ProAgri BNZ 42

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As long as you never run out of plans ...

The year has certainly started off with speed and intensity. I think more than ever we all realise that planning is such a crucial aspect of anything we do, whether you are a business owner, an entrepreneur or a farmer. Which reminds me of my father who will always say: "Your plans should never run out. A farmer makes a plan. Whether it is a good season or a season of drought, a plan must always be made."

While grain farmers are working hard to get their yields into the silos, we at ProAgri BNZ have also been busy bringing you the latest technological news in the agricultural industry.

Apart from our usual article series on best practices in various farming branches, we also showcase a multitude of products and services within the agricultural industry. In this, our 42nd edition, we feature articles on Carl Hamm in collaboration with SICcast® with their innovative solutions helping farmers to improve the efficiency and durability of their equipment

We also take a closer look at the latest technologies available from various agricultural companies, as well as the latest Tech news from around the world. For the niche farmers, we feature a new article on herb and spice farming, and the many benefits it can bring as an additional branch to your farming business.

Livestock farmers will enjoy our articles on goat breeds, and our new farm management and planning series gives tips to

farmers on how to use their resources optimally.

In Zimbabwe, a new focus on increasing local wheat production is showing positive results, and there is a greater consciousness of the need to work towards import substitution by growing and processing food products locally, rather than importing them.

We at ProAgri are passionate about farming and very excited about the future of agriculture in Africa. The African continent has the potential to make a real difference in food security for the whole world, and many companies realise this. More and more agricultural companies are becoming involved in African agriculture, which means that you, the farmer, will enjoy a wide choice, guaranteed good service and high-quality inputs.

Remember that you can also access our information through our various online and digital platforms. Find us on Facebook at ProAgri and select your country: www.facebook.com/ ProagriZambia, www.facebook.com/ ProagriNamibia, www.facebook.com/ ProagriBotswana, www.facebook. com/ProagriZimbabwe or visit our websiteS at www.proagri.co.za or www.proagrimedia.com.

ProAgri greetings

Bianca Henning

bianca@proagri.co.za

Carl Hamm & SICcast® offer innovative solutions for farmers

Goat breeds Part 1: African meat breeds

Beekeeping Part 8: How to obtain bees

Fruit production Part 3: Pineapple in its crowning glory

Technews: The latest in agricultural technology from around the world

From silkworms to silk garments Part 3: Silk harvesting

Don’t let your assets go up in smoke: A brief look at fire management

Taking good soil samples: Tips for small-scale farmers

Farm management and planning Part 1

Farm-to-fork initiative reaps sustainable and refreshing benefits

Herb and spice production in Africa Part 2

African agribusiness companies can still grow Part 4

Plastic use in agriculture Part 3

Prosopis part 3:Control the prosopis invasion

Greenhouses – Part 5: Greenhouses in aquaculture

Tree nut production in sub-Saharan Africa - Part 6

Local wheat production to benefit from new deal

Farm equipment such as pumps, valves, and storage tanks are subjected to abrasive materials that can cause them to wear out quickly.

Carl Hamm and SICcast® offers innovative solutions to help farmers improve the efficiency and durability of their equipment.

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Carl Hamm & SICcast® offer innovative solutions for farmers

The agricultural sector has always been a challenging industry to work in, with farmers having to deal with harsh weather conditions and often needing to rely on heavy machinery to get the job done. Equipment such as pumps, valves, and storage tanks are subjected to abrasive materials that can cause them to wear out quickly, leading to costly repairs and downtime. This is where Carl Hamm and SICcast ® come in, with their innovative solutions that can help farmers improve the efficiency and durability of their equipment.

Carl Hamm and the partnership with SICcast®

Carl Hamm is a leading company in the field of pumping systems and equipment, known for providing highquality products that can withstand the most challenging applications.

SICcast ® is a company that specialises in the production of wear-resistant materials for heavy-duty industries, including the agricultural sector. The partnership between these two companies has led to the development of a range of parts that are designed to withstand the harsh conditions of the agricultural sector, providing farmers with a reliable and cost-effective solution for their needs.

SICcast ® products are made from a silicon carbide material that has been specifically designed to withstand erosive corrosion, making it ideal for use in harsh and demanding conditions where metal parts would quickly wear out. The farming industry can

greatly benefit from SICcast ® as it relies heavily on pumps, valves, and other equipment that are subjected to abrasive materials such as soil, sand, and fertilisers.

Traditional metal parts tend to wear out quickly in such conditions, leading to costly replacements and downtime. SICcast ® parts are designed to be resistant to both corrosion and abrasion, making them a highly suitable replacement for traditional metal parts. They are made from a special mixture of silicon carbide and epoxy resin that is cast into precision moulds under vacuum, resulting in a material that is extremely wear-resistant, temperature-insensitive, and shockproof.

Carl Hamm protects your machinery with SIConit®

SIConit ® is another silicon carbide coating compound that has been designed for repairing and protecting metallic surfaces exposed to abrasion, corrosion, and acids with a pH value of 0 to 12. With its high silicon carbide content, SIConit ® can be used in extremely abrasive operational conditions where complex and costly repairs are typically required. The compound can either be used to completely rebuild worn metal surfaces or be used as a preventative coating, often outperforming the original metal in terms of abrasive stability.

In the agricultural sector, SIConit ® has a variety of potential uses.

One of the main uses could be in the repair and protection of farm equipment such as ploughs, cultivators,

and other machinery that experience high levels of abrasion and corrosion. These pieces of equipment often come into contact with soil, rocks, and other materials that can quickly wear them down, leading to costly repairs and downtime.

By coating these pieces of equipment with a highly wear-resistant material such as SIConit ®, farmers could reduce the need for frequent repairs and improve overall productivity.

Another potential use for SIConit ® in agriculture is in the protection of storage tanks and silos. These structures are often used to store chemicals, fertilisers, and other materials that can be highly corrosive, leading to costly repairs and potentially dangerous leaks. By coating the interiors of these structures with SIConit ®, farmers could protect them from the corrosive effects of the stored materials, extending their lifespan and improving safety on the farm.

SIConit ® could also be used in the production of irrigation systems, which often rely on metal components that can be prone to corrosion and wear. By coating these components with SIConit ®, farmers could improve their durability and reduce the need for costly replacements and repairs.

Overall, the use of SIConit ® in agriculture could lead to significant cost savings and productivity improvements for farmers. By protecting equipment and structures from the effects of abrasion and corrosion, farmers could reduce downtime and maintenance costs, allowing them to focus on their core operations.

As with any new technology, there may be a learning curve associated with the use of SIConit ®, but with proper training and support, it can become an essential tool for farmers looking to improve their operations.

Article supplied

Goat breeds part 1: African meat breeds

Goats are one of the oldest domesticated animal species in the world and have been used for centuries for their meat, milk, and fibre. In recent years, the popularity of goat meat has grown exponentially, and with it, the number of different meat goat breeds. While there are many breeds of goats, some are better suited for meat production than others.

ing projects. Boer goat hides are also known for their beautiful colouring, with a variety of shades ranging from white to brown to black.

This breed has horns, lopped ears, and a variety of colours. As a result of its browsing ability and low impact on grass cover, the Boer goat is being used very successfully in South Africa in conjunction with cattle. The ewes do not need pampering and can produce enough milk

By Natasha Pansegrouw

to raise kids that mature early and have a weaning rate of over 160%.

Exceptional members of this breed can gain more than 200 g per day in the feedlot, although a daily growth rate of 150 to 170 g is more typical. The ovulation rate for Boer goats ranges from one to four eggs per ewe, with an average of 1,7.

The average rate of kidding is 200%. There is a rapid maturation rate, occurring in rams at around six months and does at around ten to twelve months. Furthermore, the Boer goat has a long breeding season, allowing for three pregnancies every two years.

Kalahari goat

The Kalahari goat is a hardy, dual-purpose breed of goat that originated

Boer goat

The Boer goat is an incredibly versatile breed of goat that is highly sought after for its meat, milk, and hide production. They are known for their resistance to disease, with a low incidence of common goat diseases such as pneumonia and enterotoxemia.

The Boer goat is a large, sturdy animal with a white body and distinctive brown head. Boer goats are known for their high fertility rates and fast growth, with rams reaching up to 135 kilogrammes and does up to 100 kilogrammes. They have excellent meat quality, with a high fat content and a mild, sweet flavour and high milk production, with does producing up to eight litres of milk per day.

Boer goats are also valued for their hides, which are used to make leather goods. The hides are highly sought after for their durability and strength, making them ideal for a variety of leatherwork-

(Source: Pixabay by congerdesign)

A strong and muscular Boer goat ram. (Source: langkloofgamefarm. co.za)

in the Kalahari desert in Southern Africa. The Kalahari goat is a mediumsized animal, with a short, glossy coat that is usually white or light brown in color. The breed is known for its hardiness and adaptability, which makes it well-suited to a variety of climates and environments.

The Kalahari goat is an excellent choice for small-scale farmers looking for a hardy and productive breed of goat. The breed has a high fertility rate, with does producing up to three kids per year. It is known for its excellent mothering ability, being very protective of its young.

Does can produce up to two litres of milk per day, making them an excellent choice for small-scale dairy operations. The milk is high in butterfat and protein, making it ideal for cheese and yoghurt production.

The breed has good meat quality, with lean, mild-flavoured meat that is highly sought after by consumers.

Kalahari Red goats

The red colour of Kalahari Red goats' coats is their most distinguishing physical feature. Animals that are white or very light red are not desirable because they are easier to spot by predators in their natural environments.

They have developed protective herding instincts. The Kalahari Red is distinguished by its long, flappy ears. There are small, sloping horns on top of their heads, just above the ears. Rams can weigh up to 115 kilogrammes, while does can weigh up to 75 kilogrammes; their build is similar to the well-liked South African Boer goat.

If you are looking to improve the resilience and meat production of your goat herd, Kalahari Reds make a great crossbreed. Rams should be physically larger than does, and their neck skin should be looser.

Savannah goat

The Savannah goat is a unique breed of goat that is known for its hardiness and adaptability. It is a medium-sized goat with a short, thick coat and a long, straight face. The Savannah goat is a hardy breed, able to survive in a variety of climates and environments. It is also a very productive breed, producing high-quality meat and milk rich in butterfat and protein.

The Savannah goat was bred in South Africa in the late 1950s by Cilliers and Sons, near the Vaal River,

by crossing several breeds of goats. The most common breeds used in the development of the Savannah goat are Spanish, Angora, and Nubian goats. The Savannah goat was bred to be a hardy and productive breed, and it has proved to be just that.

The Savanna goat is prized for its meat because it is a large, muscular breed. In most cases, their coats will be white because that colour is the result of a dominant allele. However, they have black pigmentation on their skin, horns, and hooves for protection from the sun.

Savanna goats are known for their high rates of fertility, mothering ability, milk production, twin births, and overall healthy offspring development. Rams can weigh up to 90 kilogrammes, while does can weigh up to 60 kilogrammes.

