W0RM Magazine #1 by Michael Crabtree

bigsubtrax 223-11111

Contents 1

Rabbinic literature

1.1

Mishnaic literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

The Midrash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

Later works by category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.1

Major codes of Jewish law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.2

Jewish thought and ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.3

Liturgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Later works by historical period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.1

Works of the Geonim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.2

Works of the Rishonim (the “early” rabbinical commentators) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.3

Works of the Acharonim (the “later” rabbinical commentators) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Meforshim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.1

Classic Torah and Talmud commentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.2

Modern Torah commentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5.3

Modern Siddur commentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8.1

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8.2

Links to full text resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8.3

Glossaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

1.5

Ancient Egypt

2.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.1

Predynastic period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.2

Early Dynastic Period (c. 3050 – 2686 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.3

Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.4

First Intermediate Period (2181–1991 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.5

Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.6

Second Intermediate Period (1674–1549 BC) and the Hyksos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.7

New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.8

Third Intermediate Period (1069–653 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.9

Late Period (672–332 BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS 2.1.10 Ptolemaic Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.11 Roman Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Government and economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.1

Administration and commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.2

Social status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.3

Legal system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.4

Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.5

Natural resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.6

Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.1

Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.2

Sounds and grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.3

Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.4

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4.1

Daily life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4.2

Cuisine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4.3

Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4.4

Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4.5

Religious beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4.6

Burial customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5

Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6

Technology, medicine, and mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6.1

Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6.2

Faience and glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6.3

Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6.4

Maritime technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6.5

Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7

Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.8

Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.9

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Synagogue

3.1

Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2

Architectural design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3

Interior elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3.1

Denominational diďŹ&#x20AC;erences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Synagogue as community centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

2.3

2.4

3.4

CONTENTS

iii

3.5

Synagogue oﬀshoots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.6

Great synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.7

World’s largest synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.8

World’s oldest synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.8.1

Oldest synagogues in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Other famous synagogues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.10 Image gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Babylonia

4.1

Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.1

Pre-Babylonian Sumero-Akkadian period in Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.2

First Babylonian Dynasty – Amorite Dynasty 1894–1595 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.3

Kassite Dynasty, 1595–1155 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.4

Early Iron Age – Native Rule, Second Dynasty of Isin, 1155–1026 BC . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.5

Period of Chaos 1026–911 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.6

Assyrian rule, 911–619 BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.7

Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldean Era) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.8

Persian Babylonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Babylonian culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.1

Babylonian culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.2

Neo-Babylonian culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3

Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.5

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.6.1

Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.6.2

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.9

4.2

4.7 5

Babylonian captivity

5.1

Biblical accounts of the exile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2

Archaeological and other non-Biblical evidence

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.3

Exilic literature and post-exilic revisions of the Torah/Pentateuch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.4

Signiﬁcance in Jewish history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.5

Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.8

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iv 6

CONTENTS Torah

6.1

Meaning and names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.1.1

Alternative names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.2.1

Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.2.2

Exodus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.2.3

Leviticus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.2.4

Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.2.5

Deuteronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.3

Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4

Torah and Judaism

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4.1

Ritual use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.4.2

Biblical law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.5

The Oral Torah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.6

Divine signiďŹ cance of letters, Jewish mysticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.7

Production and use of a Torah scroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.8

Torah translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.8.1

Aramaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.8.2

Greek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.8.3

Latin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.8.4

Arabic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.8.5

Modern languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

In other religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.12 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.13 Additional resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6.14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Kingdom of Judah

7.1

Archaeological record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2

Biblical narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2.1

Relations with the Northern Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2.2

Clash of empires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2.3

Destruction and dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.3

Re-establishment under Persian rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.5.1

6.2

6.9

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Zohar

8.1

Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS

8.2

Authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.1

Initial view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.2

Late Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.3

Enlightenment period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.4

Contemporary religious view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.2.5

Modern critical views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3.1

Zohar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3.2

Zohar Chadash/The New Zohar (‫ )זוהר חדש‬. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3.3

Tikunei haZohar/Rectiﬁcations of the Zohar (‫ )תיקוני הזוהר‬. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3.4

Parts of the Zohar: summary of Rabbinic view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3.5

Viewpoint and exegesis: Rabbinic view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3.6

Academic views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.4

Commentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5

Inﬂuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5.1

Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5.2

Neo-Platonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.5.3

Christian mysticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.6

Zohar study (Jewish view) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.7

English translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.8

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.9

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Talmud

9.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.2

Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.2.1

Mishnah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.2.2

Baraita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.2.3

Gemara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.2.4

Halakha and Aggadah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

9.2.5

Minor tractates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

8.3

9.3

Bavli and Yerushalmi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 9.3.1

Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

9.3.2

Babylonian Talmud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

9.3.3

Comparison of style and subject matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

9.4

Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

9.5

Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 9.5.1

Bomberg Talmud 1523 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

9.5.2

Benveniste Talmud 1645 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

9.5.3

Vilna Talmud, 1835 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

CONTENTS

9.6

9.7

9.8

9.9

9.5.4

Goldschmidt Talmud 1897â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1909, and German translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

9.5.5

Critical editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

9.5.6

Editions for a wider audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 9.6.1

Talmud Bavli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

9.6.2

Talmud Yerushalmi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Talmud scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 9.7.1

Geonim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

9.7.2

Halakhic and Aggadic extractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

9.7.3

Commentaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

9.7.4

Pilpul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

9.7.5

Sephardic approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

9.7.6

Brisker method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

9.7.7

Critical method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

9.7.8

Historical analysis, and higher textual criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

9.7.9

Contemporary scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Role in Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 9.8.1

Sadducees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

9.8.2

Karaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

9.8.3

Reform Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

9.8.4

Humanistic Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

9.8.5

Present day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Talmud in the visual arts

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

9.9.1

In Carl Schleicherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

9.9.2

Talmud in Jewish art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

9.10 Other contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 9.11 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 9.11.1 Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 9.11.2 19th century and after . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 9.11.3 Contemporary accusations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 9.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 9.13 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 9.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 9.14.1 Logic and methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 9.14.2 Modern scholarly works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 9.14.3 Historical study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 9.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 9.15.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 9.15.2 Refutation of allegations concerning the Talmud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 9.15.3 Full text resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 9.15.4 Manuscripts and textual variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

CONTENTS

vii

9.15.5 Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 9.15.6 “Daf Yomi” program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 9.15.7 Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 10 Solomon’s Temple

120

10.1 In the Hebrew Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 10.1.1 Architectural description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 10.2 Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 10.3 Other contemporary Yahweh temples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 10.4 Freemasonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 10.5 Kabbalah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 10.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 10.7 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 10.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 10.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 10.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 11 Temple in Jerusalem

127

11.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 11.2 First Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 11.3 Second Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 11.4 Recent history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 11.5 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 11.6 Physical layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 11.7 Temple services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 11.8 In the Talmud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 11.9 Role in contemporary Jewish services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 11.10In other religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 11.10.1 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 11.10.2 Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 11.11Archaeological evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 11.12Building a Third Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 11.13In media

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

11.14See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 11.15References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 11.16Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 11.17External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 12 Second Temple

134

12.1 Biblical narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 12.2 Rabbinical literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 12.3 Rededication by the Maccabees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

viii

CONTENTS 12.4 Hasmonean dynasty and Roman conquest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 12.5 Herodâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 12.5.1 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 12.5.2 Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 12.5.3 Court of the Gentiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 12.5.4 Pinnacle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 12.5.5 Inside the Soreg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 12.5.6 Temple sanctuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 12.6 Pilgrimages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 12.7 Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 12.8 Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 12.9 Second Temple Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 12.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 12.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 12.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

13 Temple Mount

144

13.1 Location and dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 13.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 13.2.1 Israelite period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 13.2.2 Persian, Hasmonean and Herodian periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 13.2.3 Middle Roman period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 13.2.4 Late Roman period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 13.2.5 Byzantine period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 13.2.6 Sassanid period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 13.2.7 Early Muslim period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 13.2.8 Crusader and Ayyubid period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 13.2.9 Mamluk period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 13.2.10 Ottoman period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 13.2.11 British Mandatory period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 13.2.12 Jordanian period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 13.2.13 Israeli period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 13.3 Status quo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 13.3.1 Under Israeli control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 13.4 Management and access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 13.5 Current features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 13.5.1 Dome of the Rock platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 13.5.2 Lower platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 13.5.3 Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 13.5.4 Solomonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Stables/Marwani Mosque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 13.5.5 Minarets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 13.6 Alterations to antiquities and damage to existing structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

CONTENTS

13.7 Religious attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 13.7.1 In Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 13.7.2 In Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 13.7.3 In Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 13.8 Recent events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 13.9 Panorama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 13.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 13.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 13.12Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 13.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 14 Jordan

166

14.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 14.2 History

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

14.2.1 Ancient period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 14.2.2 Classical period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 14.2.3 Islamic era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 14.2.4 Modern era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 14.2.5 Post-independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 14.3 Geography

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

14.3.1 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 14.4 Politics and government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 14.4.1 Administrative divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 14.4.2 Foreign relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 14.4.3 Military, crime and law enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 14.5 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 14.5.1 Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 14.5.2 Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 14.5.3 Natural resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 14.5.4 Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 14.5.5 Science and technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 14.6 Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 14.6.1 Immigrants and refugees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 14.6.2 Religion and languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 14.7 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 14.7.1 Arts, cinema, museums and music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 14.7.2 Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 14.7.3 Cuisine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 14.8 Health and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 14.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 14.10References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

14.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

CONTENTS 14.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

15 Land of Israel

190

15.1 Etymology and biblical roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 15.2 Biblical interpretations of the borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 15.2.1 Genesis 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 15.2.2 Exodus 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 15.2.3 Numbers 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 15.2.4 Deuteronomy 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 15.2.5 Ezekiel 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 15.2.6 From Dan to Beersheba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 15.2.7 Division of Tribes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 15.3 Jewish beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 15.3.1 Rabbinic laws in the Land of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 15.3.2 Inheritance of the promise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 15.3.3 Modern Jewish debates on the Land of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 15.4 Christian beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 15.4.1 Inheritance of the promise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 15.5 Modern history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 15.5.1 Early Zionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 15.5.2 British Mandate

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

15.5.3 Declaration of Independence of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 15.5.4 Usage in Israeli politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 15.5.5 Palestinian viewpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 15.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 15.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 15.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 15.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 15.10Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 15.10.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 15.10.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 15.10.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Chapter 1

Rabbinic literature See also: Chazal, Rabbinic Judaism, and Oral Torah

of Midrashic teachings, in the form of legal, exegetical, homiletical, or narrative writing, often conﬁgured as a commentary on the Bible or Mishnah. There are a large number of “classical” Midrashic works spanning a period from Mishnaic to Geonic times, often showing evidence of having been worked and reworked from earlier materials, and frequently coming to us in multiple variants. A compact list of these works [based on (Holtz 1984)] is given below; a more thorough annotated list can be found under Midrash. The timeline below must be approximate because many of these works were composed over a long span of time, borrowing and collating material from earlier versions; their histories are therefore somewhat uncertain and the subject of scholarly debate. In the table, “n.e.” designates that the work in question is not extant except in secondary references.

Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, can mean the entire spectrum of rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history. However, the term often refers speciﬁcally to literature from the Talmudic era, as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic writing, and thus corresponds with the Hebrew term Sifrut Hazal (Hebrew: ‫ספרות חז"ל‬ “Literature [of our] sages,” where Hazal normally refers only to the sages of the Talmudic era). This more speciﬁc sense of “Rabbinic literature”—referring to the Talmudim, Midrash (Hebrew: ‫)מדרש‬, and related writings, but hardly ever to later texts—is how the term is generally intended when used in contemporary academic writing. On the other hand, the terms meforshim and parshanim (commentaries/commentators) almost always refer to later, post-Talmudic writers of Rabbinic glosses on Biblical and Talmudic texts.

1.3 Later works by category

This article discusses rabbinic literature in both senses. It begins with the classic rabbinic literature of the Talmudic era (Sifrut Hazal), and then adds a broad survey of 1.3.1 Major codes of Jewish law rabbinic writing from later periods. Main article: Halakha

1.1 Mishnaic literature

• Mishneh Torah • Arba'ah Turim

The Mishnah and the Tosefta (compiled from materials pre-dating the year 200) are the earliest extant works of rabbinic literature, expounding and developing Judaism’s Oral Law, as well as ethical teachings. Following these came the two Talmuds:

• Shulchan Aruch • Beit Yosef • Chayei Adam

• The Jerusalem Talmud, c. 450

• The Responsa literature

• The Babylonian Talmud, c. 600 • The minor tractates (part of the Babylonian Talmud) 1.3.2

Jewish thought and ethics

• Jewish philosophy

1.2 The Midrash

• Philo • Isaac Israeli

Midrash (pl. Midrashim) is a Hebrew word referring to a method of reading details into, or out of, a Biblical text. The term midrash also can refer to a compilation

• Emunot v'Dayyot • Kuzari 1

CHAPTER 1. RABBINIC LITERATURE • Guide for the Perplexed • Bachya ibn Pakuda • Sefer Ikkarim • Wars of the Lord • Or Adonai • Kabbalah • Sepher Yetzirah • Bahir • Zohar • Pardes Rimonim • Etz Hayim • Aggada • Hasidic thought • Tanya • Kedushas Levi • Likutey Moharan • Musar Literature • Mesillat Yesharim • Shaarei Teshuva • Orchot Tzaddikim • Sefer Chasidim

1.3.3

Liturgy

• The Siddur and Jewish liturgy • Piyyutim (Classical Jewish poetry)

1.4 Later works by historical period 1.4.1

Works of the Geonim

The Geonim are the rabbis of Sura and Pumbeditha, in Babylon (650 - 1250) : • She'iltoth of Acha'i [Gaon] • Halachoth Gedoloth • Emunoth ve-Deoth (Saadia Gaon) • The Siddur by Amram Gaon • Responsa

1.4.2 Works of the Rishonim (the “early” rabbinical commentators) The Rishonim are the rabbis of the early medieval period (1000 - 1550) • The commentaries on the Torah, such as those by Rashi, Abraham ibn Ezra and Nahmanides. • Commentaries on the Talmud, principally by Rashi, his grandson Samuel ben Meir and Nissim of Gerona. • Talmudic novellae (chiddushim) by Tosaﬁsts, Nahmanides, Nissim of Gerona, Solomon ben Aderet (RaShBA), Yomtov ben Ashbili (Ritva) • Works of halakha (Asher ben Yechiel, Mordechai ben Hillel) • Codices by Maimonides and Jacob ben Asher, and ﬁnally Shulkhan Arukh • Responsa, e.g. by Solomon ben Aderet (RaShBA) • Kabbalistic works (such as the Zohar) • Philosophical works (Maimonides, Gersonides, Nahmanides) • Ethical works (Bahya ibn Paquda, Jonah of Gerona)

1.4.3 Works of the Acharonim (the “later” rabbinical commentators) The Acharonim are the rabbis from 1550 to the present day. • Important Torah commentaries include Keli Yakar (Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz), Ohr ha-Chayim by Chayim ben-Attar, the commentary of Samson Raphael Hirsch, and the commentary of Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin. • Important works of Talmudic novellae include: Pnei Yehoshua, Haﬂa'ah, Sha'agath Aryei • Responsa, e.g. by Moses Sofer, Moshe Feinstein • Works of halakha and codices e.g. Mishnah Berurah by Yisrael Meir Kagan and the Aruch haShulchan by Yechiel Michel Epstein • Ethical and philosophical works: Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, Yisrael Meir Kagan and the Mussar Movement • Hasidic works (Kedushath Levi, Sefath Emmeth, Shem mi-Shemuel) • Philosophical/metaphysical works (the works of the Maharal of Prague, Moshe Chaim Luzzatto and Nefesh ha-Chayim by Chaim of Volozhin)

1.5. MEFORSHIM • Mystical works

1.5.2 Modern Torah commentaries

• Historical works, e.g. Shem ha-Gedolim by Chaim Modern Torah commentaries which have received wide Joseph David Azulai. acclaim in the Jewish community include:

1.5 Meforshim Meforshim is a Hebrew word meaning "(Bible) commentators” (or roughly meaning "exegetes"), Perushim means "(Bible) commentaries”. In Judaism these words refer to commentaries on the Torah (ﬁve books of Moses), Tanakh, Mishnah, Talmud, the responsa literature, or even the siddur (Jewish prayerbook), and more.

• Haemek Davar by Rabbi Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin • The Chofetz Chaim • Torah Temimah of Baruch ha-Levi Epstein • Kerem HaTzvi, by Rabbi Tzvi Hirsch Ferber • Sefat Emet (Lips of Truth), Yehudah Aryeh Leib of Ger, 19th century Europe • The “Pentateuch and Haftaras” by Joseph H. Hertz

1.5.1

Classic Torah and Talmud commentaries

Classic Torah and/or Talmud commentaries have been written by the following individuals: • Geonim • Saadia Gaon, 10th century Babylon • Rishonim • Rashi (Shlomo Yitzchaki), 12th century France • Abraham ibn Ezra • Nahmanides (Moshe ben Nahman) • Samuel ben Meir, the Rashbam, 12th century France • Rabbi Levi ben Gershom (known as Ralbag or Gersonides) • David ben Joseph Kimhi, the Radak, 13th century France • Joseph ben Isaac, also known as the Bekhor Shor, 12th century France • Nissim ben Reuben Gerondi, the RaN, 14th century Spain • Isaac ben Judah Abravanel (1437–1508) • Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno, 16th century Italy • Acharonim • The Vilna Gaon, Rabbi Eliyahu of Vilna, 18th century Lithuania • The Malbim, Meir Lob ben Jehiel Michael Classical Talmudic commentaries were written by Rashi. After Rashi the Tosafot were written, which was an omnibus commentary on the Talmud by the disciples and descendants of Rashi; this commentary was based on discussions done in the rabbinic academies of Germany and France.

• Uebersetzung und Erklärung des Pentateuchs (“Translation and Commentary of the Pentateuch”) by Samson Raphael Hirsch • Nechama Leibowitz, a noted woman scholar • HaTorah vehaMitzva (“The Torah and the Commandment”) by Meïr Leibush, the "Malbim" • Ha-Ketav veha-Kabbalah by Rabbi Yaakov Tzvi Mecklenburg • The Soncino Books of the Bible

1.5.3 Modern Siddur commentaries Modern Siddur commentaries have been written by: • Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan HaCohen, The Chofetz Chaim’s Siddur • Samson Raphael Hirsch, The Hirsch Siddur, Feldheim • Abraham Isaac Kook, Olat Reyia • The Authorised Daily Prayer Book with commentary by Joseph H. Hertz • Elie Munk, The World of Prayer, Elie Munk • Nosson Scherman, The Artscroll Siddur, Mesorah Publications • Jonathan Sacks, in The Authorised Daily Prayer Book of the British Commonwealth (the new version of "Singer’s Prayer Book") as well as the Koren Sacks Siddur. • Reuven Hammer, Or Hadash, a siddur commentary built around the text of Siddur Sim Shalom, United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism • My Peoples Prayer Book, Jewish Lights Publishing, written by a team of non-Orthodox rabbis and Talmud scholars.

CHAPTER 1. RABBINIC LITERATURE

1.6 See also • Jewish commentaries on the Bible • List of Jewish Prayers and Blessings

1.8.2 Links to full text resources • Mechon Mamre • Sages of Ashkenaz Database • Halacha Brura and Birur Halacha Institute

• List of rabbis

• The Electronic Torah Warehouse

• Moses in rabbinic literature

• hebrewbooks.org

• Simeon in rabbinic literature

• seforimonline.org

• Oral Torah

• Primary Sources @ Ben Gurion University • Young Israel library

• Rabbinic Judaism • The Traditional Jewish Bookshelf • Torah databases (electronic versions of traditional Jewish texts)

1.8.3 Glossaries • Judaic glossary • Sources@JTS • Glossary/Bibliography

1.7 Bibliography • Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts, Barry W. Holtz, (Summit Books) • Introduction to Rabbinic Literature Jacob Neusner, (Anchor Bible Reference Library/Doubleday) • Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash, H. L. Strack and G. Stemberger, (Fortress Press) • The Literature of the Sages: Oral Torah, Halakha, Mishnah, Tosefta, Talmud, External Tractates, Shemuel Safrai and Peter J. Tomson (Fortress, 1987)

1.8 External links 1.8.1

General

• A survey of rabbinic literature • A timeline of Jewish texts • Comprehensive listing by category - Global Jewish Database • Judaica archival project • Chapters On Jewish Literature • Online Resources for the Study of Rabbinic Literature

Chapter 2

Ancient Egypt For the British history magazine, see Ancient Egypt (magazine).

tablished himself as the new ruler of Egypt. This Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.[3] The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable ﬂooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.[4][5]

The Great Sphinx and the pyramids of Giza are among the most recognizable symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt.

Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently. Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology)[1] with the political uniﬁcation of Upper and Lower Egypt under the ﬁrst pharaoh Narmer (commonly referred to as Menes).[2] The history of ancient Egypt occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.

The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats,[6] Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty, made with the Hittites.[7] Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. A new-found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New KingEuropeans and Egyptians led to the scientific investigadom, during the Ramesside period, where it rivalled the tion of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of Hittite Empire, Assyrian Empire and Mitanni Empire, afits cultural legacy.[8] ter which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was invaded or conquered by a succession of foreign powers, such as the Canaanites/Hyksos, Libyans, the Nubians, the Assyrians, Babylonians, the Achaemenid Persians, and the Macedonians in the Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period of Egypt. In the aftermath of Alexander the Great's death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter, es5

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT

2.1 History

2.1.1 Predynastic period

Main articles: History of ancient Egypt, History of Egypt, and Population history of Egypt The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much

Main article: Predynastic Egypt In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian

Mediterranean Sea

Rosetta

Dead Sea

Jerusalem

Gaza

Damietta

Rafah

Alexandria

Buto Sais

Naukratis

Wadi Natrun

N NW

Bubastis

Merimda

SE S

(km)

(mi)

Avaris

Nile Delta

Pelusium

Tanis

Busiris

Giza

Cairo Helwan

Lower Egypt

Lake

Sinai

Memphis

Saqqara Dahshur

Faiyum

Great Bitter Lake

Heliopolis

100

Moeri

Meydum Lahun

Timna

Herakleopolis

of A qaba

Nile river

Serabit al-Khadim

Gulf

S of

Bahariya Oasis

Beni Hasan Hermopolis Amarna

Asyut

Eastern Desert

Badari

Qau

Western Desert

Red Sea

Akhmim Thinis Abydos

Kharga Oasis

Nile

river

Dendera Koptos

Naqada

Quseir Wadi

Hammam

Thebes

Dakhla Oasis

Upper Egypt

(Luxor and Karnak)

Tod

Hierakonpolis Edfu

Kom Ombo

Aswan

Bernike

First Cataract

A typical Naqada II jar decorated with gazelles. (Predynastic Period)

Dunqul Oasis

Nabta Playa Wad i

Abu Simbel

Alla qi

Buhen

Second Cataract

Kush d Wa ba

Nubian Desert

Third Cataract

Kerma er

ile

riv

Kawa Fourth Cataract

Napata

Gebel Barkal

Fifth Cataract

Meroe

Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC)

of human history.[9] The fertile ﬂoodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization.[10] Nomadic modern human huntergatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the arid climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry, forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region.

climate was much less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated.[11] By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert; it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools, and its use of copper.[12] The Badari was followed by the Amratian (Naqada I) and Gerzeh (Naqada II) cultures,[13] which brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes.[14] In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan and the Byblos coast.[15] Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley.[16] Establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders

2.1. HISTORY

expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile.[17] They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the western desert to the west, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean and Near East to the east.[17] Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the white crown of Egypt and falcon.[18][19] The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal-use items, which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery, high quality decorative stone vases, cosmetic palettes, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also devel[27] oped a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used The Narmer Palette depicts the unification of the Two Lands. well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines.[20] During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventu- 2.1.3 Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC) ally were developed into a full system of hieroglyphs for Main article: Old Kingdom of Egypt writing the ancient Egyptian language.[21] Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were

2.1.2

Early Dynastic Period (c. 2686 BC)

3050 –

Main article: Early Dynastic Period of Egypt The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia and of ancient Elam. The third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today.[22] He chose to begin his of- The Giza Pyramids ficial history with the king named “Meni” (or Menes in Greek) who was believed to have united the two king- made during the Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased doms of Upper and Lower Egypt (around 3100 BC).[23] agricultural productivity and resulting population, made [28] The transition to a unified state happened more gradually possible by a well-developed central administration. than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no Some of ancient Egypt’s crowning achievements, the contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now be- Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, were constructed durlieve, however, that the mythical Menes may have been ing the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the the pharaoh Narmer, who is depicted wearing royal re- vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigagalia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette, in a symbolic act tion projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to established a justice of unification.[24] In the Early Dynastic Period about 3150 work on construction projects, and [29] to maintain peace and order. system BC, the first of the Dynastic pharaohs solidified control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, from which he could control the labour force and agriculture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the Levant. The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death.[25] The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land, labour, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.[26]

Along with the rising importance of a central administration arose a new class of educated scribes and oﬃcials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh after his death. Scholars believe that ﬁve centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration.[30] As the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT trolled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based in Thebes, the Intef family, took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055 BC the northern Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II ﬁnally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom.[35]

2.1.5 Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC) Main article: Middle Kingdom of Egypt The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the

Khafre Enthroned

pharaoh. This, coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC,[31] is assumed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.[32]

2.1.4

First Intermediate Period (2181– 1991 BC)

Main article: First Intermediate Period of Egypt After Egypt’s central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country’s economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet despite diﬃcult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the pharaoh, used their new-found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes.[33] In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the optimism and originality of the period.[34]

Amenemhat III, the last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom

country’s prosperity and stability, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects.[36] Mentuhotep II and his Eleventh Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier Amenemhat I, upon assuming kingship at the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty around 1985 BC, shifted the nation’s capital to the city of Itjtawy, located in Faiyum.[37] From Itjtawy, the pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a farsighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in Nubia that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "Walls-of-theRuler", to defend against foreign attack.[38]

With the pharaohs’ having secured military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth, the nation’s population, arts, and religion ﬂourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the Free from their loyalties to the pharaoh, local rulers be- gods, the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in gan competing with each other for territorial control and expressions of personal piety and what could be called a political power. By 2160 BC, rulers in Herakleopolis con- democratization of the afterlife, in which all people pos-

2.1. HISTORY

Sea

Black

Citium

Sea

Byblos Sidon Tyre

Damascus

Nineveh Assur

Babylon

Gaza

Avaris

SINAI

Heliopolis

Memphis Herakleopolis

MIA

Nippur

Pe r Gu sian lf

Nil

LIBYA

CAN AA

Tanis

Kadesh

Mediteranean

ASSYRIA

Carchemish

SYRIA

ARABIA

EGYPTIAN Abydos THEBES Aswan I

Elephantine

Abu Simbel

Second Intermediate Period (1674– 1549 BC) and the Hyksos

Mycenae

2.1.6

HITTITE EMPIRE

Sardes

The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat III, allowed Semitic-speaking Canaanite settlers from the Near East into the delta region to provide a suﬃcient labour force for his especially active mining and building campaigns. These ambitious building and mining activities, however, combined with severe Nile ﬂoods later in his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the later Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties. During this decline, the Canaanite settlers began to seize control of the delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt as the Hyksos.[41]

The Egyptian Empire 15th century BC

sessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death.[39] Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a conﬁdent, eloquent style.[34] The relief and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical perfection.[40]

EMPIRE KUSH III IV

Napata

PUNT

(under Egyptian influence)

The maximum territorial extent of ancient Egypt (15th century BC)

Main article: Second Intermediate Period of Egypt The New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the Mitanni Empire, Assyria, and Canaan. Military campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen. Between their reigns, Hatshepsut generally promoted peace and restored trade routes lost during the Hyksos occupation, as well as expanding to new regions. When Tuthmosis III died in 1425 BC, Egypt had an empire extending from Niya in north west Syria to the fourth waterfall of the Nile in After their retreat, the native Theban kings found them- Nubia, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical [45] selves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the imports such as bronze and wood. north and the Hyksos’ Nubian allies, the Kushites, to the south of Egypt. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555 BC.[42] The pharaohs Seqenenre Tao II and Kamose were ultimately able to defeat the Nubians to the south of Egypt, but failed to defeat the Hyksos. That task fell to Kamose’s successor, Ahmose I, who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos’ presence in Egypt. He established a new dynasty. In the New Kingdom that followed, the military became a central priority for the pharaohs seeking to expand Egypt’s borders and attempting to gain mastery of the Near East.[44] Around 1785 BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs weakened, a Western Asian people called the Hyksos had already settled in the Eastern Delta town of Avaris, seized control of Egypt, and forced the central government to retreat to Thebes. The pharaoh was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute.[42] The Hyksos (“foreign rulers”) retained Egyptian models of government and identified as pharaohs, thus integrating Egyptian elements into their culture. They and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the composite bow and the horse-drawn chariot.[43]

2.1.7

New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC)

Main article: New Kingdom of Egypt

Djeser-Djeseru is the main building of Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri; the building is an example of perfect symmetry that predates the Parthenon by a thousand years

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT

The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god Amun, whose growing cult was based in Karnak. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built.[46] The pharaoh Hatshepsut used such hyperbole and grandeur during her reign of almost twenty-two years.[47] Her reign was very successful, marked by an extended period of peace and wealth-building, trading expeditions to Punt, restoration of foreign trade networks, and great building projects, including an elegant mortuary temple that rivaled the Greek architecture of a thousand years later, a colossal pair of obelisks, and a chapel at Karnak. Despite her achievements, Amenhotep II, the heir to Hatshepsut’s nephew-stepson Tuthmosis III, sought to erase her legacy near the end of his father’s reign and throughout his, touting many of her accomplishments as his.[48] He also tried to change many established traditions that had developed over the centuries, which some suggest was a futile attempt to prevent other women from becoming pharaoh and to curb their influence in the kingdom. Around 1350 BC, the stability of the New Kingdom seemed threatened further when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to Akhenaten, he touted the previously obscure sun deity Aten as the supreme deity, suppressed the worship of most other deities, and attacked the power of the temple that had become dominated by the priests of Amun in Thebes, whom he saw as corrupt.[49] Moving the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna), Akhenaten turned a deaf ear to events in the Near East (where the Hittites, Mitanni, and Assyrians were vying for control). He was devoted to his new religion and artistic style. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned, the priests of Amun soon regained power and returned the capital to Thebes. Under their influence the subsequent pharaohs Tutankhamun, Ay, and Horemheb worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten’s heresy, now known as the Amarna Period.[50] Around 1279 BC, Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history.[51] A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh (in modern Syria) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded peace treaty, around 1258 BC.[52] With both the Egyptians and Hittite Empire proving unable to gain the upper hand over one another, and both powers also fearful of the expanding Middle Assyrian Empire, Egypt withdrew from much of the Near East. The Hittites were thus left to compete unsuccessfully with the powerful Assyrians and the newly arrived Phrygians.

