journal of management

Journal of Management 2002 28(3) 277–305

Recent Developments in International Management Research: A Review of 20 Top Management Journals Steve Werner∗ Department of Management, University of Houston, C.T. Bauer College of Business, 334 Melcher Hall, Room 315, Houston, TX 77204-6021, USA Received 26 April 2001; received in revised form 20 October 2001; accepted 29 October 2001

This review analyzes recent trends in the international management (IM) literature from 1996 to 2000. The 271 articles located in 20 top management (and management related) journals are categorized into 12 distinct topics: (1) the global business environment; (2) internationalization; (3) entry mode decisions; (4) international joint ventures; (5) foreign direct investment (FDI); (6) international exchange; (7) transfer of knowledge; (8) strategic alliances and networks; (9) multinational enterprises; (10) subsidiary-headquarters relations; (11) subsidiary and multinational team management; and (12) expatriate management. Research in each of these areas is presented and linkages between the areas are reviewed. Concluding thoughts are offered relating to the pervasiveness, methodologies, and levels of analysis of IM research, as well as potential areas for future research. © 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

As business becomes more global and international management (IM) issues play a more central role in business practice, the importance and relevance of IM research increases. IM research may be divided into three categories. The first category is comprised of studies that look at the management of firms in a multinational context. Stated differently, this research emphasizes the international aspects of management that do not exist in domestic firms (Ricks, 1991). This includes studies looking at the internationalization process, entry mode decisions, foreign subsidiary management, expatriate management, etc. For a lack of a better term, I call these studies pure IM research. The second category consists of studies that compare the management practices of different cultures (cross-cultural studies) and nations (cross-national studies) (Ricks, Toyne & Martinez, 1990). These studies are known as comparative management studies (Ricks, 1985). The third and final category consists of

∗

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E-mail address: swerner@uh.edu (S. Werner).

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studies that look at management in a specific nation outside of North America. Because most research has a North-American bias, management studies done in other countries are sometimes considered within the domain of IM (Pierce & Garven, 1995). These studies are known as foreign domestic studies (Ricks, 1985).

This review of IM research follows Ricks et al.’s (1990) objective of identifying “the recent literature on the basic issues so that the reader can be brought up to date and guided towards what can be read in order to obtain the depth of understanding desired.” A systematic review of the mass of IM and comparative management research within the length of a journal article is not possible (Schollhammer, 1994). Thus, I have narrowed the scope of this review in three ways. First, this review will focus on pure IM research, and not address comparative management research or foreign domestic studies. Second, this review will focus on relatively recent research, specifically from 1996 to 2000 inclusive. Third, this review will focus on research that was published in top management journals. This research is grouped into 12 categories developed from reading the literature. The review focuses primarily on the research within and across each of these categories, but descriptive information about IM research in the top journals first will be discussed.

IM Research in 20 Top Journals The first step in reviewing the IM research in top journals from 1996 to 2000 was to identify top journals. I used the list established by Gomez-Mejia and Balkin (1992), which is comprehensive in that it includes journals from related organizational sciences. This list was developed using previous published rankings and surveying management department chairpersons. This list has been consistently cited in articles on journal quality (e.g., Johnson & Podsakoff, 1994; Kacmar & Whitfield, 2000; Van Fleet, McWilliams & Siegel, 2000) and includes all academic journals reported in a more recent list (Tahai & Meyer, 1999).

Gomez-Mejia and Balkin’s (1992) list included 21 journals (because the 20th and 21st were tied). Because this review focuses on academic research, I eliminated the Harvard Business Review from the list leaving a total of 20 top journals.

It should be noted that of these 20 journals only one, The Journal of International Business Studies, is an international research journal. Thus, this review is primarily of articles in mainstream management journals, rather than international journals, per se. This is a consequence of focusing on top quality management journals and is consistent with research showing that the quality of the Journal of International Business Studies is substantially greater than any other international journal (Dubois & Reeb, 2000). The list, along with the number of pure international articles published in each journal from 1996 to 2000, is reported in Table 1.

All the articles in these 20 top journals from 1996 to 2000 were examined for IM content.

