Maria Skordouli. Interweaving Fragmented Landscapes

INTERWEAVING FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPES Strategies to adapt to consequences of climate change and post-industrial transformation Tympaki, Crete, Greece

Master of Science of Urbanism and Strategic Planning Faculty of Engineering Science Department of Architecture KU Leuven Climate Change: Urban Deltas and Islands, 2018-2019 Promoted by: Kelly Shannon

MARIA SKORDOULI

MARIA SKORDOULI

Climate Change: Urban Deltas and Islands, 2018-2019 PROMOTED BY Prof. Kelly Shannon READERS: Bruno De Meulder Margarita Jover

INTERWEAVING FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPES Strategies to adapt to consequences of climate change and post-industrial transformation Tympaki, Crete, Greece

Master of Science of Urbanism and Strategic Planning European Postgraduate Masters in Urbanism Programme Department of Architecture Faculty of Engineering Science Š Copyright by K.U.Leuven Without written permission of the promotors and the authors it is forbitten to reproduce or adapt in any form or by any means any part of this publication. Requests for obtaining the rigth to reproduce or utilize parts of this publication should be adressed to: K.U.Leuven, Faculty of Engineering Science Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee (Belgium) Telephone: +32-16-32 88 94 Email: mahs-mausp@kuleuven.be A written permission of the promotor is also required to use methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contest.

KU Leuven Master of Science of Urbanism and Strategic Planning Leuven, Belgium, 2019

I would like to take a moment to cordially thank all the people that stood by me these challenging years.

First of all, my parents for their immense support and love throughout these two years, that gave me the opportunity to study abroad despite the difficulties, My professor Kelly Shannon for her valuable guidance and passion that helped me structure such a complex topic through a multidisciplinary approach, My beloved friends back home believing in the crazy idea of practicing urbanism in Crete, My “international family�, hRayan, Mahmoudi, bravo-Maher, Myriamti, Italy-Vivi, Bindaras and prof. Jani; the best friends I could ever imagine, bringing the Mediterranean joy in Belgium and sharing this unforgettable experience, Katerina for being the great supporter, colleague, sister and best flatmate ever existed, Special thanks to Parkstraat 79 and Janseniusstraat 44, the houses that became homes these two years, Last but not least, to Harris for his love, psychological support and for believing in me the days that I didn’t, No words can explain how thankful I am.

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CONTENTS

The Aegean Archipelago. A prelude..............................................................................................................8

THIS IS NOT (ONLY) AN ABSTRACT

01. Crete Island

Crete Island. Introducing the territory............................................................................................................14 Crete, a mountain in the sea. Geology – Geography – Water systems..................................................................18 From agriculture to gigantism. Scales – Typologies – Occupations......................................................................22 Anthropogenic processes and nature’s response. Disrupted ecologies – Climate change pressures........................24 21st century: The Crisis Ages

02. Tympaki Basin. Western Valley of Messara

Tympaki Basin. Western Valley of Messara....................................................................................................32 A tectonic game. Geology – Geography – Water systems.....................................................................................34 From the Bronze Age to global economies, a palimpsest. Scales – Typologies – Occupations.............................40 (Un)seen pathogenies. Disrupted ecologies – Climate change pressures...............................................................44

03. Tympaki 5 x 5 km. Study Area

Tympaki 5 x 5 km. Study Area.......................................................................................................................50 A brief evolution. Geology – Geography – Water systems....................................................................................54 Demarcating the landscape. Scales – Typologies – Occupations..........................................................................60 Addressing current and future challenges. Disrupted ecologies – Climate change pressures..................................62

04. Design Proposal. Tympaki 2100

Choreographing the future. From Day Zero to Tympaki 2100.......................................................................70 A letter from the future. The vision plan.........................................................................................................72 Section A-A’. παρά θιν’ αλός < para-thin-alos // at the water’s edge..................................................................77 Section B-B’. η ακτογραμμή αλλιώς // a coastline with a twist............................................................................85 Section C-C’. μπες στον κύκλο του νερού // join the water loop..........................................................................95

05. Epilogue

Time travelling Tympaki 2019-2100. An epilogue...........................................................................................106

Could it be how future generations would describe our century?

We are experiencing a crisis, indeed.

An economic crisis.

An environmental crisis.

A social crisis.

A political crisis.

A refugee crisis.

A moral crisis.

A humanitarian crisis.

There are no utopias, but there are dystopias.

Is everything lost?

Can we still envision a different future?

Can climate change be the wake-up call to steer new conversations about our common wealth and our common future?

// This thesis does not propose a masterplan.

It introduces a vision plan.

An alternative scheme for urban resilience for the city of Tympaki in 2100.

Years of intensified uses, urbanized agriculture and mass touristic expansion have drastically altered the Cretan landscape. The excessive misuse of the Valley of Messara and the disruption of its water bodies jeopardize the natural resources questioning the carrying capacity of the island and the limits to growth. This raises the discussion about not building stronger, bigger, harder, but building wiser and more strategically. Since, the Cretan agricultural economy is already affected by shifts in meteorological patterns and extreme phenomena, climate change could open a fruitful dialogue about alternative ways of urbanizing creating a more dynamic balance between our cities and our nature. The design proposal attempts to tackle the challenges caused by the fragmentation of the river-valley system, the pressures of climate change and post-industrial transformation by strengthening the underlying relations of water and landscape structures in a bigger scale. Space is given back to water and strategic densification becomes the new interface between urbanized and productive parts, supported by the introduction of new economies and food production. The envisioned reconnection of the valley will create a continuous productive-urban landscape, mediating at the same time, the different scales and historical layers of the site. Thus, the proposal approaches climate change as an opportunity introducing urbanism strategies to interweave the fragmented landscapes by means of soft-engineering.

