Zeba Amir. Reinvigorating Mountainous Landscapes: A Himalayan Urbanism

REINVIGORATING MOUNTAINOUS LANDSCAPES A HIMALAYAN URBANISM

Individual Thesis presented to obtain the Degree of Master of Urbanism and Spatial Planning (MAUSP), 2018-2020 Author: Zeba Amir K U LEUVEN Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Department of Architecture Master Theses Studio 2020 - Consumption and Production Supervised by: Bruno de Meulder and Kelly Shannon

CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION THESIS STUDIO 2020 STUDIO TEAM

Supervisors:

Prof. Bruno de Meulder Prof. Kelly Shannon Student: Zeba Amir

MAHS / MAUSP / EMU Master Programs Department ASRO, K.U.Leuven Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium Tel: + 32(0)16 321 391 Email: laura.calders@kuleuven.be © Copyright by K.U.Leuven Without written permission of the promotors and the authors it is forbidden to reproduce or adapt in any form or by any means any part of this publication. Requests for obtaining the right to reproduce or utilize parts of this publication should be addressed to K.U.Leuven, Faculty of Engineering – Kasteelpark Arenberg 1, B-3001 Heverlee (België). Telefoon +32-16-32 13 50 & Fax. +32-16-32 19 88.

A written permission of the promotor is also required to use the methods, products, schematics and programs described in this work for industrial or commercial use, and for submitting this publication in scientific contests.

All images in this booklet are, unless credits are given, made or drawn by the author (2020).

REINVIGORATING MOUNTAINOUS LANDSCAPES A HIMALAYAN URBANISM

Individual Thesis presented to obtain the Degree of Master of Urbanism and Spatial Planning (MAUSP), 2018-2020 Author: Zeba Amir K U LEUVEN Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Department of Architecture Master Theses Studio 2020 - Consumption and Production Supervised by: Bruno de Meulder and Kelly Shannon

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I acknowledge the academic environment of the MaHS/MaUSP program at K U Leuven, which has shaped my academic attitude and sensibilities to arrive at and deliver this thesis. I thank Prof Bruno De Meulder and Prof. Kelly Shannon for their time, effort and inputs into guiding this thesis, during a pandemic.

Dedicated to Sheebaapi and Ashim.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.

2.

3.

4.

PREFACE

MULTIPLE GROUNDS Understanding territorial systems and challenges

CURTAILED REALITIES Transcribing problems of Depopulation

TRANSFORMATIVE STRATEGIES Urban Interventions

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND STUDY AREA HYPOTHESIS

GEOGRAPHIES OF PAURI GARHWAL TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS OF SETTLEMENT Water and Elevation Forest Agriculture: Forest, Irrigation, Food and Nutrient Security

ALTERED SYSTEMS OF SETTLEMENT Changing Livelihood Practices Declining Subsistence Agriculture INEQUITABLE DEVELOPMENT Ecological bias Socio-Economic bias SITE READINGS

BUILDING RESILIENT ENVIRONMENTS Forest Integrity and Resources Seasons and Scales of Water COMPOSING THE URBAN Embedding Alternate Economies Productive and Public Landscape Strengthening Institutions and Settlements Grounding Eco-Traditions

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44-87

90-123 124

CONCLUSION

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.

PREFACE

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND STUDY AREA HYPOTHESIS

ABSTRACT

With rapidly changing demographics, Urbanisation in India is mostly driven by quick delivery and economic interests. In most cases it overrides ecological needs and logics. The commercially driven development tends to be concentrated in selective urban centres creating urban-rural dichotomy.

Due to a development imbalance thus created, the rural lies in a state of neglect or degradation, forcing populations to move out whether temporarily or permanently. Considering that almost 60% of India’s population still lives in rural areas, the reducing numbers in the rural areas are as crucial as the growing numbers in the cities, for India to achieve sustainable development aspirations.

Uttarakhand, an Indian state in central Himalaya, is facing severe rural depopulation. The phenomenon is so prevalent in the mountain state that the term “ghost villages” is wide spread, exacting government policy and funds, engendering survey committees and boards. The “ghost villages” of Uttarakhand are result of the urban-rural rift. In hopes for development, government has made economic investments in industry, infrastructure and energy sectors. Such investments have resulted in an ecological and economic bias for the local communities and their traditional systems of settlement. The traditional system of dispersed villages, interconnected micro economies corresponding to socio-ecological needs, is becoming obsolete due to the condensed urban form of a ‘city’, a notion foreign to the mountains. Faced by the challenges of sustenance and livelihood in this changing environment, rural communities are forced to move to the newly growing cities and towns, leaving behind abandoned houses and landscapes. Increasing depopulation suspends traditional knowledge systems and cultural practices, degrading not just the landscapes but the social quality of life in these landscapes.

Uttarakhand

The thesis explores the eco-centric operational systems of the mountainous landscapes, and the traditional settlements embedded within them. The project attempts to re-establish the connections between local communities and local ecologies, to avoid linearisation of material and energy flows.

In order to facilitate sustainable growth of both the settlements and its settings, the thesis focuses on developing resilient spatial frameworks; as the sites for eco-centric social and economic interplays.

It looks at re-invigorating these abandoned mountain landscapes into sites of production as well cyclic exchange of material and resources, to create more heterotrophic and synergistic systems of settlements in the Himalayan mountains.

Figure 1. Location of Uttarakhand Graphic by author World Map Source: www.thenounproject.com 10

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Figure 2. Village Maletha in Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, Deforestation to allow power transmission lines Photo by author

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INTRODUCTION

Uttarakhand is one of the eleven Himalayan states in India. Located in the central Himalayan region, It has five geophysical zones - the trans Himalaya, the greater Himalaya, the middle Himalaya, the Doons (foothill ranges and valleys), the Terai (marshy flatlands between foothills and plains), with altitudes varying from 190 metres to 7800 metres. The geo-physical characteristics create variegated climate conditions from tundra like climate in the north to the sub-tropical humid climate of the southern terai region.

The mountains in Uttarakhand are well drained by numerous rivers and springs. Its glaciers are home to some of the largest and most important headwaters of river systems that sustain the entire populations of north India and Pakistan (ICIMOD 2010).

The environmental conditions have granted these mountains a distinct ecological system rich in biodiversity and natural resources. Almost 70 percent of its geographical area is covered with forest, with alpine forest in the higher peaks, temperate forest in the foothills and tropical forest in the terai region.

The richness of forest and water resources have made Central Himalaya one of the most extensively inhabited mountain systems. Despite the constraints of terrain and climate, the steep slopes of Uttarakhand are dotted by as many as 16,793 villages, home to 70 percent of the state’s population (Census, 2011).

Uttarakhand is essentially a mountainous rural territory, where generations of people have relied on nature and it’s resources for sustenance. Traditionally, the socio-economic systems in the region included forest based subsistence agriculture, artisan crafts, forest produce, livestock and seasonal trade with the Tibetan plateau. Post Indian independence, with the nationalisation of forests and water resources (policies of 1975) saw diminished community rights and decline in agricultural practices The discontinuation of trans Himalayan trade, post Indo-china war of 1961, also impacted the local economies.

Uttarakhand Delhi

The desire for economic development and modernisation in the 21st century, focused on industry and infrastructure projects situated in more conducive planar districts of the state. Increasing practices of deforestation, logging, hydel (hydroelectricity) projects jeopardised the interlinked existence of both mountain man and nature. A combined threat posed by degraded ecological conditions, reduced subsistence agriculture, lack of livelihood opportunities, forced rural mountain populations to move to the planar sites of economic investment in the state or outside.

