- They have an extensive depth of experience - They are ready to learn - They are task motivated Adult learning is based on the experiences of daily life. They acquire knowledge through practice. Also, they learn according to the environment in which they are. These differences may be difficulties for the educator, but it also provides opportunities for the educator to adopt the experiences of adult students, because they provide wisdom based on their work or daily experiences to the educational community.
This theory focuses on providing employees with the tools they need to perform better in the workplace. In 1950 and 1960 the traditional pedagogical models of higher education were not well understood in the workplace training environment. For this reason they created new learning models. - They are self-directed
The three metacognitive frameworks are tacit theory, informal theory and formal theory. Tacit theory and informal theory is useful to identify how adult students learn and to create course material that can address the deficiencies that arise from these metacognitive frameworks. These deeply entrenched metacognitive skills can be particularly damaging during the early stages of the transition of adult students to the academic environment.
Awareness The concern for students is the attrition rate is the lack of successful integration of the adult student into the university environment. One of the difficulties of these is the academic environment, because they have not studied before.
When students begin their academic life, it is not easy for them to learn in some way, since they learned from experiences. Instead of continuing to acquire academic knowledge and skills, they have increased the development of practical knowledge in the workplace.
Framing As adult learners are likely to be more task and goal-oriented. Another useful technique for framing a learning strategy is to indicate that these learning tools are not exclusive and can be adapted to meet their individual needs and styles. Using separate learning modules for teaching skills can be particularly useful for adult learners who prefer to monitor measurable progress.
Competition and Repetition Adult learners returning to the academic field will come with established metacognitive strategies. To dislodge these ineffective strategies, it is critical to provide new strategies in such a way that they are in direct competition with the adult learners’ existing strategies. Because adult learners may not be aware they have existing learning strategies, using learning self-assessment protocols.
Developmental educators can use several strategies to help adult learners integrate into their new collegiate environment. Adult learners tend to be more selfdirected and task or goal-oriented than traditional students. In partnership with the competition approach, the educator of adult students will need to incorporate repetition, with variety, so that the adult learners test new strategies to test its usefulness.
Learning styles in adult education has been a controversial issue among scholars and researchers regarding the ways diverse people prefer to learn. Controversy extends from whether learning styles exist to learning styles as fixed or fluid, from reliability and viability of learning style instruments
to
uses
in
educational
practices, from whether learning styles label and stereotype learners to individualized instruction, and from the difficulties in assessing all students to having no positive impact on learning outcomes. (Riener & Willingham, 2010; Hatami, 2013; Dembo & Howard, 2007; Litzinger, Lee, Wise & Felder, 2007). With a rapid increase in diverse student
In the U.S and Canada, learning styles
populations, many educators recognized
generated mandates requiring individual
the need to replace a one-size fits-all
educational plans (IEPs) for special needs
teaching
students based on their learning styles
stakeholders
approach. realized
Educational change
was
necessary for student academic success and this extends to educational resources.
(Dunn, Honigsfeld & Doolan, 2009).
For adult learners, higher education
institutions, adult educators, and learning
provided more accessible learning. Now
outcomes for adult learners.
differentiated instruction is part of every level of education with “learning styles as its corner stone� (Dunn et al., 2009, p. 139). Using the fixed and fluid trait theories as a framework, this paper will demonstrate the existence of learning
In the context of adult education, learning styles have remained a controversial issue among scholars for years (Hawk & Shah, 2007; Hatami, 2012). While most scholars and researchers agree that individuals are different and learn differently, many do
styles, show that they are a more balanced
not believe in learning styles concept (i.e.,
teaching/learning strategy than a one-size
preferences
fits-all approach, and examine the use of
teaching/learning approach to address the
valid
style
needs of diverse learners. Much of the
educational
controversy is based on a lack of evidence
and
instruments
reliable with
learning
adult
in
learning)
that learning styles exist.
as
a
lack reliability and validity. (Dembo & Howard, 2007; Litzinger et al., 2007; Riener & Willingham, 2010; Hatami,
Opponents of learning styles claim that due to lack of evidence and scientific research, learning styles do not exist. While many opponents believe that everyone
is
different
and
learns
differently, some believe people do not differ in learning styles and that the fixed and fluid trait theories of learning styles do not exist and should not be used in
2013). However, one could ask what
educational practices. (Dembo & Howard,
evidence it there that learning styles do not
2007; Riener & Willingham, 2010).
