Northern Dynasties

N O R T H E R N DY N A S T I E S

T H R O C K M O R TO N F I N E A R T

NORTHERN DYNASTIES Early Buddhist Sculpture Ca. 386-577CE

THROCKMORTON FINE ART NEW YORK, NEW YORK

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CONTENTS

Preface Spencer Throckmorton

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Chronological Table

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Indian Influence and Chinese Creation: Buddhist Sculpture from the Northern Dynasties, Fifth–Sixth Century Dr. Chang Qing

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Catalogue Descriptions Dr. Elizabeth Childs-Johnson

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PREFACE

This is the fifth exhibition of Chinese Buddhist sculpture at Throckmorton Fine Arts, the first being held in 2007. The exhibition focuses on the sculpture from the Northern Dynasties, Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, and Northern Qi, from 386 to 577 CE, with most coming from the sixth century CE. This was a particularly rich period of artistic production of Buddhist sculpture as Buddhism was adopted at the highest levels of Chinese society, and richly patronized by the Imperial courts of the successive dynasties. In the Northern Qi kingdom, roughly modern day Shandong province in China, there were reputedly some 40,000 Buddhist temples, monasteries and establishments, and some three million clergy, both monks and nuns, attending to them. In fact, the tremendous success and resultant wealth of these Buddhist establishments lead to periodic anti-Buddhist pogroms by Confucian-leaning emperors, namely one in the middle of the Northern Wei Dynasty, 460 CE, another during the beginning of the Northern Zhou Dynasty who had conquered the Northern Qi in 577 CE, and the last during the late Tang, 850 CE, from which Buddhism never recovered its former status as the state religion. The large number of Buddhist temples, monasteries, and clergy, as well as the high regard of and adoption of Buddhism in the society, led to a tremendous production of sculpture for worship.

Chosen for their quality and beauty these examples can serve to illustrate the high artistic level of the sculpture of this era, and its development over this period.

Buddhism entered China during the second century CE during the Eastern Han Dynasty. A lovely story about the Emperor Ming, 58-75 CE, has him having a dream where he saw a god ‘whose body shown like the sun who flew by his palace.’ He asked his officials what god this could be, and one of the scholars told the emperor that he had heard of a holy man in India who had attained the Tao, and who was called Buddha, who flies through the air and shines like the sun. So the emperor sent emissaries to India to learn about the Buddha, which started the exchange between the two cultural regions and Buddhism’s spread to China. However it wasn’t until the Northern Wei, beginning in 386 CE, that we start to see sculptural production, with almost all surviving examples dating to after the antiBuddhist pogrom of 460 CE. The Northern Wei sculptures have an archaic feel, with a smiling countenance, and full voluminous robes that fall in complicated and highly stylized folds down the body. The Northern Qi sculptures are very Indianized and elegant with minimal robes that cling to the body and reveal forms. The faces follow the Indian Gupta prototypes closely with the curving eyelids barely open, cupid bow lips, and strongly arched brows. The hair also follows the Gupta prototypes, with snail shell curls, sometimes simplified to incised spiral bumps or simple raised bumps, covering the head and ushnisha. During the Northern Qi, the ushnisha merges into the form of the head and is apparent as an elongation of the skull rather than the defined raised protuberance of the Northern Wei and later following Tang Dynasty.

Buddhism originated in India in the sixth century BCE, when a prince of the Shakyamuni clan, through spiritual searching, found enlightenment while meditating under the famous Bodhi tree. Buddhism developed from an austere form focused on the individual’s efforts through meditation to achieve personal salvation and enlightenment, to a more inclusive popular religion featuring a rich panoply of Bodhisattvas who functioned much as saints in the Catholic religion, who could intercede and assist the individual in their lives and towards enlightenment. Images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas became central to religious worship, as they were believed to have been created by merit and could convey merit simply by the worshiper contemplating them. The patrons and imperial families and individuals who commissioned the sculptures and funded the shrines, temples, and monasteries they were placed in gained merit through such generosity. We are fortunate to be able to enjoy this abundance of imagery today through the survival of the sculptures on display here.

In preparing our 2016 Asian exhibition, I would like to give special thanks to Kraige Block for the support and planning of the exhbition. I thank the noted scholars with whom we have had the pleasure of collaborating. These include Dr. Chang Qing, who wrote the essay, and Dr. Elizabeth Childs-Johnson for the descriptions. I would also like to thank Norberto Rivera for the design of the catalogue.

Spencer Throckmorton

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CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

Southern Dynasties Liu Song Southern QI Liang Chen

420-479 CE 479-502 CE 502-557 CE 557-589 CE

Northern Dynasties Northern Wei Eastern Wei Western Wei Northern Qi Northern Zhou

386-534 CE 534-550 CE 535-557 CE 550-577 CE 557-581 CE

Sui Dynasty

581-618 CE

Tang Dynasty

618-907 CE

Five Dynasties

907-960 CE

Song Dynasty Northern Song Southern Song

960-1279 CE 960-1127 CE 1127-1279 CE

Liao Dynasty

907-1125 CE

Western Xia Dynasty

1038-1227 CE

Jin Dynasty

1115-1234 CE

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Indian Influence and Chinese Creation: Buddhist Sculptures from the Northern Dynasties, Fifth–Sixth Century Dr. Chang Qing

The development of Buddhist art in China was dependent not only on an original transmission from India, but also on the creative adaptations and inventions by Chinese artists and patrons. Buddhism entered China along the Silk Road some time during the first and second centuries CE, grew by leaps and bounds during the third through fifth centuries, fostered a sinified style by the late fifth and early sixth centuries and reinterpreted new influences from Guptan India during the mid-sixth century. As Buddhist practice grew newly converted Chinese monks travelled West in search of dharma teachings, canonical writings, and images. From the second to the fifth century the creation of Buddhist imagery adapted and gradually reinterpreted Gandharan (Kushan dynasty first–375 CE) prototypes. In a second phase, Buddhist styles underwent Sinicization, and in a third phase (sixth century) was influenced by Guptan (320-550 CE) prototypes in creating another revolution in the history of Buddhist art in modern China. The Sinification of Buddhist art by the late fifth and early sixth centuries is based on native Chinese taste that gradually transformed Buddhist art into something specifically Chinese, while also giving rise to greater and greater numbers of clergy and devotees. Adhering to Buddhist canonical sūtras, monks and artists created not only new indigenous forms, but also new styles and interpretations.

Two major periods of influence from India and one middle period of sinification define the evolution of Buddhist art in China during the Northern Dynasties period (386-589 CE). The initial one, beginning in the third century and lasting through the fifth century involved adaptation of Buddhist iconography based primarily on Gandharan and Mathuran prototypes and a second wave of influences during the early through mid-sixth century, primarily Guptan that entered south China throught Southeast Asia. Identification of these influences and the evolution of Buddhist art during the Northern Dynasties period is intimately associated with the stellar research of the late, pace-setting scholar, Alexander C. Soper, who wrote in 1960, “South Chinese influence on the Buddhist Art of the Six Dynasties.“ Soper identified the experimental process and reinterpretation that Buddhist imagery underwent during both earlier and later phases of foreign influence and how and why sinification of Buddhist art occurred. In contradistinction to Indian prototypes and influences of early and later phases, he put into perspective how indigenous south Chinese cultural practice and aesthetics served as the 9

primary stimulus of Buddhist representation. Sinification is represented, for example, by the more familiar Chinese style of robe and facial type, thus signifying “sinification” of the foreign Northern Tuoba Wei stylistic interpretations by the late fifth CE. He also clarified why there was a second wave of influence on Chinese Buddhist styles that also came from the south, the bedrock of Chinese taste and cultural sophistication. A second phase of cultural influence from India occurred during the mid-sixth century and a second period of Sinification occurred which by the Sui and Tang periods was complete.

Buddhism had been extinguished in India by the invasion of the White Huns (Hephalites) and China was reunified under native Chinese rulership and patronage. The assimilation of Indian prototypes peaked by the end of the sixth century with the result that Buddhist art was then the domain of Chinese aesthetics and a faith closely tied to native Chinese beliefs.

The Initiation of Chinese Buddhism and Gandharan Art Influence during the Northern Dynasties Period The beginning of Chinese Buddhist art appears in sporadic capsules of small-scale images during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 CE). Although the first century CE was not the time when most Chinese people understood and accepted Buddhism, by the second half of the second century CE Buddhist sūtras were undergoing translations by various monks, including ones fluent in Chinese from the Kushan dynasty of ancient Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan. The early forms of Buddha images show a Gandharan style image with a western face, and a symmetrical robe, usually in combination with indigenous immortals worshipped during funeral ceremonies or related contexts (see Figs.1-2).

Fig. 1 10

Native Chinese belief still dominated the small but growing Buddhist society in the next period when China was divided into three kingdoms, called the Three Kingdoms period (220-280 CE). In 280 CE, the Western Jin Dynasty (265316 CE) reunified China. In the early fourth century, nomadic peoples invaded China from the northern regions, causing war and chaos in the central areas of the North. Many elites of the Western Jin escaped by moving south to the area of Jiankang (present-day Nanjing, in Jiangsu Province). The latter became the new capital of the dynasty identified as Eastern Jin (317- 420 CE) and the center for a flourishing native Chinese culture. Chinese Buddhist images of this era are found primarily in southern regions and continue to represent Buddhas alongside native deities. For example, on the back of bronze mirrors, small Buddha figures appear together with immortals of indigenous origin. Similarly, a mix of Buddhas and Chinese immortals decorate glazed ceramic funeral jars designed for burial (Fig. 2) or the branches of bronze cosmological trees in combination with the chthonic immortal Goddess of the West (Fig. 3). These figures of small-scale Buddhas of foreign origin may be described as immortal Buddhas, since their function is the same as the images of native Chinese immortals. The absorption of Buddhism thus initially appears as an addition to the traditional pantheon of immortals.

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

During the fourth century, Buddhism established its independence as a religious faith, known as the Mahayana school, in China. Although the Gandhara style still influenced the production of Buddhist images. Chinese artists began to model the Buddha’s features on Chinese faces, instead of western ones. This trend would become a mainstream objective in later periods. The Eastern Jin period inaugurated a new era for Buddhist belief and evolution. Buddhists and others used natural catastrophes as signs of political chaos and the demise of a governing body based on Han Confucianism. In the North nomadic peoples and Han Chinese attacked each other with the consequence that the short-termed Sixteen Kingdoms (304 - 439 CE) was formed. Buddhism at this time gave hope to the resolution of political chaos and desolation: with the understanding that suffering is caused by the law of karma or cause and effect. Peoples were receptive to this new 11

concept promoting the end of suffering. The fourth century was a petrie dish for the development of the Buddhist faith.

The nomadic peoples in the North and the Chinese in the South together wholeheartedly welcomed and accepted Buddhist beliefs, raising the status of Buddhism to an independent authority in the scheme of Chinese society and administration. An example of a Buddhist image from this period reflects the combination of Gandharan prototypes with Chinese characteristics. A gilt-bronze seated Buddha made in the Late Zhao Kingdom (319-351 CE) in 338 CE is the earliest extant Chinese Buddha image known (Fig. 4)

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Inherited Gandharan features include the large usnīsa, a body covering robe, and a meditative disposition. Chinese authorship is nonetheless obvious; unlike Gandhara Buddhas (Fig. 5), the drapery folds are not naturalistic but stylized and symmetrical. The hair is also stylized as a pattern of geometric lines of symmetrical design instead of thick plaits of wavy hair brushed backwards in line with Indian types. These characteristics would become popular in later periods, as a marker of how Indian Buddhist styles of representation were adapted in China.

The Yungang Cave Temples at Mt. Wuzhou, Datong, Shanxi Gandharan styles continued to influence the production of Buddhist art in the fifth century. During the Sixteen Kingdoms period in the North, Chang’an (present-day Xi’an in Shaanxi Province) served as the capital of the Late Qin Kingdom (384 417 CE), and Liangzhou (present-day Wuwei in Gansu Province) was the capital of the Northern Liang Kingdom (401- 439 CE). The two were centers for sūtra translations and image production. Following the tradition of Indian cave temples, a group of early caves was excavated in the northwest China, as represented by those at Maijishan in Tianshui, Gansu province (see Michael Sullivan, The Cave-Temples of Maichishan, London: Faber and Faber, 1969) and others at Binglingsi southeast of Lanzhou in Gansu province (see Gansusheng Wenwu Gongzuodui, Yongjing Binglingsi, Beijing: Wenwu Pub., 1989).

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When the Xianbei people unified the North as the Northern Wei dynasty (386-534), they set up their capital at Pingcheng (present-day Datong in Shanxi Province) and promulgated Buddhism and Buddhist art inherited from their predecessors, the Northern Liang and Late Qin. Pingcheng (Datong) became the new Buddhist center in northern China (Map1). Northern Wei emperors understood that Buddhism could aid in legitimatizing their rule and in encouraging the educated and the elite to obey and respect their rule and power. As a consequence, five colossal Buddha images were carved by imperial order within five different sandstone caves at Yungang, about 10 miles west of Datong. As symbols of the power of the first five emperors of the Northern Wei, the political and economic role that the court imposed upon Buddhism was solidified (James Caswell, Written and Unwritten: A New History of the Buddhist Caves at Yungang, University of British Columbia Press, 1988). Northern Wei, high-ranking abbots essentially collaborated with the court of the Xianbei invaders. The well-known monk, Daoan had earlier realized (312-385 CE) that to preach and develop Buddhist dharma in China required the support of authorities. Inheriting this theory, monk Faguo (active early fifth century), the former chief of Buddhists of the Northern Wei, advocated that “emperors are contemporary Buddhas, and monks should pay respect and obey them� (Kim Hunter Gordon, ed., Datong A Historical Guide: Beijing: Zhongguo yuanzi nengchu Pub., 2014 : 39). Faguo informed the people that only the authority of the empire could glorify the Buddhist dharma.