References

Goat Farming in South Africa (2022). Available at: https://southafrica.co.za/goat-breeds-in-southafrica.html

Breeds of Livestock, Department of Animal Science (1996). Available at: http://afs.okstate.edu/breeds/ goats

A Kalahari Red ram that is well muscled and stands strong. (Source: vleissentraal.co.za)

A Savannah goat doe with her three lambs, all of which are completely white. (Source: agriorbit. com)

A Kalahari Red goat doe with her lamb. (Source: vleissentraal.co.za)

A Savannah goat ram that has a long, straight face. (Source: goatfarmers.com)

Beekeeping part 8: How to obtain bees

by Tisha Steyn

Swarming is a natural way for bees to form a new colony.

Anew beekeeper can buy or catch a swarm of bees. Buying is the easy option, but with a bit of practice, you can capture a swarm that is on the move for free.

But be careful, do not attempt any of these capture actions without having at least some prior experience or preferably training with an experienced person. Also, make sure to wear protective gear, or at least a hat, veil and gloves. “More people die from bee stings annually than snake bites,” says John Moodie of Honeywood Farm, who

has been a beekeeper for more than half a century. He strongly advises that you must ensure that the bees pose no threat to anybody in the vicinity, nor yourself.

Remember, if you are living in South Africa, you must register as a beekeeper with the Department of Agriculture.

Buying a swarm

The easiest way to get a swarm of bees is to buy it from an existing beekeeper. Before you buy, peek inside the hive to ensure the bees are in good condition

and acting like healthy, active bees. Also, make sure that the frames are wired correctly to prevent the bees from criss-cross building the comb. Keeping a clean, clear, stable structure will make your bees happy so they will build correctly on each frame allowing you to inspect frames for honey, the queen’s laying patterns, and disease.

Smoking

Before handling bees, it is necessary to produce smoke to calm them down. A bee smoker is used to puff smoke

(Source: Pixabay)

Women in protective clothing tend the beehives in an apiary. (Source: Pixabay)

Worker bees in a hive must be calmed down with smoke before working with them. (Source: Pixabay)

into the hive. The smoker consists of a fire chamber, which is filled with flammable material such as pine needles that will produce smoke when lit, and the bellow that will get a puff of smoke from the nozzle, which can be directed to where the smoke is needed. Keep in mind that bees usually move upward, so smoking must be directed at the side you want the bees to move away from, that is the bottom of the hive. Bees release a pheromone from the Nasanov gland near the sting to orientate the other bees where to go. The Koschevnikov gland releases the alarm

pheromone, which warns the bees that there may be danger and that they must prepare to leave the hive.

This scent not only warns the other bees of possible danger but also helps disoriented bees to get back to the hive and to mark food and water to direct other worker bees to it. It is used in addition to the intricate wiggle dance of bees.

Smoking masks this alarm so the bees remain calm, allowing the beekeeper to inspect the hive.

The smoke does not harm the bees, and neither does it make them sleepy.

In fact, it causes the bees to prepare to leave the hive from the perceived threat, so they eat a lot of honey to provide the necessary energy to find a new home. When their tummies are full, they are less inclined to sting.

Drumming

The drumming method is used for rehiving an existing swarm in an old box.

Once the smoke has calmed the bees you can proceed to get them from the old hive to a new one. As the bees would have attached the top of the frames to the roof of the hive, it is necessary to turn the hive on its side so that you can remove the floor to gain access. Put a new hive with loose frames next to the upturned hive so that the entrance at the front is aligned with the open bottom end of the old hive.

Start rhythmically tapping on the old hive, which will soon make the bees uneasy so they will instinctively move to the open end and into the new hive.

It may be necessary to smoke the bees more than once if you see them using their wings. Direct the smoke from the bottom to gently drive the bees to move to the top. Wait for all the bees as well as the queen to leave the old hive.

As soon as the whole swarm has moved into the new hive, it is necessary to place a few frames containing brood with new eggs, larvae, and young bees, as well as a frame with honey and pollen inside the new hive.

To remove a swarm, combs can be cut from the old hives and fitted into some of the frames of a new hive, keeping them in place with pieces of string, sticky tape, or rubber bands. These ties can be removed as soon as the bees have reattached the combs to the frames.

Placing brood in the hive will keep the bees from absconding, and provide new worker bees while the queen starts laying eggs for a new batch of larvae.

Capturing a swarm

The cheapest way of obtaining a swarm of bees is to encourage migrating bees to move into your own prepared hive.

Swarming is a honeybee colony's natural way of reproduction. In the process of swarming, which usually takes place in spring, a single colony splits into two or more distinct colonies.

When a swarm emerges, it usually does not move far, but clusters on the branch of a nearby tree. The bees cluster around the queen while scout bees go find a suitable new nesting site. After a day or two, the bees follow the scouts to their new home.

This is the ideal opportunity to hive a swarm. Hold a suitable container, such as a cardboard box or custom-made swarm trap just below the cluster, give the branch a quick shake, and hopefully the swarm will fall into the container.

A beekeeper wearing a protective suit, gloves and hat with veil catches bees that settled on a branch after leaving the nest to swarm. (Source: Pixabay)

Make sure all the bees, and especially the queen, are in the container before quickly closing the lid. Move the container with the bees to your hive. Make sure the container is well-ventilated, or else the bees might suffocate. If the bees must remain in the container for a while, it is best to place it in a cool, dark place and never in the sun as the heat can kill them. Handle the container with care so that the bees do not suffer unnecessary bumps as it will upset them.

Catch box

If you want to capture a swarm by allowing it to move into a catch box of their own free will, it is necessary to prepare a catch box and place it correctly. You can build your own catch box with scrap wood and attach it to the branch of a tree in a field or in your garden. Make sure that there are no people moving around the area, and that there are no bright lights or loud noises, such as a lawnmower.

Place the box upright, facing east for sunrise. Strap it securely to a branch and make sure the lid cannot be blown off by the wind. Clear the entrance and pathway of hanging branches or other obstructions. Tilt the box slightly forward to keep rainwater from flowing into the entrance.

Use bait to invite the bees to move

Keeping bees is hard work, but very satisfying. (Source: Pixabay)

in by painting the hive with propolis or melted beeswax, or binding old comb to the frames. A few drops of lemon essence at the entrance of the box may also attract them. According to John, honey doesn’t work and will only be stolen by other bees.

Remove the box about two weeks after a swarm has moved in and the queen has started laying eggs. The swarm will be more likely to stay then.

Once there are three brood frames full of comb, the swarm is ready to be transferred to a brood box. Move the box away at night.

Unwanted swarms

Sometimes a swarm finds a new home in a place where it is inconvenient for a home owner. On social media, one often sees a cry for help from people who need an unwanted swarm to be removed. “This is a service offered by bee-keepers – it takes time, experience and specialised equipment to perform an efficient removal operation,” says John. It needs to be done by a registered bee-keeper who has insurance if the bees should create any disturbance. It generally involves several trips so travel and time need to be considered when quoting for bee removal.

Funnel-method

In such an instance, it is best to use

the funnel method to channel the bees to a hive. Close all the entrances to the place where the bees have settled. Attach a screen of mesh or any other flexible material in the shape of a funnel with the open side to the only remaining entrance. Foraging bees will have to leave the nest out of the small hole at the bottom but won’t find their way back in again.

“It is unlikely that the queen will move out so you may have to kill her with the few remaining bees left behind with her,” says John.

Bees are calmed down by smoke so that they will not be aggressive when the hive is being inspected. (Source: Pixabay)

More information about the Honeywood Farm Bee Course is available at: www.honeywoodfarm.co.za

It is important to gain information and experience by attending a course before you attempt beekeeping. (Source: Pixabay)

References

Anderson, R.H., Buys, B., Johannsmeier, M.F. (2014). Byeboerdery in Suid-Afrika. Department van Landbou-tegniese Dienste Bulletin no. 394, 1978. Hersiene uitgawe. Beehive Cross Combs (and how to fix and prevent them). (n.d.) Dadant. Available at: https://www.dadant. com/learn/beehive-cross-combsand-how-to-fix-and-prevent-them/

Booysen, F. (2016) Catch boxes. Southern Beekeeping Association. Available at: https://beekeepers. co.za/catch-boxes/

Nasanov's gland. A Dictionary of Zoology. Encyclopedia.com. Available at: https://www.encyclopedia.com

Salkeld, A. (2022) Why do beekeepers use smoke? Buddha Bee Apiary. Available at: https://www. buddhabeeapiary.com/blog/why-dobeekeepers-use-smoke

Wikipedia (2022) Swarming (honey bee) Available at: https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarming_ (honey_bee)

Underhill, R. (2010) Bee transfer by funnel. The peace bee farmer. Available at: https://peacebeefarm.blogspot. com/2010/05/bee-transfer-by-funnel.html

Before buying a hive, you must look at the bees to make sure they are healthy and active. (Source: Pixabay)

While swarming, bees often cluster around the queen on a tree branch close to the original nest. (Source: Pixabay)

Fruit production part 3:

Pineapple in its crowning glory

by Maryna Steyn

Pineapples. Who does not enjoy the sweet and sour flesh from time to time? Freshly sliced, the yellow fruit is juicy and rich in vitamin C and fibre. It is a tropical fruit that is grown in many places over the world.

The fruit is used to make juice or eat raw, or in dishes like salads and deserts, or as a garnish with meat and pizza. In the Philippines, the leaves are used to make textiles and twine, and they are even used for medicinal purposes. By-products of fruit processing are wine or vinegar. Dried fruit waste can even be fed to livestock.

Pineapples originated from Guadeloupe in the Caribbean. Today they are produced in many places across the globe where there is a tropical climate. In Africa, Tanzania, Angola, and South Africa are the bigger role players.

Two varieties that show success in Africa are the smooth leaf Cayene (Hawaiian) and the thorny leaf Queen (Formosa).

Soil and climatic requirements

To grow pineapples, it is best to ensure that they are planted in sandy loam to clay loam soils. It is key that the soil drains well, so there should be enough organic material. The pH should be between 4,5 and 5,5.

The ideal temperature should be stable between 24 to 30 °Celsius.

The ideal rainfall for pineapple plants is 1 000 to 1 500 mm per year, with optimum conditions created when the water is evenly distributed throughout the year.

Soil preparation

To start the soil preparation, plough and harrow the designated field. You

should harrow it up to three times until a fine bed is created. Next, create furrows to serve as drainage channels for excessive water.

If it is an old field that is being replanted, first have the old plants uprooted, placed in a heap, and burned to use as compost.

Commercial farms require deep ploughing of 60 to 75 cm. Remember to leave enough space on the ridges so plants can still be accessed for harvesting and weeding.

Planting

Pineapples are usually propagated with cuttings. They are called suckers, slips, and crowns. Suckers are the parts that develop at the base of the leaves. Slips and crowns develop at the base or above the ground, or on top of the fruit.

Make sure you get the planting materials six to eight weeks after harvesting the plant from which the cuttings will come. These materials should be similar in size and type to promote uniform flowering and fruiting. Before the cuttings are planted, they need to be cured in sunlight for approximately one week. This helps to prevent infection and rotting.

22 to 24 months after crowns are planted, they will flower. For slips it takes 18 to 20 months, and suckers flower after 16 to 18 months.

Pineapples can be planted either in single or double rows.

For single row planting, space the plants 80 to 100 cm apart in rows 25 to 30 cm apart. For double rows, plant the pineapples 20 to 30 cm apart in a row, with 50 cm between the rows, and 80 to 100 cm between the double rows.

Source: University of Queensland.