Articles were considered within the domain of IM if they related to the management of firms with a multi-national perspective. Following Ricks et al. (1990) comparative management (comparisons between countries) and cross-cultural management (comparison between cultures) studies were not included because of the great variety in those studies. Of course, cross-national/cultural studies were included if the comparison was of some aspect of managing abroad (e.g., a comparison of Japanese and US expatriate training methods). Articles

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Table 1 Top 20 management and management related academic journalsa and the number of pure international management articles from 1996 to 2000 Journals

Number of studies

Academy of Management Journal Academy of Management Review Administrative Science Quarterly Decision Sciences Human Relations Industrial and Labor Relations Review Industrial Relations Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences Journal of Applied Psychology Journal of International Business Studies Journal of Management Journal of Management Studies Journal of Occupational Psychology Journal of Organizational Behavior Journal of Vocational Behavior Management Science Organizational Behavior and Human Dec. Processes Personnel Psychology Psychology Bulletin Strategic Management Journal

24 6 2 5 4 6 2 1 3 128 5 19 0 5 0 6 0 2 0 53

a

From Gomez-Mejia and Balkin (1992).

from multi-disciplinary journals such as Journal of International Business Studies were not included if they clearly fell outside of the management domain (e.g., international finance articles, international accounting articles, etc.).

Of the 4884 articles examined (book reviews and editorials were not included), 271 or 5.5% were categorized as within the domain of pure IM. To see if the increasing globalization of business is reflected in academic research, I also looked at the articles in the 20 journals from 20 years earlier, 1976–1980. In the 20 years prior, the number of total articles was relatively similar at 4877, but the number of IM articles was only 90. Thus, the percentage of articles on IM topics in the top 20 journals has gone from 1.8% to 5.5% over the last 20 years. In other words, over 20 years the percentage of management articles covering pure IM has more than tripled. Clearly, IM topics are more prevalent in our top journals today than 20 years ago, although they still play a minor role compared to the relevance of IM to businesses today.

Research Areas of IM The 271 articles from 1996 to 2000 in the 20 top journals were then grouped into 12 naturally occurring categories. These categories were created post hoc, based on my initial reading of the 271 articles. Because no formal content coding method was used, these

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categories should be treated as an organizing tool rather than a definitive classification of the body of research. Table 2 lists the categories, dominant topics included in the category, and the number of articles within each category. Of the 12 areas, foreign direct investment (FDI) had the most articles with 37, while International Exchange had the least with 15.

Figure 1 provides a graphical representation of the 12 categories. Figures 2–6 report the topic, sub-topic, and focus of each of the 271 studies.

Global Business Environment This area of IM includes studies on the global economy, market structure, political and regulatory environments, and international risk (see Figure 2). Studies on the global economy have examined likely future changes in the international business environment, factors influencing CEOs’ perceptions of the environment, and resulting social conflict. Several studies have looked at causes and consequences of global market structures, showing that greater competition appears to force better management practices. Studies have considered the effects of government type and environmental regulations, as well as the effects of trade policies on firms and vice versa. The remaining studies on the global business environment looked at environmental risk (including measurement issues), risk rating agencies, and the management of international and exchange rate risk. Overall, the regulatory environment appears to be the current dominant focus of global environmental research, but interestingly these papers are usually theoretical, suggesting a need for more empirical research in this area.

Internationalization This area of IM includes studies on the descriptions and measurement of internationalization, antecedents of internationalization, and consequences of internationalization (see Figure 2). A few studies have attempted to describe or refine the measure of a firm’s internationalization. Some researchers on the antecedents of internationalization have looked at firm and management team variables, while others have focused on the level and speed of internationalization. Most research looking at the consequences of internationalization relate it to firm performance, suggesting that internationalization interacts with other variables (e.g., product diversity, technological investment, managerial incentive alignment, CEO international experience, time-based experience, cultural distance, timing of entry or withdrawal, psychic distance, and cultural diversity) in predicting performance. Although consequences of internationalization is the most heavily researched sub-topic, studies have focused exclusively on firm performance and top management variables, suggesting that cross-level (employee, industry, and country) and firm consequences other than performance (i.e., growth, survival, etc.) appear to be potential research areas not currently addressed in top management journals.

Entry Mode Decisions This area of IM includes the predictors of entry mode choices, predictors of international equity ownership levels, and consequences of entry mode decisions (see Figure 3).

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Figure 1. Current themes in pure international management research.