The research by design was developed under three themes: water systems-geomorphological characteristics, scales-typologies-occupations and disruption of ecologies-climate change pressures. These topics are examined across scales; the island itself, the valley of Messara and the city of Tympaki, addressing different urbanization, socio-economic and environmental challenges, while envisioning an alternative future for Tympaki in 2100.

1. Which strategies can be developed to create a continuous productive-urban landscape through strengthening the underlying relations of water and landscape structures?

2. How can urbanism strategies requalify the settlement fabrics in relation to the coast, while responding to issues of erosion, salinization and the progressive fragmentation of the wetlands?

3. Which new typologies and morphologies can be designed to mediate the different scales and historical layers of the site? Can new land occupation be developed which address new pressures of climate change and industrialized?

References.................................................................................................................................................108 6

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THE AEGEAN ARCHIPELAGO A prelude

The Sea, άλς < αλάτι, (als)< sal is the Salt.

It is the sharp, difficult road that is constantly troubled around us, eternally restless. It is at the same time, its movement and taste, its waves that prod and spray us. But when we imagine it as a path, when our eye discerns, through the turmoil of the πέλαγος (pelago), a passage that it seeks out and tests, then the name that suits it most is πόντος (pontus) – the same word in Sanskrit and Ancient Persian means path. So, the Sea too is a bridge (ponte), the most necessary and venturesome of all, just as the bridge is the most hazardous and essential of the paths charted by man. (Massimo Cacciari, L’ Arcipelago, 1997)

Eros The archipelago And the prow of its foams And the gull of its dreams On its highest mast the sailor waves A song

Hence, the Aegean Sea is recognized as a “bridge” that acts as a mediator between the mainland, the islands and the inhabitants of the archipelago. It forms a vast and intricate web of societies with aquatic roads that transform and move from time to time depending on needs, development priorities and the economic growth.

Eros Its song And the horizons of its voyage And the echo of its nostalgia On her wettest rock the betrothed awaits A ship Eros Its ship And the nonchalance of its summer winds And the jib of its hope On its highest undulation an island cradles The coming Odysseus Elytis, Of The Aegean I.

Source: Aerial image via Google Earth, (2019).

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Crete Island

Crete has contradictory landscapes and different climatic conditions in short distances from coast to hinterland.

Western Crete. Image by author, August, 2018.

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Crete Island Introducing the territory Crete is the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, surrounded by the Aegean Archipelago in the north and the Libyan Sea in the south. Humans have inhabited the island for over 130.000 years, creating the first advanced European civilization, the Minoan, flourishing from 2700 to 1420 BC. Crete is located in the center of the Eastern Mediterranean, an equal distance from the coasts of Italy and the Middle East, Africa and the Dardanelles. Due to its geography, it became the meeting point of three cultures; Europe, Asia and Africa.

This strategic position endowed Crete with the control of the trade routes between the East and West and became the main cause for the constant attacks throughout its history by Romans, Arabs, Saracens, Venetians and Ottomans. However, the influence of different cultures, the defensive struggles of the inhabitants and the constant revolutions for liberation are the main factors that influenced the social and economic structure of Crete, determined the development of the settlements and shaped its cultural profile (Παγκάλου, 2013).

Population: 632.674 inhabitants Population density: 75/km2 Area: 8.353,45km2 Coastline: more than 1000km Climate: Mild Mediterranean – Desert Mediterranean “Crete is an island and a continent.” Such characterization is not only due to its size, but also to its unique geomorphology, contradictory landscapes and different climatic conditions in short distances from coast to hinterland; Crete is a micrography of morphological features of other continents, such as desert, mountains and subtropical vegetation, all in one island (Σκουτέλης, 2003). Formations such as caves, gorges, canyons and plateaus, are typical of the geology of the island.

Crete has many seasonal streams, but very few constant flow rivers and only one natural lake. In the northern part, the mild slopes form accessible areas, where the main cities are located, including Chania, Rethymnon, Heraklion and Agios Nikolaos. The southern part is extremely steep and almost inaccessible. The main mountain ranges covering almost half of the island’s surface are the White Mountains, Psiloritis Mountain (where according to the Greek mythology, Zeus was born), Mount Dikti and Thryptis Mountains.

Source: Aerial image via Google Earth, (2019).

The Valley of Messara

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Map of Crete during the Renaissance by the cartographer Marco Boschini. The historical cities are visible in the northern part, Canea (Chania), Rettimo (Rethymnon) and Candia (Heraklion).

The southern part is characterized by mountain ranges forming canyons, gorges and small plateaus. The plain of Messara is the only exception being the biggest valley of the island.

Source: Boschini, M., Il Regno Tutto di Candia delineato Ă parte Ă parte, Venice: Nicolini, (1651).

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CRETE, A MOUNTAIN IN THE SEA Geology – Geography – Water systems

Subsistence Uplift Tectonic faults Source: Fasoulas, X. (2000). A Guide for Crete’s geology. Museum of Natural History. Heraklion, Crete

The karst formations of the island.

Source: AQUAMAN Project, (2016).

Pastures and cultivation land 67%) Fields (27%) Urban areas (1%) Source: HYDROFLIES, (2014).