Buddhism was firmly under state control, although state control followed civil bureaucratic norms of Chinese tradition.

Map. 1 13

When Faguo reported to the palace to meet the emperor, since he had taken the step of hailing the emperor as a ‘living Buddha,’ he kowtowed to the emperor as an act of worshipping the Buddha. In this manner imperial power was equated with Buddha power during the Northern Wei Empire.

In 460 CE, under the commission of the Northern Wei court, monks and artists excavated the five neighboring caves and created five colossal seated or standing Buddha statues numbered 16-20 at Yungang Cave Temple (Figs. 6-8).

As embodiments of the five emperors, from the first emperor of the regime to the present emperor (Emperor Wencheng, r. 452-465 CE) Buddhism reigned as the state religion of China. The contents of the five caves include Mahayana Buddhist themes of Sakyamuni Buddha, Three Buddhas from the past, present and future, and various Bodhisattvas. It is probable that the Buddhist caves functioned for the practice of monastic meditation, based on the Buddhist canon. In fact, conducting meditation in order to achieve nirvana was the most popular practice in Northern Wei Buddhist society.

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

The large-scale statues in the five caves display a strong influence from the Indian schools of Gandhara and Mathura under Kushan rule (Figs. 9-11). These schools of influence are present in the interpretation of the Buddha robe, the monastic robe worn in two different modes with one covering both shoulders and the other partially exposing right shoulder and right arm (Fig. 6-7). An alteration of the latter mode appears in the partial covering of the right shoulder and arm of the seated Buddha in Cave Twenty, as if in fear of exposing too much flesh which would be in contradistinction to the ethic of modesty associated with the entrenched Confucian tradition. In addition, the Yungang Buddhas have polished usnÄŤsas, full Mathuran-style faces, with strong, masculine bodies and broad shoulders. As with these early Indian Buddha figures, the drapery folds on the Yungang Chinese versions are stylized carved lines, mechanical and archaicizing with little emphasis on the underlying body, which is unlike their prototypes.

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Fig. 9

Fig. 10

Fig. 11

Another feature of the Yungang cave temple complexes belongs to those opened in pairs or groups of three during the first quarter of the sixth century. Most of them have a rectangular plan with an antechamber and an inner chamber. In one type the inner chamber has a square pillar in the center and in the other type the center is occupied by a large-scale Buddha statue. An aisle opening at the back of the Buddha is reserved for circumambulation (Fig.12), as followed in Buddha halls known as chaityas in India. The central pillar or Buddha image in the caves shared the religious function of stupas of Indian chaitya halls. Devotees engaged in circumambulation around the sacred stupa or Buddha icon. Numerous images were carved inside the caves, depicting Buddhist motifs such as the preaching of the Buddha, the life of Sakyamuni, jataka tales, and a number of secondary Buddhist deities, as well as splendid decorations of winged and related deities (Fig. 13). The Yungang site provided a space, dominated by splendid Buddhist images, for thousands of monks to practice Buddhism and the rites of meditation.

Fig. 12

Fig. 13 15

Mogao Cave Temples in Dunhuang, Gansu As the center of Buddhism and Buddhist art in the Northern Wei Empire, the capital Pingcheng was a base to transmit Yungang style to surrounding regions, particularly during the the late fifth and early sixth centuries. The Mogao grottoes, along with the Yungang caves, are one of the other three, biggest cave temple sites in China, excavated along the 1,620m cliff at the eastern foot of Mt. Mingsha in Dunhuang (Gansu Province), a key station of the Silk Road in the Gobi desert connecting China and Chinese Central Asia regions in Xinjiang. Mogao grottoes contain 493 caves in three stories of the cliff. Since the cliff is composed of conglomerate rock that is not suitable for carving images, Dunhuang artists instead produced a total of approximately 3,000 polychrome painted clay statues, in addition to murals within about 45,000 square meters. Of the 493 caves, numbers 268, 272, and 275 are the earliest extant group at the Mogao grottoes.

The structures of the three caves have rectangular or square plans similar to some caves of the Yungang grottoes. As was the case at Yungang, the Dunhuang caves functioned similarly, as halls for meditation by hermit monks, or later as centers for dharma lectures and the worship of the Buddhist deities. Eight other caves were excavated in the second phrase of Mogao construction, dating from the second half of the fifth century to first half of the sixth century. The latter were influenced by the new and second phase of styles characterizing the second era of caves opened at Yungang, a style associated with sinification. The main structure of these caves is also a rectangular plan with a square pillar in the center of the rear section (Fig. 14), indicating by their structure that they were used for the sacred rite of circumambulation, as at Yungang. Since the space in front of the central pillar is larger than the other three sides, it could be used as a Buddha hall for devotee worship, offerings, and lectures. New caves also continued to be opened at Maijishan and Binglingsi in Gansu (Fig. 15) as well as in the northeast at Wanfotang Cave Temples in Yi County of Liaoning Province.

Fig. 14

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Fig. 15

The Sinified Style and First Golden Age of Chinese Buddhist Art In contrast to the initial prominence of Indian influences, various indigenous Chinese elements began to appear and stand out in the second age of Yungang and Mogao cave construction, and also within the new caves opened at Longmen near Luoyang in Henan province. Some of the most obvious Chinese features include facsimiles of Han-Chinese style temple faรงades and pagoda towers; a change of costume on both Buddhas and bodhisattvas images that conformed to Chinese style; the adoption of a Chinese facial type; the Chinese penchant for recording in cartouches the names of donor and image; and a proliferation of Chinese decorative motifs such as dragons and feng phoenixes moving energetically as rhythms mimicking Chinese calligraphy.

All of these new specifically Chinese attributes are well represented within the caves opened and decorated during the second phase of production at Yungang and Dunhuang. For example, in Cave VI at Yungang (Fig. 14), there are more than several noticeable changes representing the new style of Chinese origin. The subject is the debate of Vimalakirti and Manjusri who flank the historical Buddha Sakyamuni, seated in the center. The narrative is set in the context of Chinese style architecture, signified by a simulated tile roof and the wooden beam ends of a temple faรงade. The robe tied with sash of the sage householder, Vimalakirti is entirely Chinese in style and form. The Samghฤ ti robe of the seated Buddha is interpreted anew, and although unlike the Hanzhuang (Han Chinese clothing) of Vimalakirti, the robe differs from earlier western prototypes in covering both shoulders and by the addition of exposing an inner shirt at chest level bound with a sash. Also new is the interpretation of the wardrobe of the bodhisattva. No longer is the chest bare, but rather is cloaked in a symmetrically composed cape that crosses at the abdomen and is defined by an inner shirt. All three figures favor a larger and rounder facial form with the epicanthic fold that characterizes the Asian eye type in contradistinction to that of the West and India.

The southern origin of this new style is well documented by southern interpretations of Buddhist imagery, for example, as represented by the stone stele dated to 483 CE, Southern Qi dynasty, from Maowen County, Sichuan (Fig.16). The epicanthic fold of the eye is readily apparent. The robe simulating a lavish yet thin, probably silk, robe which lies over the left arm is otherwise rendered by the Chinese love for symmetry and the chest is modestly covered by the addition of an added Chinese sash, holding the inner shirt in place.

Fig. 16

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The reason for these dramatic changes, spearheading native Chinese taste, is due not only to years of assimilating the new religion but to specific political changes and reforms of the ruling Tuoba of the Northern Wei dynasty (Map 1). In 493 CE, Emperor Xiaowen (r. 471-499 CE) implemented a drastic policy of sinicization, intending to centralize the government and make the multi-ethnic state easier to govern and assimilate. These policies included changing artistic styles to reflect Chinese preferences and forcing the population to speak the language and to wear Chinese clothes. He compelled his own Xianbei people and others to adopt Chinese surnames, and changed his own family surname from Tuoba to Yuan. He also encouraged intermarriage between Xianbei and Han. The crowning achievement occurred in 494 CE when Emperor Xiaowen moved the Northern Wei capital from the northwest at Pingcheng (modern Datong, Shanxi) to Luoyang, a city long acknowledged as a major center in Chinese history and as a center associated with the southern Han Chinese elite. While the capital was moved to Luoyang, the military elite remained centered at the old capital, widening the differences between the administration and the military. The population at the old capital remained fiercely conservative, while the population at Luoyang was eager to adopt Xiaowen’s policies of sinicization. Under this cultural and historical context, southern culture largely influenced the Xianbei peoples settled in both the North and the South, and as a consequence the sinification of Buddhist imagery.

With the move to the south in 494 CE, the golden age of Buddhist art peaked and thrived. New caves were initially opened by imperial command at the site of Longmen (“Dragon Gate”), located on the Yi river about 7.5 miles south of Luoyang. Other imperial family, officials, and Buddhist monks also commissioned images to be carved out of these limestone cliffs of eastern and western parts, continuing almost 1 mile in length. Some 2,345 independent niches and caves, with about 100,000 images, 2,800 inscriptions, and 40 relief pagodas characterize the site today. Most of the caves and images are located in the western section of this limestone cliff, including all of the late Northern Wei works, which is about a third of the entire works at Longmen. Among those late Northern Wei caves, the three Binyang Caves are the most prestigious works. In emulating the imperial tradition tied to the opening of the Yungang grottoes in the northwest, Emperor Xuanwu (r. 500-515 CE) upon ascending the throne, commissioned three large caves, the so-called Binyang caves, at Longmen. He dedicated the caves to his parents—the deceased Emperor Xiaowen and the Dowager Empress, as well as to himself. Only the central cave was completed on time and continued to serve as a lecture hall for Buddhists.

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Within the Binyang grottoes and back wall is the main Buddha, seated in a lotus posture, and flanked by two lions, two standing disciples, and two standing Bodhisattvas (Fig. 17). The two disciples are distinguished by a young Chinese face and an old western face respectively, in identifying the most important two disciples of the Buddha, the young Ānanda and old Kāśyapa. On the right and left walls, additional Buddhas stand flanked by two standing Bodhisattvas. The iconographic scheme represents the Three Buddhas of the past, present (center seated Sakyamuni), and future, as found earlier within the Yungang caves. The Buddha and Bodhisattva figures show the strong influence of southern Han-Chinese style. Heads are large and emphatic, and are characterized by the Chinese eye fold. They wear the new Han-Chinese style Buddha robe with inner shirt and sash. Each of the standing, attendant Bodhisattvas wear tall crowns, yet are dressed with the new Chinese interpretation of symmetrically arranged cape-covering shoulders with trailing ends, also symmetrically crossed at knee level and overlapping the arms. This cape style piece of clothing differs from the long heavy and thick stole wrapped over the shoulders of prototypical Gandharan and Mathuran bodhisattvas. The two standing Bodhisattvas flanking the main seated Buddha also wear a long string of jewelry hanging from their shoulders, depicting again a new interpretation sponsored by south Chinese taste, not found at Yungang, but a novel invention and variation on the short necklace of earlier Indian prototypes.

Fig. 17

In the first half of the sixth century, the Northern Wei court continued to commission a number of monasteries in Luoyang and other cave temple images at Longmen. As Soper has pointed out in historical detail, the southern dynasties ruling from Nanjing (380’s-550 CE), although tumultuous in terms of political ambitions, never severed ties with native Chinese tradition. The two Dai (Dai Kui and Dai Yong) brothers were master sculptors serving the southern Church, reknown for raising the craft to new heights of emotional expression and spirituality followed by the monk expert, Sengyou in the

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sixth century (pp. 48-50, 57-64). Furthermore, the acquisition by the Wei empire in the 460s of the whole northeast portion of the southern Song domain of modern Shandong, northern Jiangsu, and Anhui further stimulated sinification and reliance on southern standards for Buddhist imagery. There is the famous miracle working-statue of southern origin, an 18 foot gilded bronze statue made for the “Song Royal Temple” at Pengcheng in Shandong, an area seized by Northern Wei, and other equally fantastic images and lofty pagodas created by Shandong refugee artists.

As an example of the new sinified style and representative of the first golden age of Buddhist art in China, Binyang served as the model not only for Buddhist lecture halls in the south but also for northern China. Longmen images and others decorating the imperial monastery and cave temples around Luoyang, identify the new metropolitan style of the late Northern Wei. With the strong encouragement of the imperial family, Northern Wei Buddhist devotees and artists created the first golden age of Chinese Buddhist art during the first thirty years of the sixth century. Under the encouragement of the imperial court and the influence of the capital area, local Buddhists and artists developed Buddhist practices, commissioned monasteries, and pagodas, and increased their merit and karma. According to the History of the Wei, in the 510s, there were about 13,727 Bud- Fig. 18 dhist monasteries for monks and nuns in local states and cities. In the 520s, the Northern Wei Empire had nearly two million monks and nuns living in more than 30,000 monasteries. Representative is the opening of completely new grottoes at Qinyang in Gansu, called the Northern Caves dating to 509 CE (Fig.18).

