Accelerating Climate Action: India (1) by Maria Arquero de Alarcon

UN-HABITAT LAW C LIM AT E C H AN GE

TO OL KI T

CITIES

MAPPING A C C E L E R AT I N G

C L I M AT E

ACTION

Jyoti Nagar Housing Board Flats Redevelopment: Four Urban Futures for Jaipur ACCELERATING CLIMATE CHANGE ACTION Partner-clients: UN Human Settlements Programme UN-Habitat’s Policy, Legislation, and Governance (PLG) and the Innovation Section; UN-Habitat India; UN Habitat Sustainable Cities Jaipur: Integrated Approach Pilot Project.

Arch 562 + UD 722 Studio Team: Kevin Bechard, MArch+MLA Autumn Bender, MArch Shandra Bernath-Plaisted, MArch Isabelle Borie, MArch+RE Cert. Kassem Chammout, MArch Sarah Jammal, MUD+MURP Aracely Landero, MArch Talia Moretti, MArch Anmol Poptani, MUD Huiting Qian, MUD Sydney Strawser, MArch Danielle Weitzman, MArch Instructor: María Arquero de Alarcón, Associate Professor of Architecture and Urbanism

URP 603 Capstone Team: Keyana Aghamirzadeh, MURP Pierre Bagenda, MURP+RE Cert. Tom Bagley, MURP Neeli Kakal, MURP Clare Kucera, MURP+MSESM Michelle Lincoln, MURP+MSES Anna Thompson, MURP James Vansteel, MURP+MPP Beatrix Yan, MURP Jessica Yelk. MArch+MURP+UI Cert. Instructor: Ana Paula Pimentel Walker, Assistant Professor of Urban Planning

Winter Semester 2021

Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s VOLUME

1 INTRODUCTION CLIMATE CHANGE AND URBAN POLICY

4 6

The UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit Assessments ..... 8 The RajasthanStste Plans ( RAPCC and RUDP) Assessment ......... 10 The Master Development Plan Jaipur 2025 Assessment ................ 90 Cities and Climate Change Action.....................................................132 MAPPING JAIPUR

144

Climate ................................................................................................. 78 Demographic Data .............................................................................. 80 Building stock and Demolition ............................................................. 84 Liquid Matters || Water .......................................................................... 154 Open and Active || Green Space ........................................................180 Building Home || Precarious Neighborhoods ....................................192 Connected || Transportation ...............................................................204 Growing Out || Peri-urban Development ............................................. 222 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND TEAM

VOLUME

2 INTRODUCTION JYOTI NAGAR HOUSING BOARD FLATS REDEVELOPMENT

248

4 6

The Jyoti Nagar Housing Board Flats ................................................... 8 Redevelopment schemes as proposed by the JMC ........................... 42 A glimpse to the housing and environmental crisis in Jaipur ............ 44 FOUR FUTURES FOR JAIPUR’S JYOTI NAGAR

Reinvigorating Hydrology .............................................................. 56 Many Urban Natures ...................................................................... 138 Proximi(ci)ty ................................................................................. 188 Redistributing Prosperity ........................................................... 248 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND TEAM

312

180 kilometers

Jaipur District Rajasthan

Accelerating Climate Action This report showcases the work developed during the winter 2021 joint studio and capstone course addressing climate change action in India. With a focus on the integration of urban policy and design into sustainable urban development practices, we partnered with UN-Habitat’s Policy, Legislation, and Governance (PLG), the Innovation Section, UN-Habitat India and their Government Partners, and the UN Habitat Sustainable Cities: Integrated Approach Pilot Project in Jaipur. Volume 1 documents the first half of the semester, with the assessment of state and district level policies through the five areas of the UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit: governance and institutional arrangements, planning instruments, planning for adaptation, planning for mitigation, and economic and financial instruments. This framework was used to assess the 2014 Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change, the 2017 Rajasthan Urban Development Policy, and the District Master Development Plan Jaipur 2025. This volume also includes an inventory of city-level initiatives on climate action and a thematic mapping exercise introducing Jaipur.

The Jyoti Nagar Housing Board Flats Redevelopment Volume 2 documents the second half of the semester, with a site-specific urban redevelopment component in Jaipur. The Jyoti Nagar Housing Board Flats is a 3.2 hectare neighborhood of low and moderate income housing built in the late 1980’s. Centrally located, it is surrounded by the State Assembly building and other government buildings, the SMS stadium grounds, and the Kartarpura Ganda Nala. The neighborhood is in short distance from the Walled City, recently declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The redevelopment of this valuable property aims to upgrade the housing stock, rehouse current dwellers in larger units, and create additional affordable housing by increasing the allowed density on the site. Projected as a public private partnership, this venture presents an opportunity to establish innovative redevelopment parameters accelerating climate action. Four alternate schemes explore a wide range of design considerations for the site, foregrounding relevant socioenvironmental questions and integrating culturally grounded adaptation and mitigations strategies assessed through the Toolkit.

URBAN DEVELOPMENT A N D C L I M AT E CHANGE 16

This section briefly summarizes the assessment of three policy frameworks referred to urban development and climate change action in the state of Rajasthan and the Jaipur District. Using the UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit, we assessed three policies: the Jaipur 2025 Master Development Plan, the Rajasthan Action Plan on Climate Change and the Rajasthan Urban Development Policy. The UN Law and Climate Change Toolkit (Toolkit) is a framework established by UN Habitat to be used by “national governments, international organizations and experts” in establishing national climate change laws. The Toolkit uses five “modules” to build a comprehensive framework that responds to the key elements surrounding climate change laws and works within both specific and thematic areas: 1. Governance and Institutional Arrangements 2. Planning Instruments 3. Planning for Adaptation 4. Planning for Mitigation 5. Economic and Financial Instruments. Last, this section includes a series of case studies of city-level efforts on climate change action, learning from the experiences in different global settings. The goal is to gain insights from the different approaches cities are taking and the ways in which policy and design inform each other.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit

Law and Climate Change To o l k i t “The Law and Climate Change Toolkit is an online and open database being developed by a partnership among the UN Climate Change secretariat, UN Environment, and the Commonwealth Secretariat working in close collaboration with partner countries, other international organizations and research institutions. The toolkit aims to provide a global resource to help countries put in place the legal frameworks necessary for effective domestic implementation of the Paris Agreement and their nationally determined contributions (NDCs). The Module is comprised of five sections including: planning instruments; mitigation planning; adaptation planning; economic instruments; and an overarching multi-level governance section.”

Accelerating Climate Change Action

n Planning for Adaptatio

Governace and Institutional arrangements g_c g_p g_d g_l

Multi-level institutional coordination Participatory governance Data collection and sharing Local governments’ mandate for urban planning in urban areas

Planning instruments p_n p_r p_s

National territorial planning Regional territorial planning Spatial plans for urban areas

Planning for Adaptation a_c a_p a_i a_s a_r a_t a_a

Climate risks and vulnerability for planned areas and infrastructure Identification and prioritisation of adaptation options Implementation of the identified adapation options Adaptation of slums and other vulnerable settlements Planned relocations from areas at risk of climate change Security of tenure Development approval and adaptation

Planning for Mitigation m_e m_t m_g m_n m_a

Urban plans and greenhouse gas emissions Urban form and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from transportation and infrastructure Green spaces for environmental and climate services Neighborhood design and energy saving in buildings Development approval and mitigation

Economic and Financial Instruments e_r e_m e_u

Resources for urban planning and climate change Incentives for mitigation and adaption in urban planning Incentives that promote unsustainable urban land uses

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit

U N - H A B I TAT LAW AND C L I M AT E CHANGE TOOLKIT ASSESSMENT RAJASTHAN S TAT E P L A N S

Source: https://www.ursulasweeklywanders.com

Under India’s national policy, sub-national states develop and implement climate action policy. The state of Rajasthan has an important role to play in climate change adaptation and mitigation. It is India’s largest state area-wise and the seventh most populous. The government of Rajasthan has enacted legislation to foster climate change action and good urban planning practices. The following is an assessment of the 2014 Rajasthan Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) and the 2017 Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP) against the UN-Habitat’s Law and Climate Change Toolkit and related national and regional level policies. This analysis seeks to inform the state government and related organizations in incorporating climate change-related legislation and strategy into existing urban state-level policy and territorial planning. The analysis follows the same structure and introduces strengths and areas of expertise within each of the five aforementioned categories. The policy analysis in sections 1-5 are supplemented by external research in the form of a literature review, the guiding principles of the general State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC), and the National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF). Finally, we identify key opportunities for improvement with five sets of recommendations for each respective category that would strengthen existing policy and planning practices in the State of Rajasthan.

Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s L a w a n d C l i m a t e C h a n g e To o l k i t

Governance and Institutional Arrangements

Planning Instruments

Planning For Adaptation

Planning for Mitigation

Economic and Financial Instruments

n Planning for Adaptatio

Governace and Institutional arrangements g_c g_p g_d g_l

Multi-level institutional coordination Participatory governance Data collection and sharing Local governments’ mandate for urban planning in urban areas

Planning instruments p_n p_r p_s

National territorial planning Regional territorial planning Spatial plans for urban areas

Planning for Adaptation a_c a_p a_i a_s a_r a_t a_a

Planning for Mitigation m_e m_t m_g m_n m_a

Economic and Financial Instruments e_r e_m e_u

Resources for urban planning and climate change Incentives for mitigation and adaption in urban planning Incentives that promote unsustainable urban land uses

Assessment of the Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) and the Rajasthan Urban Development Plan (RUDP)

Governance and Institutional Arrangements

Governance not only determines process, but also influences how governmental entities objectives are set and achieved, how risk is monitored and addressed and how performance is optimised. Sub-national states have an important role to play in climate governance, especially in India, given its strong centralized federal system and ongoing decentralization.1 In this section, we assess the Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP) and the Rajasthan Action Plan for Climate Change (RAPCC) vis-à-vis relevant policies to understand Rajasthan’s governance and institutional arrangements. We analyzed the four themes: multilevel institutional coordination, participatory governance, data collection and sharing, and local governments’ mandates for urban planning in urban areas. Rajasthan has three development authorities (Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Ajmer) and 15 Union Territories (UITs). These entities carry out functions at the regional and state level for planning and development. Since the established governance system connects these entities with each other and with the state and nation, specificities about assigned responsibilities are crucial for efficient and effective structures and processes in decision-making, accountability, control, and behavior. The RUDP and the RAPCC prioritize many of the relevant themes of the toolkit in the Governance and Institutional Arrangements category. Figure 1 demonstrates the commitment to creating an effective, transparent, and responsive urban governance. Multi-level institutional coordination, participatory governance, and capacity-building for municipalities are clear priorities. 1. To establish clear roles and responsibilities of all agencies involved in urban planning, development and management

RUDP Policy Objectives

2. To strengthen grass root democracy and citizen engagement in governance

3. To increase transparency and accountability in the urban institutions 4. To ensure high quality service delivery with effective grievance redressal and continuous monitoring and evaluation of work 5. To build capacity of institutions and people to tackle the complex and emerging issues in city management 6. To strengthen financial capacity of municipalities to fulfil their functions effectively

Figure 01: Policy Objectives of the Urban Rajasthan Urban Development Policy with regards to Governance and Institutions2 Source: Rajasthan Urban Development Policy, page 39.

Similarly, the Guiding Principles for Preparation of the SAPCC make it clear that multi-level institutional coordination and participatory governance are priorities, as shown in Figure 2.

Jörgensen, Kirsten, Arabinda Mishra, and Gopal K. Sarangi. “Multi-level climate governance in India: the role of the states in climate action planning and renewable energies.” Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences 12.4 (2015): 267-283.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Governance and Institutional Arrangements

1. Implementing inclusive and sustainable development strategy that protects the poor and vulnerable sections of society from adverse effects of climate change 2. Undertaking actions that deliver benefits for growth and development while mitigating climate change

3. Ensuring and improving ecological sustainability

Guiding Principles for Preparation of the SAPCC

4. Building climate scenarios and investing in knowledge and research to reduce uncertainty and improve knowledge about appropriate responses 5. Assessing impact of climate change on existing vulnerabilities, and identifying and enhancing risk management tools for addressing climate change 6. Setting out options and evaluating and ranking them according to criteria (cost-effectiveness, cost-benefit, feasibility, ease of implementation, “no-regrets,” robust to different scenarios, incremental vs transformative change etc.) 7. Identifying and implementing state-planned and community-based voluntary/autonomous adaptation 8. Building broader stakeholder engagement to maximize perspectives and involvement in implementation 9. Addressing staet-specific priority issues, whilst also creating appropriate enabling environment for implementation of NAPCC at state level 10. Considering governance and institutional contexts and ensuring appropriate Institutional arrangements and building capacities, keeping in view the coordination, inter-departmental consultations, stakeholder involvement, and integration with regular planning and budgetary processes 11. Estimating additional resource requirements and exploring existing and new & additional carbon finance potential 12. Linking up with national policies and programmes for consistency and to identify financial or policy support that may be available

Figure 2: Guiding Principles for Preparation of the SAPCC Source: RAPCC (2010), page 3.

While the commitment to each of the themes within the Governance and Institutional Arrangements section of the toolkit is evident, there is significant room for improvement in each of these areas. The RAPCC and RUDP both excel at considering many areas of the toolkit, even identifying specific areas for improvement. While the plans do mention many of the themes within the “Governance and Institutional Arrangements” section of the Toolkit, there is a lack of specific actions that can be taken to improve urban planning processes, particularly in the Data Collection and Sharing and Local Governments’ Mandates for Urban Planning in Urban Areas themes. Furthermore, Key roles and enforcement mechanisms lack definition and clarity, especially between the various actors at the state level. These unclear roles can cause conflicts, particularly between the parties that create plans and those that implement and enforce them. There is uncertainty in how climate adaptation knowledge is created, dispersed, and updated, leaving gaps between the various actors in urban planning at the state and local levels.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Similar to many other countries, India’s government is decentralizing, establishing larger roles for state and municipal governments in urban planning processes. This makes way for electoral competition at the regional and local levels. According to the 74th Constitutional Amendment, states must devolve a list of political powers to municipal governments.2 Prior to this amendment, local governments rarely held elections; The amendment reads: “In many States local bodies have become weak and ineffective on account of a variety of reasons, including the failure to hold regular elections, prolonged supersessions and inadequate devolution of powers and functions. As a result, Urban Local Bodies are not able to perform effectively as vibrant democratic units of self-government.”3 Historically, the states and urban improvement trusts oversaw urban planning processes. The Amendment requires municipal elections to be held every five years with seats reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.4 The 74th Amendment puts forth various required tasks for municipalities including sanitation, water provision, land regulation, the construction and maintenance of roads and bridges, and slum development. However, according to Adam Auerbach, India’s municipalities are in a weak financial position and must rely on the state for assistance, he writes: “in practice, most municipalities lack the resources to engage in all of these tasks, resulting in the continued prominence of state-level agencies like urban development authorities (vikas pradhikaran).”5 The National Urban Policy Framework includes this sentiment as well, as noted by the Administrative Reforms Commission (2008).6 The National Urban Policy Framework Intent (NUPF) (2020) notes that most ULBs are understaffed, and the existing staff has limited skills in project management. Furthermore, “there is absence of suitable institutional framework for supporting continuous capacity building efforts, which is not based on demand but routine ad-hoc trainings. The platforms and systems for people’s participation are not functional. This has resulted in inadequate collection of disaggregated data that can inform policy discourse and commensurate resource allocation.”7 Figures 3 and 4 show recommendations, as proposed by the NUPF:

2 3 4 5 6 7

Adam Michael Auerbach, Demanding Development: The Politics of Public Goods Provision in India’s Urban Slums, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), doi:10.1017/9781108649377. The Constitution of India, Seventy-fourth Amendment Act, 1992. https://www.india.gov.in/my-government/ constitution-india/amendments/constitution-india-seventy-fourth-amendment-act-1992. Auerbach, Demanding Development: The Politics of Public Goods Provision in India’s Urban Slums. Auerbach, Demanding Development: The Politics of Public Goods Provision in India’s Urban Slums. National Urban Policy Framework: Strategic Intent (NUPF), Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, October 2020, https://iica.nic.in/images/Articles/NUPF_Final_Oct%202020.pdf. NUPF (2020), p. 21.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Governance and Institutional Arrangements

Level

Key Actions

City Level

Undertake full charge as per Seventy-Fourth CAA Create Municipal cadre Strengthen contract management to manage SLAs with parastatals etc. Prepare ‘citizen charter’ and compensate citizens for non-compliance Set performance benchmark for funds, functions and functionaries (3Fs) Conduct continuous capacity building at all levels Implement concept of ‘community development corporations’ CDCs

State Level

Streamline provision of property and land title registrations Facilitate capacity of ULBs and devolve powers to ULBs Facilitate ULBs in adoption of ‘smart’ institutional set-up Facilitate ULBs in adoption of ‘model municipal law’ Establish dedicated State Institute of Urban Affairs

Central Level

Provide options for ‘smart’ institutional framework for ULBs Review and revise Model Municipal Law 2013 to reflect new changes Establish ‘National Urban Innovation Hub’ as an independent agency Establish ‘National Urban Porjects Management Agency’ to build project development, operations and contract management capacities

Figure 3: Summary of Actions, as Proposed by the NUPF Source: National Urban Policy Framework: Strategic Intent. October 2020, page 22.

Short-term

ULB Level

State Level

Central Level

Mid-term

Unifying all 18 municipal functions at the ULB level

Strengthened contract management (SLAs), strengthen Human Resources (HR)

Develop powers to ULBs Establish principle of subsidiarity

Establish principle of subsidiarity Adopt: HR (Legislative framework) Regulatory frameworks SLA/benchmarks Training & Capacity Building

Guidelines on SLA and contract management

Establish principle of subsidiarity Establish ‘Municipal Cadre’ for ULBs Capacity grid mechanism (National/Regional/State Learning Hub) Establish ‘National Monitoring Mechanism’ Suggest smart Governance framework

Terminal Outcomes

Streamlined funds, functions functionaries (directly facilitating Atmanirbhar Bharat)

Figure 4: Outcomes of Proposed Actions, as Proposed by the NUPF Source: National Urban Policy Framework: Strategic Intent. October 2020, page 22.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

For residents of slums within India’s post-decentralization cities, ward councillors and MLAs are the two most important elected representatives; the former are directly elected members of the municipal council and the latter are directly elected members of the state legislative assembly (vidhan sabha).8 Ward councillors are more accessible, given their smaller constituencies. As of 2018, there were 91 municipal wards in Jaipur.9 MLAs, on the other hand, have greater resources and political clout than ward councillors, though they have larger constituencies (in Rajasthan, roughly 350,000 people).10 Beyond elected officials, slum residents most frequently interact with the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED), which oversees water management. The Public Works Department oversees roads (and many other things), the Municipal Sanitation Department, and the Electricity Department.

1.1 Multi-Level Institutional Coordination India’s first National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) was introduced in 2008, created by the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change (PMCCC). As of 2014, the PMCCC consisted of the Prime Minister along with 25 other members, mostly Ministers of related ministries and experts. The NAPCC generally provides broad climate change objectives for the nation, without strategies. The RAPCC and RUDP provide state-specific diagnoses and interventions related to urban and territorial planning. In 2010, the Climate Change Agenda for Rajasthan (CCAR) was initiated by the state government to address climate risks within its jurisdiction. Rajasthan also released a State Environment Policy (SEP) in 2010 to identify key environmental risks that must be addressed as the state continues to pursue sustainable development and equitable economic growth. The Rajasthan Environment Mission was constituted to prioritize the issues brought to light in the CCAR and the SEP and to mobilize governmental and nongovernment stakeholders to address these issues. In 2012, the RAPCC was made to build upon the key areas identified in the CCAR by prioritising urgent action items in a phased and time-bound manner that is coherent with the Rajasthan State Environment Policy (SEP) and Environment Mission. Coordination across line ministries at the national level is apparent in the Climate Change and CDM Cell: According to the RAPCC, “the State Government established a ‘Climate Change and CDM Cell’ in the Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board (RSPCB) to act as a nodal agency for dealing with all issues related with Climate Change in the State.”11 This Cell is responsible for drafting the CCAR. A Steering Committee has also been formed, which is headed by the Chief Secretary and Principal Secretaries of various Key Departments as Members to monitor the implementation of various actions proposed under the Rajasthan Environment Mission.12 8 9 10 11 12

Auerbach, Demanding Development: The Politics of Public Goods Provision in India’s Urban Slums. Auerbach, Demanding Development: The Politics of Public Goods Provision in India’s Urban Slums. Auerbach, Demanding Development: The Politics of Public Goods Provision in India’s Urban Slums. RAPCC (2010), p. 5. RAPCC (2010), p. 5.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Governance and Institutional Arrangements

There is inter-institutional coordination among the national and subnational governments. The national Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF) facilitates State creation of their State Action Plans for Climate Change (SAPCCs) to remain in line with the NAPCC. The MoEF provides a set of guiding principles through which they can create their Action Plan for Climate Change in accordance with the larger, national goals. Figure 2 shows these principles. The State Action Plan on Climate Change of Rajasthan (RAPCC) is coordinated within the framework of the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), where the State plan prioritizes state-specific risks, impacts, and solutions within the context of those of the national plan. The RAPCC acknowledges that “while adaptation by its very nature is localized in action, mitigation actions taken at the state level can tap on the opportunities that the State can benefit from or follow a cobenefits approach simultaneously buttressing national mitigation efforts. In this context, it becomes crucial to prepare State-level action plans on climate change to address current and future climate risks and take advantage of potential opportunities through a diverse set of response strategies.”13 Rajasthan’s 2017 Urban Development Policy goes one step further and highlights the importance of creating multi-level institutional coordination, highlighting the important role of the state government in supporting growing urban regions. There is basic consideration among the various entities at the state level. For example, Rajasthan’s SAPCC considers the guiding principles of the Rajasthan State Environment Policy (2010), Rajasthan Environment Mission (2010), and the Climate Change Agenda for Rajasthan (2010-2014). However, there is a lack of clear mechanisms by which these respective plans and entities must coordinate. There is some international coordination through the UNFCCC’s Kyoto Protocol. Under the Kyoto Protocol, there has been provision to use the Clean Development Mechanism and there is potential to use this mechanism to gain credits from the forestry sector.14 While coordination is clearly a goal, the Rajasthan Urban Development Policy highlights areas for improvement. Often, the various plans between the national, regional, and local levels are not in coordination with each other, which results in overlaps and conflicts. This problem arises from the lack of clear mechanisms for coordination between the various entities involved in the planning and implementation. There are currently gaps between the agencies that plan and those that carry out the implementation.15 Urban planning in Rajasthan is performed by the Town Planning Department and it is part of the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing, Government of Rajasthan. The main function of the department is to prepare physical development plans, such as schemes, master plans of towns, regional plans and village plans. Currently, Rajasthan has three development authorities (Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Ajmer) and 15 Union Territories (UITs). These entities should carry out functions at the regional level for planning and development. However, in practice, they function parallel to municipalities operating with the same territorial and functional 13 14 15

RAPCC (2010), p. 2. RAPCC (2010), p. 28. RUDP (2017), p. 42.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

jurisdiction. At the same time, there are multiple agencies at the state level with overlapping functions.16 It is not clear in the RAPCC nor the RUDP if there are legal requirements for coordination between neighbouring cities and rural areas that are part of the same economic, social or environmental functional areas. It is also unclear if there are legal requirements for coordination among different line departments in local governments. The Rajasthan Municipality Act of 2009 allows the state to assign unincorporated areas to municipalities and governs the administration of all the urban local bodies in the state. The Act implemented the provisions of the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, which recognized municipal governments as belonging to the three-tier government system.

1.2 Participatory Governance There is clear participation between various levels of government in the creation of the SAPCC. There is even mention of public private partnerships that are developed through the SEP that are beneficial for urban and climate planning processes. For example, the purpose of the Rajasthan Environment Mission is to highlight the important issues emerging from the SEP and CCAR, while mobilizing government and non-government stakeholders.17 The Rajasthan Environment Mission, therefore, is tasked with identifying and consulting with stakeholders. However, it is not clear if there were opportunities for public engagement while drafting the plan, or if public feedback was sought or incorporated into the plan. It is indeed clear from the Guiding Principles of the SAPCC (Figure 2) that stakeholder and community identification are goals, though there are no legal provisions for this. One guiding principle for the creation of the SAPCC is “Building broader stakeholder engagement to maximize perspectives and involvement in implementation,”18 though it does not mention any legal requirements to do so. Another guiding principle for the creation of the SAPCC is “Identifying and implementing state-planned and community-based voluntary/autonomous adaptation,”19 though legal requirements to do so are not indicated.These are brought up in various places throughout the document. However, the SAPCC does not detail the specific stakeholder and community identification processes that took place while drafting this plan. The RAPCC is described as a “dynamic document that should follow a regular interactive and iterative process to reflect new knowledge and developments at national, state and local levels,”20 though the exact process through which the document should be amended is not clear. Furthermore, it is unclear how impacted parties may begin a dispute or appeals claim against any of the RAPCC’s proposed projects or claims. The Rajasthan Urban Development Policy also demonstrates that grassroots democracy and citizen engagement are priorities. To facilitate this, the plan even encourages transparency and accountability of urban institutions. However, similar to the RAPCC, there are no clear mechanisms for participating and providing 16 17 18 19 20

RUDP (2017), p. 39. RAPCC (2010), p. 4. RAPCC (2010), p. 3. RAPCC (2010), p. 3. RAPCC (2010), p. 4.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Governance and Institutional Arrangements

feedback. The RUDP does suggest creating an online grievance form to facilitate this process. The Rajasthan Right to Hearing Act (2012) provides for establishment of information and facilitation center including citizen care center and help desk for effective implementation. This act was created to ensure timely customer grievance redressal by the government authorities.21 However, this process is not transparent. Rajasthan should establish clear procedures to decrease discretionary powers and enable effective redressal of grievances.22 While participation is broadly mentioned as important, there are no clear mechanisms guiding community engagement or the receipt of feedback related to climate change planning. Furthermore, there is no clear mention of planning for and with indigenous communities. Inclusive, accessibility community engagement with marginalized communities (including farmers and indigenous peoples) is essential in climate change planning. The Rajasthan Urban Development Policy highlights how the planning process is not as participatory as it should be.23 A lack of participatory planning processes means plans cannot be comprehensive, as they are missing the concerns of the people most affected. According to the RUDP, “the present practice of developing a land does not require the developer to link its site to the trunk/main infrastructure system of the city, due to which colonies are developed in silos without integration with the surrounding areas.”24 There should be a clear, transparent process that allows and encourages those most impacted to provide ongoing feedback. Rajasthan should consider involving NGOs, civil society organizations, business owners, as well as impacted residents in the planning process.

1.3 Data Collection and Sharing The RAPCC (2010) (RAPCC) is an effort initiated by the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) to collect data and research on the demographic, socio-economic, and environmental characteristics of Rajasthan and the municipalities and territories within the state; the State uses this information to formulate recommendations at the state-level, with references to national level compliance and region, town, and city responsibilities. Data collection is supported through the NAPCC by one of the main principles that promotes the “scientific assessment of climate observations and projections, sectoral impacts and vulnerabilities, and prepare[s] an inventory of greenhouse emissions in the state in order to identify vulnerable regions, sectors and communities for targeted adaptation and mitigation action.”25 For the preparation of the RAPCC, additional principles also included the encouragement to build climate scenarios and invest in research and knowledge. Hazard risk mitigation and climate modeling assessments are specifically acknowledged for future study,26 recognizing that Rajasthan’s current mitigation and modeling assessments 21 22 23 24 25 26

RUDP (2017), p. 39. RUDP (2017), p. 40. RUDP (2017), p. 42. RUDP (2017) p. 42 RAPCC (2010), p. 2. RAPCC (2010), p. 27.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

are absent or requiring significant updates. Similar encouragements for study are present in the RAPCC. Results and models from these studies are recommended for reporting, but the specific institutions, ministries, and communities that would receive this information are not specified. Due to the RAPCC, the Rajasthan Environment Mission, and the Climate Change Agenda for Rajasthan (CCAR) calling for coordination between multiple stakeholders and departments, it is implied that these parties, along with national authorities, would be the recipients of the reports. The RAPCC identifies specific communication methods for certain data types.27 Chapter 12 of the RAPCC, “Strategic Knowledge on Climate Change,” addresses the reliability and credibility of current knowledge systems and the poor integration of traditional knowledge into climate change strategies. It identifies some areas of focus, like the various agro-climates and ecological zones -- specific systems for knowledge gathering and better inclusion of underutilized knowledge sources are not specified. The Climate Change and CDM Cell is identified as a critical committee in crafting the knowledge and knowledge systems of the RAPCC. As the capital of Rajasthan, Jaipur will likely be a hub for coordinating data collection and sharing. Due to its role as capital and its identity as an urban area in Rajasthan, creating standard mechanisms for data collection and sharing that will effectively produce the necessary information for climate models across the state and different ecological landscapes. There is a fragmented knowledge base between the various levels of planning entities. Both the RAPCC and the RUDP highlight and acknowledge Data Collection and Sharing to be a major area for improvement. Currently, there is a lack of institutional mechanisms for collating, synthesizing, and delivering knowledge products for decision making on climate change.28 Additionally, there is inadequate knowledge on the impacts of climate change in different sectors of the state. This lack of knowledge discourages attempts to understand climate change implications for Rajasthan. Increasing technical capability in the use of aerial photography, satellite imagery, and Geographical Information Systems (GIS), and publishing maps and master plans online will allow the multiple impacted entities to have the same foundational knowledge of the land and land uses. There are digitized databases that exist at the state level, though there are no versions for more local regions. This is especially important for socio-economic data. Urban planning cells should be established in each municipality to coordinate with different state agencies for issues related to urban planning and climate change.29

1.4 Local Governments’ Mandates for Urban Planning in Urban Areas In India, since its’ Third Five Year Plan, the term ‘Master Plan’ has been defined as a statutory 27 28 29

RAPCC (2010), p. 187. RAPCC (2010), p. 189. RUDP (2017), p. 43.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Governance and Institutional Arrangements

instrument for controlling, directing and promoting development and redevelopment of an urban area with the goal of maximizing economic, social and aesthetic benefit. Master plans are visioning documents to forecast growth within a 20-25 year period. Meanwhile, City Development Plans (CDP) were named and made mandatory by a former national scheme for housing and infrastructure development. The 2005-2017 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) had mandated that local bodies of governments participating in the scheme elaborate a CDP in order to qualify for funds.30 The Master Plans and the CDPs are not required to explicitly consider climate change. The RAPCC and the RUDP guide the actions of the state. They recommend the coordination of regions, towns, cities, consultants, and other stakeholders for research, multi-level climate initiatives and strategies, and financing. Section 1.5 of the RAPCC, “Task Force Constitution,”31 states the establishment of ‘Climate Change and CDM Cell’ in the Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board (RSPCB). This Cell is responsible for the review and implementation of climate action policies in the Rajasthan Environment Mission (the Mission), the Climate Change Agenda, and the State Environment Policy. The task force consists of secretaries from the state ministries and major state sectors (Figure 5), which include jurisdictions and areas determined by ecological and geographical features. Further responsibilities are outlined in the Mission.

Departments Required by the RAPCC to Coordinate

Environment

Transportation

Forests & Biodiversity

Energy & Renewable Energy

Mines & Petroleum

Science & Technology

Industries

Planning

Water Resources

Finance

Command Area Development

Policy Planning

Agriculture

Animal Husbandry

Urban Governance

Human Health

Figure 4: Outcomes of Proposed Actions, as Proposed by the NUPF Source: National Urban Policy Framework: Strategic Intent. October 2020, page 22. 30 31

Meshram, D. S. (2006). Interface between city development plans and Master plans. ITPI Journal, 3(2), 1-9. RAPCC (2010), p. 5-6.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Capacity for the implementation of the national and state climate agenda is encouraged in the Guiding Principles for Preparation of the SAPCC (Figure 2). Capacity building for the state is guided to consider “governance and institutional contexts and ensur[e] appropriate Institutional arrangements and building capacities, keeping in view the coordination, interdepartmental consultations, stakeholder involvement, and integration with regular planning and budgetary processes.”32 Financing capacity strategies are centered on the Clean Development Mechanism established by the UNCCC and the Kyoto Protocol, which creates national level financing that would be available to states to fund and distribute to local institutions, organizations, and projects. Major sectors, like water and tourism, have appeals for continued capacity building, but specific institutions are not named as responsible for the sector specific projects. Generally, the Plan calls for the “capacity building of municipal officials/office bearers is an inherent component of each action point”33 of the over climate action agenda and mission.

Recommendations Climate change is a global issue that requires coordination at the national and subnational levels. The role of subnational states in the implementation of India’s national climate policy is mentioned throughout the NAPCC. Urban and territorial planning, in general, requires coordination with clear roles and responsibilities between each of these entities. Though the Rajasthan state-level plans mention many of the themes of the Law and Climate Change Toolkit, they tend to lack the legal requirements necessary to coordinate and regulate these principles. The primary issues related to multi-level institutional coordination arise from a lack of clear roles and responsibilities and mechanisms for coordination between the various involved parties. Currently, Rajasthan has three development authorities (Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Ajmer) and 15 Union Territories (UITs). These entities should carry out functions at the regional level for planning and development. However, in practice, they function parallel to municipalities, operating with the same territorial and functional jurisdiction. At the same time, there are multiple agencies at the state level with overlapping functions. Additionally, there are various plans at the State level and Rajasthan would benefit from defining the clear roles of each of those plans and entities. Furthermore, there is a gap between those that create the plans and those that implement the plans; Rajasthan would benefit from aligning these roles so that there are clear expectations. Internally, this would create efficiencies; externally, those most impacted will better understand who is responsible for plan implementation and how to air grievances. Currently, there are no clear rules or regulations about ensuring the planning processes are participatory. Both the RAPCC and the RUDP highlight community and stakeholder identification and participation as important, they do not give any guidance for how to do this, nor do they mention the community and stakeholder identification and participation that took place in the creation of the RAPCC and RUDP, if it happened. Rajasthan should consider 32 33

RAPCC (2010), Figure 2.1, p. 3. RAPCC (2010), p. 170.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Governance and Institutional Arrangements

instating legal requirements for community participation in the development of urban planning and climate change planning, especially as it relates to rural and indigenous communities, such as scheduled castes and tribes. Additionally, Rajasthan must consider facilitating ways in which impacted parties can find out more about the plans affecting them and ways in which they can ask questions and air grievances. The RUDP suggests an online form to facilitate the process, which should be considered. In addition to official government web pages, social media and local advisory committees made of resident volunteers are tools to be considered. Regarding data collection and sharing, there is encouragement to study hazard mitigation and climate change, but it is not clear who should carry out the studies and who will have access to this information, and with what, if any, conditions. There should be requirements that identify how and when data collection takes place and is shared, and which stakeholders would be the recipients of this information. Data collection requirements should be drafted to identify which institutions and other entities are valid sources and researchers, which can include universities, governmental units, non-governmental organizations, and citizen scientists. Communication pathways for data that does not fall into the specific data categories should be identified. There have been limited efforts to inventorize and share traditional knowledge on a large scale. It is important to acknowledge and include traditional knowledge systems in the planning process, particularly in reference to the social contexts of the region.34 Further roles and responsibilities for urban and rural areas, as well as other territories, geographic areas, and informal areas and settlements should be outlined, beyond the Ongoing Government Programmes outlined at the end of each section in the SAPCC and the Key Interventions and Actions Points in the RUDP. Currently, responsibilities are limited to state level institutions. Rajasthan should consider provisions that require or facilitate informal and flexible inter-municipal collaborations for urban and infrastructure planning when administrative boundaries do not correspond to functional boundaries and morphological boundaries. State departments should also have more defined responsibilities beyond the secretarial involvement in the Task Force. Specific roles and responsibilities for informal stakeholders should also be defined. Governance Table of Authorities

Name of Policy

Year

National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF): Strategic Intent

2020

Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP)

2017

Rajasthan Land Pooling Schemes Act

2016

Rajasthan State Action Plan (RAPCC)

2010

Rajasthan Municipality Act

2009

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

2008

Constitution of India

1950

RAPCC (2010), p. 189.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Governance and Institutional Arrangements

Planning Instruments

Planning principles of ancient India included specifying areas by use such as markets, handicrafts manufacturing areas, and recreational facilities, which dictated the structure of the settlements in a “scientific manner.” This included roads leading out of the settlements based on cardinal directions, meaning the town gates also faced cardinal directions. The planning principles of ancient India reflected their culture.1 Since gaining independence from British rule, urban planning has focused on formulating master plans and strict land-use and development commands. The Town and Country Planning Law of the United Kingdom (1947) has been used as a base for master plan laws in India. Modeled from this law, the Government of India created a framework for State Governments to develop their laws with the Town and Regional Planning and Development Law (1962).2 India is a rapidly urbanizing country, with expectations of the majority of its population living in urban areas within a generation.3 Despite current and past master planning efforts, India is struggling to find the adequate support for cities that it needs in a range of categories such as housing, air quality, and water access to name a few. In 2018, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs developed the National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF) in an attempt to coordinate urban planning in India via a guideline for urban efforts with a focus on a new urban strategy that continues to allow state and local bodies to lead and customize efforts for their jurisdictions. This new policy emphasizes the new urban strategy as one that considers cities as “evolving ecosystems’’ as opposed to a past view of cities as “machines for living.” 4 The NUPF recognizes that current planning methods using the above mentioned laws have created the following problems that it attempts to address (quoted from the NUPF): 1. Master planning has led to a static built environment. 2. Master plans are unconnected to investment planning at the city, state and national levels, which means that at large, master plans remain unimplemented. 3. Master plans fail to be truly comprehensive due to the missing link between the spatial and functional aspects. 4. Urban planning has been done with the male perspective. These discrepancies translate to areas of interest for Indian urban planning in the coming years with a focus on building for density to support the country’s rapidly growing population, with a more dynamic approach to planning (Figure 1).