Pineapples growing on the plant. (Source: Vecteezy)

Crown

Fertilisation

Planting a pineapple crop in fertile soil is more important than trying to make plants grow through fertiliser alone. The quantity of fertiliser that you apply will depend on the soil condition. Make sure to do a soil analysis where possible so you know what your field needs. You may choose to use both organic and inorganic fertilisers on your crop. Use the dosage recommendations from Table 1 as a fertiliser programme.

Fertiliser programme

The fruit turns yellow when it is ready for harvest. (Source: Vecteezy)

Pineapples are harvested by hand. Here workers are collecting a successful harvest (Source: Vecteezy)

It is common practice for pineapple growers to induce flowering though fertiliser to promote year-round production and uniform flowering and fruiting. This practice stabilises production and provides an income all year long.

Plant size determines when flowering should be induced.

Commercial farms induce flowering when the plants have at least 36 functional leaves or reached a height of 1,2 m in middle elevation and 1 m lower in lower elevation.

Calcium carbide (CaC2) can be used for this and gives approximately 60 to 70% flowering. Prepare the solution by

dissolving two kilogrammes of calcium carbide in 19 litres of water. Apply 30 ml onto the growing point of each pineapple. The pineapple will flower approximately 40 days after flowering was induced with fertiliser.

When the plant starts to flower, it makes these beautiful, spiked flowers that turn into the fruit. (Source: Vecteezy)

Sources: Arcelo, M.M. 2010. Pineapple production guide. Department of Agriculture - Bureau of Agricultural Research. Available: https://library.buplant.da.gov.ph/ images/1641883999Pineapple%20 %20Production%20Guide.pdf.

Table 1. Fertiliser recommended for small farms.

A movable conveyor assists in speeding up the harvesting process. Workers place the picked fruit on the conveyor that takes it to the truck .(Source: Vecteezy)

On the truck workers neatly pack the fruit to be transported to where it will be sorted and processed. (Source: Vecteezy)

Pineapples have many culinary uses. This includes being juiced for a drink, or sliced for a snack. (Source: Vecteezy)

by Annemarie Bremner

JCB debuts hydrogen combustion engine

JCB is planning to unveil their brand new hydrogen combustion engine in March at the Conexpo 2023 show in Las Vegas as part of the International Fluid Power Exposition (IFPE).

“The JCB engineering team has made enormous strides in a short space of time to develop a hydrogen internal combustion engine and it already powers a JCB prototype backhoe loader and a Loadall telescopic handler. As the first construction equipment company to develop a fully working combustion engine fuelled by hydrogen, I am delighted we are now able to present this technology on the international stage,” says JCB Chairman, Lord Bamford.

JCB has been responsible for a series of industry innovations on its ‘Road to Zero’. The company developed the world’s first battery-electric mini excavator and has been at the forefront of electric technology development to meet customers’ demands for zerocarbon products with its E-TECH range.

JCB’s commitment to reducing emissions goes back almost 25 years, and its latest diesel engines have already delivered a 97% reduction in NO x emissions and a 98% reduction in particulates since 1999. Today JCB’s dieselpowered machines also emit 50% less CO2 compared to those manufactured in 2010. JCB’s clean diesel engine technology will also be showcased on the stand in Las Vegas.

A team of 100 engineers has been working on the development for more than a year and the 50th JCB hydrogen combustion engine has now come off the production line as part of the development process.

JCB invested £100 million to produce these efficient hydrogen engines, and this investment is going full-steam ahead. (Source: JCB)

SentiV watches your crops

Drones have their place in watching crops, but what about an autonomous rolling watchdog also peeping under the leaves for problems? The SentiV scouting robot from the France-based company, Meropy, caught the eye at CES 2023 (Consumer Electronic Show) in Las Vegas.

SentiV is a scouting robot with sensors that highlights the variability within field crop plots and detects

JCB Chairman, Lord Bamford, with the new hydrogen engine.

The latest in agricultural technology from around the world

potential threats to crops. Its route can be plotted through any shape field, and it will go about its business quietly until the field is completely surveyed.

The information gathered is highlighted within variability maps, allowing farmers to plot any inputs daily, with precision.

Meropy says: “We develop SentiV for the people of the agricultural sector. Our goals are for a better farming profitability (input savings, improved yields and crop quality), a good quality of life for farmers (time saving and better working comfort), and environmental preservation (input reduction and less soil compaction).” (Source: Meropy)

Machine picks lettuce –slowly

A vegetable-picking robot that uses machine learning to identify and harvest a commonplace, but challenging, agricultural crop has been developed by engineers. For a human, the entire process takes a couple of seconds, but it is not so easy for a robot.

The ‘Vegebot’, developed by a team from the University of Cambridge, was initially trained to recognise and harvest iceberg lettuce in a lab setting. It has now been successfully tested in a variety of field conditions in cooperation with G’s Growers, a local fruit and vegetable co-operative.

Although the prototype is nowhere near as fast or efficient as a human worker, it demonstrates how the use of robotics in agriculture might be expanded, even for crops like iceberg lettuce which are particularly challenging to harvest mechanically.

“Every field is different, every head of lettuce is different,” said co-author Simon Birrell from Cambridge’s Department of Engineering. “But if we can make a robotic harvester work with iceberg lettuce, we could also make it work with many other crops.”

The Vegebot first identifies the ‘target’ crop within its field of vision, then determines whether a particular lettuce is healthy and ready to be harvested, and finally cuts the lettuce from the rest of the plant without crushing it so that it is ‘supermarket ready’.

The researchers developed and trained a machine learning algorithm on example images of lettuces. Once the Vegebot could recognise healthy lettuces in the lab, it was then trained in the field, in a variety of weather conditions, on thousands of real lettuces.

“We wanted to develop approaches that weren’t necessarily specific to iceberg lettuce so that they can be used for other types of above-ground crops,” said Iida, who leads the research team.

A robotic harvester could be trained to pick only ripe vegetables, and since it could harvest around the clock, it

could perform multiple passes on the same field, returning at a later date to harvest the vegetables that were unripe during previous passes.

Meet Smartcore, an autonomous soil sample collector

Collecting precise soil samples is essential for farmers because it determines the quantity and balance of nutrients available for crops, and can determine crop yields.

“Smartcore,” an autonomous robot developed by a pair of Purdue University College of Engineering graduates, is designed to collect accurate, repeatable soil samples in fields and bring them to the edge of the field for shipment to the lab.

Troy Fiechter and Drew Schumacher founded Rogo, officially Rogo Ag LLC, a startup to advance the technology and move it to the public. A video about the company and technology is available at https://youtu.be/RgigU1ckNtk .

“Smartcore helps farmers make better strategic decisions,” said Schu-

Reference: Simon Birrell et al. ‘A Field Tested Robotic Harvesting System for Iceberg Lettuce.’ Journal of Field Robotics (2019). DOI: 10.1002/ rob.21888

macher, Rogo’s president.

SmartCore uses a Bobcat skid steer chassis and navigates fields using boundary algorithms and a variety of obstacle detection sensors. It also is equipped with RTK GPS to ensure that soil samples are taken from the correct spot and can return every season within inches.

The largest and most common source of error in the soil testing process is with collecting the soil sample. Smartcore is unique in using a highspeed, self-cleaning hydraulic auger that collects soil to a precise depth.

“People often think that because you stick a probe 6 inches into the soil that means 6 inches of soil are extracted,” Schumacher said. “But a probe might plug up and you collect less than six inches. Or it might plug up and send a wad of dirt down into the rest of the soil. A lot of things can go wrong if you do not use the right equipment. Our depth is accurate within an eighth of an inch 100% of the time, and it is fully extracted every time.”

In traditional sampling practices, the variance in depth and location can lead to a sampling error as high as 20%. Errors can cause farmers to spend more than necessary on fertiliser, or under apply in certain areas.

“Farmers want to sample from the same location so they can understand how their soil is evolving,” Schumacher said. “If you don’t compare the same

soil site season to season, you are going to have a field that varies a lot. If you want to know what you added to the field and how it is changing the field, you have to compare apples to apples as much as possible.”

“We have seen more interest in what we are doing. It has started some good conversations that have been valuable,” he said. “We are always looking to serve more farmers and more retailers so we can continue to make a difference.” (Source: Purdue)

by Natasha Pansegrouw

From silkworms to silk garments Part 3: Silk harvesting

M any insects and spiders produce silk, which is essentially a solidified, viscous liquid secreted from specialised glands or orifices. The only significant source of silk for textile use is the silkworm larva, also known as the silk moth due to the two glands on either side of its body. As a textile material, silk can be found in two distinct forms: continuous filament yarn and staple yarn. There is a wide variation in the length of the filament, from about 300 metres to about 1 200 metres. Glycine, serine, alanine, and tyrosine are the primary amino acid constituents of this polymer.

Collecting the raw silk

The first step in making silk is to kill the insects inside the cocoons. The cocoons are steamed or baked to kill the insects inside. Reeling is a delicate process used to extract the silk fibre from the cocoons.

The delicate cocoons that result from

an early harvest are easily destroyed if the process is interrupted. However, the moth's emergence after a delayed harvest could ruin both the cocoon and the filament. Following collection, cocoons are sorted by a variety of criteria, including colour, size, fibre diameter, and uniformity. The size and consistency of the cocoon are two of the most important factors in determining its quality. Similarly, the finer the fibre, the better.

When heated in boiling water, the gummy substance that keeps the cocoon filament in place is released. In order to create the thread that is wound on a reel, the filaments from four to eight cocoons are heated, joined, and twisted. Whenever a cocoon is unwound, it is immediately replaced by a new cocoon. When processed, the resulting thread is known as “raw silk”, and it typically contains 48 individual silk fibres. The thread is continuous, and its fibres are much

longer than those used to spin cotton or wool, for example.

Silk composition

Silk is made up of long chains of amino acids — glycine and alanine, in particular linked together via peptide links and hydrogen bonding between parallel chains.

Raw silk's chemical make-up

Raw silk, in addition to sericin and fibroin, has the other components listed in Table 1, including mineral matter, traces of fat, colouring matter, and water.

NO. COMPONENT AMOUNT (%)

1 Sericin 15 to 25

2 Fibroin 62,5 to 67

3 Water 10 to 11

4 Salts 1 to 1,5

Table 1: Composition of raw silk.

Physical characteristics

Strong and resilient, silk has a tensile strength of 0,34 N/Tex to 0,39 N/Tex and an elongation at breaking point of 20% to 30% (Tenacity is the standard way of assessing the strength of textile products such as yarn and fibre ropes. Tenacity is measured by dividing the breaking load of the component by its mass per unit length and is expressed in N/tex in the International System of Units. Tex is a mass per unit length of 1g/km). It has a high natural resistance to creases and can bounce back

quickly after being folded or stretched. Silk is an extremely hygroscopic fibre, regaining between 10% and 15% of its original moisture content after being dried. It has a poor electrical conductivity and it's easy to carry, keeps you warm, and drapes well.

Its cross section is triangular, and it is a smooth, translucent fibre. The high sheen of continuous-filament silk is one of the reasons for its prestige.

Chemical characteristics

Cold, highly concentrated mineral

acids dissolve silk quickly and easily. Nitric acid, even in its diluted state, discolours silk yellow. Short periods of contact with cold, concentrated solutions of caustic alkalis appear to have no effect on silk. Strong zinc chloride solutions can break down silk. When exposed to sodium chloride for a short time, there is no effect.