Four colossal statues of Ramesses II ﬂank the entrance of his temple Abu Simbel

and the Sea Peoples, a conjectured[53][54] confederation of seafarers from the Aegean Sea. Initially, the military was able to repel these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern Caanan, much of it falling to the Assyrians. The eﬀects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, and civil unrest. After regaining their power, the high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.[55]

2.1.8 Third Intermediate Period (1069– 653 BC) Main article: Third Intermediate Period of Egypt

Following the death of Ramesses XI in 1078 BC, Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of Tanis. The south was eﬀectively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes, who recognized Smendes in name only.[56] During this time, Berber tribes from what was later to be called Libya had been settling in the western delta, and the chieftains Egypt’s wealth, however, made it a tempting target for of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan invasion, particularly by the Libyan Berbers to the west, princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in 945

2.1. HISTORY

BC, founding the Libyan Berber, or Bubastite, dynasty that ruled for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions.

invaded Egypt around 727 BC. Piye easily seized control of Thebes and eventually the Nile Delta.[60] He recorded the episode on his stela of victory. Piye set the stage for subsequent Twenty-fifth dynasty pharaohs,[61] such In the mid-ninth century BC, Egypt made a failed attempt as Taharqa, to reunite the “Two lands” of Northern and to once more gain a foothold in Western Asia. Osorkon II Southern Egypt. The Nile valley empire was as large as of Egypt, along with a large alliance of nations and peo- it had been since the New Kingdom. ples, including Persia, Israel, Hamath, Phoenicia/Caanan, The Twenty-fifth dynasty ushered in a renaissance pethe Arabs, Arameans, and neo Hittites among others, riod for ancient Egypt.[62] Religion, the arts, and archiengaged in the Battle of Karkar against the powerful tecture were restored to their glorious Old, Middle, and Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in 853 BC. However, this New Kingdom forms. Pharaohs, such as Taharqa, built or coalition of powers failed and the Neo Assyrian Empire restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valcontinued to dominate Western Asia. ley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, Jebel Barkal, [63] It was during the Twenty-fifth dynasty that there Libyan Berber control began to erode as a rival native etc. was the first widespread construction of pyramids (many dynasty in the delta arose under Leontopolis. Also, the in modern Sudan) in the Nile Valley since the Middle Nubians of the Kushites threatened Egypt from the lands [64][65][66] Kingdom. [57] to the south.

Chiefs of the West

Piye made various unsuccessful attempts to extend Egyptian inﬂuence in the Near East, then controlled by Assyria. In 720 BC, he sent an army in support of a rebellion against Assyria, which was taking place in Philistia and Gaza. However, Piye was defeated by Sargon II and the rebellion failed. In 711 BC, Piye again supported a revolt against Assyria by the Israelites of Ashdod and was once again defeated by the Assyrian king Sargon II. Subsequently, Piye was forced from the Near East.[67] From the 10th century BC onwards, Assyria fought for control of the southern Levant. Frequently, cities and kingdoms of the southern Levant appealed to Egypt for aid in their struggles against the powerful Assyrian army. Taharqa enjoyed some initial success in his attempts to regain a foothold in the Near East. Taharqa aided the Judean King Hezekiah when Hezekiah and Jerusalem was besieged by the Assyrian king, Sennacherib. Scholars disagree on the primary reason for Assyria’s abandonment of their siege on Jerusalem. Reasons for the Assyrian withdrawal range from conﬂict with the Egyptian/Kushite army to divine intervention to surrender to disease.[68] Henry Aubin argues that the Kushite/Egyptian army saved Jerusalem from the Assyrians and prevented the Assyrians from returning to capture Jerusalem for the remainder of Sennacherib’s life (20 years).[69] Some argue that disease was the primary reason for failing to actually take the city; however, Senacherib’s annals claim Judah was forced into tribute regardless.[70]

Sennacherib had been murdered by his own sons for destroying the rebellious city of Babylon, a city sacred to all Mesopotamians, the Assyrians included. In 674 BC Esarhaddon launched a preliminary incursion into Egypt; however, this attempt was repelled by Taharqa.[71] HowAround 730 BC Libyans from the west fractured the political ever, in 671 BC, Esarhaddon launched a full-scale invaunity of the country sion. Part of his army stayed behind to deal with rebellions in Phoenicia, and Israel. The remainder went south Drawing on millennia of interaction (trade, acculturation, to Rapihu, then crossed the Sinai, and entered Egypt. occupation, assimilation, and war[58] ) with Egypt,[59] the Esarhaddon decisively defeated Taharqa, took Memphis, Kushite king Piye left his Nubian capital of Napata and

12 Thebes and all the major cities of Egypt, and Taharqa was chased back to his Nubian homeland. Esarhaddon now called himself “king of Egypt, Patros, and Kush", and returned with rich booty from the cities of the delta; he erected a victory stele at this time, and paraded the captive Prince Ushankhuru, the son of Taharqa in Nineveh. Esarhaddon stationed a small army in northern Egypt and describes how “All Ethiopians (read Nubians/Kushites) I deported from Egypt, leaving not one left to do homage to me”.[72] He installed native Egyptian princes throughout the land to rule on his behalf.[73] The conquest by Esarhaddon eﬀectively marked the end of the short lived Kushite Empire.

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT With no permanent plans for conquest, the Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. By 653 BC, the Saite king Psamtik I (taking advantage of the fact that Assyria was involved in a fierce war conquering Elam and that few Assyrian troops were stationed in Egypt) was able to free Egypt relatively peacefully from Assyrian vassalage with the help of Lydian and Greek mercenaries, the latter of whom were recruited to form Egypt’s first navy. Psamtik and his successors however were careful to maintain peaceful relations with Assyria. Greek influence expanded greatly as the city of Naukratis became the home of Greeks in the delta.

In 609 BC Necho II went to war with Babylonia, the Chaldeans, the Medians and the Scythians in an attempt to save Assyria, which after a brutal civil war was being overrun by this coalition of powers. However, the attempt to save Egypt’s former masters failed. The Egyptians delayed intervening too long, and Nineveh had already fallen and King Sin-shar-ishkun was dead by the time Necho II sent his armies northwards. However, Necho easily brushed aside the Israelite army under King Josiah but he and the Assyrians then lost a battle at Harran to the Babylonians, Medes and Scythians. Necho II and Ashuruballit II of Assyria were finally defeated at Carchemish in Aramea (modern Syria) in 605 BC. The Egyptians remained in the area for some decades, struggling with the Babylonian kings Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II for control of portions of the former Assyrian Empire in The Levant. However, they were eventually driven back into Egypt, and Nebuchadnezzar II even briefly invaded Egypt itself in 567 BC.[70] The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525 BC, the powerful Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the Twenty-fifth Dynasty control of a satrapy. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Persians marked the fifth century BC, His successor, Tanutamun, also made a failed attempt to but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the regain Egypt for Nubia. He successfully defeated Necho, Persians.[75] the native Egyptian puppet ruler installed by AshurbanFollowing its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined ipal, taking Thebes in the process. The Assyrians then with Cyprus and Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) in the sent a large army southwards. Tantamani (Tanutamun) sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This was heavily routed and fled back to Nubia. The Assyrian first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as army sacked Thebes to such an extent it never truly recovthe Twenty-seventh dynasty, ended after more than oneered. A native ruler, Psammetichus I was placed on the hundred years in 402 BC, and from 380 to 343 BC the throne, as a vassal of Ashurbanipal, and the Nubians were Thirtieth Dynasty ruled as the last native royal house never again to pose a threat to either Assyria or Egypt.[74] of dynastic Egypt, which ended with the kingship of Nectanebo II. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the Thirty-first Dynasty, began in 343 2.1.9 Late Period (672–332 BC) BC, but shortly after, in 332 BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to the Macedonian ruler Main articles: Late Period of ancient Egypt and History Alexander the Great without a fight.[76] of Achaemenid Egypt However, the native Egyptian rulers installed by Esarhaddon were unable to retain full control of the whole country for long. Two years later, Taharqa returned from Nubia and seized control of a section of southern Egypt as far north as Memphis. Esarhaddon prepared to return to Egypt and once more eject Taharqa; however, he fell ill and died in his capital, Nineveh, before he left Assyria. His successor, Ashurbanipal, sent an Assyrian general named Sha-Nabu-shu with a small, but well trained army, which conclusively defeated Taharqa at Memphis and once more drove him from Egypt. Taharqa died in Nubia two years later.

2.1. HISTORY

2.1.10

Ptolemaic Period

13 bellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria that formed after the death of Ptolemy IV.[79] In addition, as Rome relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful Syriac opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.[80]

2.1.11 Roman Period Main article: History of Roman Egypt Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30

Alexander the Great, 100 BC – 100 AD, 54.162, Brooklyn Museum

Main articles: History of Ptolemaic Egypt and Ptolemaic Kingdom In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander’s successors, the Macedonian Ptolemaic Kingdom, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new capital city of Alexandria. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a seat of learning and culture, centered at the famous Library of Alexandria.[77] The Lighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city—as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.[78] Hellenistic culture did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and Egyptian gods were syncretized into composite deities, such as Serapis, and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native re-

The Fayum mummy portraits epitomize the meeting of Egyptian and Roman cultures.

BC, following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT

heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period.[81] Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome.[82] Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued.[83] The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.[83] From the mid-first century AD, Christianity took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from Egyptian Religion and Greco-Roman religion and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out.[84] In 391 the Christian Emperor Theodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples.[85] Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed.[86] As a consequence, Egypt’s native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population certainly continued to speak their language, the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The pharaoh was usually depicted wearing symbols of royalty The temples themselves were sometimes converted to and power. churches or abandoned to the desert.[87]

2.2 Government and economy 2.2.1

Administration and commerce

The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the supreme military commander and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of oﬃcials to manage his aﬀairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the vizier, who acted as the king’s representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the archives.[88] At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called nomes each governed by a nomarch, who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were they houses of worship, but were also responsible for

collecting and storing the nation’s wealth in a system of granaries and treasuries administered by overseers, who redistributed grain and goods.[89] Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use coinage until the Late period, they did use a type of money-barter system,[90] with standard sacks of grain and the deben, a weight of roughly 91 grams (3 oz) of copper or silver, forming a common denominator.[91] Workers were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn 5½ sacks (200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman might earn 7½ sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140 deben.[91] Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list.[91] During the fifth century BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of precious metal rather than true money,

2.2. GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMY

but in the following centuries international traders came They were able to buy and sell, or work their way to freeto rely on coinage.[92] dom or nobility, and usually were treated by doctors in the workplace.[98] Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and di2.2.2 Social status vorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and Egyptian society was highly stratified, and social status protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the population, but agricultural produce was owned di- the husband to his wife and children should the marrectly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the riage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient land.[93] Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around required to work on irrigation or construction projects in the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range a corvée system.[94] Artists and craftsmen were of higher of personal choices and opportunities for achievement. status than farmers, but they were also under state con- Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VI even betrol, working in the shops attached to the temples and came pharaohs, while others wielded power as Divine paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and offi- Wives of Amun. Despite these freedoms, ancient Egypcials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as tian women did not often take part in official roles in the the “white kilt class” in reference to the bleached linen administration, served only secondary roles in the temgarments that served as a mark of their rank.[95] The up- ples, and were not as likely to be as educated as men.[97] per class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. Slavery was known in ancient Egypt, but the extent and prevalence of its practice are unclear.[96]

Punishment in ancient Egypt.

Scribes were elite and well educated. They assessed taxes, kept records, and were responsible for administration.

2.2.3 Legal system Young Egyptian laborers treated by doctors after circumcision, as a part of a rite of passage to citizenship.

The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes except slaves, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress.[97] Although, slaves were mostly used as indentured servants.

The head of the legal system was oﬃcially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as Ma'at.[88] Although no legal codes from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conﬂicts rather than strictly adhering to a

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT

complicated set of statutes.[97] Local councils of elders, known as Kenbet in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes.[88] More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the Great Kenbet, over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference.[99] Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or impaling the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal’s family.[88] Beginning in the New Kingdom, oracles played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The proceA tomb relief depicts workers plowing the fields, harvesting the dure was to ask the god a “yes” or “no” question concerncrops, and threshing the grain under the direction of an overseer, ing the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by painting in the tomb of Nakht. a number of priests, rendered judgment by choosing one or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an ostracon.[100]

2.2.4

Agriculture

Main article: Ancient Egyptian agriculture See also: Ancient Egyptian cuisine and Gardens of ancient Egypt A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.[101] Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river’s banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.[102] From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their

Measuring and recording the harvest is shown in a wall painting in the tomb of Menna, at Thebes, Egypt (Eighteenth Dynasty).

crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.[103] The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer.[104] Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.[105]

2.2. GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMY

2.2.5 Natural resources Further information: Mining industry of Egypt Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jewelry.[110] Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for mummification, which also provided the gypsum needed to make plaster.[111] Ore-bearing rock formations were found in distant, inhospitable wadis in the eastern desert Sennedjem plows his fields with a pair of oxen, used as beasts of and the Sinai, requiring large, state-controlled expediburden and a source of food. tions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensive gold mines in Nubia, and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite, greywacke, and gold. Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of Animals evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copThe Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship be- per was adopted for this purpose.[112] Ancient Egyptians tween people and animals was an essential element of were among the first to use minerals such as sulfur as costhe cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were metic substances.[113] believed to be members of a single whole.[106] Animals, both domesticated and wild, were therefore a critical The Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and to the ancient Egyptians. Cattle were the most impor- small figurines. Copper was the most important metal in furtant livestock; the administration collected taxes on live- for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted [114] naces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai. Workstock in regular censuses, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that ers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians in alluvial deposits, or by the more labor-intensive prokept sheep, goats, and pigs. Poultry such as ducks, geese, cess of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron found in upper Egypt were utilized in the Late and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms, deposits[115] Period. High-quality building stones were abundant in [107] where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them. Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish. Bees were the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandalso domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and stone from the wadis of the eastern desert. Deposits of [108] they provided both honey and wax. decorative stones such as porphyry, greywacke, alabaster, The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of and carnelian dotted the eastern desert and were collected burden, and they were responsible for plowing the fields even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fat- Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of emeralds in tened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual.[107] Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi el-Hudi.[116] Horses were introduced by the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, and the camel, although known from the New Kingdom, was not used as a beast of burden 2.2.6 Trade until the Late Period. There is also evidence to suggest that elephants were briefly utilized in the Late Period, but Main article: Ancient Egyptian trade largely abandoned due to lack of grazing land.[107] Dogs, The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign cats and monkeys were common family pets, while more neighbors to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as li- In the Predynastic Period, they established trade with Nuons, were reserved for royalty. Herodotus observed that bia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs with them in their houses.[106] During the Predynastic and found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs.[117] Late periods, the worship of the gods in their animal form An Egyptian colony stationed in southern Canaan dates to was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess Bastet and slightly before the First Dynasty.[118] Narmer had Egypthe ibis god Thoth, and these animals were bred in large tian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to numbers on farms for the purpose of ritual sacrifice.[109] Egypt.[119]

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT object.[126] The Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic Coptic alphabet. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the Egyptian Orthodox Church, and traces of it are found in modern Egyptian Arabic.[127]

2.3.2 Sounds and grammar

Hatshepsut’s trading expedition to the Land of Punt.

By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with Byblos yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with Punt provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons.[120] Egypt relied on trade with Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone lapis lazuli, which had to be imported from far-away Afghanistan. Egypt’s Mediterranean trade partners also included Greece and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of olive oil.[121] In exchange for its luxury imports and raw materials, Egypt mainly exported grain, gold, linen, and papyrus, in addition to other ﬁnished goods including glass and stone objects.[122]

2.3 Language Main article: Egyptian language

2.3.1

Historical development

The Egyptian language is a northern Afro-Asiatic language closely related to the Berber and Semitic languages.[123] It has the second longest history of any language (after Sumerian), having been written from c. 3200 BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian are Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian (Classical Egyptian), Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic.[124] Egyptian writings do not show dialect diﬀerences before Coptic, but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes.[125]

Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro-Asiatic languages. These include pharyngeal and emphatic consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Later Egyptian to about nine.[128] The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a triliteral or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to the person. For example, the triconsonantal skeleton S-Ḏ-M is the semantic core of the word 'hear'; its basic conjugation is sḏm, 'he hears’. If the subject is a noun, suffixes are not added to the verb:[129] sḏm ḥmt, 'the woman hears’. Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call nisbation because of its similarity with Arabic.[130] The word order is predicate–subject in verbal and adjectival sentences, and subject–predicate in nominal and adverbial sentences.[131] The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun.[132] Verbs and nouns are negated by the particle n, but nn is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences. Stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC).[133]

2.3.3 Writing Main articles: Egyptian hieroglyphs and Hieratic Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve diﬀerent purposes in diﬀerent contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, Demotic, became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing—along with formal hieroglyphs—that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.[135]

Ancient Egyptian was a synthetic language, but it became more analytic later on. Late Egyptian develops prefixal definite and indefinite articles, which replace the Around the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started older inflectional suffixes. There is a change from the to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modolder verb–subject–object word order to subject–verb– ified Greek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic

2.3. LANGUAGE

The Rosetta stone (ca 196 BC) enabled linguists to begin the process of hieroglyph decipherment.[134]

Hieroglyphs on a funerary stela in Manchester Museum

signs.[136] Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine[137] and Islamic periods in Egypt,[138] but only in 1822, after the The Edwin Smith surgical papyrus (c. 16th century BC) describes discovery of the Rosetta stone and years of research by anatomy and medical treatments and is written in hieratic. Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion, were hieroglyphs almost fully deciphered.[139]

2.3.4

Literature

1300 BC. Later Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of Harkhuf and Weni. The genre known as Sebayt (“instructions”) was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the Ipuwer papyrus, a poem of lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval, is a famous example.

Main article: Ancient Egyptian literature Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories.[140] Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the Pyramid The Story of Sinuhe, written in Middle Egyptian, might and Coffin Texts, were written in Classical Egyptian, be the classic of Egyptian literature.[141] Also written at which continued to be the language of writing until about this time was the Westcar Papyrus, a set of stories told

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT

to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests.[142] The Instruction of Amenemope is considered a masterpiece of near-eastern literature.[143] Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the vernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces like the Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt. From about 700 BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the demotic script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the Greco-Roman period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as Ramesses II.[144]

2.4 Culture 2.4.1

Daily life

A painted depiction of Senet (in the tomb of Queen Nefertari, Valley of the Queens, Thebes, Egypt), one of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s earliest known board games.

a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread.[145] Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the ďŹ&#x201A;oor and individual tables comprised the furniture.[146] The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin.[147] Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and cosmetics. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s income.[148]

Ostraca of hunting a lion with a spear, aided by a dog.

Statues depicting lower-class ancient Egyptian occupations.

Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of mud-brick designed The ancient Egyptians maintained a rich cultural heritage comto remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had plete with feasts and festivals accompanied by music and dance.

2.4. CULTURE

Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could aﬀord them. Early instruments included ﬂutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and imported lutes and lyres from Asia.[149] The sistrum was a rattle-like musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies. The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music. Senet, a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was mehen, which had a circular gaming board. Juggling and ball games were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan.[150] The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed hunting and boating as well. The excavation of the workers’ village of Deir el-Madinah has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world that spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organisation, social interactions, working and living conditions of a community were studied in such detail.[151]

2.4.2

Cuisine

Main article: Ancient Egyptian cuisine

Karnak temple’s hypostyle halls are constructed with rows of thick columns supporting the roof beams.

Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, the cuisine of modern Egypt retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and ﬁgs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.[152]

2.4.3

Architecture

Main article: Ancient Egyptian architecture The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using simple but eﬀective tools and sighting instruments, architects could build large stone structures with accuracy and precision.[153]

The well preserved Temple of Horus at Edfu is an exemplar of Egyptian architecture.

more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in Malkata and Amarna, show richly decorated walls and ﬂoors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs.[154] Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of bricks. The architectural elements used in the world’s The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians ﬁrst large-scale stone building, Djoser's mortuary comalike were constructed from perishable materials such as plex, include post and lintel supports in the papyrus and mud bricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lotus motif. lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite were The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT

those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the pylon, the open courtyard, and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple’s sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Greco-Roman period.[155] The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the mastaba, a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber. The step pyramid of Djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs.[156] The Twenty-fifth dynasty was a notable exception, as all Twenty-fifth dynasty pharaohs constructed pyramids.[64][65][66]

2.4.4

of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The Narmer Palette, for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs.[158] Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.[159]

Art

Egyptian Vase in Manchester Museum

Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone to carve statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved The Bust of Nefertiti, by the sculptor Thutmose, is one of the most substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as famous masterpieces of ancient Egyptian art. iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Main article: Art of ancient Egypt Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water [160] The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional when needed. purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic Pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle, royal forms and iconography that were developed during the decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had acOld Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that re- cess to pieces of funerary art, such as shabti statues and sisted foreign influence and internal change.[157] These books of the dead, which they believed would protect artistic standards—simple lines, shapes, and flat areas them in the afterlife.[161] During the Middle Kingdom,

2.4. CULTURE

wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.[162] Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reﬂected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, Minoan-style frescoes were found in Avaris.[163] The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the Amarna period, where ﬁgures were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten's revolutionary religious ideas.[164] This style, known as Amarna art, was quickly and thoroughly erased after Akhenaten’s death and replaced by the traditional forms.[165]

2.4.5

Religious beliefs

Main article: Ancient Egyptian religion Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were in-

The Ka statue provided a physical place for the Ka to manifest

The Book of the Dead was a guide to the deceased’s journey in the afterlife.

grained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of kings. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this pantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting myths and stories into a coherent system.[166] These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.[167]

homes, and amulets oﬀered protection against the forces of chaos.[168] After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh’s role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.[169]

The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or aspects. In addition to the body, each person had a šwt (shadow), a ba (personality or soul), a ka (life-force), and a name.[170] The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and ba and become one of the “blessed dead”, living on as an akh, or “effective one”. For this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by against a “feather of truth”. If deemed worthy, the decould continue their existence on earth in spiritual priests acting on the king’s behalf. At the center of the ceased[171] form. temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship. 2.4.6 Burial customs Normally, the god’s domain was sealed oﬀ from the outside world and was only accessible to temple oﬃcials. Main article: Ancient Egyptian burial customs Common citizens could worship private statues in their

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT

Anubis was the ancient Egyptian god associated with mummiﬁcation and burial rituals; here, he attends to a mummy.

Pharaohs’ tombs were provided with vast quantities of wealth, such as the golden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamun.

Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased. Beginning in the New Kingdom, books of the dead were included in the grave, along with shabti statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife.[174] Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.[175]

The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of 2.5 Military burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by mummification, performing burial Main article: Military of ancient Egypt ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the de- The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for deceased would use in the afterlife.[161] Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in canopic jars.[172] By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated.[173]

An Egyptian chariot.

fending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt’s domination in the ancient Near East. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortiﬁcations along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base

2.6. TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, AND MATHEMATICS

of operations for expeditions to the Levant. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer Kush and parts of the Levant.[176] Typical military equipment included bows and arrows, spears, and round-topped shields made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began using chariots that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and the Khopesh was adopted from Asiatic soldiers.[177] The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs, such as Seqenenre Tao II and his sons, did do so.[178] However, it has also been argued that “kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders, ﬁghting alongside their troops.”[179] Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to ﬁght for Egypt.[180] Glassmaking was a highly developed art.

2.6 Technology, medicine, mathematics 2.6.1

and

Technology

Main article: Ancient Egyptian technology In technology, medicine and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional empiricism, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri (c. 1600 BC), is ﬁrst credited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and decimal system.

2.6.2

Faience and glass

Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of silica, small amounts of lime and soda, and a colorant, typically copper.[181] The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as Egyptian Blue, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or sintering) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a

pigment.[182] The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently.[183] It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and ﬁnished. However, they did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding trace elements to control the color of the ﬁnished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.[184]

2.6.3 Medicine Main article: Ancient Egyptian medicine The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a signiﬁcant toll on the body. The grit and sand from stone-ground ﬂour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to abscesses (though caries were rare).[185] The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT were used to relieve pain. The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies. Prayers were made to the goddess Isis. Moldy bread, honey and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns.[193] Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set broken bones, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred.[194]

Documented extent of Ancient Egyptian geographic knowledge Ancient Egyptian medical instruments depicted in a Ptolemaic period inscription on the temple at Kom Ombo.

2.6.4 Maritime technology promoted periodontal disease.[186] Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence.[187] Adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one-third of the population died in infancy.[188] Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, such as Imhotep, remained famous long after their deaths.[189] Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and dentists.[190] Training of physicians took place at the Per Ankh or “House of Life” institution, most notably those headquartered in Per-Bastet during the New Kingdom and at Abydos and Saïs in the Late period. Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments.[191]

Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull and had mastered advanced forms of shipbuilding as early as 3000 BC. The Archaeological Institute of America reports that the oldest planked ships known are the Abydos boats.[6] A group of 14 discovered ships in Abydos were constructed of wooden planks “sewn” together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of New York University,[195] woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together,[6] and reeds or grass stuﬀed between the planks helped to seal the seams.[6] Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000 BC was 75 feet (23 m) long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. According to professor O'Connor, the 5,000-year-old ship may have even belonged to Pharaoh Aha.[195]

Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs soaked with honey to Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of prevent infection,[192] while opium thyme and belladona wood with treenails to fasten them together, using pitch

2.6. TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, AND MATHEMATICS

for caulking the seams. The "Khufu ship", a 43.6-metre (143 ft) vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth Dynasty around 2500 BC, is a full-size surviving example that may have ﬁlled the symbolic function of a solar barque. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints.[6]

And in 2013 a team of Franco-Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world’s oldest port, dating back about 4500 years, from the time of King Cheops on the Red Sea coast near Wadi el-Jarf (about 110 miles south of Suez).[198] In 1977, an ancient north-south canal dating to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt was discovered extending from Lake Timsah to the Ballah Lakes.[199] It was dated to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course.[199][200]

2.6.5 Mathematics Main article: Egyptian mathematics The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculaSeagoing ship from Hateshepsut’s Deir el-Bahari temple relief of a Punt Expedition

Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean, especially Byblos (on the coast of modern-day Lebanon), and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to the Land of Punt.[196] In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a “Byblos Ship”, which originally deﬁned a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run; however, by the end of the Old Kingdom, the term had come to include large seagoing ships, whatever their destination.[196]

Astronomical chart in Senemut’s tomb, 18th dynasty[201]

tions date to the predynastic Naqada period, and show a fully developed numeral system.[202] The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom ﬁctional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor, and grain.[203] Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations— addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—use fractions, compute the volumes of boxes and pyramids, and calculate the surface areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles. They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry, and could solve simple sets of simultaneous equations.[204] Early Nile Delta, showing relation of Lake Timsah to Ballah Lakes.

In 2011 archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt excavating a dried-up lagoon known as Mersa Gawasis have unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages like Hatshepsut's Punt expedition onto the open ocean.[197] Some of the site’s most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians’ seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes, made from papyrus, coiled in huge bundles.[197]

Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively.[205] Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, they had to write fractions as the sum of several fractions. For example, they resolved the fraction two-ﬁfths into the sum of one-third + one-ﬁfteenth. Standard tables of values facil-

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT

itated this.[206] Some common fractions, however, were artists to study and document Egypt’s natural history, written with a special glyph—the equivalent of the mod- which was published in the Description de l'Égypte.[215] ern two-thirds is shown on the right.[207] In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and arAncient Egyptian mathematicians had a grasp of the prin- chaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural ciples underlying the Pythagorean theorem, knowing, for respect and integrity in excavations. The Supreme Counexample, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the cil of Antiquities now approves and oversees all excavahypotenuse when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio.[208] They tions, which are aimed at ﬁnding information rather than were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting treasure. The council also supervises museums and monone-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result: ument reconstruction programs designed to preserve the historical legacy of Egypt. Area ≈ [(8 ⁄9 )D]2 = (256 ⁄81 )r 2 ≈ 3.16r 2 , a reasonable approximation of the formula πr 2 .[208][209] The golden ratio seems to be reﬂected in many Egyptian constructions, including the pyramids, but its use may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient Egyptian practice of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony.[210]

• Tourists riding a camel in front of Giza pyramids • Frontispiece of Description de l'Égypte, published in 38 volumes between 1809 and 1829.

2.9 See also • Arnold J. Toynbee

2.7 Population

• Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts • Index of ancient Egypt-related articles

Main article: Population history of Egypt

2.8 Legacy See also: Tourism in Egypt The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. The cult of the goddess Isis, for example, became popular in the Roman Empire, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome.[211] The Romans also imported building materials from Egypt to erect Egyptian-style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came to view as a place of mystery.[212]

• Outline of ancient Egypt

2.10 Notes [1] “Chronology”. Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Archived from the original on 16 March 2008. Retrieved 25 March 2008. [2] Dodson (2004) p. 46 [3] Clayton (1994) p. 217 [4] James (2005) p. 8 [5] Manuelian (1998) pp. 6–7 [6] Ward, Cheryl. "World’s Oldest Planked Boats", inArchaeology (Volume 54, Number 3, May/June 2001). Archaeological Institute of America.

During the Middle Ages and The Renaissance, Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity [7] Clayton (1994) p. 153 and later Islam, but interest in Egyptian antiquity contin[8] James (2005) p. 84 ued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul-Nun [213] In the seventeenth and eigh- [9] Shaw (2002) pp. 17, 67–69 al-Misri and al-Maqrizi. teenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, lead- [10] Shaw (2002) p. 17 ing to a wave of Egyptomania across Europe. This re[11] Ikram, Salima (1992). Choice Cuts: Meat Production in newed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purAncient Egypt. University of Cambridge. p. 5. ISBN 978chased, or were given many important antiquities.[214] 90-6831-745-9. LCCN 1997140867. OCLC 60255819. Retrieved 22 July 2009. Although the European colonial occupation of Egypt destroyed a signiﬁcant portion of the country’s histor[12] Hayes (1964) p. 220 ical legacy, some foreigners left more positive marks. Napoleon, for example, arranged the ﬁrst studies in [13] Childe, V. Gordon (1953), New Light on the Most Ancient Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and Near East, (Praeger Publications)

2.10. NOTES

[14] Barbara G. Aston, James A. Harrell, Ian Shaw (2000). Paul T. Nicholson and Ian Shaw editors. “Stone,” in Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, Cambridge, 5– 77, pp. 46–47. Also note: Barbara G. Aston (1994). “Ancient Egyptian Stone Vessels,” Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens 5, Heidelberg, pp. 23–26. (See on-line posts: and .)

[42] Ryholt (1997) p. 310 [43] Shaw (2002) p. 189 [44] Shaw (2002) p. 224 [45] James (2005) p. 48

[15] Patai, Raphael (1998), Children of Noah: Jewish Seafaring in Ancient Times (Princeton Uni Press)

[46] Bleiberg (editor), Edward (2005). “Ancient Egypt 2675332 BCE: Architecture and Design”. Arts and Humanities Through the Eras. 1.

[16] “Chronology of the Naqada Period”. Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Archived from the original on 28 March 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008.

[47] “Hatshepsut”. Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Archived from the original on 18 November 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.

[17] Shaw (2002) p. 61

[48] Clayton (1994) p. 108

[18] Emberling, Geoﬀ (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.

[49] Aldred (1988) p. 259

[19] “The Qustul Incense Burner”.