Predictors of a firm’s entry mode choice or level of equity ownership include host country factors (such as restrictiveness, cultural distance, market structure, location costs, and expropriation hazards), multinational enterprise (MNE) factors (such as firm specific advantages, strategies, strategic options, experience, structure, financial factors, visual identity, and organizational capabilities), transaction costs, home country factors, and industry. Similar

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Figure 2. Research on the global business environment and internationalization.

to internationalization, most research looking at the consequences of entry mode choices relates it to firm performance (with some looking at longevity). Performance was directly related to entry mode, as well as its fit with strategy, firm capabilities, entry mode order, and ownership, locational, and internalization variables. With most research focusing on

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Figure 3. Research on entry mode decisions and international joint ventures.

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predictors, and the remaining looking at consequences, topics such as the measurement, description, and processes of entry mode appear to be potential research areas not currently addressed in top management journals.

International Joint Ventures This area of IM includes motivations of international joint ventures (IJV) partner selection, IJV partner relations, and consequences of IJVs (see Figure 3). Both national (e.g., geographical proximity, risk conditions) and firm factors (e.g., strategic motivation, size) appear to affect partner selection. Studies looking at IJV partner relations have primarily focused on the stability of the relationship. Much of the IJV research looks at outcomes of IJVs and factors that affect those outcomes. IJV survival (failure and longevity) is the most common outcome investigated, but a number of studies also have looked at economic performance. Survival and economic performance appear to be affected by numerous firm (e.g., experience, size), partner (e.g., business relatedness), venture (e.g., equity, timing), and country (e.g., cultural distance) factors. As with internationalization, consequences are the most researched area, with employee, industry, and firm consequences (other than survival or performance) appearing to be potential research areas not currently addressed in top management journals.

Foreign Direct Investment This area of IM includes timing of FDI, motivations of FDI, location of FDI, and firm and host country consequences of FDI (see Figure 4). Timing of FDI appears to be related to reversibility or delayability of decisions, business strength, market opportunities, firm capabilities, strategic assets, and size. The motivations of FDI include the preservation of export established foreign markets, the gaining of country-specific advantages, and domestic inter-firm rivalry. Motivations are an important factor in cross-national FDI location, as well as firm (specific assets, experience, firm size, and dependence) and country factors (location characteristics, network linkages, political risk, culture, trade policies, education level, union penetration, and workplace regulations). Intra-national location factors include agglomeration economies, coastal locations, labor factors, and trade missions. The research on the consequences of FDI has focused on the host country (spillover effects, imports and exports, industry agglomeration, productivity), the firm (performance, top management turnover, competitive advantage, organizational form and resource deployment), the acquisition (survival, performance, management style, profit variance, and value creation), and moderator variables (country type, experience, effective integration, product diversification, cultural compatibility, and autonomy). Again consequences is the most researched sub-topic, with timing the least researched. Thus, timing of FDI (such as the nature of firm/industry/national FDI life cycles), appears to be a potential research area infrequently addressed in top management journals.

International Exchange This area of IM includes exchange overviews, determinants of exporting, export intermediaries, and consequences of exporting (see Figure 4). The determinants of exporting

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Figure 4. Research on foreign direct investment and international exchange.

behaviors include firm (export marketing orientation, intermediate imports, size, ownership advantages, level of cross-national production, interpersonal links), and home and host location (market size, income level) factors. The use, performance, and service offerings of export intermediaries also have been explored. Several studies have looked at factors

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affecting export performance including keiretsu membership, the fit between export strategy and economic level of host country, gray market activity, firm market share, and relative size of firms. The research in this area has largely focused on exports, suggesting that other exchange mechanisms (e.g., imports, franchising) are potential research areas not frequently addressed in top management journals.

Transfer of Knowledge This area of IM includes antecedents of knowledge transfer, processes of knowledge transfer, and consequences of knowledge transfer (see Figure 5). The antecedents of the various types of knowledge transfer include various firm, partner, and venture factors. Transaction cost models, organizational forms, and the use of experts have been shown to relate to the processes of knowledge transfer. The consequences of knowledge transfer include general, business, and HR performance, information processing, cycle times, efficiency, venture outcomes, firm value, relationship commitment, and customer satisfaction. Again, consequences are the most studied sub-topic. However, a wide range of firm level consequences has been explored. International barriers to knowledge transfer is a potential research area not frequently addressed in top management journals.