The identification of fibres

The lustre of silk is exceptional. The triangular cross section can be examined under a microscope to confirm its identity. Scales do not form on silk as protein-based fibre. Silk can also be identified by dissolving it in a 59,5% to 70% sulphuric acid solution.

Collecting cocoons from the frame and delivering them to the buyer

The harvesting of cocoons from the mountage is an important task and the quality of the cocoons is affected by the season and method. Harvesting takes place 6 to 8 days after mounting.

If you put a cocoon that has a pupa inside it into boiling water, the pupa will die. The pupa is an excellent source of protein and can be sold locally as a protein source to generate additional income. (Source: pexels by Quang Nguyen Vinh)

If cocoons are harvested before the young silkworms inside have fully pupated, the delicate pupa inside may be damaged by the force of the harvesting tool, transportation, or the removal of

(Source: Pixabay by butterflyarc)

the floss (the floss of the cocoon is the thread that the silkworm first expels when making the cocoon, and is the cotton-like cocoon filament covering the outside of the cocoon). Because of this, the cocoon's interior becomes tainted and loses quality.

The harvesting process is not complete until the defective cocoons have been removed through cocoon sorting. Often only double cocoons, thin shelled cocoons, pierced cocoons, and unshaped cocoons are discarded in the silk reeling process.

Scores for cocoons

To protect the interests of both the farmer (the seller) and the silk reeler (the buyer), cocoons must be graded fairly and accurately.

Better-quality cocoons result in more money in the farmer's pocket, and the correct evaluation of cocoon quality is essential. For the silk reeling side, cocoon quality is also important from the perspective of securing profit, as it directly influences reeling efficiency and the quality of the raw silk.

Drying the cocoons

Cocoon drying, reduces the humidity of the pupa and cocoon for long-term storage to prevent mould and

in the process of being hand-sorted.

discoluration, and equalises the thread's loosening and tension when silk reeling, revealing the bivoltine cocoon's characteristics. Cocoon drying temperature, time, and degree of drying are all important for raw silk production.

Proper cocoon drying affects reeling efficiency and raw silk quality. The drying conditions may vary, but ideally by increasing the temperature to 110 °C within 30 minutes, maintaining it for 2 to 2,5 hours, and then decreasing it to 60 °C for 3 to 3,5 hours, the cocoon can be dried and reduced to 45% of its original weight in 5 to 6 hours.

On certain farms it is difficult for the drying cocoon equipment to increase the room temperature to 110°C, and sometimes drying takes longer than a day and is confirmed by touch, which is not proper drying.

The drying facilities' structure and external chimney height make cocoon insertion and removal difficult. Inadequate drying causes cocoon discoloration and mould, lowering raw silk quality. These risks need to be overcome for successful silk production.

References

Starovoytova, D. (2015). Mulberry and Silk Production in Kenya. Textile Science & Engineering. Volume 5. Pages 1-7.

SMEDA. (2020). Sericulture / Silk Production – Small Business. Ministry of Industries and Production (MoI&P) Government of Pakistan. Available at: https://smeda.org/ phocadownload/OTC_Documents/ Sericulture%20-%20Silk%20Production%20for%20Small%20Business.pdf

Duraiswamy, D. (2019). The Origin of Silk Production. Silk- Road Universities Networks Online Journal.

CGSpace. (2007). Sericulture in East Africa. Japan Association for International Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestry. Available at: https://www.jaicaf.or.jp/fileadmin/ user_upload/publications/FY2007/ report-2007_1_e.pdf

Cocoons

(Source: pexels by Quang Nguyen Vinh)

Cocoons are being placed inside a pot with boiling water. (Source: pexels by Quang Nguyen Vinh)

Boiling water releases the cocoon filament's gummy substance to make reel-wound thread. (Source: pexels by Quang Nguyen Vinh)

Don’t let your assets go up in

A brief look at fire management

F ire management is an important part of guaranteeing the safety of our property. Farmers are faced with the challenge of veld fires every year. The best they can do is to manage this difficult reality.

Several aspects must be considered when planning for the fire season, including the type of vegetation, the legal processes around fire, and not to burn the land excessively. The use of controlled fire can assist in ensuring that our structures are protected against undesired fires. Fire is a natural part of the ecosystem, and we try to safely reflect this in our environment, without risking damage to structures and natural resources.

Actions during veld fires

• Check the speed and direction of the wind, as these determine how far ahead your backfires must be to stop the fire.

• Determine the point at which you will stop the fire and send the persons tasked with this to that spot to do so.

• Move in sections that have already burnt as far as possible, particularly on hot days when whirlwinds occur. Such a whirlwind can cause

Make sure that you always know where you are and where the section is that has already burnt so that you can go there if necessary.

• Do not move forward if the fire is not completely extinguished behind you.

• Always fight the outside edges of the fire first; inside fires can be extinguished later.

• Make sure that you know where the outer flanks of the fire are.

• Always try to work in teams of three hoses, then you are usually sure that the fire behind you is extinguished.

• Always check your vehicle’s heat gauge.

• Always make sure that enough people are involved with the backfire to stop the fire so that a second fire does not start. Only the fire chief can decide where a backfire is to be made.

• Always wear protective clothing and masks.

• Take enough drinking water with and regularly consume water.

• Inform landowners threatened by the fire in time so that they can remove their stock.

Prevent veld fires in this way

• Make and maintain your firebreaks in time every year. Every landowner and tenant is legally obliged to do so. Make sure they are free of flammable material – a bush slasher does not create a firebreak.

• Speak to workers regularly and teach them the risks of open fires.

• Make sure those areas where food is prepared on open fires are clear.

• You are advised to make wide firebreaks around your workers’ homes.

• Do not do the following on days when there is a strong wind:

- Use cutting wheels near dry grass.

- Weld in the open (gates, windmills, straining posts, et cetera).

- Grade roads with a grader on stony ground.

- Mow with bush slashers.

- Grind feed.

- Make headlands and burn fields.

• A tractor that has done light work for long periods and is suddenly used for heavy work, can emit sparks from its exhaust, which could cause a fire.

• If you have to do any burning, do it early in the morning.

• Clear the shoulders of secondary roads and keep the grass short so that backfires can be made easily.

To-do list

• Reduce fuel loads and avoid uncontrolled alien vegetation infestation on your land.

• During the cooler months, controlled or prescribed burning is sometimes used and may decrease the likelihood of serious hotter fires. Controlled burning must be overseen by fire control authorities for regulations and permits. Please contact your local municipality or fire brigade.

• Share your plan with your neigh-

bours and fire protection officer if you have one.

• Make sure your firebreaks are in place and that they are wide and long enough to stop a fire.

• Discuss fire insurance with your insurance broker.

• Make sure contact numbers of fire and rescue services are easily accessible.

• Stay in touch; keep communication lines open. WhatsApp, text messages or radios can be used.

• Decide beforehand who is responsible for what. When a fire breaks out there is no time to allocate responsibilities; everyone must know exactly what they must do. Meet regularly to update your procedures.

References

Furness, A. and Muckett, M., 2007. Introduction to fire safety management. Routledge.

Teie, William C. Fire manager's handbook on veld and forest fires: strategy, tactics and safety. South African Institute of Forestry, 2003.

A drip torch is used to light a backfire. (Jacques Marais, 2020)

Taking good soil samples:

by Natasha Pansegrouw

Tips for small-scale farmers

Successful farmers regularly take samples of their soil to determine the fertility or nutrient levels of their land and make educated decisions about the best way to manage it. Taking a soil sample is a straightforward process that requires little in the way of expensive or specialised equipment.

The first thing that has to be done is to figure out which parts of the field need to have samples taken. The easiest way is to use a soil map or search for regions of the field that have varying colours or textures. After determining which locations are to be tested, the farmer should use a shovel or spade to dig a small hole approximately 15 to 20 centimetres deep in each of those places. Fill a clean bucket with a strip of soil taken from the top to the bottom of the hole.

It is best not to mix the different samples and mark each one with the position it was taken from. If a composite sample is required, mix the different samples on a clean surface and, then take a sample weighing around one kilogramme and put it in a bag or container that you have labelled.

You do not need to remove roots that are in the soil. The sample must be taken or sent to a laboratory so that it can be examined there.

The label must be secured either on the inside or outside of the bag showing the following information:

• The collector (if it is not the farmer), as well as the name of the farmer, and his address

• The date the sample was taken

• The field and place in the field it

was taken from

• What kind of crop is intended to be planted

• What has been grown in the field in the past

• What fertilisers, pesticides, or herbicides have been used

• Where the water comes from (rain, a well, or a borehole)?

The handling of samples

Prevent the samples from drying out by placing them first in paper or plastic bags and then in a cooler bag. Do not leave samples exposed in the field or in a vehicle on days that are extremely hot. Neither should you expose samples to direct sunlight or any other source of heat. Always remember to store your samples in a cool location. Transport samples using cool boxes or insulated containers, then store them in a cool place or in a refrigerator at 10 to 15 degrees Celsius, and send them through the mail or deliver them by hand within a week or as soon as possible.

What will be looked for in the soil samples?

In the laboratory, the soil sample will be analysed for a variety of nutrients and characteristics to determine their levels. The farmer will be able to obtain information about the fertility of the soil from the results of the tests, which will assist him or her in making educated decisions regarding the most effective way to manage the soil.

The collection of soil samples is an essential component of the management of a small-scale farm. The

procedure is not overly complicated; it can be carried out with a minimum investment of time and money, and the results can be extremely helpful in determining the fertility of the ground.

For more information on where to send your soil samples, contact:

Botswana

Soils Engineers Botswana Pty Ltd

Address: Mathangwane Road, Plot 463, Gaborone West Ext 4, Botswana

Contact number: +26-73-903-252

E-mail: soils@btcmail.co.bw

Namibia

MIST Agricultural Laboratory

Address: P.O Box 431, Rundu, Namibia

Contact number: +26-481-577-6112

E-mail: admin@mistal.com.na

Zimbabwe

Windmill Pvt Ltd

Address: 21 Coventry Road

Workington Harare

Contact number: +26-324-2753784-9

References:

Agricultural Research Council.

(2023) SOIL ANALYSIS. ARC-Institute for Soil, Climate and Water. Available at: https://www.arc.agric. za/Advisory%20Services/Soil%20

and%20chemical%20safety.pdf

How to take a single soil sample

Go to the place you want to take the soil sample

Carefully remove any surface vegetation to expose bare soil

Dig a hole, the depth and width of the spade

1 2 3 4

Use the spade to cut a thin slice of soil from one side of the hole

(Source: ARC)

5

Place approximately 1 kg of the soil in a sample bag

6

Do not mix soils from different places, even in the same field, unless a composite soil sample is required

7

Use strong plastic or canvas bags that will not tear easily and mark each bag carefully

8

Submit your samples to the ARC laboratory

ARC-Institute for Soil, Climate and Water

Farm management and planning: Part 1

by Louis de Jager, Kameelboom Akademie, Comprehensive practical farmer training

Planning is one of the most important aspects of managing any business. This is especially true for farms and agribusinesses due to their complexity and the inherent uncertainties (such as weather and commodity prices) associated with agriculture. It is essential that farm managers take time to adequately plan for all aspects of their businesses. Farm families are encouraged to adopt a whole farm planning approach as they develop strategies for the future success of their businesses.