[51] With his two principal wives and large harem, Ramesses II sired more than 100 children. Clayton (1994) p. 146

[20] “Faience in diﬀerent Periods”. Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Archived from the original on 30 March 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008. [21] Allen (2000) p. 1 [22] Clayton (1994) p. 6 [23] Shaw (2002) pp. 78–80 [24] Clayton (1994) pp. 12–13 [25] Shaw (2002) p. 70 [26] “Early Dynastic Egypt”. Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Archived from the original on 4 March 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008. [27] Robins (1997) p. 32 [28] James (2005) p. 40 [29] Shaw (2002) p. 102 [30] Shaw (2002) pp. 116–7 [31] Fekri Hassan. “The Fall of the Old Kingdom”. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 10 March 2008.

[50] Cline (2001) p. 273

[52] Tyldesley (2001) pp. 76–7 [53] Killebrew 2013, p. 2. Quote: “First coined in 1881 by the French Egyptologist G. Maspero (1896), the somewhat misleading term “Sea Peoples” encompasses the ethnonyms Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Teresh, Eqwesh, Denyen, Sikil / Tjekker, Weshesh, and Peleset (Philistines). [Footnote: The modern term “Sea Peoples” refers to peoples that appear in several New Kingdom Egyptian texts as originating from “islands” (tables 1-2; Adams and Cohen, this volume; see, e.g., Drews 1993, 57 for a summary). The use of quotation marks in association with the term “Sea Peoples” in our title is intended to draw attention to the problematic nature of this commonly used term. It is noteworthy that the designation “of the sea” appears only in relation to the Sherden, Shekelesh, and Eqwesh. Subsequently, this term was applied somewhat indiscriminately to several additional ethnonyms, including the Philistines, who are portrayed in their earliest appearance as invaders from the north during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses Ill (see, e.g., Sandars 1978; Redford 1992, 243, n. 14; for a recent review of the primary and secondary literature, see Woudhuizen 2006). Hencefore the term Sea Peoples will appear without quotation marks.]"

[32] Clayton (1994) p. 69

[40] Robins (1997) p. 90

[54] The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 B.C., Robert Drews, p48–61 Quote: “The thesis that a great “migration of the Sea Peoples” occurred ca. 1200 B.C. is supposedly based on Egyptian inscriptions, one from the reign of Merneptah and another from the reign of Ramesses III. Yet in the inscriptions themselves such a migration nowhere appears. After reviewing what the Egyptian texts have to say about 'the sea peoples’, one Egyptologist (Wolfgang Helck) recently remarked that although some things are unclear, “eins ist aber sicher: Nach den agyptischen Texten haben wir es nicht mit einer 'Volkerwanderung' zu tun.” Thus the migration hypothesis is based not on the inscriptions themselves but on their interpretation.”

[41] Shaw (2002) p. 188

[55] James (2005) p. 54

[33] Shaw (2002) p. 120 [34] Shaw (2002) p. 146 [35] Clayton (1994) p. 29 [36] Shaw (2002) p. 148 [37] Clayton (1994) p. 79 [38] Shaw (2002) p. 158 [39] Shaw (2002) pp. 179–82

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT

[56] Cerny (1975) p. 645

[81] James (2005) p. 63

[57] Emberling, Geoﬀ (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York, NY: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, NYU. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-0-615-48102-9.

[82] Shaw (2002) p. 426

[58] “Tomb reveals Ancient Egypt’s humiliating secret”. Daily Times, Pakistan. 29 July 2003. Retrieved 12 August 2013.

[84] Shaw (2003) p. 431

[59] Herodotus (2003). The Histories. Penguin Books. pp. 106–107, 133–134,. ISBN 978-0-14-044908-2. [60] Shaw (2002) p. 345 [61] Herodotus (2003). The Histories. Penguin Books. pp. 151–158. ISBN 978-0-14-044908-2. [62] Diop, Cheikh Anta (1974). The African Origin of Civilization. Chicago, Illinois: Lawrence Hill Books. pp. 219– 221. ISBN 1-55652-072-7.

[83] Shaw (2002) p. 422

[85] "The Church in Ancient Society", Henry Chadwick, p. 373, Oxford University Press US, 2001, ISBN 0-19-924695-5 [86] "Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D 100–400”, Ramsay MacMullen, p. 63, Yale University Press, 1984, ISBN 0300-03216-1 [87] Shaw (2002) p. 445 [88] Manuelian (1998) p. 358 [89] Manuelian (1998) p. 363 [90] Meskell (2004) p. 23

[63] Bonnet, Charles (2006). The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 142– 154. ISBN 978-977-416-010-3.

[91] Manuelian (1998) p. 372

[64] Mokhtar, G. (1990). General History of Africa. California, USA: University of California Press. pp. 161–163. ISBN 0-520-06697-9.

[93] Manuelian (1998) p. 383

[65] Emberling, Geoﬀ (2011). Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World. pp. 9–11.

[95] Billard (1978) p. 109

[66] Silverman, David (1997). Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 0-19-521270-3. [67] A. Leo Oppenheim (1964), Ancient Mesopotamia [68] Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. 6–13. ISBN 1-56947275-0.

[92] Walbank (1984) p. 125

[94] James (2005) p. 136

[96] “Social classes in ancient Egypt”. Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2007. [97] Janet H. Johnson. “Women’s Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt”. University of Chicago, 2004. Retrieved 31 August 2010. [98] Slavery in Ancient Egyptfrom http://www.reshafim.org. il. Retrieved 28 August 2012.

[69] Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. pp. 152–153. ISBN 1-56947- [99] Oakes (2003) p. 472 275-0. [100] McDowell (1999) p. 168 [70] Georges Roux (1964), Ancient Iraq

[101] Manuelian (1998) p. 361

[71] Aubin, Henry T. (2002). The Rescue of Jerusalem. New [102] Nicholson (2000) p. 514 York, NY: Soho Press, Inc. p. 160. ISBN 1-56947-2750. [103] Nicholson (2000) p. 506 [72] George Roux - Ancient Iraq

[104] Nicholson (2000) p. 510

[73] Esharhaddon’s Syrio-Palestinian Campaign

[105] Nicholson (2000) pp. 577 and 630

[74] Georges Roux (1964), Ancient Iraq, pp 330–332

[106] Strouhal (1989) p. 117

[75] Shaw (2002) p. 383

[107] Manuelian (1998) p. 381

[76] Shaw (2002) p. 385

[108] Nicholson (2000) p. 409

[77] Shaw (2002) p. 405

[109] Oakes (2003) p. 229

[78] Shaw (2002) p. 411

[110] Greaves (1929) p. 123

[79] Shaw (2002) p. 418

[111] Lucas (1962) p. 413

[80] James (2005) p. 62

[112] Nicholson (2000) p. 28

2.10. NOTES

[113] C.Michael Hogan. 2011. Sulfur. Encyclopedia of Earth, [144] Lichtheim (1980) p. 159 eds. A. Jorgensen and C.J. Cleveland, National Council [145] Manuelian (1998) p. 401 for Science and the environment, Washington DC [114] Scheel (1989) p. 14

[146] Manuelian (1998) p. 403

[115] Nicholson (2000) p. 166

[147] Manuelian (1998) p. 405

[116] Nicholson (2000) p. 51

[148] Manuelian (1998) pp. 406–7

[117] Shaw (2002) p. 72

[149] “Music in Ancient Egypt”. Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Archived from the original on [118] Naomi Porat and Edwin van den Brink (editor), “An 28 March 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008. Egyptian Colony in Southern Palestine During the Late Predynastic to Early Dynastic,” in The Nile Delta in Tran[150] Manuelian (1998) p. 126 sition: 4th to 3rd Millennium BC (1992), pp. 433–440. [119] Naomi Porat, “Local Industry of Egyptian Pottery in Southern Palestine During the Early Bronze I Period,” in Bulletin of the Egyptological, Seminar 8 (1986/1987), pp. 109–129. See also University College London web post, 2000.

[151] "The Cambridge Ancient History: II Part I, The Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1800 – 13380 B.C”, Edited I.E.S Edwards–C.JGadd–N.G.L Hammond-E.Sollberger, Cambridge at the University Press, p. 380, 1973, ISBN 0-521-08230-7

[120] Shaw (2002) p. 322

[152] Manuelian (1998) pp. 399–400

[121] Manuelian (1998) p. 145

[153] Clarke (1990) pp. 94–7

[122] Harris (1990) p. 13

[154] Badawy (1968) p. 50

[123] Loprieno (1995b) p. 2137

[155] “Types of temples in ancient Egypt”. Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Archived from the original on 19 March 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008.

[124] Loprieno (2004) p. 161 [125] Loprieno (2004) p. 162 [126] Loprieno (1995b) p. 2137–38 [127] Vittman (1991) pp. 197–227 [128] Loprieno (1995a) p. 46

[156] Dodson (1991) p. 23 [157] Robins (1997) p. 29 [158] Robins (1997) p. 21 [159] Robins (2001) p. 12

[129] Loprieno (1995a) p. 74 [130] Loprieno (2004) p. 175 [131] Allen (2000) pp. 67, 70, 109 [132] Loprieno (2005) p. 2147

[160] Nicholson (2000) p. 105 [161] James (2005) p. 122 [162] Robins (1998) p. 74

[133] Loprieno (2004) p. 173

[163] Shaw (2002) p. 216

[134] Allen (2000) p. 13

[164] Robins (1998) p. 149

[135] Loprieno (1995a) pp. 10–26

[165] Robins (1998) p. 158

[136] Allen (2000) p. 7

[166] James (2005) p. 102

[137] Loprieno (2004) p. 166

[167] "The Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology", edited by Donald B. Redford, p. 106, Berkley Books, 2003, ISBN 0-425-19096-X

[138] El-Daly (2005) p. 164 [139] Allen (2000) p. 8 [140] Strouhal (1989) p. 235 [141] Lichtheim (1975) p. 11

[168] James (2005) p. 117 [169] Shaw (2002) p. 313 [170] Allen (2000) pp. 79, 94–5

[142] Lichtheim (1975) p. 215 [171] Wasserman, et al. (1994) pp. 150–3 [143] "Wisdom in Ancient Israel”, John Day, /John Adney Emerton, /Robert P. Gordon/ Hugh Godfrey/Maturin [172] “Mummies and Mummiﬁcation: Old Kingdom”. Digital Williamson, p23, Cambridge University Press, 1997, Egypt for Universities, University College London. ReISBN 0-521-62489-4 trieved 9 March 2008.

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT

[173] “Mummies and Mummiﬁcation: Late Period, Ptolemaic, [200] See Suez Canal. Roman and Christian Period”. Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Archived from the orig- [201] Full version at Met Museum inal on 30 March 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008. [202] Understanding of Egyptian mathematics is incomplete due to paucity of available material and lack of exhaustive [174] “Shabtis”. Digital Egypt for Universities, University Colstudy of the texts that have been uncovered. Imhausen et lege London. Archived from the original on 24 March al. (2007) p. 13 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2008. [175] James (2005) p. 124 [176] Shaw (2002) p. 245 [177] Manuelian (1998) pp. 366–67 [178] Clayton (1994) p. 96

[203] Imhausen et al. (2007) p. 11 [204] Clarke (1990) p. 222 [205] Clarke (1990) p. 217 [206] Clarke (1990) p. 218

[207] [179] Shaw, Garry J. (2009). “The Death of King Seqenenre Tao”. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. [208] 45. [209] [180] Shaw (2002) p. 400 [210] [181] Nicholson (2000) p. 177 [211] [182] Nicholson (2000) p. 109 [212] [183] Nicholson (2000) p. 195 [213] [184] Nicholson (2000) p. 215 [214] [185] Filer (1995) p. 94

Gardiner (1957) p. 197 Strouhal (1989) p. 241 Imhausen et al. (2007) p. 31 Kemp (1989) p. 138 Siliotti (1998) p. 8 Siliotti (1998) p. 10 El-Daly (2005) p. 112 Siliotti (1998) p. 13

[215] Siliotti (1998) p. 100

[186] Filer (1995) pp. 78–80 [187] Filer (1995) p. 21 [188] Figures are given for adult life expectancy and do not reﬂect life expectancy at birth. Filer (1995) p. 25 [189] Filer (1995) p. 39 [190] Strouhal (1989) p. 243 [191] Stroual (1989) pp. 244–46 [192] Stroual (1989) p. 250 [193] Pećanac M; Janjić Z; Komarcević A; Pajić M; Dobanovacki D; Misković SS (May–Jun 2013). “Burns treatment in ancient times”. Medicinski pregled. 66 (5–6): 263–7. doi:10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00603-5. PMID 23888738. [194] Filer (1995) p. 38 [195] Schuster, Angela M.H. "This Old Boat", 11 December 2000. Archaeological Institute of America. [196] Shelley Wachsmann, Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant (Texas A&M University Press, 2009), p. 19. [197] “Egypt’s Ancient Fleet: Lost for Thousands of Years, Discovered in a Desolate Cave”. Discover Magazine. [198] “Most Ancient Port, Hieroglyphic Papyri Found”. DNews. [199] Shea, William H. “A Date for the Recently Discovered Eastern Canal of Egypt”, in Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research',' No. 226 (April 1977), pp. 31–38.

2.11 References • Aldred, Cyril (1988). Akhenaten, King of Egypt. London, England: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0500-05048-1. • Allen, James P. (2000). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77483-7. • Badawy, Alexander (1968). A History of Egyptian Architecture. Vol III. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-00057-9. • Billard, Jules B. (1978). Ancient Egypt: Discovering its Splendors. Washington D.C.: National Geographic Society. • Cerny, J (1975). Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the Twenty-First Dynasty' in The Middle East and the Aegean Region c.1380–1000 BC. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-08691-4. • Clarke, Somers; R. Engelbach (1990). Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture. New York, New York: Dover Publications, Unabridged Dover reprint of Ancient Egyptian Masonry: The Building Craft originally published by Oxford University Press/Humphrey Milford, London, (1930). ISBN 0-486-26485-8.

2.11. REFERENCES

• Clayton, Peter A. (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. London, England: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05074-0.

• Loprieno, Antonio (1995a). Ancient Egyptian: A linguistic introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44849-2.

• Cline, Eric H.; O'Connor, David Kevin (2001). Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 273. ISBN 0-472-08833-5.

• Loprieno, Antonio (1995b). “Ancient Egyptian and other Afroasiatic Languages”. In Sasson, J. M. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. 4. New York, New York: Charles Scribner. pp. 2137–2150. ISBN 1-56563-607-4.

• Dodson, Aidan (1991). Egyptian Rock Cut Tombs. Buckinghamshire, UK: Shire Publications Ltd. ISBN 0-7478-0128-2. • Dodson, Aidan; Hilton, Dyan (2004). The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. London, England: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05128-3. • El-Daly, Okasha (2005). Egyptology: The Missing Millennium. London, England: UCL Press. ISBN 1-84472-062-4. • Filer, Joyce (1996). Disease. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72498-5. • Gardiner, Sir Alan (1957). Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs. Oxford, England: Griﬃth Institute. ISBN 0-90041635-1. • Hayes, W. C. (October 1964). “Most Ancient Egypt: Chapter III. The Neolithic and Chalcolithic Communities of Northern Egypt”. JNES (No. 4 ed.). 23 (4): 217–272. doi:10.1086/371778. • Imhausen, Annette; Robson, Eleanor; Dauben, Joseph W.; Plofker, Kim & Berggren, J. Lennart (2007). Katz, V. J., Jr., ed. The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11485-4. • James, T.G.H. (2005). The British Museum Concise Introduction to Ancient Egypt. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-47203137-6.

• Loprieno, Antonio (2004). “Ancient Egyptian and Coptic”. In Woodward, Roger D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–192. ISBN 0-521-56256-2. • Lucas, Alfred (1962). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th Ed. London, England: Edward Arnold Publishers. ISBN 1-85417-046-5. • Mallory-Greenough, Leanne M. (2002). “The Geographical, Spatial, and Temporal Distribution of Predynastic and First Dynasty Basalt Vessels”. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. London, England: Egypt Exploration Society. 88: 67–93. doi:10.2307/3822337. JSTOR 3822337. • Manuelian, Peter Der (1998). Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs. Bonner Straße, Cologne Germany: Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. ISBN 3-89508-913-3. • McDowell, A. G. (1999). Village life in ancient Egypt: laundry lists and love songs. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-8149980. • Meskell, Lynn (2004). Object Worlds in Ancient Egypt: Material Biographies Past and Present (Materializing Culture). Oxford, England: Berg Publishers. ISBN 1-85973-867-2. • Midant-Reynes, Béatrix (2000). The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-21787-8.

• Kemp, Barry (1991). Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. London, England: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06346-9.

• Nicholson, Paul T. (2000). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45257-0.

• Killebrew, Ann E. (2013), “The Philistines and Other “Sea Peoples” in Text and Archaeology”, Society of Biblical Literature Archaeology and biblical studies, Society of Biblical Lit, 15, ISBN 9781-58983-721-8

• Oakes, Lorna (2003). Ancient Egypt: An Illustrated Reference to the Myths, Religions, Pyramids and Temples of the Land of the Pharaohs. New York, New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0-7607-4943-4.

• Lichtheim, Miriam (1975). Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol 1. London, England: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02899-6. • Lichtheim, Miriam (1980). Ancient Egyptian Literature, A Book of Readings. Vol III: The Late Period. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.

• Robins, Gay (2000). The Art of Ancient Egypt. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00376-4. • Ryholt, Kim (January 1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period. Copenhagen, Denmark: Museum Tusculanum. ISBN 87-7289-421-0.

CHAPTER 2. ANCIENT EGYPT

• Scheel, Bernd (1989). Egyptian Metalworking and Tools. Haverfordwest, Great Britain: Shire Publications Ltd. ISBN 0-7478-0001-4.

• Redford, Donald B., ed. (2001). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510234-7.

• Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280458-8.

• Wilkinson, R.H. (2003). The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05120-8.

• Siliotti, Alberto (1998). The Discovery of Ancient Egypt. Edison, New Jersey: Book Sales, Inc. ISBN 0-7858-1360-8. • Strouhal, Eugen (1989). Life in Ancient Egypt. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2475-X. • Tyldesley, Joyce A. (2001). Ramesses: Egypt’s greatest pharaoh. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin. pp. 76–77. ISBN 0-14-028097-9. • Vittman, G. (1991). “Zum koptischen Sprachgut im Ägyptisch-Arabisch”. Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. Vienna, Austria: Institut für Orientalistik, Vienna University. 81: 197–227.

2.13 External links • BBC History: Egyptians—provides a reliable general overview and further links • Ancient History Encyclopedia on Egypt • Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989 • Ancient Egyptian Metallurgy A site that shows the history of Egyptian metalworking • Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt, Art History.

• Walbank, Frank William (1984). The Cambridge ancient history. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23445-X.

• Ancient Egypt—maintained by the British Museum, this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents

• Wasserman, James; Faulkner, Raymond Oliver; Goelet, Ogden; Von Dassow, Eva (1994). The Egyptian Book of the dead, the Book of going forth by day: being the Papyrus of Ani. San Francisco, California: Chronicle Books. ISBN 0-8118-0767-3.

• Digital Egypt for Universities. Outstanding scholarly treatment with broad coverage and cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics.

• Wilkinson, R. H. (2000). The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. London, England: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05100-3.

• Priests of Ancient Egypt In-depth-information about Ancient Egypt’s priests, religious services and temples. Much picture material and bibliography. In English and German. • Ancient Egypt

2.12 Further reading • Baines, John & Jaromir Malek (2000). The Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt (revised ed.). Facts on File. ISBN 0-8160-4036-2. • Bard, KA (1999). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. NY, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-41518589-0. • Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt (in German). Blackwell Books. ISBN 0-63119396-0. • Helck, Wolfgang; Otto, Eberhard, eds. (1972– 1992). Lexikon der Ägyptologie. O. Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-01441-5. • Lehner, Mark (1997). The Complete Pyramids. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-050848.

• UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology • Ancient Egypt and the Role of Women by Dr Joann Fletcher

Chapter 3

Synagogue “Shul” redirects here. For other uses, see Shul (disambiguation). A synagogue, also spelled synagog (pronounced

Great Synagogue of Florence

ever ten Jews (a minyan) assemble. Worship can also be carried out alone or with fewer than ten people assembled together. However, Halakha considers certain prayers as communal prayers and therefore they may be recited only by a minyan. The synagogue does not replace the longsince destroyed Temple in Jerusalem. Israelis use the Hebrew term Beyt Knesset (house of assembly). Jews of Ashkenazi descent have traditionally used the Yiddish term shul (cognate with the German Schule, “school”) in everyday speech. Sephardi Jews and Romaniote Jews generally use the term kal (from the Hebrew Ḳahal, meaning “community”). Spanish Jews Scolanova Synagogue, Trani, Italy call the synagogue a sinagoga and Portuguese Jews call /ˈsɪnəɡɒɡ/ from Greek συναγωγή, synagogē, “assembly”, it an esnoga. Persian Jews and some Karaite Jews also Hebrew: ‫ בית כנסת‬Bet Kenesset, “house of assembly” or use the non-Hebrew term kenesa, which is derived from ‫ בית תפילה‬Bet Teﬁla, “house of prayer”, ‫ שול‬shul, ‫ אסנוגה‬Aramaic, and some Arab Jews use kenis. Reform and some Conservative Jews use the word temple. The Greek esnoga or ‫ קהל‬kahal), is a Jewish house of prayer. word synagogue is used in English (and German and Synagogues have a large hall for prayer (the main sancFrench), to cover the preceding possibilities.[1] tuary), and may also have smaller rooms for study and sometimes a social hall and oﬃces. Some have a separate room for Torah study, called the Beith Midrash (Sefaradi) "beis medrash (Ashkenazi)—‫“( בית מדרש‬House of 3.1 Origins Study”). Synagogues are consecrated spaces used for the purpose of prayer, Torah reading, study and assembly; however a synagogue is not necessary for worship. Halakha holds that communal Jewish worship can be carried out wher-

Although synagogues existed a long time before the destruction of the 2nd Temple in 70 CE, communal worship in the time while the Temple still stood centered around the korbanot (“sacriﬁcial oﬀerings”) brought by

CHAPTER 3. SYNAGOGUE isted by that date.[3] A synagogue dating from between 75 and 50 BCE has been uncovered at a Hasmoneanera winter palace near Jericho.[4][5] More than a dozen Second Temple era synagogues have been identiﬁed by archaeologists.[2]

Mosaic in the Tzippori Synagogue

Any Jew or group of Jews can build a synagogue. Synagogues have been constructed by ancient Jewish kings, by wealthy patrons, as part of a wide range of human institutions including secular educational institutions, governments, and hotels, by the entire community of Jews living in a particular place, or by sub-groups of Jews arrayed according to occupation, ethnicity (i.e. the Sephardic, Polish or Persian Jews of a town), style of religious observance (i.e., a Reform or an Orthodox synagogue), or by the followers of a particular rabbi.

3.2 Architectural design

Ruins of the ancient synagogue of Kfar Bar'am

the kohanim (“priests”) in the Holy Temple. The all-day Yom Kippur service, in fact, was an event in which the congregation both observed the movements of the kohen gadol (“the high priest”) as he offered the day’s sacrifices and prayed for his success. During the Babylonian captivity (586–537 BCE) the Men of the Great Assembly formalized and standardized the language of the Jewish prayers. Prior to that people prayed as they saw fit, with each individual praying in his or her own way, and there were no standard prayers that were recited. Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai, one of the leaders at the end of the Second Temple era, promulgated the idea of creating individual houses of worship in whatever locale Jews found themselves. This contributed Aerial view of the synagogue of the Kaifeng Jewish community to the continuity of the Jewish people by maintaining a in China. unique identity and a portable way of worship despite the destruction of the Temple, according to many historians. Synagogues in the sense of purpose-built spaces for worship, or rooms originally constructed for some other purpose but reserved for formal, communal prayer, however, existed long before the destruction of the Second Temple.[2] The earliest archaeological evidence for the existence of very early synagogues comes from Egypt, K.A.M. Isaiah Israel where stone synagogue dedication inscriptions dating from the 3rd century BCE prove that synagogues ex- Temple in the Chicago neighborhood of Kenwood

3.3. INTERIOR ELEMENTS

Temple Chicago's neighborhood of Lakeview Main article: Synagogue architecture

Sholom

There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly. In fact, the influence from other local religious buildings can often be seen in synagogue arches, domes and towers. Historically, synagogues were built in the prevailing architectural style of their time and place. Thus, the synagogue in Kaifeng, China looked very like Chinese temples of that region and era, with its outer wall and open garden in which several buildings were arranged. The styles of the earliest synagogues resembled the temples of other sects of the eastern Roman Empire. The surviving synagogues of medieval Spain are embellished with mudéjar plasterwork. The surviving medieval synagogues Gothic interior of the 13th-century Old New Synagogue of Prague in Budapest and Prague are typical Gothic structures. The emancipation of Jews in European countries not only enabled Jews to enter fields of enterprise from which they were formerly barred, but gave them the right to build synagogues without needing special permissions, synagogue architecture blossomed. Large Jewish communities wished to show not only their wealth but also their newly acquired status as citizens by constructing magnificent synagogues. These were built across Europe and in the United States in all of the historicist or revival styles then in fashion. Thus there were Neoclassical, Neo-Byzantine, Romanesque Revival, Moorish Revival, Gothic Revival, and Greek Revival. There are Egyptian Revival synagogues and even one Mayan Revival synagogue. In the 19th century and early 20th century heyday of historicist architecture, however, most historicist synBimah at the Bialystoker Synagogue with Torah Ark in backagogues, even the most magnificent ones, did not attempt ground. a pure style, or even any particular style, and are best described as eclectic. In the post-war era, synagogue architecture abandoned such a way such that those who face it are facing towards Jerusalem. Thus, sanctuary seating plans in the Western historicist styles for modernism. world generally face east, while those east of Israel face west. Sanctuaries in Israel face towards Jerusalem. Occasionally synagogues face other directions for structural reasons; in such cases, some individuals might turn to face 3.3 Interior elements Jerusalem when standing for prayers, but the congregation as a whole does not. All synagogues contain a bimah, a table from which the The Ark is reminiscent of the Ark of the Covenant which Torah is read, and a desk for the prayer leader. held the tablets inscribed with the Ten Commandments. The Torah Ark, (Hebrew: Aron Kodesh—‫ )ארון קודש‬This is the holiest spot in a synagogue, equivalent to the (called the heikhal—‫[ היכל‬temple] by Sephardim) is a Holy of Holies. The Ark is often closed with an ornate cabinet in which the Torah scrolls are kept. curtain, the parochet ‫פרוכת‬, which hangs outside or inside The ark in a synagogue is almost always positioned in the ark doors.

CHAPTER 3. SYNAGOGUE full Menorah. Most contemporary synagogues also feature a lectern for the rabbi. A synagogue may be decorated with artwork, but in the Rabbinic and Orthodox tradition, three-dimensional sculptures and depictions of the human body are not allowed as these are considered akin to idolatry.

Until the 19th century, in an Ashkenazi synagogue, all seats most often faced the Torah Ark. In a Sephardi synagogue, seats were usually arranged around the perimeter of the sanctuary, but when the worshipers stood up to pray, everyone faced the Ark. In Ashkenazi synagogues, the Torah was read on a reader’s table located in the center of the room, while the leader of the prayer service, the Interior of the Portuguese Synagogue (Amsterdam) showing hazzan, stood at his own lectern or table, facing the Ark. In Sephardic synagogues, the table for reading the Torah Tebah in the foreground, and Torah Ark in the background. was commonly placed at the opposite side of the room from the Torah Ark, leaving the center of the ﬂoor empty for the use of a ceremonial procession carrying the Torah between the Ark and the reading table.

3.3.1 Denominational diﬀerences

Bimah of the Łańcut Synagogue

A large, raised, reader’s platform called the bimah (‫ )בימה‬New York’s Reform Temple Emanu-El by Ashkenazim and tebah by Sephardim, where the Torah scroll is placed to be read is a feature of all synagogues. In Sephardi synagogues it is also used as the prayer leader’s Orthodox synagogues feature a partition (mechitzah) dividing the men’s and women’s seating areas, or a separate reading desk. women’s section located on a balcony. Other traditional features include a continually lit lamp or lantern, usually electric in contemporary synagogues, The German Reform movement which arose in the early called the tamid ner (‫)נר תמיד‬, the “Eternal Light”, used 19th century made many changes to the traditional look as a reminder of the western lamp of the menorah of of the synagogue, keeping with its desire to simultanethe Temple in Jerusalem, which remained miraculously ously stay Jewish yet be accepted by the host culture. lit perpetually. Many have an elaborate chair named The ﬁrst Reform synagogue, which opened in Hamburg in for the prophet Elijah which is only sat upon during 1811, introduced changes that made the synagogue look the ceremony of Brit milah. Many synagogues have a more like a church. These included: the installation of an large seven-branched candelabrum commemorating the organ to accompany the prayers (even on Shabbat, when

3.6. GREAT SYNAGOGUES

musical instruments are proscribed by halakha), a choir to accompany the hazzan, and vestments for the synagogue rabbi to wear.[6] In following decades, the central reader’s table, the Bimah, was moved to the front of the Reform sanctuary—previously unheard-of in Orthodox synagogues. The rabbi now delivered his sermon from the front, much as the Christian ministers delivered their sermons in a church. The synagogue was renamed a “temple”, to emphasize that the movement no longer looked forward to the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem.

3.4 Synagogue as community centre Synagogues often take on a broader role in modern Jewish communities and may include additional facilities such as a catering hall, kosher kitchen, religious school, library, day care center and a smaller chapel for daily services.

3.5 Synagogue oﬀshoots

Interior view of the New Synagogue (Berlin)

or, in Russia, The Choral Synagogue. These notable synSince Orthodox Jews prefer to collect a minyan (a quoagogues include: rum of ten) rather than pray alone, they commonly assemble at pre-arranged times in oﬃces, living rooms, or • The Choral Synagogue of Moscow other spaces when these are more convenient than formal synagogue buildings. A room or building that is • The Grand Choral Synagogue of St. Petersburg used this way can become a dedicated small synagogue or prayer room. Among Ashkenazi Jews they are tradi• The Kharkiv Choral Synagogue tionally called shtiebel (‫שטיבל‬, pl. shtiebelekh or shtiebels, • The Dohány Street Synagogue in Budapest, HunYiddish for “little house”), and are found in Orthodox gary communities worldwide. Another type of communal prayer group, favored by some contemporary Jews, is the Chavurah (‫חבורה‬, pl. chavurot, ‫)חבורות‬, or prayer fellowship. These groups meet at a regular place and time, usually in a private home. In antiquity, the Pharisees lived near each other in chavurot and dined together to ensure that none of the food was unﬁt for consumption.[7]

• The Grand Synagogue of Paris • The Great Synagogue of Brussels (also known as the Great Synagogue of Europe) • The Great Synagogue of Florence • The Great Synagogue of Oran • The Great Synagogue of Plzeň

3.6 Great synagogues During the 19th and early 20th century, it was fairly common for Jewish communities, particularly in Europe, to construct very large, showpiece synagogues. These ediﬁces were intended not simply to accommodate worshipers, but to serve as emblems of Jewish participation in modern society. For this purpose, they were built to be not merely large, but architecturally impressive. Even small cities had elaborate synagogues of this type, albeit smaller than the synagogues of Vienna and New York. They are often designated as The Great Synagogue of...,

• The Great Synagogue of Rome • The Great Synagogue of Stockholm • The Great Synagogue of Sydney • The Great Synagogue of Warsaw • The Leopoldstädter Tempel of Vienna • The New Synagogue of Berlin • The Portuguese Synagogue of Amsterdam • The Synagogue of Novi Sad

40 • The Synagogue of Soﬁa • The Synagogue of Szeged[8] • The Grand Synagogue of Edirne

3.7 World’s largest synagogues

CHAPTER 3. SYNAGOGUE • Congregation Yetev Lev D'Satmar (Hooper Street, Brooklyn) seats between 2,000 and 4,000 congregants. • The Portuguese Synagogue in Amsterdam, also called “Esnoga”, was built in 1675. At that time it was the largest synagogue in the world. Apart from the buildings surrounding the synagogue, it has an area of 1,008 m2 (10,850 sq ft), is 19.5 meters (64 ft) high. It was built to accommodate 1227 men and 440 women.[10] • The main sanctuary of Adas Israel Congregation (Washington, D.C.) seats 1,500. • Temple Emanu-El (Miami Beach, Florida) located in Miami Beach, Florida seats approximately 1,400 people. • Szeged Synagogue is located in Szeged, Hungary, seats 1,340 and has height of 48.5 m (159 ft). • The Soﬁa Synagogue is located in Soﬁa, Bulgaria, seating about 1,200.

