity.

Communal Farming Shared gardens, orchards and farmlands for comunity agriculture.

Agroforestry New productive forests are added with the core forest for enhanced productivity.

Reconnecting Corridor Dispersed patches of forests are exended to make a continuous volume of urban forestry. Orchards are placed with the corridor to increase productivity. Also the dried up rivers are dug and made wider and in the edge are transformed into deeper ponds to create water park and aquacuture ponds. Eventually these water parks can be transformed into entertainment places for the community. During dry season, when the rivers are almost dried up, the silt they leave can be a very fertile plant bed. These are potential for different crops that can increase the overall productivity of the area.

New Tissue Following old Morphology The new urbanism intertwines with the regenerated landscape mosaic consisting of patches and corridors. These are also connected with smaller patches of courtyards, private forest, communal gardens, backyard farming or traditional farm lands. The existing urban morphology is not dislocated here, just the concept of blind following of urban growth only being dominated by roads and infrastructures are changed. In the new prposal, landscape features as water, forest or farmlands are the driving force of settlement growth. Few old buildings with temporary building materials are defined as relocable structures and replaced with new buildings in different strategic locations so that the overall flow of spaces are enhanced. These intentional interwoving relation of urbanization and forestry accompanied by productive landscape reinforces the concept of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Rural Metropolisâ&#x20AC;?.

Pocket Forest Forest extentions go inside the settlements

Riparian Settlements Clusters in the river banks intertwining with forests and courtyards

Rural Metropolis Rural areas are introduced with urban facilities without interrupting the lifestyle

Private Forestry Boundaries and yards are transformed into private forestry

Schemetic Section Section showing the co-relation of settlement with landscape and topograpy

Collage Schematic projection of the future of the proposal if successful.

HAGAR FAGGAL

Captions xxxxxx

Existing Situation

Ecosystem Corridor intertwining the fragmented ecosystem fragments

Forestry extension interconnecting the missing links and interweaving between urban settlements as urban forestry

New water systems of retention water ponds ending the existing water streams. In addition to defined water drains following the topography, harvesting rainwater to be collected in the proposed ponds.

New water systems

existing

proposed

Water infilteration takes place as water moves down the terrain, and the rainwater flow is slowed down by the forest soil. Water is then collected in the retention ponds to be used in dry seasons for irrigation.

New productive landscapes patches of orchards, community gardens, common yards, and backyard farming around the forests and throughout the corridor

New productive landscapes central common yards, backyard farming as private forestry for housing units and community gardens around the forest

New settlements relocating small vulnerable shacks with bigger housing units following the new productive landscapes

SITE B

KIKUYU 70

Grace Kamweru Luis Villadiego

GRACE KAMWERU

Kikuyu: Revamping rural-urban transitions The landscape in Kikuyu is defined by two plateaus separated by a soft valley system of forests, marshland, and rivers. The urban core is set on the eastern plateau whereas rural farmlands form a matrix on the western plateau.

The main water features are the Ondiri swamp and Kikuyu springs which are recharged by the Kikuyu aquifer. They are sources of major rivers that serve Nairobi City downstream.

Deforestation and degradation of the swamp and the riparian zones prior to uncontrolled urbanization are evident. The development of industries and greenhouses close to the swamp has escalated the water pollution and subsequent water scarcity in the region.

Urban Countryside

Ondiri swamp

Kikuyu Springs

Rural Metropolis

Proposal: New Ecological Systems and Water Sensitive approaches New forests, parks, rain gardens and boulevards will help in stitching the fragmented forest patches, be potential zones for productive agriculture, storm water management and recreation.

Kikuyu Waterscape Ondiri swamp and Kikuyu springs locally provide water for domestic use, farming and to the industrial sector.They are currently threatened by pollution and over-extraction of water from the farms and the industries.

Strategy The design pursues new agricultural techniques, scalable water management, new water reserves and natural waste-water treatment ; towards water sensitive design and sustainable agriculture in the rural and urban zones of

Water-Sensitive adaptations in the Kikuyu Urban Countryside Integrate sustainable storm-water management using rain gardens and swales; groundwater recharge using infiltration basins and permeable paving; natural wastewater treatment by use of constructed wetlands and scalable water management from the household to neighborhood scale through coordinated water supply, rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation in the farmlands and gardens.