Introduction

Every landowner and every tenant farmer in this country owes it to himself and the future generations to protect and utilise the natural agricultural resources, namely soil, vegetation, water, and water resources, in such a way to ensure sustainable production. This is also known as optimal resource utilisation.

The following three requirements give an indication of what optimal resource utilisation actually means:

• The natural resources should be utilised in such a way that it will be retained, conserved and even improved.

• The farming practices must be in harmony with the nature of the natural resources.

• The utilisation of the resources must be economical.

It should be the objective and ideal of every farmer to comply with these requirements.

Optimal resource utilisation and farm planning

To fulfil the ideal of optimal resource utilisation, the farmer has several aids at his disposal. One of the physical aids that can be applied to utilise the natural resources optimally, is farm planning.

Where crop farming is of no importance, farm planning will be about the provision of facilities for good veld management and also to prevent and to combat erosion.

On a properly planned farm, veld management can be administered in such a way that the physiological needs of plants will be taken into consideration, which can lead to a good and vigorous veld cover.

Farm planning makes it possible to protect the soil and water resources and these protected resources furnish economic benefits in the long run because sustainable production will be possible. Increased financial results can even be obtained in the short run, because the provision of the necessary

facilities makes it possible for better veld management as well as better utilisation of the veld.

What is farm planning?

Farm planning is a concept that can be interpreted in different ways. It varies from the provision of the minimum facilities to implement the most primitive form of veld management to the provision of sufficient facilities to implement veld management with all the herds on the farm to the highest standard.

As an example, it was assumed that most of the farms in the Northern Cape in South Africa are already planned. A study showed that it varies from totally incomplete to complete according to the present norms of the Department of Agriculture. Many farmers are satisfied that their farms are planned, but according to farm size and grazing capacity, they have only half of the camps that they really need.

Several matters have to be considered when starting with farm planning.

Use the simplest veld management to provide the best farm facilities.

(Source: Pixabay by Nicky)

BUTTERFLY & WAFER VALVES

CAMLOCK FITTINGS

CLAMPS

COMPRESSION & SADDLES

FITTINGS FOR PVC PIPES

FLANGES & JIS

MALLEABLE FITTINGS

MULTI RANGE FITTINGS

POLY PROP FITTINGS

QUICK COUPLING FITTINGS

QUICK COUPLING ACCESORRIES

RAIN BIRD

VALVES & BRASS FITTINGS

TANK CONNECTORS

SIME GUNS

VYRSA

Fences, both primary and secondary, are used to separate grazing areas for livestock. (Source: Pixabay by Bruno /Germany)

A few physical considerations are: Separation of veld types

It is essential that the existing fences should be identified on an aerial photograph or map of the farm. Use this map to indicate the different veld types that are found on the farm and also how effectively these veld types are separated by the existing fences.

Veld types should be separated because animals utilise the different veld types in different ways and therefore each veld type should be managed according to its own requirements. When the different veld types are indicated on the farm map, it should be used as a framework for further planning. Primary fences separate different veld types and secondary fences subdivide the specific veld type into smaller camps.

It sometimes happens in practice that problems are encountered to separate veld types on a specific farm.

Here are some examples: Fences were constructed without taking the separation of veld types in account. The problem can be solved by removing that fence and reconstructing it in the correct place, but farmers are usually not willing to do that because of the cost implications.

incorporated in a larger camp with palatable grazing, but not vice versa. Remember that the farm plan only gives an indication of where the fence should be constructed, but in the actual construction the fence must be placed as close as possible to the transition line.

It sometimes happens that different veld types alternate over a short distance. Such heterogeneous veld should be separated from more homogeneous veld and should then be treated according to the most vulnerable veld type in that camp.

Sometimes the position of a certain veld type in respect of water sources is very difficult to separate from other veld types because of the cost impli-

Each veld type should be managed differently because animals use them differently. (Source: Pixabay by Lynn Greyling)

It is not always practical to separate veld types effectively, but it is essential to put a fence as close as possible to the transition between veld types. A small portion of unpalatable grazing might be

cations to supply water to that camp. The value of that specific veld and its vulnerability should be compared to the cost of supplying water.

The provision of a sufficient number of camps

Make provision for sufficient camps for all the herds on the farm to administer good veld management. Determine the number of herds on the farm as well as the extent to which the number varies from time to time. The herd number varies considerably, but with herd sizes of around 50 LSUs (large stock units, namely cattle) veld and stock management will be reasonably simple.

For sustainable production, landowners should protect and use soil, vegetation, water, and water resources responsibly. Your livestock should not deplete all the natural resources in each pasture. (Source: Pixabay))

In next month's edition of Farm management and planning part 2, we shall look at camp sizes, how to determine it, veld management, and the cost and financing of farm planning. Stay tuned for more.

Tsebo Kenya's farm-to-fork initiative reaps sustainable and refreshing benefits

Supplied by Tsebo Solutions Group

As part of the Tsebo Solutions Group, Tsebo Kenya shares its parent organisation's environmentally responsible ethos and commitment to managing its environmental footprint by employing water and energy saving and cutting down on waste and emissions across all its operations.

Food production represents one of the world's most environmentally damaging industries, considering the waste that goes into growing, packaging, and transporting food. Tsebo Kenya embarked on a farm-to-fork initiative to source locally and now ensures optimally fresh produce while substantially lowering its carbon footprint.

The challenge

As with other countries in the world, Kenya has been experiencing rampant food inflation, making it increasingly challenging to retain the level of quality and cost-effective pricing for which Tsebo is known. At the same time, Tsebo Kenya's chefs expressed a need to update their menus with fresh, seasonal fruit and vegetables. However, they found that their legacy wholesale suppliers were inconsistent in their provision in terms of quality and timing.

The solution

In line with Tsebo Solutions Group's renewed sustainability drive, Tsebo Kenya realised that by circumventing the middleman and going directly to the source, they could ensure the provision of the best quality products at the most reasonable prices. By initiating a farm-to-fork programme, they would not only provide cost-saving and reliable provision for Tsebo Kenya's catering solutions, but it would also have direct benefits for the local farming communities in which they operate.

What is farm-to-fork?

The farm-to-fork (also known as farmto-table) movement encourages the use of natural, locally produced foods over imported or processed alternatives. It supports community-based food systems by buying directly from growers to support local economies and farming communities that observe sustainable farming practices.

This helps to decrease the physical distance produce needs to travel, thereby reducing the environmental impact of transportation. It also helps to create sustainable food systems that support ethical labour practices, community upliftment, and environmental conservation. For a commercial caterer

like Tsebo Kenya, farm-to-fork allows auditable traceability for produce as it moves through the food supply chain.

Tsebo Kenya initiated relationships with dependable local suppliers, markets, and farms. All fruit and vegetables (ranging from potatoes, carrots, and spinach to lichis, apples, and tomatoes) are sourced from suppliers at the local markets or, for bulk quantities, directly from local farms for distribution by Tsebo to its client sites.

All suppliers are thoroughly vetted to ensure the quality and freshness of their organic produce. Tsebo Kenya's Health and Safety Manager and procurement teams work closely with the relevant chefs to ensure that an auditing process is followed, particularly when it comes to bulk suppliers who need to provide consistent quantities and quality.

Local farmers are given guidelines to help them consistently meet Tsebo's high expectations for freshness, quality, and quantity in terms of ripeness levels, size of produce, and packaging, among other stipulations.

Chefs inspect the local markets and identify suppliers that produce fresh, seasonal fruit and vegetables that will revitalise their dishes and allow them to create inspiring seasonal menus.

This is how …

Botswana

Supplier testimonial

"I met one of Tsebo's sourcing people at the Kagio market. They bought 100 kg spinach and 80 kg kale from me. This was 80% of my stock, and I was overjoyed. The quantities they have been sourcing from my farm have increased threefold as they now buy 500 kg spinach and 350 kg kale weekly.

I am unable to meet their demand and now buy from neighbouring farms, thus empowering more mothers like me. This has allowed me to contribute to the household's financial needs and reduce my husband's financial strain.

“I am proud to be associated with Tsebo and hope they can grow their business more to empower more mothers like me," says Rose Mburu, Kirinyaga County, Kenya.

Benefits and results

The relationship between Tsebo Kenya and local farmers has yielded symbiotic benefits for both Tsebo, its communities, and its clients, as well as a reduced environmental impact.

The four main items currently being sourced in metric tonnes per week are:

• Potatoes: 5 tonnes

• Watermelons: 5 tonnes

• Pineapples: 5 tonnes

• Spinach: 5 tonnes

For Tsebo, the benefits of being able to procure fresh, higher-quality fruit and vegetables were immediately obvious to clients through inspired, frequently updated menus using seasonal ingredients.

Other benefits include:

• Faster supply and on-demand procurement of produce.

• Strong and sustainable relationships with local communities.

• A competitive edge in the market –procuring the best quality products at a fair price.

• A seven percent reduction in procurement costs.

• Environmental benefits and a lower carbon footprint.

• Regular demand helps farmers prioritise which crops to focus on and reduces waste.

• By prioritising small, organic farmers, mostly women-owned enterprises or cooperatives, small farmers can grow their businesses and receive fair prices for their produce.

• Tsebo facilitates the development of farmers' businesses by teaching them how to upscale, deliver on time and achieve compliance with health, safety, and quality standards.

What's next:

The next phase of the farm-tofork initiative is to provide additional training for the suppliers at a grassroots level. Tsebo aims to partner with small-scale farmers to help them grow their businesses in a financially sound and sustainable way. The aim now is also to source animal protein from local suppliers, which will necessitate additional training to meet strict health and safety protocols.

By developing a local food supply chain, Tsebo Kenya has reduced its carbon footprint and improved the reliability and freshness of produce used in its kitchens while significantly and sustainably contributing to the livelihoods of small-scale farmers in the communities in which it operates.

Herb and spice production in Africa Part 2: Why Africa is the place to grow

by Maryna Steyn

Herbs and spices are important commodities for different reasons. Not only do they serve as an important source of income for farmers, but they are important substances for use in foods and medicines. Therefore, farming with herbs or spices can be an excellent investment for African growers.

Herbs are generally identified as the leaves of non-woody plants that are used as an aromatic supplement. Spices, on the other hand, comes from the roots, fruits, seeds, rhizomes, stems, leaves, bark, and flowers. Herbs are usually fresh or dried, chopped, or whole. Spices are usually dried and take many forms such as crushed or ground to a powder.

With the growing population, the demand for aromatics will continue to grow alongside food production such as fruits and vegetables.

Starting a spice or herb farm has the following benefits:

• There is a high demand for spices which makes it easy to market.

• The operation is simple to start.

• Value can easily be added to increase revenue.

• Intercropping between other crops such as bananas can double production on a limited space.

• Spice and herb farms are easy to operate, even from a distance while living elsewhere.

It is important to note that there are also risks involved in starting a herb and spice farm. As with any crop, an entire harvest can easily be lost due to weather conditions or acts of nature such as drought. Input costs can be high, especially if fake products or the right products in the wrong quantity are used.

The biggest risk involves the lack of qualified or skilled management and employees. The lowest risk is the price fluctuations between peak season and off-season production.