Interior of the Belz Great Synagogue in Jerusalem.

• The largest synagogue in the world is probably the Belz Great Synagogue, in Jerusalem, Israel, whose main Sanctuary seats up to 10,000. Construction on the ediﬁce lasted for over 15 years. • The Satmar synagogue in Kiryas Joel, New York, which is said to seat “several thousand”, is also very large.[9] • Congregation Yetev Lev D'Satmar (Rodney Street, Brooklyn) is also said to seat “several thousand”, and very large.

• Congregation Shaare Zion, an Orthodox Sephardic synagogue located in Brooklyn, New York is the largest Syrian Jewish congregation in New York City. It is attended by over 1,000 worshipers on weekends. • Kehilat Kol HaNeshama, a Reform synagogue located in Baka, Jerusalem, is the largest Reform (and largest non-Orthodox) Jewish synagogue in Israel.[11] • Great Synagogue (Plzeň) in the Czech Republic is the second-largest synagogue in Europe, and the third-largest in the world.

• Temple Emanu-El of New York, a Reform Temple is located in New York City, with an area of 3,523 3.8 World’s oldest synagogues m2 (37,920 sq ft), seating 2,500. It is also the largest Reform synagogue in the world. Main article: Oldest synagogues in the world • The newly constructed Breslov Center at the graveside of Rabbi Nahman of Breslov in Uman, Ukraine, may be the largest synagogue by square footage in Europe. It is perhaps the largest by number of seats, with a capacity of up to 5,000. • The Dohány Street Synagogue in Budapest, Hungary, may be the largest synagogue in Europe by square footage. It seats 3,000, and has an area of 1,200 m2 (13,000 sq ft) and height of 26 m (85 ft) (apart from the towers which are 43 m or 141 ft).

• The oldest Samaritan synagogue, the Delos Synagogue dates from between 150 and 128 BCE, or earlier and is located on the island of Delos.[12] • The Jericho Synagogue, the oldest, securely dated, mainstream Jewish synagogue in the world was built between 70 and 50 BCE at a royal winter palace near Jericho.[13]

• The Synagogue of Trieste is the largest synagogue in western Europe.

• The oldest synagogue fragments are stone synagogue dedication inscriptions stones found in middle and lower Egypt and dating from the 3rd century BCE.[3]

• The Great Synagogue of Rome is one of the greatest in Europe.

• The synagogue of Dura Europos, a Seleucid city in north eastern Syria, dates from the third century

3.9. OTHER FAMOUS SYNAGOGUES

41 use.

3.8.1 Oldest synagogues in the United States

The Sardis Synagogue in Manisa, Turkey. The synagogue was a section of a large bath-gymnasium complex, which was in use for 450–500 years.

1636 - The Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue, located in Recife on the site of the oldest synagogue in the Americas.

Fresco at the Dura-Europos synagogue, illustrating a scene from the Book of Esther, 244 CE.

CE. It is unique. The walls were painted with ﬁgural scenes from the Old Testament. The paintings included Abraham and Isaac, Moses and Aaron, Solomon, Samuel and Jacob, Elijah and Ezekiel. The synagogue chamber, with its surviving paint- Touro Synagogue, the oldest surviving synagogue building in the ings, is reconstructed in the National Museum in U.S. Damascus. Main article: Oldest synagogues in the United States • The Paradesi Synagogue is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations, located in Kochi, • Congregation Shearith Israel, in Manhattan, Kerala, in India. It was built in 1568 by the Malfounded in 1654, is the oldest congregation in the abar Yehudan people or Cochin Jewish community United States. Its present building dates from 1897. in the Kingdom of Cochin. Paradesi is a word used in several Indian languages, and the literal meaning • The Touro Synagogue in Newport, Rhode Island, is of the term is “foreigners”, applied to the synagogue the oldest Jewish house of worship in North Amerbecause it was historically used by “White Jews”, a ica that is still standing. It was built in 1759 for the mixture of Jews from Cranganore, the Middle East, Jeshuat Israel congregation, which was established and European exiles. It is also referred to as the in 1658. Cochin Jewish Synagogue or the Mattancherry Synagogue. The synagogue is located in the quarter of Old Cochin known as Jew Town and is the only one 3.9 Other famous synagogues of the seven synagogues in the area still in use. • Jew’s Court, Steep Hill, Lincoln, England is arguably the oldest synagogue in Europe in current

• The Rashi Shul in Worms, Germany, built in 1175 and razed on Kristallnacht in 1938, was painstak-

CHAPTER 3. SYNAGOGUE Amsterdam and Recife, Brazil. It is modeled after the Esnoga in Amsterdam. Congregation Mikvé Israel built this synagogue in 1692; it was reconstructed in 1732. • The Bialystoker Synagogue on New York’s Lower East Side, is located in a landmark building dating from 1826 that was originally a Methodist Episcopal Church. The building is made of quarry stone mined locally on Pitt Street, Manhattan. It is an example of Federalist architecture. The ceilings and walls are hand-painted with zodiac frescos, and the sanctuary is illuminated by 40-foot (12.19 m) stained glass windows. The bimah and ﬂoor-to-ceiling ark are handcarved. • The Great Synagogue of Florence, Tempio Maggiore, Florence, 1874–82, is an example of the magniﬁcent, cathedral-like synagogues built in almost every major European city in the 19th century and early 20th century.

Painting of the interior of the Portuguese Synagogue (Amsterdam) by Emanuel de Witte (c. 1680)

• Boston MA’s 1920 Vilna Shul is a rare surviving intact Immigrant Era synagogue.[15]

ingly reconstructed using many of the original stones. It is still in use as a synagogue.

• The Congregation Or Hatzafon “Light of the North”, Fairbanks, Alaska is the world’s northern most Synagogue building.[16]

• The Synagogue of El Transito of Toledo, Spain, was built in 1356 by Samuel ha-Levi, treasurer of King Pedro I of Castile. This is one of the best examples of Mudéjar architecture in Spain. The design of the synagogue recalls the Nasrid style of architecture that was employed during the same period in the decorations of the Alhambra palace in Granada as well as the Great Mosque of Córdoba. Since 1964, this site has hosted a Sephardi museum. • The Hurva Synagogue, located in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem, was Jerusalem’s main Ashkenazi synagogue from the 16th century until 1948, when it was destroyed by the Arab Legion several days after the conquest of the city. After the Six-Day War, an arch was built to mark the spot where the synagogue stood. A complete reconstruction, to plans drawn up by architect Nahum Meltzer, opened in March 2010. • The Great Synagogue of Oran, Algeria, built in 1880, but converted into a mosque in 1975 when most Algerian Jews had left the country for France following independence. • The Barbados Nidhe Israel Synagogue (“Bridgetown Synagogue”), located in the capital city of Bridgetown, was ﬁrst built in 1654. It was destroyed in the hurricane of 1831 and reconstructed in 1833.[14] • The Snoa in Willemstad, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles was built by Sephardic Portuguese Jews from

3.10 Image gallery • Interior of a "caravan shul” (synagogue housed in a trailer-type facility) in Neve Yaakov, Jerusalem, Israel. • The Synagogue in the Gerard Doustraat in Amsterdam, Netherlands. • The New Synagogue in Berlin, Germany. • Beth Jakov synagogue in Skopje, Macedonia • The Choral Synagogue in Moscow, Russia. • The Great Synagogue of Santiago, Chile. • The Portuguese Netherlands.

Synagogue

Amsterdam,

• The Dohány Street Synagogue in Budapest, Hungary. • The Great Synagogue of Plzeň, Czech Republic. • The main synagogue of the city of Frankfurt am Main (Germany) before the Kristallnacht. • The Roonstrasse Synagogue in Cologne, Germany. • The Lesko Synagogue in Lesko, Poland. • The Bobowa Synagogue in Bobowa, Poland.

3.11. SEE ALSO

• Kadoorie Synagogue in Porto, Portugal.

• Soﬁa Synagogue, Bulgaria

• The Baal Shem Tov's shul in Medzhybizh, Ukraine (c. 1915). The original was destroyed, but has now been rebuilt.

• The Erfurt Synagogue is the oldest synagogue in Europe

• The Belzer synagogue of Belz, Ukraine. The synagogue no longer exists. • The Cymbalista Synagogue and Jewish Heritage Center at Tel Aviv University. • The synagogue of Kherson, Ukraine. • Or Zaruaa Synagogue, Jerusalem, Israel founded in 1926 by Rabbi Amram Aburbeh in Nahlat Ahim neighbourhood, Jerusalem, Israel, exterior photo of the building declared as historic preservation cultural heritage site, on 3 Refaeli street. • The dome of the Hurva Synagogue dominated the skyline of the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem for more than 80 years, from 1864 when it was built until 1948 when it was bombed. • The remains of the Hurva Synagogue as they appeared from 1977 to 2003. The synagogue has recently been reconstructed. • The Ashkenazi Synagogue of Istanbul, Turkey. The synagogue was founded in the year 1900. • The interior of a Karaite synagogue. • The Central Synagogue on Lexington Avenue in Manhattan, New York City, United States of America. • Temple Emanu-El, the oldest synagogue in Miami Beach, Florida, which was built in Byzantine style. • The Grand Choral Synagogue of St. Petersburg, Russia

• The Ohev Sholom Talmud Torah, the National Synagogue, is a wondrous example of mid-century modern architecture employing expressionist overtones, located in Upper 16th Street, Washington, D.C. • Beth Yaakov Synagogue, Switzerland • Sanctuary ark for Lincoln Square Synagogue, New York City (2013), by the artist David Ascalon. • Synagogue, Szombathely, Hungary • Bevis Marks Synagogue, City of London, the oldest synagogue in the United Kingdom • Stockholm Synagogue, Sweden • Brisbane Synagogue, Brisbane, Australia

3.11 See also • Beth midrash • Jewish services • Shtiebel • Siddur • Synagogue architecture • List of synagogues • List of choral synagogues

3.12 References

• The Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, Kerala, India • The Great Choral Synagogue in Podil, Kiev, Ukraine • Great Synagogue of Rome, Italy • Abuhav synagogue, Israel • Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, Israel • Santa María la Blanca, Spain

• Levine, Lee (2005) [1999]. The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years (2nd. ed.). New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-106289. • Young, Penny (2014). Dura Europos: A City for Everyman. Diss, Norfolk: Twopenny Press. ISBN 9780956170347.

• Córdoba Synagogue, Spain

[1] Judaism 101: Synagogues, Shuls and Temples. Jewfaq.org.

• El Transito Synagogue, Spain

[2] Second Temple Synagogues

• Székesfehérvár synagogue, Hungary (c. 1930s) The synagogue no longer exists, however, the memorial plaques were moved to a building at the city’s Jewish cemetery.

[3] Pohick.org, Egypt [4] Archaeology.org, Israel’s Oldest Synagogue [5] Jewishsf.com

[6] Rabbi Ken Spiro. Aish.com, “Crash Course in Jewish History Part 54 - Reform Movement” [7] Alan F. Segal, Rebecca’s Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World, Harvard University Press, 1986, 125. [8] 1340 seats, the synagogue is 48 meters long, 35 meters wide, and 48.6 meters high. [9] Jewish Professionals Institute (JPI) - Holocaust Thesis Chapter 7 [10] Snyder, S.C. (2008). Acculturation and Particularism in the Modern City: Synagogue Building and Jewish Identity in Northern Europe. University of Michigan. University of Michigan. ISBN 9780549818977. Retrieved 201412-07. [11] The Heart of Israel’s Reform Judaism [12] Delos [13] Jericho [14] Planetware.com [15] Vilnashul.org [16] “Congregation Or HaTzafon”. mosquitonet.com. Retrieved 2014-12-07.

3.13 External links • "Synagogue". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). 1911. • Hamodia Shul Supplement • Guide to synagogues and other Jewish heritage sites in Slovakia • B'Nai Israel Synagogue on GuidepostUSA • Joseph Tabory, A list of articles on Synagogues (in various languages), in Daat.col.il • Eldridge Street Synagogue • Webs.com • MSN.com, Synagogue doubles as mosque during Ramadan • Virtual Synagogues—The Texas Jewish Historical Society

CHAPTER 3. SYNAGOGUE

Chapter 4

Babylonia This article is about the ancient (pre-539 BC) empires. For the region called Babylonia by Jewish sources in the later, Talmudic period, see Talmudic Academies in Babylonia. For other uses, see Babylonia (disambiguation).

ers under one rule. After the collapse of the Akkadian empire, the south Mesopotamian region was dominated by the Gutian people for a few decades before the rise of the Third Dynasty of Ur, which, apart from northern Assyria, encompassed the whole of Mesopotamia, including the city of Babylon.

Babylonia was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). A small Amorite-ruled state emerged 4.1 in 1894 BC, which contained at this time the minor city of Babylon.[1] Babylon greatly expanded during the reign 4.1.1 of Hammurabi in the ﬁrst half of the 18th century BC, becoming a major capital city. During the reign of Hammurabi and afterwards, Babylonia was called Māt Akkadī “the country of Akkad” in the Akkadian language.[2][3]

Periods Pre-Babylonian Sumero-Akkadian period in Mesopotamia

It was often involved in rivalry with its older fellow Akkadian-speaking state of Assyria in northern Mesopotamia. Babylonia briefly became the major power in the region after Hammurabi (fl. c. 1792 – 1752 BC middle chronology, or c. 1696 – 1654 BC, short chronology) created a short-lived empire, succeeding the earlier Akkadian Empire, Third Dynasty of Ur, and Old Assyrian Empire; however, the Babylonian empire rapidly fell apart after the death of Hammurabi. The Babylonian state, like Assyria to the north, retained the written Akkadian language for official use (the language of its native populace), despite its Northwest Semitic-speaking Amorite founders and Kassite successors, who spoke a language isolate. It retained the Sumerian language for religious use (as did Assyria), but by the time Babylon was founded, this was no longer a spoken language, having been wholly subsumed by Akkadian. The earlier Akkadian and Sumerian traditions played a major role in Babylonian and Assyrian culture, and the region would remain an important cultural center, even under protracted periods of outside rule. The earliest mention of the city of Babylon can be found in a clay tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad (2334– 2279 BC), dating back to the 23rd century BC. Babylon was merely a religious and cultural centre at this point and neither an independent state nor a large city; like the rest of Mesopotamia, it was subject to the Akkadian Empire which united all the Akkadian and Sumerian speak-

The extent of the Babylonian Empire at the start and end of Hammurabi’s reign

Mesopotamia had already enjoyed a long history prior to the emergence of Babylon, with Sumerian civilisation emerging in the region c. 3500 BC, and the Akkadian speaking people appearing by the 30th century BC. During the 3rd millennium BC, an intimate cultural symbiosis between Sumerian and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism.[4] The inﬂuence of Sumerian on Akkadian and vice versa is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence.[4] This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian

46 in the third millennium as a sprachbund.[4] Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the third and the second millennium BC (the precise timeframe being a matter of debate),[5] but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary and scientiﬁc language in Mesopotamia as late as the 1st century AD. From c. 3500 BC until the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century BC, Mesopotamia had been dominated by largely Sumerian city states, such as Ur, Lagash, Uruk, Kish, Isin, Larsa, Adab, Eridu, Gasur, Awan, Hamazi, Akshak and Umma, although Semitic Akkadian names began to appear on the king lists of some of these states (such as Eshnunna and Assyria) between the 29th and 25th centuries BC. Traditionally, the major religious center of all Mesopotamia was the city of Nippur, and it would remain so until replaced by Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi in the mid-18th century BC.

CHAPTER 4. BABYLONIA However, when Sargon I (1920–1881 BC) succeeded as king in Assyria in 1920 BC, he eventually withdrew Assyria from the region, preferring to concentrate on continuing the vigorous expansion of Assyrian colonies in Anatolia, and eventually southern Mesopotamia fell to the Amorites, a Northwest Semitic-speaking people from the northern Levant. During the ﬁrst centuries of what is called the “Amorite period”, the most powerful city states in the south were Isin, Eshnunna and Larsa, together with Assyria in the north.

4.1.2 First Babylonian Dynasty – Amorite Dynasty 1894–1595 BC Main article: First Babylonian Dynasty

One of these Amorite dynasties founded a small kingdom which included the then still minor town of Babylon circa 1894 BC, which would ultimately take over the others and The Akkadian Empire (2334–2154 BC) saw the Akkaform the short-lived first Babylonian empire, also called dian Semites and Sumerians of Mesopotamia unite under the First Babylonian Dynasty. one rule, and the Akkadians fully attain ascendancy over the Sumerians and indeed come to dominate much of the An Amorite chieftain named Sumu-abum appropriated a tract of land which included the then relatively small ancient Near East. city of Babylon from the neighbouring Amorite ruled The empire eventually disintegrated due to economic Mesopotamian city state of Kazallu, of which it had inidecline, climate change and civil war, followed by attially been a territory, turning it into a state in its own tacks by the Gutians from the Zagros Mountains. Sumer right. His reign was concerned with establishing staterose up again with the Third Dynasty of Ur in the late hood amongst a sea of other minor city states and king22nd century BC, and ejected the Gutians from southdoms in the region. However Sumuabum appears never ern Mesopotamia. They also seem to have gained ascento have bothered to give himself the title of King of Babydancy over most of the territory of the Akkadian kings of lon, suggesting that Babylon itself was still only a minor Assyria in northern Mesopotamia for a time. town or city, and not worthy of kingship.[7] Following the collapse of the Sumerian “Ur-III” dynasty He was followed by Sumu-la-El, Sabium, Apil-Sin, each at the hands of the Elamites in 2002 BC, the Amorites, of whom ruled in the same vague manner as Sumuabum, a foreign Northwest Semitic-speaking people, began to with no reference to kingship of Babylon being made in migrate into southern Mesopotamia from the northern any written records of the time. Sin-Muballit was the Levant, gradually gaining control over most of southern first of these Amorite rulers to be regarded officially as a Mesopotamia, where they formed a series of small kingking of Babylon, and then on only one single clay tablet. doms, while the Assyrians reasserted their independence Under these kings, the nation in which Babylon lay rein the north. The states of the south were unable to stem mained a small nation which controlled very little territhe Amorite advance. tory, and was overshadowed by neighbouring kingdoms King Ilu-shuma (ca. 2008–1975 BC) of the Old Assyrian that were both older, larger, and more powerful, such Empire in a known inscription describes his exploits to as; Isin, Larsa, Assyria to the north and Elam to the east the south as follows: “The freedom[n 1] of the Akkadians in ancient Iran. The Elamites occupied huge swathes of and their children I established. I purified their copper. I southern Mesopotamia, and the early Amorite rulers were established their freedom from the border of the marshes largely held in vassalage to Elam. and Ur and Nippur, Awal, and Kish, Der of the goddess Ishtar, as far as the City of (Ashur).”[6] Past scholars originally extrapolated from this text that it means he defeated Empire of Hammurabi the invading Amorites to the south, but there is no explicit record of that. More recently, the text has been taken to Babylon remained a minor town in a small state until the mean that Asshur supplied the south with copper from reign of its sixth Amorite ruler, Hammurabi (1792–1750 Anatolia and “established freedom” from tax duties. BC, or fl. c. 1728 – 1686 BC (short). He conducted maThese policies were continued by his successors Erishum jor building work in Babylon, expanding it from a small town into a great city worthy of kingship. He was a very I and Ikunum. efficient ruler, establishing a bureaucracy, with taxation

4.1. PERIODS and centralized government. Hammurabi freed Babylon from Elamite dominance, and indeed drove them from southern Mesopotamia entirely. He then gradually expanded Babylonian dominance over the whole of southern Mesopotamia, conquering the cities and states of the region, such as; Isin, Larsa, Eshnunna, Kish, Lagash, Nippur, Borsippa, Ur, Uruk, Umma, Adab and Eridu. The conquests of Hammurabi gave the region stability after turbulent times and coalesced the patchwork of states of southern and central Mesopotamia into one single nation, and it is only from the time of Hammurabi that southern Mesopotamia came to be known historically as Babylonia.

47 The Babylonians, like their predecessor states, engaged in regular trade with the Amorite and Canaanite city-states to the west; with Babylonian oﬃcials or troops sometimes passing to the Levant and Canaan, with Amorite merchants operating freely throughout Mesopotamia. The Babylonian monarchy’s western connections remained strong for quite some time. An Amorite chieftain named Abi-ramu or Abram (possibly the Biblical Abraham) was the father of a witness to a deed dated to the reign of Hammurabi’s grandfather; Ammi-Ditana, great-grandson of Hammurabi, still titled himself “king of the land of the Amorites”. Ammi-Ditana’s father and son also bore Amorite names: Abi-Eshuh and Ammi-Saduqa.

The armies of Babylonia under Hammurabi were welldisciplined. He turned eastwards and invaded what was Decline a thousand years later to become Iran, conquering Elam, Gutians, Lullubi and Kassites. To the west, the Amorite However, southern Mesopotamia had no natural, defensistates of the Levant (modern Syria and Jordan) including ble boundaries, making it vulnerable to attack. After the the powerful kingdom of Mari were conquered. death of Hammurabi, his empire began to disintegrate Hammurabi then entered into a protracted war with the rapidly. Under his successor Samsu-iluna (1749–1712 Old Assyrian Empire for control of Mesopotamia and the BC) the far south of Mesopotamia was lost to a native Near East. Assyria had extended control over Hurrian Akkadian speaking king called Ilum-ma-ili who ejected and Hattian parts of southeast Anatolia from the 21st cen- the Amorite ruled Babylonians. The south became the tury BC, and from the latter part of the 19th century BC Sealand Dynasty, remaining free of Babylon for the next had asserted itself over the north east Levant and central 272 years.[9] Mesopotamia also. After a protracted unresolved strugBoth the Babylonians and their Amorite rulers were gle over decades with the Assyrian king Ishme-Dagan, driven from Assyria to the north by an AssyrianHammurabi forced his successor Mut-Ashkur to pay tribAkkadian governor named Puzur-Sin c. 1740 BC, who ute to Babylon c. 1751 BC, thus giving Babylonia control regarded king Mut-Ashkur as a foreign Amorite and a over Assyria’s centuries old Hattian and Hurrian colonies former lackey of Babylon. After six years of civil war in [8] in Anatolia. Assyria, a native king named Adasi seized power c. 1735 One of the most important works of the First Babylo- BC, and went on to appropriate former Babylonian and nian Dynasty, as it was called by the native historians, Amorite territory in central Mesopotamia, as did his sucwas the compilation of Babylonian law, a law code both cessor Bel-bani. influenced by and improved upon the much earlier codes Amorite rule survived in a much reduced Babylon, of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria. This was made by order Samshu-iluna’s successor Abi-Eshuh made a vain attempt of Hammurabi after the expulsion of the Elamites and the to recapture the Sealand Dynasty for Babylon, but met desettlement of his kingdom. In 1901, a copy of the Code of feat at the hands of king Damqi-ilishu II. By the end of Hammurabi was discovered on a stele by Jacques de Morhis reign Babylonia had shrunk to the small and relatively gan and Jean-Vincent Scheil at Susa, where it had later weak nation it had been upon its foundation, although the been taken as plunder. That copy is now in the Louvre. city itself was far larger than it had been prior to the rise From before 3000 BC until the reign of Hammurabi, of Hammurabi. the major cultural and religious center of southern He was followed by Ammi-Ditana and then AmmiMesopotamia had been the ancient city of Nippur, where Saduqa, both of whom were in too weak a position to the god Enlil was supreme. However, with the rise of make any attempt to regain the many territories lost afHammurabi, this honour was transferred to Babylon, and ter the death of Hammurabi, contenting themselves with the south Mesopotamian god Marduk rose to supremacy peaceful building projects in Babylon itself. in the pantheon of southern Mesopotamia (with the god Ashur remaining the dominant deity in the northern Samsu-Ditana was to be the last Amorite ruler of BabyMesopotamian state of Assyria). The city of Babylon be- lon. Early in his reign he came under pressure from the came known as a “holy city” where any legitimate ruler Kassites, a people speaking an apparent language isolate of southern Mesopotamia had to be crowned. Hammurabi originating in the mountains of northwest Iran. Babyturned what had previously been a minor administrative lon was then attacked by the Indo-European-speaking, town into a powerful and influential major city, increas- Anatolia-based Hittites in 1595 BC. Shamshu-Ditana was ing its size and population dramatically, and conducting overthrown following the “sack of Babylon” by the Hittite king Mursili I. The Hittites did not remain for long, a number of impressive architectural works. but the destruction wrought by them finally enabled the

CHAPTER 4. BABYLONIA

Kassites to gain control.

the evidence for its genetic affiliation is meager due to the scarcity of extant texts. However, several Kassite leaders bore Indo-European names, and they may have The sack of Babylon and ancient Near East chronol- had an Indo-European elite similar to the Mitanni elite ogy that later ruled over the Hurrians of central and eastern Anatolia.[12][13] The date of the sack of Babylon by the Hittites under king Mursili I is considered crucial to the various calculations The Kassites renamed Babylon Karduniaš and their rule of the early chronology of the ancient Near East, as it lasted for 576 years, the longest dynasty in Babylonian is taken as a fixed point in the discussion. Suggestions history. for its precise date vary by as much as 230 years, corre- This new foreign dominion offers a striking analogy to sponding to the uncertainty regarding the length of the the roughly contemporary rule of the Hyksos in ancient “Dark Age” of the ensuing Late Bronze Age collapse, re- Egypt. Most divine attributes ascribed to the Amorsulting in the shift of the entire Bronze Age chronology ite kings of Babylonia disappeared at this time; the title of Mesopotamia with regard to the Egyptian chronology. “god” was never given to a Kassite sovereign. However, Possible dates for the sack of Babylon are: Babylon continued to be the capital of the kingdom and one of the 'holy' cities of western Asia, where the priests of the ancient Mesopotamian religion were all-powerful, • ultra-short chronology: 1499 BC and the only place where the right to inheritance of the • short chronology: 1531 BC short lived old Babylonian empire could be conferred. Babylonia experienced short periods of power, but in general proved to be relatively weak under the long rule of the Kassites, and spent long periods under Assyrian and Elamite domination and interference.

• middle chronology: 1595 BC • long chronology: 1651 BC • ultra-long chronology: 1736 BC[10]

It is not clear precisely when Kassite rule of Babylon began, but the Indo-European Hittites from Anatolia did not remain in Babylonia for long after the sacking of the city, 4.1.3 Kassite Dynasty, 1595–1155 BC and it is likely the Kassites moved in soon afterwards. Agum II took the throne for the Kassites in 1595 BC, Main article: Kassites The Kassite dynasty was founded by Gandash of Mari. and ruled a state that extended from Iran to the middle Euphrates; The new king retained peaceful relations with Erishum III, the native Mesopotamian king of Assyria, Assur but successfully went to war with the Hittite Empire, and twenty-four years after, the Hittites took the sacred statue Zubeidi of Marduk, he recovered it and declared the god equal to Mari Imlihiye the Kassite deity Shuqamuna. Burnaburiash I succeeded him and drew up a peace treaty with the Assyrian king Puzur-Ashur III, and had a largely uneventful reign, as did his successor Kashtiliash III.

Dur-Kurigalzu kilometers miles

100

Sippar Kish

Susa

Babylon

Nippur Isin

Babylonia

at the time of the

Kassites

13th century BC

Girsu Uruk

The extent of the Babylonian Empire during the Kassite dynasty

The Kassites, like the Amorite rulers who had preceded them, were not originally native to Mesopotamia. Rather, they had ﬁrst appeared in the Zagros Mountains of what is today northwestern Iran.

The Sealand Dynasty of southern Mesopotamia remained independent of Babylonia and in native Akkadianspeaking hands. However, Ulamburiash managed to attack it conquered parts of the land from Ea-gamil, a king with a distinctly Sumerian name, around 1450 BC, whereupon Ea-Gamil ﬂed to his allies in Elam. The Sealand Dynasty region remained independent however, and the Kassite king seems to have been unable to ﬁnally conquer it. Ulamburiash began making treaties with ancient Egypt, which then was ruling southern Canaan, and Assyria to the north. Karaindash built a bas-relief temple in Uruk and Kurigalzu I (1415–1390 BC) built a new capital Dur-Kurigalzu named after himself, transferring administrative rule from Babylon. Both of these kings continued to struggle unsuccessfully against The Sealand Dynasty.

The ethnic aﬃliation of the Kassites is unclear. However, their language was not Semitic, and is thought to have been either a language isolate or possibly related to the Agum III also campaigned against the Sealand Dynasty, Hurro-Urartian language family of Anatolia,[11] although

4.1. PERIODS finally wholly conquering the far south of Mesopotamia for Babylon, destroying its capital Dur-Enlil in the process. From there Agum III extended farther south still, invading what was many centuries later to be called the Arabian Peninsula, and conquering the pre-Arab state of Dilmun (in modern Bahrain). Karaindash strengthened diplomatic ties with the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-nisheshu and the Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III and protected Babylonian borders with Elam. Kadašman-Ḫarbe I succeeded Karaindash, and briefly invaded Elam before being eventually ejected by its king Tepti Ahar. He then had to contend with the Suteans, ancient Semitic-speaking peoples from the southeastern Levant who invaded Babylonia and sacked Uruk. He describes having “annihilated their extensive forces”, then constructed fortresses in a mountain region called Ḫiḫi, in the desert to the west (modern Syria) as security outposts, and “he dug wells and settled people on fertile lands, to strengthen the guard”.[14] Kurigalzu I succeeded the throne, and soon came into conflict with Elam, to the east. When Ḫur-batila, the successor of Tepti Ahar took the throne of Elam, he began raiding the Babylonia, taunting Kurigalzu to do battle with him at Dūr-Šulgi. Kurigalzu launched a campaign which resulted in the abject defeat and capture of Ḫur-batila, who appears in no other inscriptions. He went on to conquer the eastern lands of Elam. This took his army to the Elamite capital, the city of Susa, which was sacked. After this a puppet ruler was placed on the Elamite throne. Kurigalzu I maintained friendly relations with Assyria, Egypt and the Hittites throughout his reign. Kadashman-Enlil I (1374-1360 BC) succeeded him, and continued his diplomatic policies. Burna-Buriash II ascended to the throne in 1359 BC, he retained friendly relations with Egypt, but the resurgent Middle Assyrian Empire (1365-1050 BC) to the north was now encroaching into northern Babylonia, and as a symbol of peace, the Babylonian king took the daughter of the powerful Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I in marriage. He also maintained friendly relations with Suppiluliuma I, ruler of the Hittite Empire.