Trans Himalayas Great Himalayas

Even though the region has always seen seasonal migration to a certain degree, of mainly male members, in the past decade it has given way to absolute de-population. About 120,000 people were reported in early 2000s, to have permanently abandoned their ancestral villages and settle in new locations. The 2011 census states, 1,053 villages have no inhabitants and another 405 have a population of less than 10 whereas media reports as of 2013, put the number at 3,500.

Uttarakhand today has the highest economic growth index in India, even more than the national average.

The state is the site of everything ‘mega’, mega food parks, mega industrial estates, mega infrastructure projects and construction sites, according to the

invest-india website. Transport and energy sectors are the biggest investment sectors. The rising economy is paralleled with dying ecologies. As per Niti Ayog report (2018), discharges of water supply sources including springs , streams, ponds etc. have reportedly reduced by more than 50%. The forest cover and biodiversity are declining (Forest Survey of India, 2015). The state has recorded increased climate change events such as rising temperatures and droughts, wild fires, landslides, flash rains and thunderstorms in the last 20 years. Disrupted ecologies and failing subsistence economies are important factors in marginalisation of mountain communities and disintegration of mountainous landscapes in Himalaya.

Religious Sites Urban Centres (<100,000) Middle Himalayas

Urban Centres (<40,000) Urban Centres (<20,000) Water Bodies

Figure 3. Urban Centres and settlements in Uttarakhand, Graphic by author Data Source: Google Earth, State of India’s rivers (2016) by Aparajita Singh and Dr. Ravi Chopra, Uttarakhand Solidarity network, www.uttarakhand.org, Alamy stock photo 14

Shivalik Doons Terai-Bhabar

Fault/Thrust Line District Pauri Garhwal Site Area National Parks 15

Figure 4. (This page, top) Hydroelectricity projects in Uttarakhand, Graphic by author Data Source: Uttarakhand Solidarity Network; www.uttarakhand.org www.globaldamwatch.org Figure 5. (This page, bottom) Proposed Road and Railway projects in Uttarakhand, Graphic by author Data Source: www.sustainableworld.com Figure 6. (Facing page, top) Lakhwar dam on river Yamuna, Uttarakhand Photo by Ashim Kumar Manna Figure 7. (Facing page, bottom) Maneri dam on river Ganga, Uttarakhand Photo by Ashim Kumar Manna

Increased construction of dams, road and rail networks expose mountain communities to spatial and social vulnerabilities.

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OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH QUESTION

Considering the contemporary scenarios of inadequate socio-economic growth and climate change, the project aims to learn from the indigenous traditions and knowledge of domesticating the mountains and its resources. The central Himalayan region is occupied by a network of settlements dispersed across slopes and valleys, which are interconnected by socio-economic and cultural practices generated by eco-centric traditions of development. The question is How these traditional settlement systems can be re-invented/re-articulated as strategies of sustainable development to prevent depopulation in the (middle)Himalayan villages?

Srinagar A (Design Investigation Site)

The main objectives are To identify traditional practices of ecologies and sustenance of the Himalayan communities, To analyse causes and challenges of depopulating villages To understand contemporary requirements of livelihood To explore transformative impacts of socio-economic interplays on landscapes

B (Design Itervention Site) Pauri

STUDY AREA

For the purpose of understanding depopulation scenarios, the study is situated in the district of PauriGgarhwal, which is worst hit by depopulation in the state of Uttarakhand. The Garhwal Himalaya are home to Garhwal communities who over years have developed unique practices of occupying and utilizing the mountain resources. In the district, the Alaknanada valley, specifically the cities of Srinagar and Pauri are sites of urban development and sub-urban sprawl, causing people to migrate from the villages of the surrounding smaller valleys. The site thus presents a microcosm of the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s terrain encompassing ongoing ecological and economic changes.

Figure 8. Aerial Image with demarcated study areas in district of Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Image Source: Google Earth A: 10km x 10km Design Investigation site B: 10km x 2.5km Design Intervention site 18

0km

1km

3km

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HYPOTHESIS

Pauri Garhwal is one of the worst hit districts of depopulation in Uttarakhand.

Paralelly, it has seen increased urbanisation in Srinagar(Alaknanda Valley), Kotdwar(Terai) and Pauri, its lower altitude administrative towns. These sites are being saturated with the populations moving in from the mountain villages. The district has also seen an increase in new livelihood and ecology projects, both from governmental, non-governmental and international organisations in response to depopulation. The government schemes mainly involve financial and administrative support, whereas the local NGOs, sometimes collaborating with international funding and development agencies are involved in more integrated projects of socio-economic development. The severity of the depopulation issue has raised local entrepreneurs which have engaged communities on grass-root level. Building on existing initiatives, the thesis proposes new programs to the landscape in the form of alternate economies which hypothetically leads to formation of new collectives based on landscape logics.

A sequence of strategic projects will be generated by strengthening local ecologies, by transforming existing institutions and engaging communities and by mobilising local resources.

The project works to simultaneously provide new economies as well as new forms of spatial association with the landscape.

The mountain communities, situated in the narrow valleys of Pauri Garhwal, have developed knowledge and practice systems specific to their landscape and ecologies over centuries. The hypothesis of the project is not only to strengthen these knowledge and practice systems, but to add new variables to them in order to create a dynamic and adaptable equation, suitable to contemporary conditions in the region.

Figure 9. (Facing page) Abandoned house in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author 20

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MULTIPLE GROUNDS Understanding territorial systems and challenges GEOGRAPHIES OF PAURI GARHWAL TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS OF SETTLEMENT Water and Elevation Forest Agriculture: Forest, Irrigation, Food and Nutrient Security

MULTIPLE GROUNDS

Figure 10. Geobotany of the Himalaya by Alexander Keith Johnston Image Source: Johnston, Alexander Keith. 1850. The Geographical Distribution Of Plants in Perpendicular Direction. Image. Accessed June 21. https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUM SEY~8~1~308070~90077931:Geographical-Distribution-ofPlants?sor t=Pub_List_No_InitialSor t%2CPub_Date%2CPub_ List_No%2CSeries_No&qvq=q:humboldt;sor t:Pub_List_ No_InitialSor t%2CPub_Date%2CPub_List_No%2CSer ies_ No;lc:RUMSEY~8~1&mi=6&trs=358.

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The constraints of terrain and climate have implied limited arable land and productivity in the region.

But the Himalayan mountains are rich in forest resources (as also shown in the Humboldt section).

For an optimum use of these natural resources, mountain inhabitants moved between the varying altitudes of the valleys and the slopes they occupied. In doing so they developed cyclic and sustainable systems of sustenance corresponding to the ecology and climate of the region.

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GEOGRAPHIES OF PAURI GARHWAL

Pauri Garhwal is characterised by steep mountain ridges and deep glens. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Garhâ&#x20AC;? is the local term for narrow valley, giving the region its name. Apart from the Alaknanda valley at Srinagar and the narrow strip at Bhabhar, the terrain is mountainous.

Rich in water and forest resources, the district is extensively occupied and cultivated. 60% of its population is engaged in agriculture based activities and 83% reside in rural areas, with 50% of villages having an average size of 25 households.

Its biggest cities are Srinagar in the Alaknanda valley, elevation 500mts, Kotdwara at 450mts in the lower altitudes of the north west and district headquarter of Pauri at 2000mts.