Growing herbs and spices in Africa is a hidden opportunity

Due to the multiple uses these plants can have, herbs and spices have been a successful economic investment for many growers. Spice has proven itself as a lucrative business. Saffron, for instance, remains more expensive than gold.

Despite the opportunity that farming with these botanicals have, Africa still produces less than 10% of spices worldwide. The countries that are mainly responsible for production include Nigeria, Madagascar, Morocco, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Cameroon, and Ghana.

Nigeria and Cameroon fall into the top ten global producers of ginger, and Kenya and Tanzania remain in the top

six positions for clove production.

During the 2020 production year, 5 955 838 tonnes of spices were produced, but it is only a fraction of the potential yield that can be achieved. But to put this number in context, the spice crops counted in this calculation is set out in the table below.

Africa is suitable for herb and spice production

Africa’s wide array of climates makes the continent ideal for spice and herb production. Certain areas are more suitable for certain types of spices than others.

There are three categories of spice, namely tropical spices, subtropical spices, and temperate spices.

The production of spice crops in Africa 2020

Coriander seedlings are first grown in a tray and then transplanted. (Source: pixabay)

Botswana

Herbs are dried upside-down after being washed. Drying preserves the flavour of the plant and ensures that they do not wilt or spoil. (Source: Vecteezy)

Tropical spices

Tropical spices need high temperatures and ample humidity. Low temperatures can easily destroy these plants. Some examples include ginger, turmeric, black pepper, cinnamon, kokan galangal, cardamon, and cloves.

Subtropical spices

Subtropical spices ae characterised by three seasons: winter, summer, and monsoon season. These spices require the cold winters for their early growth stage and high summer temperatures for their reproductive stage. Examples include cumin, fennel, coriander, fenugreek, onion, and garlic.

Temperate spices

These spices tolerate low temperatures and frost, but high temperatures damage plants. These include thyme, saffron, savoy, caraway, and asafoetida.

It is therefore important that every grower first research which spices will fare best in his climate, and the soil requirements for the specific spices.

Many herbs and spices can be grown in Africa

There are more than 500 herbs and spice varieties worldwide. Internationally speaking, there are 50 spices of global importance, but in Africa, there are other lesser-known aromatics that are popular in local cuisine. The hidden opportunity lies in the fact that, apart from the spices mentioned in the table, many others that originated from South America, the Caribbean, and Asia have been grown successfully in Africa. Research and knowledge of the climate will ensure that their cultivation will succeed. An added advantage is that farmers can grow the produce organically.

Here is a list of some of the spices that can be grown in Africa: Ajwain, cardamon, chilli, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, cumin, ginger, hyssop, iru, kan kan kan, mace, nutmeg, oregano, paprika, pepper, poivre de penja (a type of pepper), saffron, sesame, sumac, thyme, turmeric, za’atar.

Sources:

10 most popular African herbs and spices (2023) WHAT TO EAT IN AFRICA?

TasteAtlas. Available at https://www. tasteatlas.com/most-popular-herbsand-spices-in-africa

How to plan, start and profit from a Spice Farm in Africa (no date). Africa

Business Plans. Available at https:// africabizplans.com/free-business-ideas/ how-to-start-a-spice-farm-in-africa

Iwuoha, J.-P.N. (2017) Spices – how African entrepreneurs can build a business from this old but lucrative product, Spices – How African Entrepreneurs Can Build A Business From This Old But Lucrative Product. Smallstarter Africa. Available at https://www.smallstarter. com/browse-ideas/how-to-start-aspice-business-in-africa/

Knoema (2020) The production of spices in Africa, World Data Atlas. Available athttps://knoema.com/data/agricultureindicators-production+africa+spices Spices and Condiments: Classification based on climate requirement of the crop (no date). Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute. Available at http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/ page/view.php?id=105643

Flowering ginger. (Source: Joris Neyt on Pexels)

by Tapuwa Mashangwa

Part 4

African agribusiness companies can still grow

They say that money makes the world go round, a statement which also holds true for agriculture. Every step in production requires some form of monetary use, thus agribusinesses are influenced by a myriad of economic factors that either spur or limit growth.

Agribusinesses participating in the international market are affected by prices and exchange rates. According to Snell (2020), the price of an item in international markets consists of four components – the price of the item leaving a nation’s border in either processed or non-processed form, the cost of transporting the item to an importing market, any trade tariffs and taxes applied by the importing country, and the exchange rate. It is therefore imperative for agribusinesses to first be aware, raise or transfer the costs these four factors involve.

The effect of trade restrictions on agribusiness cannot be underestimated. A tariff or duty is a tax imposed by one country on the goods and services from another country. The “tax” can be fully or partially passed onto the consumer in the importing nation, or can be borne by the seller. Sub-Sahara African nations can also impose quotas, limiting the volume of goods that can enter a country or put in place a tariff rate quota, which allows goods at a certain level to come into a country with a lower or no tariff, while assessing a higher tariff on goods above a

certain level. These tariffs or duties determine production objectives or quantities of corresponding agribusiness sectors affected by the restrictions.

The income per capita in each SubSaharan country varies. Consumers in higher income developing countries can afford to buy higher valued food items for example one would purchase meat instead of bread in a higher income developing country. For agribusinesses that are dependent on consumer trends, their product offerings would thus differ and may be limited by these facts.

The economic influence of governments is huge. Start-up agribusinesses usually need financial assistance to attend trade missions or trade shows, do market analysis, and access funding. If governments can provide funding for various programmes that look at income support, risk management, and educational and trade marketing assistance, the growth of agricultural participants can improve.

One of the common areas in which agribusinesses suffer in SSA is poor transportation infrastructure such as roads, railways, and waterways. Transportation infrastructure has a direct and indirect effect on agricultural performance. Food may fail to be delivered on time, or with the same quality as when it was prepared, especially in the case of perishable foods.

In the end the lack of infrastructure may lead to higher food costs as

suppliers incur higher fuel and vehicle maintenance costs which are billed to product buyers and in turn consumers.

Remuneration in the agricultural sector in most Sub-Sahara African countries is poor in spite of how labour intensive agricultural production is. Poor remuneration and unfavourable immigration policies, especially for countries dependent on foreign labour, give rise to labour strikes and resignations which destabilise consistent production. As business improves, more and more farms and companies will turn to ― as they already are ― more mechanised and automated systems.

Government spending towards the health sector, particularly when it comes to pandemic management, has had a tremendous effect on agriculture. Production, processing or value addition, trade volumes, and trade patterns can be influenced and disrupted by the spread of infectious diseases as observed by the effects of the recent coronavirus. A sickly labour force cannot produce results, thus now more than ever Sub-Sahara African governments should play a proactive role in ensuring the agricultural labour force is healthy.

The Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations and other sources estimate that overall food production will need to increase by 70% or more by 2050 to accommodate a 30% increase in global population and

Source: Pixabay

income growth. Nations with abundant agricultural resources, marketing infrastructure, and favourable trade policies will be in a position to take advantage of the growing global demand for food. Despite the challenges that Sub-Sahara African agribusinesses face, they have a lot working in their favour to place them on par with companies in first world countries. If national, regional, and international agricultural policies can be modified in their favour, growth is limitless.

References

Snell, W. (2020) Economic Factors

Affecting Agricultural Trade. Available at: https://agecon.ca.uky.edu/ files/economic_factors_affecting_agricultural_trade.pdf

Factors affecting agriculture. Geography Revision. 2008 – 2023. Available at: https://geography-revision.co.uk/ gcse/agriculture/factors-affecting

-agriculture/#:~:text=Subsidies% 2C%20commodity%20prices%20 and%20immigration,major%20economic%20factors%20affecting%20 farming

Bowman, M. S., and D. Zilberman. 2013. Economic factors affecting diversified farming systems. Ecology and Society 18(1): 33. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES05574-180133

Demeke, M., Kiermeier, M., Sow, M., and Antonaci, L. Agriculture and food insecurity risk management in Africa. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (2016) Available at: https://www.fao.org/3/i5936e/ i5936e.pdf

Kargbo, J. M. (2011) The effects of macroeconomic factors on South African agriculture. Pages 22112230. Available at: https://doi. org/10.1080/00036840600735374

McArthur, J. W., Sachs, J. D. (2018) Agriculture, Aid, and Economic Growth in Africa. The World Bank Economic Review, Volume 33, Issue 1, February 2019, Pages 1–20. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/ wber/lhx029

Plastic use in agriculture

–Part 3

by Tapuwa Mashangwa

One of the key challenges that plastic use in agriculture presents is the process of its disposal. Plastic does not break down naturally, therefore if not handled properly, it can pollute natural systems, such as the soil, plants, rivers and oceans, all of which play a role in various agricultural production systems.

The optimisation of the use of plastic on the farm is not easy to implement in many situations due a myriad of factors such as the lack of time, difficulty to invest in a good equipment, lack of information, and other priorities on the farm. However, despite these setbacks, for agriculture to thrive and for the existence of a balance between plastic use and its effects, opportunities that may be pro -

vided by the reduction, recycling and reuse of plastic cannot be overlooked.

The reduction of plastic use on the farm can be done by minimising or avoiding the packaging of the inputs of the farm. For example, farmers can use bulk fetrilizer instead of fertiliser in bags. Another method that can work is by using an agricultural technique that does not use plastic or reduce its use in the process of production.

According to the document, Reducing the plastic footprint of agriculture (2021), reuse of plastic on the farm if used correctly, without damage, can be employed in the use of tarpaulins. These can be reused from one year to the next. Sometimes plastic products cannot be used again after the first use for the same function, but can be

(Source: sierraclub.org)

used for other purposes on the farm. For example, in Poland, film from covering silage for dairy cows is very often reused as protection in grain handling and storing.

The recycling of plastic can be done though six steps. First, the discarded plastic must be neat, dry, clean and as compacted as possible. It is best stored in a dry corner of a barn or outdoors on a pellet off the ground. It is advisable to keep grit and dirt off it. Air within the plastic can be removed by placing a weight on top.

The second step is in finding an ideal location. The area is best centrally located from where the plastic is collected and spacious enough to store the material collected and equipment. It should also allow for the easy move

ment of transport and people. Thirdly, to attract recycling companies. In the cases where the agribusiness is small, it is advisable to recruit other farmers so as to increase the quantity of plastic to be collected.

In some cases, farmers bring their plastics to a central location.

Plastic buyers would have to be identified right from the start of the programme to allow contributors to be aware of the requirements to meet for the plastic to be delivered.

Lastly, the plastic collectors may be able to access recycling subsidies. Agencies or municipalities interested in conserving landfill space or reducing pollution may be able to offset costs of the programme incurred by training, transportation, compaction, et cetera.

When it comes to the reuse of plastic, some plastic can be cut or physically altered for other uses. According to Clarke (1996), plastic film (wrap) can be used in pillows. Current materials for pillows include straw and ground-up rubber tires. Also, feed bags can be reused two to three times if they are in good condition.

Plastic agricultural grade film from bags, tubes and sheets can be reused for covering piles of wood and hay, machinery, and for protective liners for horizontal silos. The number of times the plastic can be reused will depend on the severity of tears and holes in the plastic.