In addition to the numerous excavated cave temples is the preservation of a large number of steles with images, as well as countless individual stone and bronze figures from the first half of the sixth century (see e.g., Fig. 19). A comparison among the latter gilt bronze stele representing Maitreya Buddha dating to 524 CE and images from Qinyang, Gansu of 509 CE, and those from Longmen, shows a common metropolitan Northern Wei sinified style. Although varying in a few details and minor points of emphasis, the comparisons show the complete sinification of attributes including robe type, facial form and interest in symmetry. The style is also significant in clarifying this height of Buddhist art in China. The commonly used art historical term “Elongated Style” to describe this period is discarded in favor of what we identify as the “Sinified Style.” This “Sinified Style” of metropolitan Northern Wei origin has features other than attributes and these include 20

what may be called calligraphic expression. The rhythms of drapery folds of all Buddhas and bodhisattvas at this stage are moving and excited, acting as independent passages of suspended waves down the front of the image. Although highly stylized on the Metropolitan Museum gilt bronze Maitreya, the effect is one of excitement through movement. The openwork effect of the windblown draperies of the apsaras (angels), fluttering flames of the mandorla, suspended tendrils flanking the incense burner, and pawing gestures of the lions create hype and excitment. The linear flow and incessant movement in the expression of the art of this period are telltale symbols of a Sinicized style

Fig. 19

representing the First Golden Age of Chinese Buddhist art.

The “Indianizing Style” and the Final Sinification of Buddhist Art in China A new style and interpretation of Buddhist art appeared in the first half of the sixth century, due primarily to the Buddhist influences from Guptan period (320-550 CE) in India, but noticeably via the Indonesian kingdoms of Funan in modern Cambodia and Vietnam that were under the influence of south Indian Buddhist art as represented at sites such as Amaravati (Satavahana Kingdom), Mahabalipuram (Pallava Kingdom), and Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Western and Eastern Wei styles continued the “Sinified Style” of Northern Wei yet with ever more relaxation. The stiff staccato creation of cut-out drapery edges and hyper excitement of the Sinified Style are replaced by a more gentle treatment of form and simplification of drapery folds as rippling wave-like edges that are rhythmical and soft (see Figs. 15-16). Nonetheless, this short-lived decade of 528-534 CE witnessed political turbulence and civil war.

Competition broke out amidst warlords and prominent lineage heads in and around the Luoyang area and so did comparable strife arise amidst lineages in the southern dynasties centered at the Jiangkang (Nanjing) capital area.

The North divided into the Eastern Wei (534-550 CE) and Western Wei (535-557 CE), both led by Xianbei rulers. In 550 CE, Gao Yang (r. 550-559 CE) (Chinese origin) claimed himself emperor and established the Northern Qi Kingdom

Fig. 20 21

(550-577 CE) in the east to replace Eastern Wei. Later in 557, the Yuwen family (Xianbei origin) overthrew the Western Wei and established the Northern Zhou Kingdom (557-581 CE) in the west (Map 2). The Buddhist style that emerged during this decade with the rise of the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou is often labeled “Columnar Style” due to the elongated tubular torsos of most Buddhas and bodhisattva bodies (Fig. 20).

Map. 2

Since Indian influences were the more dominant trait characterizing Chinese Buddhist styles during the Northern Qi period, “Indianizing Style” is adopted to explain the new style emphasizing body solidity and what is often described as a “wet drapery” effect of robes of the Buddha and bodhisattva. The Southern Dynasties (502-589 CE), were the forerunners in developing this “Indianizing Style” as they were in creating the “Sinified Style” during the earlier Northern Wei period. Southern influences from Gupta and other fifth-sixth century period kingdoms in southern India patronizing Buddhism by the sixth century in China came primarily via Southeast Asia. A rich repository of finds from Chengdu, Sichuan produced during the Liang and later Chen dynasties in the south document this phenomenon (see Fig. 21) (Soper: 85-96; Katherine R. Tsiang, Echoes of the Past: The Buddhist Cave Temples of Xiangtangshan; JaiMan Wu, “Mortuary Art in the Northern Zhou China (557-581 CE): Visualization of Class, Role, and Cultural Identity, “ Ph.D dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 2010).

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As has been expertly demonstrated, these influences were abundant and important in contributing to the lavish displays of Buddhist faith and commissions for Buddhist art works at the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou capitals of Ye in northern Henan and Changan (modern Xian) in northwestern Shaanxi. The new “Indianizing Style” of the sixth century that is characterized by a new simplicity and interest in three-dimensionality is amply illustrated in the metropolitan styles of these two Buddhist centers in East and West of northern China. Ar- Fig. 21 chaeological finds from modern Xian, cave temples at Tianlongshan east of Xian, cave temples at Xiangtangshan in Handan near Ye in southern Henan (see Fig. 22) and northern Hebei, as well as the new trove of Northern Qi finds at a variety of sites in Shandong and Hebei, and in particular those from cache finds of Longxingsi at Qingzhou in Shandong testify to the lavish patronage of Buddhism and the new sophistication of Buddhist styles. The new style is about novelty and innovation, new effects of body building and drapery renderings, new emotions of solemnity, a new luxury of decorative accouterments, new icons (Fig. 23), and new complexes of group images and narrative compositions in relief.

Fig. 22

Fig. 23

As has been demonstrated, most of the evidence documenting the new “Indianizing Style” are Buddhist images from the southwest modern Sichuan province, and the new “Indianizing Style” influences on painting and sculpture based on historical documents of the S. Qi, (Southern) Liang, and (Southern) Chen periods. The Gao line of emperors (Han Chinese) ruling at Ye during the Northern Qi period were in close contact with the south and typically imported the lastest, most stylistically fashionable achievements emanating from the southern courts (Soper: 88-96).

23

Not only did the Gao emperors employ and import experts in southern literature and painting to their court to perform, but collected and hired art specialists in the exotic new Indian style. One, Zhang Sengyu led (Southern) Liang art circles as the greatest of all exponents of novelty and exotic themes, particularly in his creation of three-dimensional Buddhist images in the style of India aesthetics. Cao Zhongda worked at the Northern Qi court and was revered as the “unrivalled expert in rendering “foreign” or “Indian” Buddhist icons” (Soper: 88). Experiments in achieving chiaroscuro effects of Indian painting and three-dimensional bodies under transparent drapery of Indian bodies are key attributes of Indian prototypes that were revered and accommodated first at southern metropolitan workshops and then exported north. Examples of Indian or Indian influenced Southeast Asian prototypes and similar images simulated or copied in Sichuan are illustrated in Figs. 24, 25, and 26.

Fig. 24

Fig. 25

Fig. 26

A comparison between the Guptan period Mathuran Buddha from Uttar Pradesh, dated to the late fifth century (Fig. 24), and the Standing Buddha from the southwest temple site of Wanfosi in Chengdu, Sichuan, dated to the early sixth century to 529 CE (Fig. 25), amply illustrate the reliance of the Chinese on the Indian prototype. A similar comparison may be drawn with the Northern Zhou stone painted Skayamuni, also from Sichuan and dated ca, 561570 CE (Fig. 26). The emphasis upon a broad shouldered body with narrow waist and slim hips, covered by an outer robe that is assymetrical to symmetrical in style with folds rendered as raised lines is similar. Although the linear folds are less compact on the Chinese version, the design is comparable. Ripples of the robe on the Indian version in the overlap of robe falling over the arm and continuing along hemlines are a detail closely simulated on the Chinese version. The body forms under transparent drapery are almost identical. The three Buddhas have iconic standard 24

attributes of ushnisha, long earlobes, and hands that originally created gestures identifying the historic Buddha. The cowl neck with edge band is generalized on the Chinese version, signifying a more schematized interpretation based on the Indian original. This schematized version of the Indian outer robe is repeated on many Northern Qi and Northern Zhou images, indicating that the prototype for interpretations of new styles emanated from Sichuan where patrons were often hired from Nanjing, the southern capital, to create images of the new and exotic prototypes from Indian originals. Images from Sarnath and Mathura reflecting Guptan fifth century styles digested a century later by southern courts and ultimately Northern Qi and Northern Zhou (Fig. 26) courts also reveal direct copies and those adapted and assimilated into Chinese interpretations of these styles. Faces nonetheless typically differ between Indian and Chinese versions, yet the interest in a fleshy strong head is similar.

Fig. 28

Fig. 27

Fig. 29

Fig. 30

In addition to Guptan period influences of previous Gandaran and Mathuran style Buddhas of fifth century date is the art further south in India that is associated with Satavahana period Amaravati cave temple Buddhist sculptures (Fig. 27) as well as others. These influences are remarkably well documented in the limestone and marble sculptures recently discovered in the ruins of the Longxing monastery in Qingzhou, Shandong (Figs. 29-30) and by several other extant Chinese images (Fig. 28). A variety of Buddhist styles reflect not only the renewed Guptan period influence of Gandharan and Mathuran style Buddha types and robes, but also exhibit interpretations of the new south Indian Buddhist styles of Amaravati and related Funanese style Buddhist images known from modern Cambodia and Vietnam, and the Borobudur stupa in Java, and elsewhere in the South Asian Indonesia. Diplomatic missions between Funanese and southern Chinese capitals are known throughout the sixth century, as documented in histories from these periods (Soper: 90-91).

25

Fig. 31

Fig. 32

This style favors the now old but traditional robe of Mathuran Buddhas leaving one shoulder uncovered by the sanghati robe. The correspondence between the Amaravati style Indian image of Sakyamuni (Figure 27), the Southern Qi Standing Buddha (Fig. 28), and two Longxingsi Standing Buddhas (Figs. 29-30) document this close simulation, yet at the same time the freely interpreted variations sponsored by the artists and monks sculpting in Shandon at Longxingsi.

The same correspondence exists amidst seated stone images of Buddha from Amaravati (Fig. 31) and Lonqingsi (Fig. 32).

The multitude of Buddhist robe styles and bodhisattva dress are testimony to the profound patronage of Buddhism during the first decades and middle and late sixth century. Gupta styles of the fifth century and copies in Indonesia of the sixth c. emphasize power, mass, and simplicity. Faces are full, rounded and broad, and most figures wear drapery that appears wet and translucent revealing a body set off by broad shoulders, slender waist, and narrow hips. The robe may act similarly to earlier Gandharan types in covering the entire body or copy south Indian Amaravati, Cambodian Funanese, and Javanese Borobudur types in covering the body yet leaving bare the right shoulder. All of these types are imitated in China, yet some are more faithful and some are less so in representing what may be identified as a compromise of styles, more closely allied to Chinese artistic sensibility. Some of the garments have multiple Fig. 33 26

Fig. 34 Front & Back

prominent folds, some have incised lines for

folds, some robes are painted with squares in depicting a robe made of patches (Fig. 33-34), others are smooth with no carved lines, and still others are completely inventive with one of a kind stylized features. Completely Chinese in taste, nonetheless, is the rendering of the Buddha head as full and robust with the ethnic Chinese eyefold, deeply undercut lips below a long narrow nose, and a subdued ushnisha, rendered as a slight bulge, not a cylindrical protuberance.

The Northern Qi Bodhisattva figures discovered at the same site show similar and novel characteristics, combining the exotic Indian interpretation of a more three-dimensional body and exposed chest, but with a completely Chinese version of head wearing a tiara style headdress and jewelry showing a rich combination of neck and body jewels of both native Chinese and Indian origin. The Chinese version of body is always more modest, less revealing in deference to the Confucian ethic of modesty. The jewelry often represents a combination of Chinese gems and motifs with exotica from Indian art. The small bi disk of simulated jade holding the crossing strands of the body pendants at the back of the figure is completely Chinese in style and type. Yet, the decorative small animal mask of the makara spitting out strands of suspended pearls on the necklace and on the central suspended belt panel that extends symmetrically down the skirt of the bodhisattva is completely Indian in origin.

The sophisticated artistic peak reached through experimentation and adaption in representing Buddhas and bodhisattvas during the southern and northern dynasties of sixth century date presages the final evolution of Buddhist imagery in the next historical phases that would continue to represent specific Chinese taste. Foreigners from India of Turkish origin as well as Persians and others of Middle Eastern origin alongside those from Southeast Asia continued to flock to China for trade or diplomatic intercourse. Buddhism died out in India with the fall of the Guptan empire and invasion first of the Hepthalite Huns and later Turks in the early sixth century. The political and diplomatic exchange between Buddhism and Buddhist art of India and China thus came to a slow and gradual end, although Buddhism would thrive and reach new peaks of perfection that were Chinese in style and expression, ones that were international and cosmopolitan characterizing the Tang period and others that were fully humanizing and secularizing characterizing the Song and later phases of Chinese history. Thus, although the faith and its imagery survived a long period of exchange lasting from the first CE centuries through sixth century, India may be credited with the formulation of belief and practice that was sinified and reinterpreted into a religious movement completely Chinese by the beginning of the seventh century, the denouement of the Northern Dynasties.