It falls on the pilgrimage route to important sites of Badrinath and Kedarnath in other districts.

Religious and cultural sites within the district, like Devprayag, are important destinations as well.

The religious and administrative towns are sites of increased economic and urban activity pertaining to tourism and infrastructure sector. Many higher altitude inhabitants thus choose to move down to these growing cities.

Pauri Garhwal has upto 300 completely abandoned villages (Census 2011). The district has seen an absolute decadal variation of -1.4%, the rural decadal variation is -5.75 whereas the urban decadal variation in population is 20.3% in the district.

Figure 11. (Facing page) Mapping depopulated villages in district Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Graphic by author Data Source: Uttarakhand Govt. Palayan Ayog Report, 2015.

Deegi_, Villages with zero population (Census 2011), 2019. https:// www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=2b509852d95d4e659cf59cf91 02d278b Figure 12. (This page, left) Pauri Garhwal Relief (Altitude in metres) and Slope (in metres/kilometres), Graphic by author Data Source: National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization Figure 13. (This page, right) Pauri Garhwal Hydrology: Ground Water Potential (yield in litres/second), Graphic by author Data Source: Central Ground Water Board, National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organization

300m/600km 150m/300km >1200

80m/150km

1200 - 600

20m/80km

<600

10m/20km

Relief (Altitude in metres)

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<10

Aquifers with secondary 10-25 inter-granular porosity

Area underlain by discontinuous aquifers in porous formation Water table contour (m.b.gl) Spring

Ground Water Potential (yield in litres/second)

-1.4% Total -5.7% Rural 20.3% Urban

Cultivators

38%

Aquifers with primary inter-granular porosity

Decadal variation in population

5% 2%

55%

Slope (in metres/kilometres)

1-5

Site for Design investigations

Agro-Labourers

Industrial Centres

Household industry Other

Urban growth Centres Depopulated Villages 27

TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS Water and Elevation

The genesis of a traditional mountain settlement is dictated by the factors of water and elevation.

The importance of water and mountains is epitomised in the consecration of Himalayan peaks and rivers as pilgrimage sites revered in Hinduism and Buddhism.

The district is drained by several rivers and tributaries, which are all locally called “Ganga” with one prefix or another. Perhaps the more important river for the district is Alaknanda which receives many of these smaller rivers.

Alaknanda flows south west past Srinagar to meet Bhagirathi at Devprayag, to form “the Ganga”.

The slopes near the valleys are more gradual.

The succeeding steeper slopes feature several springs and lakes. They are marked with narrow flats and terraces. These mid altitude location are sites of settlement and extensive cultivation.

Although the lower altitude valleys and higher altitude ridges are also seasonally inhabited in winter and monsoon simultaneously.

The presence of water and slope are thus important factors in locating a village in Garhwal Himalaya.

Figure 14. (Top) View of the snowy range from Almora Image Source: Batten H C. Surveyor Genral Senior Assisstant Commisioner and Settlement Officer. ‘A Map of Kamaoon and British Gurhwal’ Kamaoon (1846), https://pahar.in/uttarakhand-maps Figure 15. (Bottom) Early 18th century Pilgrimage Map of River Alaknanda depicting shrine at Badrinath, Image Source: Klakriti Archives, Hyderabad, India

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TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS Forest The steep slopes of Garhwal Himalayas are covered by extensive forests, varying in character and function corresponding to the altitudes of the region.

The confines of higher elevations above 1800 mts are covered by deodar forests. These forests are usually used for timber for building houses and temples by the local communities.

The slopes between 1000 and 1600 mts are usually covered with the pine forests on northern slopes and the mixed oak forests on the southern slopes. The settlements are preferably situated on the middle of the northern slopes utilising pine wood in vernacular construction. The mixed oak forests provide several needs of agriculture, livestock and livelihood.

The riverine forests occupy the lower elevations of the river valleys. A distinct species of Himalayan dwarf bamboo, called ringal, occurs in patches or mixed with main species of Khar and Sal trees, which is utilised in basket and mat weaving.

Himalayan forests are rich in biodiversity containing several shrubs, herbs and trees. The forests help moisture retention, groundwater recharge and soil fertility. Several springs sprout under their canopies.

They also create congenial micro-climate conditions for agriculture. Forest are the lifeline for Himalayan people and hence are spatially linked with their settlements and agricultural terraces.

Figure 16.

Traditional Sustenance Systems: Interdependencies of Settlements and Ecologies, Graphic by author Data Source: Interpreted from multiple sources and Fieldwork 30

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Himalayan Villages are traditionally set mid slope or in mid altitude with forest above and agricultural terraces set below. But people also moved seasonally between ridge top and valleys. In monsoon they would shift to the ridge top in order to harvest rain water as well as to gain higher ground to be safe from sliding slopes.

Figure 17. Traditional settlements set mid-slope between ridge top forests and cultivated valleys, in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author 32

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“Agriculture is seen not in isolation but in totality to include not only crops, livestock and forest but also other available natural resources including the resources held in common with others” - Impact of Irrigation and Minor Irrogation AIBP in Uttarakhand state Report by Development Centre for Alternate Policies, Environmentportal.in (2020)

TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS Agriculture: Forest

The constraints of terrain and climate, have allowed people to practice forest based subsistence agriculture in the Himalayas.

Upto 70% of the population in Pauri Garhwal is dependent on subsistence agriculture even though the availability of arable land and productivity is low. Due to these limitations, traditionally land fragmentation, dispersal of holding, terraced farming are the characteristic features of mountain agriculture. It also constitutes risk management (Joshi, 2018).

Under intense cultivation, soil fertility and productivity are maintained via

an agro ecosystem based on exchanges of fodder, manure, and labour between farmers, livestock and forests. In the form of these exchanges, energy is transferred from forest to arable land mediated through livestock. As per Joshi, 2018 In order to meet the energy requirement of 1 ha of arable land nearly 5–12 ha of well-stocked forest is required. Traditionally villages located in the middle of the slopes are associated with forests on the ridges, with organic and nutrient matter flowing down to the agricultural terraces below.

1 ha

2-3

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Figure 18. (This page) Himalayan Agro-Ecosystem, Graphic by author Data Sources: Interpreted by author from Joshi, Bhagwati. “Recent trends of rural out-migration and its socio-economic and environmental impacts in Uttarakhand Himalaya.” Figure 3, Page 6 (2018) Figure 19. (Facing page) Agriculture terraces located below the forest in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author 34

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TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS Agriculture: Irrigation

Most of the arable land on the slopes is rain fed and not irrigated. The irrigation facilities are mostly limited to paddy cultivation in the valleys. However the terraced farming is supported by indigenous knowledge of collective water management, such as Guls (irrigation channels) and Khals/Chals (seasonal harvesting ponds). These practices ensure a sustainable use of water and renewal of natural aquifers at the same time. Irrigation practices form an integral part of the community culture of agriculture in Himalayan mountains.

Figure 20. (This page) Traditional Irrigation system of ‘Guls’ Graphic by author based on fieldwork Figure 21. (Facing page, top left) Diagramatic section of diversion weir of a ‘Gul’, Image Source: Survival Lessons, Water Management Traditions In The Central-Western Himalayas. People’s Science Institute, Dehradoon, Page 16 (2003).

