Bindi Raditya Purnama. Let It Flood: Ciliwung Delta

Climate Change: Urban Deltas & Islands

Let it Flood: Ciliwung Delta

By Bindi Raditya Purnama

Master Thesis Studio 2019 Promoted by Professor Kelly Shannon

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Let it Flood: Ciliwung Delta Volume 1 - Collective Research - Climate Change: Urban Deltas & Islands Volume 2 - Design Investigations Master Theses Studio 2019 Written by: Bindi Raditya Purnama Promoted by: Professor Kelly Shannon All the drawings are by the author unless otherwise credited.

Master (of Science) of Urbanism and Strategic Planning Department of Architecture Faculty of Engineering Science Š Copyright by K.U.Leuven Without written permission of the promotors and the authors it is forbidden to reproduce or adapt in any form or by any means any part of this publication. Requests for obtaining the right to reproduce or utilize parts of this publication should be addressed to: K.U.Leuven, Faculty of Engineering Science Kasteelpark Arenber g 1, B-3001 Heverlee (Belgium).

Telephone +32-16-32 88 94 Email: mahs-mausp@kuleuven.be A written permission of the promotor is also required to use the methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests.

Acknowledgement I would like to express my deep gratitude to Professor Kelly Shannon for the remarkable knowledge of landscape urbanism that opened a new view to me. I would also like to thank Professor Bruno De Meulder for the wisdom in the whole 2 years of studying in KU Leuven.

I would also to extend my thanks to my friends for the company and joy throughout the semester.

Finally, I wish to thank my family for their support.

I dedicated this work mainly to those who commute to Jakarta every day for their whole life.

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Abstract Jakarta, a city with formal and informal tissues, has experienced massive land subsidence. Together will sea-level rise, half of the city will be under the sea by 2100. Besides that, the city is already experiencing increased flooding and temperature rise, as an effect from both consequences of climate change and increased urbanization that led to unsustainable mobility. The urbanization has pushed away agriculture lands and increased water pumping that exacerbated land subsidence.

This thesis analyzes the city’s challenges through the lens of the Ciliwung Delta. The historical reading covers different urban regimes related to the Ciliwung River, while the landscape reading analyzes the basic geography to understand flooding and its impact on settlements.

Following the analysis is the development of a vision and urban design for 2100. Jakarta is proposed to become an archipelago city, promoting the country’s archipelago system. Water mobility could be the main manner of transportation, as a way of accepting future flooding and downplaying the modern culture of car and driving. The design is developed by fastforwarding to the future and working back to the present time. It allows a system of choreographed flooding to be created through soft mobility and rethinking high rises and plot system. Water could be a base of a renewed mangrove culture that kampungs can benefit from as they turn into floating settlements—possible because of their inherent adaptability.

Jakarta

Figure 0 World

Map.

By vectorworldmap.com, 2009

This work questions Jakarta’s future concerning its modernity in terms of the challenges posed by climate change.

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9

Table of Contents

Guideline of the scale

Acknowledgement 5

4 Historical Reading

32

7 Design

74

Abstract 7

4.1 Sunda Kelapa: A Global Port

32

7.1 Principles

74

Table of Contents

8

4.2 Transformation of the Rivers

34

1 - archipelago

76

Guideline of the scale

9

4.3 Landscape of Batavia

36

2 - accepting water

78

4.4 Independence and Modern Planning

38

3 - The New Coast

80

4 - Water City

82

5 Understanding Rivers

44

5 - mangrove culture

84

6 - reconsideration of the valley system

86

5.1 The 13 Rivers

44

7 - Elevated Street

90

5.2 Ciliwung River: Profile

48

5.3 Ciliwung River: Geography

50

7.2 Design Sampling

92

5.4 The Valley System

56

Floating Kampung

92

High Rise, High Street

94

Post-Colonial: Back to the Water

96

1. Preface

2. Research Questions

3. Highlighted Issues 3.1 Formal Informal 3.2 Land Subsidence

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10

14 14

`

18

Sea-Level Rise

18

3.4 Temperature Rise

22

3.3 Flooding

22

3.5 Economy and Mobility

26

3.6 Food Miles

26

3.7 Groundwater Extraction

26

6 Peeling the Diverse Urban Fabrics

62

6.1 Colonial fabric

64

6.2 Kampung

64

6.3 High-rise Buildings

64

Epilogue 103

6.4 Public Space: Pedestrians, Shopping Malls, and Informal Street Vendors 66

Reference 104

6.5 different fabrics versus land subsidence

68

7.3 Earlier Strategies

Credit of Figures

100

106

figure 1.1 Aerial

Imagery. From World Imagery, by Esri, 2019.

60 x 60 km

The scale of the maps in this work varies but narrowed down into several rectangles. The size of the rectangles is written beneath it are the actual scale in the real world, based on GIS projection WGS 1984 UTM Zone 48S. On the top left of every book spread, there is an icon (see left) to help to identify of which rectangle are used in the spread.

Except for the 5 km rectangle, all rectangles above are on the same scale.

Rectangle 60 x 60 km is about the Jakarta, sea, and surrounding, while rectangle 36 x 36 km is very narrow to Jakarta’s boundary. The 40 x 100 km is about the whole trajectory of Ciliwung River, while the 12 x 20 km is about the Ciliwung Delta. The 5 km rectangle is the design site with Ciliwung River on the right side.

1. Preface

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“The Indonesian capital of Jakarta is home to 10 million people, but it is also one of the fastest-sinking cities in the world. If this goes unchecked, parts of the megacity could be entirely submerged by 2050, say researchers. Is it too late? It sits on swampy land, the Java Sea lapping against it, and 13 rivers running through it. So it shouldn’t be a surprise that flooding is frequent in Jakarta and, according to experts, it is getting worse.

60 x 60 km

But it’s not just about freak floods, this massive city is literally disappearing into the ground.” – BBC News, August 2018 (Mei Lin & Hidayat, 2018).

Jakarta represents the model of a successful city in developing countries in terms of its economic miracle. New high-rise buildings are erected monthly together with hectares of gated-community housing areas in the outskirts of the city, well beyond its large political boundary. In between, kampungs cling on to every possible location, including edges of the city’s 13 rivers. 60% of them take water from the aquifer (Furlong & Kooy, 2017).

Flooding is common in Jakarta, not only today but also from its early kingdom era, far before Dutch colonization. The monsoon season brings extra water to the rivers and simply floods the delta every year. The ancient inhabitants knew that if they wanted to settle in a flood-prone area, they should build their houses on stilts. This commonsense intelligence has been lost in contemporary times.

-

“Comrades from Jakarta, let us build Jakarta into the greatest city possible. Great not just because of its skyscrapers, great not just because it has boulevards and beautiful streets; great not just because it has beautiful monuments, great in every respect, even in the little houses of the workers of Jakarta there must be a sense of greatness... Jakarta is becoming the beacon of the whole of mankind. Yes, the beacon of the New Emerging Forces.”

– Sukarno speech circa 1960 cited in Abeyasekere (1989) (as cited in Silver, 2011)

2. Research Questions How to overcome the clash between formal and informal planning in order to adapt land to the consequences of subsidence and sea level rise?

How to bring back natural river forms and introduce alternative mobility and urban typologies in order to reduce the impacts of stormwater flooding and temperature rise?

How to spatially embed an alternative economy into the reconfigured tissue in order to address food and water security?

figure 1.2

Aerial Imagery of Jakarta From World Imagery, by Esri, 2019.

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12

13

Jakarta before storm Photo by author, 12.02.2019

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3. Highlighted Issues

3.1 Formal Formal and informal urban tissues are tightly Informal interwoven in many Indonesian cities and

interdependent in terms of social and economic factors. Formal tissues are usually mapped spatially and regulated, while informal tissues (such as kampungs) are not necessarily illegal, and spatially regulated on their terms.

36 x 36 km

Even though the interplays between formal and informal appear spatially alluring, their relationship is one of the contestations, with social disparity and insecurity. There exit subtle separations that confuse people, especially in public spaces. There is a resulting paranoia

concerning unregulated public space, which has led to the tendency of avoidance of such spaces and retreats to “safer� places for public activity, such as shopping malls.