An alternative that agribusinesses could look at is the use of biodegradable plastic. An area of use for biodegradable plastic is for example in mulching. According to Agriplasticscommunity.com it is an option that could be sustainable because it is less invasive, greener and helps to significantly reduce the quantity of agricultural waste. However, farmers should keep some factors in mind, such as regulations that allow the use of biodegradable mulching.

The proper use of plastic can be spurred by the collaborative participation of policymakers, environmentalists, researchers, industries and farmers’ organisations. These participants have to work together to find a good balance between economic interests and environmental challenges.

References

Thibodeaux, J. Recycling agricultural plastic is growing industry. (2015) Available at: https://greensourcedfw.org/articles/recyclingagricultural-plastic-growing-industry

James, B., Trovati, G., Peñalva, C., Czech, L., Mendioroz, I., Miličić, V. EIP-AGRI Focus Group. (2021) Reducing the plastic footprint of agriculture. Available at: https:// ec.europa.eu/eip/agriculture/sites/ default/files/eip-agri_fg_plastic_ footprint_minipaper_d_final.pdf

Minimising Plastic Waste on Farm – Reduce, Reuse & Recycle. (2019) TECHNICAL NOTE TN724. ELEC. Available at: https://www.fas.scot/ downloads/tn724-minimising-plastic-waste-on-farms/

Clarke, S. (1996) Recycling Farm Plastic Films. Available at: http:// omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/95-019.htm

Polycarbonate. (2022) Available at: https://www.bpf.co.uk/plastipedia/ polymers/Polycarbonate.aspx

Source: Pixabay

Source: Pixabay

Prosopis part 3: Control the prosopis invasion

Urgent action is needed to stop the rapid spread of the invasive alien plant, prosopis, that has already encroached 1,8 million hectares of South African rangeland. At the present growth rate of eighteen percent per year, the size of the infested rangeland doubles every five to eight years.

“The rapid spread of prosopis in South Africa is a major catastrophe,” says Ken Coetzee of Conservation Management Services. “It is clear is that the problem is not being effectively addressed as it should be, and that many millions of hectares of grazing rangelands, rivers, wetlands and groundwaters are at risk of transforming rangelands to useless, environmentally damaged prosopis monocultures.”

Ken believes the first step towards the effective control of the prosopis invasion is to improve awareness about the problem and to get landowners to see the need to control new infestations before an area is totally encroached and very difficult and expensive to clean up.

“Prosopis is notoriously difficult to control because if it is merely damaged through inadequate removal, it will simply resprout from the base again to

form a dense multi-stemmed tree with two or three times as many flowers producing seeds for further invasion.”

Mechanical control

The process involves the following:

Lightly infested areas

It is best to start by eliminating light infestations where single or only a few plants occur in small patches. This can be done by hand pulling seedlings and chopping off larger saplings just below the ground level with a spade or mattock or pick-axe. By doing so, partially invaded areas can be cleared and maintained. This will stop the encroachment from spreading.

Denser areas

Clearing small patches will isolate densely encroached areas, and clearing around the edges will help to shrink it. Over time, the denser encroachments can be cleared completely.

Cutting

The trunks must be cut down as close to the ground as possible. Using a paintbrush, every cut stem must be

by Tisha Steyn

painted with a suitable, registered herbicide that will kill the stumps and roots and stop resprouting. Check with the herbicide suppliers or agricultural co-ops for the best herbicide to use for prosopis. Care must be taken not to spill herbicide on other indigenous plants, because these will also be killed.

Maintenance

The cleared areas must be revisited repeatedly to ensure that any regrowth, either from resprouting stems or seeds that germinated, are removed. The initial control of denser infestations is labour intensive and expensive, but diligent maintenance will reduce the cost of every follow-up action. If follow-up is neglected, the money spent on the initial clearing will be money down the drain.

Biological control

Goats are used to help control the spread of prosopis in Texas. These animals eat more seedpods than any other livestock or even game species. Since few seeds survive the goat’s digestive system, it prevents them from germinating.

Alien plants become naturalised or adapted to their environment, which

The prosopis is very adaptable to arid conditions, but can tolerate of up to 500 mm of rain per year. (Photo: Pixabay)

leads to them to flourish in the absence of natural enemies in their new host region.

“The biological control of invasive plants involves the deliberate use of these natural plant enemies that are specially collected from the area of origin of the invasive plant,” explains Ken.

“By introducing these natural plant enemies, it is sometimes possible to decrease and even completely eradicate invasive alien plants.”

Biocontrol in Southern Africa that has been proved to be successful, includes the use of cochineal (Dactylopius austrinus) on the prickly pear (Opuntia ficus indica). The cochineal bug was introduced from Central America, where the prickly pear originated, to curb its spread. In some areas, prickly pear has been completely eradicated using this insect.

Because the invasive plant’s nemesis also doesn’t have natural enemies in the host country, care must be taken to ensure that these biological control agents are specific to the host plant that you want to control because they may attack closely related indigenous plants and lead to their demise.

Plant Protection Research Institute

It is the task of the Plant Protection Research Institute (PPRI) of the Agricultural Research Council of South Africa to research biocontrol agents.

Potential biocontrol agents are carefully screened in quarantine conditions. Exhaustive trials ensure that the agent is host-specific and therefore safe to use on problem plants. “The procedure of screening a potential biocontrol agent is unfortunately a time-consuming and lengthy process that is rather expensive,” says Ken.

“Once cleared and declared safe for introduction, successful biocontrol agents can become the most costeffective method of alien vegetation control and, in some cases, may result in the complete eradication of the problem plant.”

Biocontrol is not a miracle quick-fix option, as the process takes time to develop. It cannot replace manual or mechanical control. “Biocontrol should rather be introduced simultaneously to assist with the overall control strategy.”

The PPRI can be contacted regarding the acquisition of approved biocontrol agents for release on invasive alien plants.

Biocontrol method

The seed-feeding beetles Algorobius prosopis and Neltumius arizonensis have been released on prosopis in South Africa.

“Biocontrol of prosopis has been restricted to introduced seed-feeding insects due to the perceived value of prosopis as animal feed and as a source

of wood,” says Ken. “As a result, the biocontrol released have not been aggressive enough to be effective for the widespread eradication of the invasion.”

Advantages of biocontrol Biocontrol has numerous advantages.

“It is important to understand that the aim of biocontrol is not to eradicate the invasive alien plant, but to reduce its competitiveness with the indigenous plant species by reducing the density of infestation and its overall impact on the environment,” says Ken.

Advantages include:

• No pollution, as no chemicals are used;

• The biocontrol agents are host-spe-

cific and do not endanger indigenous plants or become a new pest;

• The biocontrol agents are selfdispersing;

• No follow-up action and investment are needed, as is the case with manual and mechanical control where chemicals must be bought to stop sprouting.

Disadvantages

The main disadvantages of biocontrol include:

• Biocontrol agents take time before their results show;

• The success of the method is not known beforehand.

“There is, however, a very positive benefit to cost ratio – the benefits

Livestock and especially goats, as well as wildlife, love eating the pods of the prosopis. (Photo: Pixabay)

Prosopis juliflora, also known as djembe, is native to Kenya. (Photo: Pixabay)

of biocontrol normally outweigh the drawbacks and it still represents a comparatively cheap and safe option for the control of alien plant invasions,” says Ken.

How do biocontrol agents work?

There are different types of biocontrol agents, including insects, mites, or fungi for alien trees. “To really damage an alien plant, flower and seed feeders, stem borers, leaf miners and fungal agents should be simultaneously introduced for maximum effect. Most often, the larvae of the agents do most of the damage,” says Ken.

Introduced biocontrol insects, such as beetles, moths and flies, feed on the buds or heads of flowers. Others feed on the fruit or seeds, while yet others attack the leaves or the stem. They will not destroy the plant, but will reduce its reproductive potential. Wasps and midges attack the growing tips of the host plant.

They manipulate the host to divert valuable resources into gall production, rather than the production of flowers, seeds, stems and leaves.

Insects use galls, a globular, woody swelling, as a site for laying eggs or as a source of food for the larvae and the galls severely disrupt the reproduction

of the plant by replacing the seeds. The time these insects take to complete their lifecycle can be as little as ten days, while others may take up to ten months.

For more information, contact Ken Coetzee at 076-227-5056 or send an e-mail to consken@mweb.co.za.

native plants in different environments in South Africa. S. African J. Botany, Vol. 97 (25-31).

Shackleton, R.T., le Maitre, D.C. & Richardson, D.M. (2015) Use of non-timber forest products from invasive alien prosopis sp. (mesquite) and native trees in South Africa: Implications for Management. Forest Ecosystems, Open Access, Springer Nature.

References

Bromilow, C. (2018) Problem plants and alien weeds of Southern Africa. 4th Edition. Briza Publications, Pretoria.

Coetzee, K. (2005) Caring for natural rangelands. University of KwaZulu Natal Press, Scottsville.

Henderson, L. (2001) Alien weeds and invasive plants. Plant Protection Research Institute, Handbook No. 12, Agricultural Research Council.

Shackleton, R.T., Le Maitre, D.C., van Wilgen, B.W. & Richardson, D.M. (2015)The impact of invasive alien prosopis species (mesquite) on

Strohbach, B.J., Ntesa, C., Kabajani, M.W., Shidolo, E.K. & DÁlton, C.D. (2015) Prosopis encroachment along the Fish River at Gibeon, Namibia. Dinteria, No. 35(53-73).

Van Wilgen, B.W. & Richardson, D.M. (2014) Challenges and tradeoffs in the management of invasive alien trees. Biol. Invasions. 16 (721-734). Springer Nature, Forest Ecosystems, open access on-line.

Zachariades, C. Hoffman, J.H. & Roberts, A.P. (2011) Biological control of mesquite (Prosopis species) (Fabaceae) in South Africa. African entomology,19 (2): 402-415).

Komplex, Eenheid 1 + 7, Suidelike Industriële Area, 64 Lazarett Straat, Windhoek, Namibië

Greenhouses – Part 5 Greenhouses in aquaculture

by Tapuwa Mashangwa

One of the interesting aspects of agriculture is that, as researchers become more knowledgeable on production systems, the outcome can be achieved in a more efficient and effective manner. Innovation usually has multiple purposes and what benefits one agribusiness can benefit another.

Many Sub-Sahara Africa farmers have been exposed to the use of greenhouses for plant/crop production systems, but are unaware of their use in aquaculture.

Aquaculture broadly refers to the cultivation of aquatic organisms in controlled aquatic environments for any commercial, recreational or public purpose. The main purpose of the practice is for food production for human consumption; rebuilding of populations of threatened and endangered species; habitat restoration; wild stock enhancement; production of baitfish; and fish culture for zoos and aquariums.

The most common farming operation is the breeding of young fish and shrimp. They are also used for growing algae for medicinal, cosmetics or aquatic animal feeding applications, and the growing of micro-algae for biodiesel production.

The use of greenhouses in aquaculture ensures that production is better managed to obtain the best results and yields. Selection of the aquaculture greenhouses will, of course, depend on the project requirements.

One of the advantages that greenhouses provide in aquaculture is protection from predators. The structure’s enclosed form ensures that birds and other types of animals cannot enter the production space. Not only do they

prevent product loss from animals, but they also protect the project from equipment theft and from adverse weather effects; for example equipment made from iron is better protected against rust in a greenhouse than out in the open.