Figure 22. (Facing page, top right) Traditional Rainwater harvesting ponds locally called ‘Khal/Chhal’ Graphic by author based on research and fieldwork Figure 23,24. (Facing page, middle) Water channels of the ‘Gul’ irrigation system on site Photo by author Figure 25. (Facing page, bottom) Irrigated Agriculture terraces, Village Kot, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by Bhuwan Singh, Google maps. https://www.google.com/maps 36

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“Zardhari (2000) describes Barahnaja as a traditional mixed farming system in which central Himalayan farmers grow about 100 varieties of paddy, 170 varieties of kidney beans, eight varieties of wheat, four varieties of barley and about a dozen varieties of pulses and oil seeds each year. ” -Agricultural Diversification in the Garhwal Himalaya: A Spatio-Temporal Analysis Sati, V.P.(2012)

TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS Agriculture: Food and Nutrient Security

Traditional crop patterns in Pauri Garhwal are characterized by crop rotation and crop diversity to retain soil fertility and minimize risk. Sophisticated inter-cropping system of ‘Barahnaja’ is widely adopted, which optimises productivity, soil fertility and secures food and nutrient security (Sati, 2012).

Figure 26. (This page) Traditional agricultural and forest produce at different altitudes and seasons in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, Graphic by author Data Sources: interpreted from Multiple Sources Figure 27. (Facing page) ‘Barahnaja’, Mixed production of subsistence crops in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author

The crop diversity responds to varying altitudes.

At higher altitudes near forest edge, ‘katil’ cultivation periodically grows indigenous millets and root crops, with a standard rotation of 3 crops in a year.

The ‘upraon’ cultivation on hill side terraces mainly grows indigenous millets for trade and household vegetables. The valley bottom ‘talaon’ cultivation features water intense crops such as irrigated paddy cultivation.

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For generations mountain communities have relied on mountains, rivers and their forest ecologies. There is an interconnected wholeness of natural, socio-economic as well as cultural systems, which has allowed people to utilise natural resources while engaging in their preservation and management.

Inherently sustainable, the traditional practices of agriculture, livestock and forest, water management, architecture and art utilise different altitudes resulting into a knowledge system tightly linked with landscape and its natural elements.

Figure 28. A ridge top seasonal settlement in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author 40

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CURTAILED REALITIES Transcribing problems of Depopulation ALTERED SYSTEMS OF SETTLEMENT Changing Livelihood Practices Declining Subsistence Agriculture INEQUITABLE DEVELOPMENT Ecological Bias Socio-Economic Bias SITE READINGS

CURTAILED REALITIES

Today the traditional systems of dispersed villages, interconnected micro economies corresponding to socio-ecological needs, is made obsolete by the condensed urban form of a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, a notion foreign to the mountains. The development in the region is largely equated with road and dam building and industrial development.

Figure 29. City of New Tehri, Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by Ashim Kumar Manna 44

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ALTERED SYSTEMS Changing Livelihood Practices Uttarakhandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s agrarian economy, although operating at low levels, has been self-sufficient. With post-independence nationalisation of its forests and water resources, the stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s agrarian livelihood practices were disturbed, causing disengagement of local communities with the local ecologies. The 1961 Indo-china war also halted the trans Himalayan trade, further reducing livelihood options for the mountain communities.

Since its establishment in 2000, as a state the Uttarakhand government as well the national government has engaged heavily in commercialisation of its natural resources in the form of dams, manufacturing industries and (religious) tourism. Pauri Garhwal also has several such upcoming projects, which neglect the needs of the its primarily agrarian subsistence economy Further, the extractive nature of these investments depletes the natural resources,making the district increasingly vulnerable to natural disasters.

Figure 30. Altered Systems: Disconnected Settlements and Ecologies, Graphic by author Data Sources: Interpreted from multiple sources and Fieldwork 46

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Figure 31. Empty slopes and saturating valleys: City of Srinagar, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author 48

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“Agricultural diversification is slowly picking up momentum in favour of high-value food commodities primarily to augment income rather than the traditional concept of risk management. ...........Several non-food-grain crops such as fruits, vegetables, and medicines have substituted mainly coarse cereals in the farmers’ pursuit for higher income. ” -Agricultural Diversification in the Garhwal Himalaya: A Spatio-Temporal Analysis Sati, V.P.(2012)

ALTERED SYSTEMS Declining Subsistence Agriculture

Due to depleting water and forest resources, and changing climate, subsistence agriculture is becoming increasingly difficult and insufficient.

Increasingly people are abandoning agriculture or adopting cash crop production for stable incomes.

The declined agricultural is inextricable linked with depopulation in the region. The insufficient subsistence production or dwindling incomes from agriculture makes it difficult to survive in the mountains. Therefore seasonal and altitude variation in crops have been largely reduced to potato and onion cultivation for commercial trade. The forests have also been commercialised for industrial raw materials. The limited subsistence production and loss of crop diversity has put the food and nutrient security at risk too. The indigenous knowledge and sustainable practices are lost in this process of monetisation of natural resources.

Figure 32. (This page, Bottom) Contemporary Agricultural and Forest produce at different altitudes and seasons in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, Graphic by author Data Source: Interpreted from Multiple Sources Figure 33. (Facing Page, Bottom) Link between agriculture abandonment and depopulation in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Image Source: Sati V.P. (2020) Migration and Agrarian Change. In: Himalaya on the Threshold of Change. Advances in Global Change Research, vol 66. Springer, Cham Figure 34. (Facing page,Top) Apple production for commercial exchange in lower altitudes of Alaknanda valley, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author

44.8% 55.6% 54%

Virtually uninhabited (ghost) villages and land abandonment in the districts of Garhwal region.

(Source Economic and Statistical Directorate, Statistical Diary, 2015, Dehradun) 50

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Figure 35. Abandoned agricultural terraces invaded by scrub growth near Village Delchauri, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author

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Economic Imbalance Economic & Ecological Imbalance urcelains o s e p r ed tion in s a e Incrnsump co rce ins resouo d e nta s a e Incr ction in m u extra

URBAN

Ur bani

Despite high economic growth, Uttarakhand faces growing socio-economic inequalities. The state has failed to address the needs of its unique susbsistence agrarian economy. Due to the generic development strategies limited to the plains, a self propagating cycle of increased urbanisation, migration and resource and ecology depletion is put in place.

Industrial development in plains

+

Transport HEP Tourism

Figure 36. (This Page) Trends of Livelihood practices and Depopulation, Graphic by author Data Source: interpreted from Multiple Sources Figure 37. (Facing Page) Dried Aquifers and Vulnerable huts due to a tunnel project, Chai Village, Uttarakhand Image Source: Photo by Sanjay Ahlawat. May 3, 2015. Published in â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Dammed Damnedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; special report on The Week India website. https://www.theweek.in/theweek/specials/Hydel-power-projects-inUttarakhand.html

s a t i o n P re s s u r

Ecological disruptions Human-Wild conflicts

es

Lack of livlihood opportunities and civic services in mountain villages

re sys d tra d t e m iti o n al

INEQUITABLE DEVELOPMENT

de

RURAL

Depopulating Mountain Villages

Hi

n

50%

Fall in Decadal Population Growth between 2001-2011

15% Agriculture land abandoned

10% Subsistence crop production

Decline in food-grain production

Cash crop production

25-75%

Decrease in spring discharge

30-40%

Decrease in water flow

7500 Ha

Biodiversity 54

Hydro power projects

Forest Land diverted for mining between 2000-2015

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Srinagar Pauri Yamkeshwar

ECOLOGICAL BIAS

The sites of depopulated villages in the district are many a times located closer to the growing urban networks. Rural inhabitant are not only tempted by the raised living standards, but are more often than not distressed by the exhaustive nature of the growing urban activities.