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Notes

Fig. 1 Detail of Cliff Images with a Standing Buddha and Chinese Native Deities Limestone, 2nd half of the 2nd century, Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 CE) Kongwangshan, Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province Fig. 2 Spirit Jar H: 18 in., Glazed ceramic, Wu kingdom (222-280 CE) Excavated in 1980 from a tomb at Gongjiafu in Quzhou, Zhejiang Province, Quzhou Municipal Museum, Zhejiang Fig. 3 Buddha Images Attached to the Trunk of a Bronze Money Tree, Eastern Han Period, 2nd century CE, Sichuan After Julia Sal, March 2012, C7 Burial Art of Sichuan, Art Asian East History, Rutgers University.

Fig. 4 Seated Buddha H: 15 1/2 in., Gilt bronze, Dated to 338 CE, Later Zhao kingdom (319-351 CE) Sixteen Kingdoms Period (304-439 CE), Asian Art Museum of San Francisco Fig. 5 Seated Buddha Grey schist, Kushan Period (105-250 CE), 1st–mid-2nd century, Pakistan, ancient region of Gandhara, British Museum Fig. 6 Colossal Buddha, Cave 20 H: 45 ft., Sandstone, Dated 460-465 CE Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE), Cave 20, Yungang Grottoes, Datong, Shanxi Province Fig. 7 Detail of a Standing Buddha, Cave 18 H: 50 ft., Sandstone, Dated 460-465 CE Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE), Yungang Grottoes, Datong, Shanxi Province, From Yungang shiku wenwu baoguansuo, ed., Zhongguo shiku-Yungang shiku, vol. 2, plate 162.

Fig. 8 Detail of Seated Buddha, Cave 20 H: 42 1/2 ft., Sandstone, Dated 460-465 CE Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE), Yungang Grottoes, Datong, Shanxi Province, From Yungang shiku wenwu baoguansuo, ed., Zhongguo shiku-Yungang, shiku, vol. 2 Fig. 9 Standing Buddha Śākyamuni Black schist, Greco-Buddhist, Gandhar, 1st-2nd century CE, Kushan Dynasty (30-375 CE), Tokyo National Museum Fig. 10 Seated Buddha Śākyamuni with Attendants and Bodhisattvas H: 308 ft. x 204 ft., Grey schist with polychrome, 2nd-4th century CE, Kushan Dynasty (30-375 CE) or later, Collection of Claude de Marteau, Brussels Fig. 11 Seated Buddha with Attendants H: 36 5/8 in., Red sandstone, Mathura region, Uttar Pradesh, India, 2nd century, Kushan Dynasty (30-275 CE), Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth Fig. 12 Central Pillar and the Eastern Wall, Caves 6 Drawn plans of caves 5 and 6 (lower), Dated 466 - 494 CE Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE), Sandstone with pigments, Yungang Grottoes, Datong, Shanxi Province, From Yungang shiku wenwu baoguansuo, ed., Zhongguo shiku-Yungang shiku Fig. 13 Prince Siddhārtha Gautama Leaving the Palace Sandstone with pigment relief, Dated 466-494 CE Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE), Cave 6 at Yungang grottoes, Datong, Shanxi Province, From Yungang shiku wenwu baoguansuo, ed., Zhongguo shiku-Yungang shiku, vol. 1, plate 140 Fig. 14 Interior of Cave 254 Dated 494-525 CE Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE), Mogao grottoes, Dunhuang, Gansu Province, From Dunhuang wenwu yanjiusuo, ed., Zhongguo shiku-Dunhuang Mogao ku, vol. 1, plate 26 Fig. 15 Śākyamuni and Prabhūtaratna Buddha, Cave 169 H: 10 1/2 ft., Clay with colors, Dated 420 CE Western Qin Kingdom (Northern) (385-431 CE), Binglingsi Grottoes, Yongjing, Gansu Province, From Gansusheng wenwu gongzuodui, ed., Zhongguo shiku-Yongjing Bingling si, plate 34. Langzhou, Gansu Province Fig. 16 Maitreya-Amitayus Stele H: 3 3/4 ft., Stone, Dated 483 CE, Southern Qi Dynasty (479-502 CE), Discovered in Maowen County, Sichuan, Sichuan Provincial Museum, Chengdu Fig. 17 Interior of the Central Cave of Binyang with Seated Buddha and Attendants H: 31 1/4 ft. Limestone, Dated 505-523 CE Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE), Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang, Henan, From Liu Jinglong, Binyang dong, plate 18

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Fig. 18 Two Standing Buddhas H: 26 ft., Sandstone, Dated 509 CE Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE), Left wall of cave 165, Northern Cave Temples in Qingyang, Gansu Province From Zhongguo shiku diaosu quanji bianji weiyuanhui, ed., Zhongguo shiku diaosu quanji-2-Gansu, plate 172

Fig. 19 Altarpiece Dedicated to Buddha Maitreya H: 2 1/2 ft., Gilt bronze, Dated 524 CE Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE), Rogers Fund, 1938, 38.158.1a-n, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City Photograph courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Fig. 20 The Standing Buddha and His Attendants H: 2 3/4 ft., Limestone, Dated 543 CE Eastern Wei (Northern) (534-549 CE), Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston, Photograph by Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Fig. 21 Three Buddhas H: 19 1/2 ft., Sandstone Northern Zhou (557-581 CE), On the back wall of cave 51, Mt. Sumeru Grottoes, Guyuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Photograph by Chen Zhian Fig. 22 Buddhist Niche with Buddha and His Attendants H: 14 3/4 ft., Limestone Northern Qi (550-577 CE), On the right wall of the Southern Cave, Northern Xiangtangshan Grottoes, Handan, Hebei Province From Zhongguo shiku diaosu quanji bianji weiyuanhui, ed., Zhongguo shiku diaosu quanji-6-Beifang Liusheng, plate 135 Fig. 23 Stele Featuring Śākyamuni and Prabhūtaratna Marble Northern Qi (550-577 CE), Excavated in Zhengding, Hebei Province, Cultural Relics Protection Institute of Zhengding County, Hebei From Hebei Zhengdingxian wenwu baoguansuo, ed., Zhengding Longxing si, plate 239 Fig. 24 Standing Buddha H: 7 ft., Red sandstone, Ca. 5th century Gupta period (320-550 CE) From Mathura region, Uttar Pradesh, India, National Museum, New Delhi, India Fig. 25 Standing Sakyamuni Buddha Sandstone, Dated 529 CE (Southern) Liang period (502-557 CE), From Wanfo Temple, Chengdu, Sichuan, After Soper: Fig. 9 Fig. 26 “Ashokan Buddha” Stone, painted Northern Zhou period (557-581 CE), Ca. 561-570 CE From Chengdu, Sichuan, After Soper: Fig. 11 Fig. 27 Standing Buddha, Amaravati style Bronze, From Dong-duon, Vietnam, Saigon National Museum Fig. 28 Rubbing of Standing Buddha, Dated 558 CE Northern Qi period (550-577 CE) , Collection of Laurence Sickman, After Soper: fig. 20 Fig. 29 Standing Buddha Limestone Northern Qi (550-577 CE), Longxing monastery, Qingzhou, Shandong Province, Qingzhou City Museum From Hong Kong Museum of Art, ed., Buddhist Sculptures: New Discoveries from Qingzhou, p. 175.

Fig. 30 Standing Buddha Limestone Northern Qi (550-577 CE), Longxing monastery, Qingzhou, Shandong Province, Qingzhou City Museum After Zhao Puchu Qingzhou Longxingsi Fuojia Zaoxiang Yixu, Shandong Yixu Chubanshe, 1999, colorpl. 73 Fig. 31 Seated Buddha Stone, Amaravati Cave Temple, Amaravati capital, Andra Pradesh, India Fig. 32 Seated Buddha H: 2 ft., Limestone with gold leaf and polychrome Northern Qi (550-577 CE), Ruins of Longxing monastery, Qingzhou, Shandong Province, Qingzhou City Museum After Zhao Puchu, Qingzhou Longxingsi Fuojiao Zaoxiang Yixu, Shandong Yixu Chubanshe,1999, colorpl. 92 Fig. 33 Standing Bodhisattva Limestone Northern Qi (550-577 CE), Ruins of Longxing monastery, 1996, Qingzhou, Shandong Province, Qingzhou City Museum After Hong Kong Museum of Art, ed., Buddhist Sculptures: New Discoveries from Qingzhou, p. 275 Fig. 34 Standing Bodhisattva with Applied Gold and Colored Painting H: 3 1/2 ft., Limestone Northern Qi (550-577 CE), Excavated at the ruin of Longxing monastery, 1996, Qingzhou, Shandong Province, Qingzhou City Museum After Hong Kong Museum of Art, ed., Buddhist Sculptures: New Discoveries from Qingzhou, cat. 74 Map 1 Northern and Southern Dynasties China, Drawing and design by Louie Y. Liu Map 2 Northern Zhou (557-581 CE), Northern Qi (550-577 CE), and Southern Chen (557-589 CE), Drawing and design by Louie Y. Liu

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CATALOGUE

1. Standing Bodhisattva Northern Qi Period 550-577 CE Limestone H: 17 1/4 inches A beautiful, white marble image of a standing Guanyin bodhisattva holding a lotus bud in his right hand. The lotus, symbol of the bodhisattva’s purity of purpose and mind identifies the additional name in Sanskrit, Padmapani, “bearer of the lotus.� This Buddhist savior stands ramrod straight, except for a slight downward bend of the head aimed towards the devotee. A rich display of jewels ranging from strands of pearls held by a brooch at tummy level to a diadem formed out of floral lotuses with tiny triumvirates of suspended pearls decorate both body and head. The richness reflects the spiritual wealth of the Buddhist law and celebrates this Northern Qi expression of bodhisattva hood.

Although small in scale, the sculpture is a masterpiece of Northern Qi taste for luxuriant accouterments in combination with a pronounced and robust tubular head and body with prominently articulated hands, feet, and digits.

Fleshy hands and feet complement pronounced facial features of bowed eyebrows, heavily lidded eyes, long ridged nose, pursed lips, and a small double chin. In addition to the elongation of body, limbs, phalanges, and head are the earlobes that distinguish nobility and divinity. The front and back of the image are meticulously fashioned. The figure wears three types of clothing: the skirt called dhoti with undershirt crossing diagonally across the chest; second, a capelike shawl knotted with tie at the waist and silk scarf ends that overlap both arms in dramatically long rivulets at each side of the bodhisattva; and third, a clasp formed out of two circular knobs with ribbons that hold the pigtail strands of hair in place. The diadem is secured by two prominent floral bows. The binding, softly falling silken sashes, is elaborately decorated with what were originally probably three metalwork versions of lotus buds aligned with prominent rows of pearls. The lotus motif is further represented in the metal-shaped torque around the neck and by a different lotus design of a simulated metal clasp of the long body necklace. The body necklace in turn is composed of three aligned strands of pearls alternating with bow-shapes along the length of the body on both front and back sides. A further addition of enrichment is provided by the centralized silk ribbon hanging below the belly brooch with metal rings and bowed sections. The pleated skirt with a waterfall hemline is another example of the Northern Qi taste for rich detail through a rhythmical array of motifs, whether of drapery hemlines or folds, or a variation of jewelry.

The most immediate comparison is the colossal image, three times the size of the Throckmorton statue, on exhibit in the Buddhist galleries at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (The Sackler Fund, 1965, no. 65.29.4).

The latter Northern Qi Bodhisattva is created out of sandstone, typical of the Yungang grottoes outside Datong, Shanxi province, whereas the present statue is created out of white marble, probably from Hebei or Shandong province. Both statues favor the exhibition of extravagant jewelry on bodies of tubular proportions, once also elaborately painted with multiple colors.

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2. Standing Buddha with Partial Halo Late Northern to Eastern Wei Period 520-550 CE Limestone Shandong Provence H: 42 inches This exquisite example of a standing Buddha, with a partially preserved halo, would originally have been painted with a patchwork robe, typifying Sakyamuni Buddha. Faint traces of red originally formed an outer mantle of rectangular red patches separated by light-toned bands. Hands are missing yet would have been rhythmically balanced in upward and downward gestures of abhaya (fear not) and varada (bringing the earth to witness). The plinth and lotus base would have raised the image to at least five feet. The statue is carved in the round, a phenomenon that begins during the Late Northern Wei and thereafter is common to Buddhist images ranging from bodhisattvas to monks and Buddhas.

The nimbus with central lotus petal is carved from the same limestone as the Buddha. The major emphasis is still on a frontal perspective and the back is summarily treated.

The treatment of drapery and the loosening of an earlier stiff archaic smile and facial expression characterize stylistic changes of the later Eastern and Western Wei periods. The gentle smile, dreamy eyes and forward projecting ushnisha show stylistic changes in favor of harmonic rhythms. Although the cranial protuberance is still large, as it was during the Northern Wei era, this part of the hair and the hair of the head are now rendered not as wavy plaits of the Gandharan and Indian prototype but as small-scale uniform knobs.

The new relaxed style of the latter Wei periods is well represented by rippling edges of hems, garment folds, and hanging ribbons. The mantle falling over weak shoulders, although slung over the left arm rather than shoulder is treated symmetrically, gathering and descending in U-shaped folds down the center of the figure. Immediate parallels are well represented by the numerous statues discovered in association with Longxing Temple in Qingzhou, Shandong (see e.g., Zhao Puchu 2003 figs. 25, 35, 37, 49). For the look of an original limestone statue that retains most of its paint, see Zhao 2003:37.