49 Shuriash, allied with the empires of the Hittites and the Mitanni, (who were both also losing swathes of territory to the Assyrians). in a failed attempt to stop Assyrian expansion, which nevertheless continued unchecked. Kashtiliash IV's (1242–1235 BC) reign ended catastrophically as the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243–1207 BC) routed his armies, sacked and burned Babylon and set himself up as king, ironically becoming the first native Mesopotamian to rule the state, its previous rulers having all been non-Mesopotamian Amorites and Kassites.[9] Kashtiliash himself was taken to Ashur as a prisoner of war. An Assyrian governor/king named Enlil-nadin-shumi was placed on the throne to rule as viceroy to TukultiNinurta I, and Kadashman-Harbe II and Adad-shumaiddina succeeded as Assyrian governor/kings, subject to Tukulti-Ninurta I until 1216 BC. Babylon did not begin to recover until late in the reign of Adad-shuma-usur (1216–1189 BC), as he too remained a vassal of Assyria until 1193 BC. However, he was able to prevent the Assyrian king Enlil-kudurri-usur from retaking Babylonia, which, apart from its northern reaches, had mostly shrugged off Assyrian domination during a short period of civil war in the Assyrian empire, in the years after the death of Tukulti-Ninurta. Meli-Shipak II (1188–1172 BC) seems to have had a peaceful reign. Despite not being able to regain northern Babylonia from Assyria, no further territory was lost, Elam did not threaten, and the Late Bronze Age collapse now affecting the Levant, Canaan, Egypt, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Mediterranean, North Africa and Balkans seemed to have little impact on Babylonia (or indeed Assyria). War resumed under subsequent kings such as Mardukapla-iddina I (1171–1159 BC) and Zababa-shuma-iddin (1158 BC). The long reigning Assyrian king Ashur-dan I (1179–1133 BC) resumed expansionist policies and conquered further parts of northern Babylonia from both kings, and the Elamite ruler Shutruk-Nakhunte eventually conquered most of eastern Babylonia. Enlil-nadinahhe (1157–1155 BC) was finally overthrown and the Kassite dynasty ended after Ashur-dan I conquered yet more of northern and central Babylonia, and the equally powerful Shutruk-Nahhunte pushed deep into the heart of Babylonia itself, sacking the city and slaying the king. Poetical works have been found lamenting this disaster.

He was succeeded by Kara-ḫardaš (who was half Assyrian, and the grandson of the Assyrian king) in 1333 BC, however a usurper named Nazi-Bugaš deposed him, enraging Ashur-uballit I, who invaded and sacked Babylon, slew Nazi-Bugaš, annexed Babylonian territory for Despite the loss of territory, military weakness, and evthe Middle Assyrian Empire, and installed Kurigalzu II ident reduction in literacy and culture, the Kassite dy(1345–1324 BC) as his vassal ruler. nasty was the longest-lived dynasty of Babylon, lasting Soon after Arik-den-ili succeeded the throne of Assyria until 1155 BC, when Babylon was conquered by Shutrukin 1327 BC, Kurigalzu III attacked Assyria in an attempt Nakhunte of Elam, and reconquered a few years later by to reassert Babylonian power. After some impressive ini- the Nebuchadnezzar I, part of the larger Late Bronze Age tial successes he was ultimately defeated, and lost yet collapse. more territory to Assyria. Between 1307 BC and 1232 BC his successors, such as Nazi-Maruttash, KadashmanTurgu, Kadashman-Enlil II, Kudur-Enlil and Shagarakti-

4.1.4

CHAPTER 4. BABYLONIA

Early Iron Age – Native Rule, Second lonian territory, thus further expanding the Assyrian Empire. Following this a terrible famine gripped Babylon, Dynasty of Isin, 1155–1026 BC inviting attacks from the Semitic Aramaeans and Suteans from the west.

The Elamites did not remain in control of Babylonia long, instead entering into an unsuccessful war with Assyria, allowing Marduk-kabit-ahheshu (1155–1139 BC) to establish the Dynasty IV of Babylon, from Isin, with the very first native Akkadian-speaking south Mesopotamian dynasty to rule Babylonia, with Marduk-kabit-ahheshu becoming only the second native Mesopotamian to sit on the throne of Babylon, after the Assyrian king TukultiNinurta I. His dynasty was to remain in power for some 125 years. The new king successfully drove out the Elamites and prevented any possible Kassite revival. Later in his reign he went to war with Assyria, and had some initial success, briefly capturing the south Assyrian city of Ekallatum before ultimately suffering defeat at the hands of the Assyrian king Ashur-Dan I. Itti-Marduk-balatu succeeded his father in 1138 BC, and successfully repelled Elamite attacks on Babylonia during his 8-year reign. He too made attempts to attack Assyria, but also met with failure at the hands of the still reigning Ashur-Dan I. Ninurta-nadin-shumi took the throne in 1137 BC, and also attempted an invasion of Assyria, his armies seem to have skirted through eastern Aramea (modern Syria) and then made an attempt to attack the Assyrian city of Arbela (modern Erbil) from the west. However this bold move met with defeat at the hands of Ashur-resh-ishi I who then forced a treaty in his favour upon the Babylonian king. Nebuchadnezzar I (1124–1103 BC) was the most famous ruler of this dynasty. He fought and defeated the Elamites and drove them from Babylonian territory, invading Elam itself, sacking the Elamite capital Susa, and recovering the sacred statue of Marduk that had been carried off from Babylon during the fall of the Kassites. Shortly afterwards, the king of Elam was assassinated and his kingdom disintegrated into civil war. However, Nebuchadnezzar failed to extend Babylonian territory further, being defeated a number of times by Ashur-reshishi I (1133–1115 BC), king of the Middle Assyrian Empire, for control of formerly Hittite-controlled territories in Aram. The Hittite Empire of the northern and western Levant and eastern Anatolia had been largely annexed by the Middle Assyrian Empire, and its heartland finally overrun by invading Phrygians from the Balkans. In the later years of his reign, he devoted himself to peaceful building projects and securing Babylonia’s borders.

In 1072 BC Marduk-shapik-zeri signed a peace treaty with Ashur-bel-kala (1075–1056 BC) of Assyria, however his successor Kadašman-Buriaš was not so friendly to Assyria, prompting the Assyrian king to invade Babylonia and depose him, placing Adad-apla-iddina on the throne as his vassal. Assyrian domination continued until c. 1050 BC, with Marduk-ahhe-eriba and Marduk-zer-X regarded as vassals of Assyria. After 1050 BC the Middle Assyrian Empire descended into a period of civil war, followed by constant warfare with the Arameans, Phrygians, Syro-Hittite states and Hurrians, allowing Babylonia to once more largely free itself from the Assyrian yoke for a few decades. However East Semitic-speaking Babylonia soon began to suﬀer repeated incursions from West Semitic nomadic peoples migrating from the Levant, and during the 11th century BC large swathes of the Babylonian countryside was appropriated and occupied by these newly arrived Arameans and Suteans. They were followed in the late 10th or early 9th century BC by the Chaldeans, an Aramean tribe described in Assyrian annals as the “Kaldu”. The Chaldeans settled in the far southeast of Babylonia, other Arameans settled much of the countryside in eastern and central Babylonia and the Suteans in the western deserts, with the weak Babylonian kings being unable to stem these migrations.

4.1.5 Period of Chaos 1026–911 BC The ruling Babylonian dynasty of Nabu-shum-libur was deposed by marauding Arameans in 1026 BC, and the heart of Babylonia, including the capital city itself descended into anarchic state, and no king was to rule Babylon for over 20 years. However, in southern Mesopotamia (a region corresponding with the old Dynasty of the Sealand), Dynasty V (1025–1004 BC) arose, this was ruled by Simbar-shipak, leader of a Kassite clan, and was in eﬀect a separate state from Babylon. The state of anarchy allowed the Assyrian ruler Ashur-nirari IV (1019-1013 BC) the opportunity to attack Babylonia in 1018 BC, and he invaded and captured the Babylonian city of Atlila and some northern regions for Assyria. The south Mesopotamian dynasty was replaced by another Kassite Dynasty (Dynasty VI; 1003–984 BC) which also seems to have regained control over Babylon itself. The Elamites deposed this brief Kassite revival, with king Mar-biti-apla-usur founding Dynasty VII (984–977 BC). However, this dynasty too fell, when the Arameans once more ravaged Babylon.

Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his two sons, ﬁrstly Enlil-nadin-apli (1103–1100), who lost territory to Assyria. The second of them, Marduk-nadin-ahhe (1098– 1081 BC) also went to war with Assyria. Some initial success in these conﬂicts gave way to catastrophic defeat at the hands of the powerful Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I (1115–1076 BC), who annexed huge swathes of Baby- Babylonian rule was restored by Nabû-mukin-apli in 977

4.1. PERIODS BC, ushering in Dynasty VIII. Dynasty IX begins with Ninurta-kudurri-usur II, who ruled from 941 BC. Babylonia remained weak during this period, with whole areas of Babylonia now under ﬁrm Aramean and Sutean control, and by 850 BC the migrant Chaldeans had established their own land in the extreme south east. Babylonian rulers were often forced to bow to pressure from Assyria and Elam, both of which had appropriated Babylonian territory.

4.1.6

Assyrian rule, 911–619 BC

51 usurpers in 748 BC, and successfully stabilised Babylonia, remaining untroubled by Ashur-nirari V of Assyria. However, with the accession of Tiglath-Pileser III (745– 727 BC) Babylonia came under renewed attack. Babylon was invaded and sacked and Nabonassar reduced to vassalage. His successors Nabu-nadin-zeri, Nabu-sumaukin II and Nabu-mukin-zeri were also in servitude to Tiglath-Pileser III, until in 729 BC the Assyrian king decided to rule Babylon directly as its king instead of allowing Babylonian kings to remain as vassals of Assyria as his predecessors had done for two hundred years.

It was during this period that Eastern Aramaic was introduced by the Assyrians as the lingua franca of the NeoFrom 911 BC with the founding of the Neo-Assyrian Assyrian Empire, and Mesopotamian Aramaic began to Empire (911–605 BC) by Adad-nirari II, Babylon found supplant Akkadian as the spoken language of the general itself once again under the domination and rule of its populace of both Assyria and Babylonia. fellow Mesopotamian state for the next three centuries. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser V was declared king of Adad-nirari II twice attacked and defeated ShamashBabylon in 727 BC, but died whilst besieging Samaria in mudammiq of Babylonia, annexing a large area of land 722 BC. north of the Diyala River and the towns of Hīt and Zanqu in mid Mesopotamia. He made further gains over Baby- Revolt was then fomented against Assyrian domination lonia under Nabu-shuma-ukin I later in his reign. Tukulti- by Marduk-apla-iddina II, a Chaldean malka (chieftain) Ninurta II and Ashurnasirpal II also forced Babylonia of the far south east of Mesopotamia, with strong Elamite into vassalage, and Shalmaneser III (859–824 BC) sacked support. Merodach-Baladan managed to take the throne Babylon itself, slew king Nabu-apla-iddina, subjugated of Babylon itself between 721–710 BC whilst the Assyrthe Aramean, Sutean and Chaldean tribes settled within ian king Sargon II (722–705 BC) were otherwise occuBabylonia, and installed Marduk-zakir-shumi I (855–819 pied in defeating the Scythians and Cimmerians who had BC) followed by Marduk-balassu-iqbi (819–813 BC) as attacked Assyria’s Persian and Median vassal colonies in his vassals. It was during the late 850’s BC, in the annals ancient Iran. Marduk-apla-iddina II was eventually deof Shalmaneser III, that the Chaldeans and Arabs are first feated and ejected by Sargon II of Assyria, and fled to his protectors in Elam. Sargon II was then declared king in mentioned in the pages of written recorded history. Babylon. Upon the death of Shalmaneser II, Baba-aha-iddina was reduced to vassalage by the Assyrian queen Sennacherib (705–681 BC) succeeded Sargon II, and afShammuramat (known as Semiramis to the Persians and ter ruling directly for a while, he placed his son AshurGreeks), acting as regent to his successor Adad-nirari III nadin-shumi on the throne. However Merodach-Baladan who was merely a boy. Adad-nirari III eventually killed and his Elamite protectors continued to unsuccessfully Baba-aha-iddina and ruled there directly until 800 BC un- agitate against Assyrian rule. Nergal-ushezib, an Elamite, til Ninurta-apla-X was crowned. However he too was murdered the Assyrian prince and briefly took the throne. subjugated by Adad-Nirari II. The next Assyrian king, This led to the infuriated Assyrian king Sennacherib inShamshi-Adad V then made a vassal of Marduk-bel-zeri. vading and subjugating Elam and sacking Babylon, laying waste to and largely destroying the city. Babylon was Babylonia briefly fell to another foreign ruler when regarded as a sacred city by all Mesopotamians, includMarduk-apla-usur ascended the throne in 780 BC, taking Assyrians, and this act eventually led Sennacherib to ing advantage of a period of civil war in Assyria. He was be murdered by his own sons while praying to the god a member of the Chaldean tribe who had a century or Nisroch in Nineveh in 681 BC. A puppet king Mardukso earlier settled in a small region in the far south eastzakir-shumi II was placed on the throne by the new Assyrern corner of Mesopotamia, bordering the Persian Gulf ian king Esarhaddon. However, Merodach-Baladan reand south western Elam. Shamshi-Adad V attacked him turned from exile in Elam, and briefly deposed him, forcand retook northern Babylonia, forcing a border treaty in ing Esarhaddon to attack and defeat him, whereupon he Assyria’s favour upon him. However he was allowed to once more fled to his masters in Elam, where he died in remain on the throne, and successfully stabilised Babyexile. lonia. Eriba-Marduk, another Chaldean, succeeded him in 769 BC and his son, Nabu-shuma-ishkun in 761 BC. Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) ruled Babylon personally, he Babylonia appears to have been in a state of chaos during completely rebuilt the city, bringing rejuvenation and this time, with the north occupied by Assyria, its throne peace to the region. Upon his death, and in an efoccupied by foreign Chaldeans, and civil unrest promi- fort to maintain harmony within his vast empire (which stretched from the Caucasus to Egypt and Nubia and nent throughout the land. from Cyprus to Iran), he installed his eldest son ShamashThe Babylonian king Nabonassar overthrew the Chaldean

CHAPTER 4. BABYLONIA

shum-ukin as a subject king in Babylon, and his youngest, the highly educated Ashurbanipal (669–627 BC), in the more senior position as king of Assyria and overlord of Shamash-shum-ukin. Despite being an Assyrian himself, Shamash-shum-ukin, after decades subject to his brother Ashurbanipal, declared that the city of Babylon (and not the Assyrian city of Nineveh) should be the seat of the immense empire. He raised a major revolt against his brother, Ashurbanipal. He led a powerful coalition of peoples also resentful of Assyrian subjugation and rule, including; Elam, the Persians, Medes, the Babylonians, Chaldeans and Suteans of southern Mesopotamia, the Arameans of the Levant and southwest Mesopotamia, the Arabs and Dilmunites of the Arabian Peninsula and the CanaanitesPhoenicians. After a bitter struggle Babylon was sacked and its allies vanquished, Shamash-shum-ukim being killed in the process. Elam was destroyed once and for all, and the Babylonians, Persians, Chaldeans, Arabs, Medes, Elamites, Arameans, Suteans and Canaanites were violently subjugated, with Assyrian troops exacting savage revenge on the rebelling peoples. An Assyrian governor named Kandalanu was placed on the throne to rule on behalf of the Assyrian king.[9] Upon Ashurbanipal’s death in 627 BC, his son Ashur-etil-ilani (627–623 BC) became ruler of Babylon and Assyria.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire

ishkun was plagued by constant revolts among his people in Nineveh, and was thus prevented from ejecting Nabopolassar. The stalemate ended in 615 BC, when Nabopolassar entered the Babylonians and Chaldeans into alliance with Cyaxares, an erstwhile vassal of Assyria, and king of the Iranian peoples who had emerged c. 1000 BC, the Medes, Persians and Parthians. Cyaxares had also taken advantage of the Assyrian destruction of the formerly regionally dominant pre-Iranian Elam and the subsequent anarchy in Assyria to free the Iranic peoples from three centuries of the Assyrian yoke and regional Elamite domination. The Scythians from north of the Caucasus, and the Cimmerians from the Black Sea who had both also been subjugated by Assyria, joined the alliance, as did regional Aramean tribes.

However, Assyria soon descended into a series of brutal internal civil wars which were to cause its downfall. Ashur-etil-ilani was deposed by one of his own generals, named Sin-shumu-lishir in 623 BC, who also set himself up as king in Babylon. After only one year on the throne amidst continual civil war, Sinsharishkun (622–612 BC) ousted him as ruler of Assyria and Babylonia in 622 BC. However, he too was beset by constant unremitting civil war in the Assyrian heartland. Babylonia took advantage of this and rebelled under Nabopolassar, a previously unknown malka (chieftain) of the Chaldeans, who had set- In 615 BC, while the Assyrian king was fully occupied ﬁghting rebels in both Babylonia and Astled in south eastern Mesopotamia by c. 850 BC. syria itself, Cyaxares launched a surprise attack on It was during the reign of Sin-shar-ishkun that Assyria’s the Assyrian heartlands, sacking the cities of Kalhu vast empire began to unravel, and many of its former (the Biblical Calah, Nimrud) and Arrapkha (modern subject peoples ceased to pay tribute, most signiﬁcantly Kirkuk), Nabopolassar was still pinned down in southern for the Assyrians; the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Mesopotamia and thus not involved in this breakthrough. Persians, Scythians, Arameans and Cimmerians. From this point on the coalition of Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Scythians, Cimmerians and 4.1.7 Neo-Babylonian Empire (Chaldean Arameans fought in unison against a civil war ravaged Assyria. Major Assyrian cities such as Ashur, Era) Arbela (modern Irbil), Guzana, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad), Imgur-Enlil, Nibarti-Ashur, Kar AshurMain articles: Neo-Babylonian Empire and Chaldea In 620 BC Nabopolassar seized control over much of nasipal and Tushhan fell to the alliance during 614 BC. Babylonia with the support of most of the inhabitants, Sin-shar-ishkun somehow managed to rally against the with only the city of Nippur and some northern regions odds during 613 BC, and drove back the combined forces showing any loyalty to the Assyrian king.[9] Nabopolas- ranged against him. sar was unable to yet utterly secure Babylonia, and for the next four years he was forced to contend with an occupying Assyrian army encamped in Babylonia trying to unseat him. However, the Assyrian king, Sin-shar-

However, the alliance launched a renewed combined attack the following year, and after five years of fierce fighting Nineveh was sacked in late 612 BC after a prolonged siege, in which Sin-shar-ishkun was killed defending his

4.1. PERIODS

capital.

Tyre, Sidon and Damascus were also subjugated. The House to house fighting continued in Nineveh, and an As- Arabs and other South Arabian peoples who dwelt in the syrian general and member of the royal household, took deserts to the south of the borders of Mesopotamia were the throne as Ashur-uballit II (612–605 BC). He was of- then also subjugated. fered the chance of accepting a position of vassalage by In 567 BC he went to war with Pharaoh Amasis, and the leaders of the alliance according to the Babylonian briefly invaded Egypt itself. After securing his empire, Chronicle. However he refused and managed to some- which included marrying a Median princess, he devoted how successfully fight his way out of Nineveh and to the himself to maintaining the empire and conducting numernorthern Assyrian city of Harran in Upper Mesopotamia ous impressive building projects in Babylon. He is credwhere he founded a new capital. The fighting continued, ited with building the fabled Hanging Gardens of Babyas the Assyrian king held out against the alliance until lon.[15] 608 BC, when he was eventually ejected by the Medes, Amel-Marduk succeeded to the throne and reigned for Babylonians, Scythians and their allies, and prevented in only two years. Little contemporary record of his rule an attempt to regain the city the same year. survives, though Berosus later stated that he was deposed The Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II, whose dynasty had been installed as vassals of Assyria in 671 BC, belatedly tried to aid Egypt’s former Assyrian masters, possibly out of fear that Egypt would be next to succumb to the new powers without Assyria to protect them, having already been ravaged by the Scythians. The Assyrians fought on with Egyptian aid until a final victory was achieved against them at Carchemish in north western Assyria in 605 BC.

and murdered in 560 BC by his successor Neriglissar for conducting himself in an “improper manner”.

Nabopolassar was followed by his son Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC), whose reign of 43 years made Babylon once more the ruler of much of the civilized world, taking over portions of the former Assyrian Empire, with the eastern and north eastern portion being taken by the Medes and the far north by the Scythians.

Of the reign of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus (Nabu-na'id, 556–539 BC) who is the son of the Assyrian priestess Adda-Guppi and who managed to kill the last Chaldean king, Labashi-Marduk, and took the reign, there is a fair amount of information available. Nabonidus (hence his son, the regent Belshazzar) was, at least from the mother’s side, neither Chaldean nor Babylonian, but ironically Assyrian, hailing from its ﬁnal capital of Harran (Kharranu). Information regarding Nabonidus is chieﬂy derived from a chronological tablet containing the annals of Nabonidus, supplemented by another inscription of Nabonidus where he recounts his restoration of the temple of the Moon-god Sin at Harran; as well as by a proclamation of Cyrus issued shortly after his formal recognition as king of Babylonia.

Neriglissar (560–556 BC) also had a short reign. He was the son in law of Nebuchadnezzar II, and it is unclear if he was a Chaldean or native Babylonian who married into the dynasty. He campaigned in Aram and Phoenicia, successfully maintaining Babylonian rule in these regions. Neriglissar died young however, and was succeeded by The seat of empire was thus transferred to Babylonia for his son Labashi-Marduk (556 BC), who was still a boy. the ﬁrst time since Hammurabi over a thousand years be- He was deposed and killed during the same year in a palace conspiracy. fore.

Some sections of the Assyrian Army and Administration may have still continued in and around Dur-Katlimmu in north west Assyria for a time, however by 599 BC Assyrian records from this region fell silent. The fate of Ashuruballit II remains unknown, and he may have been killed attempting to regain Harran, at Carchemish, or continued to ﬁght on, eventually disappearing into obscurity.

The Scythians and Cimmerians, erstwhile allies of Babylonia under Nabopolassar, now became a threat, and Nebuchadnezzar II was forced to march into Anatolia and rout A number of factors arose which would ultimately lead to the fall of Babylon. The population of Babylotheir forces, ending the northern threat to his Empire. nia became restive and increasingly disaffected under The Egyptians attempted to remain in the Near East, pos- Nabonidus. He excited a strong feeling against himsibly in an effort to aid in restoring Assyria as a secure self by attempting to centralize the polytheistic religion buffer against Babylonia and the Medes and Persians, or of Babylonia in the temple of Marduk at Babylon, and to carve out an empire of their own. Nebuchadnezzar II while he had thus alienated the local priesthoods, the milcampaigned against the Egyptians and drove them back itary party also despised him on account of his antiquarover the Sinai. However an attempt to take Egypt it- ian tastes. He seemed to have left the defense of his self as his Assyrian predecessors had succeeded in do- kingdom to Belshazzar (a capable soldier but poor diploing failed, mainly due to a series of rebellions from the mat who alienated the political elite), occupying himself Israelites of Judah and the former kingdom of Ephraim, with the more congenial work of excavating the founthe Phoenicians of Caanan and the Arameans of the dation records of the temples and determining the dates Levant. The Babylonian king crushed these rebellions, of their builders. He also spent time outside Babylodeposed Jehoiakim, the king of Judah and deported a nia, rebuilding temples in the Assyrian city of Harran, sizeable part of the population to Babylonia. Cities like and also among his Arab subjects in the deserts to the

54 south of Mesopotamia. Nabonidus and Belshazzar’s Assyrian heritage is also likely to have added to this resentment. In addition, Mesopotamian military might had usually been concentrated in the martial state of Assyria. Babylonia had always been more vulnerable to conquest and invasion than its northern neighbour, and without the might of Assyria to keep foreign powers in check and Mesopotamia dominant, Babylonia was ultimately exposed. It was in the sixth year of Nabonidus (549 BC) that Cyrus the Great, the Achaemenid Persian “king of Anshan" in Elam, revolted against his suzerain Astyages, “king of the Manda” or Medes, at Ecbatana. Astyages’ army betrayed him to his enemy, and Cyrus established himself at Ecbatana, thus putting an end to the empire of the Medes and making the Persian faction dominant among the Iranic peoples. Three years later Cyrus had become king of all Persia, and was engaged in a campaign to put down a revolt among the Assyrians. Meanwhile, Nabonidus had established a camp in the desert of his colony of Arabia, near the southern frontier of his kingdom, leaving his son Belshazzar (Belsharutsur) in command of the army. In 539 BC Cyrus invaded Babylonia. A battle was fought at Opis in the month of June, where the Babylonians were defeated; and immediately afterwards Sippar surrendered to the invader. Nabonidus fled to Babylon, where he was pursued by Gobryas, and on the 16th day of Tammuz, two days after the capture of Sippar, “the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting.” Nabonidus was dragged from his hiding place, where the services continued without interruption. Cyrus did not arrive until the 3rd of Marchesvan (October), Gobryas having acted for him in his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province of Babylon, and a few days afterwards Belshazzar the son of Nabonidus died in battle. A public mourning followed, lasting six days, and Cyrus’ son Cambyses accompanied the corpse to the tomb. One of the first acts of Cyrus accordingly was to allow the Jewish exiles to return to their own homes, carrying with them their sacred temple vessels. The permission to do so was embodied in a proclamation, whereby the conqueror endeavored to justify his claim to the Babylonian throne.

CHAPTER 4. BABYLONIA a people and instead to a social class of priests educated in classical Babylonian literature, particularly Astronomy and Astrology.

4.1.8 Persian Babylonia Further information: Achaemenid Assyria and Fall of Babylon Babylonia was absorbed into the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC. A year before Cyrus’ death, in 529 BC, he elevated his son Cambyses II in the government, making him king of Babylon, while he reserved for himself the fuller title of “king of the (other) provinces” of the empire. It was only when Darius I acquired the Persian throne and ruled it as a representative of the Zoroastrian religion, that the old tradition was broken and the claim of Babylon to confer legitimacy on the rulers of western Asia ceased to be acknowledged. Immediately after Darius seized Persia, Babylonia brieﬂy recovered its independence under a native ruler, NidintaBel, who took the name of Nebuchadnezzar III, and reigned from October 522 BC to August 520 BC, when Darius took the city by storm, during this period Assyria to the north also rebelled. A few years later, probably 514 BC, Babylon again revolted under the Armenian king Nebuchadnezzar IV; on this occasion, after its capture by the Persians, the walls were partly destroyed. The Esagila, the great temple of Bel, however, still continued to be kept in repair and to be a center of Babylonian religious feelings. Alexander the Great conquered Babylon in 333 BC for the Greeks, and died there in 323 BC. Babylonia and Assyria then became part of the Greek Seleucid Empire. It has long been maintained that the foundation of Seleucia diverted the population to the new capital of southern Mesopotamia, and that the ruins of the old city became a quarry for the builders of the new seat of government, but the recent publication of the Babylonian Chronicles has shown that urban life was still very much the same well into the Parthian Empire (150 BC to 226 AD). The Parthian king Mithridates conquered the region into the Parthian Empire in 150 BC, and the region became something of a battleground between Greeks and Parthians.

Cyrus now claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of BelMarduk, who was assumed to be wrathful at the impiety of Nabonidus in removing the images of the local gods There was a brief interlude of Roman conquest (the from their ancestral shrines to his capital Babylon. provinces of Assyria and Mesopotamia; 116-8 AD) under The Chaldean tribe had lost control of Babylonia decades Trajan, after which the Parthians reasserted control. before the end of the era that sometimes bears their The satrapy of Babylonia was absorbed into Asōristān in name, and they appear to have blended into the genthe Sasanian Empire, which began in 226 AD, and by this eral populace of Babylonia even before this (for example, time East Syrian Rite Syriac Christianity (which emerged Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar II and their successors in Assyria and Upper Mesopotamia the ﬁrst century AD) always referred to themselves as Shar Akkad and never had become the dominant religion among the native popas Shar Kaldu on inscriptions), and during the Persian ulace, who had never adopted the Zoroastrianism or Achaemenid Empire the term Chaldean ceased to refer to Hellenic religions of their rulers.

4.2. BABYLONIAN CULTURE Apart from the small 2nd century BC to 3rd century AD independent Neo-Assyrian states of Adiabene, Osroene, Assur, Beth Garmai and Beth Nuhadra in the north, Mesopotamia remained under largely Persian control until the Arab Muslim conquest of Persia in the seventh century. Asōristān was dissolved as a geopolitical entity in 637, and the native Aramaic-speaking and largely Christian populace of southern and central Mesopotamia gradually underwent Arabization and Islamization.

55 gold, as well as with tiles. Painted terracotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. In Babylonia, in place of the relief, there was greater use of three-dimensional ﬁgures—the earliest examples being the Statues of Gudea, that are realistic if somewhat clumsy. The paucity of stone in Babylonia made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting. Astronomy

4.2 Babylonian culture Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Mesopotamian culture is sometimes summarized as “Assyro-Babylonian”, because of the close cultural interdependence of the two political centers. The term “Babylonia”, especially in writings from around the early 20th century, was formerly used to include Southern Mesopotamia’s earliest history, and not only in reference to the later city-state of Babylon proper. This geographic usage of the name “Babylonia' has generally been replaced by the more accurate term Sumer in more recent writing, referring to the preAssyro-Babylonian Mesopotamian civilization.

4.2.1

Babylonian culture

Main article: Babylonian astronomy Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform script tablets known as the 'Enūma Anu Enlil'. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of 'Enūma Anu Enlil', the Venus tablet of Ammi-Saduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. The oldest rectangular astrolabe dates back to Babylonia c. 1100 BC. The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings’ that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.[17][18][19] Medicine Medical diagnosis and prognosis

Old Babylonian Cylinder Seal, hematite, The king makes an animal oﬀering to Shamash. This seal was probably made in a workshop at Sippar.[16]

Art and architecture Further information: Architecture of Mesopotamia and Art of Mesopotamia In Babylonia, an abundance of clay, and lack of stone, led to greater use of mudbrick; Babylonian temples were massive structures of crude brick, supported by buttresses, the rain being carried oﬀ by drains. One such drain at Ur was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enameled tiles. The walls were brilliantly coloured, and sometimes plated with zinc or

We ﬁnd [medical semiotics] in a whole constellation of disciplines. ... There was a real common ground among these [Babylonian] forms of knowledge ... an approach involving analysis of particular cases, constructed only through traces, symptoms, hints. ... In short, we can speak about a symptomatic or divinatory [or conjectural] paradigm which could be oriented toward past present or future, depending on the form of knowledge called upon. Toward future ... that was the medical science of symptoms, with its double character, diagnostic, explaining past and present, and prognostic, suggesting likely future. ... — Carlo Ginzburg[20]

56 The oldest Babylonian (i.e., Akkadian) texts on medicine date back to the First Babylonian Dynasty in the ﬁrst half of the 2nd millennium BC[21] although the earliest medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur period.[22] The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū, or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,[23] during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069–1046 BC).[24]

CHAPTER 4. BABYLONIA students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists of them were drawn up.