Despite socio-economic differences, both formal and informal settlements suffer the risk of land subsidence, sea and rainwater flooding, temperature rise, food, and water security. Even though settlements are partially regulated, extracting groundwater and water-polluting remain unregulated.

figure 3.1.1

design site: building figures different building sizes in groups in the span of 5 km By author. Data from OpenStreetMap contributors. (2019)

Legend road water Jakarta’s boundary Topography from +0m to +80m

figure 3.1.2

contrast of high-rise buildings and kampung in Jakarta Left: High Rise buildings in Sudirman street and the surrounding Right: Kampung with stilted houses in Bukit Duri photo by author, 02.2019

0

2

10 km

figure 3.1.3

Map of Jakarta By author. Data from OpenStreetMap contributors. (2019)

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16

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figure 3.1.4

Building contrast high-rise towers rising from the carpet of low rises.

Photo by author, 02.2019

3.2 Land Subsidence Jakarta is greatly exposed to the risk of sea Sea-Level Rise inundation not only because of global sea-level

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rise but also due to land subsidence. In particular, the north of Jakarta is predicted to be extremely vulnerable. Andreas, Usriyah, Abidin, and Sarsito (2017) made a simulation of Jakarta’s territory in the relation of its topography and expected land subsidence, sea-level rise and the tides by using LIDAR data (see Figure 2.2).

60 x 60 km

The year 2100 sea inundation map on the right top of the page is illustrated by the author. In the purpose of using it as a base map for the design research in the last part of the thesis, the land subsidence number chosen is 6 m, based on land subsidence projection of typical rates of 3-10 cm/year from 1974-2010 (Abidin, Andreas, Gumilar, & Brinkman, 2015). The sea level rise number is 1 m based on Jackson’s scenario of 2OC global warming with the prediction of 32-117 cm in 2100. With this scenario, the inundated area is overlaid with population data per district (Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2017) and the result is approximately 4 million people will be impacted, disregarding the population growth.

36 x 36 km

The Indonesian government planned to create a Dutch-style giant sea wall in the north to control water levels inland. The project is to be funded by private developers in return of permission for land reclamation and development. The project has been on-and-off due to its controversial nature, but on 28 July 2019, the president Joko Widodo said to the AP News that he “wants to see the speedy construction of a giant sea wall” (Laub, 2019).

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Figure 3.2.2

Predicted rob inundation area in 2100 Estimated around 4 million people (from 2017 population) will be impacted Illustrated by author.

Topography from BPBD. (2016) DEM LIDAR DKI Jakarta

“The future is looking very expensive indeed for Jakarta,” as Simon (2019) wrote for the WIRED magazine in the article with a title “Jakarta’s Giant Seawall is Useless if The City Keeps Sinking”. The wall will be spanning about 30 km and made of concrete, with a Garuda-shaped reclamation land full of towers, as designed by a consortium of Dutch companies; Witteveen + Bos, Grontmij, Ecorys, Deltares, and KuiperCompagnons (kuipercompagnons, 2015) (see figure 3.2.3 and 3.2.5). The project will stop the natural sea and river exchange, and the natural process of sedimentation. Moreover, the sedimentation can have “a serious impact on the deep seaport and new economic zone of Jakarta Giant Sea Wall within 43 years.” (Sumantyo et al., 2016)

figure 3.2.3

Giant Sea Wall Project Plan

To block the sea from entering the coast Redrawn by author, based from Great Garuda Jakarta, by KuiperCompagnons (2015), https://www.kuipercompagnons.nl/files/pro/i_1113/ GreatGarudajakarta01.jpg, retrieved: 03.08.2019

figure 3.2.4

Average Land Subsidence rate and Sea Level Rise Projection In the part of northern Jakarta with the elevation of +2m from current sea level Illustrated by author. Land subsidence rate: Abidin (2013). Sea level rise: Jackson et al (2018) as cited in Hoegh-Gulberg et al (2018)

figure 3.2.1

Land subsidence throughout the years

A record from 1977 until 2017 with prediction in 2025 and 2050

Redrawn by author, based on Andreas, redrawn by Supriyadi et al (2018). https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-44636934, retrieved: 03.08.2019

1977

1997

2007

2017

2025

2050

2100

Figure 3.2.5

Giant Sea Wall Project Aerial Illustration

by KuiperCompagnons, (2015), https://www.kuipercompagnons.nl/files/ pro/i_1113/GreatGarudajakarta05.jpg, retrieved: 03.08.2019

Illustration of flooding in 2100

figure 3.2.6

with the scenario of the land subsidence with the average of 6m and Sea Level Rise of 1m Left: Photo by Novem Lawalata, 2017 Right: Illustrated by author

3.3 Flooding The flood in the area of today’s Jakarta has been

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40 x 100 km

recorded since the time of the Tarumanagara kingdom. Zaenuddin (2013) mentions in his book of Banjir Jakarta that floods already took place during the fifth century. Almost every regime that occupied Sunda Kelapa or Jakarta’s old port experienced floods, including both Dutch and Indonesian rulers (Abidin Kusno, 2018).

One of the worst floodings in Jakarta’s history is happened in 2007, inundating 70 percent of the city, killing fifty-five people, and displacing over 350,000 people from their homes (Abidin

Kusno, 2018). It reached +5 m in Bukit Duri, an area passed by Ciliwung River, that made the houses there completely inundated, forced evacuation of kampung (Rekittke, 2013).

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Bukit Duri is located a hundred meters before the flood canal made in the Colonial Era for Ciliwung River to protect the old city, but the flood breached in 2013, affected business district area surrounding Bundaran HI due to failure of the embankment on the north side of the canal (Bricker, Tsubaki, Muhari, & Kure, 2014).

36 x 36 km

3.4 Temperature Rise It has been recorded from four weather stations

that the temperature has been rising from 1986 to 2014. The image above shows the difference between two periods of 1986 to 2014 with the monthly maximum value of the daily maximum temperature in Celsius (Khoir, Mamlu’Atur, Safril, & Fadholi, 2018). It can be assumed that

there has been a general rise of temperature at least 1oC in the Jakarta area, but more severe in the southwest part of Jakarta, which is a city of Tangerang Selatan. The city has been growing exponentially, as shown in the aerial image above. figure 3.3.2

annual precipitation

Recorded in 2007

Redrawn by author based on Liu et al., 2015

figure 3.3.3

temperature rise

figure 3.3.4

Recorded from 1986 until 2014 from 4 different locations. One circle equals to 0.5oC

left: 1986, right: 2014

From Google Earth, 2019

Redrawn by author based on Khoir, et al, 2018.

flood event figure 3.3.1 (left) Flood in Bukit Duri Area in 2007, houses

almost fully drowned up to the roof.

From Jakarta floods death toll rises, by BBC NEWS, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6328873.stm figure 3.3.1 (right) Flood in Bundaran HI Area in 2013,

water breached from flood canal due to structural failure. (Bricker, Tsubaki, Muhari, & Kure, 2014) From Jakarta Globe [facebook], 2013, https://www.facebook. com/thejakartaglobe/

aerial Imagery of urban expansion

figure 3.3.5

flood map Redrawn by author. From BPBD DKI Jakarta, 2014

2007 2013

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figure 3.4.1

flood event 2007 Water filled up roads in gated communities

By Murna A, 2007. https://www. flickr.com/photos/murna

figure 3.4.2

flood event 2013 in North Jakarta: motorbike rescue Picking up a drowned motorbike to a raft. Commonly in flooding season, a motorbike cannot operate due to clogged exhaust pipe by water.

By Seika, 2013. https://www.flickr.com/photos/nseika

3.5 Economy and Mobility As Jakarta grew into a capital city, the pressure

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40 x 100 km

of urbanization became very strong, together with the rising population of the working-class.

Suburban sprawl was a result of the unbalance between capital pressure and land value, resulting a commuting culture, where people often travel (by car, motorbike, taxi, motor-taxi, bus, and train) up to 5 hours daily for work.

Traffic jams are imminent at peak hours.

Working-class people often break-up their long commutes with stops for shopping or eating. It

is in this context that inhabitants the formal and informal areas meet since the informal economy offers everyone unique yet very cheap and local products and cuisine. Since the informal economy is unregulated, vendors gather in leftover spaces such as sidewalks and mosque plazas. The mobility stop-overs at informal vendors is an important interweaving between formal and informal systems.

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36 x 36 km

3.6 Food Miles In 1999, Jakarta produced only 2% rice for its

demand (Hermy, 2005 as cited in PĂśtz, 2012).