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3. Head of Buddha Northern Wei Period 386-534 CE Limestone H: 15 1/2 inches, W: 17 inches The Buddha head is sculpted out of what was originally painted limestone, which is corroborated by the remnants of polychrome paint. The head is part of a larger sculpture, probably representing a standing image of the historic Buddha Sakyamuni with body mandorla and the head halo signifying divinity. Identifying lakshana or holy attributes include the third eye once filled with a precious, probably jade, stone, elongated earlobes, and ushnisha or cranial protuberance. In style, the image reflects the transition between the earliest Buddhist type described in art historical literature as the Archaic Style and the second the Sinified style. The residue of the earliest Archaic style appears in the telltale feature of the mouth, curled upwards at the corner, as if in simulation of the “western� archaic Greek interpretation of the mouth. At this point the Buddha wears the Chinese robe that opens at the front, here signified by folds symmetrically falling over the sloping shoulders of the deity. Based on facial features and Chinese robe this head of Buddha dates to the late fifth/early sixth century, just after the Toba Wei moved their capital south to Luoyang (494 CE) and opened up caves at Longmen as a continuation of what had begun with the five cave temples at Yungang, opened at the earlier capital of Datong, Shanxi.

Numerous comparable examples derive from the cave temples of the Six Dynasties Mogao caves at Dunhuang, at the end of the Silk Road in Gansu province and the newly opened Six Dynasties cave temple of Binyang of N. Wei date at Longmen, as well as at other sites, including the Gongxian caves at Gongyi, Henan, and Qingzhou, Shandong (see Zhongguo shiku diaosu quanji bianji weiyuanhui, ed., Zhongguo shiku diaosu quanji 6-Beifang liusheng, fig. 15; Zhongguo meishu quanji bianji weiyuanhui, ed., Zhongguo meishu quanji-Diaosu bian 3-Wei Jin Nanbeichao diaosu, fig.

147; Hong Kong Museum of Art, ed., Buddhist Sculptures: New Discoveries from Qingzhou, Shandong Province, p. 129).

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4. Seated Bodhisattva Guanyin (as Padmapani) on an Hourglass Throne Eastern Wei/ Northern Qi Period 535-577 CE Marble with Polychrome H: 20 inches The seated marble image of the bodhisattva holding a lotus identifies the image of Guanyin bodhisattva as Padmapani, or bearer of the lotus. The lotus identifies the purity of Buddha hood, made famous by the painted version of the same deity in the Guptan Buddhist cave temple of Ajanta, India. The bodhisattva sits with folded legs on an hourglass lotus throne created by a top seat of upward pointing lotus sepals and a lower frame of downward pointing lotus sepals.

The bodhisattva (one with knowledge of enlightenment) wears humble jewelry in the form of a metal torque around the neck and a festooned headdress with ribbons hanging to left and right behind the deity’s ears. Clothing consists of an outer shawl, inner shirt crossing diagonally and cinched with a tie, and a dhoti skirt. The slim ribbon ends of the shawl loop downwards toward the lap and up over each arm and further downwards, falling as soft curling folds at either side of the throne. The back and front hemlines of the dhoti skirt are caught in symmetrically relaxed cascading folds by the underlying sepals of the lotus dais. An inner tenon fastened at chest level secures the lotus bud held by the enlightened one. The artist creates a balance of hand gestures in a unique design of one up and one down, and with the second and third digits pointed upwards or downwards. Balance and harmony are often goals of the Buddhist artist working in China, as revealed in the symmetrical and repeated movements of relaxed folds of drapery, trailing scarves of the cape, which are mimicked in the similar softly rounded shape of lotus sepals, plates of hair, and floral projections of the crown.

Clothes and dais were once brightly colored, yet exposed body parts (face, ears, neck, arms, hands, and upturned soles of the feet) are defined by the pearl white polish of the original marble stone. The simplicity of dress retains earlier Northern Wei practice, yet the lyrical expression and attention to fleshy body parts is entirely Eastern Wei to Northern Qi in style. Lotus sepals, body parts, clothing, and headdress are all tenderly modulated. The third-dimensional interpretation of the image is evident in side and back views where clothing, especially the cape-shape of shawl, overlapping flap of the dhoti skirt, and hourglass shape of the throne are clearly articulated. The small-scale of this image suggests it once decorated a personal altar.

Additional comparisons include seated bodhisattvas in the pose of royal ease, with one leg folded and the other extended down, from Longxing Temple in Qingzhou, Shandong of Eastern Wei and Northern Qi dates (see Compassion 2003: pl. 14, pp. 42-44 and Return 2002: fig. 169, p. 151).

Bodhisattva Padmapani, wall mural, Ajanta Cave, India Guptan period (left). Bodhisattva Guanyin Padmapani, rock-cut limestone cave, Guyang, Longmen, Henan province, Eastern Wei period (right).

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5. Head of Buddha Eastern Wei Period Shandong Provence 534-550 CE Limestone H: 16 inches This is a superb example of a head of a Buddha belonging to the Eastern Wei period, of the mid-sixth century, circa 534550 CE. The stone head most likely originally belonged to a standing image of the Buddha, now lost, but one that stood independent of a mandorla and halo that typically accompanied standing images in symbolizing the Buddha’s divinity.

The head retains the somewhat squared head shape and the prominently projecting ushnisha of earlier Northern Wei images, yet is covered with a plaque of similar small-scale, wheel-shaped curls of hair that typify later Wei and Northern Qi Buddha images. The squint of the eyes with fishtail ends, softening of the nasal ridge, and bulging of the lips portray the new interests of the Eastern Wei style. The head is also remarkably full and robust, in presaging the direction taken

by Northern Qi styles. Comparisons include various limestone sculptures comprising steles and independent pieces on exhibit at the Qingzhou Municipal Museum (see below).

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6. Head of a Bodhisattva Northern Qi Period 535-577 CE Marble H: 13 1/4 inches This over-sized head, with traces of polychrome paint, belonged originally to a statue of a bodhisattva. The diadem type headdress is clearly defined by three semicircular lotus motifs surrounded by floral flourishes. The semi-circular crown is held in place by a headband with bowed loops and ribbons flanking the sides of the head behind the ears.

Part of the hair is piled at the top in an oval shaped bun, whereas two lower tresses of hair divide into two plaits, which if they had been preserved intact, would have extended into a right and left set of three further strands of hair trailing down each upper arm.

White marble is the preferred stone for creating Buddhist art works during the sixth century. The stone was quarried near the Eastern Wei and Northern Qi capital of Ye, in Hebei province. One prominent mine was located in Quyang, Dingzhou county neighboring Shandong province, thus the “white stone� was in ready supply and popularly exploited. Many heads of similar proportion and style have been salvaged from the ruins of temples in Shandong and Hebei (see e.g., Zhao 2003: figs. 187-189; Return 2001: nos. 22 and 36, pp. 35 and 46). White symbolized purity in traditional Chinese lore and for this reason was favored as a material for creating Buddhist images. It is unlikely that the purest of white marble sculptures were painted or gilded; rather the stone was polished to a brilliant white sheen in keeping with the desired skin color of a princely Chinese figure.

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7. Standing Bodhisattva Eastern Wei/Northern Qi Period 535-577 CE Limestone with Polychrome H: 26 inches w/ base

This freestanding image of a bodhisattva typifies the mid-sixth century preference for sculpting images averaging onehalf to one-third life-size. The limestone sculpture is a high quality image of the Eastern Wei or early Northern Qi period. The expression is angelic and contemplative. Fully formed oval heads standing on slender bodies with slightly bulging stomachs contrast with intricate and rich detail rendered through softly modeled drapery folds and elaborate jewelry.

Gilding is preserved on the face and other exposed body parts. Scattered remains of red and blue color adhere to hair, headdress, and clothing. The diadem is defined by suspended pearl swags and an upper level of rosettes.

Although parts of the scarf which drapes over the arms are missing, as are the hands, the latter would have represented opposing hand gestures. Although the interpretation of the figure favors a slim and modestly defined body, the sculpture is three-dimensional and intended to be seen from all sides. Long strands of aligned pearls alternating with gemstones are cinched by a central brooch on both the front and rear sides of the image.

Clothing composed of a shoulder cape, inner shirt, dhoti skirt, a rich display of jewelry, and a decorated diadem identify a princely likeness for the typical bodhisattva image. A cape lies across shoulders and upper back, and at the front continues as drapery festoons that symmetrically cross under the brooch in creating long and large symmetrical loops. In contrast to the serenity of the face, the gentle folds of drapery are busy. Hemlines end in softly rippling edges. Ribbons of the headdress frame the head. Longitudinal sashes extend in bas-relief down the front of the figure’s clothing, yet are whimsically decorated with knotted bows and ends simulating cut pieces of ribbon. A lotus stand would have supported the plinth and added further height to the standing image.

The idiosyncratic diadem created as a starched cap with raised bands of this figure is comparable to the diadem worn by the bodhisattva from the Longxing Temple in Qingzhou, Shandong that came to the United States for exhibit in 2002 (Return 2002: no. 12, p. 100). This interpretation is one variation of the creative genius for detail that characterizes stylistic variations on interpretations of the Buddha and bodhisattva image during the mid-sixth century.

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8. Standing Bodhisattva Eastern Wei / Northern Qi Period 535-577 CE Marble H: 29 inches This just over two foot-tall, marble image represents the popular bodhisattva Guanyin (Avalokitesvara). His identifying attribute is the water flask held in his right hand. Freestanding, the statue is intact with all limbs and hands, and probably originally stood on a lotus-shaped base, no longer intact. Traces of a rich polychrome surface appear in areas of the clothing and diadem. From one piece of marble the sculptor has created a moving three-dimensional image with the intent of being viewed from all sides. Front, back, and sides are meticulously worked, showing the swaying form and complete dress of a typical late Wei and Northern Qi bodhisattva. The long string of jewels that forms an X-design down the front of the body is carefully continued at the back of the figure, emerging below the cape in a similar symmetrical design. Typical of Northern Wei bodhisattva dress, are the four attributes, dhoti skirt, a cape with long ribbon scarves, a body necklace, and diadem. Yet, typical of Eastern Wei and Northern Qi interests the scarf ends have a rhythm of their own and the dhoti skirt may also take on a life of its own, in this case created as doubled, as represented by the softly curling double hemlines. The Eastern Wei and Northern Qi love for creative detail is extended to the delicately carved lotus in relief emerging at the base back of the statue.

The whimsical treatments of standardized features of clothing is characteristic of Eastern Wei and Northern Qi taste and is key to understanding the respect and love by sculptor and patron alike for Buddhism during this heyday period of the mid-sixth century. The ribbon ends of Guanyin’s diadem hang symmetrically and end at shoulder level.

The scarves of the shoulder cape on the other hand, although seemingly symmetrical since each is treated by two Ushaped drapes at chest and lower body level, nonetheless follow this rhythmic arrangement by overlapping left and right arm at different levels. The artist has also taken liberties by creating two (not one) hem edges that undulate as tiny symmetrical rising and falling loops, three at the back and three at the lower hem at the front. The second hemline at the front of the figure is divided lengthwise into two with its own terminals of big staccato flaring curls, a detail that is a pure artistic invention. In order to secure this creative imagery, two tenons are added as horizontal support between scarf ends and the body. As a stylistic variation of bodhisattva dress, the dhoti skirt during this era may be bound at the waist or lower chest level by a knotted sash, without representation of an inner shirt. The subtle play of drapery folds, so distinctive of this mid-sixth century style may be observed across north and south Buddhist borders, including other bodhisattvas in the Western Wei Cave 27 at Maijishan, the life-size stone image with mandorla, dated 552 CE from Changzi County, Shaanxi, and the considerably larger, life-size image statue in the Miho Museum, most likely from Shandong province (Miho Museum 1997: no. 124, pp. 243-246).

The full face with bulging cheeks presages the naturalistic interests of Northern Qi sculptors. The long and slender understated body with swayback and inventive clothing, nonetheless is also comparable to other images of Eastern and Western Wei through Northern Qi and Northern Zhou date from the Longxing Temple in Qingzhou and Longhua Temple in Boxing, Shandong (Return 2002: no. 12 and fig. 69, pp. 100-101), as well as to stone sculptures of Western Wei or Northern Zhou date from the Maijishan Cave Temple in Tianshui, Gansu province (Juliano and Lerner 2001: no. 66, p. 187). The comparison to the Maijishan sculpture is particularly telling. Although the Guanyin statue from Maijishan is considerably taller, at 57 inches, style and form of mid-sixth century date are comparable. The Maijishan Guanyin holds a lotus bud in his raised right hand as opposed to the marble image here who holds a water bottle. The two similarly have tripartite crowns without the telltale image of the meditating Amitabha Buddha that is so characteristic of this image in later Buddhist art (Juliano and Lerner 2001: no. 71, p. 197).

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9. Stele with Bodhisattva Pair Northern Qi Period 550-577 CE Marble H: 13 1/2 inches Two bodhisattvas in relief on a small white marble stele stand symmetrically as mirror images of each other. They hold an incense bag in one hand and raise the other hand, although the gesture is not clear. The twin bodhisattva image reflects the Chinese interest in natural balance, as had been reflected in the well-known Mahayana text, the Lotus Sutra relating the narrative of the Buddha of the Past who came to site with the historic Sakyamuni Buddha (Fig. A below).