There are many Babylonian literary works whose titles have come down to us. One of the most famous of these was the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sin-liqi-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each diviAlong with contemporary ancient Egyptian medicine, sion contains the story of a single adventure in the career the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, of Gilgamesh. The whole story is a composite product, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. In and it is probable that some of the stories are artificially addition, the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the meth- attached to the central figure. ods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often 4.2.2 Neo-Babylonian culture detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a The brief resurgence of Babylonian culture in the 7th to 6th centuries BC was accompanied by a number of impatient with its diagnosis and prognosis.[25] portant cultural developments. The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Astronomy Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses. Esagil-kin-apli’s Diagnostic Main articles: Babylonian astronomy and Chronology of Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and as- the ancient Near East sumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, Among the sciences, astronomy and astrology still occuit is possible to determine the patient’s disease, its aetiolpied a conspicuous place in Babylonian society. Astronogy and future development, and the chances of the paomy was of old standing in Babylonia. The zodiac was a [23] tient’s recovery. Babylonian invention of great antiquity; and eclipses of Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and dis- the sun and moon could be foretold. There are dozens eases and described their symptoms in his Diagnostic of cuneiform records of original Mesopotamian eclipse Handbook. These include the symptoms for many va- observations. rieties of epilepsy and related ailments along with their Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what diagnosis and prognosis.[26] Later Babylonian medicine was done in ancient Greek astronomy, in classical Indian resembles early Greek medicine in many ways. In particastronomy, in Sasanian, Byzantine and Syrian astronular, the early treatises of the Hippocratic Corpus show omy, astronomy in the medieval Islamic world, and in the influence of late Babylonian medicine in terms of both Central Asian and Western European astronomy.[17] Neocontent and form.[27] Babylonian astronomy can thus be considered the direct predecessor of much of ancient Greek mathematics and astronomy, which in turn is the historical predecessor of Literature the European (Western) scientific revolution.[29] Main article: Akkadian literature There were libraries in most towns and temples; an old Sumerian proverb averred that “he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn.” Women as well as men learned to read and write,[28] and in Semitic times, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.

During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the ﬁrst scientiﬁc revolution.[30] This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy.

A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be written in the old ag- In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports glutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, were of a thoroughly scientiﬁc character; how much earand interlinear translations were compiled for the use of lier their advanced knowledge and methods were devel-

4.3. LEGACY

oped is uncertain. The Babylonian development of meth- have had no mean knowledge of mechanics. A crystal ods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered lens, turned on the lathe, was discovered by Austen Henry to be a major episode in the history of astronomy. Layard at Nimrud along with glass vases bearing the name of Sargon; this could explain the excessive minuteness of The only Babylonian astronomer known to have supsome of the writing on the Assyrian tablets, and a lens ported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was may also have been used in the observation of the heav[31][32][33] Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC). Seleucus is ens. known from the writings of Plutarch. He supported the heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used. Mathematics Main article: Babylonian mathematics Babylonian mathematical texts are plentiful and well edited.[29] In respect of time they fall in two distinct groups: one from the First Babylonian Dynasty period (1830–1531 BC), the other mainly Seleucid from the last three or four centuries BC. In respect of content there is scarcely any diﬀerence between the two groups of texts. Thus Babylonian mathematics remained stale in character and content, with very little progress or innovation, for nearly two millennia.[29] The Babylonian system of mathematics was sexagesimal, or a base 60 numeral system. From this we derive the modern day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 x 6) degrees in a circle. The Babylonians were able to make great advances in mathematics for two reasons. First, the number 60 has many divisors (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 30), making calculations easier. Additionally, unlike the Egyptians and Romans, the Babylonians had a true place-value system, where digits written in the left column represented larger values (much as in our base-ten system: 734 = 7×100 + 3×10 + 4×1). Among the Babylonians’ mathematical accomplishments were the determination of the square root of two correctly to seven places (YBC 7289 clay tablet). They also demonstrated knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem well before Pythagoras, as evidenced by this tablet translated by Dennis Ramsey and dating to c. 1900 BC: 4 is the length and 5 is the diagonal. What is the breadth? Its size is not known. 4 times 4 is 16. And 5 times 5 is 25. You take 16 from 25 and there remains 9. What times what shall I take in order to get 9? 3 times 3 is 9. 3 is the breadth. The ner of 600 and the sar of 3600 were formed from the unit of 60, corresponding with a degree of the equator. Tablets of squares and cubes, calculated from 1 to 60, have been found at Senkera, and a people acquainted with the sun-dial, the clepsydra, the lever and the pulley, must

The Babylonians might have been familiar with the general rules for measuring the areas. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if π were estimated as 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used π as 3 and 1/8. The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven miles today. This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. (Eves, Chapter 2) The Babylonians used also space time graphs to calculate the velocity of Jupiter. This is an idea that is considered highly modern, traced to the 14th century England and France and anticipating integral calculus.[34] Philosophy Further information: Babylonian literature § Philosophy The origins of Babylonian philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom literature, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogs, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose, and proverbs. Babylonian reasoning and rationality developed beyond empirical observation.[35] It is possible that Babylonian philosophy had an inﬂuence on Greek philosophy, particularly Hellenistic philosophy. The Babylonian text Dialogue of Pessimism contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of contrasts, and the dialogs of Plato, as well as a precursor to the maieutic Socratic method of Socrates.[36] The Milesian philosopher Thales is also known to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia.

4.3 Legacy Babylonia, and particularly its capital city Babylon, has long held a place in the Abrahamic religions as a symbol of excess and dissolute power. Many references are made to Babylon in the Bible, both literally (historical) and allegorically. The mentions in the Tanakh tend to be historical or prophetic, while New Testament apocalyptic

CHAPTER 4. BABYLONIA

references to the Whore of Babylon are more likely ﬁgu- [14] H. W. F. Saggs (2000). Babylonians. British Museum Press. p. 117. rative, or cryptic references possibly to pagan Rome, or some other archetype. The legendary Hanging Gardens [15] “World Wide Sechool”. History of Phoenicia — Part IV. of Babylon and the Tower of Babel are seen as symbols Retrieved 2007-01-09. of luxurious and arrogant power respectively.

4.4 See also • Timeline of the Assyrian Empire

4.5 Notes [1] Freedom = Akk. addurāru.

4.6 References 4.6.1

Citations

[1] F. Leo Oppenheim - Ancient Mesopotamia [2] http://www.aliraqi.org/forums/showthread.php?t=69813 Aliraqi - Babylonian Empire [3] http://www.livius.org/articles/place/babylonian-empire/ Babylonian Empire - Livius [4] Deutscher, Guy (2007). Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. Oxford University Press US. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-19953222-3.

[16] Al-Gailani Werr, L., 1988. Studies in the chronology and regional style of Old Babylonian Cylinder Seals. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Volume 23. [17] Pingree, David (1998), “Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens”, in Dalley, Stephanie, The Legacy of Mesopotamia, Oxford University Press, pp. 125–137, ISBN 0-19-814946-8 [18] Rochberg, Francesca (2004), The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture, Cambridge University Press [19] Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 978-0-19-509539-5. Retrieved 2008-02-04. [20] Ginzburg, Carlo (1984). “Morelli, Freud, and Sherlock Holmes: Clues and Scientiﬁc Method”. In Eco, Umberto; Sebeok, Thomas. The Sign of Three: Dupin, Holmes, Peirce. Bloomington, IN: History Workshop, Indiana University Press. pp. 81–118. ISBN 978-0-253-35235-4. LCCN 82049207. OCLC 9412985. Ginzburg stresses the signiﬁcance of Babylonian medicine in his discussion of the conjectural paradigm as evidenced by the methods of Giovanni Morelli, Sigmund Freud and Sherlock Holmes in the light of Charles Sanders Peirce's logic of making educated guesses or abductive reasoning [21] Leo Oppenheim (1977). Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization. University of Chicago Press. p. 290.

[5] Woods C. 2006 “Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian”. In S.L. Sanders (ed) Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture: 91-120 Chicago

[22] R D. Biggs (2005). “Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia”. Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. 19 (1): 7–18.

[6] A. K. Grayson (1972). Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, Volume 1. Otto Harrassowitz. pp. 7–8.

[23] H. F. J. Horstmanshoﬀ, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 99, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-13666-5.

[7] Robert William Rogers, A History of Babylonia and Assyria, Volume I, Eaton and Mains, 1900. [8] Oppenheim Ancient Mesopotamia [9] Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq [10] Eder, Christian., Assyrische Distanzangaben und die absolute Chronologie Vorderasiens, AoF 31, 191–236, 2004. [11] Schneider, Thomas (2003). “Kassitisch und HurroUrartäisch. Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zu möglichen lexikalischen Isoglossen”. Altorientalische Forschungen (in German) (30): 372–381. [12] “India: Early Vedic period”. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 September 2012. [13] “Iranian art and architecture”. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 8 September 2012.

[24] Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 55, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-72371-63-1. [25] H. F. J. Horstmanshoﬀ, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 97–98, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-13666-5. [26] Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 5, Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-72371-63-1. [27] M. J. Geller (2004). H. F. J. Horstmanshoﬀ; Marten Stol; Cornelis Tilburg, eds. West Meets East: Early Greek and Babylonian Diagnosis. Magic and rationality in ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman medicine. Brill Publishers. pp. 11–186. ISBN 90-04-13666-5. [28] Tatlow, Elisabeth Meier Women, Crime, and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: The ancient Near East Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. (31 March 2005) ISBN 978-0-8264-1628-5 p.75

4.7. EXTERNAL LINKS

[29] Aaboe, Asger. “The culture of Babylonia: Babylonian mathematics, astrology, and astronomy.” The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries B.C. Eds. John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, N. G. L. Hammond, E. Sollberger and C. B. F. Walker. Cambridge University Press, (1991)

• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Babylonian and Assyrian Religion". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[30] D. Brown (2000), Mesopotamian Planetary AstronomyAstrology, Styx Publications, ISBN 90-5693-036-2.

• The History Files Ancient Mesopotamia

[31] Otto E. Neugebauer (1945). “The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 4 (1), pp. 1–38. [32] George Sarton (1955). “Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B. C.”, Journal of the American Oriental Society 75 (3), pp. 166–173 [169]. [33] William P. D. Wightman (1951, 1953), The Growth of Scientiﬁc Ideas, Yale University Press p.38. [34] http://science.sciencemag.org/content/351/6272/482. full [35] Giorgio Buccellati (1981), “Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia”, Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), pp. 35–47. [36] Giorgio Buccellati (1981), “Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia”, Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), pp. 35–47 [43].

4.6.2

Bibliography

• "Babylon—Babylonia", Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed., Vol. III, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1878, pp. 182–194. • "Babylonia and Assyria", Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., Vol. III, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911, pp. 99–112.

4.7 External links • From under the Dust of Ages by William St. Chad Boscawen • The Chaldean account of Genesis by George Smith • Babylonian Mathematics • Babylonian Numerals • Babylonian Astronomy/Astrology • Bibliography of Babylonian Astronomy/Astrology • Theophilus G. Pinches, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (Many deities’ names are now read differently, but this detailed 1906 work is a classic.)

• Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Babylonia". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

• Legends of Babylon and Egypt in Relation to Hebrew Tradition, by Leonard W. King, 1918 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) • The Babylonian Legends of the Creation and the Fight between Bel and the Dragon, as told by Assyrian Tablets from Nineveh, 1921 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) • The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria; its remains, language, history, religion, commerce, law, art, and literature, by Morris Jastrow, Jr. ... with map and 164 illustrations, 1915 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format or Readable HTML) • Recordings of modern scholars reading Babylonian poetry in the original language (http://www. speechisfire.com).

Chapter 5

Babylonian captivity This article is about the period in Jewish history. For Neo-Babylonian empire, seized control of Assyrian terother uses, see Babylonian captivity (disambiguation). ritory up to the Euphrates river in Syria, but Babylon counter-attacked. In the process Josiah, the king of Judah, was killed in a battle with the Egyptians at the Battle The Babylonian captivity or Babylonian exile is the period in Jewish history during which a number of Ju- of Megiddo (609 BC). dahites of the ancient Kingdom of Judah were captives in Babylonia. After the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, besieged Jerusalem, resulting in tribute being paid by King Jehoiakim.[1] Jehoiakim refused to pay tribute in Nebuchadnezzar’s fourth year, which led to another siege in Nebuchadnezzar’s seventh year, culminating with the death of Jehoiakim and the exile of King Jeconiah, his court and many others; Jeconiah’s successor Zedekiah and others were exiled in Nebuchadnezzar’s eighteenth year; a later deportation occurred in Nebuchadnezzar’s twenty-third year. The dates, numbers of deportations, and numbers of deportees given in the biblical accounts vary.[2] These deportations are dated to 597 BCE for the ﬁrst, with others dated at 587/586 BCE, and 582/581 BCE respectively.[3]

After the defeat of Pharaoh Necho’s army by the Babylonians at Carchemish in 605 BCE, Jehoiakim began paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. Some of the young nobility of Judah (such as Daniel, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego) were taken to Babylon.

In the following years, the court of Jerusalem was divided into two parties, in support of Egypt and Babylon. After Nebuchadnezzar was defeated in Battle in 601 BCE by Egypt, Judah revolted against Babylon, culminating in a three-month siege of Jerusalem beginning in late 598 BCE.[7] Jehoiakim, the king of Judah, died during the siege,[8] and was succeeded by his son Jehoiachin (also called Jeconiah) at the age of eighteen.[9] The city fell on 2 Adar (March 16) 597 BCE,[10] and Nebuchadnezzar pillaged Jerusalem and its Temple and took Jeconiah, his court and other prominent citizens (including the prophet After the fall of Babylon to the Persian king Cyrus the Ezekiel) back to Babylon.[11] Jehoiakim’s uncle Zedekiah Great in 539 BCE, exiled Judeans were permitted to re- was appointed king in his place, but the exiles in Babyturn to Palestine.[4][5] According to the biblical book of lon continued to consider Jeconiah as their Exilarch, or Ezra, construction of the second temple in Jerusalem be- rightful ruler. gan in 537 BCE. All these events are considered signiﬁ- Despite warnings by Jeremiah and others of the procant in Jewish history and culture, and had a far-reaching Babylonian party, Zedekiah revolted against Babylon and impact on the development of Judaism. entered into an alliance with Pharaoh Hophra. NebArchaeological studies have revealed that not all of the population of Judah was deported, and that, although Jerusalem was utterly destroyed, other parts of Judah continued to be inhabited during the period of the exile.[6] The return of the exiles was a gradual process rather than a single event, and many of the deportees or their descendants did not return.

uchadnezzar returned, defeated the Egyptians, and again besieged Jerusalem, resulting in the city’s destruction in 587 BCE. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the city wall and the Temple, together with the houses of the most important citizens. Zedekiah and his sons were captured, the sons were executed in front of Zedekiah, who was then blinded, and taken to Babylon with many others (Jer 52:10-11). Judah became a Babylonian province, called Yehud, putting an end to the independent Kingdom of Judah. (Because of the missing years in the Jewish calen5.1 Biblical accounts of the exile dar, rabbinic sources place the date of the destruction of the First Temple at 3338 HC (423 BCE)[12] or 3358 HC In the late 7th century BCE, the kingdom of Judah was (403 BCE)).[13] a client state of the Assyrian empire. In the last decades The ﬁrst governor appointed by Babylon was Gedaliah, a of the century, Assyria was overthrown by Babylon, an native Judahite; he encouraged the many Jews who had Assyrian province. Egypt, fearing the sudden rise of the 60

5.2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND OTHER NON-BIBLICAL EVIDENCE

Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian forces returned in 588/586 BCE and rampaged through Judah, leaving clear archaeological evidence of destruction in many towns and settlements there.[16]:294 Clay ostraca from this period, referred to as the Lachish letters, were discovered during excavations; one, which was probably written to the commander at Lachish from an outlying base, describes how the signal fires from nearby towns are disappearing: “And may (my lord) be apprised that we are watching for the fire signals of Lachish according to all the signs which Illustration from the Nuremberg Chronicle of the destruction of my lord has given, because we cannot see Azeqah.”[20] Jerusalem under the Babylonian rule Archaeological finds from Jerusalem testify that virtually the whole city within the walls was burnt to rubble in 587 [16]:295 fled to surrounding countries such as Moab, Ammon and BCE and utterly destroyed. Edom to return, and took steps to return the country to Archaeological excavations and surveys have enabled the prosperity. Some time later, a surviving member of the population of Judah before the Babylonian destruction to royal family assassinated Gedaliah and his Babylonian ad- be calculated with a high degree of confidence to have visors, prompting many refugees to seek safety in Egypt. been approximately 75,000. Taking the different bibliBy the end of the second decade of the 6th century, in ad- cal numbers of exiles at their highest, 20,000, this would dition to those who remained in Judah, there were signif- mean that at most 25% of the population had been deicant Jewish communities in Babylon and in Egypt; this ported to Babylon, with the remaining 75% staying in was the beginning of the later numerous Jewish commu- Judah.[16]:306 Although Jerusalem was destroyed and denities living permanently outside Judah in the Jewish Di- populated, with large parts of the city remaining in ruins aspora. for 150 years, numerous other settlements in Judah conAccording to the book of Ezra, the Persian Cyrus the Great ended the exile in 538 BCE,[14] the year after he captured Babylon.[15] The exile ended with the return under Zerubbabel the Prince (so-called because he was a descendant of the royal line of David) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction of the Second Temple in the period 521–516 BCE.[14]

tinued to be inhabited, with no signs of disruption visible in archaeological studies.[16]:307

The Cyrus Cylinder, an ancient tablet on which is written a declaration in the name of Cyrus referring to restoration of temples and repatriation of exiled peoples, has often been taken as corroboration of the authenticity of the biblical decrees attributed to Cyrus,[21] but other scholars point out that the cylinder’s text is speciﬁc to Babylon and Mesopotamia and makes no mention of Judah or Jerusalem.[21] Professor Lester L Grabbe asserted that the 5.2 Archaeological and other non- “alleged decree of Cyrus” regarding Judah, “cannot be considered authentic”, but that there was a “general polBiblical evidence icy of allowing deportees to return and to re-establish cult sites”. He also stated that archaeology suggests that the Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of Jerusalem, his capture of King return was a “trickle” taking place over decades, rather Jeconiah, his appointment of Zedekiah in his place, and than a single event.[22] the plundering of the city in 597 BCE are corroborated As part of the Persian Empire, the former Kingdom of Juby a passage in the Babylonian Chronicles:[16]:293 dah became the province of Judah (Yehud Medinata[23] ) with diﬀerent borders, covering a smaller territory.[22] “In the seventh year, in the month of The population of the province was greatly reduced from Kislev, the king of Akkad mustered his troops, that of the kingdom, archaeological surveys showing a marched to the Hatti-land, and encamped population of around 30,000 people in the 5th to 4th cenagainst the City of Judah and on the ninth day turies BCE.[16]:308 of the month of Adar he seized the city and captured the king. He appointed there a king of his own choice and taking heavy tribute brought it back to Babylon.”

An exhibition in Jerusalem has on display over 100 cuneiform tablets that detail trade in fruits and other commodities, taxes, debts, and credits accumulated between Jews driven from, or convinced to move from Jerusalem Jehoiachin’s Rations Tablets, describing ration orders for by King Nebuchadnezzar around 600 BCE. They include a captive King of Judah, identiﬁed with King Jeconiah, details on one exiled Judean family over four generations, have been discovered during excavations in Babylon, in all with Hebrew names.[24][25] the royal archives of Nebuchadnezzar.[17][18] One of the tablets refers to food rations for “Ya’u-kīnu, king of the land of Yahudu” and ﬁve royal princes, his sons.[19]

5.3 Exilic literature and postexilic revisions of the Torah/Pentateuch The exilic period was a rich one for Hebrew literature. Biblical depictions of the exile include Book of Jeremiah 39–43 (which saw the exile as a lost opportunity); the ﬁnal section of 2 Kings (which portrays it as the temporary end of history); 2 Chronicles (in which the exile is the “Sabbath of the land”); and the opening chapters of Ezra, which records its end. Other works from or about the exile include the stories in Daniel 1–6, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, the “Story of the Three Youths” (1 Esdras 3:1–5:6), and the books of Tobit and Book of Judith.[26]

CHAPTER 5. BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY This process coincided with the emergence of scribes and sages as Jewish leaders (see Ezra). Prior to exile, the people of Israel had been organized according to tribe. Afterwards, they were organized by smaller family groups. Only the tribe of Levi continued in its temple role after the return. After this time, there were always sizable numbers of Jews living outside Eretz Israel; thus, it also marks the beginning of the "Jewish diaspora", unless this is considered to have begun with the Assyrian Captivity of Israel. In Rabbinic literature, Babylon was one of a number of metaphors for the Jewish diaspora. Most frequently the term “Babylon” meant the diaspora prior to the destruction of the Second Temple. The post-destruction term for the Jewish Diaspora was "Rome", or "Edom".

The Priestly source, one of the four main sources of the Torah/Pentateuch in the Bible, is primarily a product of the post-exilic period when the former Kingdom of Ju- 5.5 Chronology dah had become the Persian province of Yehud.[27] Also during this Persian period, the ﬁnal redaction of the Pen- The following table is based on Rainer Albertz’s work on tateuch took place.[16]:310 Israel in exile.[29] (Alternative dates are possible.)

5.4 Signiﬁcance in Jewish history

5.6 See also • Avignon Papacy, sometimes called the “Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy”.

5.7 References [1] Coogan, Michael (2009). A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

James Tissot, The Flight of the Prisoners.

In the Hebrew Bible, the captivity in Babylon is presented as a punishment for idolatry and disobedience to Yahweh in a similar way to the presentation of Israelite slavery in Egypt followed by deliverance. The Babylonian Captivity had a number of serious eﬀects on Judaism and Jewish culture. For example, the current Hebrew alphabet was adopted during this period, replacing the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. This period saw the last high-point of biblical prophecy in the person of Ezekiel, followed by the emergence of the central role of the Torah in Jewish life. According to many historical-critical scholars, the Torah was redacted during this time, and began to be regarded as the authoritative text for Jews. This period saw their transformation into an ethno-religious group who could survive without a central Temple.[28]

[2] Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). Biblical History and Israel S Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 357– 358. ISBN 0802862608. Retrieved 11 June 2015. Overall, the difficulty in calculation arises because the biblical texts provide varying numbers for the different deportations. The HB/OT’s conflicting figures for the dates, number, and victims of the Babylonian deportations become even more of a problem for historical reconstruction because, other than the brief reference to the first capture of Jerusalem (597) in the Babylonian Chronicle, historians have only the biblical sources with which to work. [3] Dunn, James G.; Rogerston, John William (2003). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 545. ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0. [4] Jonathan Stökl, Caroline Waerzegger (2015). Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. pp. 7–11, 30, 226. [5] Encyclopaedia Judaica. 3 (2nd ed.). p. 27. [6] Stern, Ephraim (November–December 2000). “The Babylonian Gap”. Biblical Archaeology Review. 26 (6). From 604 BCE to 538 BCE —there is a complete gap in

5.8. FURTHER READING

evidence suggesting occupation. ... I do not mean to imply that the country was uninhabited during the period between the Babylonian destruction and the Persian period. There were undoubtedly some settlements, but the population was very small. Many towns and villages were either completely or partly destroyed. The rest were barely functioning. International trade virtually ceased. Only two regions appear to have been spared this fate—the northern part of Judah (the region of Benjamin) and probably the land of Ammon, although the latter region awaits further investigation. [7] Geoﬀrey Wigoder, The Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance of the Bible Pub. by Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. (2006) [8] Dan Cohn-Sherbok, The Hebrew Bible, Continuum International, 1996, page x. ISBN 0-304-33703-X [9] 2Kings 24:6–8 [10] Philip J. King, Jeremiah: An Archaeological Companion (Westminster John Knox Press, 1993), page 23. [11] The Oxford History of the Biblical World, ed. by Michael D Coogan. Pub. by Oxford University Press, 1999. pg 350 [12] Rashi to Talmud Bavli, avodah zara p. 9a. Josephus, seder hadoroth year 3338 [13] malbim to ezekiel 24:1, abarbanel et al. [14] “Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule”. Biu.ac.il. Retrieved 2014-03-15. [15] Harper’s Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p.103 [16] Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86912-4. [17] Thomas, David Winton (1958). Documents from Old Testament Times (1961 ed.). Edinburgh and London: Thomas Nelson. p. 84. [18] Cf. 2Kings 24:12, 24:15–24:16, 25:27–25:30; 2Chronicles 36:9–36:10; Jeremiah 22:24–22:6, 29:2, 52:31–52:34; Ezekiel 17:12. [19] COJS staﬀ. “Babylonian Ration List: King Jehoiakhin in Exile, 592/1 BCE”. COJS.org. The Center for Online Judaic Studies. Retrieved 23 August 2013. Ya’u-kīnu, king of the land of Yahudu

[22] Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud - A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1. T & T Clark. p. 355. ISBN 978-0567089984. [23] Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or “Judah”, and “medinata” the word for province [24] http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4622505, 00.html [25] http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/02/03/ us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203 [26] Rainer Albertz, Israel in exile: the history and literature of the sixth century BCE (page 15 link) Society for Biblical Literature, 2003, pp.4–38 [27] Blum, Erhard (1998). “Issues and Problems in the Contemporary Debate Regarding the Priestly Writings”. In Sarah Shectman, Joel S. Baden. The strata of the priestly writings: contemporary debate and future directions. Theologischer Verlag. pp. 32–33. [28] A Concise History of the Jewish People | Naomi E. Pasachoﬀ, Robert J. Littma | Rowman & Littleﬁeld, 2005 | pg 43 [29] Rainer Albertz, Israel in exile: the history and literature of the sixth century BCE, p.xxi. • page 77 with another list of dates [30] 2 Kings 25:27

5.8 Further reading Maps • Yehud Medinata map, CET – Center For Educational technology • Yehud Medinata Border map, CET – Center For Educational technology Google-Books • Peter R. Ackroyd, “Exile and Restoration: A Study of Hebrew Thought of the Sixth Century B.C.” (SCM Press, 1968) • Rainer Albertz, Bob Becking, “Yahwism after the Exile” Van Gorcum, 2003)

[20] Translation from Aḥituv, Shmuel. Echoes from the Past. Jerusalem: CARTA Jerusalem, 2008, pg. 70.

• Blenkinsopp, Joseph, “Judaism, the ﬁrst phase: the place of Ezra and Nehemiah in the origins of Judaism” (Eerdmans, 2009)

[21] Becking, Bob (2006). ""We All Returned as One!": Critical Notes on the Myth of the Mass Return”. In Lipschitz, Oded; Oeming, Manfred. Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-57506-104-7.

• Nodet, Étienne, “A search for the origins of Judaism: from Joshua to the Mishnah” (Sheﬃeld Academic Press, 1999, original edition Editions du Cerf, 1997)

64 • Becking, Bob, and Korpel, Marjo Christina Annette (eds), “The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic & Post-Exilic Times” (Brill, 1999) • Bedford, Peter Ross, “Temple restoration in early Achaemenid Judah” (Brill, 2001) • Berquist, Jon L., “Approaching Yehud: new approaches to the study of the Persian period” (Society of Biblical Literature, 2007) • Grabbe, Lester L., “A history of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period”, vol.1 (T&T Clark International, 2004) • Levine, Lee I., “Jerusalem: portrait of the city in the second Temple period (538 B.C.E.−70 C.E.)" (Jewish Publication Society, 2002) • Lipschitz, Oded, “The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem” (Eisenbrauns, 2005) • Lipschitz, Oded, and Oeming, Manfred (eds), “Judah and the Judeans in the Persian period” (Eisenbrauns, 2006) • Lipschitz, Oded, and Oeming, Manfred (eds), “Judah and the Judeans in the fourth century B.C.E.” (Eisenbrauns, 2006) • Middlemas, Jill Anne, “The troubles of templeless Judah” (Oxford University Press, 2005) • Stackert, Jeﬀrey, “Rewriting the Torah: literary revision in Deuteronomy and the holiness code” (Mohr Siebeck, 2007) • Vanderkam, James, “An introduction to early Judaism” (Eerdmans, 2001) Wikisource. • "Babylonian Captivity". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911. • "Babylonish Captivity". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.

CHAPTER 5. BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY

Chapter 6

Torah

Sefer Torah at old Glockengasse Synagogue (reconstruction), Cologne

The Torah (/ˈtɔːrəˌˈtoʊrə/; Hebrew: ‫ּתֹוָרה‬, “Instruction, Teaching”), or the Pentateuch (/ˈpɛntəˌtuːk, -ˌtjuːk/), is the central reference of the religious Judaic tradition. It has a range of meanings. It can most specifically mean the first five books of the twenty-four books of the Tanakh, and it usually includes the perushim (rabbinic commentaries). The term “Torah” means instruction and offers a way of life for those who follow it; it can mean the continued narrative from Book of Genesis to the end of the Tanakh, and it can even mean the totality of Jewish teaching, culture and practice.[1] Common to all these meanings, Torah consists of the foundational narrative of Jewish peoplehood: their call into being by God, their trials and tribulations, and their covenant with their God, which involves following a way of life embodied in a set of moral and religious obligations and civil laws (halakha).

Silver Torah Case, Ottoman Empire Museum of Jewish Art and History

In rabbinic literature the word “Torah” denotes both the ﬁve books (Hebrew: ‫“ תורה שבכתב‬Torah that is written”) as well as the Oral Torah (‫תורה שבעל פה‬, “Torah that is spoken”). The Oral Torah consists of interpretations and ampliﬁcations which according to rabbinic tradition have been handed down from generation to generation and are now embodied in the Talmud and Midrash.[2]

66 According to rabbinic tradition, all of the teachings found in the Torah, both written and oral, were given by God through Moses, a prophet, some of them at Mount Sinai and others at the Tabernacle, and all the teachings were written down by Moses, which resulted in the Torah we have today. According to a Midrash, the Torah was created prior to the creation of the world, and was used as the blueprint for Creation.[3] The majority of Biblical scholars believe that the written books were a product of the Babylonian captivity (c. 600 BCE), based on earlier written and oral traditions, and that it was completed by the period of Achaemenid rule (c. 400 BCE).[4][5] However, the 2004 discovery of fragments of the Hebrew Bible at Ketef Hinnom dating to the 7th century BCE, and thus to before the Babylonian captivity, suggests that at least some elements of the written Torah were current before the Babylonian exile.[6][7][8][9]

CHAPTER 6. TORAH inaccurate rendering of “Torah” as “Law”[14] may be an obstacle to understanding the ideal that is summed up in the term talmud torah (‫תלמוד תורה‬, “study of Torah”).[2] The earliest name for the ﬁrst part of the Bible seems to have been “The Torah of Moses”. This title, however, is found neither in the Torah itself, nor in the works of the pre-Exilic literary prophets. It appears in Joshua (8:31– 32; 23:6) and Kings (I Kings 2:3; II Kings 14:6; 23:25), but it cannot be said to refer there to the entire corpus (according to academic Bible criticism). In contrast, there is every likelihood that its use in the post-Exilic works (Mal. 3:22; Dan. 9:11, 13; Ezra 3:2; 7:6; Neh. 8:1; II Chron. 23:18; 30:16) was intended to be comprehensive. Other early titles were “The Book of Moses” (Ezra 6:18; Neh. 13:1; II Chron. 35:12; 25:4; cf. II Kings 14:6) and “The Book of the Torah” (Neh. 8:3), which seems to be a contraction of a fuller name, “The Book of the Torah of God” (Neh. 8:8, 18; 10:29–30; cf. 9:3).[15]

Traditionally, the words of the Torah are written on a scroll by a sofer on parchment in Hebrew. A Torah portion is read publicly at least once every three days 6.1.1 Alternative names in the halachically-prescribed tune, in the presence of a congregation.[10] Reading the Torah publicly is one of the Christian scholars usually refer to the first five books of bases for Jewish communal life. the Hebrew Bible as the "Pentateuch" (Greek: πεντάτευχος, “five scrolls”), a term first used in the Hellenistic Judaism of Alexandria,[16] meaning five books, or as the Law, or Law of Moses. 6.1 Meaning and names

6.2 Contents The Torah starts from the beginning of God’s creating the world, through the beginnings of the people of Israel, their descent into Egypt, and the giving of the Torah at Mt. Sinai. It ends with the death of Moses, just before the people of Israel cross to the promised land of Canaan. Interspersed in the narrative are the speciﬁc teachings (religious obligations and civil laws) given explicitly (i.e. Ten Commandments) or implicitly embedded in the narrative (as in Exodus 12 and 13 laws of the celebration of Passover).