In aquaculture, greenhouses make temperature management possible. Fish and shrimp production in a greenhouse require specific production conditions for healthier fish and plants. Warm climates may not need additional heating, but the temperature in cold climates needs to be regulated. In some cases, air conditioning may be employed and a water cooler can be installed to deal with high temperatures.

Most aquaculture systems work by employing water reticulation systems that allow the reuse of water. An aquaculture greenhouse prevents water loss and contamination by keeping the system clean and free from contaminants.

As natural light is employed for greenhouses, the energy costs are not too high. For example, during some seasons the fish need to stay out of direct sunlight to prevent algae growth and water heating, but this can be controlled in any greenhouse structure by covering the fish tank with a shade cloth.

A disadvantage of greenhouses for aquaculture is that they are expensive. The cost, of course, depends on the size, structure, type, location, and utility integration, but in general the larger the space you need, the more costly and more advanced the equipment. Other costs to look out for are the electricity costs for pumps, air conditioning, security systems and automatic mechanical parts, therefore an investment for a

solar system may need to be made.

Aquaculture greenhouse systems are generally high maintenance due to the sensitivity of fish. They respond quickly to changes in temperature, oxygen, et cetera. This makes it imperative that the project overseer or manager knows how to control and troubleshoot the equipment. It is advisable to have a daily, weekly, monthly and annual checklist.

As Sub-Saharan farmers, the public and private sector become more aware of the various aquaculture projects they can engage in.

References

Chassouant, C. (2020) Use of greenhouses in aquaculture: shrimps production. Available at: https://horti-generation. com/aquaculture-intensive-productionusing-greenhouses/

Shrimp and Fish Ponds. (2023) Available at: https://top.pro/aquaculture-solution/ Aquaculture. Available at: https://www. ulmaagricola.com/en/applications/aquaculture/

Jagdish (2022) Available at: https:// www.agrifarming.in/aquaponics-farmingin-the-greenhouse-a-full-guide

GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas. FAO plant production and protection paper. Available at: https://www.fao. org/3/i3284e/i3284e.pdf

Campbell, L. Great crops to grow inside a greenhouse. Available at: https://modernfarmer.com/2022/01/what-to-growin-a-greenhouse/

(Source: kpbs.org)

(Source: images-prod.healthline.com)

Tree nut production in sub-Saharan Africa - Part 6

by Tapuwa Mashangwa

Tree nuts are invaluable in whichever form they are. Their value, like with any product that undergoes value addition, increases. Value addition gives a raw product a new life as its final state can be of specific use alone or combined with other ingredients or elements.

One of the products obtained from tree nuts is their oil. Tree nut oils have edible and non-edible applications. They are used in salad oils, in cooking and other food applications, in massages and as lubricants, as emollients in pharmaceuticals, and in cosmetics, soaps, shampoos and hair conditioning/ repair products, skin lotions, and other cosmetic products.

According to Kamal-Eldin & Moreau (2009), before oil extraction, the nuts first need to be removed from the shell and then from the husk. The nut oils differ in their oxidative stabilities, which dictates the processing and storage conditions that are applied to each nut. Nut oils are also extracted from the nuts by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), using compressed carbon dioxide in wide temperature and pressure ranges.

Screw-pressing is also suitable to

achieve high oil recovery and good quality standards, but seed materials should be conditioned appropriately. Seed moisture content and pressing temperature are key variables to enhance oil recovery.

Shahidi & Peng (2020) state that tree nut oils are primarily composed of triacylglycerols, but also contain diacylglycerols (DAG), monoacylglycerols (MAG), free fatty acids (FFA), and other minor components, including natural antioxidants and fat-soluble vitamins. The chemical composition of edible fats and oils largely determines their stability, quality, nutritional value, sensory properties, and potential health effects.

Generally, the monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), predominantly oleic acid, are the major fatty acids present in tree nuts oil, followed by polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and small amounts of saturated lipids. Besides, tree nut oils contain abundant bioactive components including phytosterols, carotenoids, tocols, phospholipids, and sphingolipids. And as the major antioxidants in tree nut oil, the content of carotenoids and tocols remarkably

affects the oil oxidative stability, as well as the degree of unsaturation and pigment content.

Popular tree nuts utilised for their oil include almonds, walnuts, Brazil nuts, hazelnuts, macadamias, pecans and pistachios.

According to Gong & Peng (2015), harvested tree nuts must be cleaned, sorted, and shelled before oil expression. Foreign materials including leaves, stems, dirt, stones, and metals may increase the wear of processing equipment and impart an adverse attribute to oil quality. Nuts of poor grade or those moulded will also reduce the quality of oil products and therefore should be removed in advance.

Nutshells contain very low amounts of fat and have a tendency to absorb oil if they are pressed along with the nut kernels during oil expression. In addition to this, nutshells of selected tree nuts may offer unique industrial importance. For instance, pecan and walnut shells can be further processed to obtain activated carbon, while toxic cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) from the cashew shell can be important in various industrial applications.

Nut cleaning equipment usually combines gravity and air separation by means of screens and fans to separate nuts and foreign objects by their size and density. The nuts will first be sifted by a screen with a mesh size equal to the desired nut size. This allows larger debris to be retained on the screen while nuts and smaller objects fall through. Then, the smaller debris can be screened out by running the material from the first step through a second screen with a smaller mesh size. Yet, stems and debris of the same size as the nuts may still be present. One last cleaning step is air blowing, which separates the lighter particles from the heavier nuts. After cleaning, tree nuts are then dried using circulating air, or can be roasted at around 195 °C for 10 to 20 minutes to bring a roasted flavour to the final oil products.

Traditionally, nutmeats were prepared by hand cracking, which is labour-intensive, tedious, and relatively time consuming. Shelling equipment was then designed and is used for large-scale processing. There are various designs for a shelling machine; a common working scenario employed in manufacturing is a universal centrifugal sheller. This unit is simple in design and allows for a continuous processing flow.

Unshelled nuts are fed through a hopper and thrown by high-speed rotary paddles against the solid chamber of the machine. The speed can be adjusted to accommodate the size and weight of different nut types and can apply the right amount of force to crack open the shell without damaging the kernels. Nutshells are then separated by an aspirator or a vacuum from the cracked pieces.

References

(Picture) Health Benefits of Almond Oil Available at: https://imagesprod.healthline.com/hlcmsresource/ images/AN_images/almond-oil-andalmonds-1296x728.jpg

Clark, J. P. (2002) Processing Tree Nuts. Available at: https://www.ift. org/news-and-publications/foodtechnology-magazine/issues/2002/ june/columns/processing

Nut Products. Available at: https:// www.sciencedirect.com/topics/ agricultural-and-biological-sciences/ nut-products

Kamal-Eldin, A., Moreau, R. A. (2009) Tree Nut Oils. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1893997-97-4.50009-7

Shahidi, F., Peng, H. (2020) Tree Nut Oils. Available at: https://doi. org/10.1002/047167849X.bio046. pub2

Gong, Y., Pegg, R. B. et al. (2017) Chemical and nutritive characteristics of tree nut oils available in the U.S. market. Available at: https:// agris.fao.org/agris-search/search. do?recordID=US201700263050

Gong, Y., Pegg, R. B. (2015) Tree nut oils: Properties and processing for use in food. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/280115364_Tree_nut_ oils_Properties_and_processing_ for_use_in_food

success story in Zimbabwe for several years now, we know how much intellectual capital there is in the business,” says Spear Capital Managing Partner, Martin Soderberg. “When some of that capital was used to launch Greenwave Milling as a standalone business, it only made sense to back it too.”

According to Soderberg, the deal will be carried out in a way that meets Spear Capital’s target UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including Gender Equality (SDG5), Decent Work, and Economic Growth (SDG8).

Through the investment, Greenwave Milling aims to increase sales and its contribution to the Zimbabwean fiscus.

The investment will further enhance Superior Food’s focus on building a stable food platform in Southern Africa and encourage Greenwave Milling’s ability to meet its financial and SDG commitments.

Through Spear Capital, Superior

Local wheat production to benefit from new deal: Spear Capital invests in Greenwave Milling

The war in Ukraine brought an important reality to our eyes: that there was previously far too much reliance by many countries on the importation of food products, in particular wheat, from the Ukraine. In Zimbabwe, for instance, prior to the war Russian and Ukrainian wheat accounted for nearly 60% of wheat imports used locally for self-raising flour to make confectionery products, according to the Grain Millers Association of Zimbabwe.

The disruption to food supply caused by the war — as well as by the supply chain challenges created by the pandemic — has made the world sit up and look at ways of stabilising food supply.

In Zimbabwe, a new focus on increasing local wheat production is showing positive results, and there is a greater consciousness of the need to work towards import substitution by growing and producing food products locally, rather than importing them.

It is against this backdrop that the private equity firm, Spear Capital, has begun to focus on investing in businesses in the SADC region that play a role in the processing of agricultural products for food production. Their latest investment is in Greenwave Milling, which is involved in the manufacturing, packaging, and distribution of basic food commodities throughout Zimbabwe.

Spear Capital announced that it has concluded an investment deal with Greenwave Milling via one of Spear Capital’s subsidiaries, Superior Food Group Africa Ltd.

Previously part of the Metro Group, which is already a Spear Capital

investee, Greenwave Milling is now a standalone production unit for the group. It manufactures, packages, and distributes a number of basic commodities including roller meal, refined meal, rice, cooking oil, flour, beans, salt, sugar, kapenta (a regional type of dried sardine), soya chunks, and other household essentials.

Under the terms of the deal, Spear Capital, via its subsidiary Superior Foods, has provided Greenwave Milling with a substantial debt facility. Good news for local wheat farmers is that the funding will be used to purchase raw materials for milling and down packing, and to ensure that it is able to meet growing demand for the Greenwave range of products.

“Having been part of the Metro Group

Food will provide funding to GW Milling, which is currently hard to raise in Zimbabwe, and unlock future growth and working capital. Through its shareholders, Superior Food will assist GW Milling with managing its procurement of raw materials.

About Greenwave:

Green Wave Milling (Private) Limited (“GWM”) was established on 1 January 2021 after unbundling from Metro Peech & Browne Wholesalers (Pvt) Ltd, and operates out of a 10 000 m2 packing and distribution centre located just outside of Harare, Zimbabwe.

GW Milling was established with the objective to manufacture, package, and distribute quality high-value basic commodities throughout Zimbabwe under the Greenwave and White Diamond brands. The range of products under GW Milling includes roller meal, refined meal, rice, cooking oil, flour, beans, salt, sugar, kapenta, soya chunks, and other household essentials.

About Spear Capital:

SPEAR Capital is a private equity company providing growth capital through equity investments in SMEs and partnerships with leading entrepreneurs in Southern Africa. SPEAR Capital investment focuses on private fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG), and local manufacturing and processing operations to achieve shareholder value and return while sustaining successful businesses across the Southern Africa region.

Spear Capital Managing Partner, Martin Soderberg.

Namibiese Reg. N-AR 2162 Reg. Nr. L10856, Wet Nr. 36 van 1947

Reg. Nr. L10856, Wet Nr. 36 van 1947 Reg. Nr. L10856, Wet Nr. 36 van 1947

Namibiese Reg. N-AR 2162 Reg. Nr. L10856, Wet Nr. 36 van 1947