The Valley of Messara

Crete is engraved by many seasonal streams, but has no permament surface water. The island relies on precipitation that recharges the aquifer through sinkholes and caves in the mountains.

Drawn by author based on GIS.

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Crete lies in the forearc basin of the collision zone between the Eurasian and African plates. The subduction of the African plate underneath the Eurasian one, results in the deformation of the island with current convergence rate of 4-5cm/year and high seismicity. A large uplift trend of up to 9 mm/year is observed at the center of the island, whereas a high subsidence rate of -9 mm/year at Messara basin, due to groundwater withdrawal for irrigation, which has dramatically lowered the water level in aquifers (Kaskara, et al., 2015).

Thus, the hydrogeology of Crete varies due to its geological, tectonic and geomorphological peculiarities along the island. Crete lacks in surface waters and permanent rivers, yet is engraved by seasonal streams that only depend on precipitation levels. However, Crete has a high subsurface water-bearing capacity thanks to the karst formation (mainly limestone) of its mountains (AquaMan, 2016).

The dissolution of the limestone has created various faults, sinkholes and caves that transfer up to 2.233x106m3 of underground water and create a rich aquifer. The existing tectonic faults further enable (or block) the connection between different hydro-lithological parts that discharge the water in springs.

The total amount of precipitation in Crete is 7,7x109 m3/year, out of which the 27,6% permeates the karst mountains, the 9,6% creates seasonal streams and torrents and the 62,8% returns to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration (AquaMan, 2016). The underground water and the springs theoretically cover the needs of the island, but the geographic location of the island on the East-West axis in relation to the movement of clouds does not favor the equal distribution of precipitation (AquaMan, 2016). As a result, the largest volume falls on the western side decreasing towards the east. The eastern part of the island is where the biggest agricultural land is located (valley of Kastelli, valley of Messara) with intense irrigation needs leading to water stress.

The fertile valley of Kastelli thanks to the karst formation of Dikti Mountain.

Image by author, February, 2019.

Coastal southern Crete, view at the Libyan Sea. The high annual temperatures favor the cultivation in greenhouses.

Image by author, August, 2018.

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FROM AGRICULTURE TO GIGANTISM Scales – Typologies – Occupations

From 1960 until today, the island of Crete has gone through a radical metamorphosis. Crete’s economic autonomy was based on a strong agricultural base; however, it was gradual devalued in the name of greater profits which emphasized mass tourism and industrialized agriculture which led to a more dependent economy, as well as the deterioration of the natural environment (Κοκκώσης, 2001). Hence, wealth, prosperity and population have been unequally distributed, resulting in the abandonment of rural and mountainous areas and hyper-development and concentration in a few urban centers along the coast. This sudden urbanization process was the outcome of internal migration in the island itself.

2019. Plan for expansion of airport in Kastelli Valley, which will destroy more than 100.000 olive and fruit trees, next to the Natura protected zone. Source: Municipality of Kastelli Pediados, February, (2019).

Platanias, Crete, 1945. Source: Hellenic Cadastre, Ministry of Environment and Energy.

Simultaneously, expansion of the irrigation system with plastic pipes led to the maximization of production, the monocultivation of olive trees and the appearance of greenhouses.

The traditional cultivation practices, the wheat production and cattle, began to gradually disappear. The population census of 1971 was the first time that the urban population in Crete exceeded the rural (53,2% and 35,2% respectively) (Παγκάλου, 2018). Nowadays, the intensification of uses has led to an unbalanced relation between urbanism and landscape and further degradation of the natural ecosystems.

Due to the post-war modernization process, the diffusion of urbanization towards the periphery, rural areas and coasts manifested itself by an unprecedented gigantism. Airports, highways, hotels, touristic facilities and urbanized agriculture dramatically altered the Cretan natural landscape (Κωτσάκη, 2014). During the ’70s, urban and spatial masterplans for Crete which were developed to tackle rapid phenomenon were cancelled due to the dictatorship. At the same time, the implemented institutional framework ‘sealed’ the gigantism and validated illegal constructions. This led to a series of snowball-effect events, such as the proliferation of development without any quality or ecological characteristic, mass tourism facilities and construction of second summer houses, along with the expansion of the road network (Κωτσάκη, 2014).

Linear coastal sprawl in Platanias, Crete, 2018. Source: Aerial image via Google Earth, (2019).

\Users\mariaskordouli\Desktop\Aerials Crete\platanias.jpg The agricultural land has been devoured by the expansion of greenhouses surrounding the city of Tympaki. Source: Aerial image via Google Earth, (2019).

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ANTHROPOGENIC PROCESSES AND NATURE’S RESPONSE Disrupted ecologies – Climate change pressures

As mentioned, the island of Crete is absolutely dependent on precipitation in order to recharge the aquifer, its main water source. Due to easy accessibility, withdrawing underground water has traditionally been used for the irrigation of fields, but today, over pumping has caused a significant depletion of the water table, especially in the valley of Messara. During the period 1985–2000, water use in Crete increased following the expansion of irrigated land by more than 55% (Donta et al., 2005).

Collapse of the Platanias Bridge built on the estuary of Keritis river. Image by author, February, 2019.