Strategic Alliances and Networks This area of IM includes strategic alliance relationships, business networks, and outcomes of strategic alliances (see Figure 5). A number of environmental, firm and alliance factors have been found to affect various aspects (e.g., trust, reciprocity, negotiation tactics, compensation structures, relationship stability) of the strategic alliance relationship. Networks of strategic alliances have been found to relate to value creation, greater profits, price and cost fluctuations, and negotiation outcomes. Strategic alliances have been found to affect firms’ technological position, innovative capabilities, performance through social monitoring mechanisms, information exchange, continuity expectations, and reflexivity.

Interestingly, the area of strategic alliance relationships are the most researched sub-topic, while the area of consequences is the least researched sub-topic. Specifically, the impact of foreign partners on firm performance is a potential research area not frequently addressed in top management journals.

Multinational Enterprises This area of IM includes MNE policies, MNE strategies, and models and descriptions of the MNEs (see Figure 5). MNE policy research generally has explored the relationship between environmental policies and firm performance. Research on MNE strategies, the most researched sub-topic, has looked at strategic processes (e.g., flexibility, change), outcomes (e.g., performance), and factors that moderate the strategy/performance relationship (e.g., national stereotypes). Models and descriptors of MNEs have focused on classifications, flexibility, legitimacy, and structural changes. Unlike most other topics, this area has a substantial percentage of theoretical papers (25%) and case studies (25%).

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Figure 5. Research on transfer of knowledge, strategic alliances and networks, and multinational enterprises.

Subsidiary-Headquarters Relations This area of IM includes subsidiary role, subsidiary control, and subsidiary performance (see Figure 6). Subsidiary roles, mandates, and initiatives have been found to be affected by

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Figure 6. Research on subsidiary-HQ relations, subsidiary and multinational team management, and expatriate management.

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subsidiary (leadership, entrepreneurial culture), MNE (capabilities, specialized resources), and environmental (industry globalization) factors. The degree and type of control MNEs exert on their subsidiaries is related to subsidiary (unit role, interdependence, functional area, level of ownership, and profitability) and MNE (sales, commitment, and nationality) factors.

Subsidiary performance and survival is related to the intensity and diversity of the MNCs host country experience, having few foreign competitors, and the fit between compensation strategy and subsidiary factors. Subsidiary role is the most researched sub-topic, while performance is the least researched sub-topic.

Subsidiary and Multinational Team Management This area of IM includes subsidiary human resource management practices, subsidiary behaviors, multinational negotiations, and multinational team management (see Figure 6).

Most studies of foreign subsidiary human resource management (HRM) practices and other subsidiary behaviors compare them to the practices of domestic firms. Differences between foreign owned firms and domestic firms include the use of high-commitment HR practices, pension and welfare benefits, gender discrimination, work values, high performance workplace practices, management succession, management styles, and product introductions.

Studies of cross-national negotiations have looked at negotiator’s affect, negotiation models, and differences in inter- and intranational negotiations. Studies of managing crossnational teams have looked at patterns of relationships in multinational teams, business relationships, multinational group conflict resolution, team performance and team heterogeneity. Interestingly this is the only area that includes non-case study qualitative research.

Expatriate Management This area of IM includes expatriate HRM, issues for expatriates, and expatriate and repatriate reactions (see Figure 6). Studies looking at the HRM aspects of expatriates have focused on assignment acceptance, identifying expatriate potential, expatriate trainability, and expatriate performance appraisals. Other expatriate issues studied include expatriate’s influence strategies, expatriate mentoring, conflicts involving expatriates, and the over-qualification of expatriates. Most studies looked at various expatriate reactions, which included concerns and expectations of dual-career expatriates, adjustment, psychological withdrawal, pre-departure thoughts, commitment, and perceptions of justice of local workers. While expatriate and repatriate reactions is the most researched sub-topic, unlike other topics, few studies have looked at expatriate performance or other behavioral consequences.

Linkages between IM Areas Although much of the research reviewed fits neatly within one of the areas described earlier, numerous studies explore linkages between areas. A number of the areas can be thought of as inclusive within others (for example, internationalization involves entry modes choices, which are FDI, joint ventures, or exchange) and thus are substantially linked.

Similarly, transfer of knowledge is closely associated with strategic alliances and networks.