Moreover, due to the pressure of suburban sprawl, many agriculture lands have been sold to developers for housing. This results in an indirect impact on the increasing price of food in the city. The agricultural land use shift has been

3.7 Groundwater Extraction Groundwater extraction is very common in

Jakarta and is largely responsible for land subsidence. More than 60% of Jakarta’s inhabitants rely on groundwater. High-rise buildings extract clean water from deep aquifers, while most residents are only able to extract from the shallow aquifer that now suffers from

as well reported in the upstream areas of the Ciliwung River (Dwi Indriastuti, 2016). Mishra et al. (2030) used the land-use map provided by LIPI to project future inundation. It shows that in agriculture lands will be shifted further away from Jakarta in 2030.

saltwater intrusion (Furlong & Kooy, 2017).

Even though the water is not fresh, residents continue to use it for everything but drinking water. Drinking water is provided by private companies that use conventional water bottles and tanks to store water taken from fresh sources far from the city (transported by trucks).

figure 3.5.3

Infrastructure - rivers

mismatch and perpendicularity of road and train network (white) with rivers (blue) in the Greater Jakarta area (dash red)

figure 3.5.4

agriculture shift

Illustrated by author

projection of agriculture expansion (green) in loss (brown) in 2030 Redrawn by author based on Mishra et al., 2018

figure 3.5.5

deep groundwater extraction

figure 3.5.1

commuter train

figure 3.5.2

like a metro, but spanning about 50 km away from this station, carrying 1 million working-class people daily.

the longest elevated highway in the world

Photo by author, 02.2019

with 36 km long, on construction, to feed the Greater Jakarta Plan on the east side and capacitate the transportation along the north coast (Azhari, 2019)

By Garry Lulung, 2019, https://megapolitan.kompas.com/ read/2019/06/28/18085021/tol-layang-jakarta-cikampekdiperkirakan-selesai-september

inside per 1 km2 cell, recorded until 1990 Redrawn by author based on Kagabu et al., 2013 as cited in Furlong & Kooy, 2017

(left)

typical daily traffic jam

in the whole business district in Jakarta after working hour.

Photo by author, 12.02.2019

sleeping while standing in the commuter train

the train trip can take up to 2 hours to the farthest distance, and it is very common for commuters to sleep while standing Photo by author, 12.02.2019

having dinner before the commute to avoid crowded train or traffic jam, some of the workers having dinner in the street from an informal street vendor Photo by author, 12.02.2019

crossing the traffic Photo by author, 02.2019

4 Historical Reading

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12 x 20 km

Ciliwung River in 1610. VOC then built the 4.1 Sunda In the 9th century, a port city named Sunda Kalapa started to be known.

Sailors and traders Batavia citadel as its international trade capital Kelapa A Global Port from China, India, Middle East, regularly visited (Widodo, 2004). the Sunda Kalapa as part of their trading routes.

Sunda Kelapa was fought over between the Hindu Kingdom Sunda and the alliance of the Islamic kingdoms Demak, that also involved Portuguese in the Moluccas. Since then, various maps have recorded the area as Jacatra, but not for long, as the VOC (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie) arrived on the east side of the

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The Batavia planning is uncanny with the Simon Stevin’s “Ideal Plan for a City”, which determines much by its rectangular water canal system that divided the city blocks. The plan was applied in most of VOC ports regardless of the climate and context, which leads to catastrophic malaria due to mosquito breeds in the stagnant water. (Meulder, 2013)

Sunda Kelapa port (Jakarta in modern day)

figure 4.1.1

Batavia Plan 1780 A water-based city the mouth of Ciliwung River, adopted from Simon Stevin’s “Ideal Plan for a City” from: maps.library.leiden.edu

figure 4.1.2

colonial shipping routes British (yellow), Spanish (red), and Dutch (green) trade destinations arrayed, taken from logbook between 1750 to 1850 From updated: colonial shipping routes, by James, 2013, https://spatial. ly/2013/06/updated-colonial-shipping-routes

figure 4.1.3

figurative map of java island rivers drawn in vertical order along the north coast with its own settlements in each delta. They thought that Java was split into two islands.

From historic map of Java, Indonesia, 2009, http://www.meteoritecollector.org/ gallery/main.php?g2_itemId=4539

4.2 Transformation Before 1619, rivers in the area of modern Jakarta of the Rivers had individual streams that led to the north

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coast that has been settled by different kingdoms in a different era. Sunda Kelapa settled in Ciliwung River under Pakuan Pajajaran with the capital alongside the river until 1526., while about a thousand-year before, different kingdom named Tarumanegara settled in a different river, Cakung River, to the east. (see figure 4.2.6)

40 x 100 km

However, in the colonial era, those rivers started to share their waters because of canals and water channels, such as flood canal planned in the map

of 1905 and the water channels opened from the Ciliwung River upstream, that is to date named Baru Barat River and Baru Timur River. (see figure 4.2.7)

water transformation in Ciliwung River

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from before 1619 until circa 1918, with relevant developments such as new port and railways

According to Gunawan, Kali Baru Timur was finished in 1753 for the irrigation system. In 1776, kali Baru Barat was proposed for also irrigation, but there was not enough water to feed it from the Ciliwung River, so the river was also connected to Cisadane River (Gunawan, 2010).

There is an extension of land in the north coast from

12 x 20 km

1619-1691 map to 1691-1811 (see figure 4.2.3). This is happened due to a mountain eruption, which brings more sediments and extended the coast.

(Gunawan, 2010) figure 4.2.6

left: before 1619 showing the local kingdoms historical sites in different years related to the rivers

figure 4.2.7

right: 1619- ca. 1918 altered waterline from CIliwung river in different years, including Baru Barat River and Baru Timur River

Legend

translation: railroad roadway canal river water channel sewer, creek rice farm gementee border

figure 4.2.1 before 1619

figure 4.2.2 1619-1691

figure 4.2.3 1691-1811

figure 4.2.4 1811-1905

figure 4.2.5 1905- ca. 1918

Sunda Kelapa Port in the mouth of Ciliwung River

Canalized Ciliwung river, connected other rivers

Extended port entrance with a water castle

New port in the northeast

Flood canal in the south with railway plan

water transformation in Ciliwung Delta from before 1619 until circa 1918, with relevant developments such as new port and railways

figure 4.2.1 - 4.2.7 from: maps.library.leiden.edu.

4.3 Landscape of Batavia The area in Ciliwung Delta developed greatly

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during the colonial era. The Great Post Road was constructed in this period to create a connection for the entirety of Java Island. It passed through Batavia and Buitenzorg, a city that was built close to the early- founded city of Pakuan of the Sunda Kingdom. It was a major land-based connection, parallel to the Ciliwung River. In this map, Jakarta’s present-day boundary covers much more than the era of Batavia. The Ciliwung River was still relevant to the planning of the area since it was the only river that passed through.

36 x 36 km

From the northern coast of Jakarta until where the valleys stop, there were many wetlands (swamps and marshes), which since the 1960s have largely disappeared due to massive urbanization. The area’s alluvial soil is relatively prone to subsidence due to its young age, making it very unsafe for buildings. Flooding was prevalent in the area due to the earth’s form and topography.

Legend translated figure 4.3

1866 Batavia map overlaid with to Jakarta’s boundary and coastline to date

From maps.library.leiden.edu

kampung

pond

local road

cape

coconut farm

marsh

residence line

river’s mouth

woods

dry farm

zone line

post

jati woods

wet farm

district line

rice mill

coffee farm

fish farm

private line

tea post

tea farm

lake

footpath

coffee house

cinnamon farm

sand

residence house

coffee packaging

sugar farm

river

assistance residence house

sugar factory

kina farm

water channel

district house

salt packaging

nutmeg farm

railway

private house

country house

“glaga”

great post road

signal

rice packaging

bamboo

local post road

health post

brick factory

reeds

main road

“poeloe”

coffee mill

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When the “New Order” started to rule in 1967, 4.4 Independence and Indonesia gained its independence in 1945, made Batavia as its capital and changed its name The new economic strategy began to become a Modern Planning

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0.5 x 5 km

to Jakarta. Indonesia covered almost all five big islands, making it one of the largest archipelago countries in the world. As the capital city of a very big archipelago country, Jakarta grew unprecedently. In 1962, Jakarta hosted the Asian Games, followed by modern projects as an agenda of removing its colonial identity (Silver, 2008).

spatial plan. One of the projects was the greater Jakarta plan called Jabodetabek, which is a term of merging Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi. The first highway in Indonesia was constructed to connect Bogor and Jakarta.