Combined needs of industrial development and growing populations deplete their natural resources and surrounding resources making mountain landscapes and communities more vulnerable such as dried springs, forest fires, degraded forests, landslides and limited socio-economic facilities.

Dhoomkot Figure 38. (This page, Bottom left) Drainage density and distribution of cumulative forest fires in April, 2016 in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, Graphic by author Data Source: Komal,Thapliyal, Asha. “Landslide Vulnerability Assessment of Pauri Garhwal Region in Uttarakhand”, Figure 5 (2015).

AVHRR, ATSR10, and T. R. M. M. VIRS11. “Monitoring of forest fires from space–ISRO’s initiative for near real-time monitoring of the recent forest fires in Uttarakhand, India.” Figure 1, page 2057(2016).

Site for Design investigations Depopulated Villages

Figure 39. (This page, Bottom right) Soil and Landslide vulnerability in Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, Graphic by author Data Source: Komal,Thapliyal, Asha. “Landslide Vulnerability Assessment of Pauri Garhwal Region in Uttarakhand”, Figure 5 (2015).

Figure 40. (Facing page) Landslide occurences on vulnerable sites due to road construction, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author

Landslide Vulnerability

Alluvium

Forest Fire Occurences

Granitoids, Intrusive

Limestone

High (0-1.3)

Phyllite, Quartzite Slate

Sandstone Conglomerate

Moderate (1.3-2.6)

Shale, Siltstone

Sandstone Graywacks

Low (2.6-3.9)

Crystallite metamorphic

Ganga Alluvium

Drainage density and Location of Forest fires

56

Kotdwar

Soil and Landslide vulnerability

57

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Water Woesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Data Source: Down to Earth

Figure 41. Collage depicting ecological challenges in Uttarakhand Data Source: Multiple Sources, as shown in images used here

58

59

Srinagar Pauri Yamkeshwar

SOCIO-ECONOMIC BIAS

Looking at five blocks in the district, it is clear that the population in the mountains is primarily engaged in agriculture and associated activities. It is also evident that the primary invest sectors are transport and energy, concentrated in planar districts and neglecting the needs of the agrarian economy of the mountains. Furthermore the current trend equates development with industrial and economic investment. And when there is lack of economic investment in the mountains, there is also lack of social and civic infrastructure.

Almost 50% of the villages in the mountains do not have access to education, and even fewer have access to hospitals or medical centres. The public institutions in these settlements are weak and degraded. While the lack of relevant economic opportunities causes migration of male members for employment, the inadequate quality of life, lack of education and medical facilities combined with depleted ecological systems cause migration of whole families and villages.

Dhoomkot Figure 42. (This page, Bottom left) Availability of civic amenities and Location of Hydel and industrial projects in Pauri Garhwal, Graphic by author Data Source: Census of India 2011 Figure 43. (This page, Bottom right) Composition of working population, Graphic by author Data Source: Census of India 2011

Kotdwar

Site for Design investigations Depopulated Villages

Figure 44. (Facing page) Mountain inhabitants migrating to lower altitudes to open small shops for stable income, Barkot, Uttarakhand Photo by author

Agriculture Credit Society Banks Road Access

Agri-Laborers

Medical

Household Industry

Education

Other

Percentage of villages with Civic amenities in ‘blocks’ of Pauri, Kaljikhal(Srinagar), Yamkeshwar, Kotdwar, and Dugadda(Dhoomkot) and Location of Industrial and Hydel Projects

60

Cultivators

Percentage of total workers in ‘tahsil’ of Pauri, Srinagar, Yamkeshwar, Kotdwar and Dhoomkot

61

Figure 45. Large scale hotel construction cutting of half of the mountain, near Devprayag, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author

62

63

Figure 46. Collage depicting socio-economic challenges in Uttarakhand Data Source: Multiple Sources, as shown in images used here

64

65

SITE READINGS Design Investigations

With the urban growth in Srinagar and Pauri, the near by villages have been emptied, as people resettled in the emerging suburbs of these cities.

A20x20 km site area provides an introduction to the connections between an anchoring valley town of Srinagar, the important administrative town of Pauri and surrounding villages.

The signs of ecological and the socio economic bias are visible in the Alaknanda valley. Although the signs maybe difficult to notice to a foreign eye, as the overgrown scrub vegetation hides the abandoned agricultural terraces and impersonates the forests. A comparative mapping of water/forest resources and pedestrian routes/roads in 1968 and 2011 indicates the impacts of development or lack of it.

Zooming in to the 10kmx10km site area helps investigate the landscape, its vulnerabilities and opportunities, while being set in the bigger urban rural dynamics.

10/06/2020

Pauri - Google Maps

Pauri

Image capture: Jul 2019

Ayush Tariyal Photo - Aug 2019

Images may be subject to copyright.

Figure 48. (This page, top) Srinagar in Alaknanda valley, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author

https://www.google.com/maps/place/Pauri,+Uttarakhand+246001,+India/@30.1471155,78.7745393,3a,75y/data=!3m8!1e2!3m6!1sAF1QipNFNX6ls9talSfeHAFPcnxYsZX-eXcGfVnBQ6kM!2e10!3e12!6shttps:%2F%2Flh5.googleusercontent.com%2Fp%2FAF1QipNFNX6ls9talSfeHAFPcnxYsZX-eXcGfVnBQ6kM%3Dw203-h152-k-no!7i416â&#x20AC;Ś

Figure 49. (This page, Bottom left) Village Kotsada, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Image Source: Photo by Ashok Rawat, Google Maps https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/p/AF1QipPPHFUgoRxU3nJgw3VIrv o7Ln7VNHZlCOOgOOBn=h1440 Figure 47. (Facing page) Aerial image of 20kmx20km Design Investigation site Image Source: Google Earth 66

Figure 50. (This page, Bottom right) Pauri, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Image Source: Photo by Ayush Tariyal, Google Maps https://www.google.com/maps/place/Pauri,+Uttarakhand+246001,+India 67

1/2

1175 mt

1500 mt

1200 mt

Srinagar Dam NH-58

550 mt

500 mt

900 mt

500 mt

Srinagar

550 mt

Kirtinagar Suburb

G B Pant University

Devprayag-Pauri Road

Pauri-Srinagar Road

Pauri

1800 mt

1400 mt

Bandul (Depopulated Village)

2000 mt 2150 mt 2000 mt

NH-119

Depopulated Villages Site A - 10km x 10km Study Area 68

0km Figure 51. Mapping the 20kmx20km site, A network of small settlements embedded in cultivated valleys and slopes of the mountains, Graphic by author

1km

5km

Figure 52. Mapping the terrain of the 20kmx20km site, Graphic by author 69

1968

Between 1968 and 2011, it is clear that the water has gone missing in the region, paralleled by the growth of Pauri and Srinagar. Apart from the forest and the settlements, the region is covered with agricultural terraces.

The increased forest cover in 2011, can be mainly attributed to scrub growth on abandoned agricultural lands.