exist? According to Rumsfeld “absence of evidence is not the same as evidence of
As far as these opponents are concerned,
absence” or “the absence of evidence
learning styles fixed and fluid trait theories
about the benefits from knowing one’s
are just another form of labeling or stereotyping students. They see the idea
learning style does not mean that benefits
that learning styles changing over time as
don’t exist” (as cited in Fleming)
unstable, and point out that both trait ideas
Adult Educators Adult Educational Institutions Many scholars like Malcolm Knowles among others argue that “understanding how ... [adults] learn ... is a major requisite for a successful educational programs” (as cited in Pigg et al., 1980, p. 233) and learning styles whether fluid or fixed “provide a potentially useful framework for designing and conducting educational programs” (Pigg et al., 1980, p. 233).
Knowing everyone learns differently and understanding how adults learn is also significant for adult educators. This knowledge and the use of learning styles based on both the fixed and fluid traits have positive impact on teaching approaches. According to Kierkegaard “true instruction begins when instructors understand their students” and their attitudes and approaches to learning (as cited in Felder & Brent, 2005, p. 69).
Significance and Impact of
Learning Styles Adult Learners The significance of learning styles for adult learners is in individuals knowing and maintaining awareness of their particular learning style; when students achieve this there is a tremendous impact on student learning outcomes. Proponents of the fluid trait theory claim learning styles were never intended to label or stereotype learners, but are tools for the learner to know and understand their style of learning which gives them power to achieve effective learning and knowledge acquisition.
Learning Styles
VS
One-Size Fits-All
The traditional one-size fits-all teaching
schooling was based on the one-size fits-all
approach does not work for all learners.
teaching/learning approach, and I struggled
Unfortunately, educational institutions will
academically during those periods. In every
reach only some students if faculty continue to
class all of my teachers just stood, lectured, and
assume that everyone learns the same way, and
lecturing was the only form of teaching used
that a single teaching approach will meet the
from primary to secondary schooling. I really
needs of all learners. (Hawk & Shah, 2007;
liked mathematics and tried really hard to figure
Felder & Brent, 2005).
out the methods on my own but could not grasp the concept all how I tried. The teacher would just stand at the black board and lecture, write equations and although he explained the method, only the bright students understood. In spite of my love for mathematics, eventually I dropped it and replaced it with another subject
In support of the use of learning styles in educational practices, I will present an anecdotal account of my experience with a onesize fits-all approach. Growing up, most of my
for which I had more understanding.
This confirms that the one-size fits-all form of mass instruction only by lecturing does not work for all learners (Hawk & Shah, 2007; Felder & Brent, 2005). Since returning to the academic world as an adult learner, I have done several learning style questionnaires, and been exposed to several learning styles without having my learning style assessed by an instructor; consequently my academic performance has been significantly improved. As a kinaesthetic adult learner, being exposed to multiple learning styles, I excelled in my undergraduate music program and have since continued to excel academically. In criticisms of the learning styles fixed and fluid trait theories, opponents claim it is pointless to tailor or individualize instruction for every student (Felder & Brent, 2005; Montgomery & Groat, 1998). In response to their criticisms, proponents of learning styles claim that “if it is pointless to ... tailor instruction...it is equally misguided to imagine that a single onesize fits-all approach ...can meet the needs of every student� (Felder & Brent, 2005, p. 57). Again, the idea of learning styles is not to assess all students, but to teach using multiple learning styles based on the knowledge that there will be students in the class who use one or more learning styles. I believe however, that the assessment of students is necessary for learners with special needs, and having these outlined in their Individual Educational Plans (IEPs) and accessible learning contracts is a necessary and important step for positive educational outcomes. The use of the one-size fits-all approach is an injustice to adult educational practices as it limits the amount of knowledge and skills the learner can achieve during the learning process.
10-102019
Theoretical basis from learning and teaching styles for adult learners Jennifer Manzano, Carla Uquillas, Jennifer Hango, Jessica Castro, Michael Andaluz
Andragogy
Pedagogy
Methods and strategies $19
Universidad TĂŠcnica de Ambato
I
mplications for learning and ..teaching in medical education
Vygotsky (1997), consider that learning is the process of constructing new knowledge on the foundations of what you already know.
M
alcolm Knowles (1988) considered
children’s
learning.