Business districts were erected in Jakarta, mostly built on top of the agricultural lands (see figure 4.4.3)

figure 4.4.1

figure 4.4.4

Evolution of Jakarta’s Boundary vs Rivers Batavia, 17th century

1866 Batavia + Weltevreden 19th century

Jakarta, 20th century

From “Plattegrond der stad Batavia”, 1866. maps.library. leiden.edu

Greater Jakarta

figure 4.4.5

1923 From “Plattegrond der stad Batavia”, 1923. maps.library. leiden.edu

figure 4.4.6

2019 by author. Data from OpenStreetMap contributors.

(2019) figure 4.4.2

Sukarno with Thamrin-Sudirman Plan Model as one of the 1962 modernist projects in Jakarta From Bung Karno dan Seni, by Damais, 1979, in Kusno, Budiman, & Kurnia, 2008

figure 4.4.3

Loss of agriculture lands and kampungs over the years due to the colonial and modernist projects.

On the left are the interpretation of kampungs (orange) and paddy fields (blue grid).

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Bundaran HI planned for the 1962 ASEAN games with an official name of “Monumen Selamat Datang� (Welcome Monument) Photo by author, 12.02.2019

skyscrapers Photo by author, 02.2019

5 Understanding Rivers

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36 x 36 km

5.1 There are 13 rivers passes through Jakarta.

The 13 Rivers Out of 13, three kali or rivers were constructed

during the colonial era, which means that the classification is regardless of its natural or manmade condition. Kali means river, although some locals believe that kali is smaller than bengawan, another word for river in Javanese language. In comparison, there is a river called bengawan Solo in East Java, which is used for water transportation, not like rivers in Jakarta.

60 x 60 km

Additionally, the number of 13 is rather too blatant for a deep understanding of the river condition in Jakarta. As evident in the map, the thirteen rivers become a web of drainage and canals in the lower area.

Over thousands of years, rivers from the mountains gather rainwater and erode the soil along their trajectories and formed the northern land. In the beginning, Restu said, there is no land in the north of Jakarta. Sediments were carried by rivers over a long period and formed the delta, with a rate of 6 to 9 m per year.

The delta has been formed over 5,000 years (Gunawan, 2010).

1 2

13 3

4

8 5

6

10

7 9

figure 5.1.1 the

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12

13 rivers

figure 5.1.2 The original

that cut through Jakarta’s boundary (purple)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Kali Mookervaart (built in 1689 to get more water from Cisadane River) Kali Angke Kali Pesanggrahan Kali Grogol Kali Krukut Kali Baru Barat (or Westerslokkan in Dutch, translated: new west river)

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

alignment of major rivers

The red line shows the missing trajectory in the current condition

figure 5.1.3 The

manmade rivers

including canals and irrigation from the colonial era (yellow)

Kali Ciliwung Kali Baru Timur (or Oosterslokkan in Dutch, which means new east river) Kali Cipinang Kali Sunter Kali Buaran Kali Jati Kramat Kali Cakung

figure 5.1.3

Water Map in Jakarta, overlaid with Jakarta’s boundary (purple)

45

46

47

Banjir Kanaal/Flood Canal built in 1919 to divert Ciliwung’s water away from urban area Photo by author, 12.02.2019

5.2 Ciliwung River The edge of Ciliwung River in that area is very Profile steep, large, and has several terraces. The closer it

48

40 x 100 km

gets to the sea; the drastic profile becomes more subtle. The lower level has traditionally been settled by kampungs, while the higher ground is occupied by richer settlements. Concrete and stone wall were necessary for some areas to fortify some of the settlements along the river, especially along the upper streams with very steep topography. Those led to an increase in stormwater run-off.

Figure 5.3.1 shows the profile of the massive elevation that consists of a minimum of 20 meters from the riverbed to the higher grounds.

Due to the steep topographic conditions, kampungs are inaccessible by the motorized road network. Instead, inhabitants walk or using motorbikes to easily navigate the difficult topography.

49

figure 5.2.2

Ciliwung River and Other Rivers Existing condition

Water channel

Rivers connected

Future Projects

(blue) for Ciliwung River

which taken from Ciliwung River (black)

(red) because of the projects

for flood mitigation connecting more rivers (red)

figure 5.2.1

Profile of Ciliwung River in Bogor about 50 km away from the coast, has a very steep valley compared to the northern part of the river

Grogol River Bandjir Kanaal (Flood Canal) 1919

Baru Barat River 1776

Krukut River

Baru Timur River 1739

Cisadane River

5.3 Ciliwung River The source of the Ciliwung River is from the Geography Gede and Pangrango volcanic mountains,

50

that sloping down towards Jakarta’s coastline.

Because of that, the Ciliwung Basin has a very fertile alluvial soil, excellent for agriculture.

Generally, Java Island has a strip of mountains in the southern region, and every valley has been created by the water streams which eventually become rivers, as drawn in the historical map of Java (see figure 4.1.3 in chapter 4.1)

40 x 100 km

Although the land is fertile, the water from Ciliwung River is apparent to be hard to master for the agriculture lands. The upstream section

of the Ciliwung River starts from only about 100 km away from the coast, but with a drastic elevation of almost 3,000 meters. The slope gives a boost to the water, increasing the damage risk of flooding events. The river begins with hundreds of small branches in the mountains which begin to merge just before Bogor City.

However, Ciliwung is not the only source of water for agriculture in the Ciliwung Basin; many other small rivers are calmer and easier to master. Nevertheless, the agriculture started to expand massively when extra water opened to the east and west of the Ciliwung River in the colonial era as explained in chapter 4.2.

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figure 5.3.4

figure 5.3.5

figure 5.3.6

Topography lines

Topography Profiles

Soil Map: Alluvium Formation

deep rivers are shown naturally with a valley figure

undulating surface are shown in the profile; bigger amplitude when it close to the mountain and disappear in the delta. Topography is exaggerated by 10 times.

Because of the volcanic mountains, rivers made the alluvium formation, making it a rich nutrient for agriculture Redrawn by author based from (Cipta et al., 2018)

figure 5.3.1

Topography in 3D

Beach Ridge

elevation is exaggerated by 3 times

Alluvium

50m Alluvium Fan

100m 150m Mountain Formation

figure 5.3.2 (left)

World Imagery

By Esri, 2019.

Lava Deposits

figure 5.3.3 (right)

Topography in figure 5.3.1, 5.3.4, and 5.3.5 are from U.S. Geological Survey (2019)

Rivers

Ciliwung River (blue) Source from OpenStreetMap contributors. (2019)

3000m

52

53

Fortified edge

Stepping kampung

footbridge

With pipes comes out from the wall, increasing water run-off

In the previous site of Pakuan Pajajaran Kingdom

connecting two kampungs. not passable for cars but often to be used by motorbike

all photos in this diagram are by author, 02.2019

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55

Stilted houses in Bukit Duri

The flood canal

river as the back of the house

with water pipe crossing above it and a station on the right side

Fortified edge kampungs at this point, the height difference of the valley is not apparent anymore

5.4 The Valley System From understanding the river profile system in

56

the Ciliwung River, it is evident that Jakarta has an undulating topography due to its rivers. This means, from the thirteen of rivers that passes through Jakarta, there are many valleys created by the river from a thousand years ago.

The valley system is very visible upstream, but very hard to identify downstream, as is the point where the delta begins. The urban tissue has mostly covered this hidden topography. The understanding of the valley system requires more topographic data, however, the data provided by Jakarta’s government1 is enough to conceptually generate it. The edge of the valley in the drawing is defined by the steep slope of the nearest river.

60 x 60 km

The valley system is very prominent in urban resiliency planning. However, when the system is overlaid with the 1970s masterplan and the current mobility system, it is clear that topography has not been carefully considered.

As well, during the colonial era, a flood canal was made by cutting through two valleys.

However, the system failed in 2013 when there was a breach into the Sudirman business district.