1 2 3 4

National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF), Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, 2018. p. 16. NUPF (2018), p. 16. NUPF (2018), p. 1. NUPF (2018), p. 1.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning Instruments

Figure 1: Aspirations for city planning as described by the National Urban Policy Framework (2018). Source: National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF). Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. 2018. https://smartnet.niua.org/ sites/default/files/resources/nupf_final.pdf

2.1 National Territorial Planning India has provisions that require coordination and guidelines related to territorial planning, but lacks a mandated national territorial plan. The National government fulfills an advisory role with local governments, establishing guidelines and suggestions. The Model Regional Town and Planning and Development Law (1985) enables states to develop their own urban and regional plans. More recently, the 2014 Urban and Regional Development Plans, Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI) has provided guidance for planning from the national level. There are no legal provisions that require the national territorial plan to classify national land according to use, because there is no national plan. However, the NUPF, as a national policy framework, states that the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has to “issue guidelines on area-based development control norms and its use as an instrument to manage urban growth and development.”5 Further, the NUPF states that a focus should be placed on integrated development of planning areas, that cities should be divided into planning areas. Local areabased plans facilitate the development of better public spaces and involves tools such as formbased codes as opposed to typical zoning. The 2006 National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP), which stressed the use of identifying transit-oriented development (TOD) as a method to bring dense urban growth by increasing Floor Area Ratios (FAR), is an example of land classification according to use at the national level. Another example of land classification is via the plan for street vending in the Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014. Chapter IV establishes the ability for local authorities to declare a zone to be a no-vending zone based on recommendations of the Town Vending Committee. Later Chapter VI states that “every local authority shall, in consultation with the planning authority and on the recommendations of the Town Vending Committee, once in every five years, prepare a plan to promote the vocation of street vendors,” further this chapter establishes that these plans will be submitted by the local authority to the appropriate Government for approval.6 The RAPCC and RUDP do not 5 6

NUPF (2018), p. 19.

Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014, Chapters IV-VI, http://www.bareactslive.com/ACA/ACT2076.HTM. Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

require any plans to classify land by use. However, plans often refer to policies, needs, tools, or examples as applicable to both urban and rural land. There is no statutory authority responsible for urban transport in India, in either the Government of India or in state governments. Redesigning transportation networks for optimized mobility has not been a part of urban planning, and often land use plans will be separate from transportation plans.7 Subsequently, integrated land use planning and transportation planning is gaining popularity amongst municipalities in developing major highway systems, TODs, Bus Rapid Transport Systems (BRTS), and Mass Rapid Transit Systems (MRTS).8 The National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) 2017 and National Mission on Sustainable Habitats (NMSH) introduces the idea of sustainable urban transport.9 The NUTP acknowledges the importance of shifting policy-based reforms towards focusing on moving people rather than vehicles.10 However, these policies are not specific to national inland and coastal transportation networks. Plans for the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC) offers a series of nodes for manufacturing, commerce, infrastructure and new townships over the span of six states.11 While this planned highway expansion establishes a large inland network, it is not prompted by any legal provisions requiring connectivity. While a national territorial plan has yet to be developed, India has a policy framework on environment and climate change outlined by the National Environmental Policy (NEP) 2006, and a National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) which includes more detailed interventions. The policy initiatives of the national government are supplemented by the State government, NGOs, alongside other stakeholders. The NAPCC sets eight priority missions to address climate change: National Missions on Solar Energy, Enhanced Energy Efficiency, Sustainable Habitats, Water, Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, Greening India, Sustainable Agriculture and Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change.12 In tandem with the NAPCC, 32 states and union territories have implemented the State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC), including Rajasthan.13 The Rajasthan Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) was developed with guidance from the Rajasthan Environment Policy (2010), Rajasthan Environment Mission (2010), and the Climate Change Agenda for Rajasthan (2010-2014).14 The NUPF states that a people-centered urban planning and management practices should be a method used in urban climate change resiliency planning and establish no-build zones based on environmental factors, particularly in expansion areas.15 Again, India does not have a mandated national territorial plan; however, through India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), at a national level the country has committed a voluntary goal of reducing emissions. Though this assessment of emissions, and commitment 7

Ahluwalia, Isher Judge, “Planning for Urban Development in India”, p. 11, http://icrier.org/Urbanisation/pdf/ Ahluwalia_Planning_for_Urban_%20Development.pdf.

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Ahluwalia, “Planning for Urban Development in India”, pp. 11-13. Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change of 2010 (RAPCC), Section 11.6, p. 173. NUPF (2018), p. 51. Ahluwalia, “Planning for Urban Development in India”, p. 14. RAPCC (2010), Section 1.1, p. 2. India INDC to UNFCCC Agreement of 2015, Section II. RAPCC (2010), p. V. NUPF (2018), p. 20.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning Instruments

of reduction is not a legal requirement.16 The RUDP lists reducing GHG emissions through urban mobility and promoting electric vehicles for public transit as a policy objective.17 However, this policy objective does not require assessments of emissions levels as part of the implementation process. Additionally, the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), released in 2008, has set eight priority missions to respond to climate change. The national government has also provided guidance on building efficiency standards and renewable energy integration through the Green Ratings for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA), adopted by the national Ministry for New and Renewable Energy. While these standards do not include provisions requiring their use or for ongoing compliance, they are designed to be tuned to climatic variations and stress the use of renewable energy resources. These standards also highlight building design best practices such as the incorporation of passive solar heating and cooling techniques.

2.2 Regional Territorial Planning A strategy outlined in the RAPCC calls for the promotion of sustainable urban transportation as an action item listed in the Comprehensive Mobility Plans (CMPs) for all major cities in Rajasthan. It is worth noting that many cities have already established CMPs, though further improvements are suggested such as stakeholder consultations, addressing issues of equity, accessibility and safety, and linking the master plan and CMP for more effective implementation.18 For instance, the Jaipur City Mobility Plan, establishes goals that encompass social, environmental and economic aspirations for the city, and provides a framework for formulation of a Sustainable Mobility Plan for the city. Some of the goals from the plan are accessibility and connectivity for all, vehicular accident reduction, coverage with urban planning, carbon reductions and strategies for sustainable mobility. Section 11.6 of the RAPCC is designed to “Promote Sustainable Urban Transportation” in accordance with the National Urban Transport Public (NUTP) and National Mission on Sustainable Habitats (NMSH) that introduces the concepts of sustainable urban transport such as moving people rather than vehicle, integrating land use and urban transportation, etc.19 Various functions such as planning, regulation, infrastructure development, service provisions, etc. come under the purview of various agencies and authorities both at the centre, state and city level. On the other side, from the below figure, one can see an overlap of various authorities with respect to the functions they carry out at the Jaipur city level. Figure 2 makes the distinction between Union, state and city and the respective work they undertake.20 Other than respective work between city to union level, there is distinction between various state departments/agencies and the respective functions that are mandated to oversee in Figure 3. State level policy must be integrated into regional planning processes. The disparity between these two policies is apparent in Section 6.6 maps five key strategies for the state mission on water resources, using the state water policy (2010) as reference. These strategies do not 16 17 18 19 20

India INDC to UNFCCC Agreement of 2015, Section III. Rajasthan Urban Development Policy of 2017 (RUDP), Section 17.4, p. 52. RAPCC (2010), Section 11.6, p. 174. RAPCC (2010), Section 11.6, p. 173. Jaipur City Mobility Plan, p. 4.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Figure 2: Union, State, and City Respective Work Source: Jaipur City Mobility Plan. https://cuts-ccier.org/pdf/jaipur-city-mobility-plan.pdf

Figure 3: State Department/ Agencies with Respective Functions Source: Jaipur City Mobility Plan. https://cuts-ccier.org/pdf/jaipur-city-mobility-plan.pdf

require that regional territorial plans establish an infrastructure system. However, it does map other action items for the strategies of the water resources sector and include action items in the short term (2012-2017). Some of these action items include assessments, exploration studies, establishing a Groundwater Regulatory Authority, setting up research facilities, drive for renovating traditional water storage structures, feasibility studies, monitoring systems, management and mitigation policies, public awareness campaigns, establishing databases, and training programs.21

RAPCC (2010), Section 6.6, pp. 52-65.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning Instruments

The Rajasthan Urban Infrastructure Development Project (RUIDP) is implemented through the Local Self Government Department of the Government of Rajasthan. This project addresses deficiencies to meet basic service needs and act as a tool for effective policy reform, and provide exemplary demonstration for other cities of the State.22 However, it does not “address adaptation measures in terms of climate change directly.”23 The Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP) establishes five policy objectives alongside their institutional and physical goals for urban transit. These include objectives of reducing travel demand, promoting more accessible multimodal transport, encouraging cleaner technologies in transport, establishing institutions for coordination, and ensuring gender equity.24 The Comprehensive Mobility Plans (CMPs) and the Intermittent Public Transport (IPT) as a feeder to primary transport systems aim to work together to create greater connectivity outside large urban areas. The preparation for Climate Change Agenda for Rajasthan (CCAR) was an important first step toward addressing climate risks. Then in 2010, Rajasthan released State Environment Policy (SEP) to identify the key environment that the state must address to ensure continued sustainable development and economic growth that is equitable. The CCAR was guided by National Priorities highlighted in NAPCC.25 Section 11.6 outlines a strategy to “integrate Climate Risks and Responses into Urban Planning/ Development Process.” This strategy integrates climate mitigation efforts into traditional planning and development processes. This includes preparing a Resilience Plan for each city which would include a City Advisory Committee (CAC), with a goal of the plan to guide the City Development Plan for the particular city.26 In the traditional disaster management approach during the immediate post-independence period in India, the focus was on emergency relief and immediate rehabilitation. More recently however, there has been a perceptible shift. The governments at the central and state level have started several proactive, quick responses, and other structured response mechanisms. Cities and towns in urban areas are likely to face increased challenges from climate change and other natural hazards.27 The Disaster Management Act (DM Act), 2005, lays down institutional, legal, financial and coordination mechanisms at the national, state, districts and local levels. National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) setup under the act approves the national plans and the plans of the respective union ministries/departments; it will also lay down guidelines for state authorities, coordinate the enforcement and implementation of these policies and plans, and ensure timely response.28 To contextualize the need for state level action to be aligned with the objectives of the India’s National Action Plan of Climate Change (NAPCC), the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) has also developed a common framework that can facilitate the States to prepare their State Action Plans, including the following steps: conduct scientific assessments of climate observations and projections, identify adaptation/ mitigation options, prioritize adaptation/ mitigation options, and identify financial needs and sources.29 Furthermore, The introduction 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

RAPCC (2010), Section 11.4, p. 168. RAPCC (2010), Section 11.5, p. 170. RUDP (2017), Section 3.4, p. 16. RAPCC (2010), Section 1.3, p. 4. RAPCC (2010), Section 11.6, p. 170. RUDP (2017), Section 16.1, p. 49. RUDP (2017), Section 16.1, p. 49. RAPCC (2010), Section 1.2, p. 2.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

of national policies/schemes like the former 2005 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) and the National Mission on Sustainable Habitats drive the urban policy making environment in India is leaning towards sustainable development.30 The Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) (2015) succeeded the JNNURM after its AMRUTUrban Landcompletion. The AMRUT’s focus went beyond housing, with a goal of ensuring every household with access to water and sewage. The AMRUT was launched at the same time as the Housing for All scheme, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) (2015), which included 90 cities in three different states. This scheme intends to provide housing for the urban poor through several strategies including, a) In-situ slum redevelopment with private sector participation using land as resource; b) affordable housing through Credit Linked Subsidy; c) affordable housing in partnership with private and public sector; and, d) beneficiary-led housing construction and revitalization. The National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF), establishes a national level urban planning guideline to be used by state and local governments, “each state is expected to design a state policy on how to take urbanizations forward paying respect to the local contexts.”31 Further, the NUPF states that state policies need to coordinate with existing national and state level policies to ensure they are working in tandem. The State Government established a ‘Climate Change and CDM Cell’ in the Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board (RSPCB) to act as a nodal agency for dealing with all issues related with Climate Change in the State. The Steering Committee includes eight task forces (two pending), whose role is to develop proposals for the implementation of the actions of the Rajasthan Environment Mission.32 The vision of RAPCC is to achieve sustainable development by reducing vulnerability to climate change impacts and enhancing resilience of ecological, economic and social systems in Rajasthan.33 In accordance with that, RUDP mentioned one of its key interventions: to carry out vulnerability mapping of all urban areas and make mitigation plans according to vulnerability maps.34 According to the RAPCC, for the legal requirement to assess the greenhouse gas emission, “there exists a need for GHG inventorisation and developing a GHG management plan in the state. An inventory of GHG estimations for the state of Rajasthan will serve as an important tool to assess key areas where the intervention is required and potential policies aimed at GHG mitigation. The GHG inventorisation process could further be extended to indicate levels of local pollutant emissions.”35 - Implies there is no inventory of GHG emissions at the state level. - Implies there is no GHG management plan at the state level. -

30 31 32 33 34 35

RAPCC states a need for these tools, but does not pose a legal requirement for implementation nor follow-through. Does not include a suggestion for these tools to be a part of future regional tWerritorial plans. RAPCC (2010), Section 1.3, p. 166. NUPF (2018), p. 2. RAPCC (2010), Section 1.5, p. 5. RAPCC (2010), Section 2.1, p. 7. RUDP (2017), Section 16.4, p. 50. RAPCC (2010), Section 5.5, p. 35.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning Instruments

The National Urban Policy Scenario toward sustainable development manages several actions such as building sector, municipal solid waste management, urban transport, and urban planning to improve the quality of life of the urban citizen. Some of the actions (integrated solid waste management, integrated land use and transport planning, and mixed-use development) also have tremendous potential to reduce GHG emissions.36 One of the policy objectives in RUDP is to reduce emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases. Adopt eco-friendly solutions for transport, power, and water management in all the ULBs. State-level policy framework and guidelines for adoption on environment-friendly practices. Pilot projects on new technologies under the aegis of the state govt., to be developed and adopted by the Urban Local Bodies.37 But there is no specific legal requirement to assess the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the regional territorial plans (Figure 4).

Figure 4: State Planning Instruments: Rajasthan Acts, Plans, and Policies impacting MDP 2025 36 37

RAPCC (2010), Section 11.3, p. 167. RUDP (2017), Section 17.3, p. 52.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

2.3 Spatial Plans for Urban Areas Local-level spatial plans are the basic policy framework shaping the built and natural environments through the allocation of infrastructure and land use regulations that guide the physical development of cities.38 The existence of local comprehensive plans is an important step towards sustainable development. In 2005, the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) established a requirement for cities to develop a City Development Plan (CDP), though this mission was closed in 2014.39 Land use planning also matters for rural areas. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture established a Technical Committee on Coordination of Agricultural Statistics in 1948. In 1951 they developed a nine fold land use classification with accompanying definitions known as the ICAR Nine Fold Land Use Classification (Figure 5).40 Statistics are collected annually using this nine-fold system. While this land use classification system is used nationally, there are no legal provisions that require urban plans to classify land based on what is and is not allowed within each category. India does not mandate that urban plans assess and identify land for urban development that complies with climate change mitigation efforts. However, the current RAPCC’s first key strategy is to address and integrate the climate change risks and responses into urban planning, development and governance. This actionable item consists of asking that each city develops a resilience plan based on their vulnerabilities. As part of the city resilience plan, a Citizen Advisory Committee should be constituted. The City Resilience Plans should become an integral part of the City Development Plan. 41 The action plan for this strategy includes the plan to restrict and control land use in areas prone to flash floods by designating /restricting land uses in flood plains of major rivers.42 The RAPPC envisions that urban development plans will be required to incorporate considerations of future inventory of Rajasthan GHG estimations. The RAPPC suggests the integration of urban forest planning into both regular master plans and urban development projects.43 The government of India is concerned with population growth in general, but has not yet spatialized these concerns via any plans, surveys, or boundaries. The Eleventh Five Year Plan establishes a goal of fertility reduction to replacement levels to support population stabilization, meaning the population would not increase or decrease. This plan is developed by the State in accordance with National Health Policy, Millennium Development Goals, and the basic strategy of the National Rural Health Mission.44 The Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) is a mission launched in 2015 to ensure that basic infrastructure and service delivery is provided for households that meet benchmarks set by the Ministry of Urban Development in highly populated cities.45 While 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

Kumar, P. and Geneletti, D., 2015. How are climate change concerns addressed by spatial plans? An evaluation framework, and an application to Indian cities. Land use policy, 42, pp.210-226. Ahluwalia, “Planning for Urban Development in India”. Land Use and its Classification in India. https://www.patnauniversity.ac.in/e-content/social_sciences/geography/ MAGeog80.pdf RAPCC (2010), Section 11.6, p. 170. RAPCC (2010), Section 11.6, p. 172.

RAPCC (2010), Section 9.6, p. 134.

RAPCC (2010), Section 8.1, pp. 93-94. RUDP (2017), Section 1.3, p. 8.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning Instruments

this mission does not set urban growth boundaries specifically, it does aim to control needs within populated boundaries. The RUDP acknowledges that many of India’s cities grew in size at unsustainable rates, causing stress on services and infrastructure, leading to overutilization to the point of decay. The policy aims to set a future course to reduce overuse in cities.

Figure 5: ICAR Nine Fold Land Use Classification Source: https://www.patnauniversity.ac.in/e-content/social_sciences/geography/MAGeog80.pdf

A typical master plan in India covers a 20 year time span, though in some cases the plan itself takes over a decade to develop.46 The RAPCC identifies key priorities and actions are identified for the water resources sector, agriculture sector, health sector, forest and biodiversity sector, enhanced energy efficiency and renewable energy. These actions are identified in three possible time frames, short term (2012-2017), mid term (2017-2022), and long term (2022 and beyond). The RUDP establishes implementation strategies throughout the policy in categories of short term (0-5 years) and long term (5-20 years). Further, it recognizes the need for master plans to look to a period of 20-25 years as opposed to looking to results or the end state. Though, neither one of these plans have legal provision requiring a planning horizon of at least 20 years. 46

Ahluwalia, “Planning for Urban Development in India”, p. 3.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

There are no legal provisions requiring reviews of urban plans if new climate risks or new climate adaptation options are identified. There are monitoring and evaluation periods that are applied to the RAPCC, and the NUPF suggests that plans allow an addendum process every two years via public participation. However, neither of these measures allow for addendums or revisions based on new findings or risks related to climate change. In Chapter 15 of the RAPCC, Monitoring and Evaluation, there is an evaluation process in the form of mid-term review of proposed activities and post-implementation impact evaluation that gives the scope for modification and improvement in the strategies being formulated for the next phase.47 “The implementation of the RAPCC will be done by respective state departments and monitoring of the implementation will be done by the Rajasthan Environment Mission and Steering Committee of the Environment Mission. While state departments will be responsible for implementation of targets, these will be reported to the Climate Change and CDM cell and presented and monitored by the Steering Committee during meetings of the Environment Mission.”48 Additionally, there will be routine monitoring of actions/outcomes in accommodation of “generating knowledge” to be used in more short-term action changes. Because there is no mandated national territorial plan, there are no legal provisions to ensure that urban plans implement the objectives of the national plan. However, many of the national policies and initiatives include provisions to guide urban plans such as the National Urban Policy Framework. Chapter 11 of the RAPCC, “Urban Governance and Sustainable Habitat,” includes frameworks for action items focusing on the building sector, municipal solid waste management, urban transport, and urban planning.49 The Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP) was implemented out of a need for better coordination between National, State, and Local governments, specifically to help integrate urbanization policies and legislation at the national and state levels.50 One of the policy objectives is to clarify roles and responsibilities between states, agencies, and municipalities and eliminate redundant efforts by delineating clear functions.51 The RUDP mentioned urban planning in Rajasthan is performed by the Town Planning Department and it is part of the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing, Government of Rajasthan. The main function of the department was to prepare physical development plans, such as schemes, master plans of towns, regional plans and village plans.52

Recommendations The RUDP highlights a need for more coordination between planning agencies. Lack of coordination between departments / agencies at the state level needs to be addressed by streamlining procedures and efficiency of main tasks and functions so that there is no overlap. Without a mandated national plan, there are a variety of planning instruments at the national level that have implications for state and local governments. The RUDP states that often these 47 48 49 50 51 52

RAPCC (2010), Section 15, p. 198. RAPCC (2010), Section 15, p. 198. RAPCC (2010), Section 11, p. 167. RUDP (2017), Section 1.3. RUDP (2017), Section 11.4, p. 40. RUDP (2017), Section 13.1, p. 42.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning Instruments

plans do not coincide, resulting in frequent overlap and conflict. This challenge is exasperated by the fact that the planning agencies are not the same as enforcement agencies.53 While there are provisions for connectivity of transportation and infrastructure as a system, there are no provisions at the national level that require the establishment of an integrated national inland and coastal transportation and infrastructure network. As stated in the NUPF, transportation planning would benefit from a “moving people” approach as opposed to a “moving vehicles” approach. While India does not have a national territorial plan, within other national frameworks and policies, there is no requirement to assess the climate vulnerability of their implementation. Without this requirement, new national-level plans, frameworks and policies could be put in place without consideration for its impacts on climate change, nor how the policy will age with consideration of a future that is impacted by climate change. Further, there are no legal requirements to assess the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the implementation of national plans, policies or frameworks. Without this requirement, new policies could be put in place that have large GHG emissions associated with them, either unknowingly, or with disregarded consideration. Further, without the requirement to measure GHG emissions, benchmarks for comparison and growth measurement will be harder to assess. There are no legal provisions that require reviews of urban plans if new climate risks or new climate adaptation options are identified. There are monitoring and evaluation periods that are applied to the RAPCC, and the NUPF suggests that plans allow an addendum process every two years via public participation. However, neither of these measures allow for addendums or revisions based on new findings or risks related to climate change. Added provisions that allow this flexibility will fit into the NUPF goals of creating more dynamic and adaptive planning measures. Because the NUPF also aims to integrate more advanced technologies into their planning process and evaluation, as new data becomes available, it would be beneficial to have the flexibility for national policies to react to best practices.

RUDP (2017), Section 13.2, p. 42.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Planning Instruments Table of Authorities Name of Policy

Year

Jaipur City Mobility Plan

2018

National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF)

2018

Model Regional Town and Planning Development Law

2018

Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP)

2017

National Mission on Sustainable Habitats (NMSH)

2017

India's Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC)

2015

Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)

2015

Housing for All / Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)

2015

Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act

2014

Urban and Regional Development Plans, Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI)

2014

Rajasthan State Action Plan (RAPCC)

2010

State Water Policy

2010

Rajasthan State Environmental Policy (SEP)

2010

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

2008

National Urban Transport Policy (2006)

2006

National Environmental Policy (NEP)

2006

Disaster Management Act (DM Act)

2005

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)

2005

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning Instruments

Planning For Adaptation

The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) provides a roadmap for the states of India to prioritize strategies to address climate change challenges. In particular, State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCC) require scientific assessment of climate change impacts and vulnerabilities, identification of adaptation and mitigation strategies, prioritization of these strategies, and the identification of financial needs and sources to implement these adaptation and mitigation options. The Climate Change Agenda for Rajasthan (CCAR) is an important first step to addressing the unique climate vulnerabilities in the region. Furthermore, the State Environmental Policy (SEP) identified key environmental challenges in 2010, and the Rajasthan Environment Mission was created to bring focus to high priority environmental issues. Thus, the Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) focuses on risk reduction and adaptation measures that correspond to the goals of the SEP and Rajasthan Environment Mission. The vision of the RAPCC is to “achieve sustainable development by reducing vulnerability to climate change impacts and enhancing resilience of ecological, economic and social systems in Rajasthan.”1 In addition, the Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP) provides guidance on future development and is closely linked to climate change adaptation planning. The RUDP provides an “overarching framework to deal with the important and critical issues of urban services such as water, sanitation, mobility, and housing.”2 • The RAPCC and RUDP both excel at recommending climate risk and vulnerability assessments, identifying climate adaptation options and educating residents throughout the process. • Key enforcement mechanisms, such as charging developers for infrastructure costs, are present in both the RAPCC and RUDP. However, implementation could be bolstered with additional guidelines and requirements. • The RAPCC and RUDP largely lack consideration of planned relocations and security of tenure to aid in climate change adaptation.

Figure 1: Hazards 1 2

Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change of 2010 (RAPCC), Section 2.1, p. 6. Rajasthan Urban Development Policy of 2017 (RUDP), Section 1.3, p. 8.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Adaptation

Rajasthan is currently vulnerable to existing climate change hazards and will only continue to become more susceptible to risk in the future (Figure 1 Hazards). Frequent and severe famines and droughts are some of the greatest threats to climate change adaptation in Rajasthan. The state has only about 1% of the country’s water resources which makes it extremely vulnerable to this climate hazard.3 A recent study by the state pollution control board determined that the state will likely suffer from increased water shortage from a reduction in rainfall and increased evapo-transpiration due to increased temperatures.4 In western Rajasthan, the Thar desert region is particularly susceptible to a rise in surface temperature from climate change which will likely lead to excessive loss of water, mass human migration, and desertification (Figure 2 Map). While the state will generally become drier, increases in unpredictable precipitation events due to climate change could lead to flash floods and negative impacts on crop production, particularly during the monsoon season. Prabhakar and Shaw provide specific recommendations to aid adaptation strategies for increased risk of drought in India.5 They developed these recommendations by analyzing previous mitigation and response mechanisms from natural disasters in India and identifying gaps. They assert that India can most adapt to increased risks of drought through enhanced preparedness with emphasis on community-based disaster planning, improving existing monsoon and drought prediction methods, and establishing drought monitoring and early warning systems.

Figure 2: Drought Recurrence in Rajasthan over 3, 4, 5, 6 & 8 Year Periods. Created by Clare Kucera, March 2021

RajRAS, “Climate Change in Rajasthan”, Rajasthan RAS, February 12, 2021, https://www.rajras.in/climate-change-inrajasthan/#:~:text=Impact of Climate Change in Rajasthan&text=Rise in surface temperature (especially,unpredictability of weather and rainfall.

RajRAS, “Climate Change in Rajasthan”, 2021.

Prabhakar, S. V. R. K., and Shaw, R., “Climate Change Adaptation Implications for Drought Risk Mitigation: A Perspective for India”, (Climatic Change 88, no. 2, 2007), p. 113-30, doi:10.1007/s10584-007-9330-8.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Singh, Osbahr, and Dorward examine rural perceptions of water scarcity on differential adaptation behavior and rely on “empirical evidence from an in-depth study conducted in Rajasthan, India, to emphasise how individual and collective memories, and experience of past extreme events shape current definitions and future expectations of climatic risks.”6 In doing so, they identified pathways for adaptation strategy development. Their findings revealed that perception of vulnerability based on past extreme climate events has a significant influence on the way current adaptation policy and strategy in Rajasthan is formed.7 Perception, in turn, has even been noted as a barrier to successful adaptation. This disparity between actual and perceived climate risk is particularly apparent in the state of Rajasthan: “The implications of this gap in examining differential perceptions are critical to address since insights into risk perception can help identify entry points into incentivising adaptive behaviour.”8 Considering risk perception therefore, would strengthen existing climate change adaptation policy and mechanisms in the State.9 Additional review of existing legislation, for example, the National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF) indicates that implementing incentives for “cities to invest in low-emission, climateresilient infrastructure; encourage project preparation for mitigation and adaptation projects; and collaborate with local financial institutions to develop climate finance infrastructure solutions for cities, also known as green bonds” are priorities for the state of Rajasthan that supplement climate adaptation strategy and development. 10 The NUPF also gives careful consideration to slum redevelopment and relocation strategy, however not necessarily within the context of climate change adaptation. Low-income and informal dwellings and security of tenure thereof is also addressed in the NUPF and referred to as ““untenable” not because of any hazard but because it stands at a great distance from minimum development control norms or servicelevel benchmarks”.11

3.1 Climate Risks and Vulnerabilities for Planned Areas and Infrastructure The approach to developing the Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) is first focused on assessment. The plan identifies and highlights climate hazards, risks and impacts informed by science. Workshops, such as “Science-Based Policy Options for Climate Change Adaptation in Rajasthan,” were held to better disseminate and understand climate risks and bring together key stakeholder groups.12 The plan emphasizes the importance of training and capacity building activities as critical to properly addressing climate change.13

7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Singh, C., Osbahr, H. & Dorward, P., “The implications of rural perceptions of water scarcity on differential adaptation behaviour in Rajasthan, India”, (Reg Environ Change 18, 2018), p. 2417–2432, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-0181358-y. Singh, et al., “The implications of rural perceptions of water scarcity”, 2018. Singh, et al., “The implications of rural perceptions of water scarcity”, 2018. Singh, et al., “The implications of rural perceptions of water scarcity”, 2018. National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF), Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, 2018. National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF), Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, 2018. RAPCC (2010), Section 2.2, p. 7. RAPCC (2010), Section 12.5, p. 188.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Adaptation

The RAPCC includes publically accessible climate hazard maps that identify areas most at risk. These include maps of temperature changes, annual extreme rainfall, droughts, wind damage risk zones, and flood prone areas. Included projections also show a rise in annual mean surface air temperature for all parts of India. Mean annual rainfall is predicted to decrease in Rajasthan, while extreme rainfall is expected to increase in frequency and intensity.14 In particular, rainfall is most erratic in the western region with frequent dry spells and occasional heavy rainfall events which can lead to flash floods. The probability of severe droughts in the coming years is high for western Rajasthan. Rajasthan is the largest state of India by area, but shares only about 1% of the country’s water resources. Water is also unevenly distributed with greater water resources in the south and south-western part of the state. Over-extraction of groundwater has also greatly deteriorated water quality. The state’s population is approximately 56.5 million with population projections predicting continued growth. Furthermore, Rajasthan’s economy is predominantly agricultural and dependent on rainfall. While the region experiences a greater frequency of extreme temperatures, rainfall events, and droughts due to climate change, water resources will become more vital in supporting the economy and the growing population .15 Similarly, forests and biodiversity are at risk to desertification and land degradation from these climate impacts in Rajasthan. Furthermore, the RAPCC identifies the people, property, and economic sectors in the region that are at risk to the effects of climate change. Population demographic analyses reveal specific groups’ vulnerabilities, which makes it difficult for them to adapt to climate risks and hazards. For example, urban poverty levels are continuing to increase in Rajasthan and most districts have low Human Development Index values. Literacy rates are slightly below the national average as well, with female literacy rates far below the rates for males. Further disparities include malnutrition among women and children, high incidence of childhood and climate-sensitive vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, inadequacies in water supply and sanitation, and poor health and socioeconomic statuses of women.16 The plan recommends carrying out vulnerability assessments to identify areas, population groups and diseases that may be impacted by future climate changes while developing models to assess potential health impacts. Agriculture is heavily emphasized throughout the RAPCC as being a high risk activity. An increased frequency of droughts and long-term water scarcity can “adversely impact state agricultural production and productivity owing to changes in the hydrological cycle, changes in plant physiology, soil properties, and rate of evapo-transpiration, pest dynamics and rate of weed proliferation.”17 Heat stress and reduction in feed and fodder can also impact the performance of farm animals. The RAPCC recommends studies to assess the suitability of reclaiming difficult soils, such as alkaline soils, for agricultural uses and further research on various aspects of crop production and management. 14 15 16 17

RAPCC (2010), Section 4.3.1.3, p. 23. RAPCC (2010), Section 3.1, p. 9. RAPCC (2010), Section 8.1, p. 94. RAPCC (2010), Section 7.3, p. 70.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

The RAPCC also presents specific requirements to produce climate assessments to estimate current and future vulnerabilities and risk as part of the urban planning process. In terms of water resources, the plan recommends a comprehensive assessment of groundwater resources and an evaluation of recharge potential. Exploration studies are needed to determine the potential for deeper freshwater aquifers. There is also a need to develop research institutions that can review the availability and scale of hydrological data, conduct studies on the effectiveness of technologies, and develop integrated drought monitoring systems.18 In general, the RAPCC also pushes for climate change vulnerability and impact assessments at the state and local level, since most are often found at the national level.19 There are few key gaps in the RAPCC that can further address climate risks and vulnerabilities for planned areas and infrastructure in the state. First, there are no provisions of law or regulations in the RAPCC that require the identification or consideration of climate hazards, risks and vulnerabilities in the RAPCC. Any mention of these topics appears as a strong recommendation, rather than a legal or regulatory requirement in the urban planning process. Moreover, there are no requirements in the plan for hazard maps to be reviewed and updated every 10 years. Second, while the plan does excel on describing the importance of disseminating information and working with locals, there is little mention of participatory and inclusive vulnerability assessments. Locals should not only be educated about climate risks, but their thoughts and insights should be explicitly incorporated into risk and vulnerability assessments. The Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP) outlines key state policies that consider climate risks and vulnerability for planned areas and infrastructure. The National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM) sets a vision to “build safe and disaster resilient India by developing holistic, proactive, multi-disaster oriented technology driven strategy through a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response.”20 Municipal regulations, such as development control regulations, building bylaws, and structural safety features, should be reviewed periodically to ensure safety from climate hazards. Similarly, the State Disaster Management Plan (SDMP) works to take preventative measures by predicting disasters through GIS and other modern technology.21 The disaster management portion of the plan also mentions the need to carry out vulnerability mapping of all urban areas and sensitive risk assessments that consider issues of gender equity. In addition, urban water supply strategies recommend creating GIS maps for ground and surface water mapping to better understand risks and vulnerabilities. The RUDP has key gaps in its consideration of climate risks and vulnerability. For example, there are no mandated climate risk assessments or comprehensive identification of climate hazards. The policy itself focuses more broadly on bolstering resilience for its people, property, and economic sectors and thus must be complemented with more explicit policies and plans that focus on climate change adaptation.