It
is
that adults learn in different ways
probably more appropriate to
from children. He introduced the term
think in terms of a learning
‘‘andragogy’’ to differentiate adult learning
continuum, which stretches
from pedagogy; this differentiation now
throughout life, with different
seems to be artificial. Many of the principles
emphases,
of andragogy can be applied equally to
strategies at different times.
problems
and
Categories of adult learning theories Instrumental learning theories These focus on individual experience, and include the behaviorist and cognitive learning theories. • Behavioral theories are the basis of many competency based curricula and training programmers. A stimulus in the environment leads to a change in behavior.
• Cognitive learning theories focus learning in the mental and psychological processes of the mind, not on behavior.
• Experiential learning has influenced adult education by making educators responsible for creating, facilitating access to and organizing experiences in order to facilitate learning
Humanistic theories These theories promote individual development and are more learnercentered. The goal is to produce individuals who have the potential for self-actualization, and who are self-directed and internally motivated.
Transformative learning theory Transformative learning theory explores the way in which critical reflection can be used to challenge the learner’s beliefs and assumptions (Mezirow 1978, 1990, 1995).
Social theories of learning The two elements that are crucial to social theories of learning are context and community (Choi & Hannafin 1995; Durning & Artino 2011). These concepts have been developed by Etienne Wenger (Lave & Wenger 1991; Wenger 1998), who emphasises the importance of ‘‘communities of practice’’ in guiding and encouraging the learner. Land and colleagues consider the way that learners enter the community of practice (Land et al. 2008). The way in which a learner’s experience is shaped by their context and community is developed by situativity theory and is discussed by Durning & Artino (2011).
Motivational models Any theoretical model
Any theoretical model that attempts to explain and relates adult learning that attempts to to an educational theory must have two critical elements – motivation and explain and relates theory (Ryan & Deci reflection. One such theory is selfdetermination adultKusurkar learning&toten an Cate 2013). The theory 2000; ten Cate et al. 2011; theory and considers that three recognises the importanceeducational of intrinsic motivation, basic needs must be fulfilled sustain Autonomy, Competence, and a musttohave twoit:critical feeling of belonging – or ‘‘Relatedness’’. elements – motivation
and reflection. One such theory is selfdetermination theory (Ryan & Deci 2000; ten Cate et al. 2011; Kusurkar & ten Reflective models Cate 2013). The theory recognises the The reflection-change models consider that importancefor of educators helping students reflection leads to action and then change. develop autonomous learning. intrinsic Reflective learning (School ¨n 1983, 1987)motivation, These theories promote individual considersdevelopment that has important relevance toand medical and are more learnereducation, and more widelythree in society centered. basic needs must The goal is to produce (Archer 2012). The role ofbe deliberate individuals who have the potential fulfilled to sustain practice (Duvalier et al. 2011), using for self-actualization, and who are it: Autonomy, reflection and feedback as tools to develop self-directed and internally Competence, and a both knowledge and skills is starting to motivated. provide very valuable insights feeling of belonging – or ‘‘Relatedness’’.
Historical aspects of adult learning theories In the late seventeenth century, the pervading view was that all knowledge derives from experience. Although he personally did not use the term, John Locke (Locke 1690) considered that the mind was a tabula rasa or ‘‘blank slate’’ at birth and that all acquired knowledge was derived from experience of the senses. These ideas were reworked and developed until the early twentieth century when Edward Thorndike derived his laws (Thorndike 1911), principally the law of effect – which stated that learning occurred if it had a positive effect on the individual, and the law of exercise – which meant that repetition strengthened the learning.
This was further developed by behaviorists, such as Skinner (1954) who demonstrated that some forms of learning could be demonstrated by a simple stimulus-response paradigm, so that a reward could be used to ensure an appropriate response to a stimulus.
Skinner showed that there were three elements that strengthened learning, namely frequency (the number of times a stimulus was presented), contiguity (the time delay between the response and the reward) and contingency (the continued link between the stimulus and the reward). Chomsky (1975) considers that the type of experiments favored by behaviorists do not explain the acquisition of higher order skills, such as the learning of language. Chomsky argued that our brains are programmed to acquire higher order skills, which we develop and modify by experience. While some were looking at the potential neural mechanisms that underlie the acquisition of learning, others were considering the factors that can make it more effective. Piaget, a cognitive constructivist, considered the different types of knowledge that could be acquired at different stages in a young person’s life (Piaget, 1952). This stream of thought continues to the present day in the work of people like William Perry (1999) who studied the way in which college students change from dualism (ideas are either true or false.