Thus, the intensification of uses that came along with rapid development and gigantism of industry (especially oil press factories and wine production industry), have exerted strong pressures on many natural resources. Also, mass tourism facilities along the coast further increases water demands and provokes coastal erosion, often by covering streams with impermeable surfaces. All of these continuous anthropogenic processes are actualized by means of hard-engineering that disrupt natural ecosystems and water bodies. For instance, nowadays, Crete counts thirteen dams and fifteen water reservoirs (AquaMan, 2016), blocking the natural flow of streams and reducing sediment flow. Historically, Crete has faced long periods of drought, as well as flooding. Once again, on February 2019 during the fieldwork trip, the prefecture of Platanias faced catastrophic floods. It is not hard to imagine that in the upcoming years the island will face again extreme hydrometeorological phenomena.

Severe flooding of agricultural land in Patelari, Platanias. Image by author, February, 2019.

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Climate change is expected to affect precipitation and evapotranspiration patterns (Tsanis et al., 2011), and consequently variables such as local water availability, river discharge, and seasonal availability of water supply (Arnell et al., 2011). According to climate models for the Mediterranean Sea, precipitation on average is likely to be less frequent but more intense, and droughts are likely to become more frequent and severe in some regions (Koutroulis et al., 2010, 2011; Tsanis et al., 2011). The extreme phenomena, without strategic planning and design, will have severe consequences for local society, their agricultural production, infrastructure, tourism popularity and ecosystems. In Greece, agriculture and tourism are the most important economic sectors with high revenues. Unfortunately, these will be the ones most affected in the future by the shifting climatic conditions in the Mediterranean region.

Climate change is expected to result in warmer temperatures in urban areas, which translates into more days with maximum temperature above 35oC and night temperatures exceeding the 20oC. More specifically, 5–15 more “summer” days and “tropical” nights will exceed the 35oC and 20oC threshold respectively every year (Giannakopoulos et al., 2011). These unpleasantly high temperatures combined with the lack of green spaces will increase the feeling of discomfort for citizens.

It is understood that touristic areas in continental Greece will face more heatwave episodes, while coastal regions having also high levels of relative humidity will affect both tourists and local population. Moreover, the duration of dry days is expected to increase as well in most agricultural regions and winter precipitation generally decrease by 15% on average (Giannakopoulos et al., 2011). Thus, it becomes clear that the meteorological and hydrological droughts will cause severe damage in the agricultural sector of the country. However, there is a projected increase in autumn precipitation in most areas which may cause more flash floods events.

Source: Giannakopoulos, C., Kostopoulou, E., Varotsos, K.V. et al. Reg Environ Change (2011) 11: 829. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-011-0219-8

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Tympaki Basin Western Valley of Messara

View of the Valley of Messara from Psiloritis Mountain.

Retrieved 10 June 2019 from: https://www.cretanbeaches.com/en/plateaus-and-planes/messara-plane.

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Tympaki Basin Western Valley of Messara Messara is the biggest valley in the island of Crete stretching about 50km west-east and 7km north-south, located only 50km southern from the city of Heraklion, the administrative capital of the island. It is the main producer of olive trees, vineyards and horticultural crops in Crete. Part of the products are distributed directly to the domestic market, while a substantial part of the locally produced olive oil and vegetables are exported to European markets. In general, the Messara Valley covers an 398km2 area with a total basin area of 1005km2, delimited by three mountains; Psiloritis in the north, Asterousia in the south, Dikti in the east and the sea in the west (bay of Messara) (Κρινής, 2009). The valley is separated into two basins, the eastern one crossed by Anapodiaris river (46km) and the western one, depicted in the aerial image, crossed by Geropotamos river (38,4km) that drains into the bay of Messara.

The sub-basin of Tympaki in the western basin of Messara Valley, crossed by Geropotamos river. Source: Aerial image via Google Earth, (2019).

Tympaki study area 5x5km

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A TECTONIC GAME Geology – Geography – Water systems

The valley is further divided into sub-basins according to geotectonic evolution and their specific hydraulic connections (Γιαννακάκος, 2013). The thesis examines the western part and focuses in the coastal sub-basin of Tympaki. The area is relatively flat in the lowlands with extreme inclination in the mountainous parts, engraved by multiple seasonal streams meeting the main river downstream. The Geropotamos River, the sacred river of the Minoans, forms a rich ecosystem and is the keystone for the soil fertility of the area.

Along with the warm climate, Tympaki constitutes one of the most important rural areas in Crete, well-known for its early cultivation of vegetables in greenhouses, as well as olive trees and fruit trees. The irrigated land reaches up to 40km2 exploiting underground water, as previously mentioned. The majority of the population is engaged with agriculture, while lately the coastal areas have been developing with tourism.

The majority of seasonal streams start from Psiloritis Mountain and meet Geropotamos River downstream. Drawn by author.

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Valley of Messara

The geotectonic evolution resulted into a complex geological structure with different hydrological characteristics. Phenomena such as stormwater runoff and flooding are linked to different soil profiles and their respective infiltration rates. The recharge of aquifer is enabled through the karst formation of Psiloritis Mountain.

Drawn by author. Sources: Peterek and Schwartze, (2004). (Exaggeration of topography 3x. Geology not to scale)

Holocene deposits Late Pleistocene -Alluvial fan deposits Plio - Pleistocene Messinian gypsum Neogene Pre - Neogene

The tectonic movement of the island of Crete has strengthened the karst disintegration of the mountainous carbonate rocks, forming karstic structures such as faults, caves, canyons and plateaus. The valley of Messara is actually a tectonic trench itself; a sequence of faults of Neogene bedrock, where the sub-basin of Tympaki is located (Γιαννακάκος, 2013).

Karstified limestone - high permeability Karstified limestone - very high permeability Impervious formation Almost impervious formation Grainy deposits - low, very low permeability Miocene, pliocene deposits - medium, low permeability Alluvial, fluvial deposits

Drawn by author. Source: Hydrosoil map of Region of Crete, (2009).