Reforestation Dense forest areas have been fragmented overtime. The bare spaces left can be transformed into ecosystem corridors as well as productive landscapes. New forests will create new wildlife habitats and help in carbon sequestration to curb climate change.

New Productive Agriculture Intercropping, water management systems and cleaning ponds can take advantage of the fertility of the soil while keeping the water sources of Kikuyu clean. Communal orchards can utilize drip irrigation systems to manage water use.

New Water Systems: Rainwater Harvesting // Community Reservior // Water Pans New water ponds and use of drip irrigation systems will help to improve rural farming and new orchards in the urban areas. Rainwater harvesting and use of communal reservoirs will help to conserve water by minimizing digging of many private boreholes. An industrial park as a transitional zone between the river and the industries can incorporate constructed wetlands to polish industrial effluents before discharge.

New Ecological Corridors New water systems need to be anchored within new forests. Reforestation can take place by connecting the fragmented forest patches creating a new ecological corridor that connects water and forest systems. Boulevards along the streets, reforestation of the bare patches as well as new woodlots along property lines will form the new forest systems. New communal orchards, parks and forests will collectively form the new ecological corridors that will transorm the outlook of natural resources in the territory.

New Urbanization To meet the rising demand for housing in this fast growing town, this design pursues affordable infill housing and self-build linear cohousing along the ridges. To minimize pollution by the greenhouses and industries, an incremental change of the greenhouses and warehouses is proposed to maximise capacity yet ensure maximum distance between the water sources and the structures. A proposed industrial park next to Magana industries as well as 3 other constructed wetlands on the fringe of Ondiri swamp will ensure natural waste water treatment before discharge.

KIKUYU SPRINGS

URBAN CORE SOUTHERN BYPASS

RURAL FARMLANDS

ONDIRI SWAMP

NEW URBAN HOUSING ER WAT

-Mid-rise appartments -Mixed use -Densification_Curb sprawl

TAB

NEW RURAL HOUSING -Mid-rise appartments

RAIN-GARDENS/INFILTRATION BASINS -Storm water management -Ground water recharge -Urban parks

RECREATION -Floating boardwalk -Eco-Cottages -View decks

RURAL HOUSING -Rain Water Harvesting -Water recycling

CONSTRUCTED WETLAND -Waste water treatment -Rice production -Recreation

NEW CANOPIES/FORESTS

IMPROVED FARMLANDS

-Ecological connectivity -Carbon sequestration -New wildlife habitats

-Drip irrigation -New Canopies

Sub-surface Flow Marsh 1 Sub-surface Flow Marsh 2 Ondiri Swamp Viewing Deck

Constructed wetland park

Nature trail

Dense forest Lesser settlements

Dense forest

Southern bypass

Dense forest

HIGH WATER TABLE

Urban countryside

Existing Forest

Existing Housing Bare land

Soccer field

Southern bypass

LOW WATER TABLE

Urban countryside

Proposed Infill Housing Proposed agriculture

Existing industries

Rain garden

Constructed wetland

Existing industries

New Warehouses

New Forests

Urban countryside

HIGH WATER TABLE

Proposed Industrial Park

GSPublisherVersion 0.1.100.100

Section: Past, Present and Future conditions Before rapid urbanization, forest systems were denser, the water sources were cleaner, the watertable was high and there were few settlements. Today, patches of bare land, groundwater over-extraction that lowered the watertable level and rapid and less controlled urbanization characterize the Kikuyu region. The proposed eco-corridors will ensure creation of new habitats, productive agriculture and scalable water management and this will reclaim Kikuyuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water and forest ecosystems. A new codependent system of urbanization shall meet the urgent housing needs and ensure nature-sensitive development.

LUIS VILLADIEGO

1:1500 1:1500

Existing situation Dense forests and disconnected tree canopies disposed randomly and in properties fences

Strengthening forests The densification of the forests and the arborization patterns in the boundaries allow the creation of pockets for the development of productive projects and housing.