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Most non-inclusive areas are linked to others by some research (as represented with solid arrows in Figure 1), but some have received considerably less attention (as represented with dashed arrows). Examining these linkages will help integrate this large body of research and hopefully provide a framework to help future researchers identify potential research areas not currently addressed in top management journals.

Global Business Environment & Internationalization As would be expected, the global business environment appears to be pervasive in its influence across areas. Numerous studies on environmental factors have linked with other topics including internationalization (e.g., Sarkar, Cavusgil & Aulakh, 1999), MNEs (e.g., Denison, Dutton, Kahn & Hart, 1996), and subsidiary management (Yahya-Zadeh, 1998).

Interestingly, two areas with less research related to the global business environment appear to be transfer of knowledge and expatriate management. One would expect environmental variables such as economic factors, government regulations, exchange rate risk, and political risk to affect the use, processes, and effectiveness of knowledge transfer as well as the management and reactions of expatriates. These appear to be potential research areas not currently addressed in top management journals.

Much of the internationalization research and its inclusive topics relate to firm characteristics and how they affect internationalization (e.g., Hitt, Hoskisson & Kim, 1997), entry modes (e.g., Davis, Desai & Francis, 2000), and mode outcomes (e.g., Brouthers, Brouthers & Werner, 1999). A number of the mode studies (particularly IJV studies) are related to strategic alliances and networks (e.g., Pan, 1997), knowledge transfer (e.g., Park & Ungson, 1997), and to a lesser extent subsidiary-HQ relations (e.g., Inkpen & Beamish, 1997). However, little research appears to link internationalization and its inclusive areas with subsidiary or expatriate management. How the level and speed of internationalization, choice of entry modes, levels of ownership, and nature of JV partners relate to subsidiary HRM practices and behaviors, team management, and the management and reactions of expatriates also appear to be potential areas for future research.

Other Linkages A number of studies involving the two related areas of knowledge transfer and strategic alliances also have included MNE characteristics (e.g., Grosse, 1996), and aspects of subsidiary-HQ relations (e.g., Aulakh, Kotabe & Sahay, 1996), but few have focused on subsidiary or expatriate management. How subsidiary and expatriate management can affect knowledge transfer and strategic alliances and vice versa also appear to be potential areas for future research. Expatriate reactions have been linked with both MNE (e.g., Gregersen & Black, 1996) and subsidiary factors (e.g., Bolino & Feldman, 2000), but less so with subsidiary-HQ relations. How expatriates relate to subsidiary control, performance, and roles also appears to be a potential area for future research.

In this brief exploration of the research between topics in Figure 1, I have pointed out a number of linkages that have received little recent attention in the top management journals.

Of course, this does not mean that those that have received considerable attention do not deserve further exploration. There are likely numerous unexplored relationships between

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various sub-topics across linked and inclusive areas that warrant research, but exploring these is beyond the scope of this review. Also, to simplify the analysis of linkages, I have focused exclusively on the relationships between two different topics. Further interesting and fruitful areas of research might involve three or more of these areas and the various interactions between them. For example, how does the global environment interact with MNE factors and entry mode choice to predict consequences of knowledge transfers? I leave it to the future researchers to explore the ways many of the topic areas can interact to affect other topics, processes, and consequences.

Concluding Thoughts While writing this review a number of thoughts about the current state of research in IM came to mind. These thoughts concern the pervasiveness of IM, the methodologies of IM research, levels of analysis of IM research, and additional potential areas for future research.

Pervasiveness of IM As shown earlier, the percentage of articles in the top management journals that can be classified as pure IM research has tripled over the last 20 years. Nonetheless, the percentage of articles over the last 5 years that are pure IM (5.5%) is still small. This is particularly surprising when one considers that every sub-area within the domain of management has the potential to have an international aspect to it. For example, analyzing how multinational corporations differ from domestic firms on any aspect of management is a viable IM topic.

Yet, we find that only about one out of twenty studies focuses on such international aspects.

Clearly, as the business environment becomes more global, we would expect management research to do the same.