18 19 20 21

RAPCC (2010), Section 6.6. RAPCC (2010), Section 12.2, p. 183. RUDP (2017), Section 1.3, p. 9. RUDP (2017), Section 1.3, p. 9.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Adaptation

The city of Jaipur is particularly affected by climate hazards that occur in Rajasthan. The city is in the northeast portion of the state and can be acutely affected by water scarcity. Jaipur experiences a drought once every five years, but this will likely increase in frequency and severity due to climate change.22 Jaipur also experienced heavy rain events that have caused flash flooding in the past. The city would benefit greatly from requiring inclusive and participatory planning processes in their vulnerability and risk assessments to better understand how to adapt to these climate hazard extremes.

3.2 Identification and Prioritization of Adaptation Options After identifying and assessing climate hazards, the Rajasthan Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) focuses on proposing adaptation needs and mitigation opportunities for the state and prioritizing specific actions. In terms of the growing scarcity of water resources, the plan outlines five key strategies to better manage and adapt to fewer water resources. These include: the management of groundwater with a focus on over-exploited areas; enhanced preparedness for drought monitoring, drought mitigation and the development of an early warning system; enhanced water conservation measures; improved water use efficiency; and the development of a comprehensive water database for assessment of climate impacts.23 Specific action items related to adaptation to fulfill these strategies include the regulation of groundwater drilling; stakeholder engagement and education on sustainable water management practices; conduction of feasibility assessments to implement conservation practices; development of drought management policy to efficiently provide relief; construction of rainwater harvesting systems; and promotion of wastewater reuse and more efficient irrigation systems. Another important industry susceptible to climate risks is agriculture and animal husbandry. Key strategies to build resilience in the agricultural industry include the enhancement of crop and livestock productivity; restoration and development of wastelands; research and assessment of specific climatic risks; promotion and management of multifunctional agroforestry systems; and the promotion of horticulture. Related adaptation actions to fulfill these strategies include developing cultivars that are resistant to extreme climate conditions; breeding of livestock that are less climate sensitive; promoting coarse cereal-based farming systems; planting resilient species, such as the khejri tree to recolonize arid wastelands; improving weather forecasting systems; promoting traditional drought-resilient agroforestry practices; and educating the public on how to grow suitable horticultural crops based on agro climatic zones.24 Forests and biodiversity must also be managed in accordance with climatic changes in order to be preserved. Adaptation strategies to preserve these ecosystems include the sequential restoration of dunes in Thar desert and the conservation of biodiversity and traditional knowledge. Specific action strategies include strengthening the network of urban green spaces; promoting agroforestry as a land use adaptation strategy to support livelihoods; identifying where land use buffers can be created; monitoring shifts in forest types; and integrating traditional knowledge

22 23 24

RAPCC (2010), Section 4.3.1.3, p. 19. RAPCC (2010), Section 6.6. RAPCC (2010), Section 7.7.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

into adaptation strategies.25 Most importantly, in order to protect and promote public health in the face of a changing climate, the RAPCC recommends the key strategies that include research-based prioritization of vulnerable regions/population groups for targeted interventions, improved disease monitoring and surveillance systems to enhance response capacity, and enhanced primary, secondary and tertiary health care to cope with potential climate risks and additional health impacts of climate change. Specific public health-informed actions related to adaptation include studying the regional pattern of climate-sensitive diseases and outbreaks; developing a decentralized digital health database; developing mechanisms for coordination between state health laboratories; informing policy makers and health practitioners about climate change risks; integrating health impact concerns related to climate change into state policy; strengthening the disaster management plan specifically for the health sector; and promoting health education and awareness in public with respect to climate risks and adaptation measures.26 The RAPCC recognizes that proper governance is essential to developing resilience and adapting to climate change in Rajasthan. Thus, the plan recommends integrated climate risks and responses into the urban planning and development process; promotion of sustainable urban transportation; improvements in urban infrastructure; strengthened disaster preparedness at a local level; regulatory reforms; and promotion of green buildings. Action items to achieve these governance goals include preparation of resilience plans for each city; preparation of flood preparedness and management plans at a local level; preparation of comprehensive mobility plans for all major cities; increased public transportation; strict enforcement of rainwater harvesting, reuse of waste water; and calculation of water footprint with associated tax rebates.27 While the RAPCC successfully identifies an array of adaptation strategies and actions, there are some areas in the plan that could be improved with further detail. While estimated costs of the strategies (approximately 262 crores in total) are identified in the plan along with an indicated time frame (short, medium, or long term), further detail is needed to describe potential barriers to implementation for each of the strategies. In addition, key strategies identified for each sector in the plan represent priorities for Rajasthan, but there is no prioritization of specific action items to meet these goals. In addition, there is no mention of legal requirements for identifying and prioritizing adaptation options. The plan strongly encourages best practices, such as stakeholder engagement, identifying infrastructure and nature-based solutions, creating verifiable benchmarks, and assessing capacities of local and sub-regional governments, but specific provisions and requirements would better allow Rajasthan to make these adaptation goals come to fruition. Many of the strategies presented in the Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP) focus more broadly on resilience rather than climate change adaptation. However, some of the strategies presented do improve climate change adaptation for urban areas. Livability 25 26 27

RAPCC (2010), Section 9.6. RAPCC (2010), Section 8.6. RAPCC (2010), Section 11.6.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Adaptation

standards aim to provide quality municipal services and make the city resilient to natural disasters. Urban transport strategies promote an “affordable, accessible and assured multimodal public transport system” and ensure that public transportation accommodates gender equity concerns to create an inclusive system (e.g., well-lit stations).28 Urban water supply strategies tackle the challenge of diminishing surface water resources and quality through developing monitoring mechanisms, setting quality standards, and implementing water reduction measures.29 Municipal wastewater management strategies involve providing hygienic wastewater management to all households in order to reduce the incidence of diseases which can be further exacerbated by climate change. Similarly, the RUDP encourages all towns and cities to prepare and implement integrated waste management plans. Stormwater management is a key area of concern for adaptation, especially during monsoon season. Strategies involve integrating stormwater management in the urban planning and development process through the development of master drainage plans and ensuring regular maintenance of stormwater infrastructure. Disaster management strategies involve revising building codes, auditing existing structures, improving capacity development of disaster authorities, and increasing public awareness.30 General urban planning practices should also take into consideration expected population growth, infrastructure requirements, and land use. Moreover, the RUDP provides consideration for gender equity in urban development policy. Policy must be inclusive and consider how urban challenges, such as informal settlements, mobility, livelihood, and tenure security, affected people differently, particularly women. Affordable housing production should work to involve both women and men through community-based organizations to determine housing designs and locations.31 Financing urban infrastructure is outlined in the final pages of the policy. Different financing mechanisms are mentioned and the policy also promotes public private partnerships. Timescales for implementing strategies are divided into short term (0 - 5 years) or long term (5 - 20 years). Stakeholder engagement is also highly encouraged throughout the development and implementation of action items. While overarching challenges are mentioned for each category in the RUDP, specific barriers to implementation are not outlined. In addition, there are no verifiable benchmarks to measure progress. Furthermore, interventions typically focus on improving infrastructure and services and generally lack ecosystem-based adaptation measures. Many of the climate adaptation strategies outlined in the RAPCC would also greatly benefit Jaipur. However, the Jaipur Development Authority’s Master Development Plan (MDP) does not specify or prioritize adaptation actions that would most benefit the region. Further research should be conducted to inform actions, policies, and regulations that increase the resilience and quality of life for residents of Jaipur. 28 29 30 31

RUDP (2017), Section 3.4, p. 16. RUDP (2017), Section 4.3. RUDP (2017), Section 16.4, p. 50. RUDP (2017), Section 8.4, p. 30.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

3.3 Implementation of the Identified Adaptation Options The final chapter of the RAPCC focuses entirely on implementation. The plan aims to set targets, estimate necessary resources, identify capacity, and consult state departments.32 In addition, the RAPCC introduces some regulatory measures to ensure the implementation of identified adaptation options. For example, the plan recommends to restrict and control land use in areas prone to flash floods due to increases in the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall events.33 The RAPCC mentions developing land and water information systems to better understand the impacts of climate change regionally along with evacuation plans to strengthen disaster preparedness. In addition, local governments should work to improve urban stormwater drainage infrastructure.34 However, there is little mention on the importance of incorporating nature-based stormwater solutions. The implementation portion of the RAPCC is brief and lacks additional laws or regulatory mechanisms that ensure climate adaptation measures are incorporated into planned areas and infrastructure. Restrictions on land use in hazard prone areas and public land buffers to preserve forest and biodiversity are mentioned throughout the RAPCC, however, further details are needed about specific requirements for proper implementation. Implementation mechanisms are largely absent in the Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP) likely because the policy does not explicitly focus on climate adaptation. Restrictions on development in hazard prone areas or land buffers in coastal or riparian zones are not mentioned. Even though there is a stormwater management section in the RUDP, strategies focus on infrastructure requirements and do not include implementing nature-based solutions. Developing land information systems that integrate climate hazards or planning for evacuations routes should a disaster occur are also not mentioned. The Jaipur Master Development Plan (MDP) supports the implementation of adaptation actions by establishing restrictions on land use and development in hazard prone and seismic tectonically vulnerable areas. Furthermore, the MDP plans for water conservation and flood control by planting vegetation along the periphery of water bodies. Nature-based stormwater management is also required for developments of a certain size. Again, further regulatory specifications are needed to streamline the implementation process for Jaipur.

3.4 Adaptation of Slums and Other Vulnerable Settlements The Rajasthan Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) considers informal settlement vulnerability via an old national scheme, the Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP), which facilitated “holistic slum development with a healthy and enabling urban environment by providing adequate shelter and basic infrastructure facilities to the slum

32 33 34

RAPCC (2010), Section 2.2, p. 8. RAPCC (2010), Section 11.6, p. 172. RAPCC (2010), Section 11.6, p. 175.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Adaptation

dwellers of the identified urban areas.”3536 The IHSDPi was a program applicable to all cities with the exception of those covered under the 2005-2017 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), one of which was Jaipur.37 Unlike other states, where most towns have opted for slum clearance and redevelopment with three or higher floor construction, Rajasthan innovated by also undertaking in situ slum upgrading. Although the RAPCC acknowledged the challenge of slums, further detail regarding climate-specific actions and adaptation measures would supplement the RAPCC and provide additional protections for slum dwellers and residents of other settlements vulnerable to the effects of climate change. While the RAPCC contains extensive climate change data, projections, and information, the plan does little to directly address adaptation strategies for vulnerable slums and informal settlements. Slum rehabilitation and redevelopment policies at the national level are often evolving, with schemes that are updated, extended or replaced by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).38 One of such schemes is Slum Free India, Rajiv Awas Yojana, RAY. This scheme has been discontinued and contracted projects transferred to the Housing for All scheme, with implementation extended to 2022.39 The Government of Rajasthan responds to these changes in national housing and urban infrastructure schemes by adapting state policy to allocate state matching funds, attract private investment, and mobilize and capacitate local government. Thus, in 2012 the state revised The Slum Development Police, in response to RAY, in order to integrate private sector involvement into planning processes for slum improvement and upgrading projects “as an add on to the efforts already underway by the urban local bodies’’.4041 In these processes, implementation should be carried out through a nodal agency such as the Department of Urban Development & Local Self Government under the Rajasthan State Government.42 The rights of slum dwellers receive little consideration throughout RAPCC, and residents are not identified as actors or participating agents in the planning processes related to slums. The plan acknowledges the poor living conditions of tribal communities and health disparities related to climate variations and conditions, particularly in infant mortality rates in these locations. Section 8.2.3 of the RAPCC explains that the common denominator in tribal communities with high infant and child mortality rates is the lack of medical services and civic amenities available to them.43 While the 11th Five Year Plan outlined the implementation of diagnostic services to mitigate this 35 36

38 39 40 41

42 43

RAPCC (2010), Section 8.4, p. 110. India’s Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs: Old Schemes: http://mohua.gov.in/cms/old-schemes.php Consulted o 4.23.21. Office memorandum, F.No. N-11027/63/2014-PPG. Available at http://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/ files/1JnNURM_Extention_16-17.pdf. Consulted on 03.31.21. The 2005 Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was originally scheduled to expire in 2014 and was extended to 2017. See Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs’ website: http://mohua.gov.in/cms/oldschemes.php In 2017, the formerly called the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation became part of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA). Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Office Memorandum F.No. I-11016/5/2013-RAY-I (Vol II). FTS-12554. Available at http://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/2Ray_Discontinuation_19_05_2015.pdf. Consulted 04.08.21. RAPCC (2010), Section 11.3, p. 169. Rajasthan Slum Development Policy under Public-Private Partnership, revised 2012. Department of Housing, Urban Development, and Self-government, Government of Rajasthan. Available at: http://environment.rajasthan.gov.in/ content/dam/raj/udh/udh%20department/pdf/act%20and%20rules/slum%20development%20policy%202012.pdf. RAPCC (2010), Section 11.3, p. 169. RAPCC (2010), Section 8.3.2, p. 96.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

deficiency, adequate infrastructure capacity is still necessary in informal settlements in order to offer sustainable access to healthcare and other resources.44 In the future, the RAPCC should enact some basic principles about tenure security, access to basic services and participatory planning that guide Rajasthan’s approach to climate change adaptation and mitigation in slums beyond the life of any particular national scheme. Regardless of the national housing schemes in place, revisions and new iterations of the RAPCC should guarantee accessibility to water, sanitation, and electricity services for slum dwellers in designated improvement areas. These services should be guaranteed, irrespective of proof of tenure security and other forms of formal tenure rights documents. Incorporating participatory planning practices into any future programs targeted at improving overall environmental health for informal dwellers throughout Rajasthan would strengthen the RAPCC. Additional consideration should be given to settlements that are highly vulnerable to climate change, and resident and land owner participation should be prioritized to determine the upgrading and improvement processes that best align with these groups. Regarding the adaptation of slums and other vulnerable settlements, there are several areas for improvement in climate adaptation planning and the RAPCC. As it stands, the RAPCC does not outline any urban development or land management tools for urban expansion, infill, or redevelopment to change plot configuration. In terms of planning and infrastructure standards for climate-vulnerable settlements and slums, the former Sub-Mission-II of JNNURM focused on the integrated development of slums by providing public services, utilities, and amenities and securing shelter to slum dwellers.45 However, this section of the plan would benefit from further exploration of the benefits of infrastructure standards for slums and vulnerable settlements. As previously mentioned, participatory planning is not prioritized in the RAPCC. Incorporating resident feedback into planning processes by requiring the administration of community-led surveys, maps, and household enumerations would support the success of slum and vulnerable settlement adaptation processes. Additionally, the RAPCC and the former IHSDP could be improved by requiring that pre-existing residents of upgraded settlements are guaranteed housing affordability to prevent economic displacement. The RUDP acknowledges the unhygienic and poor living conditions of informal urban settlements as an emerging challenge in inclusive development and urban poverty. However, the plan also recognizes the general lack of effort towards combating this issue in Rajasthan, making it an even more pressing challenge. There is little discussion of slums and informal settlements within the context of climate vulnerability in the RUDP. Participation by all Rajasthan residents is addressed in regards to wastewater management, upgrading transportation systems and infrastructure development, affordable housing development, slum rehabilitation programs, and urban governance. As it relates to affordable housing development, participation of women is encouraged as a means of supporting gender equity. The RUDP pushes extensively for the inclusion of vulnerable populations such as women, children, and senior citizens as an intervention strategy for more inclusive development in Rajasthan.46 Conversely, inclusive 44 45 46

RAPCC (2010), Section 8.3.2, p. 96. RAPCC (2010), Section 8.4, p. 111. RUDP (2017), Section 14.4, p.46.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Adaptation

processes are not discussed within the context of climate change vulnerability in informal and precarious settlements. Section 9 of the RUDP pertains to slum redevelopment and identifies an intervention strategy for the provision of basic sanitation and water services in all slum areas.47 Similar to the state of Rajasthan, Jaipur’s MDP sparsely mentions slums or other settlements vulnerable to climate change. As mentioned under the RAPCC, Jaipur’s MDP also prioritizes providing adequate shelter and access to basic civic amenities, but does not specify or identify climate adaptation provisions for these resources and services.

3.5 Planned Relocations from Areas at Risk of Climate Change Research regarding climate change impacts on human health in Rajasthan is virtually nonexistent, making the Rajasthan Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC)’s approach to adaptation planning unique and more mitigation-based than adaptation-focused. Section 8.6 addresses four health-based climate actions and intervention strategies. One action suggests that “under a future climate change scenario…[rather than relocating a vulnerable community], expansion and improvements in water, sanitation, nutritional programs and most importantly health care facilities, must be prioritized so that health care is accessible to every segment of the population. An improvement in public health infrastructure which includes public health training, emergency response, and disease prevention and control programs is indispensable. This could be targeted at climate sensitive diseases,such as vector borne diseases, water and food borne diseases, and health impacts from climate extremes, which are likely influenced by climate change.”48 Alternatively, current and past schemes, such as theIntegrated Housing and Slum Development Program (IHSDP) briefly addresses relocation projects but does not mention population relocation in the context of climate change-induced events. The RAPCC successfully identifies populations that may be susceptible to adverse climate change-related impacts. However, incorporating relocation plans for vulnerable populations would strengthen the plan. Of the six “Climate Actions and Strategies” sub-sections listed in the RAPCC, none prioritize setting aside land for relocation or planning relocations in case of extreme weather events. While section 1.2 identifies one of the goals of the RAPCC as “implementing [an] inclusive and sustainable development strategy that protects the poor and vulnerable sections of society from adverse effects of climate change,” it does not mention provisions for relocating populations, and any actual strategies in place to ensure resident safety are more mitigation-based than adaptation-based.49 Although the plan has little in terms of actionable steps for implementation in this regard, the ample climate change data and future scenario projections offered in NAPCC lend to aiding the development of planned relocation processes to supplement existing adaptation and mitigation measures. The RUDP does not require provisions for the relocation of populations vulnerable to climate 47 48 49

RUDP (2017), Section 9.4, p.32. RAPCC (2010), Section 8.6. p. 116. RAPCC (2010), Section 1.1, p. 3.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

change impacts ensuring their safety and health, nor does it discuss alternative strategies to meet these goals. Given Rajasthan’s heavy susceptibility to extreme climate change effects, Jaipur’s MDP also stands to benefit from integrated provisions for planned relocations related to climate change. Currently, this topic is excluded from the MDP, however relocations not related to climate adaptation are discussed in relation to affordable housing. Similarly to the RAPCC, provisions for relocation are encouraged but not mandated by the MDP. The parliament of India enacted the The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act in 2013, requesting not only that local government bodies provide just and compensation, but also that local governments install transparent and participatory processes of land acquisition. The Act applies in case of relocations due to natural calamities, sanitation projects, infrastructure provision, and publicprivate partnerships. Notably, land acquisition for public private partnership projects, the prior consent of at least seventy per cent. of those affected families. In Rajasthan, the state must compensate for quick land acquisition in order to promptly resettle displaced families since the Rajasthan Resettlement of Displaced Persons (Land Acquisition) Ordinance No. 33, 1949.

3.6 Security of Tenure The Rajasthan Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) does not give much consideration to slum dweller rights and makes no mention of security of tenure for residents of settlements vulnerable to climate change effects. There are no formal processes for grievances, review, dispute resolution, or redress mechanisms under the RAPCC. Planned relocations are sparsely mentioned throughout the plan and are not addressed within the climate adaptation context. In fact, planned relocations are only addressed in relation to IHSDP and Rajasthan’s State Environment Policy of 2010 which seeks to efficiently manage protected areas within the state. This includes provisions for relocating villages located inside protected areas and confers heritable but non-transferable rights to the relocated communities to provide defined ecotourism services.”50 Outside of this context, compensation to relocated slum dwellers or residents of host communities are not mentioned and should be included in RAPCC. There is significant room for improvement to the RAPCC in this area. In addition to considering tenure security for slum dwellers and other settlements vulnerable to climate change, the plan could be improved by including legal recognition of both customary and informal tenure rights. Outlining processes for implementing informal land and property rights would also strengthen RAPCC, along with regulations for conducting or limiting evictions under circumstances exacerbated by climate change. Section 9.2 of the Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP) discusses issues of housing tenure in slums and informal settlements. There are no provisions requiring the security of tenure

RAPCC (2010), Section 9.4, p.126.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Adaptation

for informal settlement or slum dwellers in Rajasthan.51 Access to basic sanitation services is also limited for these groups.52 Providing security of tenure to slum and informal dwellers in slum redevelopment projects discussed as an intervention strategy in section 9.4 of the plan. None of these provisions or suggested interventions are discussed within the context of climate change vulnerability. The RUDP discusses tenure security for slum dwellers along with gender disparities. Tenure insecurity in India greatly impacts women as well as scheduled tribes. For instance, only 10.3 percent of private land is owned by women. Social norms prevent women from exercising their inheritance rights. And, housing and infrastructure schemes often neglect the constitutional land rights of Scheduled Tribes.53 The RUDP acknowledges the challenge of increasing tenure security and access to basic services that women face. As a solution, the plan recommends formal slum recognition and notification, which allows slum dwellers to participate in housing and infrastructure schemes.54 Jaipur’s MDP does not include any provisions or regulations for planned relocation, land acquisition or compensation to slum dwellers or informal settlers in relation to climate adaptation or otherwise. The MDP should incorporate additional consideration in this area, like the RAPCC.. In Rajasthan, over 70% of the urban slums are located in open space and parks that are owned by local bodies of government. Thus, these jurisdictions will have an important role to play on tenure security.55

3.7 Development Approval and Adaptation The Rajasthan Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) vision is divided into a four-stage process: assessment, prioritization, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. The implementation section emphasizes capacity needs and institutional arrangements for the strategies identified in stages 1 and 2.56 Part D of the RAPCC discusses the Implementation Plan in detail, framing the institutional arrangement of the SAPCC and the RAPCC. The arrangement is directly overseen by the Rajasthan Environment Mission and supported by various private and public sector implementing agencies. The final chapter of the RAPCC explains Stage 4, monitoring and evaluation. “This stage focuses on developing a set of criteria and processes to conduct periodic monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of the implementation and success of identified adaptation and mitigation strategies. Periodic M&E is essential to ensure that the strategies are being implemented properly, to certify that they are still considering and adequate to address the changing nature of climate risk and developmental patterns in the state, and to identify the need to modify the current design and implementation plan of these strategies, including introduction of new elements.”57 51 52 53 54 55 56 57

RUDP (2017), Section 9.2, p. 32. RUDP (2017), Section 9.2, p. 32. USAID. India – Land Tenure And Property Rights Country Profile. Full report available at: https://www.land-links.org/ country-profile/india/ RUDP, Section 15.2, p. 47. Government of India, Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation and National Buildings Organization. The State of Slums in India, a statistical compendium. 2013, 217 pages. RAPCC (2010), Section 2.2, p. 8. RAPCC (2010), Section 2.2, p. 8.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Provisions are included in the RAPCC for charging developers “development charges” in cash for infrastructure costs associated with certain adaptation projects. For example, “the solar energy policy supports creation of the Rajasthan Renewable Energy Infrastructure Development Fund for accelerated development of solar and renewable energy in the state,” in which development charges provide resources for solar power producers.58 Presently, both the implementation section and monitoring and evaluation section are relatively vague and could be supported with detailed provisions that link the development approval process to legally approved urban plans, zoning regulations and evidence from climate risk and vulnerability assessments that already exist in the RAPCC. Including mechanisms for monitoring compliance with approved developments and associated conditions would also strengthen the RAPCC. The RUDP does address enforcement mechanisms for development and design standards, however climate change adaptation is not referenced in these discussions. The plan suggests strengthening enforcement mechanisms to “curtail unauthorized urban development.”59 Enforcement has been a challenge in the past because “the agencies involved in planning are different from those in enforcement.”60 Section 1 of the RUDP also highlights several pieces of legislation authorizing developer fees, but does not discuss penalties for lack of compliance. Enforcement mechanisms for the implementation plan, similar to those already adopted by Jaipur under the Development Promotion and Control Regulations MDP-2025, would also help “promote and regulate development controls for buildings in accordance with the development policies and land use proposals contained in” the RAPCC for adaptation.

Recommendations

58 59 60

RAPCC (2010), Section 10.5, p.160. RUDP (2017), Section 13.1, p. 42. RUDP (2017), Section 13.2, p. 42.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Adaptation

Figure 3: UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit Comparison Chart for Rajasthan Action Plan on Climate Change and Rajasthan Urban Development Plan

India’s existing climate adaptation legislation includes numerous best management practices. However, a thorough analysis of several key pieces of legislation, including the NAPCC, RAPCC, CCAR, SEP, and the RUDP, revealed multiple opportunities for improvement that would strengthen climate adaptation strategy and policy in Rajasthan and the nation (Table). While India has some provisions requiring the consideration of climate risks and vulnerability for planned areas and infrastructure, the existing legislation can be supplemented by legally requiring climate risk and vulnerability assessments in the urban planning process. These efforts could be further bolstered by ensuring that vulnerability assessments are inclusive and participatory processes that better understand hazard implications and identify strategies for adaptation. Climate adaptation planning could also benefit from updated hazard mapping and public dissemination thereof. Additionally, any future development proposals in climate changevulnerable regions should require environmental impact assessments as a standard component of the planning process. In regards to identification and prioritization of climate adaptation options, adaptation strategies and policy should be modified to require cost-benefit analyses and prioritization processes prior to implementing any one strategy. Additional consideration should also be given to planning for potential barriers to implementation and requiring evaluation mechanisms that ensure proposed planning efforts are able to meet existing standards at the local, regional and national level. Implementation mechanisms are another key area for opportunity, particularly in terms of development restrictions in riparian zones or flood prone high-risk areas. Presently, India lacks legal provisions requiring minimum standards for riparian setbacks. As a country, coastal area management and flood prevention strategies are limited in their capacity and can be significantly improved. Furthermore, nature-based stormwater management strategies should be developed as a mechanism for flood risk adaptation. Both the RAPCC and RUDP sparsely mention informal settlements. Given the significant population of slum dwellers, informal settlers, and indigenous groups, India must work to better incorporate provisions protecting the rights and privileges of these residents, especially within the context of climate change and adaptation strategies. Both the RAPCC and RUDP could be improved through the integration of planned relocation schemes for populations at risk of climate change-induced displacement. Security of tenure and property rights for informal settlers must also be incorporated into Indian climate adaptation planning and policy, both to meet UN Toolkit standards and provide safe, fair, and adequate living conditions to all residents. Finally, clearly outlined provisions that link the development approval process to climate adaptation strategies would bolster implementation of important goals presented in the RAPCC and RUDP. Similarly, robust mechanisms to systematically enforce and maintain compliance of adaptation strategies would strengthen planning processes for new and proposed development efforts. 60

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Adaptation Table of Authorities Name of Policy

Year

National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF)

2018

Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP)

2005

Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP)

2017

State Disaster Management Plan (SDMP)

2014

The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation 2013 and Resettlement Act Rajasthan Slum Development Policy

2012

Jaipur Development Authority Master Development Plan

2011

Slum Free India, Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY)

2011

Rajasthan State Action Plan (RAPCC)

2010

Rajasthan State Environmental Policy (SEP)

2010

National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM)

2009

Affordable Housing Policy

2009

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

2008

National Environmental Policy (NEP)

2006

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)

2005

Rajasthan Resettlement of Displaced Persons (Land Acquisition) Ordinance

1949

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Adaptation

Planning For Mitigation

The following is an analysis of the Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) as well as the Rajasthan Urban Development Plan (RUDP) through the application of Mitigation Planning strategies found in the UN Law and Climate Change Toolkit, which was created and administered by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme. We will also include an analysis of Jaipur’s Master Plan (known as “the MDP”) within these subdomains. The RAPCC itself provides few legal requirements or established concrete policies for urban planning or emissions mitigation, but rather encourages state and local governments to pursue policies and strategies that are guided by the information gathered in the plan. Actual policies may be addressed in more detail in the Climate Change Agenda for Rajasthan (CCAR) or the State Environmental Policy (SEP). The RAPCC was developed “in concurrence with” the CCAR and SEP, but is not itself binding legislation.1 Consequently, the RAPCC refers to an extensive suite of national, state, and local entities, policies, and missions through which climate change related action can be taken. The RUDP offers mandates, policy frameworks, and implementation strategies for some of the subdomains found in the Toolkit’s mitigation section. These strategies and frameworks are represented in great detail, in the form of timelines and lists of relevant parties. It appears that both public, private, and non-profit organizations are included in carrying out aspects of the RUDP. This analysis will demonstrate that neither the RAPCC nor the RUDP require regular assessments of greenhouse gas emissions related to the current urban form or proposed development scenarios. Developing the technical capacity to do so at the state level while requiring urban areas with master plans to apply such information in decision-making processes would aid in mitigating emissions. Secondly, the RAPCC does not thoroughly address the links between transportation infrastructure, planning, and urban development, and does not provide actionable guidance on how better standards and guidance can help Rajasthan’s urban areas reduce emissions. The RUDP does a much better job of exploring how improving transportation infrastructure and integrating transportation and land-use planning can help with climate mitigation. Rajasthan stands to benefit from incorporating existing knowledge about building code and energy efficiency as mentioned below. There is both national and state-specific guidance for compliance. While the RUDP does not cover as many domains within mitigation as the RAPCC, it extensively discusses the recommendations and mandates for green spaces that should be enforced in cities. To understand how policies related to climate change mitigation are enacted and implemented in Rajasthan, it is necessary to understand the national context for how the different levels of India’s governments interact with each other (Figure 1: implementation agencies). India’s national policies and missions related to development, energy, and climate also set the stage for many of Rajasthan’s policies related to transportation and emissions mitigation. The second part will cover building codes and energy savings in the implementation of various infrastructure developments. 1

Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change of 2010 (RAPCC), p. V.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Mitigation

Figure 1: Implementation Matrix for Various Levels of Government Source: RAPCC (2010), p. 194.

In 2008, India introduced its National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) with eight sectoral missions that included an ambitious set of commitments to sectoral climate change policies. Many of the missions took several years for the national government to approve, are not well-coordinated with other national and subnational policies related to the sectoral areas, and have been given limited budgetary support. Recently, critics of the NAPCC have called for India to revisit the Plan and ensure it contains a clear and actionable set of commitments to addressing climate change that aligns programs across national and subnational governments.2, 3 Three of the NAPCC’s missions are directly related to the mitigation of carbon emissions: the National Solar Mission, the National Mission on Sustainable Habitats, and the National Mission for a Green India. The National Solar Mission has been very successful; with an initial 2 3

Kumar, Parul, and Abhayraj Naik, “India’s Domestic Climate Policy Is Fragmented and Lacks Clarity,” February 27, 2019, https://www.epw.in/engage/article/indias-domestic-climate-policy-fragmented-lacks-clarity. Rattani, Vijeta, Shreeshan Venkatesh, Kundan Pandey, Jitendra, Ishan Kukreti, Avikal Somvanshi, and Akshit Sangomla, “India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change Needs Desperate Repair,” Down To Earth, October 31, 2018, https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/climate-change/india-s-national-action-plan-on-climate-change-needsdesperate-repair-61884.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

goal of reaching 20 giga-Watts (GW) of installed solar capacity nation-wide by 2022, India has since revised its goal to 100 GW by 2022.4 Rajasthan’s climate and location have made it a particularly good state for solar resources and installations of utility-scale and rooftop solar have increased substantially in recent years, as shown in Figure 2. The National Urban Policy Framework of 2018 (NUPF) and related NUPF: Strategic Intent documents are recent efforts to create a national approach to urban planning, design, and

Figure 2: Solar Capacity Trends in Rajasthan (MW) Source: RenewableWatch, July 2020 https://renewablewatch.in/2020/07/01/looking-ahead/

policy in India. These documents include broad goals of increasing green space, monitoring pollution, and encouraging electric vehicle adoption.5 Since these policies were issued after the RAPCC and RUDP, Rajasthan’s policies and plans have not been directly aligned with national urban policy, despite sharing many of the same goals. The more comprehensive NUPF (2018) calls for cities and regions to follow a wide array of urban development strategies that align well with the UN Law and Climate Change Toolkit’s Mitigation categories. These include investing in and planning for non-car transportation modes, mandating city-level GHG emissions inventories and reduction targets, increasing green space and forests, and prioritizing or even mandating denser, mixed land use with land allocations for public transit facilities. The NUPF notes that urban development policies and plans are made at the state and local levels, so state urban policies would need to independently adopt the strategies and goals laid out in the NUPF. With a guiding principle of decentralization, the NUPF emphasizes that 4 5

Admin. “National Solar Mission - An Overview.” BYJUS. BYJU’S, March 2, 2021, https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/ national-solar-mission/. National Urban Policy Framework: Strategic Intent (NUPF), October 2020, pp. 19 and 26, https://iica.nic.in/images/ Articles/NUPF_Final_Oct%202020.pdf.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Mitigation

“the imposition of a standardized, tightly codified prescription is not desirable. Instead, the document presents a new way of thinking about Indian cities.”6 The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs encourages states to adopt the NUPF’s strategies by guiding a few early adopter states in revisiting their urban development policies, prompting states to enter memoranda of understanding (MOUs) to align with the NUPF goals, and promising aid in procuring international technical and financing assistance. Under the Rajasthan Urban Improvement Act of 1959, the state government has the power to create and approve master plans for any and all urban areas within its jurisdiction.7 The Act also provides Rajasthan with the authority to create trusts for the improvement of urban areas, such as the Trust for Jaipur, which was created in 1961. These trusts, with boards that include members of the local government, are empowered by the state to carry out a number of programs and policies, known as ‘schemes,’ including the purchase and conveyance of land, the construction and demolition of buildings, road networks, and sanitary systems, economic regulation of trade in certain areas, and many other powerful tools.8 Rajasthan is able to guide the development of its urban areas through both the regulations of state-approved master plans and through direct investments and interventions via trusts. Consequently, the State and its cities can effectively address and proactively mitigate carbon emissions and sinks related to the organization and integration of the urban form and transportation systems. Under The Urban Land Act of 1976, state governments carry out provisions set forth by the central government found within the act. The act largely limits the amount of vacant land that one person or entity can own, to allow for land reapportionment. According to this act, those holding vacant land can use it to establish group housing. This land is allowed to be transferred through transactions such as selling, mortgaging, gifting, or leasing.9 The status of housing and land becomes important when considering building efficiency and plot design as mentioned in the Toolkit’s mitigation section. The Energy Conservation Act of 2001 establishes the Bureau of Energy Efficiency, which carries out the policies found within this act. The Bureau is responsible for recognizing and autilizing existing energy sources and infrastructure. This act also establishes the roles and aduties of both the central and state governments. Some responsibilities carried out by the central government include, but are not limited to: specifying the standards of energy consumption for any equipment that uses or generates energy; specifying said equipment; and prohibiting the sale and use of unapproved appliances. The state governments carry different responsibilities, including: adapting energy conservation building codes to suit reg- gional climate conditions; provide direction to owners or building occupants when energy standard compliance is questioned; establishing energy audits with accredited energy auditors; and designating the appropriate agencies to regulate and enforce this act.10 Because of these responsibilities, state governments enforce many of Climate Change Toolkit’s mitigation measures under neighborhood design and buildings energy savings. 6 7 8 9 10

National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF), Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, 2018. p. 1. Rajasthan Urban Improvement Act of 1959, Chapter II. Rajasthan Urban Improvement Act of 1959, Chapters III, V, and VI. The Urban Land (Ceiling And Regulation) of 1976, Act 33 of 1976. Energy Conservation Act of 2001.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Rajasthan has a specific building code in order to promote energy efficiency in buildings. The Energy Conservation Building Rules 2018 & Energy Conservation Building Code applies to commercial buildings and calls for buildings to have the following: a building envelope; heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and hot water systems; lighting and various controls; electrical and renewable energy systems; and other systems that are specified by the Bureau at the time the building is being constructed. Rajasthan’s designated energy agency, Rajasthan Renewable Energy Corporation Ltd. (RRECL), was established by the government of Rajasthan and shall monitor energy efficiency compliance; create data banks to monitor energy savings from compliance; and create an energy performance index for various commercial buildings.11 The government of Rajasthan would benefit greatly from using the documents found in the Building Code to ensure that all buildings are compliant with energy efficiency standards. Compliance with these standards can greatly bolster Rajasthan’s status in climate change readiness as prescribed by the Toolkit’s mitigation section.