1:1500 1:1500

Connectivity and green corridors The new ecological infrastructure allows the existence of connected green corridors throughout the landscape.

Taking advantage of topography The topography of the area allows the creation of reservoirs that can strengthen Ondiri Swamp and small water ponds on a smaller scale to promote agricultural activity.

Existing situation 800 x 800m area

Restructuring the landscape The creation of pockets, forest paths allow to organize the land to generate a productive landscape.

Productive agricultural landscape Land organization, agroforestry and irrigation systems for water use.

New Housing Different types of housing are developed on the available productive land, creating a pattern of rural metropolis.

SITE C

ONGATA RONGAI 88

Darina Andreeva Rachid Garcia

DARINA ANDREEVA

Urban clusters 1500 New urban settlements

URBAN COU NTRYSID

ONGATA RONGAI RU The main goal of the project is to bring new balance between settlements RAL MEand TRnature, O

POLIS

between past and future. The stating point is to reinvent indigenous practices of New public services

pastoral landscape together with rethinking urbanization processes in each scale. Hence, the project explains three patterns of redevelopment: city, rural and nature landscape. The border between these entities is blurred, however, patterns still Rural clusters

1000

remain different. This project is focused on connecting alienated patches and New rural settlements

recreate damage elements of nature into one system, working in harmony with human-made structures. Canopy