Methodologies of IM Research A number of scholars have suggested that because the field of IM (and international business) is relatively young, more qualitative methodologies are necessary because they facilitate grounded theory building (Mendenhall, Beaty & Oddou, 1993; Schollhammer, 1994; Wright, Lane & Beamish, 1988). Several years ago, Mendenhall et al. (1993) found that very little research was qualitative or joint method (qualitative and empirical). In the last 5 years in 20 top journals, 13% of the studies were theoretical, 2.5% used mathematical modeling, 6.3% used case study methodology, and 2.2% used other qualitative methods exclusively. Thus, case studies and other qualitative methodologies are still not frequently used. It is not clear whether this is because of the inherent difficulties of qualitative research (Wright et al., 1988), because of the dominant philosophical position of the superiority of the quantitative method, or because of some other reason.

Levels of Analysis of IM Research Levels of analysis in IM research include countries, states, industry clusters, industries, firms, strategic business units, subsidiaries, teams, and individuals. After reviewing this

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research, it is apparent that most IM research over the last 5 years has been at the macro rather than micro level. Specifically, the firm appears to be the dominant level of analysis, while only a small minority of studies is at the individual level. Further, very few seem to be cross-level or meso studies (see Klein, Tosi & Cannella, 1999). Of the 12 categories, only two (subsidiary and multinational team management and expatriate management) are predominantly researched at the micro level. Numerous micro and cross-level international topics appear to be potential research areas not currently addressed in top management journals.

Additional Areas for Future Research Numerous scholars have in the recent past provided suggestions for areas in IM that are ripe for more extensive research (Caves, 1998; Schollhammer, 1994; Spivey & Thomas, 1990; Wright & Ricks, 1994). In looking at their suggestions, it is clear that many of the recommendations have been followed. For example, several mentioned the need for more research in knowledge transfer, strategic alliances, market structures, and environmental policies, areas that received considerable research attention over the last 5 years. However, some areas have still not received much attention in top management journals, and while acknowledging Caves’ (1998) warning that attempting to point out fruitful areas for future research is a fool’s errand, there are a number of broad themes not addressed earlier that appear to be worthy of more concentrated research efforts for publication in the leading management journals. They include multinational micro level research, societal factors of the global environment, and multinational enterprise strategies.

Multinational micro level research. As previously mentioned, international micro level research seems to be overlooked in the leading management journals. Although some research has looked at multinational teams and multinational negotiation, very little has focused on international issues such as leadership of multinational employees, multinational communication, multinational motivation, multinational conflict resolution, or multinational team-building. As organizations become comprised of more multinational employees and form more multinational partnerships, we need to know more about how to effectively manage multinational employees, teams, and divisions.

Societal factors of the global environment. Although a few studies in this review focused on environmental policies, almost no research considered other aspects of a multinational’s influence on societal issues and vice versa. Although Schollhammer (1994) and Wright and Ricks (1994) called for more of this research, little has been published in the leading management journals. Research looking at topics such as the ethics, societal effects, stakeholder implications, and performance implications of MNC labor policies, MNC discrimination, MNC legal compliance or MNC political actions would be welcome.

MNC strategies. As evident from this review, other than the areas of strategic alliances and entry mode strategies there is very little research on MNC strategies. Past reviews have called for more research on determining optimum MNC strategies, MNC decision making strategies, strategic options, strategy formation, and competitive processes

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(Caves, 1998;Schollhammer, 1994; Spivey & Thomas, 1990 Wright & Ricks, 1994). Based on the lack of current research in the leading management journals in these areas, it appears they are still deserving of a more concentrated research focus.

Conclusion The organizing framework presented here was not meant to be the definitive classification system of IM research. Numerous studies provide linkages between different topics, and some sub-topics could stand on their own. This framework was presented to assist the reader in organizing the considerable number of studies reviewed and to aid readers in identifying potential areas for future research and areas where considerable progress has been made.

Over the last 20 years the top management journal space devoted to IM has substantially increased; however, it is still only a small percentage. Numerous questions remain. Although the field of IM has advanced considerably, it has raised as many questions as it has answered.

The challenge remains to continue answering the emerging questions.

Acknowledgments I would like to thank Lance Brouthers, Robert Konopaske, Keith Brouthers, and Michael Dutch for their helpful comments and assistance on previous drafts of this manuscript. I would also like to thank the editor and two anonymous reviewers for their constructive and insightful comments.

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Journal of International Business Studies, 30: 81–104.

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Steve Werner is an Associate Professor in the Department of Management at the C.T. Bauer College of Business, University of Houston. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Florida. His research interests include international human resource management and international compensation issues.