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The appearence of beachrocks is evidence of the active tectonic fault in Afrathias beach, Tympaki.

Image by author, February, 2019.

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FROM THE BRONZE AGE TO GLOBAL ECONOMIES, A PALIMPSEST Scales – Typologies – Occupations

Counting back to the Bronze Age, remnants of three Minoan settlements are still apparent in the area; the Palace of Phaistos, overlooking Geropotamos (<ιερός + ποταμός, the sacred river), Kommos next to the sea used as port and Agia Triada, the summer royal villa. The Minoans had an advanced water management system that depended on the hydrological conditions of each region. Areas with relatively high altitudes, like Phaistos, the water economy was based on rainwater harvesting and storage in underground tanks. (Angelakis, 1996). Ever since, Cretan rural settlements have adapted to climatic and agricultural periods, explaining their dispersed pattern. Thus, except their main settlements, metohia, namely aggregates of farmhouses, were located next to the valley, used during sowing and harvesting periods. Similarly, farmers or shepherds in mountainous areas stayed in mitata, stone houses, to be protected by the harsh climate.

During the Second World War, the Nazis constructed a military airport base, which eventually destroyed the river ecosystem. Later on, Tympaki and Mires grew into the two biggest towns in the area, with inhabitants still working in the agricultural sector. However, the establishment of greenhouses and irrigation with plastic pipes in the ’60s maximized production and signaled the long period of underground water pumping. In 2005, the Faneromeni Reservoir was constructed in order to cover the extensive needs for irrigation. Finally, during the past decades there is evermore increasing touristic development along the coast. It becomes clear that the magnitude and the type of occupation throughout the ages shifted from an ephemeral character of dwelling in relation to the climatic conditions towards a parasitic settling mode with an immense footprint.

Settlement organised along the main road axis Agricultural fields Structured greenhouses pattern in agricultural plots Greenhouses following the landscape Minoan ancient settlements (2700-1100 B.C) Reservoir of Faneromeni

Drawn by author. Sources: Municipal Masterplan of Tympaki, (2010). Aerial image Google Earth, (2019).

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Expansion of greenhouses and irrigated land. Underground water is pumped by public or private drillings.

Image by author, February, 2019.

The Minoan Palace of Phaistos. The patios, squares and open spaces were designed as such to collect and redirect the rainwater in underground storage tanks.

Retrieved 22 June 2019 from: https://greeklandscapes.com/phaistos/#jp-carousel-4219

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(UN)SEEN PATHOGENIES Disrupted ecologies – Climate change pressures

There are a number of very evident, disturbed ecologies in the territory. Firstly, there is a striking level of fragmentation of the agricultural valley by roads that cross or cover streams, as well as the Geropotamos River, blocking water bodies that irrigate the valley itself. Secondly, the area dominated by greenhouses is responsible for immense water pollution and soil degradation, since fertilizers and pesticides infiltrate the ground. In addition, as already mentioned, over-pumping has caused a significant depletion of the water-table. Moreover, the construction of the Faneromeni Reservoir led to blocking the natural enrichment of the Tympaki’s aquifer, due to the detention of Koutsoulidis River upstream (Κατάσταση υπογείων υδροφορέων Κρήτης, 2009). In combination with the increase of impervious surfaces of settlements and towns, this has led to a dramatic disruption of the natural ecosystem, the regular overflow of the river and flooding. As well, the current paradigm of linear coastal development and asphalted surfaces blocks natural process of sedimentation in the bay, thereby accelerating coastal erosion.

Reservoir blocking the enrichment of river Greenhouses pollution Impervious surfaces in settlements Pumping underground water

Regarding the two tectonic faults, the non-existence of geological barriers in close proximity to the sea, enables the connection of the underground water systems and has contributed to salinization of the aquifers (Γιαννακάκος, 2013). Taking at the same time into account the excessive underground water pumping, this has further induced the phenomenon. As a result, the salinization level has entered up to 1500m from the coastline in the northern part and 550-600m in the southern areas (MEDIS, 2005). Thus, the aquifers close to sea have been degraded, due to the penetration of seawater, making them inappropriate for any cultivation process. Finally, by 2100, the biggest part of the coast is predicted to completely disappear due to sea level rise.

Saline intrusion level Faults Asphalted roads Sea level rise +2m by 2100

Drawn by author. Sources: MEDIS, (2005). Peterek and Schwartze, (2004). Municipal Masterplan of Tympaki, (2010).

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Tympaki 5 x 5 km Study Area

View of the Bay of Messara and Tympaki from Kommos. Retrieved 22 June 2019 from: https://cyclingcreta.gr/the-landscapes-of-crete/

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Tympaki 5 x 5 km Study Area The town of Tympaki is located in the coastal basin of the valley of Messara, close to the Geropotamos River and the three Minoan settlements, as previously explained. Its sandy beaches are also known for being the breeding place of the endangered Mediterranean Caretta-Caretta turtle. It is one of the most productive areas on the island, with a strong agricultural history based on olive trees cultivation, fruit trees and cultivation of vegetables in greenhouses during the last decades. The military airport that was built by the Nazis during the war divided the valley into two and disrupted the previous wetland. The town itself is relatively new, since the entire settlement was destroyed in the Second World War. Moreover, the population of Tympaki increased significantly after the â&#x20AC;&#x2122;70s, due to the greenhouse expansion that boosted the economy of the area. Both the urbanization and greenhouse systems led to excessive misuse of the valley and the disruption of the water bodies. Nowadays, Tympaki faces many challenges caused by fragmentation of the river-valley system and the predicted consequences of climate change, such as increased temperature, sea level rise and extreme flooding phenomena.