Private forestry

NATURE LAN DSCAPE

Indigenous pastoral practices Riparian settlements

500

Productive landscape // Park

Cleaning pond

LIS

O OP

ME AL

PA ST O

LA N D

1500

IL A

G TI N IS EX

500

PO O PR S EE TR

L SA

G N EX IS TI EE S TR

SA L

SC A PE

TR EE S

SE A SO

N S

1000

Cleaning pond

Private forestry

Riparian settlements

Forestry extension

New massai landscape

Canopy

New public facilities // Pastoral land servers

Urban clusters 1500 New urban settlements

URBAN COU NTRYSID

RURAL METR OPOLIS

New public services Rural clusters

1000

New rural settlements Canopy

Private forestry

NATURE LAN DSCAPE

Indigenous pastoral practices Riparian settlements

500

Productive landscape // Park

Cleaning pond

LIS

O OP

ME AL

PA ST O

LA N D

1500

IL A

G TI N IS EX

500

PO O PR S EE TR

L SA

G N EX IS TI EE S TR

SA L

SC A PE

TR EE S

SE A SO

N S

1000

Cleaning pond

Private forestry

Riparian settlements

Forestry extension

New massai landscape

Canopy

New public facilities // Pastoral land servers

Urban clusters 1500 New urban settlements

Current status

URBAN COU NTRYSID

RURAL METR OPOLIS

New public services Demolished buildings

1000

Rural clusters

New rural settlements Canopy

Private forestry

NATURE LAN DSCAPE

Indigenous pastoral practices Riparian settlements New buildings 500

Productive landscape // Park

Cleaning pond

LIS

O OP

ME AL

1500

PA ST O

LA N D

Productive yard

New social facilities

Exising trees

IL A

G TI N IS EX

500

PO O PR S TR

EE S TR

L SA

G N EX IS TI

DEWAT

SA L

SC A PE

TR EE S

New settlements

SE A SO

N S

1000

Cleaning pond

Private forestry

Forestry extension

Riparian settlements

New massai landscape

Canopy

New public facilities // Pastoral land servers

New trees

Existing buildings

Orchards

Grazing land

New public space

Urban clusters 1500 New urban settlements

Current status

URBAN COU NTRYSIDE

RURAL METR OPOLIS

New public services New buildings

1000

Rural clusters

New rural settlements Canopy

Private forestry

NATURE LAN DSCAPE

Indigenous pastoral practices Riparian settlements Reforestation 500

Productive landscape // Park

Cleaning pond

LIS

O OP

ME AL

1500

ST O R

Productive yard

O F

New settlements

A SC

IL A

O PO SA

500

SS A

PR +

G IS TI N EX

TI N

O PO SA

New trees

Private forestry

EE S

// SE A

SO N

1000

Cleaning pond

Private forestry

Forestry extension

Riparian settlements

New massai landscape

Canopy

New public facilities // Pastoral land servers

Exising trees Orchards Existing buildings New public space // Park

Private parcels

New social facilities

Urban clusters 1500 New urban settlements

Current status

URBAN COU NTRYSID

RURAL METR OPOLIS

New public services Rural clusters

1000 New function New rural settlements

Canopy

Private forestry

NATURE LAN DSCAPE

Indigenous pastoral practices Riparian settlements

Reforestation

500

Productive landscape // Park

Cleaning pond

LIS

100

O OP

ME AL

LA N D

1500

Indigenous Massai practices

IL A

SS A M EW N

500

PR + G TI N

EE TR

PO O S

L SA

G N EX IS TI EE S TR

SA L

SC A PE

TR EE S

New public facilities // Pastoral land servers

New trees

Existing buildings 1000

SE A SO

N S

PA ST O

Orchards

Exising trees

Cleaning pond

Private forestry

Riparian settlements

Forestry extension

New massai landscape

Canopy

New public Productive yard facilities // Pastoral land servers

Productive landscape // Park

Constructed cleaning wetlands

101

RACHID GARCÍA ELMOSRI

102

103

The current status of the selected site is characterized by fast urban growth, in an expansive way, where housing is mostly one or two stories tall, although new typologies such as midrise buildings of four to six stories tall have been introduced. The challenges that this site faces are the uncontrolled urban expansion that takes with it agriculture fields, the need for more housing, and the absence of public space.

104

The starting point of this project is public space, a public space system will be introduced, converting existing roads into green walkways, constructing new walkways through large blocks and creating new public spaces through land pooling. A new park that will serve both the Maasai husbandry, people, and nature will be introduced in what is today mostly private-owned bare land.

105

106

Some housing will be transformed into new vertical one that will allocate existing and new residents. The space gained from this construction will be transformed into agriculture, new facilities or public spaces. This process is going to be gradual, incentivized and its not pretended to take all over the site.

107

108

109

New Facilities

New Housing

New Agriculture

New Public Spaces

110

6 Families

Credit (as an enterprise)

Midrise building from the same 6 families up to 14

Example: 1200m2 plot surface 0.20 Max. Land Occupation 04.0 Land use every 500m2 9 Levels maximum Possibility to buy immidiate neighborâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Air Rights

Communal teneureship of agricultural land/Access to the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Agro-industrial Community (Access to benefits)

111

5_Inhabiting the Forest Plateaus Fahri Abdala Reyes, Loverina Cruz, Daniela Garcia Rojas, Karmen Hoge, Sharmin Kabir Shimul, Gaarith Williams

Legend: River

Forest Ways

FramingForest

Water Catchment Forest

Agriculture

Grazing

Urbanization

Inhabiting the Forest Plateaus

Our strategy, Inhabiting the Forest Plateaus is to embed urban development within the natural landscape.

Territorial Vision

Our analysis recognizes that resourceful productive areas are located in the downstream valleys of these plateaus, and topography acts as the spatial organizer of West Nairobi. Our vision is to align territorial function with the suitability of the land and locational assets. We propose to use afforestation to enhance the natural characteristics of the landscape and create a robust ecological structure that invites sustainable urban development.

Framing Forest

While the framing forest strengthens the ecological structure, hinders erosion and positively impacts micro-climate and water resources, it simultaneously frames urban development. The upstream densified housing and new facilities generate urban pressure on the plateaus. It organizes a spatial alteration between raised densification on the plateaus and fertile downstream valleys.

Productive Forest

The productive forests strengthens the productive agro-urbanity in the making of West Nairobi. It increases biodiversity and reduces the ecological impact of traditional production activities, while taking advantage of the existing natural resources and features of the land. The productive forest absorbs urban development, creating a new way of living embedded within productivity.

Water Catchment Forest

While the water catchment forest is a vital element for the downstream productive landscape, it also mitigates potential climate change impacts and is important for the upstream settlements. The inhabitants of West Nairobi develop an interaction with the natural water sources and the sharing water becomes part of the new ecological way of life.