Andragogy and pedagogy: Knowles views and related learning models Towards the end of the twentieth century, there was a body of research that suggested that adults learn differently from children and that ‘‘andragogy’’ was a better term for this process than ‘‘pedagogy’’.
Although the arguments no longer seem quite so clear, the line described by Knowles (Knowles et al. 2005) was that adult learners differ from child learners in six respects.
The key difference between adults and children is said to be that adults are differently motivated to learn. The need to know (Why do I need to know this?) The learners’ selfconcept (I am responsible for my own decisions)
Motivation (I learn because I want to)
Orientation to learning (Learning will help me deal with the situation in which I find myself)
The role of the learners’ experiences (I have experiences which I value, and you should respect)
Readiness to learn (I need to learn because my circumstances are changing)
Learning outcomes and … scaffolding from Bloom’s . … taxonomy to Miller’s pyramid The processes of acquiring new knowledge, relating it to what is already known and developing new understanding is complicated and difficult but educators can help the learners by providing advance organizers (Ausubel 1968). There are two types of advance organizers: models and metaphors, which we will consider later, and scaffolding.
Scaffolding refers to the structural things that teachers do to guide learners through the teaching and learning material.
Bloom’s original work led to several variants. In medical education, the most frequently encountered is Miller’s pyramid
This is important because in training students for the healthcare professions it is essential to remember that the outcome of training is intended to be a graduate who can take their place in the workforce (Action). Knowledge is the foundation of the pyramid – but not the pyramid itself.
Guided discovery learning and students’ learning strategies Two things are immediately apparent from this construction – namely that discussion between individuals will increase the amount of practical knowledge, and that some things remain a mystery until we talk to someone else with a different range of knowledge or understanding.
There will always be ‘‘unknown unknowns’’, but teachers can help students move into those areas through a careful choice of task, resources and, of course, patients.
How adults learn: a multi-theories model
The dissonance phase exists when the learner’s existing knowledge is challenged and found to be incomplete. The challenge can be internal, when a learner is thinking things through, or it can be external, provided by a teacher or patient. There are several things that influence whether the learner will engage with the dissonance phase. These include the nature of the task, the available resources, the motivation of the learner, and the learner’s stage of development and their preferred learning style. It ends with the learner reflecting and determining their personal learning outcomes.
During the refinement phase, the learner seeks out a number of possible explanations or solutions to a problem (elaboration), and through completing tasks, research, reflection and discussion refines the new information into a series of concepts which are, for the learner, new.
The organization phase
is where the learner develops or restructures their ideas to account for the increased information they have acquired. There are at least two elements to this: reflection in action, where the learner tests and retests hypotheses to makes sense of the information and the organisation of the information into schemata which (for the learner, at least) make sense.
The feedback phase
is arguably the most crucial, as it is where the learner articulates their newly acquired knowledge and tests it against what their peers and teachers believe. The feedback will either reinforce their schema, or oblige the learner to reconsider it in the light of new information.
During the consolidation phase
the learner reflects upon the process they have undergone, looking back over the learning cycle and identifying what they have learned from it, both in terms of increasing their knowledge base, but also in terms of the learning process itself (reflection on action).
Institutional implications and applications of adult learning theory in medical education At an institutional level connecting adult learning theory with practice is challenging. Some theories or aspects of a theory will be more relevant and helpful than others in a particular context. In exactly the same way that clinicians are expected to adopt practices on the basis of the best available evidence, educators should make use of the best available evidence to guide their educational decisions. Medical education institutions should rationalize and be explicit about their mission, vision, programmer and curricula development, learning strategies, students’ assessment and programmer evaluation guided by adult education theories and their particular sociocultural context.
Make sure the role-play doesn’t arouse anxiety as learning will decrease. Give the students enough time to practise the roleplay before they perform in front of others.
If students feel uncomfortable with the scenario of the role-play, allow them to withdraw. These students can take on an observers’ role
Start the role-play by reminding students to keep the action brief (a few minutes is usually sufficient). If the role-play starts to deteriorate, stop it quickly, discuss what is happening and re-focus the action.
(this can be done by removing props, costumes or name tags).
If students become angry, switch roles so they argue the opposing view. This may help them to develop understanding and empathy for the views of others. Make a point of taking students out of their role
Facilitate the role-play by allowing students to direct the action. Wait until the end of a scenario to make any comments. Do not judge the actions of a student in any given scenario as right or wrong. Instead focus attention on alternatives and/or consequences of actions.