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Aerial image via Google Earth, (2019).

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Aerial image (1945). Retrieved from Hellenic Cadastre on 14 March 2019.

The image is manipulated by the authorities to conceal the military base.

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Aerial image (1960). Retrieved from Hellenic Geographical Military Service on 20 February 2019.

The image is deliberately manipulated by the Service to hide military equipment.

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A BRIEF EVOLUTION Geology â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Geography â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Water systems

Tympaki is one of the many Cretan settlements that suffered the rage of the Nazis during the Second World War. During the German occupation in Crete, the valley of Messara was one of the strategic spots that the Nazis occupied in order to take control of the eastern Mediterranean and North Africa.

In February 1942, they bombarded the area and forced the residents to move out of their houses; the whole settlement was burned down and the ruins of the houses were used as materials to construct the military airport. Around 7.000 inhabitants of the surrounding areas were forced to work in the construction of the airport, unable to escape because of electric wires. All those who resisted or belonged to the left resistance movement were immediately executed. The Germans planted explosive mines parallel to the coast as traps, so as to block any possible disembarkation of the Allies army or Greek resistance. After the end of the war until now, the airport belongs to the Greek Air Force, is non-active and there are ongoing discussions for its decommissioning. The inhabitants of Tympaki rebuilt their lives, however, the airport stands as a reminder of the collective trauma.

Evolution diagrams drawn by author based on the previous aerial images of 1945, 1960, 2019.

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Before construction of the airport, the floodplain worked as one united wetland system with plethora of seasonal streams enhancing the Geropotamos River and a smaller river running parallel.

Floodplain

Roads

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Water run-off

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The bombing and the construction of the airport seriously affected the wetland system and reduced the coast. The smaller streams were disrupted by roads and the riparian zone of the river was decreased.

The increase of paved surfaces in settlement areas, the expansion of the road network and big road arteries, as well as the covering of the second river were fundamentally against the valley and water systems. The result was the total fragmentation of the ecosystem and water stagnation in the northern and southern parts, creating a salt lake and a small wetland respectively. In addition, the coastline has been further attenuated.

Explosive mines and bombs

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Current condition of the area showing the fragmentation of the river ecosystem (salt lake, palm forest, wetland) and the disruption of the valley and the coast by the road network and the airport. The coastline has significantly been reduced the last 70 years. Drawn by author.

Tympaki is designated as a high flood risk zone, according to the fluvial flood risk maps with return period of 50, 100 and 1000 years. It is clear that the first two scenarios have almost the same magnitude and will destroy all the current productive agricultural land. In the third scenario, the tributary (Mageras River) of Geropotamos will damage the northern fields and will reach the edge of the current town.

1000 years recover period 100 years 50 years Drawn by author based on the Fluvial Flood Risk Map of the Region of Crete, Municipality of Tympaki, (2017).

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The palm forest gets flooded by disrupted seasonal streams that used to cross the area.

Image by author, February, 2019.

The fragmented wetland in the southern part resulted in the formation of a stagnant lake blocked by the sanddunes.

Image by author, February, 2019.

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DEMARCATING THE LANDSCAPE

Tympaki

Scales – Typologies – Occupations

Although the Geropotamos River used to be the point of refence in the previous decades, nowadays, Tympaki is mainly known for its large number of greenhouses and the military base.The united wetland ecosystem and the close relation of the inhabitants with the valley and the coast have been disrupted; the airport divided the area in two and thus, access to the bay in this part is prohibited. The current condition is a “collage” of different patterns and scales with no correspondence to the unique landscape, history and sensitive ecosystem. The floodplain of the river has been excessively manipulated, the greenhouses overwhelmingly surround the settlement and the coastal area is witness to emerging touristic facilities and second summer houses.

Greenhouses

Scales and Occupations

Fields

Organic and Structured patterns

Olive trees 60

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Military Airport Base

ADDRESSING CURRENT AND FUTURE CHALLENGES Disrupted ecologies â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Climate change pressures

Schematic section representing the main natural and anthropogenic issues. Drawn by author.

A major challenge is underground water withdrawal, which has increased in order to cover irrigation needs. The pumping in the alluvial, porous zone has induced both salt intrusion, as previously explained, and land subsistence. In addition, the long-term pumping has caused depletion of the aquifer, which is not recharged properly, due to the Faneromeni Reservoir that blocks natural enrichment. By 2100, the at least two meters sea level rise will affect the relatively flat northern part, while the southern is protected by the natural sandhills.

However, the land subsistence in the lowland, marks the area

until +3.00m as a direct risk zone, prone to flooding. The town of Tympaki located on higher ground remains safe, as well as the mountainous part in the south. In combination with the scenarios of river flooding, it becomes clear how all the issues are interdependent and how future extreme phenomena will have a severe impact on the economy of the area which remains strongly based on agriculture.

Extreme river flooding

+2m sea level rise by 2100 Prone to flooding zone (+3m) Drawn by author based on the Fluvial Flood Risk Map of the Region of Crete, (2017) and sea level rise prediction by 2100, EMEKA, (2011).

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Diagrammatic section representing the disruption of the floodplain by the impervious airport runway and the disconnection of the town with its coast. Drawn by author.