The same symmetrical theme was adopted in Buddhist imagery of the bodhisattva, although the theme of two bodhisattvas flanking the Buddha had been celebrated since the beginning of Mahayana Buddhist imagery of earlier Indian origin. Just as there had been more than one Buddha in the past and as there would be more in the future, so too is this sculpture indicative of the bodhisattva image. These twin bodhisattva images without Buddha appear in imagery during the late Wei and Northern Qi periods as a complement to the celebration of the twin Buddha theme related in the Mahayana bible. Pairs of mirror Guanyin standing bodhisattvas of the later Tang period on a stele the Ostasiatische Kunst in Cologne hold Guanyin attributes of the lotus and water vase and are identified by inscription. Two portable bodhisattva attendants of Guanyin surviving in the portable shrine from fourteenth century Korea are two other of the few identified by inscription (see below).

Another Northern Qi marble stele in the Ostasiastische Kunst in Cologne (see below) features twin bodhisattvas and at the top the familiar “miraculous stupa” housing twin Buddhas, who sit to discuss the law of the Lotus Sutra.

Another interesting yet “southern” comparison dating to the Liang dynastic period (502-557 CE) belongs to the Wanfo Temple in Chengdu, Sichuan (see China: 5000 Years Innovation and Transformation in the Arts, New York: Guggenheim Museum, 1998: no. 151) The present stele appears to be unfinished due to the lack of articulation of the right and left hands of the two bodhisattvas. No inscription specifying donor or image on either front or back of the stele exists. The plump bellies, fleshy hands, and double chins of the images, nonetheless indicate that the stele belongs to Buddhist art of the Eastern Wei and Northern Qi.

Figures A, B, C. Different paired images of either Buddhas (far left) or Guanyin bodhisttvas (far right). Gilt bronze stele of Sakyamuni and Prabhutaratna, 534 CE, Musée Guimet; Gilt bronze portable shrine with freestanding mirror images of Guanyin bodhisattvas, North Korea, fourteenth century; marble stele with paired bodhisattvas, 37 1/4 inches, Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst, Cologne.

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10. Standing Buddha Sui Period 581-618 CE Marble with Polychrome H: 29 1/2 inches

This marble sculpture features a half life-size standing image of Sakyamuni Buddha. Although the hands and their gestures have been damaged, the statue and lotus stand are remarkably well preserved. The image is a classic example of late Northern Qi and Sui style, comparable to stone-cut temple sculptures, as well as to free-standing stone ones known in temples of north China. The Buddha is dressed in monastic clothing typifying Chinese interpretations: an outer sanghati robe is draped symmetrically over both shoulders, an inner shirt runs diagonally across the chest, and an inner dhoti skirt is articulated only by a second hem line.

In form, the image is slim and columnar. Although there is little interest in the physical body its presence is subtly marked by the indentation of the robe following the outline of the torso and the limbs. Folds of the outer robe are simply treated as broad mechanical loops. On the figure’s back, the end of the outer robe is fleetingly defined overlapping the right shoulder and the robe’s mass by three arching fold lines. In contrast to the understated body, the head is meticulously carved. Small-scale wheel curls symmetrically girdle the head with a terminal oval and a faintly protruding ushnisha, one of the Buddha’s holy attributes. Ears are typically elongated. Facial features are tenderly modeled, emphasizing tranquility through slightly opened eyes, strength through a long aquiline nose and full cheeks, and humanity through voluptuous, undercut fleshy lips.

Comparative pieces derive from both museums and in situ sculptures in China (see e.g., Zhao 2003: figs. 52, p.

50, 69, p. 67, 71, p. 69, 73, p. 71, and 78, p. 75). The variety of interpretations of drapery (including robe, inner shirt, and shoulder cover of the outer robe) during the late Wei through Northern Qi periods underscores the interest and the desire to represent the Buddha in the most inventive and creative fashion.

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11. Standing Buddha Northern Qi Period 550-577 CE Marble with Polychrome H: 29 1/2 inches

This limestone sculpture features a half life-size standing image of Sakyamuni Buddha with hands preserved in two mudras of protection and generosity. The two opposing gestures, abhaya and varada, consistently appear together in identifying the historic Buddha. The statue is impeccably intact, preserved with plinth in the form of an inverted lotus framed by small-scale guardian lions. At the back, a lotus worked in low relief rises out of the plinth to the base of the figure. Classically Northern Qi and Sui in expression, the image combines strength and equanimity, through a balance of volume and detail. The monastic clothing of the Buddha is defined by an outer sanghati robe draped, here symmetrically over both shoulders, an inner shirt defined by a diagonal, and an inner dhoti skirt articulated only by a second hem line.

The strong columnar form and vertical disposition of the image are tempered by the movement of the hands and repeated undulation of drapery folds. The simplicity of the robe and understated body are in addition subtly challenged by the rippling edge of the hem and robustly powerful carving of the head, all of which are attributes of the new style formed during the Northern Qi and Sui periods. Busy but symmetrically aligned small-scale curls cover the head in forming a soft protrusion of ushnisha, one of the holy attributes of the Buddha. Ears are typically elongated.

Facial features are tenderly modeled, emphasizing tranquility through slightly opened eyes, strength through a long aquiline nose and full cheeks, and humanity through voluptuous, undercut fleshy lips.

Comparative pieces derive from both museums and in situ sculptures in China (see e.g., Zhao 2003: figs. 52, p.

50, 69, p. 67, 71, p. 69, 73, p. 71, and 78, p. 75).

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12. Standing Bodhisattva Eastern Wei / Northern Qi Period Shandong Province 534-577 CE Limestone H: 43 inches The limestone statue represents an appealing image of the bodhisattva type fashioned during the late Eastern Wei through early Northern Qi periods. Left and right arms are missing, as are the middle portion of the ribbons of the cape that were designed to loop over the arms and fall to left and right sides of the upper body. Standard bodhisattva attributes include the dress of an “Indian prince,� represented here by a diadem with side bows and ribbons, a torque style necklace, shawl, and dhoti skirt. The clothing and hair of the bodhisattva were once colorfully equipped, as suggested by remnants of red color adhering to the crown. Characterized by a swayback with projecting midriff, the slim statue breaths contemplation and control, as typifies the air of bodhisattvas from the mid- sixth century.

Characteristic of middle sixth century style is the Sinified interpretation of body forms that are supple and narrow in proportions. The forward thrust of the belly and lack of hips is new to late Wei and Northern Qi styles, emanating from an approach that retreats from a prominent Indian belly to one more suave and elegant, ideal and matching the calligraphic stroke of a brush. This phenomenon is best represented by extant Buddha and Bodhisattva stone-carved images from the northwest cave temple of Maijishan in Gansu province. The dress of the figure retains its prototypical version of Northern Wei with bare upper body and dhoti drooping over the waistline at both front and back of the statue. Yet new to this third phase in the evolution of Chinese Buddhist styles is the taste for symmetry and the budding interest in decorative detail, here signified by parallel ribbon panels with circular buckles aligning the skirt, as well as by the crossed ribbons of the cape on the front of the statue and hanging ribbons of the diadem. The full, squared yet oval face is interpreted with broader facial features that define the Eastern Wei rather than the more narrow frame of facial features characteristic of Northern Qi. Most likely, a large cintamani flaming jewel rested at the statue’s lower back and above an inverted lotus plinth.

Comparisons may also be drawn with free-standing sculptures of limestone and marble bodhisattvas from the Longxing Temple in Qingzhou, Shandong and Longhua Temple in Boxing County, and with stone cut bodhisattva images from the Pinyang Cave at Longmen grottos in Henan (Longmen shiku 1980: pl. 122).

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13. Standing Buddha Northern Wei to Eastern Wei Period 530-550 CE Marble with Gilt and Polychrome H: 28 1/2 inches w/base This half life-size statue is a classic example of new directions taken in representing Eastern Wei images of Buddha.

The statue is carved out of marble with remains of original blue and red paint, and gilding of flesh surfaces. Although the hands of the Buddha are no longer extant, from the disposition of the arms it is evident they once were held in the familiar “fear not (abhaya)” and “bringing the earth to witness (varada)” hand gestures (mudras). The Buddha wears the traditional monastic garb: an outer robe plus an inner shirt lying diagonally across the chest, and an inner dhoti skirt, visible only as a hemline at the statue’s ankles. He is clothed simply, without jewelry. A freestanding circular halo with inner lotus flower or body mandorla once probably framed the Buddha’s head in a symbol of divinity. Protruding at the top of his head is a cranial extension, one of the thirty-two lakshana symbols sacred to the historic Buddha Sakyamuni. Hair of the Buddha and his ushnisha maintain the standard Northern Wei style defined by a central centripetal starburst (shape of a cakra wheel with spokes) of hair strands flanked by undulating waves of hair around the rest of the head. Folds of cloth are rendered as incised lines along the front of the cassock and their hems are treated as softly suspended symmetrical ripples, a mark of the Eastern Wei taste that does away with jagged edges of drapery typifying earlier Wei style.

Although the hair retains a wave-like treatment with central whorl, tall ushnisha, and the reverse of the image is summarily treated in following Northern Wei norms, the swayback posture and projection of the head forecast new yet modest interests in movement of the mid and later sixth century. The head projects slightly forward in welcoming the devotee. Similarly the outer robe and inner dhoti begin to assume a new interest in symmetry, particularly evident in the taste for rippling hemline ends of robes and skirts. Eyelids, barely open, suggest a meditative mood yet the springing eyebrow and slight smile project inner peace and compassion. The remains of gilding and polychrome color document what originally beamed as a glowing and colorful image of Buddhism’s historical leader.

The most illuminating comparisons include images still extant in the cave temples at Longmen in Henan, Gongxian, also in Henan, and at Maijishan in Gansu province (see e.g., Michael Sullivan, The Cave Temples of Maijishan, London: Faber and Faber, 1969: pl. 67).

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14. Head of a Buddha Northern Qi Period 550-557 CE Limestone H: 11 1/2 inches This half life-size head of the Buddha is a model example of what Northern Qi artists achieved in sculpting locally available, white marble. Although once part of a larger composition, including a circular framing halo and slender standing columnar body, the head stands out as an exquisite example of the artistic heights reached by the mid-sixth century.

The head exudes strength and tranquility, qualities embraced by both clients and devotees. The robustly defined head is full and naturalistically idealized. The slightly open eyes and gentle, benevolent smile express a dream-like state representative of enlightenment. The Buddha’s hair is a composition of curls resembling row upon row of pearls and contrasts with the smooth surfaces of fleshy face. The tall ushnisha type of cranial protuberance of early Northern Wei styles is lost for a mere subtle bulge covered by the same curls as the rest of the head. The slight linear spring of the eyebrows and aquiline ridge of the nose in turn contrast with the deeply undercut lips and nostrils in giving the form vigor.

Comparative examples derive from temple sites in Shandong and Hebei (Zhao 2003; cover colorplate and Fig. 111, p. 98, and Figs. 92, p. 82, 110, p. 97, 117, p. 103, and 118, p. 104; also see Return 2002: figs. 27B and C, pp.140, 142-143 and 18, p.117) and from cave temple sites at Xiangtangshan in Fengfeng, southern Hebei (see Freer Gallery of Art), and Tianlongshan, southwest of Taiyuan, Shanxi. This exquisite example of Northern Qi Buddhist art may also be compared to other stellar marble sculptures of similar date further west from cave temple sites in Bingzhou in Taiyuan, Shanxi, to temple sites in Xian, Shaanxi, as well as to museum examples (see e.g., the 53 inches tall stone statue of a standing Buddha in the Chung Tai Museum in Puli, Nantou County, Taiwan).

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15. Standing Buddha Northern Wei Period 386-534 CE Limestone H: 25 1/2 inches from base A half life-size, classic Northern Wei image of Buddha carved out of limestone with remains of original blue and red paint. Although the hands of the Buddha are no longer extant, from the disposition of the arms it is evident they once were held in the familiar “fear not (abhaya)” and “bringing the earth to witness (varada)” hand gestures (mudras).

The Buddha wears the traditional monastic garb: an outer robe, an inner shirt secured by knotted sash across the chest, and an inner dhoti skirt, visible only as a hemline at the statue’s ankles. He is clothed simply, without jewelry.

Protruding at the top of his head is a cranial extension (ushnisha), one of the ten lakshana symbols sacred to the historic Buddha Sakyamuni. Hair is defined by centripetal sunburst circles (shape of cakra wheel with spokes) and waving backward flowing swatches of hair. The rhythmic treatment of drapery and the angelic expression date the image stylistically to the Northern Wei of the early sixth century, the second phase in the evolution of Buddhist styles in China. Folds of cloth fall down arms and body and end in gently swaying edges. Emphasis is frontal, as revealed by the simplified treatment of side and back faces of the statue. Eyelids barely open suggest a meditative mood, yet the springing eyebrow and slight smile project inner peace and compassion.

The most illuminating comparisons are those made with images still extant in the Northern Wei Cave Temple at Longmen, Henan (Tokiwa Daijo and Sekino Tadashi, ed., Shina Bunka Shiseki, vol. 8, plate II-28), but as well with the monumental limestone image, at 21 feet tall, from the site of Xingguo monstery in Boxing prefecture, Shandong (Fascination and Compassion 2003: Fig. 6, p. 64, now in the Qingdao Muncipal Museum, see Return 2001: Fig. 35, p. 45).