70

2011

Settlements

Agricultural Land

Deciduous Sparse Forest

Evergreen (Mixed) Dense Forest

Figure 53. (Facing page) Mapping Forest, Water and Settlements in 1968, 10kmx10km study area, Graphic by author Data Source: Survey of India, Survey Sheet 53 J/16, 53 J/11, 1968 Figure 54. (This page) Mapping Forest, Water and Settlements in 2011, Graphic by author Data Source: Census of India 2011

0km

1km

2.5km

71

Figure 55. (Facing page) A natural spring, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Photo by author Figure 56. (This page, top) â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Dharâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; A system to channel spring water for community use or to provide intermediate drinking water spots, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Image Source: 2020. Peoplesscienceinstitute.Org. https:// peoplesscienceinstitute.org/research/Water%20Management%20 Traditions%20in%20W%20Himalayas.pdf.

Figure 57. (This page, bottom) Spring water diverted via a pipe for domestic use, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Image Source: Photo by Author

72

73

10km x 2.5km Design Intervention Site

Evergreen Dense Forest - Lost

Deciduous Sparse Forest - Lost

Sparse to Dense Forest - Gain

The increase in sparse to dense forest is apparent on sites closer to or between Pauri and Srinagar. Based on fieldwork it is known that these forests are scrub growth on abandoned agricultural lands, due to prolonged migration on these sites. On higher altitudes, the loss of mixed forest of the ridge tops has made sustenance difficult. Due to depopulation, an in-between ambiguous landscape is produced which is neither forest nor arable land.

74

New Forest - Gain

2018

Agricultural Land

Deciduous Sparse Forest

Evergreen (Mixed) Dense Forest

Streams (now)

Springs (history)

Streams (history)

Figure 58. (Facing page) Mapping Forest Gain and Loss on the 10kmx10km study area, Graphic by author Data Source: Interpretation by author based on figure 53, 54, 59 Figure 59. (This page) Mapping Contemporary landscape and settlements, Graphic by author Data Source: Google Earth

0km

1km

2.5km

75

Apart from the productive (mainly agrarian) landscape and the humble villages, the mountains are marked with hiking routes and pedestrian trails, which essentially become the channels of exchange between the productive slopes and village systems. They are also a medium of social exchange and communication, for residents of the same or different villages.

76

Figure 60. (Facing page) Paths as a social space: Shepherd on a Path within a settlement, Uttarakhand Image Source: Photos, Old. 2020. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Entrance To Ranikhet Bazaar - India 1946â&#x20AC;?. Oldindianphotos.In. https://www.oldindianphotos.in/2011/03/ entrance-to-ranikhet-bazaar-india-1946.html?m=0.

Figure 61. (This page) Mapping traditional roads and path, Graphic by author Data Source: Survey of India, Survey Sheet 53 J/16, 53 J/11, 1968

0km

1km

2.5km

77

With the advent of modernisation, the pedestrian network systems are fated to be reduced to vehicular connections.

Continued history of equating development with road building has long desecrated the mountain ecologies and communities. They are an important tool of territorial occupation and it is critical to rethink their spatial and functional value in the lives of mountain communities.

78

Figure 62. (Facing page) Devprayag Pauri Road fragmenting the Ujiyari forest near Pauri Image Source: Photo by Sushil Dobhal, Google earth, https://lh5.googleusercontent.com Figure 63. (This page) Mapping Contemporary roads and path, Graphic by author Data Source: Google Earth

0km

1km

2.5km

79

SITE READINGS Design Intervention Site

The design intervention site is a small valley with 10 or 12 small villages, with a representative average size of 20 households. Almost 36% population of the district lives in such small villages. Two of its villages suffer from depopulation as per Census 2011.

The valley is set down the ridge of Pauri in its east. It is contained by steeper slopes of 2000 metres, while it is comparatively a lower altitude span with gentler slopes and less folds. The altitude varies between 1350 to 1750 metres approximately in the valley.

Figure 64. Aerial Image, intervention site Image Sources: Google Earth

10kmx2.5km

Design

Devprayag-Pauri Road

Kholachauri Pauri Ujiyari Forest

Kot

Bandul

80

81

SITE READINGS

The site contains different sized villages on the ridges, slopes and the valley. The villages on the ridges are connected with intercity roads or inter-valley roads such as Devprayag-Pauri Road, and SrinagarPauri road. The connectivity to the markets, allows agriculture on the site, although it is commercial crops and limited spatially to the valleys where there is water. As we move up the slopes, significant area of terraces are abandoned and overcome by scrub forest.

The villages on the ridges are the natural sites of forests and spring heads. The intercity road connectivity to these villages depletes the natural resources and adversely impacts them as well as other smaller villages which depend on them. The Ujiyari ridge forest is fragmented by agriculture, later by decline and abandonment of agriculture and road building.

Figure 65. Mapping 10kmx2.5km Design intervention site Graphic by Author

Village in the Valley

Dense Broadleave Forest

Village on the Slope

Scrub Forest

Village on the Ridge

Agricultural terraces in use

Institutions

Agricultural terraces in disuse

Temples

Dried Springs

Inter-Valley Roads

Streams

Valley Roads

Seasonal/declining springs

Pedestrian Paths

Contour line

0km

200 mt

1km

Devprayag-Pauri Road

Pauri Ujiyari Forest

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83

Figure 66. (Facing page) Village Buransi on the intervention site, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand Image Source: Google Earth, https://lh5.googleusercontent.com Figure 67. (This page, top) A vernacular house and subsistence farming Photo by Author Figure 68. (This page, bottom) A vernacular house and courtyard with livestock Photo by Author 84

85

SITE READINGS Challenges and Opportunities

Several issues on site are related with extensive occupation and cultivation. With the declining traditional agrarian practices the preservation and management of natural resources have been neglected, and the ecological systems are adversely impacted. It is critical use ecological needs as the basis for any intervention. The site has connectivity to bigger cities and other valley systems, which can be sustainably utilized to revive the systems on site.

Figure 69. Mapping challenges and 10kmx2.5km Design intervention site Graphic by author

opportunities,

Challenges Opportunity

0km

86

200 mt

1km

87

4.

TRANSFORMATIVE STRATEGIES Urban Interventions BUILDING RESILIENT ENVIRONMENTS Forest Integrity and Resources Seasons and Scales of Water COMPOSING THE URBAN Embedding Alternate Economies Productive and Public Landscape Strengthening Institutions and Settlements Grounding Eco-Traditions

CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY

TRANSFORMATIVE STRATEGIES

The essence of the project is to choreograph socioeconomic interplays in the landscape generated by the needs of the landscape and the people.

The intervention is twofold1 - to build resilient environments Strengthening forest and water resources is the first step to increase resilience of the landscape, so that it can not only uphold the current needs of agrarian livelihood but open opportunities for various ecocentric economies.

Each scenario, is set in a framework of an existing route and its surrounding landscape. Equipped with strategic projects these scenarios or sequence of strategies showcase different socio economic interplays and spatial relationships possible between them. The proposal includes the traditional notions of multiplicity and renewal in each strategic project and the sequence generated by them which brings together different programs and users.