4.1 Urban planning and greenhouse gas emissions The RAPCC states that the national Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) has laid out a four-part framework for states to follow when crafting climate change action plans. One of the four elements the Ministry encourages for these action plans is for states to make an inventory of GHG emissions in conjunction with climate observations and projections, and to identify vulnerable regions and populations to inform targeted adaptation and mitigation measures.12 The RAPCC provides several GHG emission estimates from a variety of disconnected sources based on national reports, UN-led assessments, and academic research. These serve as a useful set of one-time baseline measurements for sector contributions to Rajasthan’s total GHG emissions, separating out the relative emissions of the state’s energy, agriculture, and waste related activities, among other contributors.13 The RAPCC itself, however, does not directly require that the Rajasthan state government or local governments conduct such inventories regularly, or that similar measurements be supported by funding or policy in the future, nor does it designate which entities should perform emissions assessments. In Chapter 5.5, “Future Studies,” the RAPCC summarizes Rajasthan’s climate change mitigation opportunities and highlights the need for a state-level inventory of GHG emissions that could also be extended to local assessments. The Plan notes the value such inventories could hold for state and local urban planning and policymaking bodies seeking to mitigate climate change: “Integration of GHG management plan with existing plans and policies, targeting relevant sectors such as control of local pollution, energy & infrastructure planning, urban development and industrial development will be required to make the Plan consistent with Rajasthan’s sustainable development and industrial policies.”14 Despite describing the need for such inventories and their value to mitigation strategy development, the RAPCC 11 12 13 14

Energy Conservation Building Rules & Energy Conservation Building Code of 2018. RAPCC (2010), pp. 2-3. RAPCC (2010), pp. 28-34. RAPCC (2010), p. 35.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Mitigation

merely encourages such inventories and does not formally require them at either the state or local level. Like the RAPCC, Jaipur’s Master Development Plan (MDP) would benefit from including more concrete requirements for measuring, analyzing, and including GHG emissions inventories in local and regional planning decisions. The MDP and related land use and transportation planning documents could formally require GHG benchmarks and integrate future emissions goals as part of planning scenario analysis. The RUDP does not directly address greenhouse gas emission assessments or mitigation through urban planning or design. The Policy should more directly connect with the state’s climate change policies and other national, sub-national, and local policies related to climate change and carbon emissions.

4.2 Urban form and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from transportation and infrastructure Throughout the RAPCC, the writers gather information and suggest strategies for mitigating GHG emissions that acknowledge the links between the built urban form, transportation systems, and climate change. However, the Plan provides scant detail and no solid requirements about how Rajasthan and its cities should go about promoting walkability, cycling networks, transit-oriented development, street connectivity, or other localized design structures and policies to reduce GHG emissions. The Plan mentions national policies like the National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) and the National Mission on Sustainable Habitats (NMSH) as important sources of guidance on integrating land use and transportation strategy. However, the Plan does not examine these policies in depth, define strategies for implementing the content of those missions, or provide case studies as examples for how Rajasthan could approach reforms.15 Chapter 11 of the RAPCC, “Urban Governance and Sustainable Habitat,” focuses on the state and local governance structures that impact urban form, and also lays out several strategies for mitigating GHG emissions, including through better-integrated land use and transportation, encouraging agricultural and forested land uses that are net carbon sinks, and promoting better construction and conservation practices through building and development codes, especially the national Energy Conservation and Development Codes (ECDC). The Plan notes that Rajasthan is a relative pioneer in adapting these codes for its specific climatic needs. This short strategy section encourages the promotion of such codes in local and regional plans, but does not require them or directly connect their implementation to GHG mitigation. Jaipur’s MDP addresses the connections between built form, transportation networks, and GHG emissions in much greater detail than the RAPCC. The RAPCC highlights some of Jaipur’s existing policies as examples for other cities and villages in the state to look toward. For example, the Jaipur Flood Zone Development Restrictions, where Jaipur’s land use 15

RAPCC (2010), pp. 166-167, 173.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

regulations allow the City to restrict and control development in flood zones. The RAPCC also praises the effectiveness of Jaipur’s land use regulations, as described in the MDP. The RAPCC also points toward Jaipur’s Comprehensive Mobility Plan and encourages each city and region to create their own. Regarding GHG emissions, Jaipur is ahead of its neighbouring cities in Rajasthan. However, the State should consider that more can still be done to strengthen, broaden, and deepen the policies and regulations that are driving success in Jaipur’s existing plans, both for the benefit of Jaipur and for its neighboring cities. The RUDP discusses the importance of better transportation planning and its integration with land use throughout the document. Like the RAPCC, the RUDP highlights the National Urban Transport Policy (2006) as a guiding document focusing on “the movement of people rather than cars”.16 Sections 3 and 13 have strong but brief commitments to supporting Transit-oriented Development (TOD) as an approach to land use and transport integration.17 The RUDP also includes policy recommendations, particularly in Section 3.4, encouraging non-motorized travel (walking, cycling) through infrastructure and safety improvements that support less carbon-intensive modes. Such improvements include establishing demarcated bicycle lanes on roads, allocating spaces for bicycle parking near important commercial and government sectors, and making transit infrastructure safer and more accessible to all.18 The RUDP acknowledges some of the structural barriers to improving transportation and lessening reliance on cars, including a lack of coordination between transportation and land use planning.19 In response, the Policy sets a short term goal (0-5 years) of “integrated planning of urban areas and transit oriented development principles to be adopted by the planning agencies.”20 The Policy also encourages denser and mixed-use development in brief sections of the document with the explicit goal of concentrating development near transit corridors and combat urban sprawl, suggesting cities “increase in FAR along transport corridors to encourage vertical growth and control horizontal sprawl.”21 Worth noting is the fact that safety and access for all requires consideration and investment for women and people with disabilities, and the Policy does include specific recommendations and goals related to these. Under the RUDP, public transport may provide separate buses or sections for women, accessible on-boarding steps, well-lit stations and stops, and bus schedules “that meet the needs of both men and women (during both peak and off-peak hours).”22

16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Rajasthan Urban Development Policy of 2017 (RUDP), p. 9. RUDP (2017), p. 16. RUDP (2017), pp. 16 and 46. RUDP (2017), p. 15. RUDP (2017), p. 43. RUDP (2017), p. 16. RUDP (2017), p. 17.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Mitigation

The RUDP notes that only three cities in the state (Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Ajmer) have organized public transportation systems.23 The policy has a stated goal of introducing basic bus service and Mass Rapid Transit Systems (MRTS), targeting “organised city bus service in all the towns with population greater than one lakh [100,000] and MRTS for all the towns with population greater than 10 lakhs.”24 As Jaipur develops its metro and Bus Rapid Transit (BRTS) systems, surrounding cities and towns are creating or improving their public transport service. Jaipur should proactively plan and coordinate its system with these new or expanding systems, including integrated transit stops, connecting service lines, and linking non-motorized travel networks together to enable more seamless transitions between each of these.

4.3 Green spaces for environmental and climate services The RAPCC includes slight mention of the inclusion of green spaces within Rajasthan. While the Plan acknowledges the benefits of environmentally-protected spaces, there are not many mandates requiring green spaces in the state’s cities and villages. However, the Plan indicates the importance of green spaces in cities; it mentions the standard set by the World Health Organization of having 9m2 of green space per city dweller. This mention seems to offer a suggestion that the Plan should consider having that much green space per resident,25 but no further legal requirement was mentioned. Like the RAPCC, Jaipur’s MDP also acknowledges the importance of having 9m2 of green space per city dweller. The MDP adds onto this, however, by attributing the use of green space to future sustainable development. The MDP carries additional detail in green spaces by necessitating one tree per city dweller to encourage forest coverage throughout the city. To strategically create and cultivate increased forest area, Jaipur plans on adhering to the mandates found in the Forest [Conservation] Act of 1980, and supplementary Environmental Impact Assessments. It appears as though Jaipur is more detailed and intentional in developing green spaces when compared to the RAPCC.. Legally mandating and enforcing the standard of 9m2 of green space per city dweller would improve Jaipur’s distribution of green space. Additionally, implementing the mandate of tree per city dweller as found in the Plan should be considered.

Figure 3: Benefits of Green Spaces Source: Center for Sustainable Health Care, https://sustainablehealthcare.org.uk/blog/sustainability-series-green-space-andhealth 23 24 25

RUDP (2017), p. 15. RUDP (2017), p. 16. RAPCC (2010), p. 124.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

The RUDP extensively discusses the need for green spaces in urban areas. More specifically, the RUDP includes language in Section 17.4, “Eco-friendly Cities and Urban Environment Sustainability,” on green spaces. In this section, there are multiple implementation strategies and policy frameworks that establish the minimum standards for green spaces. There is a requirement of making available 9m2 of green space per inhabitant.26 Additionally, within the same section, the RUDP calls for cities to identify any green spaces such as parks, recreational facilities, green corridors, and open spaces.27 Similar to the connections found between the RAPCC and Jaipur’s MDP, there are similarities between the RUDP and the MDP. The most prominent similarity is that, similarly to the MDP, the RUDP acknowledges the importance of having 9m2 of green space per resident in every city. Unlike the MDP, however, the RUDP has an additional layer in that the 9m2 goal is implementable and something to be tangibly worked towards.

4.4 Neighborhood design and energy saving in buildings The RAPCC includes the requirement to have thermal properties for buildings. While the Plan does not account for all “urban surfaces,” as specified in the Toolkit, it does mention the need for thermal regulation for walls, roofs, and windows of buildings that are currently being constructed. These requirements and policy framework can be found in the Conservation and Buildings Code (ECBC).28 The Plan also briefly mentions creating building plots that consider optimal building orientation for energy-saving purposes, but lacks mandates. Alternatively, consideration for landscape planning should be taken into careful consideration when new clusters of urban growth centers are being constructed for the purposes of energy efficiency.29

Figure 4: India’s Projected Energy Usage in 2047 Source: Building Efficiency Initiative, https://buildingefficiencyinitiative.org/blog/india%E2%80%99s-move-make-buildingsefficient 26 27 28 29

RUDP (2017), p. 52. RUDP (2017), p. 52. RAPCC (2010), p. 151. RAPCC (2010), p. 158.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Mitigation

Jaipur’s MDP promotes using the Indian Green Building Council rating systems to achieve green buildings in its bylaws. Hazardous and ecologically-sensitive areas should be considered when constructing new buildings. However, there is not much overlap between the MDP’s and RAPCC’s requirement in how new construction should be considered when underway. To further encourage Jaipur to require energy conservation, the MDP should consider using standards set in the ECBC, which is used by the RAPCC. Jaipur can also include regulations for thermal heat capture through the doors, windows, and roofs as found in the RAPCC. Like the RAPCC, the MDP should consider how building orientation can affect the harnessing and benefits of solar and wind energy.

4.5 Development Approval and Mitigation The RAPCC explains existing incentives that encourage developers to consider and install renewable resources and energy sources that are more carbon-saving. The Plan seeks more sources of electricity that can be implemented through a bidding process; companies that want to implement these strategies need to undergo a competitive bidding process. However, incentives are not specified for this.30 Alternatively, the Plan encourages fiscal incentives for the manufacturing and installation of solar power. These incentives do not charge developers the full price of solar; rather a compromise is created. This has been dictated in the Rajasthan Solar Energy Policy from 2011.31 The Jaipur MDP contains more explicit language in how mitigation strategies are to be developed and approved. A special statutory committee was created to have a more handson approach in the development of local area plans, layout plans, comprehensive schemes, redevelopment schemes, and multi-storied buildings in all land use categories. However, there is little overlap between the MDP and the RAPCC in terms of coherence in development approval and mitigation. The MDP can adopt mandates that require developers to pay for some of its infrastructure costs when incentives are available, as seen in the RAPCC. A bidding process or subsidy would encourage sustainable energy development in new construction and additional urban growth.

Recommendations While both the RAPCC and RUDP contain robust policy responses to climate change, there are other areas highlighted by the Toolkit where Rajasthan could expand and improve its contributions toward mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and regulating its development in climate-conscious ways. In terms of urban development policy more broadly, the RUPD could be updated following the strategies and guidance included in the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs’ NUPF (2018) document to position the state and its cities for more effective climate change mitigation. The RAPCC itself does not require or provide concrete support for incorporating ongoing measurements of and planning decisions based on GHG emissions. Rather, it only suggests that state and local policies adopted after the Plan set benchmarks and goals for lowering 30 31

RAPCC (2010), p. 152. RAPCC (2010), p. 154.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

emissions. The RAPCC could explicitly include state, regional, or local requirements for GHG emissions inventories. These inventories, measuring both emissions and potential carbon sinks at regular intervals and at specific geographic scales, could provide the benchmarks for mitigation goals that the RAPCC could require to be incorporated into urban and regional planning documents. Though the boundaries of analysis and role of government would be different in transportation contexts, the RAPCC could also require emissions inventories, estimates, and goals for transportation planning as well. To support implementation, the RAPCC could also include or identify designated funding, staffing, and ongoing evaluation resources for these requirements. Similarly, the RUDP could be updated with requirements and strategies for coordinating Rajasthan’s urban policy goals and frameworks with state and national policies related to climate change such as the NAPCC Missions on Sustainable Habitat and Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change. The Policy could also include the assessment and integration of carbon emissions and sinks related to various sectors of economic activity, as well as encouraging emissions considerations in urban planning scenario development. A good place to start could be implementing the Toolkit’s section 4.1.1, regarding assessing the carbon emissions associated with the current urban form. The RAPCC could more directly connect the emissions of the transportation sector with the planning and design of cities and streets. Streets and transportation systems should be safe and accessible for all travelers, including women, children, the elderly, and people with disabilities. The RAPCC should promote non-motorized travel modes (e.g. walking and cycling) and public transit by prioritizing transit infrastructure investments, safety, and ongoing operational funding. The Plan could also more explicitly address the interconnection of land use and transportation planning and promote their integration, thus improving destination accessibility while reducing the reliance on cars associated with sprawling, separated land uses and poor transit service. In the RAPCC’s section on Strategic Knowledge (Chapter 12), it notes that “it is widely acknowledged that an alternative development model is necessary to embark on a lowcarbon development path. However, “[m]any existing options and opportunities are underutilized due to absence of research and analysis especially tailored to state specific social, ecological, political circumstances.”32 The Plan candidly acknowledges the disconnect between the needs for alternative development and planning models described by experts and the availability of actionable information and analysis for use by cities, developers, and institutions in Rajasthan. One strategy for bridging this gap is to promote pilot programs and “climate proofing developmental projects” to educate and display the potential for mitigation in urban planning.33 The RAPCC should follow through on addressing this gap by providing case studies, initiating pilot studies, and providing example emissions estimates for various urban population densities, built-form paradigms, transportation modes, and other urban planning-related 32 33

RAPCC (2010), p. 183. RAPCC (2010), p. 183.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Mitigation

scenarios. By connecting scientific, research, and policy knowledge from other contexts to potential development patterns for areas in the state (both urban and rural), the RAPCC could help guide more sustainable development choices and inform city, village, and regional planning documents in the process of lowering greenhouse gas emissions. The RUDP could also benefit from more detailed plans for how to achieve the goal of expanding public transit service to the state’s many cities and villages, and should address the political, economic, social, or physical barriers that have prevented organized transit service in the past. Rajasthan should work to coordinate between cities and towns to proactively plan and align existing transit systems with these new or expanding systems. Coordination would include integrated transit stops that allow travelers to easily transfer between systems, connecting service lines along major corridors, and linking non-motorized travel networks, streets, and trails together to enable more seamless transitions between each of these modes. The Policy also notes problems with narrow and inconsistent street design, problems with waste management leading to street obstruction, and the lack of safety and inclusion for women and populations with disabilities in street and public transit infrastructure that could be a greater focus because of their social value as well as carbon benefits.34 Both the RAPCC and RUDP thoroughly address the importance and need for creating enough green space for city dwellers. Both take the recommendation from the WHO of 9m2 of green space per city dweller. However, both the RAPCC and the RUPD lack language for mandating or even suggesting the connection of blue and green spaces. Creating green spaces intentionally and adjacent to water bodies has many benefits, including physical health benefits and ecological services. The RAPCC contains strategy for solar and wind direction relative to street layout as well the regulation of thermal properties of urban surfaces. The RAPCC also includes language on optimal plot orientation for energy saving. The RUDP, however, is devoid of all language concerning this. The Rajasthan State Government and the Bureau of Energy Efficiency should work in tandem to set guidelines and standards in achieving energy efficiency in buildings. The Rajasthan State Government is able to deploy the RRECL to establish monitor compliance and performance as well as data collection as a result of code compliance. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency can assist in establishing and acquiring equipment needed to build infrastructure for energy efficiency. The RAPCC is more robust in establishing guidelines for enforcing, monitoring, and ensuring the development processes are in compliance. The RUDP is devoid of these guidelines; to alleviate this, Rajasthan State Government and the Bureau of Energy Efficiency should partner to close the loop in the process of creating infrastructure for mitigation. Since these two entities are already responsible for energy efficiency in buildings, instituting a checklist and accountability system would help in monitoring and compliance.

RUDP (2017), p. 27.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Mitigation Table of Authorities Name of Policy

Year

National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF): Strategic Intent

2020

National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF)

2018

Energy Conservation Building Code Rules

2018

Rajasthan Energy Conservation Building Rules

2018

Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP)

2017

Rajasthan Solar Energy Policy

2011

Rajasthan State Action Plan (RAPCC)

2010

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

2008

Energy Conservation Act

2001

The Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act

1976

Rajasthan Urban Improvement Act

1959

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Mitigation

Economic and financial instruments

The financial mechanisms described in the Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) mirror many of the strategies outlined in the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) created in 2008. The RAPCC relies on the national government to take the lead on climate financing through tax, subsidy, incentive, and policy strategies.1 Public funds constitute the main source for climate financing, especially through the National Clean Energy fund (NCEF), the National Adaptation Fund (NAF), and the eight missions established through the NAPCC. Budgetary outlays emerge from the national and state levels, while private climate financing exists in the form of loans (local and foreign currency), private equity, venture capital, partial risk guarantees, green bonds, and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).2 Each of India’s State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs) were led by the aims of the NAPCC, which includes the objective: “identify financial needs and sources to implement selected Adaptation and Mitigation options.”3 The inclusion of this objective signifies the importance of financial instruments in the framework of both the NAPCC and RAPCC. In addition, financial resources are highlighted within the RAPCC’s Guiding Principles, where “estimating additional resource requirements and exploring existing and new & additional carbon finance potential” is stated as a key principle for the plan. The financial mechanisms described in the Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP) are less clear, but when evaluating the five key subsections within the RUDP’s three section framework, we are able to evaluate certain climate and urban planning related financial mechanisms. The RUDP operates under the projectection that Rajasthan, as well as India as a whole, will become increasingly urbanized. The report’s three sections (Infrastructure and Services; City Competitiveness; and Enablers) broadly address the financial mechanisms and the mobilization of capital needed for Rajasthan’s future. This section of the Toolkit Analysis will highlight the climate financing strategies addressed within both the RAPCC and RUDP, with an emphasis on implementation strategies found within each key sector. Finally, we offer general recommendations for climate financing in Rajasthan.

5.1 Resources for urban planning and climate change Generally both the RAPCC and and RUDP do not address broader national and state level climate financing policies, particularly lacking in multi-level climate financing coordination, fiscal transfers between levels of government, or public credits. Conversely, both reports address specific policy and financial initiatives that earmark resources for climate change adaptation and mitigation and support the mobilization of capital.

Figure 1: Public and Private Climate Finance Actors in India. Source: Vyoma Jha, CPR. Coordination of Climate Finance in India, December 2014. 1 2 3

Vyoma Jha, “Coordination of Climate Finance in India,” Centre for Policy Research, December 2014, p. 2. Divya Singh, “Climate Finance Architecture in India,” Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability (CBGA), 2017. Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change of 2010 (RAPCC), Section 1.2, p. 15.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Economic and Financial Instruments

Beginning with Water Resources, the RAPCC highlights the need to prioritize drinking water over irrigation in Rajasthan’s semi-arid climate. This includes existing strategies, such as the Indira Gandhi Nahar Program, with its goal of providing “drinking water in the command areas besides irrigation” and enhancing water tariffs for irrigation to limit unsustainable irrigation patterns.4 Central to the Water Resources action steps is the idea that “water rates in the state do not convey a sense of scarcity among the stakeholders, thereby leading to increases in water losses and water use inefficiency.”5 The financial mechanisms to address this action step are increasing water tariffs and rationalizing water prices for domestic, industrial, and irrigation use. Other financial mitigation techniques include new bylaws and training to build awareness on water saving techniques and technical assistance.6 In the Agriculture and Animal Husbandry sector, the RAPCC mentions ongoing programs such as the agricultural retail outlets to improve farmer access to crop seeds. The Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize (ISOPOM) initiative aims to enhance the “productivity and the efficiency of oilseed production, processing, value addition, and product diversification to make the oilseed sector sustainable and competitive.”7 Another ongoing program is the NAIS Crop Insurance program that provides subsidies to banks in order to better service “small and marginal farmers” and allow these farmers greater availability to new technology including crop diversification, better access to breeder seeds, plant protection chemicals, and plant protection equipment. Furthermore, Weather Based Crop Insurance Schemes (WBCIS) and the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana further security measures for the agricultural industry including crop insurance and subsidies for water-saving devices and livestock breeding.8 Regarding Human Health, the RAPCC includes initiatives such as the Rajasthan Health 4 5 6 7 8

RAPCC (2010), Section 6.4, p. 58. RAPCC (2010), Section 6.5, p. 63. RAPCC (2010), Section 6.6, pp. 63-68. RAPCC (2010), Section 7.5, p. 81. RAPCC (2010), Section 7.5, p. 80-88.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Sector Department Project (RHSDP), and the Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT). The World Bank and the central government provide financial backing for these programs. Further action is being taken to incentivize “private sector investment in medical and health care institutions, medical colleges, dental colleges, and other support units” to support the quality of life in a harsher global climate.9

Figure 2: National Climate Financing Structure Source: Vyoma Jha, CPR. Coordination of Climate Finance in India. December 2014

The RAPCC also describes provisions within the Enhanced Energy Efficiency (EEE) and Renewable Energy (RE) sector includes provisions such as the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM), which creates “favourable conditions for solar manufacturing capability, particularly solar thermal for indigenous production and market leadership.”10 This policy builds upon both the Electricity Act of 2003 and the National Electricity Policy of 2006 which were designed “to encourage and stimulate the market of non-conventional energy resources/renewable” and set standards for increasing the share of electricity from nonconventional sources.11 Rajasthan built upon this policy with the Rajasthan Solar Energy 9 10 11

RAPCC (2010), Section 9.6, p. 115. RAPCC (2010), Section 10.5, p. 138-142. RAPCC (2010), Section 10.3, p. 137.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Economic and Financial Instruments

Policy (2011) and nationally, the Integrated Energy Policy of India, which creates even more incentives for building out renewable energy sources and increasing the total number of renewable sources in the Country’s energy portfolio.12 In 2019, India’s Ministry of Financing estimated that it would cost India $2.5 trillion USD between 2015 and 2030 to transition to a low-carbon dependent economy. India is mainly exploring global climate funds to transition electric vehicles, and identifies global funds as an indispensable source of climate financing.13 The Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP), while not directly addressing climate change, does highlight the related financial mechanisms to support healthy urban development. The RUDP highlights the need to improve the standard of living in Rajasthan’s urban centers, including bringing people out of poverty, and the need for greener and more sustainable cities. Section 8, regarding Affordable Housing, emphasizes the need to make urban areas more affordable to limit the “horizontal sprawl of the city or development of slums.”14 RUDP addresses the need to incentivize and encourage more affordable housing, but lacks specific financial mechanisms or policies to assist in that goal. The RUDP mentions gender equity as a goal in Section 15, and successfully argues how flexible mixed-use zoning will assist in both urban sustainability and promoting women’s home-based enterprises.”15 Section 9 discusses Slum Redevelopment, highlighting the 2012 Slum Development Policy, which allows private developers the opportunity to redevelop a slum after “obtaining consent from slum dwellers and private landlords.”16 Related to affordable housing, Section 9 mentions the need for quality housing and the need for institutional financial assistance for the construction of new dwellings, but also acknowledges current challenges in “financing slum upgrading and shelter development” and the need for improved state assistance in this area.17 In Urban Governance and Institutions, the RUDP mentions emerging financial challenges within urban development, including a lack of existing financial resources, stating: “the municipalities find themselves often in a situation of financial crunch; hence, they are dependent on central and state governments for financial devolutions.”18 The section goes on to mention the need for an increase and expansion of the tax base and financial resources to meet the future needs of an increasingly urbanized population.19 It further mentions a desire to streamline the “devolution of [Urban Local Body] ULB funds” and better articulate the state’s message for why it will need more financial resources to meet future public demands.20 The need for tax and financial policy reform is mentioned frequently, but specific policy recommendations are absent from the RUDP. 12 13

14 15 16 17 18 19 20

RAPCC (2010), Section 10.3, p. 137. Climate Change Finance Unit, “Climate Summit for Enhanced Action: A Financial Perspective from India,” Department of Economic Affairs, Minister of Finance, 2019, https://dea.gov.in/sites/default/files/FINAL%2017%20SEPT%20 VERSION%20Climate%20Summit%20for%20Enahnce%20Action%20A4%20size.pdf. Rajasthan Urban Development Policy of 2017 (RUDP), Section 8.1, p. 29. RUDP (2017), Section 8.4, p. 30. RUDP (2017), Section 9.1, p. 31. RUDP (2017), Section 9.2, p. 32. RUDP (2017), Section 12.2, p. 40. RUDP (2017), Section 12.2, p. 40. RUDP (2017), Section 19.1, p. 56.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Section 14 of the RUDP, Inclusive Development and Urban Poverty, continues the overall goals of improving quality of life in the region. This section mentions the need to provide “skills, training, credit and other resources to the urban poor.”21 Relevant financial mechanisms include leading people to employment opportunities, introducing microloan operations, and increased credit opportunities for poor urban communities.22 Section 19, Financing Urban Infrastructure, seeks to address some of the concerns stated in the RUDP, including the public financial pressures of increased levels of urbanization, the need for increased tax coverage and financial strategies, and the need to strengthen the resources of the ULBs. Section 19 states that recommendations will be made by the State Finance Commission and the Central Finance Commission “to ensure effective allocation of funds for core municipal functions.”23 Financial development strategies include tax increment financing (TIF), public private partnerships (PPPs), and development charges.

5.2 Incentives (economic and non-economic) for mitigation and adaptation in urban planning Expanding on the items listed in 5.1, the RAPCC includes specific mitigation and adaptation financing strategies, beginning with the Water Resource sector. Action steps for Water Resource include mapping hydrological data to facilitate climate and water research, understanding real time usage of the resources, setting up automated sensors and facilities to gather additional data, and finally, training government officials about the impact of climate change on water resources and using data gathered for decision making. As a means of focussing groundwater management in over exploited areas, Mass Awareness Programmes are planned in villages that have aquifers that are nearing exhaustion. To enhance water conservation, the Government is also providing incentives for rooftop rainwater harvesting in urban areas. The booklet for the structure has been developed under the European Commission State Partnership Programme (EC-SPP). Promotion of waste water recycling in all sectors is being planned along with incentives for industries and commercial establishments.24 In addition, the RUDP suggests increasing participation by providing incentives to colonizers and developers for “the recharge of groundwater, rainwater harvesting, and the efficient and judicious use of water.”25 Under sanitary waste management, incentives are provided to the private sector for implementing innovative technologies focusing on treatment of recycling and reuse of wastewater, and investing in community toilets by developing appropriate PPP models.26 Regarding the Agriculture and Animal Husbandry sector and to allow for maximizing crop productivity, incentives are provided to private sectors for the establishment of seed processing units to increase the seed replacement rate. Under non-economic incentives, the Government has a variety of technical assistance programs and shares critical information, 21 22 23 24 25 26

RUDP (2017), Section 13.4, p. 43. RUDP (2017), Section 14.4, p. 45. RUDP (2017), Section 19.2, p. 56. RAPCC (2010), Section 6.6, p. 63. RUDP (2017), Section 4.4, p. 19. RUDP (2017), Section 5.4, p. 23.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Economic and Financial Instruments

research and knowledge to increase productivity.27 Additionally, NGOs are being supported to implement agriculture development programmes from state funds. Some of the programs and strategies are, Weather based crop insurance schemes (WBCIS) to increase insurance to weather changes; Distribution of agricultural equipment on differential subsidy by third parties; 25% subsidy provided to all farmers for reclamation of saline and alkaline soils to render them more suitable for agricultural purposes. The Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKYV) government programme incentivizes the states so as to increase public investment in agriculture, allied sectors, and various other government schemes to mitigate and adapt sustainable techniques.28 Promotion of horticulture by funding assistance is provided through National Horticulture Mission (NHM), National Mission on Medicinal Plants (NMMP) and RKVY.29 Under Forest and Biodiversity, owners of private land are incentivised for afforestation and reforestation measures undertaken, such as dryland agro and farm forestry, which promotes adaptation and carbon sequestration.30

27 28 29 30

RAPCC (2010), Section 7.5, p. 76. RAPCC (2010), Section 7.5, p. 79. RAPCC (2010), Section 7.7, p. 92. RAPCC (2010), Section 9.6, p. 143.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Figure 3: Actors Involved in Climate Change Finance in India Source: Vyoma Jha, CPR. Coordination of Climate Finance in India, December 2014

In regards to Human Health, there are government initiatives that provide free healthcare for families below the poverty line (BPL). A “Policy to Promote Private Investment in Health Care Facilities 2006” is set up as an ongoing government program under which 68 lakhs per year is budgeted for facilitating and incentivising private sector investment31, and Integrated Housing & Slum Development Programme (IHSDP) for holistic slum development.32 Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) establishes the sharing of funds in the ratio of 80:10 between Centre and State and a balance of 10% raised by nodal and implementing agencies from the financial institution.33 A former program, Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), encourages reforms and fast tracks planned development of identified cities. The Energy sector consists of the Integrated Energy Policy of India, which promotes incentives for promoting renewables linked to energy generated,not just capacity installed, and the creation of alternate incentive structures such as mandated feed-in laws, differential tariffs, or specifying renewable portfolio percentage in total supply.34 The Energy Conservation Act (2001) provides incentives to energy efficiency practices among end-users, particularly in the building and manufacturing sectors. The Rajasthan Solar Energy Policy (2011) mentions creating favourable conditions to provide solar manufacturing capabilities by providing fiscal incentives. The Policy for Promoting Generation of Electricity from Biomass (2010) provides incentives such as exemption from electricity duty at 50% for a period of 7 years from Commercial Operation Date (COD). The Solar Energy policy (2011) provides fiscal incentives to support the implementation of manufacturing units in the state.35 The RUDP mentions incentivization for installation of solar water heaters and biogas units in all hotels, guesthouses and other commercial-residential buildings.36 In Urban Governance and Sustainable Habitat, the Affordable Housing Policy (2009) involves private developers in the construction of Economically Weaker Section (EWS) and low income group (LIG) categories of houses by offering various attractive incentives, although, there is no mention of specifics of the incentives.37

31 32 33 34 35 36 37

RAPCC (2010), Section 8.6, p. 120. RAPCC (2010), Section 8.4, p. 108. RAPCC (2010), Section 8.4, p. 110. RAPCC (2010), Section 12.2, p. 153 . RAPCC (2010), Section 12.7, p. 161. RUDP (2017), Section 17.4, p. 52. RAPCC (2010), Section 11.3, p. 145.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Economic and Financial Instruments

Figure 4: Breakdown of Green Investment by Origin and Channel of Delivery Source: Jolly Sinha, Shreyans Jain, and Rajashree Padmanabhi, Landscape of Green Finance in India, September 2020

The Financing Urban Infrastructure section in RUDP lays out a few strategies to increase funding sources to raise finances. Of the strategies listed, self-financing is encouraged by levying user charges, fees, and fines for provision of regulatory and other statutory functions related to civic services, like sewer charges, solid waste management charges, etc. Both the RUDP and RAPCC include many mitigation and adaptation strategies all of which are included below. financing strategies that are described below. However, there is a lack of awareness and the means to avail such benefits. Including clarity in the steps to be undertaken by an individual or by the government could help increase contribution towards climate action.

5.3 Incentives (economic and non-economic) unsustainable uses of urban space

that

promote

Promoted by the Department of Forests, the agricultural sector has developed key priorities and actions to restore and develop wasteland. Incentives to farmers include a 25% subsidy provided to all farmers for the reclamation of saline and alkaline soils.38 The Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP) is a centrally-sponsored scheme to restore wastelands so it can become more suitable for agricultural and horticultural purposes.39 Under Financial Requirements of the RAPCC, there is a mention of 3.04 crores partial cost estimate for “restoration and development of wastelands” under the agriculture sector.40 Utilising wasteland for agriculture may not be the most safe method. Instead, promoting the construction of buildings or facilities that do not require enriched soil may be less expensive. Section 11 of the RUDP, Economic Development and Investments in the Cities, mentions the need to identify “industry wide zones” across the state to help them self regulate and

38 39 40

RAPCC (2010), Section 7,4, p. 79. RAPCC (2010), Section 7.4, p. 79. RAPCC (2010), Section 7.7, p. 90.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

Figure 5: Breakdown of Green Investment by Specific Public and Private Sources Source: Jolly Sinha, Shreyans Jain, and Rajashree Padmanabhi, Landscape of Green Finance in India, September 2020

share infrastructure.41 This may not incentivize green practices in industry, but instead cluster the industries out of convenience.

Recommendations While the RAPCC has strengths, it is also met with limitations. Being a regional plan and not a national plan, the RAPCC is limited in its ability to earmark fiscal transfers to local levels of government or establish any framework outside what is allowed on the national level. More broadly, there is a lack of multi-level governmental coordination for climate financing in India. The end result is a rather disparate system of climate financing centered around both public and private financial mechanisms.42

In 2019, India’s Ministry of Financing estimated that it would cost India $2.5 trillion USD between 2015 and 2030 to transition to a low-carbon dependent economy. India is mainly exploring global climate funds to transition electric vehicles, and generally view global funds, such as the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and the Global Climate Fund (GCF), as an indispensable source of climate financing.43 Other than relying on global funds, the central government allocates public and private funds to climate change initiatives, especially the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF), the National Adaptation Fund (NAF), and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).44

41 42 43 44

RUDP (2017), Section 11.4, p. 37. Jha, “Coordination of Climate Finance in India,” p. 7. Climate Change Finance Unit, “Climate Summit for Enhanced Action: A Financial Perspective from India,” 2019. Singh, “Climate Finance Architecture in India,” 2017, p. 11.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Economic and Financial Instruments

Furthermore, State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs) in India are designed to have states estimate the costs of their proposals and have the costs submitted to the national government to receive funding. Over the past decade, the national government has lowered the amount of promised funding for SAPCCs and has focused funding on a project-by-project basis.45 Instead of earmarking large sums for climate financing, the national government has been using “multilateral and bilateral” funds to support specific green infrastructure projects instead of larger adaptation and mitigation strategies.46 Working within this system, Rajasthan should continually look for alternative fundings sources, both public and private, to support state climate action. Rajasthan can seek additional funding from central schemes outside the National Planning Commission, including: the Bureau of Energy Efficiency’s (BEE) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE), which supports cap and trade schemes; the Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT) program, which supports energy efficiency improvements for industrial facilities; and the National Green Energy Fund, which transfers taxes on coal into green infrastructure.47 Rajasthan could also take advantage of India’s position as a leading recipient of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) financing through the Kyoto Protocol. CDMs allow countries to invest in emission reducing projects in developing countries for a credit toward their own country’s emission reduction targets or be sold on the carbon market.48 India’s National Clean Development Mechanism Authority (NCDMA) oversees the program and awards funding for specific projects. The lack of intergovernmental coordination for climate financing in India has also allowed the private sector to play an elevated role. The National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF) recognizes the need for municipalities to become financially stronger to execute strategies; their long-term goal is to strengthen municipal finance to make cities financially self-reliant. This is done by urging all states to set balance their expenditures through local revenues sources. Revenue can be generated with user charges structured to meet the operations and maintenance cost of running services. Government-backed financial companies and commercial banks are responsible for 39% of the investment in the renewable energy sector.49 However, the private sector has limitations on the scope of projects they can take on. They are not able to subsidize the cost of green infrastructure projects and need to mitigate their own financial risks. There is additional opportunity for the Rajasthan government to form partnerships with financial institutions and supply greaters insurances for investing in green infrastructure. 50 States could incentivize cities to collaborate with local financial institutions to develop climate finance infrastructure solutions, also known as green bonds,51 to make sure infrastructure development is headed in a low-emission, climate-resilient and sustainable manner. Green bonds are debt securities issues by financial, non-financial or public entities financing green projects and assets. As of 45 46 47 48 49 50 51

Jha, “Coordination of Climate Finance in India,” p. 7. Jha, “Coordination of Climate Finance in India,” p. 9. Jha, “Coordination of Climate Finance in India,” p. 9. Jha, “Coordination of Climate Finance in India,” p. 10. Mahua Acharya, Jolly Sinha, Shreyans Jain, and Rajashree Padmanabhi, “Landscape of Green Finance in India,” Climate Policy Initiative, September 2020, p. 6. Divya Singh, “Climate Mitigation Financing Framework Rajasthan,” Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability (CBGA), p. 7. National Urban Policy Framework of 2018 (NUPF), p. 16.