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16. Head of a Bodhisattva Northern Qi Period 550-577 CE Marble H:18 3/4 inches The limestone life-size head of the bodhisattva is quintessentially Northern Qi in date. Although considerably damaged, particularly noticeable in the loss of the upper part of the crown, the body is also missing. The head nonetheless exudes confidence and strength expressed through the rotund shape of head marked by subtle yet distinctive facial features: springing edges of eyebrows are echoed in slightly open eyes with prominent oval lids and a strongly accented aquiline ridge of nose framed by full cheeks and deeply undercut, sensuously modeled lips. From the side and back views the hair is characterized by the fashion of Northern Qi bodhisattvas. The front portion of the hair is separated into braided parts, modeled as overlapping plaits, that as long locks of hair originally extended along the shoulders. The other part of hair is caught in a high chignon at the crown of the head. The preserved part of the crown indicates an original design of large central floral bracket flanked by similar but smaller examples encircled by beaded simulations of pearls.

A equally sensuous example of Northern Qi date derives from the recent discovery of remains from Qingzhou in Shandong (see MusĂŠe Cernuschi, Les Buddhas du Shandong, Paris: Paris-MusĂŠe 2010: cover figure and no. 26, pp.120; MusĂŠe de Qingzhou). The spectacularly beautiful body of the latter excavated statue suggests that this largescale limestone head was once bedecked with elaborate jewels and attached to a robust, strong columnar body.

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17. Head of Bodhisattva Northern Qi Period 550-577 CE Marble with Polychrome H: 16 inches This life-size marble head represents the bodhisattva Guanyin. The notable feature is the crown’s small Buddha, identifying the Buddha of the Western Paradise whom as acolyte Guanyin serves. Remaining patches of polychrome paint and encrusted gold point to a once elaborately colorful image of an original standing bodhisattva. Features identifying Northern Qi style include not only the robust delineation of a strong head and deeply undercut facial features, but also the imaginative interpretation of hair and diadem.

Typically the bodhisattva is characterized by jewels, whether decorating the body as a pectoral, the neck by a torque, wrists and upper arms with bracelets, earlobes with earrings, or the forehead by a diadem attached by matching bows at the side of the head, which continue as a narrow band at the back of the head. The diadem here is an elaborate combination of lotus spitting strands of jewels, a large central lotus bud framing a small Buddha image and pearl studded festoons that loop and end in a final single strand of pendant pearls springing out of lotus sepals. Floral details of small hook curls symmetrically define the edges of the brackets, and miniature lotuses fill spaces at the top of the diadem. The tiny Buddha image is particularly enchanting since the deity sits lotus style against a halo, as if in command of the pearl studded festoons enshrouded within the Buddha’s drapery folds. The commanding miniature image is also set off by an inverted lotus petal throne, which, in turn, is supported by a plinth in the form of a floral jewel attached to the center of the bodhisattva’s diadem. This richly endowed headpiece is decorously matched by large circular, gold encrusted earrings shaped like rosettes. The overlapping bas-relief plaits of hair, each carefully outlined, add further pattern and texture to the richly jeweled display. In contrast, the face is tenderly modeled. Eyebrows spring above heavily lidded eyes. A long triangular nasal ridge leads to closed lips in creating an ultimate expression of control through concentration and meditation.

Comparisons may be drawn with other statues and heads of Northern Qi date, particularly those remaining from temples in Hebei and Shandong (halo w/ small Buddha pls. 191-193; Zhao Puqu, Qingzhou Longxingsi fojiao zaoxiangyishu, Shandong Arts Publishers, 2003: pls. 158-159 and pls. 161-162 head detail, see below)

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18. Standing Buddha Northern Qi Period Shandong Provence 550-577 CE Limestone H: 27 inches This half life-size limestone sculpture is an excellent example of Northern Qi creations of the historic Buddha Sakyamuni. Although the hands are missing, they may be reconstituted as ones forming the gestures of “fear not (abhaya)” and “bringing the earth to witness (varada),” by right and left hands respectively. The three-dimensional image once most likely was accompanied by a halo or body mandorla and a lotus plinth so would have stood more than several inches taller. The columnar body form with understated physicality typifies Northern Qi expression and style. A slight swayback and abdomen bulge suggesting modest movement are elegantly complemented by a slight ripple of hemlines including shoulder throw of the robe, as well as by the large U-shaped loop with lapel opening of the outer robe and by deeply undercut cavernous hollows formed by the overlapping folds and clinging drapery along the sides of the image. Simple curving shadow lines define drapery folds. The subtle emerging lotus (also identified as a flaming cintamani jewel) emerges in relief at the bottom reverse of the image. The monumental effect of this late sixth century image is enhanced by the squarely placed bare feet, overly large head by comparison to the body, and competent modeling of facial features with airtight cheeks.

Comparisons are easily drawn with Northern Qi Buddhas extant in stone-cut caves and freestanding temples of northern China, particularly Shandong (see Zhao 2003: pls. 54-55, 66, 91, 173).

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19. Standing Buddha Northern Qi Period Shandong Provence 550-577 CE Limestone H: 32 inches This limestone painted sculpture represents the historical Buddha exercising traditional hand gestures of fear not (abhaya) and bringing the earth to witness (varada), the two virtues most commonly associated with this divinity. The statue is remarkably intact, minus what was originally an inverted lotus plinth of support at the base of the figure. The figural interpretation is quintessentially Northern Qi in style, compact and columnar with a large and meticulously rendered head and hair mass. The de-emphasis on physicality is shown in the androgynously slight, swayback body with bulging stomach. The traditional dress of monastic robe is thrown over the left shoulder of the Buddha, exposing the right shoulder. Drapery “clings” to the body and the folds are minimized, engraved as diagonal lines across the body and arms. No folds are identified at the rear of the image.

In the spirit of the age, the head is the center of expression. Calmness and inner peace are reflected through eyes almost closed in reverie and by strongly undercut facial features. In keeping with religious codes, the Buddha’s hair is characterized by row upon row of wheeling curls and by elongated ears. The curls are uncharacteristically large, compared with other treatments of this period. The head projects forward as if to welcome a devotee.

Comparisons to this limestone image of the Buddha are well represented amidst sculptures unearthed at the temple of Longxing in Qingzhou, Shandong (see e.g., Zhao 2003: Figs. 59, 80, 81, 84-87, pp. 57, 77-80; Return 2001: Fig. 24, p. 133).

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20. Standing Bodhisattva Eastern Wei Period 535-550 CE Limestone H: 26 inches This free-standing image of a bodhisattva typifies the mid-sixth century practice for sculpting images averaging onehalf to one-third life-size. The limestone sculpture is a high quality image of the earliest phase of the Eastern Wei period.

The expression is angelic and contemplative. A fully formed squared-oval head on a slender body with sloping shoulders contrasts with the intricate and rich detail rendered through softly modeled drapery folds and elaborate jewelry.

Gilding is preserved on the face and other exposed body parts. Scattered remains of red and blue color adhere to hair, headdress, and clothing. Although the hands are missing, they would have represented different gestures. The image lacks physicality and the head is overly large compared to the slim body, yet the statue is three-dimensional and intended to be seen from all sides. Long strands of jewelry are cinched by a central brooch on both the front and back sides at the center of the image.

Clothing typifies the princely attire of the bodhisattva, which includes a shoulder cape, inner shirt, dhoti skirt, and a rich display of jewelry and decorated diadem. A cape lies across the shoulders and upper back, and at the front continues as drapery festoons that symmetrically cross under the brooch in creating long and large symmetrical loops for the display at front only for the overlapping X-pattern of the body jewelry. The cape’s long ribbons continue to loop over each arm and end in descending streams of waterfall patterns. Symmetry of design and textural variation of detail dominate if not overwhelm all parts of this bodhisattva’s clothing. The dhoti skirt is anything but relaxed. Vertical pleats end at top and bottom in small-scale curls representing gathered drapery folds. The strong triangulation of the hemline is rhythmically enriched by other vertical elements, in addition to the rich textural variations of jewelry, whether it be the complex floral arrangement of torque, thick pearl studded silken ropes of the body dÊcor, or the echo effect of head dress ribbons, three strands of hair braids defined at shoulder edges and overlapping plaits of hair braids.

The diadem is idiosyncratic in creation. A starched high-rising diadem is crowned with jeweled circlets, and marked at the back of the head by a narrow band and above the lower portion of the hair that separates and flows into triplet strands of hair. This bodhisattva type is comparable the bodhisattva from the Longxing Temple in Qingzhou, Shandong that came to the United States for exhibit in 2002 (Return 2002: no. 12, p. 100). This interpretation is one variation of the creative genius for detail that characterizes stylistic variations on interpretations of the Buddha and bodhisattva images during the mid-sixth century (see below).

Standing Bodhisattva (left), Eastern Wei period, limestone with pigments, overall height 120.5 cm. Longhuasi temple site, Chongde village, Shandong.

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21. Standing Buddha Northern Qi Period 550-577 CE Limestone H: 37 inches This standing half life-size image, although lacking the right hand, features Buddha with hand gestures of “fear not” and “bringing the earth to witness.” Remains of red and blue survive on parts of the clothing, indicating that the limestone image was once colorfully painted. The Buddha is dressed typically in monastic garb, including an outer robe, inner shirt lying diagonally at chest level, and an inner dhoti skirt defined only by the hem that appears below that of the robe. A plinth in the shape of an inverted lotus once supported the image and added height.

Characteristics of Northern Qi style appear in the Indian influence of “wet drapery” translated by a Chinese deemphasis of physicality and the summarized outline of arms, chest, and legs. Attention is directed to a large prominent head and meticulously defined details of the face. The body is slim with narrow shoulders, concave chest, and a slightly bulging lower belly, yet as with the head, the feet and hands are large and fleshy. Interest is centered on pattern: on loop shapes hanging in triple composition on the inner shirt, the lapel of the robe, and symmetrical loops of all drapery folds, rendered as doubly raised lines on front and continuing at the back in larger single loops. The geometrically oval of the head echoes this shape. The rows of small-scale wheel-like curls defining the mass of hair and cranial protuberance contrast in textural richness with the smooth skin of the face and quiet angelic expression of the eyes and mouth.

Comparable Northern Qi standing Buddhas are plentiful from the cache hordes discovered at the Longxing Temple in Qingzhou, Shandong (see e.g., Zhao 2003: pls. 78, 83).

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22. Standing Buddha Northern Wei Period 386-534 CE Limestone H: 28 inches This standing image carved out of limestone depicts the historic Buddha Sakyamuni. The statue is intact and hand gestures (mudras) relate the well-known abhaya (fear not) and varada (bringing the earth to witness) associated with this icon. The sculpture preserves late fifth century Northern Wei characteristics, such as the proportionately large head compared to slender body and conical ushnisha (cranial protuberance) defined by a centripetal starburst repeated as a larger version on the deity’s hair at forehead level. New and typifying the direction of Eastern Wei style is the relaxed drapery folds that at hemline form symmetrical rivulets. The image exudes a benevolent disposition characteristic of Wei Buddha images. The head is geometrically prominent and facial features broadly defined. The robe is the Sinified version of early sixth century styles, with no clear delineation over which shoulder the robe is thrown due to new interests in symmetrical design. The latter is immediately apparent in the large loop of the robe’s lapel at chest level and the hemline of the inner dhoti skirt. The dress of the Buddha consists of an outer robe (sanghati), an inner shirt (manifest as a diagonal at chest level), and a skirt (dhoti) manifest only in the lowest hemline rippling over the Buddha’s bare feet. A second rippling hemline is rendered between outer robe and inner dhoti hemlines on the Buddha’s right side for purely aesthetic effect of balance. This type of creative license will characterize the next phase of scupture, the third phase of Buddhist styles during the mid sixth century.

Comparisons exist throughout the Northern and Eastern Wei periods, not only at cave temples within the province of Henan, such as Longmen and Gongxian, but as well at the far northwestern cave temples of Maijishan and Dunhuang in Gansu, and amidst various temple remains recently excavated in Shandong and Hebei provinces. The most illuminating comparisons are those made with images still extant in the Northern Wei Cave Temple at Longmen, Henan (Tokiwa Daijo and Sekino Tadashi, ed., Shina Bunka Shiseki, vol. 8, plate II-28), but as well with the monumental limestone image, at 21 feet-tall, from the site of Xingguo monstery in Boxing prefecture, Shandong (Fascination and Compassion 2003: Fig. 6, p. 64, now in the Qingdao Muncipal Museum, see Return 2001: Fig. 35, p. 45).

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23. Standing Buddha Northern Qi Period Shangdong Provence 550-577 CE Limestone H: 38 inches This limestone painted sculpture represents the historical Buddha Sakyamuni. Although the right arm, left hand, and lower body are missing, this image is quintessentially Northern Qi in style. The exposed parts of the body were once enveloped in gilt, whereas the robe was red and the hair blue. The traditional dress of monastic robe is thrown over the left shoulder of the Buddha in exposing the right shoulder. Folds of the drapery are minimized, engraved as diagonal lines across the body and arms. The underlying body and bulging belly of the statue are revealed through clinging drapery. As typifies Northern Qi and later Sui styles, the form of the body is slim and understated by comparison to the head that is meticulously rendered and robust.