Diagrammatic section in the southern part of the bay. The natural sandhills, shaped by the strong north-west winds, contain the water forming a small wetland. Drawn by author.

The asphalted road disturbs the connection of the salt lake (on the left) with the coast and the natural sedimentation of the beach, causing coastal erosion. The road has sinked (on the right) due to the underground tranfer of water. The military zone is visible on the backdrop surrounded by the wire-fence. Image by the author, 24 February 2019.

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Schematic section across the valley. Drawn by author.

The floodplain is situated in the lower area between the two mountains and receives water runoff from both sides.

However, the water does not properly infiltrate the aquifer, causing flooding in many parts, since the valley is fragmented by a sequence of impervious surfaces. On the one hand, the increased paved surfaces in the settlement result in flash flooding during the rainfall. On the other hand, given that

topography was manipulated, in order to flatten the airport zone, the urban run-off directed towards the lower parts gets blocked by the asphalted runway. At the same time, the fields that are demarcated by asphalted or dirt roads are flooded as well.

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Flooded asphalted road in-between the fields.

Image by the author, February, 2019.

The brown color of the Geropotamos River indicates the increased soil erosion.

Image by the author, February, 2019.

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Which strategies can be developed to create a continuous productive-urban landscape through strengthening the underlying relations of water and landscape structures?

How can urbanism strategies requalify the settlement fabrics in relation to the coast, while responding to issues of erosion, salinization and the progressive fragmentation of the wetlands?

Which new typologies and morphologies can be designed to mediate the different scales and historical layers of the site? Can new land occupation be developed which address new pressures of climate change and industrialized?

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Design proposal Tympaki 2100

Day Zero

Tympaki 2100

existing fragmented landscapes

envisioning a resilient future

CHOREOGRAPHING THE FUTURE

Give space to water _ preparing for climate change and extreme phenomena

Living on safer ground _ strategic densification and new economies

Reconnecting the valley _ creating a continuous productive-urban landscape and braiding the historical layers

The landscape is redesigned to give space back to water, while taking into consideration the expected sea level rise by 2100 and an extreme river flooding scenario. The lowest agricultural part of valley should be treated as a continuity of the riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s floodplain, ready to cope with a more wet future condition.

The two axes become the new edge of the city with no permanent hard-infrastructure in the floodplain. The proposed densification on the safe edges will become the new interface between the urbanized and productive areas, supported by the introduction of new economies.

The proposal highlights the palimpsest and the importance of the Geropotamos River by understanding the area as a united, interdependent system, which braids together contemporary needs and historical layering.

The airport and the mines axis are seen as a landscape figure, reminders of the history and the struggles of the area. The archaeological sites are woven into the new city-valley-coast experience.

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A LETTER FROM THE FUTURE Tympaki, April, 2100 My grandparents say that my city was at a crucial tipping point back in 2019. Our own practices had started to undermine the very resources that we were living on. But, against the dystopic prognosis about climate change, they decided to take action and see it as an opportunity to rethink our common wealth and common future. So, my friends and I are very excited to live in Tympaki; our city works as part of a rich ecosystem, a continuous productive-urban landscape.

The previous military airport is now a hydraulic-productive machine working in favor of our valley and river. Through an extensive constructed wetland, we can treat the grey-water of our settlement and reuse it for rice cultivation, before distributing it back to the river as clean water.

The Geropotamos River and its restored wetland have created a very rich ecosystem with high biodiversity. Even when it overflows, we can experience different atmospheres through the meandering paths; a plethora of vegetation, ponds and marshlands. The irrigation of our fields and crops is no longer done by pumping underground water, but through canals that work with the natural flow of the river, while during dry periods we use the stored water from the ponds.

My school in the northern edge of the city is part of large urban forest working as a sponge that infiltrates the water and recharges the aquifer. In our school excursions, we always visit the aquaculture and the agroforestry area which have the local markets to the north. The previous inhabitants redefined their relation with the new sea level and the issue of salt intrusion and adapted a new productive economy replacing the polluting greenhouses. Also, the sand dunes that protect this area became an ideal habitat for the endangered Caretta-Caretta turtle and other animals; many people now visit daily the wildlife observatory to enjoy the view!

Last but not least, my family and I live in the southern neighborhood on the hills. We have a panoramic view of the valley, of the vast sea and new protected coast with a palm forest. I am very proud to be an inhabitant of Tympaki and be able to enjoy such a rich interplay of landscapes; bathing into the never-ending surprise of being on top of the hill, into the valley and next to the sea at the same time.

The good thing is that many other cities started following our example!

Anywayâ&#x20AC;ŚI am looking forward to meeting you here!

All the best, M. 16 years old 0 72

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A - A’

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Section A - A’ παρά θιν’ αλός

< para-thin-alos, by the sea / Homeric phrase in Iliad θίς: η σωρός άμμου / pile of sand άλς: θάλασσα, αλάτι / the sea, the salt

// at the water’s edge 76

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The area used to be part of the wetland system crossed by seasonal streams that discharged into the sea through an opening in between the sandhills (refer to p.50, diagram 1942). Due to the explosive mines during the W.W.II (some of these holes are still visible in the image) and further fragmentation by the roads, the system was severely disrupted, leading to its current condition; the stagnant lake and neglected palm forest. By 2100, the plus two meters sea level rise will make the existing sandy coast vanish.

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παρά θιν’ αλός // at the water’s edge 78

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traditional Cretan mountainous settlements

Existing section, 2019. Topography exaggerated x10.