Accelerating Climate Action: Rajasthan State Plans Assessment

2019, India is the second-largest market globally for green bonds worth $10.3 billion USD.52 To tap into this market, it is essential that issuers at the local level have maximum support to distribute such bonds.

Finance Table of Authorities Name of Policy

Year

National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF)

2018

Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (RUDP)

2017

Rajasthan Slum Development Policy

2012

Rajasthan Solar Energy Policy

2011

Rajasthan State Action Plan (RAPCC)

2010

Affordable Housing Policy

2009

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

2008

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)

2005

Energy Conservation Act

2001

ETEnergyWorld, “OPINION: Green bonding for recovery,” Energy world, Economic Times, February 16, 2021, https:// energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/renewable/opinion-green-bonding-for-recovery/80985453.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Economic and Financial Instruments

U N - H A B I TAT LAW AND C L I M AT E CHANGE TOOLKIT ASSESSMENT MASTER DEVELOPMENT PLAN OF JAIPUR 2025

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change To o l k i t The Master Development Plan Jaipur 2025 covers critical issues such as physical infrastructure, transport, ecology and environment, housing, socio-cultural and other institutional facilities and related aspects of governance and management. In order to position Jaipur as a global metropolis and world class city the Vision-MDP 2025 focuses on: population growth and migration; provision of adequate housing; addressing the problems of small enterprises; dealing with slums, including up-gradation of old and dilapidated areas of the city; provision of adequate infrastructure; conservation of the natural environment; transportation updates including creation of a new metro rail line; rejuvenation of the Dravyavati River and conservation of Jaipur’s heritage and blending it with new and complex modern patterns of development.

Ta b l e o f C o n t e n t s L a w a n d C l i m a t e C h a n g e To o l k i t

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Planning For Adaptation

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Planning for Mitigation

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Economic and Financial Instruments

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Governace and Institutional arrangements g_c g_p g_d g_l

Multi-level institutional coordination Participatory governance Data collection and sharing Local governments’ mandate for urban planning in urban areas

Planning instruments p_n p_r p_s

National territorial planning Regional territorial planning Spatial plans for urban areas

Planning for Adaptation a_c a_p a_i a_s a_r a_t a_a

Planning for Mitigation m_e m_t m_g m_n m_a

Economic and Financial Instruments e_r e_m e_u

Resources for urban planning and climate change Incentives for mitigation and adaption in urban planning Incentives that promote unsustainable urban land uses

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Master Development Plan Jaipur 2025

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Assessment of the Master Development Plan of Jaipur 2025 through the Law and Climate Change Toolkit.

Governance and Institutional Arrangements

“When properly planned, capacitated, and managed through the appropriate governance structures, cities can be places of innovation a n d e f f i c i e n c y . To g e t h e r w i t h their local authorities, they have the potential to diminish the causes of climate change (mitigation) and effectively protect themselves from its impacts(adaptation).”

Multilevel Institutional Coordination Multilevel coordination between government agencies and authorities has been identified by UN Habitat as an important foundation for planning for urban development and climate change. Since independence, the National government of India has formed Task Forces, Commissions, and Committees to provide guidance for local governments. Jaipur’s Master Development Plan 2025 (MDP) recognizes the importance of coordination between national and state policy informing the local plans. MDP 2025 was completed by the Jaipur Development Authority (JDA), established by the State of Rajasthan through the 1982 JDA Act for the purpose of planning for the development of the city of Jaipur and the surrounding region.

Indian National Government

State of Rajasthan Sri Ganganagar

Hanumangarh

Jaipur Development Authority

Churu Bikaner

Jhunjhunun

Alwar Sikar Bharatpur Nagaur

Dausa

Jaipur

Jaisalmer Jodhpur District

Dhaulpur Ajmer

Barmer

Karauli Sawai Madhopur

Tonk

Pali Bhilwara Rajsamand

Jalor

Kota

Chittorgarh

Sirohi

Bundi

Pratapgarh Dungarpur Banswara

Municipal Towns (Nagar Palika)

Gram Panchayatas

Baran

Chittorgarh Jhalawar

Udaipur

Jaipur Municipal Corporation Area (Nagar Nigam) City Wards (grouped in 8 zones)

Villages (varies by Panchayat)

Figure 01.A: Administrative Hierarchy According to Indian Constitution and governance structure of Jaipur City. Map of the State of Rajasthan Districts

The MDP identifies the Constitutional Jurisdictions in the Jaipur Region comprising the urban

area of Jaipur (77 wards), municipal towns, and village panchayats.1 The MDP 2025 considers national, state and local priorities and capabilities and addresses multi-level institutional coordination. Section 5.4 outlines state and national commitments to action on climate change, including participation in the Kyoto Protocol (1997), the NAPCC (National Action Plan on Climate Change, 2008), and Rajasthan State Environmental Policy (2010). Other relevant State plans are more recent than the MDP Jaipur 2025 (Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change, 2014 and Rajasthan Urban Development Policy, 2017). This context is helpful for understanding the goals and limitations behind MDP 2025, however, additional details on the integration of these frameworks within the JDA’s plans will require further attention in the MDP revision.

Volume 1, 3.1.3

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Governance and Institutional Arrangements

NATIONAL MISSIONS

Solar (NSM)

Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE)

Sustainable Habits (NMSH)

Water (NWM)

Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem

A Green India

Sustainable Agriculture

MINISTRIES

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

New and Renewable Energy

Power

Urban Development

Water Resources

Department Science and Technology

Environment and Forests

Agriculture

Strategic Knowledge on Climate Change

Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

Figure 01.B: The NAPCC and its eight Missions and respective nodal Ministries.

National Level Coordination While the JDA governs planning for the Jaipur region, references to existing national regulation imply efforts to align Jaipur with national goals. India’s support for the Kyoto Protocol is discussed as important for sustainable development and specifically cited as potentially beneficial to economic development through the sale of carbon credits.2 References are also made towards the roles of national research and enforcement agencies in MDP 2025 policies. Land suitability is derived from The Geological Survey of India and is integrated with the proposed land use plan.3 There is also mention of government offices and their proposals and development control regulation.4 A national level project by Central Pollution Control Boards (CPCB) for citing industries with regard to environmental impact is also discussed. The Ministry of Environment and Forest is mentioned as an enforcing body that protects the natural heritage of Jaipur through the EPA Act (1986). National-Sponsored Schemes Advancing Urban Policies

Smart Cities

Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)

Housing for All

Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY)

National Urban Livelihood Mission (NULM)

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)

Swachh Bharat Mission

Figure 01.C: Nationally-sponsored schemes advancing Urban Policies

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State Level Coordination Volume 2, Chapter 4 discusses housing plans passed by the State of Rajasthan, implying an impact on local policy enforcement, however, this is not directly stated in the Chapter. The “Policy For Residential, Group Housing And Other Schemes In The Private Sector, 2010” shows consideration of Jaipur, Jodhpur, and Rajasthan housing plans.

Urban Development and Housing

Rural Energy and Non Development Conventional and Energy Panchayati Raj Department Department

Rajasthan Tourism Department

Transport Department

Science and Technology Department

Disaster Management, Relief & Civil Defense Department

Rajasthan Housing Board (RHB)

Jaipur City Police

Jaipur Metro Rail Corporation (JMRC)

Jaipur Vidyut Vitaran Nigam Limitied (JVVNL)

Rajasthan Renewable Energy Corporation Limited

Rajasthan Urban Infrastructure Finance and Development Corporation Limited Department of Information Technology and Communication (DoIT&C)

Jaipur Development Authority (JDA) City Level

Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board (RSPCB)

Parastatals

State Level Departments

Department of Urban Development, Housing and Local Self Government

Town & Country Planning Department

Local Self Government (LSG) Rajasthan State Information Industrial Technology and Development Communication and Investment Department Corporation (RIICO)

Rajasthan Forest Department

Rajasthan State Biodiversity Board

Jaipur Municipal Corporation (JMC)

Jaipur City Transport Services Limited (JCTSL) Jaipur Smart City Limited (JSCL)

Figure 01.D: State Level Departments.

Local Level coordination Volume 4 lays out a vision for a coordinated approach for the Jaipur metropolitan area. Detailed land use categories are intended to create a unified understanding of planning across the region. However, the end of the introduction confuses lines of authority by indicating that when UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Governance and Institutional Arrangements

authority on land use is not clear it will be decided by “the Jaipur Development Authority or the State government.”5 The plans for satellite cities and growth centers, contained in Volume 3, note that the planning of each lies under the jurisdiction of the Jaipur Development Authority. The stated goal of the satellite towns is the economic development of an interconnected metropolitan region with Jaipur (U1 Area) at the center. This vision expects satellite towns to act as resource and economic centers for smaller villages and rural areas and to support Jaipur by channeling a portion of the expected urban population growth. The MDP references economic and infrastructural coordination at this level. This includes the export of milk from Satellite towns to Jaipur, and water supplied to these communities from Jaipur. Collaboration between outlying villages is outlined based on their proximity to each other. Settlements within rural areas will have scope for expansion for their natural growth and their related economic function.6

Participatory Governance The Jaipur Master Development Plan notes in the Preface - Plan Preparation, that the public had opportunities for feedback through multiple forums. Item (l) Public Participation and Plan Implementation in the focal points of the MDP identifies the importance of using a participatory approach to planning. The specifics on this participatory process and how frequently feedback was sought is not identified. Participatory input is sought from the village/household industries who share most of the workforce. Consultation from local panchayats is to take place in Phase II of the village development plan.

Draft Master Development Plan 2025 (DMDP)

Published for objections and suggestions by public*

1,036 objections & suggestion by public addressed

Revised DMDP taken for public consultation on-ground

Objections & suggestions addressed

Final MDP 2025 published in sep 2011

*DMDP open for objections/suggestions for a total of 180 days (published 6 times, each for a period of 30 days) 06/11/2009-04/05/2010

Figure 01.E: public participation in Master Development Plan

The plan articulates that the government is willing to collaborate with locals and private businesses to develop heritage hotels, and revive public spaces in Section 2.8 - Amber Development Area and for Section 2.3, Slum Development Policy. The desire for participation from welfare associations and NGOs is also articulated in regards to the development of waste management infrastructure.7 In order to further emphasize public engagement, MDP 2025 states a number of goals related to public involvement in civic life. These include goals to maximize citizens’ access to the 5 6 7

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Accelerating Climate Action: MDP Jaipur 2025 Assessment

skills and knowledge needed to play a full part in society, to educate the public on watershed management, and to empower all sections of the community to participate in decision making. Additionally, it states that considering social and community impacts of decisions needs to be achieved to come to par with international quality of life standards.8 There is an emphasis on the need for public private partnerships (PPP) in plan implementation, but the plan does not discuss legal requirements or provisions for this. The relationship between public and private entities through land bank creation is included. The plans for satellite cities and growth centers do not describe community engagement with stakeholders or businesses in plan development.

Data collection and sharing The Jaipur Development Authority is the primary source for data and planning information in the region. The JDA website provides further details about the zoning, infrastructure, transportation plans, and the Development Plan for Jaipur. The Master Development Plan identifies climate sensitive data, Climate and Physical Characteristics and National Ambient Air Quality. The extent to which this is shared laterally with wards, towns or villages in the Jaipur region or vertically with state or national government is not identified. Furthermore, the required frequency of data collection is not specified. The MDP emphasizes the need for sharing data through Information, Education and Communication (IEC) campaigns to public and government officials. This is detailed regarding the dissemination of the utilization of recycled water plan.9 The MDP also acknowledges that collaboration with national research institutions are essential to share best practices, technologies and knowledge, and enable appropriate training and capacity building at different levels in the region. Making planning information available is essential to city planning. It can be beneficial to include information on how maps (GIS Data) are being updated and real time updates that show effects on transportation plans, housing, etc. Collection and archival of data should have a clear and accessible approach through data sharing possibly on a website (through the JDA). The MDP addresses that there is a need to conduct sector specific assessment of impacts, vulnerability, and mitigation potential in the region, potentially collaborating with international research institutions to share best practices, technologies and knowledge. The MDP also acknowledges that more research needs to be done to gain a better understanding of urban forests in Jaipur and other cities in Rajasthan. The plans for satellite cities and growth centers do not indicate methods of collection or sharing amongst satellite towns, growth centers, Jaipur authorities, state, or national level institutions. Knowing the methods, sources, and frequency of data collection and sharing of information would be beneficial for the planning, decision making, and coordination of Jaipur Satellite towns. Details regarding any key changes to development plans or land use are identified in the Clauses and concluding page of Volume 5. Clause 7.2 states “Any change in the location, boundaries and predominant use of use premises due to any reason and duly approved shall 8 9

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UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Governance and Institutional Arrangements

be incorporated in the layout plan.” The MDP notes in the closing page of this volume that the State Government may amend/change these regulations at any time in the larger public interest. The process for land use changes and zoning updates, and their public notice, could be better formulated in the plan.

Local government mandates for urban planning in urban areas Jaipur Development Authority is responsible for urban planning, including preparation and plan implementation of MDP and zonal development plans formulation, sanction and execution of projects and schemes for development of Jaipur‘s regions, housing activities, preparation of master plan for traffic control and management for the region. The JDA website outlines their role as responsible for the development of Jaipur’s urban center, and all surrounding towns and rural areas, with 725 villages in the area within its jurisdiction. The Jaipur Development Authority, along with Jaipur Nagar Nigam (Municipal Corporation) and the Public Health Engineering Department are all stated to lead the planning of UNESCO’s Heritage conservation. Jaipur Nagar Nigam is assigned to prepare a special area plan of the Walled City portion of Jaipur.10 There is a planned review of the rules and regulations within to ensure none are contradictory to planned development and to promote efficient management of the Jaipur Region.11

Slum Development

Stormwater Drainage

Transportation Infrastructure

Water Supply & Sewerage

Jaipur Development Authority

Jaipur Nagar Nigam

Public Health Engineering Department

Irrigation Department

Public Works Department

Public Health Engineering Department

Rajasthan Urban Infrastructure Development Project

Rajasthan Housing Board

Jaipur Development Authority

Planning

Heritage Building Conservation

Local governments have the authority to approve layout plans, site plans and building plans.

Rajasthan Urban

Implementation

Jaipur Nagar Jaipur Nagar Jaipur Nagar Jaipur Nagar Jaipur Nagar Nigam Nigam Nigam Nigam Nigam 10 Volume 2, 2.1.1 and 2.4.1 11 Volume 2, 2.1.5 Public Health Public Health Public Works Irrigation Engineering Engineering 100 A c c e l e r a t i n gDepartment C l i m a t e A c t i o nDepartment : M D P J a i p u r 2Department 025 Assessment Department

Project

Rajasthan Housing Board

Jaipur Development Authority

Jaipur Nagar Nigam

Public Health Engineering Department

Irrigation Department

Public Works Department

Public Health Engineering Department

Rajasthan Urban Infrastructure Development Project

Rajasthan Housing Board

Implementation

Jaipur Development Authority

Figure 01.F: Institutional Mandates

However, the question of local authority is complicated in the introduction to Volume 4, which mentions the formation of a statutory committee with the authority to call for plans from local development authorities. This is detailed in Clause 4.2 “A special statutory committee shall be formed to formulate policy guidelines in order to sanction local area plans, layout plans, comprehensive schemes, redevelopment schemes, and multi-storeyed buildings in all land use categories. The statutory committee shall be empowered to call for the plans from the development organization/local bodies and would give directions and recommendation where ever necessary. The committee shall be empowered to grant permissions for the activities permitted/permissible under these regulations.” Recommendations Specific details on stakeholder identification and engagement and the design of the public participation process could be further showcased in the MDP. This will enable the tailoring of participatory processes to specific community needs, consider community demands and priorities, and grant access to dispute or appeals mechanisms. Detailed frameworks for stakeholder identification outlines delegated projects to respective local offices, government departments or international actors and may incentivize grants and subsidies for improving housing energy, traveling by bike or foot, and promoting citizen climate agendas, thus rewarding innovation and cooperation while strengthening the participation of the public. Transparent data sharing to varying levels of governance and public can provide a more straightforward implementation process where each level has full understanding of their role and place in the planning missions. As much of the data regarding zoning and infrastructure for Jaipur is located on the JDA website, it would be beneficial for the MDP revision to include information stating the location to find necessary GIS data needed for planning, making it accessible to all. Alternatively, creating programs of knowledge sharing in the form of events or local publications can help inform how private individuals can climate-proof their own assets while informing them where they can seek advice. Concurrently, public access to knowledge of changes in zoning or land use of an area is important.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Governance and Institutional Arrangements

Planning Instruments

“Planning frameworks vary among countries but most of them have a threetiered hierarchy with national, sub-national and local levels. The national framework often identifies the broader objectives of planning and strategies for implementation. These are then adopted and tailored at the sub-national and local levels through sub-national (state in the case of India) plans and local (urban) plans re s p e c t i v e l y. ”

National Territorial Planning India has provisions that require coordination and guidelines related to territorial planning, but lacks a mandated national territorial plan. The National government fulfills an advisory role with local governments, establishing guidelines and suggestions. The Model Regional Town and Planning and Development Law (1985) enables states to develop their own urban and regional plans. More recently, the 2014 Urban and Regional Development Plans, Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI) has provided guidance for planning from the national level. While India lacks mandated national territorial planning, the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), released in 2008, has set eight priority missions to respond to climate change. The national government has also provided guidance on building efficiency standards and renewable energy integration through the Green Ratings for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA), adopted by the National Ministry for New and Renewable Energy. While these standards do not include provisions requiring their use or for ongoing compliance, they are designed to be tuned to climatic variations and stress the use of renewable energy resources. These standards also highlight building design best practices such as the incorporation of passive solar heating and cooling techniques.

Indian National Policies impacting the Master Development Plan Jaipur 2025 2006 National Urban Transport Policy - National Urban Renewal Mission Goal: To ensure, “safe, affordable, quick, comfortable, reliable and sustainable access for the growing number of city residents to jobs, education, recreation and such other needs within the cities.” 2008 National Urban Sanitation Policy - Ministry of Urban Development Goal: To make, “all Indian cities and towns become totally sanitized, healthy and livable and ensure and sustain good public health and environmental outcomes for all their citizens with a special focus on hygienic and affordable sanitation facilities for the urban poor and women.” 2009 National Policy on Disaster Management - Ministry of Home Affairs Goal: To build, “a safe and disaster resilient India by developing a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster oriented and technology driven strategy through a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response.” 2012 National Water Policy - National Water Resource Council Goal: To assess the status of current water resources, to propose a framework for laws and institutions to address water resources, and to create an action plan for a coordinated national approach. 2014 National Policy on Urban Street Vendors - Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation Goal: To provide, “protection of livelihoods, rights, social security of street vendors, regulation of urban street vending in the country (...) provisions of the bill are aimed at creating a conducive atmosphere where street vendors are able to carry out their business in a fair and transparent manner, without the fear of harassment and eviction.” 2015 Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (Urban) - Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs Goal: To provide housing for all urban residents by 2022 by assisting local and state implementation agencies.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning Instruments

Rajasthan Acts, Plans and Policies impacting MDP 2025 2009 Rajasthan Municipal Act - State Government Goal: To establish Municipal Corporations for cities in Rajasthan. 2010 Rajasthan Township Policy, and Policy for Residential, Group Housing and Other Schemes in the Private Sector - Department of Urban Development, Housing and Local Self Government Goal: To promote “planned development of new townships in the State and to encourage Private Sector Investment / Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in housing and real estate sector.” 2010 Rajasthan State Environment Policy - State Government The policy “identifies the key environmental challenges and outlines strategies and actions to address them.” 2010 Rajasthan State Water Policy - Water Resource Planning Department Goal: To emphasize the critical status of water in the state and address inequity in access, infrastructural issues, demand outpacing supply, and decreasing quality. 2009 Affordable Housing Policy (amended, 2012)-Depart. of Urban Development, Housing and Local Self Government Goal: To address Rajasthan’s housing crisis through the implementation of large scale construction of affordable housing, by making the cost of EWS and LIG housing categories affordable, and by promoting investments in housing within the Urban Sector through the PPP Model. 2012 Rajasthan slum development policy under public private partnership model Department of Urban Development, Housing and Local Self Government Goal: To provide every citizen with access to basic civic and social services, and decent shelter. 2012 Rajasthan Urban Areas Transferable Development Rights Policy Department of Urban Development, Housing and Local Self Government Goal: To allow for the transfer of development rights from one plot to another in order to promote development in line with state planning goals. 2010-14 Rajasthan Environment Mission and Climate Change Agenda for Rajasthan Goal: To create a state-specific climate adaption and mitigation strategic agenda including; task forces, research gaps and needs, and policy measures tailored to the state’s vulnerabilities and capacities. 2014 State Disaster Management Policy (SDMP) - Disaster Management and Relief Department Goal: To create a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster, multi-sector, multi-stakeholder, technology driven, participatory plan for disaster resilience. 2014 Rajasthan Action Plan for Climate Change Goal: To reduce the state’s vulnerability to climate change and increase resilience through sustainable development. 2015 Rajasthan Apartment Ownership Act - Department of Urban Development, Housing and Local Self Government Goal: To regulate the development and sale of apartments in order to ensure developer transparency and accountability. 2015 Chief Minister’s Jan Awas Yojana Goal: To provide “Affordable Housing for all” and foster “integrated habitat development” by supplying the necessary “land, shelter and services at affordable prices in Rajasthan, with (a) special focus in economically weaker sections, Lower Income Groups and urban poor,” in alignment with the national agenda to ensure housing for all by 2022. 2016 Rajasthan Land Pooling Schemes Act Goal: To provide for the implementation of Urban Development Schemes and Projects through land pooling system, in which owners of small plots of land could receive a stake in a development or infrastructure project involving their property. 2017 Rajasthan Urban Development Policy - Local Self Government Department Goal: To lay out a comprehensive vision for future development in Rajasthan, including transportation, infrastructure, water supply, affordable housing and climate resilience. 2020 Rajasthan Urban Area Building Regulations (draft) Department of Urban Development, Housing and Local Self Government Goal: To adjust building guidelines to comply with state urban planning goals including land use and road width.

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Regional Territorial Planning States are very important for local governments in India because the Constitution designates urban and rural local governments as creatures of the state. This poses an issue for local governments that aim to legislate in certain areas if states have not authorized. Therefore, statelevel acts, policies, and plans mediate the implementation of national development schemes via metropolitan and local planning instruments. Additionally, According to the MDP, Section 28 of the JDA Act (1982) includes a provision allowing that “the State Government or Authority at any time within ten years from the date on which plan comes under operation, if opines that the revision of plan is necessary can review the plan.”1 Preceding the formulation of the 2014 Rajasthan Action Plan on Climate Change, the 2010 Rajasthan State Environmental Policy (SEP) identified key environmental challenges and included the Environment Mission and Climate Change Agenda (CCA) to prepare for adaptation and mitigation. The state government also established a ‘Climate Change and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Cell’ in the State Pollution Control Board to organize and coordinate policies related to climate change in the state. Last, with the Rajasthan Urban Development Policy (2017), the state further improves coordination between National, State, and Local governments.

Spatial Plans for Urban Areas The 1982 Jaipur Development Authority Act constituted the Jaipur Development Authority (JDA), a regional body empowered to develop and implement regional and urban planning in Jaipur, as contemplated by Department of Urban Development and Housing, Government of Rajasthan. In 2010, Jaipur was designated as a Metropolitan Area, which requires under the 74th Amendment to India’s Constitution (1992) that the area establish a “Metropolitan Planning Committee to prepare a draft development plan for the Metropolitan area as a whole.”2 The Committee and related plans are implemented under the authority of the Master Development Plan through the Jaipur Development Authority.3 The 74th Amendment provides for the “devolution by the State Legislature of powers and responsibilities upon the Municipalities with respect to preparation of plans for economic development and social justice, and for the implementation of development schemes as may be required to enable them to function as institutions of self-government.”4 The JDA developed the Jaipur Master Development Plan 2025 between 2009 and 2011, its provisions refer to relevant policies at the state and national level that were in effect at the time of the plan preparation.5 The MDP is a comprehensive planning document that establishes plans and regulations covering: “all aspects of development including transportation, infrastructure (sewer, drainage, water and electricity), environmental protection, and land uses (residential, commercial, industrial, recreational, etc.). The Master Plan analyzes current demographic statistics 1 2 3 4 5

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and economic issues, factors to project growth scenarios, propose solutions that mitigate negative impacts of traffic, assess infrastructure capacity, and public service needs, and allocate land as needed to ensure adequate land availability and to be able to utilize them for both present and future needs of the residents.”6 The MDP includes the land utilization categories, and a geological hazard map informed by the Geological Survey of India describes current vulnerability, and informs proposed land uses.7 It also refers to a CPCB Zoning Atlas to assess environmental vulnerabilities and take them into account when sitting industrial development.8 The plan provides detailed information regarding different land uses, the various types of infrastructure that are permissible, size requirements, and use premises. There is also mention of future growth regarding what is permitted in the G-2 ecological zone and rural areas. Proposed Land Uses Legend G1, green zone, hills/RF/PF U1, Jaipur Urban Area U2, Satellite Towns/Growth Centers U2, Induced Urban Area U3, Transport corridors Ecological Zone Rural Area Descriptions U1 - Urbanizable Area U2 - Immediate influence area of U1 and satellite towns U3 - Influence area of NH, SH, Ring Road, bypasses, industrial corridors, and other important corridors G1 - Green zone to conserve natural features G2 - A buffer to G1 Ecological Zone - Includes all biodiverse and incompatible uses Figure 01.B. Proposed Land Uses

The MDP includes a stated goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by taking various measures and implementing projects of energy generation from renewable energy sources.9 It also refers to a Comprehensive Mobility Plan10 for Jaipur, as well as aspirations to meet international quality of life standards and earn CER by selling carbon credits under the KYOTO protocol. The MDP also encourages the completion of appropriate environmental impact assessments. The Jaipur U-1 Area plan establishes the zoning areas in Jaipur.11 Additionally, Zonal Development Plans were developed in 2018 by the JDA as required by the Gulab Kothari Case. As a requirement 6 7 8 9 10 11

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Accelerating Climate Action: MDP Jaipur 2025 Assessment

of the MDP 2025, these detail the uses of the 16 subdivided land zones in the JDA region. The MDP provides further information on disaster management and preparedness12 and sets permissible and non-permissible activities within each land-use category. Through the use of maps, the Zonal Development Plans include the Satellite Towns and Growth Centers. Plans for transportation, including city roads, highways, and public transit, are outlined in each village and growth area’s plan.13 While the lack of infrastructure is acknowledged,14 plans to improve electricity, water, sewage, or waste management are not specified. The process for approval of land use change over time is not discussed in detail, nor is the potential need to change land use due to climate change or climate-related disaster. In 2015, Jaipur became a part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN) and was designated as a “city of crafts and folk arts.” The Walled City,15 Ghat Ki Ghuni, Amber development area, and Sanganer are all to be allotted heritage and conservation plans and, as a part of the National Program for Smart Cities, fall under the jurisdiction of the Jaipur Municipal Corporation. As part of UNESCO, initiatives are implemented to integrate creative crafts for achieving sustainable goals within the city, and promoting and spreading awareness of the heritage of creative crafts of the city. The MDP allows for additional proposals, routes, or development inputs felt necessary by the Government and Authorities, not covered by the Master Plan, to be carried out on their own through State Level initiation. Other projects under the supervision of the JDA include the 38 km long Rejuvenation of Historical Dravyawati River in Jaipur (Amanishah Nala), with projected sewage treatment plans, and numerous road upgrade projects. These projects are relatively recent and not included in the master plan. Other recent projects in the region include housing development in the Satellite Towns and specialized areas like Mahindra World City Jaipur. Recommendations The MDP assessment through the UN-Habitat’s Law and Climate Change Toolkit offers insights regarding planning strategies and includes discussion on urban growth boundaries as management strategies to guide development while accounting for climate change impacts. The MDP’s current designations for developable urban zones do not carry the weight of enforcement that official urban growth boundaries do in other contexts, leading to development that transcends or ignores these administrative zones. While the MDP’s most recent planning timeline designates short, medium, and long term implementation, it does not require minimum guidelines or a planning horizon. The JDA should adopt provisions that specifically require reviews of urban plans by third parties through a climate action lens to ensure provisions are contributing to a more resilient city. Areas that may benefit from further detail include coordination at the state and national levels in establishing requirements for an integrated transportation system, coordinating infrastructure networks with current climate conditions, and performing assessments on climate vulnerability and greenhouse gas emissions.

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Planning For Adaptation

“UNFCCC calls for countries to take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects and exhorts the formulation and implementation of measures to facilitate adequate adaptation to climate change. The Paris Agreement recognizes that is key to the long-term global response to climate change to protect people, livelihoods and ecosystems.”

Climate Risks and Vulnerability for Planned Areas and Infrastructure Planned adaptation strategies for climate change reduce risks and capitalize on both climate data and policy-relevant indicators. The challenge of local climate change adaptation planning is to foresee the exposure that climate-related hazards impose on vulnerable populations and take action to protect them from risk. They also offer support for design opportunities associated with environmental changes. The city of Jaipur’s strategies identify differences, gaps, and synergies between the theoretical and practical approaches to planned adaptation and sustainable urban transformation. The Master Development Plan addresses some of the existing climate hazards, announces plans to prioritize adaptation strategies and introduces implementation approaches. The MDP enumerates a list of current and potential climate hazards in the region, including geo-hazards, erosion maps, fault lines, deforestation, and forest degradation. The forest cover in Jaipur once covered the entire region and now composes less than 8% of the area.1,2,3 While the Jaipur National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Project (NAAQMP) develops vulnerability assessments of air quality, this process related to air quality has yet to be clarified.4 A vulnerability assessment is not included in the MDP, however it does identify initiatives for assessments under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in adapting the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) as part of the global initiative of the Kyoto Protocol. Other international assessments of climate vulnerability include ICLEI, which addresses low-emission, naturebased, circular and resilient development. Of the five categories, nature-based development is the only one considered by the MDP. The UNEP–UN-HABITAT–World Bank joint work program on cities and climate change has provided information on vulnerability assessments outside of those listed within Jaipur’s MDP. These resources include participatory vulnerability assessments such as, ADAPT (ICLEI), Participatory Climate Change Adaptation Appraisal (PCCAA)/Rapid Risk, Institutional Appraisal (RRIA) (University of Manchester in collaboration with World Bank), and the Roadmap for Adapting to Coastal Risk (NOAA) to assist in understanding current and potential climate risks.

The MDP states the need to increase green space to “enhance urban resilience and humanwellbeing” and additionally, to bring the region in compliance with the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommendations for green space per city dweller.5 The MDP for Jaipur U-1 area also identifies vulnerable locations for infrastructure development in the geological hazard map.6 This map is part of the disaster management and preparedness strategy for the Zonal Development Plans, aiming to minimize loss of life and property within hazard areas. The MDP provides a brief overview of this provision.7 In relation to future waste development, a map by the Jaipur Municipal Corporation identifies the location of potential sites for solid waste management.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Volume 1, 3.8, pg. 192-197, 201 Volume 1, 5.3.1, pg. 284 Volume 1, 3.8, pg. 192-197, 201 Volume 1, 53.5, pg. 288 Volume 1, 5.4.8 Volume 2, 2.11.2, pg. 135 Volume 2, 2.11.2, pg. 135 Volume 2, 2.12.4, pg. 140

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Adaptation

The MDP for Jaipur U-1 Area states the need to develop specific assessments and research to understand climate risk and mitigation potential in the area.9 The Environment Impact Assessment Plan proposes the conservation of built heritage sites and lists environmental measures; there is no specificity regarding climate hazards or mention of risk and vulnerability assessments.10 The MDP identifies the need to take up detailed development plans for areas of concern like Amanishah ka Nallah, Sanganer, an unorganized industrial area on Muhana road.11 The MDP for Jaipur U-1 Area also requires the removal of such encroachments through various measures and with the complete ban of untreated waste through a plan detailing the requirements. Assessments of run-off and silt movement surrounding degraded hills and gully erosion prone areas are also mentioned.12 The MDP plan protects ecologically sensitive zones (G1) from development, such as hills, forests, and water bodies. It also includes provisions to protect ecologically unstable areas (G2), that serve as buffers to (G1) areas.13 While the MDP mentions planning measures for areas of ecological importance, developing parks and open spaces, and protecting agricultural land, the plan lacks assessments of climate risks and vulnerabilities to prioritize action. Zoning requirements for the protection and conservation of eco-sensitive areas such as the Nadi and Nallah water bodies are listed in the Growth Centers (i.e. Bagwara’s ecologically unstable areas are zoned G2), yet explicit references to climate risks and vulnerability assessments could strengthen the plan. The MDP identifies illness and disease spread caused by the lack of proper sanitation; however, does not detail any planned areas for sewer management. Recommendations Although not mandated by the MDP provisions, inclusive and participatory vulnerability assessments would be beneficial.14 Furthermore, the Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) strongly recommends vulnerability assessments at the local level. Strategy 1 of RAPCC entails research-based prioritization of vulnerable regions and population groups for targeted health interventions and its third action consists of vulnerability assessments to identify areas, population groups and diseases that may be impacted by future climate changes.