2- to embed processes and programs in a resilient ecological frame The strategies define possible scenarios of economic and social exchanges, building on the existing landscape logics and qualities. Responding to the productive, inhabited and ecological identities of the landscapes three sample scenarios are designed: a - Productive and Public Landscapes b - Strengthening Institutions and settlements c - Grounding Eco traditions

Strengthening the Forest a

Productive and Public Landscapes

Figure 70. (Facing page, top) Abstract diagram of the valley contained by a continuous forest figure facilitating anthropogenic and natural processes , Graphic by author Figure 71. (Facing page, bottom) Conceptual Sketch of the design strategies: Socio-economic interplays set in a resilient ecological frame, Graphic by author

90

b

Strengthening Institutions

Embedding Programs a Existing path in agricultural terraces b Existing path between settlements across the valley c Existing path between forests across the valley

c

Grounding Eco-Traditions

Local Economy

Visiting Users

Social Space Creation

Strategies for Water

Regional Economy

Local Young Users

Civic Amenity Creation

Strategies for Land and Forest

Local Adult Users

Strengthening Existing Institutions 91

BUILDING RESILIENT ENVIRONMENTS Forest Integrity and Resources

Forest integrity is essential and the initial step for sustainable economic development. Apart from reforesting and restocking natural forests, afforestation with economically viable species like orchards or pine for resin and bio-fuel , can help engage local communities into forest development.

It is important to combine ecological and sustenance needs to avoid homogenization of forest for commercial gains. Using gradient, altitude and water presence can help create characteristically different forest, allowing different degrees of human and nature interaction.

Figure 73

Slope Stabilization

Figure 74

Soil fertility

Figure 75

Sustainable use of Forest Products

Figure 72. Forest Integrity and Resources , Graphic by author

Bamboo Groves Handicrafts and Cuisine

92

Pastures Soil fertility

Pine Forest Slope stabilization, Biofuel

Orchards, Slope Forest Slope stabilization, Reviving abandoned terraces

Broadleaved Mixed (Oak) Forest Biodiversity and non-wood products

Existing Oak Forest

0km

200 mt

1km

93

BUILDING RESILIENT ENVIRONMENTS Seasons and Scales of Water

Water is essential for both man and nature. With depleting water resources and unpredictable climate trends, it is crucial to have multifold water management strategies at different scales. The plan proposes three different strategies to recharge, harvest and recycle water.

The first step is recharging natural springs by building contour trenches on steep slopes of the spring watershed. The additional strategies of rain water management and grey water recycling help reduce the pressure on natural resources. The water strategies utilizes indigenous practices to revive knowledge systems and socio-cultural traditions.

Figure 76. Seasons and Scales of Water , Graphic by author

Shallow Aquifer Recharge Contour trenches in steep slopes

94

Rain Water Harvesting Seasonal ponds on ridges

Waste Water Recycling Viable in bigger villages

0km

200 mt

1km

95

Figure 77

Figure 78

Existing Water Conditions

Recharging - Contour Trenches

Harvesting - Traditional â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Khal/Chhalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Recycling - Bio-swales to treat Grey Water

Contour trenches are viable on steep slopes characteristic of the spring watersheds located deep in the forests. They help catch the rain and snow and percolate water to recharge shallow aquifer at the spring head.

Large collection ponds are traditionally built on the ridge tops to collect rain water. The shallow ponds suffice for the seasonal animal and human needs, and extended water presence recharges ground water as well. They are also a social spaces for the community

Villages are usually not provided with sewage systems. Grey water can be a resource in bigger villages. Natural filtration systems can clean the water to be used for less intense subsistence farming

Potential Recharging and Harvesting during Wet Season

Figure 80. (This page, left) Sketch and Image of the Contour trneches for Spring-shed management, Graphic and photo by author Figure 81. (This page, middle) Sketch and Image of Khal/ Chhal system, Graphic by author Image Source: ImageSource: 2020. Peoplesscienceinstitute.

Org. https://peoplesscienceinstitute.org/research/Water%20 Management%20Traditions%20in%20W%20Himalayas.pdf.

Figure 79

96

Enhanced Water Conditions during Dry Season

Figure 82. (This page, right) Sketch , Image for Grey water treatment practiced on site, Graphic and photo by author 97

a

b

c

Productive and Public Strengthening Grounding Eco-Traditions Landscapes Institutions

COMPOSING THE URBAN Embedding Alternate Economies

Figure 83. Embedding Alternate Economies , Graphic by author

98

The proposal articulates the traditional and contemporary eco-centric operational systems of the mountains in an attempt to re-establish the connections between local communities and local ecologies.

The design composition utilises the identifiable spatial framework provided by the existing routes and their landscape settings. These exiting routes arise from the needs and understanding of the landscape by the inhabitants.

They are temporary sites of social exchange, and have potential to be developed into community assets. As they risk being reduced to vehicular connections, strategies to revive them as sites of socio-economic interplays are a toll for renewal of the landscapes and creating new spatial associations. Hypothetically, looking at them as sites of first interventions can also multiply the impact of the embedded strategies.

0km

200 mt

1km

99

COMPOSING THE URBAN Productive and Public Landscapes

Scenario ‘a’ focuses on upgrading the spatial use of the agrarian landscape. The terraces are omnipresent marked by pedestrian routes. In this case an existing route extends between a ridge top settlement and the valley. Its setting amidst extensive agricultural terraces and connectivity to possible markets of

bigger ridge settlements, makes it an extensively used site and plausible for intervention. The proposal introduces a sequence of alternate economies and social spaces which support the dominant agricultural production system and contribute to environmental resilience as well.

Embedding Alternate Economies

Strengthening Ecology

a

Figure 84. (This page) Building Transformative Systems: Layers of Intervention, Graphic by author Figure 85. (Facing page) Plan ‘a’ - Productive and Public Landscape, Graphic by author 100

Existing

0m

100m

250m

500m

Material Flow

People Flow 101

School/Market Exchange and Exhibition Centre

Solar Panels

Agriculture Terraces Solar Powered Lights and Charging stations Composting Site Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Shelter

Figure 86. A productive and public landscape, Graphic by author

102

103

On the slopes, the combination of alternate economies and social spaces, takes the form of a composting site and a women’s shelter set in the agricultural terraces. The women’s shelter serves as a rest stop for the agricultural workers, as a community storage space and a space for women focus groups as well.

Section 1A

Rain Water Harvesting feeding spring watershed Natural Spring Slope Stabilization

Increased Productivity

2.5ha Mulipurpose Campus

Improved Access to Markets Common Solar energy sharing points

Crop waste to manure Additional income potential INR 3-4 lac/year 300 tn/year Vermicompost

35ha Afforestation 15ha Pine forest

Play stop for enroute students Orchards

Alternate EmploymentCollecting, Briquetting, Gasification 180 tn/year Biomass production

Slope Stabilization and Soil Fertility

15ha Agricultural land revived

Proposed

Women’s shelter Storage and rest stop

Water Percolation Ponds

E-vehicle route

Compost Pits 1485 mt

Abandone Agricultural terraces

Non-Functioning Agricultural terraces

1415 mt

1358 mt

Existing trail Declining Spring

Figure 87. Section 1A (Existing and Proposed), Graphic by author

0m

50m

100m

Existing 104

105

In the valley it becomes a combination of bamboo production, water retention ponds and retrofitted abandoned houses as escape pods for city dwellers.

In another case the denuded slopes ar the site of a chicken farm which will help regain soil fertility and arability.

Additionally, upgrading the route as an e-vehicular path for improved connectivity, with e-vehicle stops and solar charging points for shared use, upgrades the overall quality of life for the users.