At the north plateau of Ongata Rongai, the existing quarry presents tremendous opportunity. Having been exploited for over 50 years, the quarry is now in the final stages of its productive life.

Foresting this area recovers soil for planting nappier grass, a primary food source for livestock. A wetland system is introduced, reutilizing the alreadyexisting terrain. This system serves as a reservoir of water during the wet season and as silvo-pastoral grass during the dry season.

Forest Ways

Forest ways are green slow paths that aim to shift towards a socio-enviro mobility network in West Nairobi. Forest ways provide ecologic and economic connections across the sites, establishing a social relation between the various natural and human elements in the landscape.

Around the forest way, a border of silvopastoral production is proposed, which is protected by a framing forest in which the productive communities live. Considering future growth, the new urbanization is planned on the plateau. It is articulated with the productive communities through a linear local market.

SITE A

NDENDERU 40

Fahri Abdala Reyes Karmen Hoge

FAHRI SAUD ABDALA REYES

5km Site A: Ndenderu

01_PROPOSED FRAMING FORESTS The first forestry instrument is the framing forest. This forest takes advantage of the steep slopes surrounding the plateaus of West Nairobi. It is the structuring component that forcefully provides a distinct boundary for new urbanization, acting as a place where urbanity and natural resources are copresent.

02_PROPOSED CATCHMENT FOREST AND AGRICULTURAL LANDS

500m

400m In Banana Hill, the continuous subdivision of land has resulted in underused plots owned by families who were traditionally farmers. The foothill of this plateau contains long plots extending from the top of the hill to the stream. 03_EXISTING SITUATION

longitudinal section, before. 250m

new mobility

dwellings eradicated

stream area

dwellings

ÂŠ Rachid Garcia

Underused land on the foothills.

Situation Proposal

04_STEEPEST AREAS OF THE FOOTHILL

The foothill can be classified based on slope, with the steepest areas destinated to form the core of the framing forest.

05_STEEPEST AREAS OF THE FOOTHILL

Aboriginal trees are recovered to create a dense forest which can catch and preserve the water and serve to the adjacent productive forest.

500m 06_PROPOSED VISION FOR FOOTHILL OF BANANA HILL.

An urban forest is proposed on the gentle slopes, where the new dwellings are embedded within the natural environment related traditional farming activities.

EXISTING SITUATION

NEW DWELLINGS ON THE FOOTHILL

PROPOSED SITUATION

IRRIGATION SYSTEM

longitudinal section, after. 250m

new type of mobility stream area

The densification on the plateau contributes to the productivity in the valley. The proposed forest on the foothill is the instrument for densification that allows urban coexistance with the wildlife, the forest and the productive soil.

PRODUCTION UNIT

new type of mobility

local markets

new and existing forests

new dwellings

NEW DWELLINGS ALONG THE FOREST

NEW MARKET

NEW PATHS ACROSS THE STREAM

NEW PUBLIC SPACES IN BANANA HILL

IRRIGATION SYSTEM ALONG BANANA PLANTATION

New type of mobility The topography and road infrastructure in Ndenderu fragment the landscape, isolating the communities on the plateau and in the valley ridges, and limiting native vegetation along the streams.

Forested slow paths are proposed as both short and long-distance mobility. Long distance forest routes ecologically connect different elements of the landscape along contour lines.

07_PROPOSED MOBILITY NETWORK Short distance forest ways connect the existing road structure with proposed agro-urban infrastructure and local markets. These paths allow wildlife migration, provide transport routes for production and create a new type of public space for the inhabitants.

KARMEN HOGE

Ndenderu Existing 5x5 Topography, existing forests and streams

Ndenderu Proposed 5x5 Proposed forests, urbanization, productivity and mobility

Valley System - Production Existing forests, streams and buildings

Proposed Agricultural Production The steep valley slopes are reserved for agricultural production

Pollination Pollination patches optimize production and create an agro-forest

Irrigation Catchment forests structure the urban development and deliver water to crops through a drip irrigation system

Proposed Urbanization Production units for co-agriculture

Production Units Inhabitants work together in production units to harvest crops and prepare them for the market

New Mobility New mobility paths for wildlife migration and pedestrians are proposed along contour lines

SITE B

KIKUYU 62

Sharmin Kabir Shimul Gaarith Williams

SHARMIN KABIR SHIMUL

Captions xxxxxx

Vision of Kikuyu

Captions xxxxxx

The specific site deal with creating a sustainable solution of Permaculture farming embedded with high density settlements along with forest armatures to reduce encroachment. Food production is a crucial element of this site and it is necessary to bring a balance between ecology and economy.