Yet, the government is planning to complete a similar project to divert Ciliwung River to the east, cutting many valleys. The project will have the same risk of breaching as in the 2013 flood.

flood canal 1919 proposed flood canal 2018

flood channel

Kali Baru Barat

figure 5.4.1

Water Channel crossing the valley system

Kali Baru Timur

figure 5.4.2

the valley system

valley (blue) and high ground (white)

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58

59

Ciliwung River Upstream Photo by author, 02.2019

60 kampung in Ciliwung River photo: author, 02.2019

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62

6 Peeling the Diverse Urban Fabrics

12 x 20 km

building size 30 sqm 150 sqm 1000 sqm

figure 6.1

Urban tissue according to building size Building data from openstreet map contributors, 2019

The history of Jakarta and the differences between the indigenous, colonial, and modern eras have left clear physical footprints in the urban tissue. They are categorized in this paper by three categories: colonial fabric, kampungs,

and the high-rise. They are expressed in the drawing on the next page with the same scale drawing in 400m by 400 m to show how different they are in a walking scale and its relation to the waterbody.

63

6.1 Colonial fabric The colonial plot system has a very distinctive

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0.5 x 5 km

proportion of building footprint that is mostly less than 50 percent than the plot size, especially in rich housing areas. The rest of the plot is usually occupied by a private garden or carports with high fences surrounding the house. There are gaps between the plot line from the road to the building, usually one car distance, so there is no building aligned to the street. It makes the street condition is very quiet and the neighborhoods lush with green. It is a perfect

6.2 Kampung The kampung is a very dense tissue where

buildings are attached to one another, sometimes even crossing the street on the second level.

Some of them are formalized and have been adapted to regulations. The street widths vary greatly but are never more than two car lanes.

6.3 High-rise The high-rise is a typology that appeared after Buildings independence. Most often, the new high-rises

figure 6.3.1

“Suburb in the sky: how Jakartans built an entire village on top of mall� (Lamb, 2019) photo by Bahar, Shahrir, 2019, instagram.com/@ shahirbahar1

tissues come from master plans, including the Asian Game in 1962 (as mentioned in chapter 4.4), Sudirman Central Business District, and Mega Kuningan Master Plan. Master plans have been primarily developed for agricultural areas and rarely for either colonial areas or kampungs.

Agricultural areas are often associated with flood plains so that most of the master plans are prone to flood, as was proved by the 2013 flood event, as previously explained.

suburban community. A number of them are located in the middle of the city, and they appear as large green holes in a grey fabric, as planned in the earlier 20th century in making of Weltevreden. The system is very similar to modern gated communities in Jakarta and surrounding areas provided by private sectors or government. A striking difference, however, is that contemporary plot sizes and are shrinking due to economic pressure.

The people there use the street not only as a mobility network but also a public space. The vibrant urban activities and micro-economic activities in the street diverts cars away.

The towers are moderately regulated by Jakarta’s architectural building code. One code requires that buildings are moved back from the street, sometimes as much as 15 meters; there is no building attached to the edge of the street, similar to the colonial plot system. As an urban area, detached roads from the buildings, especially with fences, create awkward spaces that encourage car use and make shopping malls the preferred commercial typology.

figure 6.3.2

3 different tissues

within 400m by 400 m Aerial Imagery by Esri, 2019

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Design Site

kampung in flood canal

High rise buildings in Bundaran HI

Colonial fabric

6.4 Public Space: Pedestrians, Shopping Malls, and Informal Street Vendors

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0.5 x 5 km

Shopping mall popularity has dramatically increased because of their private security systems. For a certain class, they create a closed and safe environment between the individual house, private car, and the car parking inside the shopping malls (Kusno, Budiman, & Kurnia, 2008). There are 173 shopping malls within Jakarta’s boundary. Jakartans visit malls 2.7 times per month on average. (BOI Research, 2016) Grand Indonesia is one of the most prominent shopping malls in Jakarta, with a couple of others that adjoin it, such as Plaza Indonesia and Thamrin City. Grand Indonesia has a sky bridge connecting two buildings with a road beneath it.

The bridge was not flooded in 2013, while the ground was inundated up to one meter.

Meanwhile, the streets in this area were rebuilt to improve their pedestrian quality for the Asian Games 2018. In general, pedestrian and public space awareness have greatly increased, especially with the improvement of mass transit led by Institute for Transportation & Development Policy (ITDP) and government-owned transportation company, Transjakarta (the Bus Rapid Transit company). At the same time, there is a battle between mass public transport and private transport services such as “ojek online�, a motor-taxi service with competitive pricing to public transport. Both are very demanding with regards to safety and security on roads.

Unfortunately, security concerns have led to the pushing away of informal street vendors.

67

Street vendors are usually a temporary shop using a wheeled cart. When it settled to a spot, usually a pedestrian way, it can expand into a temporary architecture with just using tents and folding tables and chairs. It is an illegal activity to be a street vendor, however, the demands are high, especially in the peak hour of traffic jam. They define spaces in a pedestrian way, sometimes even taking one or two-car lanes, creates a unique environment in the middle of massive car smokes and the heat.

figure 6.4.1

figure 6.4.2

figure 6.4.3

figure 6.4.4

figure 6.4.5

Grand Indonesia Mall

newly reclaimed street for pedestrian crossing

renovated pedestrian way

By Mike, 2016. flickr.com

Photo by author, 02.2019

along the sudirman street (south of the site)

informal street vendors right outside Grand Indonesia Mall

informal street vendors by the station

Photo by author, 02.2019

Photo by author, 02.2019

Photo by author, 02.2019

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6.5 different fabrics versus In the purpose of this study, the typologies are land subsidence roughly simulated to the land subsidence and

flooding mentioned before, although it requires more structural and architectural analysis.

First, the high-rise towers are probably the strongest among the other buildings, because they are normally have fulfilled the standards of earthquake resistance and have a foundation far to the bedrocks. However, due to land subsidence, the basement will be exposed and prone to be filled with water due to increased flooding. With this, a mechanical strategy is required to always pump the water out every time flood happens, that can cost a lot of power.

Second, kampungs is a very organic urban fabric. It has been proven that kampung always survived in any condition. Land subsidence and flood would not be able to make them migrate.

However, the disaster would still remove the public facility and the economic activity that kampungs need.

High-Rise Towers

Landed Houses

Third, the colonial fabric which filled by landed houses will probably collapse due to structural failure to land subsidence, that has been reported in some areas in the north to date (Abidin, Andreas, Gumilar, & Brinkman, 2015).

However, almost of all the houses in the colonial fabric is already remade with higher stories and stronger structure. Some of them might have the structure down to the bedrock. On the other hand, new houses made in the 1970s onward in the north of Jakarta, are very prone to land subsidence due to cheap construction, also because it is more apparent in the northern part.

Lastly, the public space and road on the ground are simply be flooded more often over the years, causing more difficulties for activities and road-based transportation.

69

collapsed because of land subsidence 2019

2100

Kampungs creative way of kampungs to float their structure Seawater enters the basement 2019

2019

2100

2100

Strong Pile structure

high-rise towers

basement exposed

kampung houses

creatively floated

landed houses

collapsed

pile structure to bedrock +4m

+3m

+2m

figure 3.2.4

Average Land Subsidence rate and Sea Level Rise Projection as explained in chapter 3.2

figure 6.5.1 Diagram of prediction to the building due to land subsidence

land subsiden

ce not even, av erage -5m

High Tide +2.2 m Sea Level Rise +1m

70

71

figure 6.5.2

Car Free Day Similar like Bogota, every Sunday morning, Thamrin-Sudirman Street is allowed only for pedestrian, street vendors, and bus.

Photo by Kartapranata, 2010. https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Jakarta_Car_Free_Day.jpg

figure 6

Kepulauan Seribu Photo by Brianna Laugher, 2012. https://flic.kr/p/doLkrD

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7 Design

1

archipelago

3

the new coast of 2100

reconnecting Jakarta through water transportation

2

accepting water letting the sea entered the city to become islands

7.1 Principles In the design part, the issues are addressed in 7

principles in order of the scale from big to small respectively. The principles are using the year 2100 prediction as a main problem statement.