Proposed section, 2100. Topography exaggerated x10.

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The connection with the sea is reestablished allowing the water flows. The terrain is reshaped through a cut and fill process, and the sea water can controllably enter, forming a new coast. The existing sandhills are stabilized by native vegetation and work as natural protection. Hence, the new inner coast is protected by sea level rise and strong winds, and the palm forest has the opportunity to expand. Also, densification is proposed on higher ground (housing and touristic facilities) preserving at the same time, the existing agricultural fields in between. This is the reason why the transportation towards the hill is served by a cable car.

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παρά θιν’ αλός // at the water’s edge 82

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Section B - B’ η ακτογραμμή αλλιώς

// a coastline with a twist 84

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η ακτογραμμή αλλιώς

// a coastline with a twist

The fragmented wetland system of Katalyki has evolved through the years into a salt lake, suggestive of the salinization of the underground aquifer (refer to p.41). The coast is eroding, due to the asphalted road that blocks the natural sedimentation of the beach. Another major challenge is the mono-cultivation and the diffusion of greenhouses, almost reaching the coast, that have caused water pollution and soil degradation. Finally, by 2100 the sea level rise will flood the relatively flat area reaching up to the main road visible in the image.

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Existing section, 2019. Topography exaggerated x10.

Proposed section, 2100. Topography exaggerated x10.

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η ακτογραμμή αλλιώς

// a coastline with a twist

The salt lake of Katalyki is proposed to be connected with the sea and become part of a bigger sand dune – the natural protection system for the inner land. Sand dunes are created by a process of ‘cut and fill’ through further digging the airport zone that is taken over by the sea and hosts the organic aquaculture (refer to vision plan). At the same time, this new salt marshland becomes an ideal, isolated habitat for wildlife and endangered species.

The sea enters up to the new natural coastal edge, that becomes the interface between water and land. The organic figure is actually a soft-engineering earthwork, that protects from erosion and is stabilized by native, salt-tolerant trees and vegetation. It creates a plethora of atmospheres and activities, varying from being a raised platform, a landscape figure, a wetland or a more architectural configuration. While the biggest amount of water is “absorbed” in the deepest parts, the most shallow areas host seaweed cultivation. As such, the preserved inner part is transformed into a continuous agro-forestry area incorporating local markets, small agro-touristic units and a wildlife observatory.

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Section C - C’ μπες στον κύκλο του νερού

// join the water loop 94

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The construction of the military airport in the floodplain of the Geropotamos River provoked a series of interlinked issues which block the continuity of the valley-water systems. The water runoff does not properly infiltrate the ground, since the valley is fragmented by a sequence of impervious surfaces. This, in turn, causes flash flooding in the town and floods in the fields. Through the years, the riparian zone of the Geropotamos, responsible for the bank stabilization and flood control, has significantly decreased, leading to catastrophes in agriculture and infrastructure when the river overflows. In addition, chronic water extraction from the alluvial zone has critically affected the underground water table and led to land subsistence. Finally, the already high temperatures during summer and evapotranspiration cause damages to crop cultivation.

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Existing section, 2019. Topography exaggerated x10.

Proposed section, 2100. Topography exaggerated x10.

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The proposal adopts a new water cycle, embedding the town itself as an integral part of this system and making the water cycle an educational process at the same time. Thus, the new densified edge is characterized by free-standing building elements within clearings of an urban forest that works as a sponge absorbing water, protecting from floods and recharging the aquifer. The previous airport zone becomes a hydraulic-productive machine that includes the treatment of grey water, reusing it for the cultivation of rice, and further directing the clean water into the restored wetland of the river. A successive system of forested wetlands, shrubs, meadows and marshlands is created, giving space back to water; as well, small water ponds store fresh water for the dry season. Simultaneously, new irrigation canals are proposed in parallel to existing roads, replacing pumping. Finally, shade trees are introduced, in order to protect the fields.

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05 Epilogue

TIME TRAVELLING TYMPAKI 2019 - 2100 An epilogue

The intensification of uses and urbanized agriculture have dramatically altered Creteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s natural landscape and led to an unbalanced relation between urbanism and landscape with severe degradation of its natural ecosystems. This immense footprint exerts strong pressure on many natural resources, especially water, such as the case of Tympaki basin that was examined in this thesis. The greenhouse expansion boosted the economy of the area, leading however, to the excessive misuse of the valley and the disruption of its water bodies. The current condition is a â&#x20AC;&#x153;collageâ&#x20AC;? of different patterns and scales with no correspondence to the unique landscape, history and sensitive ecosystem. Hence, facing climate change, unexpected changes in meteorological patterns, sea level rise and river flooding, it is more than clear that future extreme phenomena will have a severe impact on the economy of the area that remains strongly based on agriculture.

Thus, the design proposal attempts to tackle the challenges caused by the fragmentation of the river-valley system and the pressures of climate change. It seeks to strengthen the underlying relations of water and landscape structures in a bigger scale. Firstly, the landscape is redesigned to give space back to water, taking into consideration the expected sea level rise and the extreme river flooding. Secondly, the proposed densification on the higher, safe ground will become the new interface between the urbanized and productive parts, supported by the introduction of new economies and food production. Finally, the reconnection of the valley will create a continuous productive-urban landscape, mediating the different scales and historical layers of the site. As such, approaching climate change as an opportunity, a more dynamic balance between city and nature is envisioned as the backbone of the design. The proposal interweaves the fragmented landscapes and introduces an alternative scheme of urban resilience for Tympaki 2100.

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