Captions xxxxxx

The introduced settlements along the forest armatures aid in the system by contributing their waste water that nourishes the plants, passes through bio-swales where the movement of water is slowed and filtered through different reed systems as it passes down the slope. Every cluster of houses has a retention pond to ensure that there is always a natural water resource and all the purified water passes the final purification wetland before it flows down the swamp.

Existing agricultural practices are replaced with permaculture and blend of agroforestry. It is a production system that benefits the restoration of natural systems and also human consumption and economy. Fair share is related to limiting consumption and putting surplus back into production system. Permaculture zones of use are at once an organizing force during the design process as well as a management tool. They directly aid our efforts by offering simple, but effective logic to the positioning of design elements in the whole system. The closer an element is to nexus of human activity, the more attention it can receive than elements positioned further away. This is because the amount of time and energy embedded in travel always increases with distance.

Wetlands has a natural capacity as filters. Because they are found down low in watersheds and they are used to filtering everything coming down. Artificial wetlands are built to handle wastewater and use the biology of healthy soil and aquatic plants to break the bonds and absorb pollutants. Using permaculture design replenish and clean water and and restore a healthy hydrological cycle. Wetland park is created around the swamp to celebrate its natural system and also create a source of recreation of the dwellers in Kikuyu.

GAARITH WILLIAMS

Existing condition

In the diagrame above the red line indicates the urbanised plataue.

Existing condition Kikuyu is rapidly urbanizing not unlike other areas on the peri-urban edge of Nairobi; places that are on the threshold of change. New Infrastructures such as the southern bypass overwrite and dissect the pre-existing landscape and settlement patterns that nurtured the development of community relations over time. Left: Southen bypass, major road infrastructure cut the topgraphy. Right: 5km X 5km, xisting site condition.

DIAGRAM

5 X 5 Stratergy

Our vision is to capitalize on the transformative potential of this in-between moment in the urban life of Kikuyu by re-imagining these infrastructures to incentivize the densification of settlement on the plateau by restricting its boundaries, whilst simultaneously de-densify the lowlands. The edge of the plateau is intended to be enclosed through re-forestation with different but complementary social and ecological functions, particularized through their relation to each adjacent urbanity. The re-forestation contributes toward the reinforcement of the larger system spanning the western edge of Nairobi. Armatures commonly associated with settlement along a route; is particularized and programmed as ‘forest-armatures’ that bridge the urbanized plateau with local green systems, whilst conversely in the lowlands, translate as sparsely urbanized connections incorporating new kinds of agriculture and other economically productive activities between plateaus. The idea of ‘forest-armatures’ is conceived of as an urban tactic capable of being deployed at varying scales and through diverse programmatic activities, whilst consistently constituting both settlement and natural systems along a connecting route.

In Kikuyu, one of the strategies we employ is the notion of ‘forest-armatures’. forest-armatures is conceived of as an urban tactic capable of being deployed across the terrain at varying scales and through diverse programmatic activities, whilst consistently constituting both settlement and natural systems along a connecting route. The Forest Armatures bridge the urbanized plateau with local green systems, whilst conversely in the lowlands, translate as sparsely urbanized connections incorporating new kinds of agriculture and other economically productive activities between plateaus.