In the spirit of the age, the head is the center of expression. Calmness and inner peace are reflected through eyes almost closed in reverie and by strongly undercut facial features. In keeping with religious codes, the Buddha’s hair is characterized by row upon row of small-scale curls and by elongated ears. The head projects forward as if to welcome a devotee. Comparative Buddha images are well represented amidst sculptures unearthed at the temple of Longxing in Qingzhou, Shandong (see e.g., Zhao 2003: Figs. 59, 80, 81, 84-87, pp. 57, 77-80; Return 2001: Fig. 24, p.133).

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24. Head of Bodhisattva Northern Wei Period 384-534 CE Limestone H: 12 1/4 inches This bodhisattva head carved out of limestone probably originated in the stone-cut cave temples of Yungang in Shanxi, or Longmen in Luoyang or Gongxian in Gong county, Henan and is of Northern Wei date. The head once formed part of a larger standing image of the bodhisattva. The back of the head is rough, showing that the original life-size image was once attached to a wall surface as part of a larger Buddhist composition. The facial features, hair style, and crown type represent the archaicizing interests of early Buddhist images, modestly Sinified in rendering slanting rather that round circular eyes typifying imported Indian types, yet maintaining a distinct “archaicizing� smile and sharply cut nose and eyebrows of earlier fifth century styles. Hair is divided at midline and continued into a mass at the back without braided extensions. The promientn and tall crown consist of a narrow band encircling the head and decorated with three rising triangular and abstract lotus flowers alternating with vertical lotus buds in relief. The band and upper crown are decorated with circular rings either empty or filled with smaller gems.

This archaic version of the Northern Wei bodhisattva is matched by various other images, from cave temples at Yungang, Datong, Shanxi and Gongxian from Gongyi, Henan.

Scuptures from Yungang Cave 10, 483 CE, sandstone with pigment; Bodhisattva, Henan province, Luoyang, Gongxian Cave Temples, Cave 1, late Northern Wei dynasty, 523 CE, sandstone with traces of pigment, Freer Gallery of Art.

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25. Head of Buddha Northern Qi Period 550-577 CE Green Marble with Gilt H: 15 inches This life-size head of a Buddha is carved out of a green marble stone native to southern Hebei province. The sculpture is a classic example of Northern Qi and Sui aesthetics that emphasized naturalistic idealism, particularly with head and facial features. Although once belonging to a standing or seated body, the head exudes monumentality and strength. The mass of small-scale wheel-like curls characterizing the Buddha’s hair and ushnisha contrast harmoniously with the softly modeled features of the face. Aloof yet benign tranquility typifies ones who attain Buddhahood. These qualities are expressed sculpturally in the spring of the brow and high forehead, overarching eyelids, long aquiline nose, fleshy undercut lips, bulbous cheeks, and small double chin. Northern Qi perfection is noticeable in the more humanized version of the Buddha head, emphasizing less the protruding ushnisha in favor of an integrated mass of hair in combination with the serene expression of face, lost in meditation. The purpose of the buckle indentation at the end of the earlobe is unclear.

Comparisons may be drawn with the limestone sculptures decorating cave temples at Xiangtangshan, as well as unearthed finds associated with freestanding temples elsewhere in Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Shanxi, and Shaanxi. The head is a classic rendering in marble of Northern Qi ideals (see for comparison the Northern Qi head measuring 10 3/4 inches tall from the Longxing Temple in Qingzhou, Shandong in Zhao 2003: Fig. 114, p. 101).

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26. Seated Guanyin Bodhisattva Northern Qi Period 550-577 CE Marble with Polychrome H: 23 3/4 inches

The half life-size, white marble statue represents the bodhisattva Maitreya seated with crossed ankles and feet positioned so that toes are flexed on top of a pair of lotus flowers. Hands are raised in opposite directions, symbolizing “fear not” and “bringing the earth to witness,” gestures, most familiar in association with Sakyamuni Buddha but also characterizing the future Buddha, Maitreya bodhisattva. A supportive rod attaches the right hand to the chest. The bodhisattva (one with knowledge of enlightenment) wears humble jewelry in the form of an ogive arch-shaped torque around the neck and a tiara crown with bows fastening ribbons hanging to left and right behind the deity’s ears. The band of the tiara-shaped headdress is continued at the back of the head and in the front it is decorated with three floral brackets alternating with lotus buds, a familiar version characterizing other bodhisattvas of this era. Clothing consists of an outer shawl, inner shirt crossing the chest diagonally, and a dhoti skirt. The slim ribbon ends of the shawl defined by tripartite folds fall in a U-shape at the waist where they are bound in a simulated know. They continue their calligraphic performance by looping downwards toward the lap and up over each wrist and further downwards so they end dramatically in pleats of a soft curl at the lower plinth of the throne. The back of the dhoti skirt emerges in rippling folds at flanking edges of the ankles and feet, and it forms a triangular pleat between the legs. The throne takes the form of an hourglass shape of repeated rectangular slabs, often described as the shape of Mt. Sumeru.

Clothes and dais were once brightly colored, yet exposed body parts (face, ears, neck, arms, hands, and upturned soles of the feet) may have been defined by the pearl white polish of the original marble stone. The simplicity of dress retains earlier Northern Wei practice, yet the lyrical expression is entirely Eastern Wei and Northern Qi in style.

Ornament and body form softly modulated parts in contradistinction to the prominence of deeply undercut facial features and pudgy prominent hands and feet. The feet are particularly striking in their eccentric posture complementing the equally forceful X-crossing of the long tubular legs and torso.

Comparisons derive from Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, Northern Qi, and Northern Zhou. For example, a marble stele in the Freer Gallery of Art, dated by inscription to the Northern Zhou 557-581 CE depicts on the front the Bodhisattva Maitreya (Miluo) with a reverse image of the Buddha Vairochana (Pilushena), probably deriving from Shaanxi province. Other steles depicting similar images of Maitreya include a Seated Maitreya with two feet on one big lotus plinth (see Sullivan: pl. 71 Cave 135), a stele with Maitreya as Future Buddha with crossed ankles and feet are upheld by lotuses (Cleveland Museum of Art), and another image, considerably earlier of Northern Wei date of the Bodhisattva with crossed ankles only in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Various other comparisons derive from Longxing Temple in Qingzhou, Shandong of Eastern Wei and Northern Qi date, and in remains from the Xiude monastery in Quyang of Hebei Province (see Yang Boda, “Quyang Xiude si chutu jinian zaoxiang de yishu fengge yu tezheng,” pp. 43-52 and Compassion 2003: pl. 14, pp. 42-44, and Return 2002: Fig. 169, p. 151).

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27. Seated Maitreya Bodhisattva with Pendant Legs Northern Zhou Period 557-581 CE Limestone H: 22 1/2 inches This limestone sculpture depicts the bodhisattva Maitreya seated with pendant legs in simulation of what he will become, the future ruling icon, Buddha Maitreya. The image once belonged to a cave temple sculpture, most likely in the vicinity of Xian, Shaanxi. The back and sides are in the rough, corroborating this original location. The image is heavy and massive in form, with an excessive amount of jewelry that simulates types of Eastern Wei and Northern Qi origin, well known from further east. Bodhisattva dress includes the cape with long ribbon ends, an undershirt diagonally crossing the chest, and dhoti skirt. As typifies a variation of the bodhisattva dress during the mid and late sixth c., the dhoti skirt may overlap a belt at waist level in multiple rippling pleats, as also characterizes the rippling hemline of this skirt. The cross-stoles of the cape form falling U-shaped folds in symmetry at the figure’s middle and then continue over separate arms, also ending in rippling hemlines. The jewels are created out of silk ropes studded with small-scale pearls in two adjoining rows, which alternate with rosette-shaped metal simulated clasps. A central large rosette holds the central necklace in place and part of this strand is held in a loop in the figure’s left hand. Centrality and symmetry are continued in the vertical strand of interlocking rings extending from a neck torque and splitting into two further loops under the knees. The tiara forms a double layer of floral brackets, lotus forms, and rosettes. Tied at either side are prominent bows with ribbons extensions.

Northern Zhou artists carved deities with compact, block-like bodies, and stern faces in combination with a rich and ostentatious display of jewelry. Ponderous drapes and disregard for realism of bodily form characterize the art of northwest sculptures. Comparisons may be drawn with Shaanxi sculptures from rock-cut cliffs of the Yaowang Mountains in Yao County and elsewhere from Cave 4 at Maijishan Grottoes, Tianshui, Gansu.

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28. Standing Bodhisattva Northern Zhou Period 557-581 CE Limestone H: 30 inches This near life-size image, carved out of limestone and once brightly painted with hues of green, blue, red, and white represents the Buddhist bodhisattva. Both hands and potential identifying attributes are missing. Portions just below the arms of the cape’s drapery extensions are also missing. Although weathered, the image retains a statuesque beauty as sculpture in the round. Slim with a feminine air, the image conveys equanimity and nobility. Deep in reverie, the eyelids barely open. Shoulders are narrow and body forms are understated yet gently modulated. Based on the aristocratic dress of the prototype of the bodhisattva, the Indian prince, the enlightened savior is bedecked with ornaments, ranging from a high diadem and an intricate complex of a necklace, hanging body jewels, shawls ending in long sinuous ribbons, and divided hair extending as three separate braids differing in length in forming triangular peaks in profile along the shoulders. Hair is drawn upwards in a high chignon bundled into a thick topknot spiral just behind the headdress.

The diadem (attached at the back by a band) sits at the front of the head, secured by side bows, and composed of a large central lotus bracket with three pendant jewels, which is repeated in smaller scale on the left and right sides. Other jeweled parts of the costume include the metal simulated torque, the double rows of pearls alternating with metal simulated ornaments or gems held together by a large central metal simulated brooch, and the continuation of the same strands in loops down the lower body. Addition ornaments appear extending from the upper body sash below the brooch as a double folded ribbon with its own simulated metal star bursting ornament.

Additional suspended ribbons with rings hang down the skirt underneath the loops of crossing scarves and body necklace. The same attention to dhoti skirt and ornament characterize the back of the image.

Although the face is more severe and broad in interperetation than typical Northern Qi faces, the elegance of the statue is finessed by understated yet naturalistic form in keeping with mid-sixth century norms: a prominent head, round and robust, rests on a body with pinched waist, small hips, and elongated legs. Fleshy parts including head, hands, and bare feet are slightly larger and more emphatically emphasized.

The figure is similar to some limestone carved Bodhisattva images discovered amidst the ruin of the Longxing Monastery in Qingzhou, Shandong Province. For two examples of Northern Qi bodhisattva figures with similar jeweled crown and other ornamentations, see Hong Kong Museum of Art, ed., Buddhist Sculptures: New Discoveries from Qingzhou, Shandong Province, p. 279, 281.

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29. Standing Buddha Late Northern Wei / Eastern Wei Period 530-550 CE Limestone H: 31 3/4 inches This limestone image with remains of original blue and red paint represents the historical Sakyamuni Buddha. Although the hands of the deity are no longer extant, from the disposition of the arms it is evident they once were held in the familiar “fear not (abhaya)” and “bringing the earth to witness (varada)” hand gestures (mudras). The Buddha wears the traditional monastic garb: an outer robe, an inner shirt secured by knotted sash across the chest, and an inner dhoti skirt, visible only as a hemline at the statue’s ankles. He is clothed simply, without jewelry. Protruding at the top of his head is a slightly damaged cranial extension (ushnisha), one of the ten major lakshana symbols sacred to the historic Buddha.

The rhythmic treatment of drapery and the angelic expression date the image stylistically to the Wei of the early to mid sixth century. Folds of cloth fall in rhythmical furrows over and down the arms and body, and end in symmetrical curling wave-like ripples. Emphasis is not entirely frontal, as revealed by the swayback posture of slightly projecting belly, forward thrust of head, and by the delightful bas-relief rendering of the large lotus bud (or flaming jewel) emerging as if miraculously at the bottom rear of the figure. Other features document new interests of Eastern and Western Wei Buddha images. The hair and ushnisha are newly defined, not by waves inherited from a previous Gandharan Indian type, but by a mass of small-scale similar size cakra wheel curls (historically called ringlets). Barely open eyelids suggest a meditative mood yet the springing eyebrow and slight smile project inner peace and compassion.

Other new elements presaging a third movement in the development of Buddhist styles is the more proportional relationship between size of head and body than the earlier Northern Wei style. There is also greater emphasis on symmetry and movement of drapery folds. The inner shirt sash of the skirt undulates in creating an assymetrical rhythm of its own.

The most illuminating comparisons are those made with images still extant in the Northern Wei Cave Temple at Longmen, Henan, but as well with the monumental limestone image, at 21 feet-tall, from the site of Xingguo monastery in Boxing prefecture, Shandong (Fascination and Compassion, 2003: Fig. 6, p. 64, now in the Qingdao Muncipal Museum, see Return 2001: Fig. 35, p. 45).

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Published on the occasion of the exhibition:

Northern Dynasties

Early Chinese Buddhist Sculpture Ca. 387-577 CE

March 2016 Throckmorton Fine Art, Inc. 145 East 57th Street, 3rd Floor New York, NY 10022 Tel: 212-223-1059 Fax: 212-223-1937 info@throckmorton-nyc.com www.throckmorton-nyc.com Project Manager/Design: Norberto L. Rivera Photography: Oren Eckhaus/Hendrik Smildiger Copyright 2016 by Throckmorton Fine Art, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, in any media, without prior written permission from the publisher.

ISBN #978-0-692-03187-2 Printed by Eastwood Litho, NY, USA

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