Identification and Prioritization of Adaptation Options The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change lists design criteria for key vulnerabilities both current and future. These include topics such as magnitude, timing, persistence, potential for adaptation, impact distribution and reversibility of climate vulnerability. It seems though that the methods of identification and prioritization of adaptation options for infrastructure and ecosystem based needs remain unspecified.15 In addition, JDA’s MDP refers to the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), and specifically the GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat

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Assessment) for the built environment to identify and prioritize adaptation options. The MDP states that the quality of life standards should be consistent with international standards, and lists various components needed to achieve those standards.16 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has created a list of design criteria for identifying key vulnerabilities influencing the identification of current climate risks stated within the MDP of Jaipur. This list is also influential to the selection of potential future hazards. This selection criteria includes considering magnitude, timing, persistence and reversibility of a vulnerability, likelihood of such impact occurring, potential for adaptation, distribution of impacts, and importance of the vulnerable system. (Source: Volume 2, Section 1.12, pg. 57)

The Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change (RAPCC) was adopted after Jaipur’s MDP. The State plan identifies action items to achieve climate change governance goals, which include preparation of resilience plans for each city, preparation of flood preparedness and management plans at a local level, preparation of comprehensive mobility plans for all major cities, increased public transportation, strict enforcement of rainwater harvesting, reuse of waste water, and calculation of water footprint with associated tax rebates. Other issues that the RAPCC identifies is climate-sensitive vector-borne diseases, such as Malaria, inadequacies in water supply and sanitation, and poor health and socioeconomic status of women.17 The MDP states the importance of having infrastructure and ecosystem-based objectives, and for the close relationship between city areas and rural areas including the green belt. Guiding growth, land should be contiguous in a planning area where road, water supply, power line, sewerage, and various infrastructure facilities can be extended without financial burden on the concerned local body and other government agencies.18 The identification, prioritization, and implementation of adaptation options in Growth Centers and Satellite Towns signals the protection of eco-sensitive areas and conservation of heritage sites reducing vulnerability.

Implementation of the Identified Adaptation Options The land utilization establishes the restrictions on land use and development in hazardprone areas19 and seismic tectonically vulnerable areas.20 Appropriate environmental impact assessments enhancing green spaces and reviewing permissible land uses in residential zones by the Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board, aim to develop land while conserving ecosensitive areas. The planning locations of essential infrastructure out of flood prone highrisk areas are classified into 12 land suitability classes.21 JDA’s MDP mentions implementing adaptation mechanisms specified in the National Action Plan on Climate Change and Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment, but no further details are provided.22 Jaipur will continue to endure the negative impact of climate change and urbanization on its 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Volume 2, Section 3.1, pg. 149 RAPCC, 8.1, p. 94 Volume 2, Section 4.1, pg. 159 Preface, pg. 13 Volume 1, Section 3.8.7, pg. 202 Volume 1, 3.9, pg. 205-208 Volume 1, 5.3, pg. 285-289

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water supply and quality, which are likely to worsen groundwater depletion and the drying of the surface water sources.23 Plans for water conservation, protection and control on water body encroachments, as well as plantings along water bodies are included.24 The MDP includes a drainage plan assessing and incorporating natural drainage, without disturbing natural flow for the existing city and the future growth areas.25 This includes provisions such as regeneration of existing water bodies and conservation of water catchment areas for effective watershed management.26 Nature-based stormwater management with the utilization of water harvesting measures is required with a covered area of a building of more than 1,000 m2. In 2018, a new actor, Jaipur Water Supply and Sewerage Board (JWSSB) was established for the management of water supply and sewerage services in urban areas of the city. JWSSB is an autonomous body constituted via ordinance and revisions of the MDP will need to establish coordination mechanisms to align master planning and zoning with JWSSB’s plans and programming. The Public Health Engineering Department’s (PHED) water recycling policy, underformulation at the time27, and water management institutions like the “water parliament”, are mentioned in their role to improve watershed management. The MDP acknowledges that education about watershed risks and their mitigation must be an integrated program and involve people from the demarcation of watershed implementation. The 2014 report Their Own Country: A profile of Labour Migration from Rajasthan, by the Aajeevika Bureau, a nonprofit organization that works with migrants, states that an estimated 5.79 million people from rural areas in Rajasthan become seasonal migrants annually. Western Rajasthan, which the lowest rainfall statewide and most prone to drought, has the most migrants. Migrants also come from southern Rajasthan, as forests are cut down for mining and other extractive activities. Accounting for the temporary presence of rural migrants in the city would be important to ensure their needs can be met. More information about aajeevika bureau here.

Adaptation of Slums and Vulnerable Settlements As of the 2011 census, there were 190 listed slums under Jaipur Municipal Corporation or Nagar Nigam, and 47 listed slums under the Jaipur Development Authority, 56% lacked drinking water access, and 19% did not have access to sanitation facilities. Slums represented 15% of Jaipur’s housing stock.28 The MDP does not identify slums or other settlements vulnerable to climate change impacts, except in the case of the area west of Kishenbag, a densely populated area vulnerable to seasonal and flash floods. The MDP acknowledges that there is a need to ensure affordable access to adequate food, water, housing, and fuel, and to protect human health and amenities through safe, clean and pleasant environments. The Government of India has launched several schemes focusing on upgrading urban slums: the comprehensive 2005 Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) and its Basic Services for the Urban Poor (BSUP) sub-mission, which focused on slums. The BSUP sub23 24 25 26 27 28

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mission was administered by the Ministry of Housing and Poverty Alleviation. Part of the same program, the Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP), targeted towns with less than 20,000 people by the 1991 census. The Housing for All – Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) was launched in 2015 with 90 cities in three states, which included Rajasthan. The goal was to provide housing for the urban poor through several strategies: a) In-situ Slum Redevelopment with private sector participation using land as resource; b) Affordable Housing through Credit Linked Subsidy; c) Affordable Housing in Partnership with private and public sector; and, d) Beneficiary-led house construction/revitalization.29

Several features of urban informal settlements make them particularly susceptible to risks from climate change impacts: lack of secure land tenure, lack of access to basic infrastructure and services, and overcrowding. To build resilience among these vulnerable groups, a city can: 1) raise awareness about specific climate change impacts on the most vulnerable; 2) include vulnerable groups in the adaptation planning and policy-making process; 3) incorporate community-based adaptation into city plans; 4) support organizations that already work with the vulnerable groups; and 5) strengthen land administration and regulation, including considering the benefits of improving security of tenure and service provision in informal settlements. Guide to Climate Change Adaptation in Cities, The World Bank Group

Launched in 2011, the short-lived Rajiv Avas Yojna (RAY) scheme aimed to make India slumfree by 2022, by providing shelter or housing, free of cost. The MDP does not discuss the extent of implementation in Jaipur of the schemes that had been established prior to the MDP enactment.30 Finally, the Atal Mission for Renewal and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) and Smart Cities in 2015 are currently in place and with Jaipur’s participation, despite the fact that these programs were launched after the publication of the MDP. The 2015 launching of AMRUT focused on ensuring that each household in India has access to water and sewage. Lack of access to water and sewage is not only a problem in slums. Rajasthan was the first state to submit a plan to participate in AMRUT.31 Also in 2015, the Smart City scheme guided urban retroﬁt and redevelopment, slums in particular.32 Finally, the Rajasthan Slum Development Plan establishes that each city can identify and select their slums to enter the programs.33 The JDA has taken up residential schemes for all income groups to meet the growing need of housing. In cases of in-situ rehabilitation, upgrades must provide minimum built-up accommodation. The 2019 Affordable Housing Policy provisions guide the provisions for relocation.34 The new housing areas are governed by Rajasthan Township Policy and the Development Promotion Control Regulations. The Local Body and State Government designates the land outlined in the Slum Development Policy (under Public-Private Partnership) for 29

Herda, G.; Rani, S.; Caleb, P.R.; Gupta, R.; Behal, M.; Gregg, M. and Hazra, S. (2017). Sustainable Social Housing in India: Definitions, Challenges and Opportunities. A Technical Report by UN-Habitat; Oxford Brookes University; TERI. 30 Volume 2, 4.1.2, pg. 162 31 https://urban.rajasthan.gov.in/content/raj/udh/en/LSG/RUDSICO/sectors-programmes/amrut0.html# 32 Sharma, A. & Jain, S. (2021). “Urban Transformation and Applied Planning Initiatives in Indian Cities.” In C. Yamahata, D. Seekins, and M. Takeda (eds.). Social Transformations. Social Transformations in India, Myanmar, and Thailand: Volume I Social, Political and Ecological Perspectives. Palgrave Press, pages 245-258. 33 Slum Development Booklet. (2010) Government of Rajasthan Department of Urban Development Housing & Local Self Government. 34 Volume 2, 2.3, pg. 76

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redevelopment or improvement. The MDP further states that it is in the interest of the public at large, to ensure availability of residential plots and houses at affordable prices while referencing the Affordable Housing Policy. Satellite Towns are looking to set parameters for development on sewage and drainage regarding water and sanitation. Poor water supply, sanitation, and sewerage conditions are identified in Kanota, Bagwara, Chonp, and Pacha. Watershed management is discussed with notions of identifying the importance of sustainable water to keep ecosystems and citizens healthy. There is also mention of how urgent it is for the citizens of the region to understand the need of improving watershed management and educate the general public on watershed problems but no further details on explaining how this will be done.35 Recommendations The plan can be strengthened by including urban planning and land management tools for urban expansion, infill and redevelopment strategies to change the shape and configuration of plots, and a requirement to conduct community-led surveys, maps, and household enumerations to facilitate the adaptation of slums and other vulnerable settlements. In the MDP, no rights for participation of residents of slums, special consideration to women, youth, disabled and elderly people or poor communities, are discussed. Other important groups to include are aboriginal people protected by the Constitution. The scheduled castes and tribes of articles 341 and 342 of the Constitution have suffered historical discrimination and are protected because of their vulnerability. According to the 2011 Census, 13% of the Jaipur population belong to a scheduled caste; 8% of the population consist of scheduled tribes (12.5% in rural Jaipur and 4% in urban Jaipur).36 The master plan may find beneficial addressing policies and proposals raising awareness on climate change impacts affecting at-risk populations and including vulnerable populations in planning and policy-making practices. In addition, incorporating community-based input on planning strategies, supporting organizations involved with vulnerable populations, and strengthening land administration and regulation relating to improving provisions for informal settlers, are all subjects that may aid in the development of the master plan.

Planned Relocations from Areas at Risk of Climate Change Areas at risk from the effects of climate change are not specifically identified in the MDP. Relocation options are briefly mentioned via provisions of the Affordable Housing Policy, but not in relation to the risks of climate change.37 While not legally mandated, providing resources while relocating the dwellers is encouraged. Provision for dharamshala activity is identified, (a premise providing temporary accommodation for short duration on a non-profit basis).38 However, those regulations show weak relations to the risk of climate change effects. 35 36 37 38

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The MDP needs further integration of legal provisions for the relocation of populations from areas at risk of climate change and relation to the National and State Action Plans on Climate Change (NAPCC). Details in the MDP may include a requirement or provision to identify and, if necessary, set aside land for relocation in case of extreme weather events, a requirement that the resettlement land needs to be safe from current and future climate hazards, and a process for planned relocations with inclusive consultation and engagement with the affected resettled and host communities.

Security of Tenure The Constitution of India requires each state to adopt its own laws on land administration and land reform and grants states substantial independence to legislate land tenure issues. Thus, individual state laws govern most matters pertaining to land.39 Each major city has its own specific classification system for slums, but the main division is between notified and non-notified slums, the former qualify for government programs, while the latter faces greater tenure insecurity. The Slum Development Policy - under public-private partnerships - guides the clearance, redevelopment, and improvement of the existing slum areas with the help of private sector participation.40 However, the mechanisms guiding relocation and details on the provisions for land acquisitions and compensation schemes are not part of the plan. The MDP does not mention legal or regulatory provisions (including customary rights nor informal tenure rights and occupations) that ensure security of tenure for slum dwellers or other vulnerable settlements to the impact of climate change. There is no mention of legal or regulatory provisions on how evictions and planned relocations should be carried out.

Development Approval and Adaptation The MDP establishes zonal use maps for specific implementations with regard to planning for approval and adaptation,41 to encourage development. Rationalization of tariffs is recommended for the cost recovery of water distribution operations and maintenance.42 However, details of monitoring and enforcement need to be clarified. The MDP declares that the Rajasthan State Pollution Control Board Norm regulates other activities, with the permission of the respective authority, to ensure the serenity of Residential areas.43 Beyond these requirements, the MDP does not include specific provisions in the approval process to prioritize adaptation to climate change risks and vulnerabilities.

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USAID. INDIA – Land Tenure and Property Rights Country Profile. Retrieved from https://www.land-links.org/wpcontent/uploads/2011/01/USAID_Land_TenureIndia_Profile_Sept-2019.pdf Volume 2, 4.1.3, pg. 162 Volume 2, 2.13, pg. 145-148 Volume 2, 1.9, pg. 36 Volume 4, 10.2.3.6, pg. 19

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Planning For Mitigation

“Addressing climate change through the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is linked to benefits such as improved public health, enhanced employment opportunities, greater e c o n o m i c p ro d u c t i v i t y, a n d reduced local pollution. Low carbon urban development aligns with broader social and economic urban development goals, and can provide a strong foundation for sustainable national growth as part of a new c l i m a t e e c o n o m y. ”

Urban Planning and Greenhouse Gas Emissions The Jaipur Region Master Development Plan (MDP) has numerous strengths in regard to planning for the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. It mentions state and national level plans and policies that establish areas of concern in the region and strategies for mitigation. Volume 1 outlines the Clean Development Mechanism which is an arrangement under the Kyoto Protocol that aims to lower overall emissions of six greenhouse gases, allowing industrialized countries with a greenhouse gas reduction commitment to invest in emission-reducing projects in developing countries.1 Climate change is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol identifies and regulates six major GHGs: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbon, and sulphur hexafluoride. These are released by anthropogenic activities, the most significant of which are power generation, wastewater treatment, landfills, and fuel for transportation.

In addition, the MDP follows the National Action Plan on Climate Change.2 The MDP also includes scenarios for the development of solar cities with sustainable design encouragement through the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy3, the Green Rating System, LEED India, and the 2010 Rajasthan State Environmental Policy which identifies strategies and actions to address key environmental challenges to ensure continued economic growth that is sustainable and equitable.4 This policy also includes the environment mission and Climate Change Agenda (CCA) for the state used to prepare for adaptation and mitigation through 2010-2014. Moreover, the MDP Volume 1 introduces the study carried out by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Estimating Carbon Footprint of Urban Energy Use, to develop a tool to estimate the carbon impacts of urban household energy use. In response, policymakers can develop energy reduction strategies catered to particular urban areas.5 The plan also addresses the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Project,6 undertaken by Rajasthan Pollution Control Board for Assessment of Air Quality and Levels of Greenhouse Gases, as well as the Rajasthan Forest Biodiversity Project which identifies the universal concern of climate change. Furthermore, the MDP emphasizes that the quality of life must be brought up to par with international standards and lists the components needed to achieve those.7 Thus, the MDP mandates that no “Red” industry is to be allowed in the Jaipur region and makes reference to the zoning and urban uses allowed.8 Finally, the Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Jaipur proposes various transport projects for the city which can help in reducing greenhouse gas emission levels. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Mitigation

Recommendations There are several areas where more specificity could help use planning strategies to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. These gaps include expanding on estimations of existing carbon sinks in relation to planning scenarios and quantitative measures for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change (RSAPCC) provides many GHG emission estimates based on national reports, UN-led assessments, and academic research. Also, at the end of an early chapter summarizing Rajasthan’s climate change mitigation opportunities, the RAPCC highlights the need for a state-level inventory of GHG emissions that could also be extended to local assessments. The RSAPCC also suggests developing a GHG management plan to assess key areas where interventions and potential policies are required. It further recommends spatial and sectoral analysis to identify hotspot areas, using an optimization energy environmental modeling framework to predict future emissions, and assessing the levels of local pollutant emissions to identify key areas where local pollutants have an immediate impact on health. As the State Plan was developed after the MDP, it should inform the MDP revision and the revised Jaipur MDP incorporating these suggestions should work towards establishing a framework for GHG emission reductions.

Urban Form and Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transportation and Infrastructure The MDP mentions numerous provisions that promote a connected, accessible and dense urban form that can thus reduce car trips, promote walkability and efficient use of public infrastructure. Promoting public transportation infrastructure and mixed land use is a major component of the MDP.9 The MDP mentions planning measures in satellite towns and growth centers with mentions of street design standards, mixed land uses, commercial centers, and public transport infrastructure. Regional growth is directed along transportation lines and aims to achieve specific density goals, but there is no context given as to whether these are optimal. The U-1 plan identifies work-centers as separate from the main functions with proper access to public transportation.10 The Plan acknowledges that 60% of commercial activities are concentrated in the Walled City, which requires careful consideration due to the high density of the area. It also includes a series of maps of existing infrastructure suggesting optimal connectivity between neighboring communities. Many of the rural settlements planned for development will include new work centres.11 Provisions of Metro and BRTS to encourage public transportation and improve accessibility while reducing cost and time are also mentioned. The Comprehensive Mobility Transportation Plan by JDA seeks to align with the objectives of the National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP)12 in reducing pollution from vehicle emissions,13 9 10 11 12 13

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through efficiency of public transit, non-motorized vehicles, and development of pedestrian space.14 The MDP also includes an evaluation of connectivity of public transport as well as a recommended approach for implementation. Villages have been assigned weighted scores according to their level of connectivity to an interstate system or any major arterial roadways. However, the planning provisions for these villages are not responsive to these scores. The U-1 plan includes measures for developing a Mass Rapid Transit System and a traffic management plan.15 There are urban design guidelines specifically for Jaipur,16 including separate routes for cyclist and pedestrian commuters to increase accessibility between major transportation nodes and surrounding residential areas.17 The MDP takes into account local live-work-play practices together with an analysis of the current state of the region’s infrastructure. The MDP includes the optimal urban density as an average of 6000 persons per km2.18 The MDP explicitly acknowledges the Environment Effect of Urban Transport and encourages access to facilities, goods and pedestrians in order to minimize environmental impact as well as establishing “economic and human intellectual resources... [that] can be effectively used to plan development more evenly...”19 The MDP also outlines an action plan that details downstream projects and the implementation thereof. Lastly, the MDP affirmed that The Policy for Promoting Generation of Electricity through Non-Conventional Energy Sources offers solutions to various problems faced by developers, investors, and utilities (within the Rajasthan State Environmental policy).20 Recommendations The Metro Pink Line started its operation in 2015 but has seen lagging ridership since then and the Jaipur Metro Railway Corporation is struggling to meet its operational expenses due to this decreased ridership. The Metro project needs to be analyzed and strategies need to be formulated for increasing its efficiency. Jaipur has adopted several measures for a comprehensive transportation network, but much more can and should be done to strengthen, broaden, and deepen these policies and regulations.

Green Spaces for Environmental and Climate Services There are many benefits to incorporating green space into the built environment, including but not limited to climate mitigation and adaptation, and facilitating social connectivity and engagement. Urban green space offers ecosystem and cultural services, which bolsters social interaction and overall well-being. The MDP has several strengths in terms of mitigation planning that focus on developing green infrastructure, such as protecting eco-sensitive areas, developing parks /open spaces /playgrounds in the settlement, and protecting suitable agricultural lands against indiscriminate urbanization.21 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

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The MDP also includes the Jaipur Initiative to address urban forests and open green spaces, and uses example cities for reference. It also notes that these cities have 20% to 30% green coverage of the total geographical area and 15 to 25 m2 urban green spaces per capita.22 It proposes converting areas abutting residential and commercial zones into green spaces as a means of sustainable development.23 The MDP asserts that it is necessary to regenerate at least one medium-sized mature tree per resident in Jaipur in order to increase forest coverage. The MDP also suggests enhancing the urban green spaces through the protection and development of adjoining forest lands in accordance with the Forest [Conservation] Act of 1980, and supplementary Environmental Impact Assessments.24 Likewise, The MDP suggests implementing multifunctional botanical gardens as urban green spaces and forests around Jaipur to enhance urban resilience and human well-being. The plan acknowledges that open spaces are being used to develop infrastructure, housing, and commercial complexes, and that environmental management plans need to be developed for eco-sensitive areas. The Rajasthan Forest and Biodiversity Project undertaken by the forest department of Rajasthan aims to plant trees, conserve biodiversity and groundwater, and establish the Nahargarh fort area as a Biological Park.25 Additionally, the Urban Forests and Open Green Spaces: Lessons for Jaipur reviews the present status of urban forestry across the world and analyzes applications for the governance of urban green spaces.26 However, Jaipur is well below the World Health Organization (WHO) provisions of a minimum of 9 m2 of green open space per city dweller; in Jaipur city, open space is around 5.43 km2 for a population of 3.30 million.27 In the satellite towns, the plan prescribes measures to protect the G1 green/eco-sensitive areas like hills, forests, water bodies, bolstered with a G2 area buffer. All growth centers have reserved a portion of its land for green space. The plan aims not only to preserve areas of ecological importance, but also develop parks, open spaces, playgrounds and other green spaces. Recommendations For the plan to improve its mitigation planning as it relates to green spaces, it could set a minimum percent of land to be zoned as protected ecosystems or urban green space. There is room for clarification on the parameters utilized to determine land use area requirements and plans of expansion of green spaces. Legally mandating and enforcing the standard of 9 m2 of green space per city dweller could improve Jaipur’s distribution of green space. The revised MDP should draft a green and biodiversity charter, to provide an instrument with the technical, environmental and design criteria when planning green spaces and urban trees. The design guides with sustainability and resilience criteria for landscape architects, urban designs are essential to promote green infrastructure. The Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change (RSAPCC) declares to utilize the Clean Development Mechanism and REDD+ mechanism to gain credits from the forestry sector according to the Kyoto Protocol. In order to develop a multifunctional ecosystem, the RSAPCC 22 23 24 25 26 27

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decides to take afforestation and reforestation measures, such as promoting multifunctional landscapes, strengthening the network of urban green spaces, and restoring existing urban forests sequentially. Regular master plan and urban development projects are required to integrate urban forest planning to increase green space and plantations. The reforestation measures also include taking a road entry fee to be used for generating the resources to manage urban green spaces sustainability and resilience. These policies should be integrated in the revision of MDP and it could also consider implementing the mandate of tree per city dweller as found in the RSAPCC.

Neighborhood Design and Energy Saving in Buildings The MDP promotes the Indian Green Building Council rating systems as a popular tool to bring momentum in achieving energy efficiency and sustainability in buildings28 and suggests that one of the best ways to achieve a green building is to incorporate green initiatives in building bylaws, which should be scrutinized by State Governments.29 One suggested bylaw is to make rainwater harvesting and recharge mandatory for every development. An additional initiative is to encourage the use of solar energy in buildings for water heating, which should be pursued strongly by state governments. Volume 2 of the MDP includes the goal of implementing solar thermal domestic water heating systems as a project to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. The country has currently two sustainable building rating systems: 1) LEED - India rates buildings on environmental performance and energy efficiency during the design, construction and operation stages. 2) Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) is an indigenously developed rating system completely attuned to climatic variations, architectural practices, existing practices of construction and attempts to revive passive architecture.

The MDP recognizes that development areas need hazard-conscious zoning, which considers geo-environmental hazards and eco-sensitive areas. The plan emphasizes that it is imperative that eco-sensitive areas within the sector plans are protected while preparing the land use plans.30 Additionally, the plan suggests that development areas need to be zoned bearing the geo-environmental assessment of the area. The MDP encourages new development areas to make use of areas suitable for urban development activities and refrain from venturing into the environmental parcels. Recommendations There are several areas in which more detail would be beneficial for sustainable neighborhood and building design principles. Provisions should ensure the consideration of wind and sun direction and the implementation and enforcement of design considerations or standards for future constructions. Also, regulations should require plot design to achieve optimal orientation of the buildings for the purpose of energy saving; and a requirement on the consideration of the thermal properties of urban surfaces. 28 29 30

Volume 1, 5.4.4 Volume 1, 5.4.4 Volume 1, 3.9

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Mitigation

Benchmarks

Environmental performance and energy efficiency during the design, construction and operation stages

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design India (LEED-India)

Green Rating Systems in Buildings

Ratings of platinum

Gold, Silver, “Certified”

Green Rating for Intergrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA)

Figure 04.A: Green Rating Systems in Buildings in India

Jaipur requires to ensure the presence of quality green surfaces that allow water to infiltrate the subsoil, the protection of areas at risk from climate change or agricultural use on a metropolitan scale. The study of building technology and systems adapted to Jaipur region can also contribute to the efficiency of energy consumption. To further encourage Jaipur to put in place energy conservation, the MDP should consider using standards set in the Conservation and Buildings Code (ECBC), regulations for thermal heat capture through the doors, windows, and roofs and how building orientation can affect the harnessing and benefits of solar and wind energy, as found in the RSAPCC.

Development Approval and Mitigation The MDP introduces the Development Promotion and Control Regulations as a mechanism to guide development toward achieving planned growth. With the development of special statutory committees, further regulation takes place in the form of policy guidelines to sanction local area plans, layout plans, comprehensive schemes, redevelopment schemes, and multi-storied buildings in all land use categories. Strengths of the MDP in regard to planning for mitigation and climate services include collaborative planning with international agencies and consideration of national, state, and regional plans. The Forest Department of Rajasthan is undertaking a project on public-private partnership (PPP) mode financed by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) which involves urban forest expansion, biodiversity conservation, and groundwater conservation.31 Recommendations The implementation sections for design standard and urban green space sections could benefit from further detail. For example, provisions should explicitly link the development approval process to legislation that require climate adaptation and mitigation. The MDP can also adopt mandates that require developers to pay for some of its infrastructure costs when incentives 31

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are available, as seen in the Plan. A bidding process or some sort of subsidy would encourage sustainable energy development in new construction and additional urban growth. A special statutory committee was created to have a more hands-on approach in the development of local area plans, layout plans, comprehensive schemes, redevelopment schemes, and multistoried buildings in all land use categories. However, there needs to be an overlap between the revised MDP and the RSAPCC in terms of coherence in development approval and mitigation.

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Planning for Mitigation

Economic and financial instruments “Climate finance refers to local, national or transnational financing— drawn from public, private and alternative sources of financing—that seeks to support mitigation and adaptation actions that will address climate change. Efforts under the Paris Agreement are guided by its aim of making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climateresilient development.”

Resources for Urban Planning and Climate Change The Jaipur Development Plan acknowledges the significance of ecological sites, historic areas, and affordable housing without specifying financial resources to maintain or strengthen these areas of focus. Climate change actions are necessary to be strengthened and added to this plan, however without clear sources of funding no adaptation or mitigation measures can be implemented. There is a multimodal set of resources available for climate change actions in India, Rajasthan, and Jaipur from both private and public sources. Further detailing of possible funding sources and how sustainable measures will be incentivized is necessary. The National Government of India periodically launches centre sector schemes for the states, which implement them through central fiscal incentives. India has been moving towards a market-based model of financing urban infrastructure.1 Likewise, climate change financing in India has been broadened by state budgetary allocations to fulfill climate missions under the NAPCC, towards a more distributed structure. Besides the government, climate change financing includes international donor agencies, NGOs, bilateral development agencies, private investors, public and private banks, as pictured in figure 5A.2 Despite the increased multimodality, public funds are still the largest source of climate finance, such as the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) and National Adaptation Fund (NAF). Local governments have accessed resources from national schemes, such as Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation of 2015 (AMRUT). Usually, local tax reform and user fees are launched to fulfill national requirements of these programs in order to access funding. Public-private partnerships have also been promoted in all areas of urban governance to finance infrastructure, specifically: urban transport, development of land, infrastructure, and affordable housing.3 Nevertheless, they were not successful in the areas of water and sanitation, and most have been in the housing sector. Within the MDP, public and private partnerships are mentioned in relation to these areas outside of climate change. For example, the section on Heritage Conservation states that “more incentives for public private partnership shall be encouraged.”4 While the significance of historic areas is acknowledged, and the tourism income they incite, specification of how to invest in the conservation and rehabilitation of these areas is needed.5 Non-government stakeholders and government participation are mentioned as part of The Rajasthan State Environment Policy (SEP 2010), but there is no specificity as to what level of the government collects or transfers revenues. The mobilization of capital for urban forests and open green spaces is addressed as a need for Jaipur. Based upon the Forest Conservation Act of 1980, “investing in sequential restoration and enrichment of local biodiversity” is recommended.6 1

2 3 4 5 6

Following recommendations from the 2003 USAID collaborative programme, the FIRE-D (Financial Institutions Reform and Expansion—Debt market Development), India adopted several reforms, towards implementing mechanisms for privately financing climate action. Singh, D. (2017). Climate Finance Architecture in India. New Delhi: Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability . Volume 2, 2.10.6 Comprehensive Mobility Plan, 4.1 Policies, 4.2.2 Plan Implementation Volume 1, 4.10.3 Volume 2, 1.7, 2.8 Volume 2, 3.3

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Economic and Financial Instruments

Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change National Action Plan on Climate Change International Funds

Global Environmental Facility (GEF) Development Finance Institutions

Government

State Governments Sectoral / Nodal Ministries Government-backed (Non-banking Financial Company, NBFCs)

Private Sector

Adaptation Fund

Clean Technology Fund

National Bank for Agriculture & Rural Development (NABARD)

Green Climate Fund

Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI)

State Action Plans on Climate Change Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF)

Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency

Ministry of Finance

National Clean Energy Fund

Climate Change Finance Unit

National Clean Development Mechanism Authority

Public & Private Sector Banks Private Businesses National NGOs and Civil Society

NonGovernmental Actors

International Organizations/MDBs (Multilateral Development Banks) International Donors

Figure 05.A: Climate Finance Landscape in India, See CCFI pg. 16.

The MDP also references the Rajasthan Township Policy (2010) which encourages local and foreign private sector investment, including the policy for residential, group housing, and other schemes. The MDP does not mention provisions or resources to finance climate change mitigation and adaptation in the metropolitan area. In general, the procedures for collection and use of revenues from sources like taxes or public private partnerships is not articulated in detail. Similarly, the MDP could include provisions that establish earmarked intergovernmental fiscal transfers to local governments for climate change mitigation and adaptation in urban planning, give local governments the responsibility to collect locally generated revenues, and the authority to decide how to spend locally generated revenues. Those provisions would create an enabling environment that facilitates mobilization of investment capital, allows local governments to receive a public credit guarantee by the national government, and creates frameworks for public private partnerships. Furthermore, clarification of the legislation corresponding to financial resources would strengthen the plan. The MDP references the Rajasthan Township Policy (2010) in specifying the necessity of “Private Sector Investment/Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in housing and real estate”.7 The Affordable Housing Policy (2009) states that “sustainable human development cannot be achieved 7

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without adequate and affordable housing”.8 Furthermore, it is a multifaceted issue of many socioeconomic factors. Finances are only one component, but pivotal for the Policy’s success. More details on the Affordable Housing Policy plan of 2009 and the Slum Redevelopment Policy, both public private partnership initiatives, would be beneficial. The Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change published after the MDP in 2014 is also an important reference document as it references: provision of subsidies, tax rebate, and technical assistance to government officials, villages and specifically farmers. References to specific financial incentives to encourage climate change action are largely absent in this plan. The MDP identifies the funding opportunity which PPPs can provide, however, they are not referenced in relation to climate change actions. Clarification of provisions from public and private finance can be noted in figure 5B. Evaluation and documentation of potential contributions of public-private investments, NGOS, international donors, national, state, and local government to Jaipur’s climate action plans are crucial.

Budgetary Support

Tax

CDM Finance (Clean Development Mechanism)

PUBLIC Subsidies

Market Mechanisms

Debt Instruments

PRIVATE Equity Finance

Partial Risk Guarantee Facilities

Figure 05.B: Public Climate Finance and Private Climate Finance. See CCFI pg. 8.

Incentives for Mitigation and Adaptation in Urban Planning (Economic and Non-Economic) Incentivization of heritage conservation, dual system water management, and private housing investment are identified in the MDP.9 Preserving urban green spaces to maintain biodiversity, “enhance urban resilience” and act as a “financial innovation” is also part of a collaboration between CAZRI (Central Arid Zone Research Institute), Jodhpur and RPCB (Rajasthan Pollution Control Board).10 However, sources for funding these projects and policy requirements to attain incentives are not provided. Rating systems such as TERI (The Energy and Resources Institute), LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design), GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment) are mentioned. More specific criteria of application in the region is missing. When developing incentives, it is important to detail how goals emphasizing quality of life and 8 9 10

Volume 2, 4.1.2 Affordable Housing Policy Volume 2, 1.7 Heritage and Tourism, 2.8 Conservation of Built Heritage, 2.12 Physical Infrastructure, 4.1.2 Affordable Housing Policy Volume 1, 5.4.8 Initiative at Jaipur Level

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Economic and Financial Instruments

preserving ecological areas can curtail climate change. The plan for Kalwar identifies plans to infill an old quarrying area and utilize it for tourism and recreation.11 The effort to limit future mining in Chonp, Kalwar, and Kukas are good (yet minor) examples on how future initiatives could be more climate focused.12 There is inclusion of details of projects for energy generation from renewable sources, and some measures, but no incentives, to entice developers.13 Additional references to implementation and environmental impact assessments are missing.

Incentives that Promote Unsustainable Uses of Urban Space (Economic and Non-Economic) The MDP mentions the need for more roads to satisfy population-induced transportation demands and to meet the needs of the manufacturing, warehousing, and logistics industries. The “Ring Road” around the city signals a clear pattern, serving transportation needs but also marking the progressive urbanization of the peri-urban areas without the necessary provisions for infrastructure and sustainable development. The density and monofunction of new developments may also be unsustainable if it does not promote “mixed land use” schemes. Further specificity into any incentives or subsidies to ensure dense and compact development and also motivate necessary provisions for infrastructure and public services are needed. Other larger projects, like the mega food park scheme, may increase access to fresh food in the region, but may also increase industrial farming in the region and be ecologically harmful without strict oversight.14 There is only mention of mega food parks without any detail of what this is or might entail. The MDP also identifies provision of incentives for both “organized industrial area[s] and … unorganized industrial areas.”15 Both of which may be developed through unsustainable methods. There is no mention of specific incentives to promote unsustainable land use beyond what is mentioned here. Patterns of zoning, urbanization, infrastructure implementation need to be further evaluated to assess any incentivization of unsustainable land uses. In the satellite city and growth center plans, the expansion of the road system in order to “enhance economic development” does not imply investment in transit or other measures to disincentivize private mobility.16 In other plans, the areas of ecological importance are identified for development as “natural tourist destinations” or “recreational facilities” but the provisions to ensure their sustainable management are not provided.17 The overall dispersed growth model runs counter to sustainable practices that emphasize compact urban development. Similarly, the prioritization of economic development and dedicating land for future industrial use incentivizes potentially unsustainable land use. There is an emphasis on “flexible” planning to encourage investment to build more roads and stimulate certain satellite cities’ general economies.18

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

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Volume 3 Kalwar Section 3.1, pg 13 Volume 3 Chonp Section 3.4, pg 16, Kalwar Section 3.1, pg 13, Kukas Section 3.1, pg 11 Volume 2, 2.1 Planning Policies and Principles for Land Use Plan - 2025 Volume 1 Major Highlights of the Plan, Volume 2 Section 1.12 Land Utilization (iv) Volume 1, 4.8.4 General Manufacturing Industries Volume 3, 3.1 Transportation Measures in every Satellite City and Growth Center Volume 3, 3.1 Environment Measures in each Satellite City and Growth Center Volume 3, 3.1 Land Use Measures in each Satellite City and Growth Center

Accelerating Climate Action: MDP Jaipur 2025 Assessment

The Jaipur region’s existing physical infrastructure system includes a city-wide water system, a regional drainage network, and a municipal sewer system. However, regional growth has put more stress on the system and risks further ecological degradation. A proposed channel would dump more sewage into the Bandi River and Dhundi Rivers--which are already heavily polluted from industrial effluents and illegal dumping.19 In response, the River Front Development plan does seek to add additional controls on sewage treatment and better management of activities in and around the river.20 A focus on financing climate change actions is necessary. Prioritizing minimizing costs can result in environmentally degrading and unsustainable infrastructure.

COP Conference of the Parties

CTF Clean Technology Fund

MoEF & CC

Adaptation Fund

Ministry of Environment, Forestry & Climate Change

GEF Global Environm. Facility OFP: AS Operational Focal Point: Add’l Secretary Ministry Environm. & Forests

GCF Green Climate Fund

Figure 05.C: MoEF Vis-à-vis Multilateral Climate Funds And International Negotiations. See CCFI pg. 19.