2X2 Stratergy

In Kikuyu the plateau known to locals as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;the water towerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is divided from the valleys below by infrastructures, such as the railway and the Southern Bypass that connect West Nairobi. The countering logics of the railway which follows the contour, and that of the bypass which cuts the landscape, is used to create a framing forest that mediate these rationalities with that of the landscape. The framing forest enclose the edge of the plateau with indigenous reforestation. The reforestation contributes toward the reinforcement of the larger system spanning the western edge of Nairobi. The vision for the site is both to reinforce the existing and create new relationalities between the pre-existent and the proposed settlements, and the ecologies of the area; to mediate an interrelationship between the human and natural habitats of the plateau, with those of the valley. On the plateau and its foothills, this is envisioned as a series of discrete yet connected social infrastructure interventions. This is to be achieved through the balanced insertion of additional social facilities and functions, creating new and respecting the existing ecological logics of settlement. These insertions aim to organize and catalyse appropriate development on the plateau while simultaneously incentivizing de-densifying the valleys below, to create community scaled public spaces. The nature of the insertions and its spatial and programmatic specificity is conceived of so as to afford the possibility of evolving a non-linear program of implementation, so as to respect established local cultural practices.

Left: Existing Condition

Improved Productivity

Forest armatures

PHOTO

Multi-valent Infrastructure

Open Space Network

PHOTO

Increased Densification

FOREST IMAGE

Intergrating and leveraging existing fabric

Railway

Plateau

Existing agriculture/ industry with rationalised/ restored green system

Ondiri swomp

New increased density development

Existing CBD

Forestry/Filtration

SECTION A

125m

250m

375m

500m

New Bridge

Plateau

Infrastructure forestry Railway

Stream

Southen by-pass Infrastructure forestry

agriculture Forestry/Filtration

SECTION B

agriculture

Stream

Railway 0m

Topgraphy Section

125m

250m

375m

500m

NEW SECTION

Sections showing new framing forest and plateau in habitation

Warer Places Water flowing from the highlands in the north of kikuyu is captured and retained on the plateau in a series of pools, each supporting a pocket of forestry and wetland ecology that contribute to the cleaning of the water resource as it flows. Coupled with new and existing social infrastructures, these â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Water Placesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; become sites with social valency and a critical resource for agrourban activities. The resultant systems are intended to create and encourage gradations of nature through their complementary levels of enclosure and publicness. Water can be used as a primary sponsoring tool to achieve this; building upon established community social practices and community processes. These will contribute directly in managing the sharing of common resource; by inserting new resources, collective places and infrastructures that enhance those that already exist.

SITE C

ONGATA RONGAI 86

Loverina Cruz Daniela Garcia Rojas

LOVERINA CRUZ

Ongata Rongai has a unique landscape as the area is still predominantly pastoral. To preserve this identity, address land conflict between human and wildlife, and combat climate change impacts, the following interventions were introduced: rehabilitation of existing grazing lands by integrating communal indegenous enclosures, integrating agroforestry and agripastures as coexistence borders, adding wetlands and waste stabilization ponds to re-use storm and waste water, protecting area reserved for greenhouse forest and opening up urban cores for urban agriculture.

To harnessed productivity of areas near Kandisi and Mbaghati rivers, urban agricultural pockes, agripastoral areas, forest catchment and animal corridor were integrated into the landscape.

The new dwellings were clustered to allow animal movement around individual and communal agripastures.

Waste stabilization ponds were introduced adjacent to the urban core to maximize urban householdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s waste water discharge that are treated to serve as water for agipastoral irrigation.

The forestways for livestock crossing at the river allows the animals torest and enables the rotation of grazing lots.

DANIELA GARCÍA ROJAS

Proposed Forest Ways

5 km

5x5 propsal for Ongata Rongai

As animalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s movement is limited by the current urbanization and roads, a forest way that allows animal to travel between the two riparian areas is established. In the new productive borders along the river small paths that allow animals to cross the rivers are added. These strategies aim to protect the socioeconomic practices of the Massai community.

2 km

Proposed forest way and framing forest on the edge of the Kandisi River 500 m

Existing situation

Livestock in risk over the roads

500 m

Existing situation

To mitigate the effects of climate change, a riparian forest is established to protect the Kandisi River during the dry season.

Floodable areas and forest way for animal corssing

Floodable areas

Dwellings relocation due to flood risk

During the wet season, flooding areas in the south of the river where animals have access to water are designated as protected pasture lands. Also, a forest way is proposed for the circulation of livestock between the plateau and areas at the south of the river.