Use open-ended questions that focus on the feelings of the role-play characters, attitudes expressed, consequences of actions, alternatives to decisions/ actions, and what students have learned about the characters portrayed, to debrief the role-play. Remember to include the observers in the debrief time. Allow plenty of time for de-briefing and provide positive feedback for effort and participation.
As a result of the role-play, ask students to personalise the content by considering what they would do in a similar real-life situation. Ensure they reflect on their learning and consider its application to future experiences. The role-play can be re-enacted by switching roles to demonstrate other courses of action.
Make a class set of prompt cards by photocopying Strategy sheet Prompt cards on page 176. A small group of students conducts a role-play on a selected topic at the front or centre of the classroom. Other students sit in front of, or around the small group to observe their discussions and actions. The observers are allocated one of the following responsibilities: Focus on one performer, their ideas and responses (give them a picture of a question mark to remind them of their task) Focus on one performer and how this person may be feeling (give them a picture of a heart to remind them of their task) Focus on alternative outcomes relevant to the roleplay (give them a picture of an arrow) eg when she said ‘Do you want to try this cigarette?’ he said ‘No, I get asthma.’ But if he’d said ‘No, my Mum will kill me!’ she might have called him a wimp and kept putting pressure on him. To conclude a fishbowl, observers report on their findings depending on the responsibility assigned to them. Puppet role-play Students can use puppets (hand made or bought) to act out the scenarios. This can be a home corner activity, a more structured group activity or one that is modelled by the teacher.
Students can use puppets (hand made or bought) to act out the scenarios. This can be a home corner activity, a more structured group activity or one that is modelled by the teacher.
telephone, and develop collaborative group work skills.
This strategy will help students to increase understanding and control of conventions and skills associated with using the
Prepare several pairs of telephone roleplay cards where one card of each pair is for the caller and the other is for the receiver. Caller cards should specify the audience, purpose and any background information for making the call. For example: You need to call the police because there has been an accident outside your house. The accident happened when your friend ran out onto the road chasing the footy. Your friend is crying and can’t move their leg. Receiver cards should specify their role such as a police officer, a
busy doctor, answering machine or wrong number Introduce this activity as a whole class to alert students to the sorts of decisions they will need to make and the options available to them. Place students in groups of three and nominate the caller, receiver and observer. These roles should be swapped during the role-play. The caller and receiver read their card and do not swap information. Allow one minute thinking time for each to rehearse what they will say, the language they will use and the tone they will adopt.
As the role-play occurs, the observer makes an assessment of the conversation used and provides feedback to the caller and receiver at the end of the role-play. Students swap roles and continue the roleplays. Process the activity by asking the class what they learnt and what they still need to practise to become confident to make an emergency call.
Callers ring their receivers, with each playing out the role specified on the card.
Provide telephones and mobile phones for students to use during the role-play. Set up one group to role-play the telephone conversation while others in the class sit around them to observe and offer feedback.
1Use a suggested book (or poem) listed in the preparation section of the learning activity as a starting point or to reinforce a key message. Display the book where all students can see the cover, illustration and title and discuss these. Provide students with a short period of time to silently preview the text. 2. Ask students to share their predictions of the main ideas with a partner or the class. Keep this pre-reading discussion brief and stimulating to make sure students are keen to listen to the story that follows. Use the following prompts. What do you think this story will be about? Is this a fiction or non-fiction book? Does the title tell us anything about the story? 3. Accept all suggestions and ask students to see if their predictions come true. Provide any essential knowledge that will assist student’s understanding of the story prior to reading. 4. Read the story encouraging students to join in, predict, use picture cues and look for information. Ask questions such as: What do you think will happen next? Why do you think that happened? What have you found out from this part of the story? How is the character feeling? How would you feel if that happened to you? What would you do? How do you think this story might end? 5. Discuss the information gained through reading the text. Ask questions such as: Why do you think we read this story? What are some of the important things you have learnt from this story? Who might you tell about the things you learnt from this story? 6. Provide opportunities for students to demonstrate their understanding such as drawing a picture or cartoon strip; writing two or three dot points; talking with a partner; dramatising parts of the story; retelling the story in their own words; or innovating the story (eg change characters’ names, places, feelings or the ending) to make a big book
1. Using the Strategy sheet Shark thoughts (refer to page 178) and Dolphin thoughts (refer to page 177), students classify thoughts into shark thoughts (ie unhelpful thoughts that will not make you feel good or solve a problem) and dolphin thoughts (ie helpful and positive thoughts that will make you feel better and perhaps solve a problem). 2. Alternatively use headings such as ’helpful, positive and optimistic thinking’ and ‘unhelpful, negative and pessimistic thinking’
Students move to a clear space in the room and respond to survey questions by making movements rather than giving verbal or written answers. The following examples focus on students’ identifying their strengths and challenges. Pretend to bounce a ball if you are good at ball sports. Count to five using your fingers if you are good at maths. Put your hands over your eyes if you get scared of the dark. Put your hand on your heart if you are kind to your friends. The same strategy can be used to have students’ identify and share their attitudes to a specific topic, for example: Put your hands on your hips if you think alcohol is a problem in our community. Kneel down if you think alcohol is a drug. Turn around if you think alcohol causes fights and road crashes.