Recommendations The MDP acknowledges the significance of sustainable affordable housing, key ecological areas, and historic heritage sites. However, there is no identification of sources of funding or incentivization for these climate action foci. Currently, the climate financing landscape in India is highly fragmented (see figure 05.A), with a mix of national and international actors involved. This multi-modality in the financing of climate change provides potential opportunities to fund projects in Jaipur involving many government and non-government actors and incentivizing sustainable, affordable development. The MDP could be strengthened by including further details of the Rajasthan Affordable Housing Policy, the Rajasthan Township Policy, and the Rajasthan State Action Plan on Climate Change 19 20

Volume 2, 1.9.2 Sewage Volume 2, 1.14.3 River Front Development

UN-Habitat Law and Climate Change Toolkit - Economic and Financial Instruments

which was published in 2014 after the original MDP’s publication. For Jaipur’s MDP to guide sustainable urban growth practices, there should be a dedicated section mapping resources relevant for the region. This would illustrate the private and public institutional actors in the region and which financial instruments are in use to further implement climate change action. The MDP does not currently articulate the available economic and financial instruments on climate change action. Jaipur’s current priorities, as outlined in the MDP, are transportation development and satellite city development without broader consideration of necessary infrastructure, increased transportation’s impact on emissions, and slum housing. In addition to establishing sources of financing, a re-evaluation of funding allocation is necessary. Without base infrastructure for water provision and sanitation, sewage, waste management, and safe affordable housing other priorities will not succeed in improving the overall quality of life and extent of sustainability in Jaipur. As such, we are able to analyze the region’s response through the lenses of ancillary goals such as urban greenery initiatives and economic development, but no section of the MDP is dedicated to the region’s economic strategy for fighting climate change.

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Jaipur District, Rajasthan

Jaipur Nagar Nigam (Municipal Corporation

Learning from cities acting on climate change The semester component examined the efforts of a selected number of cities relevant to Jaipur. From climate change plans to master plans, including strategic frameworks and more, these factsheets offer a glimpse to the different approaches of cities on climate change action.

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Cities acting on climate change

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Cities acting on climate change

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Cities acting on climate change

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Cities acting on climate change

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Cities acting on climate change

MAPPING JAIPUR

This section introduces different aspects of Jaipur through a series of thematic mappings. The section starts with demographic, climate and demolition data and then covers water, green open space, precarious neighborhoods, transportation, and periurban growth.

Climate

Jaipur falls under the Semi-Arid eastern plain. The district has a dry climate with a hot season. Generally cold season starts from December and lasts until February, followed by a hot season which continues up to the middle of June. The period from mid-June to mid-September is of the southwest monsoon; the next remaining period until winter is post monsoon season. Maximum, minimum and mean temperatures recorded are 37°C, 6°C and 25.5°C respectively. The normal annual rainfall is 638.4mm. Jaipur district enjoys two predominant seasons- hot, dry summer and cold winter- with mean maximum temperature of 45°C and the mean minimum temperature of 5°C. The average annual rainfall is 595.3 mm. Younger flood plains of ephemeral rivers: Ratangarh, Dhund, Jhalera Nadi, Amanishah nalla, Sedriya Nadi and Bandi nadi area flowing through the Kanauta - Jaipur - Kalwar segments of Jaipur region are prone to flash flooding during heavy or persistent rains in their catchment region.

Hot Season March to June Cold Season December to February

Monsoon Season Mid June to September

5°C

45°C

Winter Mean Min.

Summer Mean Max.

595.3 mm

Average Annual Rainfall

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

FE BR

FA LL

NO VE

2 14 9.3 ° .0 °C C 3. 4m m 34

WINT ER

F) (88.9° 6°C 31. 2.2°F) 6 ( 8°C ) 16. (0.18in mm 4.5 21% CH MAR

ON O S

MO N

F) 3° ) 5. °F 10 .7 ) 9 (7 2in .7 (0

33% E JUN

°F) (103.3 6°C F) 39. (81.9° 7°C 27. ) (2.02in 4mm 51.

60% JULY

34.6°C ( 9 4.3° F) 26.1° C ( 7 9.0° F) 179.4m m ( 7.06 in)

F) 9° . F) 0 (9 6° . 6 in) (7 49 . (7 % T US

40 .7 ° C 2 6 .5 ( °C 18 . 3m m

M A

AU 67 G

3 2 .7 ° 2 4 .8 C 19 °C 0 . 2m m

SEASON MONTH AVERAGE RELATIVE HUMIDITY AVERAGE RAINFALL AVERAGE MINIMUM TEMPERATURE AVERAGE MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE Climate data for Jaipur (Jaipur International Airport) 1981–2010, extremes 1952–2012

37.4° C ( 9 9.3° F) 22.2°C ( 7 2.0° F) 5.8m m ( 0 .23i n)

17% APRI L

SUM M ER Y

33.8°C (92. 8°F 19.6°C ) (67. 3°F 25.8mm ) (1.0 2in ) 31% OCTO BER

R BE M

25 .7 °C 11 .4 ( 9.3 °C m m 29

% RY UA

F) (93.6° C ° 2 34. 4.5°F) C (7 ° 6 . 23 (2.62in) mm 6 . 66 50% R EMBE T P SE

22.6°C (72.7 °F) 8.6°C (47.5 °F) 5.9mm (0.23 in) 37% JANU ARY

) °F .3 F) 5° 78 ) 2. (5 37in . (0

F) 7° . 4 (8 F) 2° . ) 7 3in (5 1 . (0

6.1°F) C (7 ° 5 . 24 F) (49.1° C ° 9.5 7) m (0.1 m 2 4. 39% R EMBE DEC

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Demographics [2011] 6.6 Million Jaipur District

3.07 Million Jaipur Municipal Cooperation

The population of the Jaipur District in 2011 was 6.6 million, up from 5.3 million in 2001, an increase of population of 26.19 percent. The total population of the Jaipur Municipal Cooperation is 3,046,163. The projected population for the Jaipur Municipal Cooperation in 2025 is 4.3 million. The total density of the Jaipur District in 2011 was 595 people per square kilometer, compared to 471 people per square kilometer in 2001. The total population of children under age six in 2011 was 929,926. 87.83 percent of the Jaipur District are Hindu, while 10.37 percent are Muslim.

595

People Per Square. Km.

JAIPUR MUNICIPAL CORPORATION

900 (W) to 1,000 (M)

929.926

Children Under 6

Population Population Children (0-6)

Literacy Rate

Average Household Size 5.0

Sex ratio Child Sex ratio

Male

1,246,245 76.65 %

Hindu Muslims Jain Sikh Christian Buddhist Others Not Stated

Female

3,046,163 1,603,125 1,443,038 387,354 208,833 178,521

Literates 2,215,535 Average Literacy (%) 83.33 %

Religion

88.33%

Total

1000 1000

Total 2,373,384 567,521 71,846 17,787 11,076 824 245 3,480

969,290 89.38 %

Percentage

77.91% 18.63 % 2.36 % 0.58 % 0.36 % 0.03 % 0.01 % 0.11 %

900 855

WARD 58 population total 21,956

scheduled castes 254 schedules tribes 79 750 meters

Urban Block/ EB Number EB 406300 EB 406400 EB 406500 EB 406600 EB 406700 EB 406800 EB 4069 SUB-EB 01 EB 4069 SUB-EB 02 EB 4070 SUB-EB 01 EB 4070 SUB-EB 02 EB 407100 EB 407200 EB 407300 EB 407400 EB 407500 EB 407600 EB 4077 SUB-EB01 EB 4077 SUB-EB02 EB 4078 SUB-EB01 EB 4078 SUB-EB02 EB 4080 SUB-EB01 EB 4080 SUB-EB02 EB 408100 EB 408200 EB 408300 EB 408400 EB 408500 EB 408600 EB 4087 SUB-EB01 EB 4087 SUB-EB02 EB 4088 SUB-EB01 EB 4088 SUB-EB02 EB 408900 EB 409000 EB 409100 EB 409200 EB 4093 SUB-EB01 EB 4093 SUB-EB02

Population Total Castes Tribes 1253 - 1 980 30 4 606 - 723 - 3 558 27 1051 6 465 - 383 - 9 414 - 589 12 651 23 18 633 2 1 830 37 16 703 - 673 - 527 - 480 - 2 369 - 547 - 537 - 557 - 188 - 771 - 630 - 693 - 348 - 438 - 606 4 4 482 1 436 - 704 - 187 - 539 - 311 - 421 - 532 78 16 636 34 4 505 - 1

longitude

75°47’40.68”E

JAIPUR MUNICIPAL CORPORATION WARD 58 1

3 2

91 4

5 9

82 88

10 13

68 78

72 74

69 70

24 12

67 65

65 66

20 29 19

26°53'37.34"N

61 60

latitude

31 32

43 42

33 41

53 52

35 36

3 kilometers

Building Demolition

“A significant proportion of construction waste can be recycled and reused and brought back to construction to substitute naturally sourced material. This demands a circular economy that can turn C&D waste into a resource. This can help reduce energy intensity and environmental footprints of buildings and infrastructure.” Sunita Narain, CSE director general According to the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE, 2020), India recycles one per cent of its construction and demolition (C&D) waste. Out of an estimated 150 million tonnes annually, the official recycling capacity is 6,500 tonnes per day. Unofficial estimates put the figure at threefive times more. It is the demolitioner’s responsibility to properly dispose of the waste, which is often disregarded and strewn elsewhere to decrease costs. Many cities have not yet implemented and enforced a robust construction and demolition program to ensure that excess building materials are adequately taken care of. This is only another factor that adds to current pollution and carbon consumption in the city of Jaipur. Swachh Bharat Mission has recognized the need for C&D waste management. The Swachh Survekshan 2021, the annual survey of cleanliness, hygiene and sanitation in cities and towns across India, have doubled points for C&D waste management to 100, divided equally between management infrastructure and waste processing efficiency.

Source: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/waste/india-recycles-only-1-ofits-construction-and-demolition-waste-cse-73027#:~:text=India%20recycles%20 just%20one%20per,25%2C%202020%2C%20has%20shown.

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LIQUID MATTERS: WATER

Located in an arid region and subject to recurring droughts and intense flooding during annual monsoons, the city of Jaipur has a challenging relationship with water. Yet, water has been a central component of the culture and vitality of the city, and the many manifestations of this condition punctuate the urban landscape. Today, this centrality of water in city-making is more relevant than ever as the city faces acute challenges due to a changing climate. With impending weather extremes, water management and the upgrade and maintenance of the infrastructure systems is central to the growing metropolis both to insure the health of the water bodies and the future population’s sufficient access to water The population of Jaipur is reliant on a variety of methods for procuring water. Constant access to water varies widely across different areas in the district, with the municipal system only serving part of the Municipal Corporation area. Furthermore, the quality of water which many are required to use is poor. The JDA is planning to implement two new areas of sewer infrastructure and construct five new sewer treatment plants as part of the Dravyavati River Development project, expanding sewer access and capacity. As part of an effort to diminish polluted water streams and unmitigated dumping of sewage and effluents the Jaipur Development Authority channelized the river that flows through the city. In 2017, the JDA embarked on a massive public works for the channelization of the Dravyavati River, spanning 47.5 km and estimated to cost 16 million Rupees. Long referred to as the Aminishashh Nallah, the river was severely polluted from industrial and domestic waste.

Liquid Matters || Water

In what it seems a trend for many cities, the project of rejuvenation turned a living, yet troubled river, into a concrete channel, creating new land for real estate development and urban amenities, and adding much needed wastewater treatment plants. Other smaller streams running through the city may follow a different fate, even if they share a similar set of problems as they operate as open sewage and drainage lines. Yet, the opportunity remains to work with nature in the city instead of trying to control it. To preserve the environment and water of the region, re-evaluation of methods of water management, infrastructure and areas adjacent to the Dravyavati Channel and water bodies are necessary. Correlatively, these actions will mitigate climate change through environmental preservation, and require adaptations to new models of water management as Jaipur’s climate changes. In the pursuant maps and diagrams we are representing issues of water access, infrastructure, and adjacencies across scales and socioeconomic groups. The recent channelization of the Dravyavati River treats this natural resource as a commodity, prioritizing profit and aesthetics over the environment. There is still space to implement mitigation and adaptation measures along this channel through multi-level, participatory governance and the use of both economic and planning instruments. The current infrastructure in Jaipur does have potential in mitigating water shortages. Water recharging in wastewater treatment and reuse should be implemented to benefit a sustainable water supply.

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Kotputli 595.5 mm

Viratnagar 639.6 Shahpura 627.6 mm Chomu 530.5

Jamwa Ramgarh 638.2

Amber 621.6 mm

Phulera 462.3 mm

Jaipur 602.9 mm

Sanganer 564.2 mm Mauzamabad 493.3 mm Phagi 535.9 mm

Bassi 609.5 mm Chaksu 581.1 mm

District

Depth of Water Level <2m 2-5 m

MDP Region

5-10 m

Sewer Map

10-20 m 20-40m

JMC Area

>40 m Rivers Reservoirs Protected Areas

30 Kilometers

Liquid Matters || Water

D e p l e t i n g W a t e r Ta b l e Levels Across the District of Jaipur, areas that endure the most rainfall also experience the highest levels of drought and lowest levels of groundwater aquifers. In order to reinstate natural water sources, it is important to implement water collection and recharging techniques where they can be most effective. Currently, a multitude of traditional water harvesting techniques are utilized in vast rural areas where large quantities of water can be collected. In the urban area of Jaipur city, where rainfall is most plentiful, the most common water sources are that of tubewells and overhead water tanks where water is drawn but not replenished.

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

1. Stepwell

2. Nahargarh Fort 3. Taanka 4. Tube Well 8. Water tower 6. Johad 7. Khadin

8. Chauka

Rivers Reservoirs

Ramgarh Smanmad

Protected Areas

30 Kilometers

Liquid Matters || Water

1. Stepwells Stepwells have primarily served the role of harvesting water for bathing and washing purposes. Their usage has diminished and few are currently utilized. Stepwells collect rainwater and stream water into a deep well, allowing humans to enter the water following the descending steps. Water levels rise and lower due to seasonal rainfall.

- Found in urban & rural areas

Rainwater harvesting

Natural streams feed well Rainwater collection recharges water table during dry season

2. Nahargarh Fort The Nahargarh Fort consists of an extensive water infrastructure system expanding over 6 km. The Fort’s main purpose is to collect rainwater in large catchment areas and to store it underground, keeping water cool and purified. Water purified through collection and purification process can be used for drinking.

- Found in JMC boundary

Rainwater harvesting

3. Taankas Taankas are small wells predominantly used by single families to capture fresh water before it evaporates or runs off into nearby rivers. They are one of the most common water collection systems, providing water to people of Jaipur by harvesting ground surface water and rainwater from roof runoff. Water collected in the monsoon season lasts throughout the year.

Rooftop runoff collection Ground surface runoff collection - Found in urban & rural areas - Commonly managed by private households

Unlined wells recharge water table during dry season

4. Tube Wells The most common water supply system is tube wells or borewells. These small well systems rely on existing water aquifers to supply water. Use of tube wells and ground water has severely impacted water table levels due to exploitation of ground water. Ground water is also often found to be toxic.

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- Found in urban & rural areas - Managed by both private households and JMC - Over 12,000 across district

Water drawn from existing water table

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

5. Johad Johads are a traditional water collection system developed in rural areas with expansive land. Because of its size, Johads are commonly built to serve entire communities. Catchment area runoff fills a dam with water which slowly percolates the ground recharging water tables and nearby wells. Stored water in dam supplies livestock and agriculture.

Runoff from catchment areas

Rainwater harvesting - Found in rural areas - Managed by private households with community collaboration

Stores surface water for livestock and agriculture Recharges wells

Slow percolation of water recharges water table

6. Khadin Khadins are predominately used by farmers in rural landscape. They utilize expansive fields to capture water from runoff in winter seasons when crops are not yielding. The large area followed by a earthen bund regenerates ground water for the following season’s cultivation period. Percolation of water recharges nearby wells.

Runoff from rocky areas

Rainwater harvesting - Found in rural areas - Managed by private households

Recharges wells

Slow percolation of water recharges water table

7. Chaukas Chaukas are a traditional water harvesting technique utilizing farmland to create a multitude of large shallow dugouts where rainwater in monsoon periods collects and slowly recharges water tables. Excess water flows into connected community reservoirs or other water storing sources. Using farmland for chaukas fertilizes soil for following cultivation period.

Collects rainwater

- Found in rural areas - Commonly managed by private households with community collaboration

Excess feeds community res Slow percolation of water recharges water table

7. Overhead Water Tank Overhead water tanks serve those who live in the area provided by the Jaipur Municipal Corporation. Water is pumped from surrounding reservoirs and dams and supplied to meet both residential and commercial needs. Overhead water tanks are a common water supplier in the urban area of Jaipur city.

- Found in urban & Rural areas - Managed by both private households and JMC - Over 12,000 across district

Water drawn from surrounding reservoirs and lakes

Liquid Matters || Water

Access: Water

The water system in Jaipur has instabilities and has a high level of dependence on wells. High transmission loss and increasing water pollution are making it difficult to meet the rising demand of clean water and rapid increase in population/growth. At the U1 scale the mapping is emphasizing the disparities within three different living conditions, city access, walled heritage city access, precarious neighborhoods access, in terms of water accessibility and sewage. Mapping the access to water and how it is stored while including the distance to water towers, wells, and water catchments.

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# # #

# ##

# # # #

# # # # # # #

# #

B #

# #

# # # #

Legend

Water Tower Hydrodraphy

Lakes_largerivers Protected areas

Precarious Neighborhood Railway Subway

# # #

Railway Municipal Corporation

Walled City Water Treatment Sewage Drain Area of Focus

STP 1 Catchment

STP 2&4 Catchment

STP 3 Catchment

STP 5,6,7 Catchment

0.75 1.5

1 inch = 7,500 feet

4.5 Kilometers

Liquid Matters || Water

City Access

Legend Filter Drains Water Treatment Well Bio-rentation Area Wetlands Infiltration Basin Water Storage Water Bucket Water Tower Septic Tank S City Sewage System Water Tower Location

164

The sewage network within Jaipur has been developed by various agencies such as the PHED and JMC. This network includes roadside drains, main drainage channels, intercepting drains and secondary drains. These drains collect wastewater and storm-water from the city. The system covers most of the wester part of the city. According to the master plan 2025, the government is in the process of installing five more sewage treatment plants which would cover the remaining areas. However, the city will still lack and covering the reuse and treatment of wastewater. This part of the city relies on water towers and those living in apartments four homes have easier access to water because they can afford larger water tanks. This area also is included within the drainage system and relies on sewage treatment plants. However, research shows that there is an over exploitation of groundwater in many locations within Jaipur and shrinking water reserves in terms of quality and quantity.

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

ed Historic Walled City Historic AccessCity Access

PrecariousPrecarious Neighborhood Neighborhood Access Access

walledThe citywalled is thecity densest is thearea densest in the area city,in itthe city, it des 64,800 includes houses 64,800and houses the highest and thedensity highest of density of le perpeople sq. km.per When the city was first sq. km. When the cityplanned, was firstit planned, it advantage of rain catchment areas that areas were that were took advantage of rain catchment able for storage.forThe city has then since grownthen grown available storage. Thesince city has an increased demand for water, forandwater, the and the with an increased demand truction of the dam across river the of river of construction of the dam the across vyavati, and today with current pipecurrent system of system of Dhravyavati, and the today with the pipe ly. supply.

During the During monsoon theseason monsoon heavy season rainfall heavy is expected rainfall is expect and the downpour and the floods downpour several floods parts several of theparts city. of The the city. T areas mostareas affected most byaffected this are low by this lying are areas low lying near areas the near t hills in which hillsprecarious in which precarious neighborhoods neighborhoods are located. are locate This damage This isdamage caused isbycaused ineffective, by ineffective, insufficient insufficie drainage system drainage of system the city ofand theheavy city and urbanization. heavy urbanizatio There is a need Therefor is a landscape-based need for landscape-based solutions with solutions an with integrated integrated drainage drainage system supported system supported by green by gre infrastructure. infrastructure.

walledThe city walled has approximately 820 wells and city has approximately 820 over wells and over ears with inincrease demand,inmost of these wells the increase years with demand, most of these wells out ordried became unusable to water out or becamedue unusable duepollution. to water pollution. few that active are active pumped boreusing bore Theare fewstill that are still areusing pumped . wells.

This area has Thisno area access has no to aaccess piped to water a piped supply water andsupply a appropriateappropriate sanitation facilities. sanitationThe facilities. population The population growth grow is more rapid is more withinrapid precarious within precarious neighborhoods neighborhoods then the then t rest of the city. rest In of terms the city. of In water terms those of water who live those in who theselive in the neighborhoods neighborhoods our daily wage our daily earners wagewith earners limitedwith limit earnings earnings out of which out ofthey which havethey to have use for to use f consumption. consumption. Most of theMost water of isthe highly waterpolluted is highly and polluted a 56% of homes 56%don't of homes have access don't have to restrooms access to or restrooms public or pub toilets leaving toilets people leaving too people defecate tooindefecate streams in or streams in the or in t open. This open. specific This area specific slopesarea back slopes towards back thetowards hills the hi leaving open leaving drain open lines from drainthe lines settlement from the settlement to flow into to flow in the collected thewater collected reserve, water thus, reserve, polluting thus,rainwater. polluting rainwater

ack ofThe availability of piped water throughout the lack of availability of piped water throughout the eads to theleads use of storage, and the need day to water the use of water storage, andfor the need for wellsopen and wells recharge The current and structures. recharge structures. The current structure does havedoes potential mitigating infrastructure haveinpotential in water mitigating water ages. shortages. There is aThere lack isof adata the lackregarding of data regarding the unt of amount water supplied Water recharging in of waterdaily. supplied daily. Water recharging in ewaterwastewater treatment treatment and reuse and should reuse be should be emented to benefit sustainable water supply. implemented to benefit sustainable water supply.

Liquid Matters || Water

Water in Jaipur U1

This map provides an overview of the Dravyavati River Channel, other bodies of water in Jaipur, the U1 area, the Municipal Corporation district and sewage treatment plants adjacent to the Channel. The areas of intended focus are marked on this map. They represent areas of zonal overlap, environmental or geographic interest, and opportunity.

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Legend Walled City Jaipur Municipal Corporation Urbanizable Area (U1) Dravyavati Channel and Bodies of Water Sewage Treatment Plants Roads Railways

Bassi Sitarampura STP

Devari STP

Jaipur Airport RICCO STP

Bambala STP Goner STP

2km 1.24miles

Liquid Matters || Water

Dravyavati River Channel

This map highlights the areas adjacent to the Dravyavati River Channel. The monotonous, wide channel has created further discontinuities in Jaipur’s urban area, highlighted by the labeling of bridges which permit traffic and human flow throughout the city. Furthermore, the overlap of varied land uses are clear. Jaipur and Tata Project’s plan for the river have emphasized increasing land value and the aesthetics of the region, rather than prioritizing environmental aspects. The extensive open space that still exists beside the river leave an opportunity to return some land to the community and ecological pursuits.

June 2010

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June 2015

June 2020

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Legend

Vidhyadhar Nagar Marg

RPA Road Bridge (Mahadev Nagar)

Bridge (Chota Talab) Sikar Road Bridge (Cantonment)

Water 400m Channel Buffer Residential Area Industrial Area Military Cantonment Vegetation/Farmland Parks Airport Brownfield Hospital Walled City Roads Railways Bridges Water Tower 2km 1.24 miles

Khathipura Bridge Bridge (Panchwati Colony) Bridge (Krishna Puri) Bridge (Jamuna Nagar) Bridge (Sushilpura) Bridge (Sodala) Ajmer Road

Jan Path Bridge (Devi Nagar)

Gopalpura Bypass Road

Shanti Nagar Rd Bridge (Mansarovar) Mansarovar Link Road

Dalda Factory Road

Bikaner Agra Road Bridge (RIICO Industrial Area)

New Sanganer Road

Haldighati Marg

Kota Road Bridge (Sector 5)

Bridge (Sitapura) Bridge (Sitapura)

Bridge (Sitapura Industrial Area)

Liquid Matters || Water

Diagnosis+Focus Area

The current water delivery and sanitation infrastructure does not cover the entire district and requires expansion, updates in service and increased maintenance. Within Jaipur, 90% of the total drinking water demand is dependent on groundwater, while 10% is supplied from the Ramgarh Lake situated 35 kilometers from the city. Various agencies have developed the sewage network within Jaipur, such as the PHED and JMC. This network includes roadside drains, main drainage channels, intercepting drains and secondary drains. With growth channelized into satellite towns and urban growth centers, the pressure into the system will continue to grow. To counteract the excessive water extraction through wells, and the lack of adequate sewage treatment and drainage, the district should invest in modern technologies while guiding development into more compact and dense models. Effective actions across the district in accordance to the MDP also include assessing traditional water collection systems and restoring them in rural and urban areas of greatest effectiveness. Similarly, access to water in the city varies widely per neighborhood. We select three different neighborhoods to illustrate the citizens’ experience in the Historic City, a precarious settlement, and a middle-upper class neighborhood. Within Jaipur, 56% of homes do not have access to restrooms or public toilets. Some areas slope back towards the hills leaving open drain lines from the settlement to flow into the collected water reserve, thus, polluting rainwater. The irrigation efficiency is as low as 20% within Jaipur. The implementation of efficient water recycling and water harvesting systems are essential for a sustainable future in Jaipur.

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Kotputli 595.5 mm

Viratnagar 639.6 Shahpura 627.6 mm Chomu 530.5

Jamwa Ramgarh 638.2

Amber 621.6 mm

Phulera 462.3 mm

Jaipur 602.9 mm

Sanganer 564.2 mm Mauzamabad 493.3 mm Phagi 535.9 mm

Bassi 609.5 mm Chaksu 581.1 mm

District

Depth of Water Level <2m 2-5 m

MDP Region

5-10 m

Sewer Map

10-20 m 20-40m

JMC Area

>40 m Rivers Reservoirs Protected Areas

30 Kilometers

Liquid Matters || Water

Synthesis: Depleting W a t e r Ta b l e L e v e l s Restoring natural ground and surface water resources is vital in retaining adequate water levels needed for the Jaipur population. Due to the severity of drought and diminishing aquifer levels largely in the densest areas of Jaipur, managing natural water sources such as rainfall is critical in restoring and recharging fresh water and diminish flooding. Currently, harvesting techniques for water restoration are gaining attraction in rural areas of Jaipur, where the vastness of land provides availability for the functions needed to capture and retain water. In urban areas of Jaipur, such as the Jaipur Municipal Area, there is little execution of implementing such techniques, even being an area that experiences some of the highest annual rainfall accumulation. Due to population mass and respective high water demands of these areas, replenishing water is critical and there is great potentiality to do so. There is a multitude of vacant plots and park areas around the city that could house these traditional techniques. Oftentimes, these vacancies lie in adjacency to precarious neighborhoods where the need for clean water is most crucial. Due to the limited scale but multiplicity of these vacant areas, techniques can be dispersed around the city in correlation to creating green space while effectively addressing the viability of water.

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Agriculture Open/Vacant Land Parks & Open Spaces Slums Water Bodies Wetlands

Liquid Matters || Water

Synthesis

Climate change and its effect on water is an unavoidable issue and the scarcity of this resource is not just due to changing climate but mainly a man-made disaster. The water system in Jaipur has many instabilities and with the high level of dependence on wells, the resilience is low. Water reserves within Jaipur have run dry and the Dhravyawati river is still polluted daily.

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Jobner Bagh

Zone 1, Sector 4

There is a lack of efficient governance and inadequacy and providing infrastructure for the supply of water and the treatment of water. The existing water systems for rain harvesting are insufficient to meet the demand for water and for the growing population. There is a need for communities to manage water resources effectively through reuse. A more efficient rainwater harvesting system must be established but also a system of drainage to help mitigate water flooding in certain areas. Low-level areas are often areas of precarious neighborhoods in these areas often flood during the monsoon season. Due to the lack of access to sanitation, when these low-level areas flood the pollution mixes with the rainwater which could be harvested and used effectively, but instead it becomes toxic. The implementation of efficient water recycling and water harvesting systems are essential for a sustainable future in Jaipur.

Liquid Matters || Water

Synthesis: Channeling Rivers In 2016, Jaipur began a process of channelizing the Amamishah Nala which had become filled with refuse and polluted by domestic and industrial sources. Nonetheless, it was a naturally flowing river that varied with the monsoon season. Rather than implementing any landscape driven solutions, the river has been turned into an immovable conduit, instituting political control of this body of water. As part of the proposal for this river project, Tata Projects identified plans for a bike and pedestrian path running the 47 kilometers of the channel and community hubs along the river for ecological spaces and commercial areas. Portions of the river have been granted these features but it is not holistic. The three constructed parks are identified on the next page, all featuring significant areas of impermeable paving and heavy landscaping of the spaces. In addition to irreparably altering the landscape and flood plains of Jaipur, the Dravyavati Channel has not been successful in allaying flood concerns or contributing to groundwater recharge as the original proposition suggested. Having permeable surfaces in proximity to the river course, and places of rainwater collection, could help mitigate these concerns. In parallel, there is a water shortage in the city and lack equal access to water. There is also a severe discrepancy in Jaipur between the WHO (World Health Organization) recommended amount of green space and that which exists. Along the Dravyavati River, patches of open space and agricultural land remain disconnected and unused. More continuous pedestrian routes along the river and utilization of underused open spaces and brownfields would produce small parks for community use. These spaces will aim to aid in flood management and water table recharge, to provide more shade, to mitigate the urban heat island effect, provide localized sites of water collection and purification, and community composting.

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TREE AVEN PROMENA

E& WATER CHANNEL

Development of TD2 and TD5 Drains in Dwark

ZATION

op TD2 (5.1 KM) and TD5 (3.8 KM)

Project Proposal: Tata Authority Projects Client: Jaipur Development Contract Value: INR 1676 Cr.

nts to carry Storm water from Catchment Area Funding : NCRPB Procurement: SWISS Challenge y intercepting untreated effluents and its treatmentProject Duration: 30 Months + 10 years O&M PROJECT SCOPE: 47.5 km long Dravyavati River Rejuvenation Project worth $250 Million

h walkways, Cycle track, Sit-outs etc along Developed Drains

s as green corridor

o provide connectivity to the metro station

anting of large evergreen trees

t natural water treatment

Present State

Proposed

Liquid Matters || Water

July 2020, unspecified area of Dravyavati River Channel

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October 2020, Sanganer area of Dravyavati River Channel

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

The only newly constructed parks along the Dravyavati River Channel: Dravyavati Bird Park, Dravyavati Botanical Gardens and Dravyavati Landscape Park. Liquid Matters || Water

OP EN + ACTIVE: GREEN SPACE

The Master Development Plan Jaipur 2025 acknowledges the importance of parks and open spaces in the district, attending to the many ecological, economic and socio-cultural services they provide. However, the lax regulatory provisions to ensure their management and protection and the lack of assessments of climate risks and vulnerabilities to prioritize action remain a critical need. The taxonomy of open spaces in the district nature reserves of ecological importance, large city parks, riverine ecosystems, wetlands, recreational fields, neighborhood parks and plazas and squares.. The classification also includes productive landscapes like agricultural land and former quarries under recovery. Regardless of the rich diversity of open spaces,Jaipur is well below the World Health Organization (WHO) provisions of a minimum of 9 m2 of green open space per city dweller. In Jaipur city, open space is around 5.43 km2 for a population of 3.30 million. Targeted initiatives and funding to enhance the open space system in the district can have a direct impact towards climate change action, advancing adaptation and mitigation goals. In particular, incentivizing the mobilization of capital and resources for targeted urban reforestation and nature-based solutions can address several critical areas of action: mitigating the heat island effect, stabilization and desertification control, and watershed management.

Open Space Defined

In our research, we illustrate the different types of open spaces and the opportunities to address heat island effect through targeted greening initiatives. Identifying open space along with surface temperature maps we can see areas of open space forestry help significantly cool those regions. In our work mapping the heat island effect, we are interested in addressing issues of social and environmental justice, as the distribution of open space is very uneven in the city and any initiative will have to target those more vulnerable. Open space is defined as many things and important for social and ecological aspects of life. The map displays the Jaipur region and the spaces that are inside it. The development of infrastructure is sometimes also is considered to be open space such as locations like the Jaipur quarry and the railroad tracks. The diagram to the right shows what can be done in the area of Jaipur.

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Open + Active || Green Space

Heat Index in Jaipur District Comparing Jaipur City with Bassi and Bagru to visualize heat-island effect incidence and the correlation with open green space.

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Open + Active || Green Space

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Open + Active || Green Space

Diagnosis + Focus

Mapping the region of Jaipur showcased the Rambagh Golf Club having some of the most open green space in the area. Areas like this can help benefit humans, ecosystems, and past habitats. All by just planting native plants. These native plants are beneficial for the community. Acacia arabica provides shade, while the Citrus limon and Ziziphus zizyphus produce editable fruits for animals and humans. Growing the community, sequestering carbon, creating biodiversity, helping with heat-island effect, and restoring lost habitats. The use of native plant species and adequate regimes of maintenance can help mitigate heat island effect and explore human interaction with nature, create a community around certain plants and help increase biodiversity in the Jaipur District.

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Open + Active || Green Space

Ecological Succession Habitats for natural growth are small inside the walls of Jaipur City, With the ever growing climate changing and species diversity is at an all time low. The reintroduction of plants into the Indo-Malaya Ecozone is a need for may different reasons.

When looking at the succes-

sion rate the biodiversity is small but slowly as you reintroduce species the years and landscape start to change. Brining in populations that were once declining. The landscape starts to change from above and nature starts to take over.

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Open + Active || Green Space

BUILDING HOME: PRECARIOUS NEIG HBORHOODS

While no updated official data is available, projections suggest that upwards of 20% of the population of Jaipur lives in precarious neighborhoods, facing acute challenges to address climate change impacts. The spatial structure, composition and location of these neighborhoods varies widely, but lack of access to basic utilities, tenure insecurity, and poor dwelling construction quality are common. Particularly relevant is the focus on climate adaptation and mitigation measures in the assessment of the climate risks and vulnerability of precarious neighborhoods, to identify and prioritize infrastructure and ecosystem-based adaptation options, and implement them in in-situ interventions, or relocations when high-risk climate effects are identified. We acknowledge that the lack of official, centralized information on precarious neighborhoods is a critical issue preventing proper representation of the citizens living in these areas and challenging their participation and representation in city governance. As such, our work relies on open source platforms and media accounts to illustrate many of these challenges.

Distributed Precariety

Precarious neighborhoods are incorporated into the fabric of Jaipur across many areas of the city. Their embeddedness in the physical structure of the city serves as indication of the economic and social roots of the residents into the surrounding neighborhoods. Plans for stabilization of precarious neighborhoods should consider the social, environmental and economic impact of demolition and relocation.

The maroon circles indicate 400 meter diameter ar-

eas, and indicate the approximate locations of a couple dozen precarious neighborhoods of various ages and levels of infrastructure and stability. Sources indicate in total there are over 200 of these neighborhoods in Jaipur.

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Building Home || Precarious Neighborhoods

SLUM RELATED SCHEMES IN INDIA 1956

Slum Areas lmprovement & Clearance Programme (SAIC) The act focuses on improvement and clearance of slum areas in certain Union Territories and protection of tenants in such areas from eviction.

1966

Urban Community Development (UCD) Derives its origin from the rural community development programmes. Stress was given in the Third Five Year Plan to the need to increase potentialities of the UCD programme for bringing about social and environmental changes in the urban communities. Sought to supply of safe drinking water for achieving lower mortality and morbidity rates. Focused on eradication of endemic and epidemics such as cholera

1972 1973 1976

Environmental Improvement of Urban Slums (EIUS) Shift in focus from slum clearance to improvement. Launched in 1972, to provide basic amenities like safe drinking water supply, sewerage, storm water drainage, pavements, community baths and latrines, street lighting etc. To slum-dwellers. In 1974, it was transferred to State Governments for implementation.