Silvo-pastoral border

Silvo-pastoral edge

Around the forest way, a border of silvopastoral production is proposed, which is protected by a framing forest in which the productive communities live.

Productive communities live in the framing forest

Pastroal areas

New productive communities on the framing forest

Considering future growth, the new urbanization is planned on the plateau. It is articulated with the productive communities through a linear local market.

Urbanization over the plateau

Proposed conversion of the Kandisi quarry At the north plateau of Ongata Rongai, the existing quarry presents tremendous opportunity. Having been exploited for over 50 years, the quarry is now in the final stages of its productive life. Foresting this area recovers soil for planting napier grass, a primary food source for livestock. A wetland system is introduced, reutilizing the already-existing terrain. This system serves as a reservoir of water during the wet season and as silvo-pastoral grass during the dry season.

500 m Quarry on dry season

Proposal Quarry on wet season

100

Existing situation

Reforestation of the quarry

101

Existing situation

102

Proposed situation

103

6_ Acknowledgements 105

Water and Forest Urbanisms to Address Climate Change Nairobi (Kenya) Collaborators Dr. Lydia Waithira Muthuma, Technical University of Kenya Prof. Francis Aduol, Vice Chair, Technical University of Kenya Hezron Kagia, Technical University of Kenya Raquel Jerobon, Technical University of Kenya

Fieldwork groups Gaarith Williams Daniela Carolina Garcia Rojas Daniel Matata Kithome Victor Obinge Ombati

Leina Kilesi, Technical University of Kenya Enock Chawere, Technical University of Kenya Casty Mbae, Technical University of Kenya

Loverina Cruz Md Rafiqul Islam

Paul J. Mpungu, Technical University of Kenya

Winnie Amondi Sawo

Gideon Ngumbau, Technical University of Kenya

Victor Omondi Ongor

Yungo Nelly Yungo, Technical University of Kenya Prof. Edwin Ataro, Faculty of Engineering Sciences and Technology Rafael Tuts, Director of Global Solutions Divisions, UN Habitat Marie Louise Groth, Planning Systems Dr. Magaret Macharia, University of Nairobi Prof. Pieter Van den Broeck, KU Leuven

Students in fieldwork Technical University of Kenya, Kenya Daniel Matata Kithome, Victor Obinge Ombati, Winnie Amondi Sawo, Victor Omondi Ongor, Jepchumba Lagat, Victor Daniel Kipkoech, Elizabeth Agwa Onyango, Felix Nzongo Wambua, Nyachiro Ongera Bob, Victor Kiprop Chebli, Ernest Ndungu Mwangi, Paul Mumbo Musili, Mohammed Padron Leruk, Beatrice Watetu Mwangi

Grace Nyaguthi Kamweru Luis Alberto Villadiego Carcamo Jepchumba Lagat Victor Daniel Kipkoech Rachid Garcia Elmosri Darina Andreeva Elizabeth Agwa Onyango Felix Nzongo Wambua Silvia Juliana Parra Pabon Sharmin Kabir Shimul Nyachiro Ongera Bob Victor Kiprop Chebli

University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa Matimba Emmanuel Ngobeni Emma Brecher

Benjamin Jonathan Baggot Nhat Ninh Khanh Nguyen Ernest Ndungu Mwangi

106

Fieldwork guidance Dr. Jeroen Stevens, KU Leuven Karmen Janelle Khandkar Hoge

Khalda El Jack, KU Leuven

Fahri Saud Abdala Reyes

Prof. Jason Mochache, Technical University of Kenya

Paul Mumbo Musili

David Njenga, Technical University of Kenya Lawrence Esho, Technical University of Kenya

Natalia Recalde Miranda

James Mworia, Technical University of Kenya

Hagar Faggal

Christine Muchiri, Technical University of Kenya

Mohammed Padron Leruk

Brenda Kamande, Kiambu County

Matimba Emmanuel Ngobeni

Marion Mukolwe, JKUAT Dennis Abuya, Limuru Municipality

Santiago Cortinez Albarracin Zeeshan Javaid Ghani Beatrice Watetu Mwangi Emma Brecher

Booklet layout & editing Prof. Kelly Shannon, Minh Quang Nguyen

107