Section 1B

Alternate economy Processing and Manufacturing 200-250 tn/year fruit produce Slope Stabilization Soil fetility, Nutrien flow

Common solar energy points

Crop Diversity Increased Productivity Adaptive Reuse of Abandoned Houses Bamboo Products Alternate economy Seasonal Tourism - Additional Income 10 ha Productive and Recreational Landscape

Proposed

20ha Orchards

Rest stop in a productive landscape Basket weaving/ Bamboo sorting

Less water intensive Subsistence Crops

Water Retention Ponds Water Intensive Cash crops: paddy/wheat

Bamboo Groves Rental Pods

River

Grey Water+Runoff Percolation Swales Bamboo Groves

12000lt/day Treated water

Grey water Settling Tanks

Grey Water Filteration Pond

Non-Functioning Agriculture terraces

Grey Water Polishing Pond

Activity platform /Bus stop

Water treatment and percolation

Existing settlement (300 people)

Section 1C

Abandoned Agriculture terraces

1500 mt

Neighbourhood park incorporating treatment ponds and existing paths

Non-Functioning Agriculture terraces

1375 mt Existing Trail

Existing

Paths

Existing settlement (300 people)

Road Figure 88. Section 1B (Existing and Proposed), Graphic by author

Cash Crop Production

River

0m

50m

100m

1292 mt 106

107

As a pilot project the abandoned houses can be adapted as escape pods for city dwellers. They can be rented out for artists or independent workers for extended periods of time rather than short term home-stays. The units themselves are upgraded to be self sustaining units, to decrease external reliance for operation and maintenance. A self functioning house also enables the temporary occupants to engage in the process of the site and increases awareness, rather than comforts of commercial hospitality set-ups. The houses are strategically designed with a park system of bamboo production and water management.

Adaptive reuse Making self sustainable unit for tourist stay

Agriculture

Adaptive reuse Making self sustainable unit for tourist stay

Retention ponds New typology - Escape pods for tourists

Bamboo Groves

Activity Platform Bus Stop

Treatment Ponds

Figure 89. Section 1C, Graphic by author Figure 90. Collage, Graphic by author

Section 1C

108

109

COMPOSING THE URBAN Strengthening Institutes and Settlements

Villages in Himalaya have a heritage of commons, their culture is one of a shared enterprise. Today their institutes are relatively weaker, lack of education and civic amenities is a big issue. In this scenario set amidst a group of settlements, existing institutions are upgraded both spatially and programmatically, towards increased participation in social and economic processes on site. Historical Vaishnava temples and a local school are the important intervention sites.

The proposal develops the temples as part of alternate economies of flower cultivation and a recycled craft/souvenir centre. This temple campus is also combined with the water harvesting project atop the hill. The park system intersects with the built fabric of the villages providing improved open spaces. The school becomes a mini eco campus, engaging in experiments and testing of new agrarian practices, such as a nursery, or green houses.

Embedding Alternate Economies

Strengthening Ecology

b

Figure 91. (This page) Building Transformative Systems: Layers of Intervention, Graphic by author Figure 92. (Facing page) Plan â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;bâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; - Strengthening Institutes and Settlements, Graphic by author 110

Existing

0m

100m

250m

500m

Material Flow

People Flow 111

Existing Temples

Recreational Deck

Rainwater Harvesting Pond

Flower Terraces

Figure 93. Combining Ecological strategies with social use of the landscape: Water harvesting and flower cultivation in the temple complex, Graphic by author 112

113

Section 2A

The small villages with 5-10 households, such as in this scenario, comprise smaller agricultural systems which are easier to transform. To reform such a system, the intervention proposes a reconfigured aquaponics system. Different components of the aquaponics cycle are divided between different villages. The villages higher up are the sites for the fish tanks, while the villages below benefit from the nutrient water from the tanks released directly or via storage and recycling system. The intervention thus consolidates a fragmented agriculture system of the villages and form cooperatives based on landscape logics.

Combined capacity of 18000 kg fish Utilising Road Run-off Recycling water in production

20ha of terraces supported by Nutrient Water Crop Diversity Increased Productivity

Proposed 7000 cu.mt.

Aquaponics Fish Tanks

Greenhouses With Nutrient Water Storage Aquaponics Fish Tanks

Mixed Forest

1628 mt

Road

Revived Agriculture terraces by Nutrient Water

Improved Irrigation Increased water availability

Road

Existing

Figure 94. Section 2A, Graphic by author

Agriculture 114

0m

50m

100m

200m

1354 mt 115

Section 2B

Combination of the temple park with a recycled craft/souvenir centre means increased economic contribution of the temple towards the settlement economy. Whereas, its association with water harvesting project, engages the temple committee in maintenance and upkeep of the water ponds, in an increased social role. The seasonal water harvesting ponds also serve as socio-religious space for the tourist and pilgrims. The seasonal presence of water in these ponds ensures seasonal tourism.

Wood panels from deck double as pond covers

Dry Rainwater harvesting ponds can become storage space for fruits and forest non-wood products

Existing Settlement

New Neighbourhood Park

Recycling Craft Centre

Flower Cultivation to supply local pilgrims

Seasonal Rainwater harvesting ponds Socio-religious space

Existing forest strengthened with reforestation

Figure 95. Section 2B, Graphic by author

116

117

COMPOSING THE URBAN Grounding Eco-Traditions

Embedding Alternate Economies

Strengthening Ecology

Existing

c

0m

118

100m

250m

500m

Material Flow

People Flow

Figure 96. Plan ‘c’ - Grounding Eco-traditions, Graphic by author Figure 97. Building Transformative Systems: Layers of Intervention, Graphic by author 119

Figure 98. (This page) Grounding Eco-Traditions: Pasture and Rain water harvesting in the forest, Graphic by author

120

121

Section 3A

Scenario â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;câ&#x20AC;&#x2122; proposes a sequence of interventions focusing on forest and pasture, livestock system.

To complete a cycle of energy between forests and human settlements, livestock is crucial. The nature of intervention is such that it supports and multiplies the benefits of a livestock keeping ensuring a continuity of energy cycle between forests and humans.

New programs such as the bio-gas plants are feasible in this sequence. Located near the villages, they provide for fuel and energy needs and engage people in a new livelihood practice.

Slope Stabilization Soil fetility, Nutrien flow

Pasture and Reforestation Rainwater Harvesting pond

Proposed

Crop Diversity Increased Productivity Livestock Pasture Trail

Afforestation

Biogas Plant

Forest School

Mixed Forest

Fodder Crops

1741 mt Abandoned Agriculture terraces Scrub forest

Existing

Figure 99. Section 3A (Existing and Proposed), Graphic by author

School

Cash Crop Production

Existing Settlement (86 people)

0m

100m

200m

1392 mt 122

123

CONCLUSION The thesis presents a dynamic vision rather than a definitive design solution towards the Himalayan communities. In principle, it is scenario building with different variables of landscape, livelihood and social needs. The thesis proposal utilises an ecocentric socio-economic programming as the basis for spatial definition of the landscape. The scenarios thus derived are set within the landscape and ecological framework, intrinsic to the mountain living. The projects engendered by these scenarios support the changing livelihood practices and upgrade the overall quality of the inhabited landscape.

With changing environment and development prospects, these livelihood practices are bound to change in the mountains. Traditionally ecology and natural resources are the basis for all livelihood practices, so much so that they also become the socio-cultural practices. Therefore it is crucial that any proposal addressing sustenance and livelihood is still founded on landscape logics and ecology.

The thesis focusses on an integrated development approach which provides ecological, economic and social benefits. A sequence of projects is proposed, which support the economic activities but also become social institutes for ecological restoration and management. Inherently multipurpose, and common in use, these projects encourage communal enterprise and reinforce the nature and human interactions, a characteristic of Himalayan communities .

Figure 100. Proposed sustenance system: New links of ecology and settlements, Graphic by author Data Source: Proposal by author 124

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