Urban basic Services Scheme To develop urban slums by providing basic services, guided by the principles of community initiative and participation, convergence, cost effectiveness and continuity

1977

The Sites and Services Schemes (S&S) The provision of plots of land, either on ownership or land lease tenure, along with basic infrastructure needed for habitation

1978

National Slum Redevelopment Programme (NSDP) Covering physical infrastructure like water supply, storm water drains, sewer, community latrines, widening and paving of existing lanes, street lights etc. and social infrastructure pre-school education, non-formal education, adult education, maternity, child health and primary health care including immunization etc.

2005

Basic Services for Urban Poor Programme (BSUP), under JNNURM Aimed at tackling issues of adequate housing, basic services and civic amenities through an integrated slum upgrading approach.

2009

Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) for the Urban Poor Envisages a ‘Slum-free India’ through encouraging States/Union Territories to tackle the problem of slums in a definitive manner.

2015

Pradban Mantriawas Yojna/ Housing for All An initiative by the Government of India in which affordable housing will be provided to the urban poor with a target of building 20 million affordable houses by 31 March 2022.

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

RECENT EVENTS 2017

2018

2019

2020

Building Home || Precarious Neighborhoods

JDA ZONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANS’ LAND USE DESIGNATION OF PRECARIOUS NEIGHBORHOODS Analysis of five precarious neighborhoods in different sections of Jaipur reveal the vast majority of these areas are zoned as residential, without distinguishment from other residential areas of the city. While this indicates official acknowledgment of their status as neighborhoods, it also makes tracking their needs and changes over time challenging.

ZONE 5

ZONE 11B

JP COLONY 1 SLUM Zone 5, Vidyadhar Nagar Residential Land Use

ZONE 4

BHOJPURA SLUM Zone 1, west of Sahakar Marg and north of Kartarpura Ganda Nala Residential Land Use, minimal encroachment into Government & Semi Government and Commercial 9

ZONE 3

ZONE 10 BU ILDIN G H O ME: Precarious N eighborhoods

KATHPUTHLI SLUM

ZONE 13

Zone 1, west of High Court Circle Residential Land Use, minimal encroachment into Government & Semi Government

ZONE 6

ZONE 7

JOBNER BAGH Zone 1, sector 4, east of 248 Residential Land Use, minimal encroachment into Government & Semi Government

ZONE 1

KACCHI BASTI, JAGATPURA Zone 2 Residential Land Use

ZONE 2

JP COLONY 1 SLUM JP Colony 1 has one slum which was inhabited in the year 1981 after floods of Jaipur. In 2013, approximately 450 families resided in the slum, majority of who are from Muslim community and few families of Maratha and Rajputs.

BHOJPURA SLUM Bhojpura slum is located in Bais Godam which is in the heart of the Jaipur. Formed before the flood of 1980, it is regularized and has constructed road and drains. In 2013, 320 families resided within where only 10 percent of them did not have land rights.

KATHPUTHLI SLUM Approximately 4,000 inhabitants reside in 28,000 sq. m. plot of land. It is mainly inhabited by sweepers, rag-pickers, artisans and general labourers, who have migrated from rural areas to a more urban setting. Migrations occur in search of better jobs, higher pay, modern housing and an upgrading of their lifestyle from rural workers to middle-class landowners. It is legally considered to be a colony, rather than a slum.

JOBNER BAGH Developed within forest-land, at the base of a mountainous region, it was determined in 2012 that there were around 6,5000 inhabitants of which 7.5% were in age group of 69 and above. As it is situated in a low-lying area, it has been impacted by flooding where rescue missions have been conducted for the safety of its dwellers. Plans are in place to relocate the community, but as of 2020 they were yet to take place.

KACCHI BASTI, JAGATPURA Jagatpura Kacchi Basti has a population of 1,650 people. It is located west of the Amanishah Nala and is comprised of pakka housing typologies made of brick and mortar construction. While dwellings have connections to water lines, the supply is inadequate so consumption is widely through tanker service.

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

2000

2010

2020

2000

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2020

2000

2010

2020

2000

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2020

2003

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Building Home || Precarious Neighborhoods

Diagnosis + Focus

Outlined in the vision of the Master Development Plan 2025 is to address problems “dealing with issues of slums.” As an ever increasing urban condition that poses significant climatic threats to its inhabitants, it is crucial for adaptive and mitigative measures to be implemented. In-situ stabilization of precarious neighborhoods should be prioritized. This can begin with granting residents tenure rights to the land they live on in order to incentivize further investment in their homes. It should also include legal connections to city sewage, water, and electric systems. Stabilization could also be an opportunity to consider the implementations of new building standards emphasizing affordable options for energy efficient housing.

In-situ Improvements In-situ improvements pose logistical and financial issues, primarily, how can home and neighborhoods be improved without causing temporary displacement and homelessness? How can the city hire and manage the extensive labor force that would be necessary to manage this more tactical approach? In response, we propose a pre-fabricated kit of parts that could be distributed to residents of precarious neighborhoods in accordance with their housing needs. In order to construct this kit of parts we will evaluate existing housing typologies in the area and local resources available for affordable pre-fabrication. Potential design issues to address include: Structural stability and growth potential Ability to connect to future public water and sewage systems Rainwater collection, storage and flood management Passive temperature and light control 202

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Adequate housing/ infrastructure

Tenure rights

In-situ interventions/ accessibility to public transportation systems

FLEXIBLE AFFORDABLE HOUSING DESIGN PRECEDENTS Flexible resident-driven housing design Alejandro Aravena

Nest Toolkit Brooks + Scarpa

Buildable typology allows for residents to continue adding onto their homes as additional resources and time allows.

Housing Toolkit made of pre-fabricated modular pieces allows for affordable and fast site specific housing designs.

Building Home || Precarious Neighborhoods

CONNECTED: TRANSPORTATION

The regional scheme of decentralized growth advanced in the Jaipur Master Development Plan places great emphasis on the transportation system. The Plan encourages peri-urban development through satellite towns and urban growth centers, relying on efficient connections with the main city. The recent Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Jaipur acknowledges that the city has undertaken several transport improvements like Metro rail, BRTS, bypasses, and junction improvements, but their integration and capillarity remains a challenge. A well-integrated multi-modal transport system would ensure last mile connectivity and could guide more compact development patterns and less reliance on private transportation. Moreover, greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector account for a large percentage of the total emissions in the city. As an effort to reduce these, the Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Jaipur promotes public transit and non-motorized transportation as the primary modes. This research component focuses on analyzing the accessibility and connectivity of the current transportation system at various scales, and the relationships with land use and urban form.

Jaipur District

The Jaipur Master Development Plan 2025 identifies 11 Satellite Towns and4 Growth Centers as key for future development in the district. With State-level Policies emphasizing the implications of greenhouse gas emissions on climate change, public transportation infrastructure is a key mitigation strategy to curve emissions. While the City of Jaipur has the Metro Rail, with one line operative and another under construction, the BRTS proved unsuccessful. Connecting with the larger region relies on a few transit lines between Jaipur and the identified Satellite Towns and Growth Centers. Furthermore, these Satellite Cities are only connected by the bus routes, and not by other forms of public transit. This limits the opportunities to travel between cities. Increasing tourism in the region is also indicated in the MDP. The addition of faster and reliable routes between these areas would make it easier for tourists to travel in the region. At the city scale, different public modalities include Metro railway, BRTS and Jaipur city buses. BRTS was implemented in 2006, but the project never reached completion. Out of the 26 km sanctioned on the north-south corridor, JDA constructed only 7 km, similarly only 8 km has been constructed in the east-west corridor of the 13 km sanctioned initially. The state government is now planning to make the city roads free of the BRTS corridor to ease traffic congestion. The Pink Line, Phase 1 of the Metro Rail project, is completed and Orange Line, Phase 2, is under construction.

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Connected || Transportation

G o l d e n Tr i a n g l e

In line with Jaipur’s vision to become a tourist destination and an economic hub, the macroregional analysis of the transportation system contemplates the connection with other two major national tourist destinations: New Delhi and Agra. At the Jaipur District level, the focus is the connectivity between the satellite towns and growth centers with the urban core and other areas of employment, education and health. In general, the lower densities of new development challenge the feasibility of a more efficient public transit system.

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Connected || Transportation

Diagnosis + Focus

Jaipur does not currently have robust cycling or pedestrian infrastructure as main ways in which people might travel throughout the city. Mitigation strategies for greenhouse gas emissions include the development of cycling infrastructure and pedestrian-friendly routes. Development of cycling and pedestrian transportation infrastructure along the Nala could create these opportunities for both residents and tourists, and encourage the development of similar projects elsewhere in the region.

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Connected || Transportation

Pink Line Metro Rail

Jaipu Ju

19,100

121,000

The Pink Line of the Jaipur Metro, consisting of 11 metro stations, is mostly elevated and partially underground. 400m and 800m buffers around the Metro stations and their relevance with other infrastructure services are studied to envision transit-oriented development and redensification around the transit notes.

Expected ridership per day

Ram N Metro S

Average ridership per day

Shyam N Metro S Amani Shah Nalla

Vivek V Metro St

New Aatish Metro St

Kartarpura Ganda Nalla Mansarovar Metro Station

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

ur Railway unction

Nagar tation

Nagar Station

Vihar tation

h Market tation

Sindhi Camp Metro Station

Chandpole Metro Station

Chhoti Chaupar Metro Station

Badi Chaupar Metro Station

Jaipur Metro Station

The Pink Line, though designed to be a major transit corridor, is facing major drops in ridership. Its route does not respond to the major traffic flow through the city, as mentioned in the Comprehensive Mobility Plan. The Line originally connects Mansarovar and Chandpole, with one station in the proximity of the main railway station. Implemented in 2015 and further extended in 2020 to reach the Historic Area, the stations offer an opportunity to consider Transit Oriented Development strategies. The systematic study of 400m and 800m buffers around the Metro Rail stations and the concept of ‘15-minute City’, envision the possibility of redensification around the stations and integration of land use with multi-modal transit stations.

Pink Line

Pink Line (elevated) Pink Line (underground) Metro Stations 400 m radius buffer 800 m radius buffer

River Railway Station Bus Stop Bus Route Parking spaces

Connected || Transportation

Metro Rail Stations 2020

(Metro Rail expanded) (Metro rail service started)

New Aatish Market

Vivek Vihar

2010

2015

Mansarovar

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Shyam Nagar

Ram Nagar

Connected || Transportation

Civil Lines

2010

2020 (Metro Rail expanded)

2015 (Metro rail service started)

Jaipur

216

Sindhi Camp

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Chand

Metro Rail Stations

dpole

Chhoti Chaupar

Connected || Transportation

Badi Chaupar

Modality Share in the City

Jaipur introduced an elevated Metro railway and Bus Rapid Transit to create an interconnected network of multimodal transportation within the city boundary. However, neither project received the projected ridership and the Bus rapid Transit is discontinued. The Pink Metro Line started its operation in 2015 and has seen decreasing ridership since then. Moreover, the plans for the Orange Metro Line have been delayed so far. The assessment of transportation modes used by the people of the city reveals similar figures of the Metro being used by 0.42% of the population. The line does not respond to the preferred routes by travelers. Also, park and ride facilities are missing at the Metro stations. Interestingly, nearly 40% of the population prefer non-motorized transportation - walking and cycling, and public transportation, which gives an opportunity to improve these infrastructure facilities to attract more people. Mass Transit facility should be aligned with the North-South, West and South-South West directions connecting the City Core as identified in the Comprehensive Mobility Plan of Jaipur. Also, the Pink Line is suggested to be expanded and connected to the periphery.

Auto Rickshaw, Metro, 0.42% 8.61%

Walk, 16.06%

Cycle, 6.01% Two Wheeler, 31.70% Bus and Minibus, 18.49% Car and Taxi, 18.71% 218

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Elevated Metro Line, Jaipur

Bus rapid Transit, Jaipur Connected || Transportation

Diagnosis + Focus Area(s)

The streets of Jaipur hold the potential to promote the use of nonmotorized and public transportation, which can help ease the city traffic congestion and also cut the green-house gas emissions. Public transit needs to be accessible by all. Park and ride facilities should be provided at the transit nodes. Also, bike share and car share facilities should be integrated in the street design. 40% of the city population relies on walking, cycling, or using public transport to move around the city. The current streets accommodate all but do not segregate and prioritize different kinds of traffic. The neighborhoods around the existing transit nodes need to be redensified and new transit nodes need to be proposed around the dense areas so that the ridership is not compromised. The neighborhoods can be designed as 15-minute cities where all the basic needs are available in proximity, ultimately leading to lesser trips.

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Connected || Transportation

GROWING OUT: PERIURBAN DEVELOPMENT

The Master Development Plan of Jaipur 2025 set a strategy for regional redistribution of urban growth in the district. However, mapping the changes in these nodes since the early 2000s reveals little growth. Instead, growth has occurred in a disperse, scattered way, following a piecemeal approach, and occupying large extensions in the U1 Area and the south west. Opening up for development most of the U1 Area has had a negative impact managing the kind of dense and compact growth that should be guiding development in the district. The inventory of land uses in each Satellite Town and Growth Area varies widely. While some are primarily residential, others are heavily agricultural. Most of them have more than 10 percent vacancy with eight of the fifteen having over 20 percent of land area still vacant. If these areas are to grow, some of this vacant land should be reserved for open space and land preservation. A green belt around the satellite cities could serve as a growth boundary and incentivize higher densities. Similarly, higher densities and mix use developments will create complete neighborhoods, reducing the dependency from the city center for basic urban functions. As far as infrastructure, the majority of the satellite cities have access to electricity and water. However, sewer and drainage coverage and trash disposal is limited to non-existent. The impacts of a changing climate will be larger in areas without proper infrastructural provisions, making them more vulnerable to uncertainty. Open sewage and trash can contaminate the water table that most residents rely on for fresh, clean water. In areas with new development, there has been a trend of illegal housing cooperatives trying to persuade buyers to purchase homes. Recently in Jaipur ten so-called cooperatives were cancelled because of lacking and irregular paperwork. Similarly, new educational campuses and hospitals are built on public land to provide services to poor residents through a quota system but unfortunately, residents feel these agreements are not being met.

Model of Regional Growth for the Jaipur District

Eleven Satellite Towns and four Urban Growth Areas were to attract development in an attempt to reduce the pressure on the U1 Area. 100,000 residents or more

224

10,000 to 100,000 residents

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Satellite Cities and Urban Growth Areas

1,000 to 10,000 residents

area of unplanned growth

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

Achrol Achrol is located along National Highway 11 about 41 km North of Jaipur. As of the 2001 census, the town had a population of 12,796 residents. The MDP predicted that by 2011 the population would reach 17,658 residents and reach 24,369 by 2021, nearly doubling the population of 2001. As of the 2011 census, Ahcrol’s population had reached 15,044.

Bagru

Bagwara

Bassi - Satellite

to grow to 5,531 residents in 2011 and 7,301 in 2021. Accroding to census data, the population in Bagwara reduced to 2,012 residents in 2011. Some

Land Use% Residential - 40.33 Commercial - 1.77 Mixed use- Satellite - 3.49 Bagru Public and semi public - 4.56 Land Use% Industrial - 10.21 Residential - 7.33 Recreational - 0 Commercial - .71 Achrol - Satellite Circulation - 7.52 Mixed use - 1.31 Agricultural - 17.34 Public and semi public - .64 Land Use% Vacant area - 14.50 Industrial- 53.32 - 26.59 Residential Rectrational - .01 Commercial - 7.36 Circulation - 7.09 Mixed Use - 3.77 Agricultural 5.35 - 7.09 Public and semi- public Vacant -area Industrial 1.56- 48.22 Recreational- .24 Circulation - 9.97 Agricultural - 13.08 Vacant Area - 4.26

Bhanpur Kalan - Satellite

Land Use% Residential - 40.33 Commercial - 1.77 use - 3.49 HighBagwara is located nearMixed National Public and semi public - 4.56 way 48 about 27 km north of- 10.21 Jaipur. In Industrial Recreational 0 4,190 2001 the town had a population - of Circulation - 7.52 Agricultural - 17.34 residents with the MDP predicting it Vacant area - 14.50

Adequate

Land Use% Residential - 53.32 Commercial - 7.36 Mixed Use - 3.77 Public and semi public - 7.09 Industrial - 1.56 Recreational- .24 Circulation - 9.97 Agricultural - 13.08 Vacant Area - 4.26

Bassi - Satellite

Achrol Bagru is located about 23 km- Satellite Southwest Land Use% of Jaipur near National Highway 48. Residential - 53.32 Census data shows thatCommercial the town - 7.36had a Mixed Use - 3.77 population of 26,534 residents. The MDP Public and semi public - 7.09 predicted it to grow to Industrial 36,061- 1.56 residents Recreational- .24 in 2011 and 47826 in 2021. As of- 9.97 the 2011 Circulation Agricultural - 13.08 census, the town had grown 31,229 Vacant Areato - 4.26 residents.

Service

Achrol - Satellite

Land Use% Residential - 76.23 Bassi - Satellite Commercial -0 Mixed use - .93 Land Use% Public and -semi public - 3.84 Residential 40.33 Industrial - 0- 1.77 Commercial Recreation -0 Mixed use - 3.49 Circulation - 4.65 Public and semi public - 4.56 Agricultural - .38 Industrial - 10.21 Vacant area -- 13.97 Recreational 0 Circulation - 7.52 Agricultural - 17.34 Vacant area - 14.50

None

Water Sewer Electricity

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

2001 Boundary

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

2021 Boundary

Industrial - 1.56 Recreational- .24 Circulation - 9.97 Agricultural - 13.08 Vacant Area - 4.26

Bassi Bassi is loacated along State Highway 24 near its intersection with National Highway 21 about 30 km East of Jaipur. Achrol - Satellite In 2001, the town had a population of Land Use% Residential 19,888. The MDP predicted its- 53.32 populaCommercial - 7.36 tion would grow to 26,252 and Mixedby Use -2011 3.77 Public and semi public - 7.09 35,924 by 2021. Census data shows that Industrial - 1.56 .24 in 2011, the populationRecreationalhad grown to Circulation - 9.97 26,029. Agricultural - 13.08 Vacant Area - 4.26

Bassi - Satellite Land Use% Residential - 40.33 Commercial - 1.77 Bagru Mixed use--Satellite 3.49 Public and semi public - 4.56 Land Use% Industrial - 10.21 Residential - 7.33 Recreational - 0 - .71 Commercial Circulation - 7.52 Mixed use - 1.31 Agricultural - 17.34 Public and semi public - .64 Vacant area - 14.50 Industrial - 26.59 Rectrational - .01 Circulation - 7.09 Agricultural - 5.35 Vacant area - 48.22

Bhapur Kalan Bassi - Satellite Bhanpur Kalan is located just East of Land Use% National Highway 248 about 30 km North Residential - 40.33 Commercial - 1.77 of Jaipur. The town had a population of Mixed use - 3.49 and semi - 4.56 4,370 residents in 2001Public with thepublic MDP Industrial - 10.21 predicting growth to 5,244 in 2011 and Recreational -0 Circulation - 7.52 6,555 in 2021. AccrodingAgricultural to census data, - 17.34 Vacant area - 14.50 the town grew to 4,965 residents in 2011.

Bhanpur Kalan - Satellite Land Use% Residential - 76.23 Commercial - 0 Mixed use - .93 Public and semi public - 3.84 Industrial - 0 Recreation - 0 Circulation - 4.65 Agricultural - .38 Vacant area - 13.97

Chomu Chomu is located just West of National Highway 52 about 32 km North of Jaipur. As of 2001, the town has a population of 72,794 residents. The MDP predicted that would grow to 93,941 in 2011 and 119,166 residents in 2021. Census data shows that as of 2011, the population of the town decreased to 64,617 residents. Service

Adequate

Some

None

Water Sewer Electricity

228

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

2001

2021

2001 Boundary

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

2021 Boundary

Jahota Jahota is located West of National Highway 52 about 30 km North of Jaipur. In 2001 the town had a population of 4,996. The MDP predicted growth to 6,745 residents in 2011 and 9,105 in 2021. Census data shows that in 2011 the town’s population grew to 5,971 residents.

Jamwa Ramgarh Jamwa Ramgarh is locted along State Highway 55 about 27 km Northeast of Jaipur. In 2001 the town had a population of 6,638 residents. The MDP predicted that to grow to 8,321 in 2011 and 10,207 in 2021. According to census data, the town’s population was 7,665 residents.

Kalwar Kalwar is located near State Highway 2C about 17 km West of Jaipur. The town had a population of 6,478 residents in 2001 with the MDP predicting it grow to 9,525 in 2011 and 13,998 residents in 2021. Census data shows that in 2011, the population grew to 8,393 residents.

Service

Adequate

Some

None

Water Sewer Electricity

230

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

2001

2021

2001 Boundary

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

2021 Boundary

Kanota Kanota is located just South of National Highway 21 about 20 km East of Jaipur. The town had a population of 8,838 residents in 2001. The MDP predicted the population to grow to 9,793 residents in 2011 and 11,158 in 2021. Census data shows that as of 2011 the population in the town grew to 11,250 residents.

Kukas Kukas is located along National Highway 248 about 20 km Northeast of Jaipur. In 2001 the town had a population of 2,947 residents with the MDP predicting that grow to 4,244 in 2011 and 6,111 in 2021 nearly tripling their population. Census data shows that as of 2011 the population in the town reduced to 2,575 residents.

Watika Watika is located South of Ring Road about 37 km directly South of Jaipur. In 2001 the town had a population of 8,292 residents. MDP projected growth to reach 9,237 residents in 2011 and 10,343 in 2021. According to census data, in 2011 the town’s population had reached 10,590 residents. Service

Adequate

Some

None

Water Sewer Electricity

232

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

2001

2021

2001 Boundary

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

2021 Boundary

Chonp Chonp is located just West of National Highway 48 about 31 km North of Jaipur. In 2001 the population of the town was 4,909. The MDP predicted that to grow to 6,799 in 2011 and 9,417 residents in 2021. Census data shows that the population in the town reached 6,005 residents in 2011.

Pachar Pachar is located near State Highway 2C about 31 km West of Jaipur. The town had a population of 4,444 residents in 2001 with the MDP predicitng that grow to 5,777 residentss in 2011 and 7,510 in 2021. According to the 2011 census, the population in that year reached 5,683.

Shivdaspura Shivdaspura and Chandlai are located near National Highway 52 about 28 km South of Jaipur. In 2001 the population was 8,837 residents. The MDP predicted that to grow to 9,751 in 2011 and 11,028 residents in 2021. Census data shows that in 2011 the population reached 10,969. Service

Adequate

Some

None

Water Sewer Electricity

234

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

2001

2021

2001 Boundary

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

2021 Boundary

2001

Interstitial Growth IG-1 This development is located just east of Jahota at the intersection of Jaipur-Sikar Road-National Highway 11 and Rampura-Raithal Rd round the Rampura Dabri Bus Stop. Located about half way between this area and Jahota is the Bhaton Ki Gali Railway Station.

2000 ft

IG-2 This area of development stretches along Kalwar Road-SH 2C between Jaipur and Kalwar, and appears to be a part of a trend of outwards urban growth from the city of Jaipur. Along this stretch of development are numerous parks and three colleges.

2 mi

IG-3 This area of development is spread over the areas between Bagru, Dhankya, and Bhakrota along National Highway 8. Included in this area are two universities, two medical colleges including the Rajasthan Dental College and Hospital, a nursing school, and four retreat-style hotels.

236

3 mi

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

2011

2021

2000 ft

2 mi

3 mi

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

2001

Interstitial Growth IG-4 This area of new development stretches along Diggi Malpura Road between Jaipur and Renwal and centers at its intersection with Ring Road Jaipur. This area begins to blend with the urban area of Jaipur as it nears the city, and appears to be a line of outward growth from the area. Included along the main stretch of this development is the Balawala Bus Stop and the Balaji Hospital.

1 mi

IG-5 This development spreads across the areas between Shivdaspura, Beelwa Kalan, and Barh Ramzanipura, and centers around the intersection of National Highway 12 and Ring Road Jaipur. This area includes developments such as a few high-rise apartments by Gurupragya Infra Pvt. Ltd, and agricultural land.

1 mi

IG-6 This area of development is located just north of Dayarampura and Kalpana Nagar, adjacent to a small mountain desert area. This development includes, and is near to, many Hindu Temples and agricultural land. It is not located on any major road, however it is roughly 2 miles northeast of the intersection of National Highway 11 and Kanota Nayla Rd.

238

1 mi

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

2011

2021

1 mi

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

Diagnosis + Focus

As one of the regions anticipating the hardest impacts from a changing climate, the Jaipur Development Authority’s work in the MDP revision presents a unique opportunity to reconsider key parameters to grow more resilient. This can be achieved through increased density and capacity to ensure the feasibility of basic utilities, integration of nature-based solutions and urban reforestation, and the balance of productive and affordable residential uses, to name a few. As the maps show, new development is not occurring in the Master Development Plan selected satellite towns and urban growth areas, but instead, is happening sporadically across the territory and extending out from the U1 Area. Instead of recommending growth for targeted areas lacking basic utilities, we recommend that development is supported strategically throughout the district, requiring certain thresholds of density to ensure the feasibility of public transit and necessary public services and amenities in proximity to residential areas. In addition when new developments occur, they must have appropriate infrastructure such as electricity, drainage, water and sewer. Furthermore, should the satellite cities grow, each should have a growth boundary surrounded by a green belt to promote minimum density. Some of the current vacant land should also be reserved for green space within the satellite cities. Finally, development should be mixed to create complete neighborhoods and not monofuctional.

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Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Regional Recommendations Regional Recommendations Require Infrastructure with New DevelopmentAreas that are newly developed must have more than roads.

Encourage Vertical GrowthEach satellite city should have a growth boundary with a green belt surrounding it.

Mixed-Use RatiosRequire a certain amount of retail and businesses for each new residential development.

Protect Areas from DevelopmentWith every new development there must be some area conserved for open space.

Minimum DensitySatellite cities and growth centers should have a required minimum density.

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

Satellite Cities

Chomu is one of the fifteen satellite cities and growth centers from the Master Development Plan of Jaipur. Located about 33 kilometers north of the Japiur Municipal Corporation and just west of national highway 52, it is the largest satellite city by population. At the 2011 census the population was around 64,000 people. Chomu is known for its agricultural produce like the bumper groundnut crop and its economy is supported by selling produce at markets in Jaipur. It is also a popular place for tourists and film makers to stay because of its proximity to the nearby village of Samode which is famous for the Samode palace. Additionally, Chomu boasts its own historic heritage hotel which was also a former palace. The municipality is an eclectic mix of both new and old construction. It has several schools and medical centers and both water and electricity.

242

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

Urban Density and Green Space Planning for the growth of urban density is an issue of rising importance as the population in the JDA region, especially within the city center, continues to rapidly grow. Adopting methods of compact-mid rise density design with integrated green spaces will help improve the urban climate within the city center, help reduce CO2 levels by increased levels of vegetation, and aid in shielding increased levels of solar radiation. As population growth continues to increase in unplanned areas throughout the region and expand outward from the city center, the main focus area for planning for urban density should be the city center of Jaipur.

Mid-level rise density with integrated green space. Melbourne, Australia

244

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

2001

2011

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

2021

Urban Sprawl and the Environment With unplanned growth being one of the key factors for peri-urban area, further focus was placed on the negative environmental effects produced as a result of unplanned growth. The primary topics that came up related to this area were urban sprawl and the increase in the heat island effect, lack of infrastructure resulting in water and land pollution, decreases in greenspace leading to lack of biodiversity, and increases in carbon emissions as a result of further commute times and the popularity of motorized vehicles. These four areas can be associated with many, if not most, of the outskirts of Jaipur and peri-urban areas, for both planned and unplanned locations. With this information in mind, plans will be made to further analyze the specific areas experiencing these effects and work to produce development strategies that may aid in the mitigation of the negative effects produced.

2001

246

2021

Accelerating Climate Action: Mapping Jaipur

An analysis on urban sprawl for an existing satellite city, Jamwa Ramgarh, was made. It can be noted that development did not grow to the north-east of the town, as there is a mountain blocking the way (represented in green). However, it appears that development has been encroaching toward and along the main road (represented in yellow). This demonstrates the power that greenspaces may have by containing development, as well as adding greenspaces to the built city. It also shows that growth is centered around roadways, as satellite cities become more linked to each other and Jaipur. This information may further aid in planning future development.

Growing-out || Peri-urban development

Screenshots from weekly working meetings with the client-partners and final semester conversations.

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Accelerating Climate Action: Urban Futures for Jaipur

Acknowledgments

First and foremost, thank you to our client-partner, United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat). In a most challenging semester with covid severely impacting all aspects of life, they have afforded us a unique educational experience and we are very grateful for their dedication and generosity. We would like to offer special thanks to: Gianluca Crispi | Lead Legal Specialist, UN-Habitat’s Policy, Legislation, and Governance, Innovation Section Stephen Bland | Climate Change and Innovation Specialist Anne Amin | Program Management Officer, UN-Habitat’s Policy, Legislation, and Governance Stephanie Gerretsen | Urban Policy Consultant, Policy Legislation and Governance Section Global Solutions Division Anna Kvashuk | Urban Law Intern, UN-Habitat’s Policy, Legislation, and Governance Parul Agarwala | UN-Habitat India, Programme Manager Mansi Sachdev | UN-Habitat India, Senior Urban Planner Shruti Rajagopalan | City Coordinator | Strategic Planner | UN Habitat Sustainable Cities: Integrated Approach Pilot Project, Jaipur Mr. R.K. Vijayvargiya | Chief Town Planner, Government of Rajasthan Academic guests: María González Aranguren | Assistant Professor University of Virginia School of Architecture and partner, Aranguren & Gallegos Architects Dhara and Nishant Mittal | Lecturers at CEPT and partners, studio 23N72E, Ahmedabad, India. Emilio Ontiveros de la Fuente| Lecturer Universidad Alcalá de Henares and Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid, Spain. McLain Clutter | Associate Professor and Chair of Architecture and partner, EXTENTS Robert E. Grese, FASLA, FCELA | Professor Emeritus of Environment and Sustainability Julia McMorrough | Associate Professor of Practice in Architecture and co-founder studioAPT José Sánchez | Associate Professor of Architecture and Director, Plethora Project Claudia Wigger | Lecturer in Architecture and co-founder, ICE-ideas for contemporary environments Acknowledgments

Students’ Biographies

Keyana Aghamirzadeh is a second-year Master of Urban and Regional Planning student. Her interests are in coastal climate resilience, adaptation and sustainable development. She holds a BS in environmental policy from The Ohio State University. Pierre Bagenda is Master of Urban and Regional Planning Candidate. He worked at Colliers International Indonesia for 5 years specializing in Feasibility Study for commercial development. He is also currently pursuing a Graduate Certificate in Real Estate Development. Tom Bagley is a second-year Master of Urban and Regional Planning Candidate. He received his Bachelor of Arts from Loyola University Maryland in 2015. His research interests focus on economic development and urban revitalization in the post-industrial cities of the American Northeast and Midwest. Kevin Bechard holds a BA in Architecture with a Sculpture Minor from Miami University in Ohio, and a Building Science & Net Zero Design Certification from Yestermorrow Design Build School, in Vermont. He is currently pursuing a Master of Landscape Architecture and Master of Architecture. His interest revolve around ecologically friendly building practices mixed with an integrated design. Autumn Bender is a graduate from the University at Buffalo’s Bachelor of Science in Architecture program. She is currently pursuing a Master of Architecture. Her interests lie in low-impact environmental design that is equitably accessible to all communities. Shandra Bernath-Plaisted received a BA in Social Movements from Swarthmore College. She spent a decade working as a labor and community organizer and is currently pursuing a Mas-

250

ter of Architecture. Her interests center on the potential of architecture as a tool for community advocacy and social analysis. Isabelle Borie is a graduate from Arizona State University. She holds a B.S. in Architecture and Minor in Construction Management. Currently she is pursuing a Master of Architecture with a focus in Real Estate Development. Her interests include incorporating sustainable construction at both small and large scales. Kassem Chammout holds a Bachelor of Science in Architecture from the University of Michigan. He is currently he is pursuing a Master of Architecture. He is interested in the role of architecture shaping experiences and spaces with a human perspective in mind. Sarah Jammal holds a degree in Sociology with a Public Policy and Studio Art minors from Case Western Reserve University. She is a dual Master of Urban and Regional Planning and a Master of Urban Design student. She is committed to create a more sustainable, safe and equitable world through the design of a considerate and just built environment. Clare Kucera is a third-year dual-degree student pursuing a Master of Urban and Regional Planning and a Master of Science in Ecosystem Science and Management. Her research and work interests include climate adaptation strategies, GIS spatial analyses, and urban ecosystem restoration. Aracely Landero earned a Bachelor of Design in Architecture with a Minor in Urban and Regional Planning from the University of Florida. She is now fulfilling a Master of Architecture. Her work is motivated by architectural agency, its ability to resolve challenges faced by society and the natural environment.

Accelerating Climate Action: Urban Futures for Jaipur

Michelle Lincoln is a second-year dual degree student for a Master of Urban and Regional Planning and Master of Science of Environmental Science at the School for Environment and Sustainability. Her primary research focuses are environmental justice and social and racial equity in the built environment and urban planning. She graduates in December 2021. Talia Moretti holds an Honors Bachelor of Arts & Science with a minor in Business from McMaster University. She is currently pursuing a Master of Architecture. She is passionate about making architecture more sustainable through passive design strategies, adaptive reuse, and circular approaches to design. Neeli Kakal is a second-year Master’s in Urban and Regional Planning with an interest in community engagement and economic development. She holds an undergraduate degree in Architecture from India. Anmol Poptani holds a Bachelor of Architecture degree from India and is currently pursuing Master of Urban Design. Her interests lie at the intersection of local culture and placemaking, creating positive human-environment relationships and livable, sustainable, and inclusive habitats. Anna Thompson is a second-year Master of Urban and Regional Planning student with interests in social justice and sustainable development. She holds undergraduate degrees in Spanish and Peace & Justice Studies from Wellesley College. Huiting Qian holds a Bachelor of Architecture from Southeast University in China and is currently pursuing a Master of Urban Design. Her interests lie in urban data analysis to inform the design of the urban environment improving people’s daily life and promoting an inclusive and liveable urban environment.

Sydney Strawser holds a Bachelor of Science in Architecture from The Ohio State University. She is interested in design methods for affordable and sustainable housing that can accommodate individuals of varying socioeconomic statuses while maintaining a low environmental impact. James VanSteel is a third year graduate student pursuing a dual degree program of a Master of Public Policy and a Master of Urban and Regional Planning with a Certificate in Science, Technology, and Public Policy. He graduated from Michigan State University in 2015 with degrees in Political Theory and English. He plans to pursue a career focused on the intersections of urban policy, environmental sustainability, and social equity. Danielle Weitzman is a graduate from the University of Michigan with a B.S in Architecture and a Minor in Urban Studies. Currently, she is pursing a Masters of Architecture. Her interests include designing with communities, climate justice initiatives, and educational design. Beatrix Yan is a second-year Master of Urban Planning and Regional Planning student. Her interests are in transit equity in increasing accessibility for marginalized communities. She is passionate about community planning and implementation. Jessica Yelk is a third-year dual-degree student pursuing a Master of Urban and Regional Planning, Master of Architecture, and a Certificate of Urban Informatics. Her research interests include affordable and equitable housing, international sustainable development, and the intersection of architecture and policy. She holds a BA in Urban Studies, a BS in Architecture, and a minor in Sustainability Studies from the University of Minnesota.

Students’ Biographies

UN-HABITAT LAW C LIM AT E C H AN GE

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