6

reshaping the urban fabrics with the sea

reconsideration of the valley system restructuring the city using the rivers and valleys

4

7

water city adapting settlements with water

elevated streets reshaping the urban fabrics with the sea

5

mangrove culture planting mangroves for biodiversity and food production

1 - archipelago Jakarta has always been an important port city

76

60 x 60 km

in global trading. Its strategic location in terms of water was a powerful in geopolitics and an economic advantage, exemplified in history through exploitation by VOC and Dutch East Indies. Over time, water has given way to land-based transportation, with greater emphasis on connections of Java while disconnecting other important cities such as Bangka, Jambi, and Banjarmasin. The net result has been the loss of its competitive edge to other important port cities such as Singapore and Surabaya. Shipping continues to the north coast but ends there as cargo is shifted onto trucks that pass over elevated highways.

figure 7.1.1

kepulauan seribu from above

By Rochelimit - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. php?curid=18284781

Reconceptualization of the Jakarta archipelago means connecting it back the rest of the country with water-based transportation, which was an important part of the national agenda of Joko Widodo’s presidency (Pitoko, 2018). He has also proposed to move the capital and to make sure its port and business activity is integrated from the onset. The present thinking on location is in Borneo Island (Aditya, 2019). It means shifting from a capital city into an equally port city along the north coast of Java such as Jepara, Banten, and Semarang, redistributing the pressure of hard low-cost logistic into more valuable shipping, as the economy level of the city grows.

Thinking in terms of an archipelago brings the opportunity to reconnect the Kepulauan Seribu district, which can be translated as a thousand islands. The district has been disconnected because of the city’s modern mobility. As the water reclaims land, water transportation could be increased so that thousands of islands communities become part of the city.

77

Singapore

Borneo Island proposed new capital in this island

This map shows how Jakarta and the north coast of Java are relatively a lot more urbanized than other islands that share the same sea. This is arguably amplified by Jakarta as a capital and the road-based transport along the north coast. The new capital is proposed on Borneo Island. To date, the specific location will be announced the day after the

kepulauan seribu district

submission of this thesis.

Surabaya 0

50

250 km

figure 7.1

The Thousand Islands The opportunity to reconnect kepulauan seribu district with the new archipelago of Jakarta

Urbanization, Sea, and Mountains Illustrated by author Topography from BATNAS, tides.big.go.id Urbanization data from Earth at Night: Flat Maps, 2016, in: earthobservatory.nasa.gov

Bali Island

2 - accepting Reconceptualization of an archipelago is to let water the water return to the land. It is an opportunity

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60 x 60 km

to have a handshake with water—to move from thinking of it as an enemy, whether as a flood or sea-level rise, but more as an ally. It means to open canals or original rivers by way of a strategic understanding of the delta’s topography.

A combination of soft- and hard-engineering strategies would be the cheapest and most efficient manner to let water regain its logics; strategically erosion of the coast the widening the rivers can be ‘naturally’ assisted by effects of climate change, namely increased precipitation and sea-level rise.

This means the Giant Sea Wall project that will stop the natural exchange and water flow has to be scrapped. In the proposed vision, the expensive project would not be needed anymore since water is needed to come to the land.

The future delta can be strategically transformed into islands. Kampungs, as an organic urban fabric, have historically shown adaptation, whether to modernity or climate. With increased water conditions, they can float in the delta. The combination of rising waters and the city’s planning priorities offer an opportunity to reclaim the north coast as islands. The reconfigured reclamation project (reduced in scale and extent in this proposal) is an opportunity to create a new series of islands along the coast with modern settlements.

The proposal reconfigures the reclamation as proposed by many urban design experts into coastal islands.

This is a vision plan of Jakarta in 2100, where the land subsidence already far beneath and when sea enters without the Giant Sea Wall project. The design shows how new islands will surface and use the sea as main transportation. In this plan, even though the Giant Sea Wall project is not proposed, the islands proposed by the private developers that were going to support the project is still there to balance the population.

0

2

10 km

figure 7.3

Existing Condition From World Imagery, by Esri, 2019.

Archipelago of Jakarta’s Bay

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3 - The New Coast In the future coast of 2100, with the prediction

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of land subsidence and sea-level rise, it will reach the purple line with the height of 6m. On the north side of the line, urban fabrics can be the place to shift from road transportation to water-based transportation.

Then, the entered sea can be the opportunity to plant mangroves for biodiversity and production systems, while the ruins from the collapsed houses expected in chapter 6.5 can be removed and to be used for the reclamation islands.

12 x 20 km

2100 coast line

mangrove forests

settlements

with the current elevation of 6m

see principle 5

see principle 4

0

1

4 km

Ciliwung Delta year 2100

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4 - Water City In the future, when the sea enters because of

sea-level rise and massive land subsidence, the line of the coast will be further deep in the city.

Along this line, kampungs with their organic forms and high-rise buildings with their stable structures will both be able to adapt. However, for the colonial and gated communities, another strategy must be developed. In this tissue, it is proposed to have a canal-based urban fabric such as Venice and Amsterdam: roads are transformed into canals and jetties in sequences of fringe mangrove forests. With water and mangroves, urban heat island can be reduced and the temperature in Jakarta can be lower.

Reclamation islands proposed for the giant sea wall project on the north of this map can be continued. The defense system for tsunami and high tide can be rely to these islands to protect the smaller islands and mangroves closer to the future coast. It is also an opportunity to use the reclamation island to build mangrove edges. For gated communities on the present coast, they have made it good enough for adapting the sea level rise; it just needs a few additional strategies.

Lastly, kampungs will be floating by itself due to its organic architecture.

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reclamation island

existing gated communities with road changed into canals

kampungs floated by themselves figure 7.1.4

Two of the Reclamation Islands design by SOM and Marta Schwartz Partner with small addition of mangrove restoration project SOM (2013). https://www.som.com/projects/pluit_city_master_plan

existing gated communities becomes place to shift between road to water transport

towers connected with soft mobility bridges (see principle 7)

0

1

4 km

Settlements

5 - mangrove As sea and river meet, meaning there is ample culture brackish water, the delta has great potential to

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12 x 20 km

be developed as mangroves. Mangroves have a lot of benefit in terms of biodiversity, as well as a production system. As agriculture shifts away from the city and creates “food desert� problems, mangroves can help provide food to the city. Mangroves can be themselves be cultivated and be developed with sustainable aquaculture systems. Such new economies would be essential for the future of the kampungs.

The biodiversity also helps to reduce endemic diseases and balance the number of mosquitos.

As mangroves grow with more and more water, the temperature will be lower in the city, reducing the spike of urban heat islands.

However, the planning of mangroves can be tricky due to the unstable condition of the delta due to land subsidence and pollution. In the

beginning, constant mangrove management is needed. In the delta, according to future projections, the sea will be too high for mangroves to grow, however, earlier mangrove planting can gather sediments over time so that in the future the older mangroves can survive. The earlier mangrove planting can be implemented where there are presently big undervalued lots such as warehouses and industries. These sites are more bargainable than settlements.

85

obligatory of mangrove edges for reclamation island projects

In other parts of Java mangrove can provide food products such as flour for cakes and bread, herbal tea, and crackers. The Mangrove of Future Project earlier mangrove projects from industrial plots, generate enough sediments to float

has been established many of mangrove projects in Indonesia to support coastal communities such as in Indramayu and Probolinggo. (Indonesian Nature Film Society, 2015)

water is too deep for mangroves to grow

mangrove fringe forest closer to the land with shallow water

Mangrove Village in Guayaquil, Ecuador. Surviving by taking benefit from mangrove estuary Photo by author, 02.2018

mangrove riverine in the river edge, with slightly different type of mangroves

0

1

4 km

Mangroves

6 - reconsideration of The undulating topography in the southern the valley system part of Jakarta is the key to flood resiliency,

86

36 x 36 km

as well as re-consideration of the mobility system. The settlements in the lower valley have to be reconsidered for their adaptation to unpredictable floods. Kampungs usually have stilted structures to let the water flow beneath.

However, due to hard engineering, especially in modern tissues or flood channels, the stilted house is still flooding, such in the 2007 flood event.

Removing hard engineering at river edges is necessary to initiate the natural river dynamics. This will cause floods to generally be more severe, but this will not be a problem if the urban tissue is reconfigured to be more adaptable. The modern tissue can be restructured to become a higher density on higher grounds while simultaneously creating more water, urban parks, waterfronts and rivers as fronts (as opposed to polluted backs). Water will move from being as a sewage system towards a playful or productive place.

This map shows the figure of the high ground in-between valleys, creating islands of high ground.