Reading of the Torah

The word “Torah” in Hebrew is derived from the root ‫ירה‬, which in the hif'il conjugation means “to guide/teach” (cf. Lev 10:11). The meaning of the word is therefore “teaching”, “doctrine”, or “instruction"; the commonly accepted “law” gives a wrong impression.[11] Other translational contexts in the English language include custom, theory, guidance,[12] or system.[13] The term “Torah” is used in the general sense to include both Rabbinic Judaism's written law and Oral Law, serving to encompass the entire spectrum of authoritative Jewish religious teachings throughout history, including the Mishnah, the Talmud, the Midrash and more, and the

The Hebrew names for the books of the Torah are derived from their respective incipits; the common English names for the books are derived from the Greek Septuagint and reﬂect the essential theme of each book: • Genesis: “origin” (Hebrew: Bereshit – “In the beginning”) • Exodus: “going out” (Hebrew: Shemot – “Names”) • Leviticus: “relating to the Levites” (Hebrew: Vayikra, – “And he called”) • Numbers: numbering of the Israelites (Hebrew: Bamidbar – “In the desert”) • Deuteronomy: “second law” (Hebrew: D'varim – “Words”)

6.3. AUTHORSHIP

6.2.1

Genesis

6.2.5 Deuteronomy

Deuteronomy is a series of speeches by Moses on the plains of Moab opposite Jericho. Also referred to as Mishneh Torah in Hebrew (a repeat of the Torah) the essential gist of the entire book is a rebuke to the Children of Israel to not worship idolatry, to not follow in the ways of Cana'an, and to cleave to God. Moses proclaims the Law (Deuteronomy 12–26), gives instruction concerning covenant renewal at Shechem (Deuteronomy 27–28) and gives Israel new laws (the "Deuteronomic Code").[17] At the end of the book (Deuteronomy 34) Moses is allowed to see the promised land from a mountain, and then dies. The text emphasises that no one knows where Moses was 6.2.2 Exodus finally buried (34:6). Knowing that he was nearing the end of his life, Moses had appointed Joshua his succesExodus begins the story of God’s revelation to his peo- sor, bequeathing to him the mantle of leadership. Soon ple of Israel through Moses, who leads them out of Egypt afterwards Israel begins the conquest of Canaan. (Exodus 1–18) to Mount Sinai. There the people accept the covenant with God, agreeing to be his people and abide by his holy Law, in return for his agreeing to be 6.3 Authorship their God, and protect and defend them from their enemies, and provide for and prosper them . Moses receives the Torah from God, and teaches His laws and Covenant Main articles: Mosaic authorship and Documentary (Exodus 19–24) to the people of Israel. It also talks about hypothesis the first violation of the covenant when the Golden Calf was constructed (Exodus 32–34). Exodus includes the in- The Talmud holds that the Torah was written by structions on building the Tabernacle and concludes with Moses, with the exception of the last eight verses of its actual construction (Exodus 25–31; 35–40). Deuteronomy, describing his death and burial, being written by Joshua.[18] Alternatively, Rashi quotes from the Talmud that “God spoke them, and Moses wrote them 6.2.3 Leviticus with tears.”[19][20] The Mishnah includes the divine origin of the Torah as an essential tenet of Judaism.[21] Leviticus begins with instructions to the Israelites on how to use the Tabernacle, which they had just built (Leviticus The modern scholarly consensus, known as the Docu1–10). This is followed by rules of clean and unclean mentary hypothesis, is that the Torah has multiple authors [22] (Leviticus 11–15), which includes the laws of slaughter and that its composition took place over centuries. and animals permissible to eat (see also: Kashrut), the This contemporary common hypothesis among biblical Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16), and various moral and scholars states that the first major comprehensive draft ritual laws sometimes called the Holiness Code (Leviticus of the Pentateuch was composed in the late 7th or the 6th 17–26). Leviticus 26 provides a detailed list of rewards century BC (the Jahwist source), and that this was later for following God’s commandments and a detailed list of expanded by the addition of various narratives and laws (the Priestly source) into a work very like the one existing punishments for not following them. today. Genesis begins with the so-called “primeval history” (Genesis 1–11), the story of the world’s beginnings and the descent from Adam. This is followed by the story of the three patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac and Jacob), Joseph (Genesis 12–50) and the four matriarchs (Sarah, Rebekah, Leah and Rachel). God gives to the patriarchs a promise of the land of Canaan, but at the end of Genesis the sons of Jacob end up leaving Canaan for Egypt due to a regional famine. They had heard that there was a grain storage and distribution facility in Egypt.

6.2.4

Numbers

Numbers tells how Israel consolidated itself as a community at Sinai (Numbers 1–9), set out from Sinai to move towards Canaan and spied out the land (Numbers 10–13). Because of unbelief at various points, but especially at Kadesh Barnea (Numbers 14), the Israelites were condemned to wander for forty years in the desert in the vicinity of Kadesh instead of immediately entering the Promised Land. Even Moses sins and is told he would not live to enter the land (Numbers 20). At the end of Numbers (Numbers 26–35) Israel moves from Kadesh to the plains of Moab opposite Jericho, ready to enter the Promised Land.

“The consensus of scholarship is that the stories are taken from four different written sources and that these were brought together over the course of time to form the first five books of the Bible as a composite work. The sources are known as J, the Jahwist source (from the German transliteration of the Hebrew YHWH), E, the Elohist source, P, the priestly source, and D, the Deuteronomist source. ... Thus the Pentateuch (or Torah, as it is known by Jews) comprises material taken from six centuries of human history, which has been put together to give a comprehensive picture of the creation of the world and of God’s

CHAPTER 6. TORAH dealings with his peoples, speciﬁcally with the people of Israel.” (Professor John Riches of the University of Glasgow).[23]

6.4 Torah and Judaism

by Joshua. Abraham ibn Ezra[26] and Joseph Bonﬁls observed that phrases in those verses present information that people should only have known after the time of Moses. Ibn Ezra hinted,[27] and Bonﬁls explicitly stated, that Joshua wrote these verses many years after the death of Moses. Other commentators[28] do not accept this position and maintain that although Moses did not write those eight verses it was nonetheless dictated to him and that Joshua wrote it based on instructions left by Moses, and that the Torah often describes future events, some of which have yet to occur. The Talmud says that God dictated four books of the Torah, but that Moses wrote Deuteronomy in his own words (Talmud Bavli, Meg. 31b). All classical rabbinic views hold that the Torah was entirely Mosaic and of divine origin.[29] Present-day Reform and Liberal Jewish movements all reject Mosaic authorship, as well as most shades of Conservative Judaism.[30]

6.4.1 Ritual use

Presentation of The Torah (1860) – Museum of Jewish Art and History

Rabbinic writings indicate that the Oral Torah was given to Moses at Mount Sinai, which, according to the tradition of the Orthodox rabbis, occurred in 1312 BCE. The Orthodox rabbinic tradition holds that the Written Torah was recorded during the following forty years,[24] though many Jewish scholars aﬃrm the modern scholarly consensus that the Written Torah has multiple authors and was written over centuries.[25] The Talmud (Gittin 60a) presents two opinions as to how exactly the Torah was written down by Moses. One opinion holds that it was written by Moses gradually as it was dictated to him, and ﬁnished it close to his death, and the other opinion holds that Moses wrote the complete Torah in one writing close to his death, based on what was dictated to him over the years. The Talmud (Menachot 30a) says that the last eight verses of the Torah that discuss the death and burial of Moses could not have been written by Moses, as writing it would have been a lie, and that they were written after his death

Torahs in Ashkenazi Synagogue (Istanbul, Turkey)

Main article: Torah reading Torah reading (Hebrew: ‫קריאת התורה‬, K'riat HaTorah; “Reading [of] the Torah”) is a Jewish religious ritual that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the Torah scroll (or scrolls) from the ark, chanting the appropriate excerpt with traditional

6.5. THE ORAL TORAH

cantillation, and returning the scroll(s) to the ark. It is distinct from academic Torah study.

6.5 The Oral Torah

Regular public reading of the Torah was introduced by Ezra the Scribe after the return of the Jewish people from the Babylonian captivity (c. 537 BCE), as described in the Book of Nehemiah.[31] In the modern era, adherents of Orthodox Judaism practice Torah reading according to a set procedure they believe has remained unchanged in the two thousand years since the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem (70 CE). In the 19th and 20th centuries CE, new movements such as Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism have made adaptations to the practice of Torah reading, but the basic pattern of Torah reading has usually remained the same:

See also: Oral Torah

As a part of the morning prayer services on certain days of the week, fast days and holidays, as well as part of the afternoon prayer services of Shabbat, Yom Kippur and fast days, a section of the Pentateuch is read from a Torah scroll. On Shabbat (Saturday) mornings, a weekly section ("parasha") is read, selected so that the entire Pentateuch is read consecutively each year.The division of parashot found in the modern-day Torah scrolls of all Jewish communities (Ashkenazic, Sephardic, and Yemenite) is based upon the systematic list provided by Maimonides in Mishneh Torah, Laws of Teﬁllin, Mezuzah and Torah Scrolls, chapter 8. Maimonides based his division of the parashot for the Torah on the Aleppo Codex. Conservative and Reform synagogues may read parashot on a triennial rather than annual schedule,[32][33][34] On Saturday afternoons, Mondays, and Thursdays, the beginning of the following Saturday’s portion is read. On Jewish holidays, the beginnings of each month, and fast days, special sections connected to the day are read. Jews observe an annual holiday, Simchat Torah, to celebrate the completion and new start of the year’s cycle of readings.

Rabbinic tradition holds that Moses learned the whole Torah while he lived on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights and both the oral and the written Torah were transmitted in parallel with each other. Where the Torah leaves words and concepts undefined, and mentions procedures without explanation or instructions, the reader is required to seek out the missing details from supplemental sources known as the oral law or oral Torah.[35] Some of the Torah’s most prominent commandments needing further explanation are: • Tefillin: As indicated in Deuteronomy 6:8 among other places, tefillin are to be placed on the arm and on the head between the eyes. However, there are no details provided regarding what tefillin are or how they are to be constructed. • Kashrut: As indicated in Exodus 23:19 among other places, a young goat may not be boiled in its mother’s milk. In addition to numerous other problems with understanding the ambiguous nature of this law, there are no vowelization characters in the Torah; they are provided by the oral tradition. This is particularly relevant to this law, as the Hebrew word for milk (‫ )חלב‬is identical to the word for animal fat when vowels are absent. Without the oral tradition, it is not known whether the violation is in mixing meat with milk or with fat. • Shabbat laws: With the severity of Sabbath violation, namely the death penalty, one would assume that direction would be provided as to how exactly such a serious and core commandment should be upheld. However, most information regarding the rules and traditions of Shabbat are dictated in the Talmud and other books deriving from Jewish oral law.

Torah scrolls are often dressed with a sash, a special Torah cover, various ornaments and a Keter (crown), although such customs vary among synagogues. Congregants traditionally stand in respect when the Torah is brought out of the ark to be read, while it is being carried, and lifted, and likewise while it is returned to the According to classical rabbinic texts this parallel set of ark, although they may sit during the reading itself. material was originally transmitted to Moses at Sinai, and then from Moses to Israel. At that time it was forbidden to write and publish the oral law, as any writing would be incomplete and subject to misinterpretation and abuse.[36]

6.4.2

Biblical law

See also: Biblical law The Torah contains narratives, statements of law, and statements of ethics. Collectively these laws, usually called biblical law or commandments, are sometimes referred to as the Law of Moses (Torat Moshe ‫)ּתֹוַרת־ֹמֶׁשה‬, Mosaic Law, or Sinaitic Law.

However, after exile, dispersion and persecution, this tradition was lifted when it became apparent that in writing was the only way to ensure that the Oral Law could be preserved. After many years of eﬀort by a great number of tannaim, the oral tradition was written down around 200 CE by Rabbi Judah haNasi, who took up the compilation of a nominally written version of the Oral Law, the Mishnah (Hebrew: ‫)משנה‬. Other oral traditions from the same time period not entered into the Mishnah were recorded as “Baraitot” (external teaching),

CHAPTER 6. TORAH

and the Tosefta. Other traditions were written down as words so that human minds can understand it. While this Midrashim. is eﬀective since it accords with our human reason, it is After continued persecution more of the oral law was not the only way that the text can be broken up. committed to writing. A great many more lessons, lectures and traditions only alluded to in the few hundred pages of Mishnah, became the thousands of pages now called the Gemara. Gemara is written in Aramaic, having been compiled in Babylon. The Mishnah and Gemara together are called the Talmud. The Rabbis in Israel also collected their traditions and compiled them into the Jerusalem Talmud. Since the greater number of Rabbis lived in Babylon, the Babylonian Talmud has precedence should the two be in conﬂict.

6.7 Production and use of a Torah scroll

Orthodox and Conservative branches of Judaism accept these texts as the basis for all subsequent halakha and codes of Jewish law, which are held to be normative. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism deny that these texts, or the Torah itself for that matter, may be used for determining normative law (laws accepted as binding) but accept them as the authentic and only Jewish version for understanding the Torah and its development throughout history. Humanistic Judaism holds that the Torah is a historical, political, and sociological text, but does not believe that every word of the Torah is true, or even Page pointer, or yad, for reading of the Torah morally correct. Humanistic Judaism is willing to question the Torah and to disagree with it, believing that the Main article: Sefer Torah entire Jewish experience, not just the Torah, should be the source for Jewish behavior and ethics.[37] Manuscript Torah scrolls are still used, and still scribed, for ritual purposes (i.e., religious services); this is called a Sefer Torah (“Book [of] Torah”). They are written using a painstakingly careful methodology by highly qual6.6 Divine significance of letters, ified scribes. This has resulted in what is, according to B. Barry Levy, “The popular assumption that no changes Jewish mysticism were ever introduced into copies of the Bible during rabbinic times.” However, he writes that this “simply does Further information: Kabbalah not accord with the facts.”[38] It is believed that every word, or marking, has divine meaning, and that not one Kabbalists hold that not only do the words of Torah give part may be inadvertently changed lest it lead to error. a divine message, but they also indicate a far greater mes- The fidelity of the Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the sage that extends beyond them. Thus they hold that even Torah in particular, is considered paramount, down to as small a mark as a kotzo shel yod (‫)קוצו של יוד‬, the the last letter: translations or transcriptions are frowned serif of the Hebrew letter yod (‫)י‬, the smallest letter, or upon for formal service use, and transcribing is done with decorative markings, or repeated words, were put there painstaking care. An error of a single letter, ornamentaby God to teach scores of lessons. This is regardless of tion, or symbol of the 304,805 stylized letters that make whether that yod appears in the phrase “I am the Lord up the Hebrew Torah text renders a Torah scroll unfit for thy God” (‫ָאֹנִכי ְיהָוה ֱאֹלֶהיָך‬, Exodus 20:2) or whether it use, hence a special skill is required and a scroll takes appears in “And God spoke unto Moses saying” (‫ ַוְיַדֵּבר‬considerable time to write and check. .‫ ֲאִני ְיהָוה‬,‫ֹמֶׁשה; ַוֹּיאֶמר ֵאָליו‬-‫ ֶאל‬,‫ ֱאֹלִהים‬Exodus 6:2). In a According to Jewish law, a sefer Torah (plural: Sifrei similar vein, Rabbi Akiva (c. 50 – c. 135 CE), is said to Torah) is a copy of the formal Hebrew text handwrithave learned a new law from every et (‫ )את‬in the Torah ten on gevil or qlaf (forms of parchment) by using a quill (Talmud, tractate Pesachim 22b); the word et is meaning- (or other permitted writing utensil) dipped in ink. Writless by itself, and serves only to mark the direct object. In ten entirely in Hebrew, a sefer Torah contains 304,805 other words, the Orthodox belief is that even apparently letters, all of which must be duplicated precisely by a contextual text “And God spoke unto Moses saying ...” is trained sofer (“scribe”), an effort that may take as long no less important than the actual statement. as approximately one and a half years. Most modern One kabbalistic interpretation is that the Torah constitutes Sifrei Torah are written with forty-two lines of text per one long name of God, and that it was broken up into column (Yemenite Jews use fifty), and very strict rules

6.9. IN OTHER RELIGIONS

about the position and appearance of the Hebrew letters are observed. See for example the Mishna Berura on the subject.[39] Any of several Hebrew scripts may be used, most of which are fairly ornate and exacting.

Septuagint from the traditional number of its translators. This Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures dates from the 3rd century BCE, originally associated with Hellenistic Judaism. It contains both a translation of the [43] The completion of the sefer Torah is a cause for great Hebrew and additional and variant material. celebration, and it is a Mitzvah for every Jew to either Later translations into Greek include seven or more write or have written for him a Sefer Torah. Torah scrolls other versions. These do not survive, except as fragare stored in the holiest part of the synagogue in the Ark ments, and include those by Aquila, Symmachus, and known as the “Holy Ark” (‫ ֲארֹון הֹקדׁש‬aron hakodesh in Theodotion.[44] Hebrew.) Aron in Hebrew means “cupboard” or “closet”, and kodesh is derived from “kadosh”, or “holy”.

6.8.3 Latin

6.8 Torah translations 6.8.1

Aramaic

Early translations into Latin—the Vetus Latina—were ad hoc conversions of parts of the Septuagint. With St Jerome in the 4th century AD came the Vulgate Latin translation of the Hebrew Bible.

Main article: Targum

6.8.4 Arabic The Book of Ezra refers to translations and commentaries of the Hebrew text into Aramaic, the more commonly understood language of the time. These translations would seem to date to the 6th century BCE. The Aramaic term for translation is Targum.[40] The Encyclopedia Judaica has: At an early period, it was customary to translate the Hebrew text into the vernacular at the time of the reading (e.g., in Palestine and Babylon the translation was into Aramaic). The targum (“translation”) was done by a special synagogue oﬃcial, called the meturgeman ... Eventually, the practice of translating into the vernacular was discontinued.[41]

From the eighth century AD, the cultural language of Jews living under Islamic rule became Arabic rather than Aramaic. “Around that time, both scholars and lay people started producing translations of the Bible into JudeoArabic using the Hebrew alphabet.” Later, by the 10th century, it became essential for a standard version of the Bible in Judeo-Arabic. The best known was produced by Saadiah, and continues to be in use today, “in particular among Yemenite Jewry.”[45]

6.8.5 Modern languages Jewish translations

The Torah has been translated by Jewish scholars into However, there is no suggestion that these translations had most of the major European languages, including Enbeen written down as early as this. There are suggestions glish, German, Russian, French, Spanish and others. The that the Targum was written down at an early date, almost well-known German-language translation was produced by Samson Raphael Hirsch. A number of Jewish though for private use only. English Bible translations have been published. The official recognition of a written Targum and the final redaction of its text, however, belong to the post-Talmudic period, thus not earlier than the fifth century C.E.[42]

6.8.2

Christian translations As a part of the Christian Biblical canon, the Torah has been translated into hundreds of languages.

Greek

Main article: Septuagint One of the earliest known translations of the ﬁrst ﬁve books of Moses from the Hebrew into Greek was the Septuagint. This is a Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible that was used by Greek speakers. The Greek version’s name in Latin is the Septuagint: Latin septem meaning seven, plus -gintā meaning “times ten”. It was named

6.9 In other religions See also: Biblical law in Christianity, Islam and Judaism, and Tawrat While Christianity includes the ﬁve books of Moses (the Pentateuch) among their sacred texts in its Old Testament, Islam states that only the original Torah was sent by God.

CHAPTER 6. TORAH

In neither religion does the Torah retain the religious legal significance that it does in Orthodox Judaism. Among early centers of Christianity the Septuagint was used by Greek speakers, while Aramaic Targums were used by Aramaic speakers such as the Syriac Orthodox Church. It was regarded as the standard form of the Old Testament in the early Greek Christian Church and is still considered canonical in the Eastern Orthodox Church.[46] Though different Christian denominations have slightly different versions of the Old Testament in their Bibles, the Torah as the “Five Books of Moses” (or “the Mosaic Law") is common among them all. The Quran refers heavily to Moses to outline the truth of his existence and the religious guidelines that God had revealed to the Children of Israel. According to the Qur'an, Allah says “It is He Who has sent down the Book (the Qur'an) to you with truth, confirming what came before it. And He sent down the Taurat (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel).” [3:3] Muslims call the Torah the Tawrat and consider it the word of God given to Moses. However, Muslims also believe that this original revelation was corrupted (tahrif) (or simply altered by the passage of time and human fallibility) over time by Jewish scribes[47] and hence do not revere the present “Jewish version” Torah as much. 7:144– 144 The Torah in the Quran is always mentioned with respect in Islam. The Muslims’ belief in the Torah, as well as the prophethood of Moses, is one of the fundamental tenets of Islam. The Bahá’í position on the Torah was composed in 1906 by its official interpreter on all matters religious, Sir ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’ Abbas K.B.E. “The Torah, held to be the most ancient of histories, existeth today in three separate versions: the Hebrew, considered authentic by the Jews and the Protestant clergy; the Greek Septuagint, which was used as authoritative in the Greek and other eastern churches; and the Samaritan Torah, the standard authority for that people. These three versions differ greatly, one from another, even with regard to the lifetimes of the most celebrated figures. In the Hebrew Torah, it is recorded that from Noah’s flood until the birth of Abraham there was an interval of two hundred and ninety-two years. In the Greek, that time span is given as one thousand and seventy-two years, while the Samaritan, the recorded span is nine hundred and forty-two years. Refer to the commentary by Henry Westcott for tables are supplied therein which show the discrepancies among the three Torahs as to the birth dates of a number of the descendants of Shem, and thou wilt see how greatly the versions differ from one another. Moreover, according to the text of the Hebrew Torah, from the creation of Adam un-

til Noah’s flood the elapsed time is recorded as one thousand six hundred and fifty-six years, while in the Greek Torah the interval is given as two thousand two hundred and sixty-two years, and in the Samaritan text, the same period is said to have lasted one thousand three hundred and seven years. Reflect now over the discrepancies among these three Torahs. The case is indeed surprising. The Jews and Protestants belittle the Greek Torah, while to the Greeks the Hebrew version is spurious, and the Samaritans deny both the Hebrew and the Greek versions.” ‘Abdu’l Bahá’s elucidations above in 1906 are found in his letter to Ethel Jenner Rosenberg (1858–1930, without issue and no relation to the famous spies, Ethel and Julius Rosenberg) http://bahai-library.com/abdulbaha_ tablet_wisdom_questions

6.10 See also • Christianity and Judaism • Heptateuch • Hexapla • Ketuvim • Nevi'im • JPS Tanakh • Jewish Publication Society (JPS) • Judeo-Christian tradition • Ketef Hinnom • Moses in rabbinic literature • Samaritan Pentateuch • Book of Moses • Tanakh • Ten Commandments • Torah redactor • Torah study

6.11 References [1] Neusner, Jacob (2004).The Emergence of Judaism. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 57. “The Hebrew word torah mean 'teaching.' We recall ... the most familiar meaning of the word: 'Torah = the ﬁve books

6.11. REFERENCES

of Moses,” the Pentateuch .... The Torah may also refer to the entirety of the Hebrew Scriptures .... The Torah furthermore covers instruction in two media, writing and memory .... [The oral part] is contained, in part, in the Mishnah, Talmud, and midrash compilations. But there is more: what the world calls 'Judaism' the faithful know as 'the Torah.'" [2] Birnbaum (1979), p. 630 [3] Vol. 11 Trumah Section 61 [4] page 1, Blenkinsopp, Joseph (1992). The Pentateuch: An introduction to the first five books of the Bible. Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-41207-X. [5] Finkelstein, I., Silberman, NA., The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, p.68 [6] Davila, James, “MORE ON THE KETEF HINNOM AMULETS in Ha'aretz,” Paleojudaica, Sept. 2004. [7] Barkay, Gabriel, et al., “The Challenges of Ketef Hinnom: Using Advanced Technologies to Recover the Earliest Biblical Texts and their Context”, Near Eastern Archaeology, 66/4 (Dec. 2003): 162–171. [8] Solving a Riddle Written in Silver [9] 'Silver scrolls’ are oldest O.T. scripture, archaeologist says [10] Babylonian Talmud Bava Kama 82a [11] Rabinowitz, Louis Isaac and Harvey, Warren. “Torah”. Encyclopaedia Judaica. Ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 20. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. pp. 39–46. [12] Philip Birnbaum, Encyclopedia of Jewish Concepts, Hebrew Publishing Company, 1964, p. 630 [13] p. 2767, Alcalay [14] pp. 164–165, Scherman, Exodus 12:49 [15] Sarna, Nahum M. et al. “Bible”. Encyclopaedia Judaica. Ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 3. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. pp 576– 577. [16] The World and the Word: An Introduction to the Old Testament, ed. Eugene H. Merrill, Mark Rooker, Michael A. Grisanti, 2011, p, 163: “Part 4 The Pentateuch by Michael A. Grisanti: The Term “Pentateuch” derives from the Greek pentateuchos, literally, ... The Greek term was apparently popularized by the Hellenized Jews of Alexandria, Egypt, in the first century AD...” [17] Coogan, Michael D. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context. Oxford University Press, 2009. pp. 148–149 [18] Bava Basra 14b [19] Louis Jacobs (1995). The Jewish religion: a companion. Oxford University Press. p. 375. ISBN 978-0-19826463-7. Retrieved 27 February 2012.

[20] Talmud, Bava Basra 14b [21] Mishnah, Sanhedrin 10:1 [22] McDermott, John J., (2002). Reading the Pentateuch: a historical introduction. Pauline Press. p. 21. ISBN 9780-8091-4082-4. Retrieved 2010-10-03. [23] Riches, John (2000). The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-0-19-285343-1. [24] History Crash Course #36: Timeline: From Abraham to Destruction of the Temple, by Rabbi Ken Spiro, Aish.com. Retrieved 2010-08-19. [25] Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Fishbane, Michael, eds. (2004). The Jewish Study Bible. New York City: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–7. ISBN 978-0195297515. [26] Nadler, Steven; Saebo, Magne (2008). Hebrew Bible / Old Testament: The History of its Interpretation, II: From the Renaissance to the Englightenment. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 829. ISBN 3525539827. Retrieved 18 September 2015. [27] Ibn Ezra, Deuteronomy 34:6 [28] Ohr Ha'chayim Deuteronomy 34:6 [29] For more information on these issues from an Orthodox Jewish perspective, see Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah: Contributions and Limitations, Ed. Shalom Carmy, and Handbook of Jewish Thought, Volume I, by Aryeh Kaplan. [30] Larry Siekawitch (2013), The Uniqueness of the Bible, pp 19–30 [31] Book of Nehemia, Chapter 8 [32] Source? [33] The Authentic Triennial Cycle: A Better Way to Read Torah? [34] Archived August 17, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. [35] Rietti, Rabbi Jonathan. The Oral Law: The Heart of The Torah [36] Talmud, Gittin 60b [37] “FAQ for Humanistic Judaism, Reform Judaism, Humanists, Humanistic Jews, Congregation, Arizona, AZ”. Oradam.org. Retrieved 2012-11-07. [38] B. Barry Levi, Fixing God’s Torah: The Accuracy of the Hebrew Bible Text in Jewish Law, Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 4. [39] Mishnat Soferim The forms of the letters translated by Jen Taylor Friedman (geniza.net) [40] Chilton, BD. (ed), The Isaiah Targum: Introduction, Translation, Apparatus and Notes, Michael Glazier, Inc., p. xiii [41] Encyclopedia Judaica, entry on Torah, Reading of

CHAPTER 6. TORAH

[42] Encyclopedia Judaica, entry on Bible: Translations [43] Greifenhagen, FV., Egypt on the Pentateuch’s Ideological Map: Constructing Biblical Israel’s Identity, Continuum, 2002, p. 218. [44] Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 3, p. 597 [45] Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. III, p. 603 [46] p. 317, DeSilva [47] Is the Bible God’s Word by Sheikh Ahmed Deedat

6.12 Bibliography Bandstra, Barry L (2004). Reading the Old Testament: an introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth. ISBN 9780495391050. Birnbaum, Philip (1979). Encyclopedia of Jewish Concepts. Wadsworth. Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2004). Treasures old and new: essays in the theology of the Pentateuch. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802826794. Campbell, Antony F; O'Brien, Mark A (1993). Sources of the Pentateuch: texts, introductions, annotations. Fortress Press. ISBN 9781451413670. Carr, David M (1996). Reading the fractures of Genesis. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664220716. Clines, David A (1997). The theme of the Pentateuch. Sheﬃeld Academic Press. ISBN 9780567431967. Davies, G.I (1998). “Introduction to the Pentateuch”. In John Barton. Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198755005. Friedman, Richard Elliot (2001). Commentary on the Torah With a New English Translation. Harper Collins Publishers. Gooder, Paula (2000). The Pentateuch: a story of beginnings. T&T Clark. ISBN 9780567084187. Kugler, Robert; Hartin, Patrick (2009). The Old Testament between theology and history: a critical survey. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802846365.

Levin, Christoph L (2005). The Old testament: a brief introduction. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691113944. McEntire, Mark (2008). Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch. Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780881461015. Ska, Jean-Louis (2006). Introduction to reading the Pentateuch. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575061221. Van Seters, John (1998). “The Pentateuch”. In Steven L. McKenzie, Matt Patrick Graham. The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664256524. Van Seters, John (2004). The Pentateuch: a social-science comContinuum Internamentary. tional Publishing Group. ISBN 9780567080882. Walsh, Jerome T (2001). Style and structure in Biblical Hebrew narrative. Liturgical Press. ISBN 9780814658970.