A story map is a strategy that uses a graphic organiser to help students sequence events of a story, poem, video or scenario. To introduce story mapping, read a story to the class. Encourage students to remember the characters, setting and events as they listen or watch. Discuss and list the main events of the story on the board. Ask the class: What happened first (the beginning of the story)? What happened next? Have the class decide the correct order of the story events and number these in sequence. Model how to draw a story map that captures and sequences the main events from the original source. The most basic story maps focus on the beginning, middle and end of the story so either draw three boxes or fold a piece of paper into three. Number each box and draw a picture to illustrate each event in the story. Arrows can be drawn to show the direction of the events and link the boxes. Sentences or words can be written to accompany each part of the story map.
Students work individually or in groups to create their own story map. Illustrations can be displayed in a vertical or horizontal sequence, in a circular pattern or as a winding trail that traces the movements of the characters. Students can retell the story for their own enjoyment to a partner, small group or to the class, using their story map as a prompt.
As students become familiar with the strategy, add more shapes to the story map to allow students to include more events from the story. Students can extend their understanding of story maps into their own writing by using the map to plan, summarise and write their own main ideas, characters, setting and plot for a story.
T, X and Y charts are graphic organisers. Students can use these to record what they already know, understand and value, and compare and contrast their ideas and information. Often the headings ‘looks like’, ‘feels like’, ‘sounds like’ and ‘thinks like’ are used to label these graphic organisers. Some examples have been provided below. Alternatively different aspects of a topic can be used eg using a Y chart – the drug, location and person; or using a T chart – unsafe passenger and safe passenger. Show students how to draw a T, X or Y chart and label each section accordingly. Pose a topic for students to brainstorm and record their responses. This can be done individually or as a small or whole group, and responses can be written or drawn. Remind students that all responses should be accepted and recorded at this stage. Listen to the ideas generated by students. New ideas can be added after the discussion has been completed.
Use an X chart to explore an emotion such as anger or jealousy, or a specific concept such as ‘an effective team’. Y chart Students are to brainstorm how a ‘safe pedestrian’ would look, feel and sound. Start with the concrete or the obvious and encourage students to look for ideas that are more abstract. Explain that ‘sounds like’ doesn’t refer to just listing actual sounds related to the event. Ask students to predict what might be actually said or what they could imagine people saying. Ask students to imagine what people might say to themselves. Record these using speech marks. When completing the ‘feels like’ section ask students to be empathetic to the people in the situation eg How would this person be feeling in this situation?
Sit students in a circle on the floor. Give one student a ball or small soft object. The group slowly chants ‘Tic tac toe. Tic tac toe. Where will it stop? No one knows.’ The ball is quickly passed around the circle and stops when the chant is completed. The student holding the ball when the chant stops is asked a question by the teacher. Repeat the game until most of the group has made a response to the question.
Prepare a set of signs with opposing responses (eg safe/unsafe; useful/not useful; agree/disagree) or photocopy the strategy sheets provided on pages 179-181. Place signs at opposite ends of the room. It may help to draw a chalk line or stick a piece of masking tape on the floor between the two signs to indicate the continuum. Explain there are many places along the continuum that may represent each student’s opinion about an issue or statement. Model this by giving a statement such as ‘Everyone should wear a hat when they go outside’ then placing yourself along the continuum. Tell students why you might have placed yourself at that position. Read aloud a statement to the group. Ask students to move to the point on the continuum that best represents their opinion. Students discuss their reasons for placing themselves in that point on the continuum with other students standing nearby. As a class, discuss why there are variations in students’ opinions. Provide students with the option to pass or reconsider their placement after the discussion and move to another position along the continuum.