Redline is a potential soft mobility connection, making a spine of each island. This strategy is to breakdown Jakarta from one entity that brought centralization effect.

soft mobility corridor

lines of road

figure of valleys

0

1

5 km

Valley Islands

87

88

89

Design Site 0.5 x 50 km

7 - Elevated The valley system is a challenge for soft mobility, The elevated streets connect every tissue as public ground. It becomes the ground which Street especially bikes, street vendor wheelcart or

90

becak (rickshaw) when it is traveling in the east-west direction. Understanding the valley system is essential to take advantage of higher ground, with bridges making connections. This is relatively affordable when compared to many highways, underpass, and overpass in the city itself.

91

the Jakartans need, connecting the diversity and creates interaction between people while overpassing the current ground that is busy with either cars or seasonal flooding.

building figure

aerial imagery

topography

Elevated soft mobility corridor crossing the valley

land subsidence -5 m in average in 2100

water line +1 m in 2100

building figure (top) aerial imagery (middle) topography + sea in 2100 (bottom) Scale for sections 0

10

50m

Scale for plan 0

50

250m

Flood Canal + Krukut River

soft mobility corridor on higher ground

Elevated soft mobility corridor crossing the valley

Lower than water Using soft dikes to prevent guard the land

Waterfront Transition from land to water

Soft mobility corridor on higher ground

Ciliwung River

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7.2 Design Sampling Based on the seven principles, a design test has

93

been made on a site where the new coast will form, with three different urban fabrics. The site is the very location where the flood of 2013 happened.

Floating “When relocation is not feasible, elevation is Kampung the preferred and at times the only strategy

of flood-resistant design. Lifting a building, such as a residence, above the ground presents both technical and aesthetic design challenges (Watson & Adams, 2010).� The kampungs will float by themselves in the canal with mangroves and aquaculture. Elevated streets will connect the kampungs to the higher ground; the streets will continue inside of shopping malls and high-rise buildings.

Aquaculture Let kampungs float by themselves

The strategic position of kampung being in the middle of the city can also enhance the value of the food production, by sell product directly to the consumer, as mentioned in Imbert (2015).

figure 7.2.1

figure 7.2.2

Kampung Phluk, Cambodia

Floating School, Nigeria

a floating village with extreme tall structure

floating school, flexible use and accessed by boats

By Hoffman, 2015. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ buzzhoffman/19255901735

Floating Community Hall

To support the kampung is not by changing their indigenous structure, but to give value that they can provide to the city. Kampung is very adaptive and knowledgable to nature. By putting mangrove to balance the ecosystem means that kampung can redevelop the mangrove harvesting and cultivate aquaculture. In this case, a community hall is necessary to speed up the process.

Mangroves riverine

Scale for plans 0 20

+ 7.2 m Sea Level + High Tide in 2100

100m

+6m

Sea Level (+1m) + Land Subsidence (-5m average) in 2100

By Baan, 2013. https://i0.wp.com/iwan.com/wp-content/uploadsiwan/2013/12/01Floating-School-NLE-9355.jpg?ssl=1

Coconut Tree

Red Mangrove

White Mangrove

Getek Railed boat

Scale for sections 0

5

25m

High Rise, The proposed elevated streets can also enter High Street shopping malls and high-rise buildings that are

94

usually built on lower grounds. The new streets can be pedestrian-only. This can be implemented so that there is an alternative mobility network which will be particularly useful during times of seasonal flooding. Over time, the need

for the car will diminish, and it will be easier to gradually shift the car-based road into a water-based system. Then, the parking lots inside the building can be shifted to other uses such as aquaponics which could provide more food to the city.

95

figure 7.2.4

Teras Cihampelas, Bandung, Indonesia similar concept with high line, with additional street vendors. Design by Sigit Wisnu Aji

By Saya inBaliTimur, 2018. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ thisisinbalitimur/45324371982

figure 7.2.3

High Line, New York Elevated pedestrian street. Design by Diller Scofidio

+ Renfro.

By Baan, (2013).https://iwan.com/portfolio/diller-scofidio-renfrofield-operations-highline-part2/

Scale for sections 0

Scale for plans 0 20

100m

5

25m

rawa-rawa/marsh naturally grows back over years

tower connector opening possibilities of more function and urban life

water catchment fresh water can goes back to the aquifer using unused basement parking layered soft mobility network bikeway beneath pedestrian bridge aquaponics using unused parking lot

street vendors activating the elevated street and generate economy

Post-Colonial: Because of the land subsidence, the tissue in this Back to the Water area is sinking by an average of 5m, which can

96

be lower than the sea in the future. Soft dike can be proposed to protect the houses and will be transformed into a Venice-like tissue offering a location to shift modes from road-based to

water-based transport. In this sampling, elevated streets can be implemented in the near future to offer alternative mobility in the case of flooding.

97

To avoid the mosquito breeding caused by the water city design explained in chapter 4.1, the water edge is natural to increase biodiversity, so mosquito-eater such as reptiles and frogs can breed.

B

C Scale for plans 0 20

100m

nypa palm palm in salt water, similar like mangrove houses lower than the water protected by the soft dike A figure 7.2.7

Becak

figure 7.2.6

Or rickshaw, in the year of 1968

Nypa Palm

Door Tropenmuseum, part of the National Museum of World Cultures, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons. wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8569674

Palm which can grow in salt water

By Qaalvin - Treball propi, https://commons.wikimedia. org/w/index.php?curid=19416883

existing land elevation before land subsidence (-5m in average in 2100)

street vendors activating the new pedestrian corridor

B

terminalia mantaly madagascar almond tree

Scale for sections figure 7.2.5

Soft Dike, Amsterdam “nature� dike with reinforced using tie and anchors.

(De Ingenieur, 2018)

0

5

25m

the edge of the valley a place to shift between soft mobility system to water based transportation

C

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99

Jakarta Archipelago, 2100

100

101

overpassing the traffic

overpassing the flood

7.3 Earlier Strategies From thinking leap forward, some strategies can start being applied in the near future.

Soft Mobility As explained in principle 6, creating soft Corridor mobility corridor can be applied very soon.

The definition of the valley can easily justify the high-ground island and can be done sporadically. This strategy can slowly nurture the disconnection of massive mobility system and rebranding locality.

Change The earlier mangrove forests could hold the Industries to sediments over years and be in the current Mangroves elevation even though the land is sinking. The

early mangroves forests can start being cultivated by kampung people and create the mangrove culture.

Elevated Street Elevated Street can be very useful in terms of in High Rises seasonal flooding and avoiding traffic in the near future. In the future, whether the land is sinking or not, elevated street could become the priority mobility system and leave the ground to be something else, as park for example.

Imagining Bundaran HI with elevated streets In 4 different scenarios letting the forest grows

letting the water in

Epilogue Jakarta as one of the fastest sinking cities in the world is the victim of different eras of planning, including post-independence modernism and colonial. The lack of understanding the logics of the landscape and the most important element, water, has resulted in a capital that is slated for abandonment. Climate change, sea-level rise and subsidence can now be taken as opportunities to completely re-envision the territory.

Projecting the future helps in understanding what need to be done for the city to survive. Through a critical reading of landscape and urbanism, it is evident that there is an opportunity to design the future city in terms of climate change to make it adaptive and resilient. The glimpse of the future towards climate change can lead one to question modern form making of the city.

Lastly, dealing with climate change doesn’t mean to face dystopia.

Jakarta could be a better place if designed properly. The design shows how Jakarta can be transformed into a more livable city, while changing the form of the city and rethinking ways of modern life.

“So we are left with a stark choice: allow climate disruption to change everything about our world, or change pretty much everything about our economy to avoid that fate.�

(Klein, 2014)

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Credit of Figures

Most of the maps throughout this book were created using ArcGIS® software by Esri. ArcGIS® and ArcMap™ are the intellectual property of Esri and are used herein under license.

Copyright © Esri. All rights reserved.

Aerial Imagery figure 1.1, figure 1.2, figure 5.3.2, figure 6.3.2, figure 7.3

Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA FSA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community, (2019).

“World Imagery” [basemap].

Vector Data Some of map data copyrighted OpenStreetMap contributors, such as maps in: figure 3.1.1, figure 3.1.3, figure 5.1.3, figure 5.3.2, figure 6.1

OpenStreetMap contributors, (2019). Openstreetmap. [vector data]. Retrieved from https://www. openstreetmap.org/

Topography Data figure 5.3.1, figure 5.3.4, figure 5.3.5

U.S. Geological Survey. (2000). Digital Elevation Model SRTM 1-Arc Second Global. [raster data] Retrieved from https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/

figure 3.2.2 BPBD. (2016). DEM LIDAR DKI Jakarta. [raster data]. Retrieved from http://gis.bpbd.jakarta.go.id/ layers/geonode%3Ajkt_20m figure 7.1 Badan Informasi Geospasial. (2018). Batimetri Nasional (BATNAS). [raster data]. Retrieved from http://tides.big.go.id/DEMNAS/index.html#

figure 0

vectorworldmap.com. (2009). World Map (Blank) version 2.1. [Map]. Retrieved from https://www. vectorworldmap.com/

fgure 3.2.1 Redrawn by author, based on Andreas, redrawn

by Supriyadi et al (2018). Jakarta’s land subsidence through the years. [Map] https://www.bbc.com/ news/world-asia-44636934 figure 3.2.3 Redrawn by author, based on KuiperCompagnons. (2015). Great Garuda Jakarta 01. [drawings]. Retrieved from https:// www.kuipercompagnons.nl/files/pro/i_1113/ GreatGarudajakarta01.jpg figure 3.2.5 KuiperCompagnons. (2015). Great Garuda Jakarta 05. [drawings]. Retrieved from https:// www.kuipercompagnons.nl/files/pro/i_1113/ GreatGarudajakarta05.jpg figure 3.2.6 Lawalata, Novem. (2017). Jakarta from airplane. [photo] figure 3.3.1 BBC NEWS. (2007). Large swathes of Jakarta are under water. [photo]. Retrieved from http://news. bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6328873.stm figure 3.3.2 The Jakarta Globe. (2013) Flood in Bundaran HI area. [facebook photo]. Retrieved from https:// www.facebook.com/thejakartaglobe/ figure 3.3.6 Redrawn by author, based on BPBD DKI Jakarta [@BPBDJakarta]. (2014). Peta sebaran banjir Jakarta tahun 2007 dan 2013. [twitter post]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/ BPBDJakarta/status/503763885468295168 figure 3.3.5 Google Earth. (2019). Jakarta area year 1984 and 2016 by Landsat/Copernicus. [Imagery] figure 3.4.1 Murna A. (2013). IMG_0864. [flickr photo].

Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/ murna/ figure 3.4.2 Seika. (2013). P1090618_DxO. [flickr photo].

Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/ nseika figure 3.5.2 Garry Lulung. (2019). Lalu lintas di Jalan Tol Jakarta-Cikampek di Jawa Barat tersendat pada Rabu pagi. [photo]. Retrieved from https://megapolitan.kompas.com/ read/2019/06/28/18085021/tol-layang-jakartacikampek-diperkirakan-selesai-september9 figure 4.1.1 Petrus Conradi. (1780). Plan der stad en ‘t Kasteel Batavia. [city map]. Leiden University Libraries Digital Collections, name: 12199.

Retrieved from http://maps.library.leiden.edu/ secure/kit/indexkaarten/12199.JPG

figure 4.1.2 James. (2013). updated: colonial shipping routes. [map].

Retrieved from https://spatial.ly/2013/06/updatedcolonial-shipping-routes

figure 6.3.1 Sharir, B. [@shahrirbahar1]. (25.06.2019). Selamat Pagi Jakarta. [instagram photo]. Retrieved from https://www. instagram.com/p/BzHNYf1DKty

figure 4.1.3 historic map of Java, Indonesia. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.meteoritecollector.org/gallery/main.php?g2_ itemId=4539

figure 6.4.1 Mike. (2016). Grand Indonesia Mall. [flickr photo].

Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/ squeakymarmot/

figure 4.2.1 De beneden - Tjiliwoeng tot ong. 1619. (1918). [thematic map]. Leiden University Libraries Digital Collections, name: 04798-2. Retrieved from http://maps.library.leiden. edu/secure/kit/indexkaarten/04798-1.JPG

figure 6.5.2 Kartapranata. (2010). Jakarta Car Free Day. [photo].

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figure 4.2.2 De Beneden - Tjiliwoeng van 1619 tot ong. 1691. (1918). [thematic map]. Leiden University Libraries Digital Collections, name: 04798-3. Retrieved from http://maps. library.leiden.edu/secure/kit/indexkaarten/04798-3.JPG figure 4.2.3 De Tjiliwoeng, benedendeel, van 1691-1811. (1918). [thematic map]. Leiden University Libraries Digital Collections, name: 04798-4. Retrieved from http://maps. library.leiden.edu/secure/kit/indexkaarten/04798-4.JPG figure 4.2.4 De Tjiliwoeng, benedendeel, van ±1811-1905. (1918). [thematic map]. Leiden University Libraries Digital Collections, name: 04798-6. Retrieved from http://maps. library.leiden.edu/secure/kit/indexkaarten/04798-6.JPG figure 4.2.5 De Tjiliwoeng, benedendeel, na 1905. (1918). [thematic map]. Leiden University Libraries Digital Collections, name: 04798-7. Retrieved from http://maps.library.leiden. edu/secure/kit/indexkaarten/04798-7.JPG figure 4.2.6 De Tjiliwoeng tot ong. 1619. (1918). [thematic map].

Leiden University Libraries Digital Collections, name: 04798-1. Retrieved from http://maps.library.leiden.edu/ secure/kit/indexkaarten/04798-1.JPG figure 4.2.7 De Tjiliwoeng, na ong. 1619. (1918). [thematic map].

Leiden University Libraries Digital Collections, name: 04798-5. Retrieved from http://maps.library.leiden.edu/ secure/kit/indexkaarten/04798-5.JPG figure 4.3 Topographische kaart der residentie Batavia. (1866). [thematic map]. Leiden University Libraries Digital Collections.

4 images stitched by author, name: 04813-2, 04813-3, 04813-4, 04813-5. Retrieved from http://maps.library. leiden.edu/secure/kit/indexkaarten figure 4.4.2 Damais, S. (1979) Bung Karno dan Seni. [photo]. Jakarta: Yayasan Bung Karno. Retrieved from Kusno, Budiman, & Kurnia, (2008) figure 4.4.4 G. Kolff & Co. (1866) Plattergrond der stad Batavia. [city map]. Leiden University Libraries Digital Collections, name: 07244. Retrieved from http://maps.library.leiden. edu/secure/kit/indexkaarten/07244.JPG figure 4.4.5 G. Kolff & Co. (1923) Plattergrond van Batavia. [city map]. Leiden University Libraries Digital Collections, name: 03808-A. Retrieved from http://maps.library. leiden.edu/secure/kit/indexkaarten/03808-A.JPG

figure 6

Laugher, Brianna. (2012). P1020616. [flickr photo].

Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/ pfctdayelise/

figure 7.1.1 Rochelimit. (2011). Kepulauan Seribu Utara. [photo].

Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. php?curid=18284781 figure 7.1.3 Urbanization data from Earthobservatory NASA. (2016).

Earth at Night: Flat Maps. [geotiff ]. Retrieved from earthobservatory.nasa.gov figure 7.1.4 SOM. (2013). Aerial view of Island One and Two. [drawings]. Retrieved from https://www.som.com/ projects/pluit_city_master_plan figure 7.2.1 Hoffman, Brian. (2015). Cambodian Fishing Village Kampong Phluk. [flickr photo]. Retrieved from https:// www.flickr.com/photos/buzzhoffman/19255901735 figure 7.2.2 Baan, Iwan. (2013). Makoko Floating School, Lagos, Nigeria – Kunle Adeyemi NLÉ. [photo]. https://i0.wp.com/iwan.com/wp-content/uploadsiwan/2013/12/01Floating-School-NLE-9355.jpg?ssl=1 figure 7.2.3 Baan, Iwan. (2013). The Highline, New York – Diller Scofidio + Renfro, Field Operations – Part 2. [photo] Retrieved from https://iwan.com/portfolio/diller-scofidiorenfro-field-operations-highline-part2/ figure 7.2.4 Saya inBaliTimur. (2018). Teras Cihampelas. [flickr photo] Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/ thisisinbalitimur/45324371982 figure 7.2.5 De Ingenieur. (2018). World premiere for Amsterdam dike. [drawing] Retrieved from https://www.deingenieur.nl/ artikel/world-premiere-for-amsterdam-dike figure 7.2.6 Qaalvin. (2012). Treball propi. [photo]. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. php?curid=19416883 figure 7.2.7 Door Tropenmuseum. (1968). Becaks bij de Britse ambassade. [photo]. Retrieved from https://commons. wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8569674

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