6.13 Additional resources Friedman, Richard Elliott, Who Wrote the Bible?, HarperSanFrancisco, 1997 Welhausen, Julius, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, Scholars Press, 1994 (reprint of 1885) Kantor, Mattis, The Jewish time line encyclopedia: A year-by-year history from Creation to the present, Jason Aronson Inc., London, 1992 Wheeler, Brannon M., Moses in the Quran and Islamic Exegesis, Routledge, 2002 DeSilva, David Arthur, An Introduction to the New Testament: Contexts, Methods & Ministry, InterVarsity Press, 2004 Alcalay, Reuben., The Complete Hebrew – English dictionary, vol 2, Hemed Books, New York, 1996 ISBN 978-965-448-179-3 Scherman, Nosson, (ed.), Tanakh, Vol. I, The Torah, (Stone edition), Mesorah Publications, Ltd., New York, 2001

6.14. EXTERNAL LINKS Heschel, Abraham Joshua, Tucker, Gordon & Levin, Leonard, Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations, London, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005 Hubbard, David “The Literary Sources of the Kebra Nagast” Ph.D. dissertation St Andrews University, Scotland, 1956

6.14 External links • Jewish Encyclopedia: Torah • Illustrated Summary and Analysis of the Torah • (Hebrew) Three Complete Kosher Sefer Torah Scrolls for Study online (Congregation Beth Emeth of Northern Virginia) • (Hebrew) Sefer Torah Scroll for Study online with Megillot and commentaries • Computer generated Sefer Torah for Study online with translation, transliteration and chanting (WorldORT) • Online Torah Resources—weekly parsha pages, learning resources by topic • Interlinear Pentateuch (with Idiomatic Translation, Samaritan Pentateuch and Morphology) • The Tanach Page – ‫הדף של התנ"ך‬ • Damascus Pentateuch from around 1000 CE • Jastrow, Morris (1905). "Pentateuch". New International Encyclopedia.

Chapter 7

Kingdom of Judah “Kingdom of Judea” redirects here. For the Judean polity of the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE, see Hasmonean dynasty. Judea is a term used for the mountainous southern part of the historic Land of Israel. The Kingdom of Judah (Hebrew: ‫ ַמ ְמ ֶלכֶת יְהוּדָה‬, Mamlekhet Yehuda) was an Iron Age kingdom of the Southern Levant. The Hebrew Bible depicts it as the successor to a United Monarchy, but there is little debate that Judah emerged both later than and independently of the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria).[10] In the 10th and early 9th centuries the territory of Judah was sparsely populated and had few villages or significant architecture;[11] Jerusalem, the kingdom’s capital, emerged as a significant administrative centre by the end of the 8th century;[12] in the 7th century it became a city with a population many times greater than before, probably as the result of a cooperative arrangement with the Assyrians, who wished to establish Judah as a proAssyrian vassal state essentially controlling the valuable olive industry.[13] Judah prospered under Assyrian vassalage (despite Hezekiah’s revolt against the Assyrian king Sennacherib[14] ), but in 605 the Assyrian Empire was defeated, and the ensuing competition between the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire for control of the Eastern Mediterranean led to the destruction of the kingdom in a series of campaigns between 597 and 582, the deportation of the elite of Mesha Stele c. 850 BCE – An inscribed stone set up c. 840 BCE the community, and the incorporation of Judah into a by Mesha of Moab tells how Chemosh, the God of Moab, had province of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. been angry with his people and allowed them to be subjugated to Israel, but at length assisted Mesha to throw off the yoke of Israel and restore the lands of Moab.[15]

7.1 Archaeological record of the name Judah (written in Assyrian cuneiform as YauSee also: Biblical archaeology, Biblical archaeology daya or KUR.ia-ú-da-a-a). school, and The Bible and history Archaeologists of the minimalist school doubt the extent of the Kingdom of Judah as depicted in the Bible. Signiﬁcant academic debate exists around the character Around 1990–2010, an important group of archaeoloof the Kingdom of Judah. Little archaeological evidence gists and biblical scholars formed the view that the actual of an extensive, powerful Kingdom of Judah before the Kingdom of Judah bore little resemblance to the biblical late 8th century BCE has been found; Nimrud Tablet portrait of a powerful monarchy. These scholars say the K.3751, dated c.733 BCE, is the earliest known record kingdom was no more than a small tribal entity.[16][17] 76

7.2. BIBLICAL NARRATIVE However, Yosef Garfinkel has written in a preliminary report published by the Israeli Antiquities Authority that finds at the Khirbet Qeiyafa site support the notion that an urban society already existed in Judah in the late 11th century BCE.[18] Other archaeologists say that the identification of Khirbet Qeiyafa as an Israelite settlement is uncertain.[19][20]

7.2 Biblical narrative Main article: History of ancient Israel and Judah According to the Hebrew Bible, the kingdom of Judah resulted from the break-up of the United kingdom of Israel (1020 to about 930 BCE) after the northern tribes refused to accept Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, as their king. At ﬁrst, only the tribe of Judah remained loyal to the house of David, but soon after the tribe of Benjamin joined Judah. The two kingdoms, Judah in the south and Israel in the north, coexisted uneasily after the split until the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel by Assyria in c.722/721.

77 brought a huge army and took many cities. In the sack of Jerusalem (10th century BC), Rehoboam gave them all of the treasures out of the temple as a tribute and Judah became a vassal state of Egypt. Rehoboam’s son and successor, Abijah of Judah continued his father’s eﬀorts to bring Israel under his control. He fought the Battle of Mount Zemaraim against Jeroboam of Israel and was victorious with a heavy loss of life on the Israel side. According to the books of Chronicles, Abijah and his people defeated them with a great slaughter, so that 500,000 chosen men of Israel fell slain[23] after which Jeroboam posed little threat to Judah for the rest of his reign and the border of the tribe of Benjamin was restored to the original tribal border.[24]

Abijah's son and successor, Asa of Judah, maintained peace for the first 35 years of his reign,[25] during which time he revamped and reinforced the fortresses originally built by his grandfather, Rehoboam. 2 Chronicles states that at the Battle of Zephath, the Egyptian-backed chieftain Zerah the Ethiopian and his million men and 300 chariots was defeated by Asa’s 580,000 men in the Valley of Zephath near Maresha.[26] The Bible does not state whether Zerah was a pharaoh or a general of the army. The Ethiopians were pursued all the way to Gerar, in the The major theme of the Hebrew Bible’s narrative is the coastal plain, where they stopped out of sheer exhaustion. loyalty of Judah, and especially its kings, to Yahweh, The resulting peace kept Judah free from Egyptian incurwhich it states is the God of Israel. Accordingly, all sions until the time of Josiah some centuries later. the kings of Israel and almost all the kings of Judah In his 36th year, Asa was confronted by Baasha of Iswere “bad”, which in terms of Biblical narrative means rael,[25] who built a fortress at Ramah on the border, less that they failed to enforce monotheism. Of the “good” than ten miles from Jerusalem. The result was that the kings, Hezekiah (727–698 BCE) is noted for his efforts capital was under pressure and the military situation was at stamping out idolatry (in this case, the worship of precarious. Asa took gold and silver from the Temple Baal and Asherah, among other traditional Near Eastand sent them to Ben-Hadad I, king of Aram-Damascus, ern divinities),[21] but his successors, Manasseh of Judah in exchange for the Damascene king canceling his peace (698–642 BCE) and Amon (642–640 BCE), revived idoltreaty with Baasha. Ben-Hadad attacked Ijon, Dan, and atry, drawing down on the kingdom the anger of Yahweh. many important cities of the tribe of Naphtali, and Baasha King Josiah (640–609 BCE) returned to the worship of was forced to withdraw from Ramah.[27] Asa tore down Yahweh alone, but his efforts were too late and Israel’s the unfinished fortress and used its raw materials to forunfaithfulness caused God to permit the kingdom’s detify Geba and Mizpah in Benjamin on his side of the struction by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in the Siege of border.[28] Jerusalem (587 BC). Asa’s successor, Jehoshaphat, changed the policy towards However it is now fairly well established among academic Israel and instead pursued alliances and co-operation with scholars that the Biblical narrative is not an accurate rethe northern kingdom. The alliance with Ahab was based flection of religious views in either Judah or particularly on marriage. This alliance led to disaster for the kingdom [22] Israel during this period. with the battle of Ramoth-Gilead.[29] He then entered into an alliance with Ahaziah of Israel for the purpose of carrying on maritime commerce with Ophir. But the fleet 7.2.1 Relations with the Northern King- that was then equipped at Ezion-Geber was immediately dom wrecked. A new fleet was fitted out without the cooperation of the king of Israel, and although it was successful, For the first sixty years, the kings of Judah tried to the trade was not prosecuted.[30] He subsequently joined re-establish their authority over the northern kingdom, Jehoram of Israel in a war against the Moabites, who were and there was perpetual war between them. Israel and under tribute to Israel. This war was successful, with the Judah were in a state of war throughout Rehoboam's Moabites being subdued. However, on seeing Mesha's seventeen-year reign. Rehoboam built elaborate defenses act of offering his own son in a human sacrifice on the and strongholds, along with fortified cities. In the fifth walls of Kir-haresheth filled Jehoshaphat with horror and year of Rehoboam’s reign, Shishak, pharaoh of Egypt,

CHAPTER 7. KINGDOM OF JUDAH

he withdrew and returned to his own land.[31]

projects, and as one of a number of vassals who assisted [35] Jehoshaphat's successor, Jehoram of Judah formed an al- Ashurbanipal's campaign against Egypt. liance with Israel by marrying Athaliah, the daughter of When Josiah became king of Judah in c. 641/640 Ahab. Despite this alliance with the stronger northern BCE,[34] the international situation was in flux. To the kingdom, Jehoram's rule of Judah was shaky. Edom re- east, the Neo-Assyrian Empire was beginning to disinvolted, and he was forced to acknowledge their indepen- tegrate, the Neo-Babylonian Empire had not yet risen to dence. A raid by Philistines, Arabs and Ethiopians looted replace it, and Egypt to the west was still recovering from the king’s house and carried off all of his family except Assyrian rule. In this power vacuum, Judah was able to for his youngest son, Ahaziah of Judah. govern itself for the time being without foreign intervention. However, in the spring of 609 BCE, Pharaoh Necho II personally led a sizable army up to the Euphrates to aid the Assyrians.[36] Taking the coast route Via Maris 7.2.2 Clash of empires into Syria at the head of a large army, Necho passed the low tracts of Philistia and Sharon. However, the passage over the ridge of hills which shuts in on the south of the great Jezreel Valley was blocked by the Judean army led by Josiah, who may have considered that the Assyrians and Egyptians were weakened by the death of the pharaoh Psamtik I only a year earlier (610 BCE).[36] Presumably in an attempt to help the Babylonians, Josiah attempted to block the advance at Megiddo, where a fierce battle was fought and where Josiah was killed.[37] Necho then joined forces with the Assyrian Ashur-uballit II and together they crossed the Euphrates and lay siege to Harran. The combined forces failed to capture the city, and Necho retreated back to northern Syria. The event also marked the disintegration of the Assyrian Empire. On his return march to Egypt in 608 BCE, Necho found that Jehoahaz had been selected to succeed his father, Josiah.[38] Necho deposed Jehoahaz, who had been king for only three months, and replaced him with his older brother, Jehoiakim. Necho imposed on Judah a levy of a hundred talents of silver (about 33 ⁄4 tons or about 3.4 metric tons) and a talent of gold (about 34 kilograms (75 lb)). Necho then took Jehoahaz back to Egypt as his prisoner,[39] never to return. Stamped bulla of a servant of King Hezekiah used to seal a papyrus document

After Hezekiah became sole ruler in c. 715 BCE, he formed alliances with Ashkelon and Egypt, and made a stand against Assyria by refusing to pay tribute.[32] (Isaiah 30–31; 36:6–9) In response, Sennacherib of Assyria attacked the fortiﬁed cities of Judah. (2 Kings 18:13) Hezekiah paid three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold to Assyria – requiring him to empty the temple and royal treasury of silver and strip the gold from the doorposts of Solomon’s Temple. (2 Kings 18:14– 16)[32] However, Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem[33] (2 Kings 18:17) in 701 BCE, though the city was never taken. During the long reign of Manasseh (c. 687/686 – 643/642 BCE),[34] Judah was a vassal of Assyrian rulers – Sennacherib and his successors, Esarhaddon[35] and Ashurbanipal after 669 BCE. Manasseh is listed as being required to provide materials for Esarhaddon's building

Jehoiakim ruled originally as a vassal of the Egyptians, paying a heavy tribute. However, when the Egyptians were defeated by the Babylonians at Carchemish in 605 BCE, Jehoiakim changed allegiances, paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. In 601 BCE, in the fourth year of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar unsuccessfully attempted to invade Egypt and was repulsed with heavy losses. This failure led to numerous rebellions among the states of the Levant which owed allegiance to Babylon. Jehoiakim also stopped paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar[40] and took a pro-Egyptian position. Nebuchadnezzar soon dealt with these rebellions. According to the Babylonian Chronicles, after invading “the land of Hatti (Syria/Palestine)"[41][42] in 599 BC, he lay siege to Jerusalem. Jehoiakim died in 598 BC[43] during the siege, and was succeeded by his son Jeconiah at an age of either eight or eighteen.[44] The city fell about three months later,[45][46] on 2 Adar (March 16) 597 BCE. Nebuchadnezzar pillaged both Jerusalem and the Temple, carting all his spoils to Babylon. Jeconiah and his court and other prominent citizens and craftsmen, along with a

7.3. RE-ESTABLISHMENT UNDER PERSIAN RULE sizable portion of the Jewish population of Judah, numbering about 10,000[47] were deported from the land and dispersed throughout the Babylonian Empire. (2 Kings 24:14) Among them was Ezekiel. Nebuchadnezzar appointed Zedekiah, Jehoiakim’s brother, king of the reduced kingdom, who was made a tributary of Babylon.

7.2.3

Destruction and dispersion

Further information: Babylonian captivity Despite the strong remonstrances of Jeremiah and oth-

79 Benjamin, the relatively unscathed northern section of the kingdom, where the town of Mizpah became the capital of the new Babylonian province of Yehud for the remnant of the Jewish population in a part of the former kingdom.[56] This was standard Babylonian practice: when the Philistine city of Ashkelon was conquered in 604 BCE, the political, religious and economic elite (but not the bulk of the population) was banished and the administrative centre shifted to a new location.[57] Gedaliah was appointed governor of the Yehud Medinata, supported by a Babylonian guard. The administrative centre of the province was Mizpah in Benjamin,[58] not Jerusalem. On hearing of the appointment, many of the Judeans that had taken refuge in surrounding countries were persuaded to return to Judah.[59] However, before long Gedaliah was assassinated by a member of the royal house, and the Chaldean soldiers killed. The population that was left in the land and those that had returned ﬂed to Egypt fearing a Babylonian reprisal, under the leadership of Yohanan ben Kareah, ignoring the urging of the prophet Jeremiah against the move. (2 Kings 25:26, Jeremiah 43:5–7) In Egypt, the refugees settled in Migdol, Tahpanhes, Noph, and Pathros, (Jeremiah 44:1) and Jeremiah went with them as a moral guardian. The numbers that were deported to Babylon and those who made their way to Egypt and the remnant that remained in the land and in surrounding countries is subject to academic debate. The Book of Jeremiah reports that 4600 were exiled to Babylonia.[54] The Books of Kings suggest that it was ten thousand, and later eight thousand.

7.3 Re-establishment under Persian rule Depiction of Jewish king and soldiers in ancient Judah

ers, Zedekiah revolted against Nebuchadnezzar, ceasing to pay tribute to him and entered into an alliance with Pharaoh Hophra. In 589 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II returned to Judah and again besieged Jerusalem. During this period, many Jews ﬂed to surrounding Moab, Ammon, Edom and other countries to seek refuge.[48] The city fell after a siege which lasted either eighteen or thirty months[49] and Nebuchadnezzar again pillaged both Jerusalem and the Temple,[50] after which he destroyed them both.[51] After killing all of Zedekiah’s sons, with the possible exception of one,[52] Nebuchadnezzar took Zedekiah to Babylon,[53] putting an end to the independent Kingdom of Judah. According to the Book of Jeremiah, in addition to those killed during the siege, some 4,600 people were deported after the fall of Judah.[54] By 586 BCE much of Judah was devastated, and the former kingdom suﬀered a steep decline of both economy and population.[55] Jerusalem apparently remained uninhabited for much of the 6th century,[55] and the centre of gravity shifted to

Main article: Yehud Medinata

In 539 BCE the Achaemenid Empire conquered Babylonia and allowed the exiles to return to Yehud Medinata and rebuild the Temple, which was completed in the sixth year of Darius (515 BCE) (Ezra 6:15) under Zerubbabel, the grandson of the second to last king of Judah, Jeconiah. Yehud Medinata was a peaceful part of the Achaemenid Empire until the fall of the Empire in c. 333 BCE to Alexander the Great.

7.4 See also • Kings of Judah • List of artifacts in biblical archaeology

7.5 References [1] [2] [3] Finkelstein, Isreal (2006). “The Last Labayu: King Saul and the Expansion of the First North Israelite Territorial Entity”. In Amit, Yairah; Ben Zvi, Ehud; Finkelstein, Isreal; et al. Essays on Ancient Israel in Its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Naʼaman. Eisenbrauns. pp. 171 ﬀ. ISBN 9781575061283. [4] https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search= Ezekiel+8 [5] http://biblehub.com/1_kings/11-5.htm [6] http://biblehub.com/2_kings/23-13.htm [7] http://biblehub.com/jeremiah/11-13.htm [8] Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, [TITLE MISSING The Bible Unearthed?] Free Press, New York, 2001, pages 240-243., ISBN 0-684-86912-8 ISBN DOESN't EXIST [9] Finkelstein, Isreal (2006). “The Last Labayu: King Saul and the Expansion of the First North Israelite Territorial Entity”. In Amit, Yairah; Ben Zvi, Ehud; Finkelstein, Isreal; et al. Essays on Ancient Israel in Its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Naʼaman. Eisenbrauns. pp. 171 ﬀ. ISBN 9781575061283. [10] Moore & Kelle 2011, p. 296,300.

CHAPTER 7. KINGDOM OF JUDAH

[20] Archaeological find stirs debate on David’s kingdom (Haaretz, May 9th, 2012) Prof. Nadav Na'aman, a historian and archaeologist at Tel Aviv University, discounts Garfinkel and Ganor’s conclusions. “These are beautiful finds but they are not special in that similar ones have been found in various places, and they should therefore not be connected in any way to the ark,” nor to the Temple in Jerusalem, says Na'aman. (...) He said he found the combination on one of the items of lions and doves very interesting. “The dove is connected to a fertility goddess, and this combination hints that the model belonged to a cultic site of a fertility goddess. I think Qeiyafa was a Canaanite site that had no connection to Jerusalem,” he added. [21] Borowski, Oded, Hezekiah’s Reforms and the Revolt against Assyria at the Wayback Machine (archived July 23, 1997), Emory University, 1997 [22] The Appearance of Pantheon in Judah | pg= 27 | author= Lowell K. Handy| Title= The Triumph of Elohim|Editor=Diana Vikander Edelman| pub= W. B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1994 [23] 2 Chronicles 13:17 [24] 2 Chronicles 13:20 [25] 2 Chronicles 16:1 [26] 2 Chronicles 14:9-15 [27] 2 Chronicles 16:2–6 [28] 2 Chronicles 16:1–7 [29] 1 Kings 22:1–33 [30] 2 Kings 20:35–37; 1 Kings 22:48–49

[11] Moore & Kelle 2011, p. 298. [12] Moore & Kelle 2011, p. 302. [13] Thompson, Thomas L. (1992). Early History of the Israelite People. Brill. pp. 410–1. [14] A History of the Jewish People, H.H. Ben-Sasson ed., Harvard University Press, 1976, page 142: “Sargon’s heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah’s revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702. ...” [15] Rollston, Chris A. (2010). Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age. Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 53–54. [16] The keys to the kingdom, By Asaf Shtull-Trauring (Haaretz, 6.5.2011) [17] Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman, Free Press, New York, 2001, 385 pp., ISBN 0-684-86912-8 [18] Khirbat Qeiyafa Preliminary Report (Israel Antiquities Authority, 19/4/2012) [19] Friedman, Matti (October 30, 2008). “Israeli Archaeologists Find Ancient Text”. AOL news. Associated Press. Archived from the original on November 3, 2008. The ﬁnds have not yet established who the residents were, says Aren Maier, a Bar Ilan University archaeologist

[31] 2 Kings 3:4–27 [32] Peter J. Leithart, 1 & 2 Kings, Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible, pp 255–256, Baker Publishing Group, Grand Rapids, MI (2006) ISBN 9781441235602 [33] James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Related to the Old Testament (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965) 287–288. [34] Edwin Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, (1st ed.; New York: Macmillan, 1951; 2d ed.; Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1965; 3rd ed.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983). ISBN 0-8254-3825-X, 9780825438257 [35] Bright, John, A History of Israel, p. 311, (1980) [36] 2Kings 23:29 • Coogan, Michael David (2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. p. 261. ISBN 9780195139372. [37] 2 Kings 23:29, 2 Chronicles 35:20–24 [38] 2 Kings 23:31 [39] 2 Chronicles 36:1–4 [40] The Divided Monarchy c. 931–586 BCE

7.5. REFERENCES

[41] No 24 WA21946, The Babylonian Chronicles, The British Museum [42] Geoﬀrey Wigoder, The Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance of the Bible Pub. by Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. (2006) [43] Dan Cohn-Sherbok, The Hebrew Bible, Continuum International, 1996, page x. ISBN 0-304-33703-X [44] Vincent, Robert Benn, Daniel and the Captivity of Israel part of a Bible Studies series [45] Philip J. King, Jeremiah: An Archaeological Companion (Westminster John Knox Press, 1993), page 23. [46] 2 Chronicles 36:9 [47] The Oxford History of the Biblical World, ed. by Michael D Coogan. Pub. by Oxford University Press, 1999. pg 350 [48] Jeremiah 40:11–12 [49] Malamat, Abraham (1968). “The Last Kings of Judah and the Fall of Jerusalem: An Historical—Chronological Study”. Israel Exploration Journal. 18 (3): 137–156. The discrepancy between the length of the siege according to the regnal years of Zedekiah (years 9-11), on the one hand, and its length according to Jehoiachin’s exile (years 9-12), on the other, can be cancelled out only by supposing the former to have been reckoned on a Tishri basis, and the latter on a Nisan basis. The diﬀerence of one year between the two is accounted for by the fact that the termination of the siege fell in the summer, between Nisan and Tishri, already in the 12th year according to the reckoning in Ezekiel, but still in Zedekiah’s 11th year which was to end only in Tishri. [50] Ezra 5:14 [51] Jeremiah 52:10–13 [52] [53] Jeremiah 52:10–11 [54] Jeremiah 52:29–30 [55] Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period. T&T Clark International. p. 28. ISBN 0-567-08998-3. [56] Davies, Philip R., "The Origin of Biblical Israel", Journal of Hebrew Scriptures (art. 47, vol9, 2009) [57] Lipschitz, Oded, “The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem” (Eisenbrauns, 2005) p.48 [58] 2 Kings 25:22–24, Jeremiah 40:6–8 [59] https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kgvsheE1xFEC& pg=PT124&dq=Gedaliah+return&hl=en&sa=X&redir_ | esc=y#v=onepage&q=Gedaliah%20return&f=false The Prophetic Literature: Interpreting Biblical Texts Series | By Marvin A. Sweeney | Abingdon Press, | pub 1 Oct 2010

7.5.1 Further reading • Albertz, Rainer (1994) [Vanderhoek & Ruprecht 1992]. A History of Israelite Religion, Volume I: From the Beginnings to the End of the Monarchy. Westminster John Knox Press. • Albertz, Rainer (1994) [Vanderhoek & Ruprecht 1992]. A History of Israelite Religion, Volume II: From the Exile to the Maccabees. Westminster John Knox Press. • Albertz, Rainer (2003a). Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. Society of Biblical Literature. • Becking, Bob (2003b). “Law as Expression of Religion (Ezra 7–10)". Yahwism After the Exile: Perspectives on Israelite Religion in the Persian Era. Koninklijke Van Gorcum. ISBN 978-9023238805. • Amit, Yaira, et al., eds. (2006). Essays on Ancient Israel in its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Na'aman. Eisenbrauns. • Davies, Philip R. “The Origin of Biblical Israel”. Retrieved 14 February 2015. • Barstad, Hans M. (2008). History and the Hebrew Bible. Mohr Siebeck. • Bedford, Peter Ross (2001). Temple Restoration in Early Achaemenid Judah. Brill. • Ben-Sasson, H.H. (1976). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-67439731-2. • Blenkinsopp, Joseph (1988). Ezra-Nehemiah: A Commentary. Eerdmans. • Blenkinsopp, Joseph; Lipschits, Oded, eds. (2003). Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period. Eisenbrauns. • Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2003). “Bethel in the NeoBabylonian Period”. In Oded Lipschitz; Joseph Blenkinsopp. Judah and the Judeans in the NeoBabylonian Period. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575060736. • Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2009). Judaism, the First Phase: The Place of Ezra and Nehemiah in the Origins of Judaism. Eerdmans. • Brett, Mark G. (2002). Ethnicity and the Bible. Brill. • Bright, John (2000). A History of Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. • Coogan, Michael D., ed. (1998). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press.

CHAPTER 7. KINGDOM OF JUDAH

• Coote, Robert B.; Whitelam, Keith W. (1986). “The Emergence of Israel: Social Transformation and State Formation Following the Decline in Late Bronze Age Trade”. Semeia (37): 107–47. • Davies, Philip R. (1992). In Search of Ancient Israel. Sheﬃeld. • Davies, Philip R. (2009). “The Origin of Biblical Israel”. Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 9 (47). • Dever, William (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?. Eerdmans. • Dever, William (2003). Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?. Eerdmans. • Dunn, James D.G; Rogerson, John William, eds. (2003). Eerdmans commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. • Edelman, Diana, ed. (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms. Kok Pharos. • Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible Unearthed. • Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihay; Schmidt, Brian B. (2007). The Quest for the Historical Israel. Society of Biblical Literature. • Golden, Jonathan Michael (2004a). Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. • Golden, Jonathan Michael (2004b). Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. • Killebrew, Ann E. (2005). Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E. Society of Biblical Literature. • King, Philip J.; Stager, Lawrence E. (2001). Life in Biblical Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-22148-3. • Kuhrt, Amélie (1995). The Ancient Near East c. 3000–330 BC. Routledge. • Lemche, Niels Peter (1998). The Israelites in History and Tradition. Westminster John Knox Press. • Levy, Thomas E. (1998). The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land. Continuum International Publishing. • Lipschits, Oded (2005). Jerusalem. Eisenbrauns.

The Fall and Rise of

• Lipschits, Oded, et al., eds. (2006). Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. Eisenbrauns.

• McNutt, Paula (1999). Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. • Merrill, Eugene H. (1995). “The Late Bronze/Early Iron Age Transition and the Emergence of Israel”. Bibliotheca Sacra. 152 (606): 145–62. • Middlemas, Jill Anne (2005). The Troubles of Templeless Judah. Oxford University Press. • Miller, James Maxwell; Hayes, John Haralson (1986). A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-21262X. • Miller, Robert D. (2005). Chieftains of the Highland Clans: A History of Israel in the 12th and 11th Centuries B.C. Eerdmans. • Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). Biblical History and Israel’s Past. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-6260-0. • Pitkänen, Pekka (2004). “Ethnicity, Assimilation and the Israelite Settlement” (PDF). Tyndale Bulletin. 55 (2): 161–82. • Silberman, Neil Asher; Small, David B., eds. (1997). The Archaeology of Israel: Constructing the Past, Interpreting the Present. Sheﬃeld Academic Press. • Soggin, Michael J. (1998). An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah. Paideia. • Van der Toorn, Karel (1996). Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria, and Israel. Brill. • Zevit, Ziony (2001). The Religions of Ancient Israel: A Synthesis of Parallactic Approaches. Continuum.

Chapter 8

Zohar This article is about the Jewish religious text. For the village in southern Israel, see Zohar, Israel. For the proper name, see Zohar (name). For the album by John Zorn, see Zohar (album). For the music band, see Zohar (band). The Zohar (Hebrew: ‫ֹזַהר‬, lit. “Splendor” or “Radiance”) is the foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah.[1] It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the ﬁve books of Moses) and scriptural interpretations as well as material on mysticism, mythical cosmogony, and mystical psychology. The Zohar contains discussions of the nature of God, the origin and structure of the universe, the nature of souls, redemption, the relationship of Ego to Darkness and “true self” to “The Light of God”, and the relationship between the “universal energy” and man. Its scriptural exegesis can be considered an esoteric form of the Rabbinic literature known as Midrash, which elaborates on the Torah.

of some Orthodox Jews and Orthodox groups, as well as non-Orthodox Jewish denominations, generally conforms to this latter view, and as such, most such groups have long viewed the Zohar as pseudepigraphy and apocrypha, while sometimes accepting that its contents may have meaning for modern Judaism. Jewish prayerbooks edited by non-Orthodox Jews may therefore contain excerpts from the Zohar and other kabbalistic works,[7] even if the editors do not literally believe that they are oral traditions from the time of Moses.

There are people of religions besides Judaism, or even those without religious affiliation, who delve in the Zohar out of curiosity, or as a technology for seeking meaningful and practical answers about the meaning of their lives, the purpose of creation and existence and their relationships with the laws of nature,[8][9] and so forth; however from the perspective of traditional, rabbinic Judaism,[10][11] and by the Zohar’s own statements,[12] the purpose of the Zohar is to help the Jewish people through and out of the Exile and to infuse the Torah and mitzvot (Judaic comof Moses de León’s KabThe Zohar is mostly written in what has been described as mandments) with the wisdom balah for its Jewish readers.[13] [2] a cryptic, obscure style of Aramaic. Aramaic, the dayto-day language of Israel in the Second Temple period (539 BCE – 70 CE), was the original language of large sections of the biblical books of Daniel and Ezra, and is 8.1 Etymology the main language of the Talmud.[3] The Zohar first appeared in Spain in the 13th century, In the Bible the word “Zohar” appears in the vision of and was published by a Jewish writer named Moses de Ezekiel Chapter 8 Verse 2 and is usually translated as León. De León ascribed the work to Shimon bar Yochai meaning radiance or light. It appears again in Daniel ones will shine like the (“Rashbi”), a rabbi of the 2nd century during the Roman Chapter 12 Verse 3, “The wise [14][15] [4] [5][6] radiance of the firmament”. hid persecution who, according to Jewish legend, in a cave for thirteen years studying the Torah and was inspired by the Prophet Elijah to write the Zohar. This accords with the traditional claim by adherents that Kabbalah is the concealed part of the Oral Torah. While the traditional majority view in religious Judaism has been that the teachings of Kabbalah (lit. “tradition”) were revealed by God to Biblical figures such as Abraham and Moses and were then transmitted orally from the Biblical era until its redaction by Shimon bar Yochai, modern academic analysis of the Zohar, such as that by the 20th century religious historian Gershom Scholem, has theorized that De Leon was the actual author. The view

8.2 Authorship 8.2.1 Initial view Suspicions aroused by the facts that the Zohar was discovered by one person, and that it refers to historical events of the post-Talmudic period while purporting to be from an earlier time, caused the authorship to be questioned from the outset.[4] Joseph Jacobs and Isaac Broyde, in their article on the Zohar for the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, cite a story involving the noted Kabbalist Isaac of Acco, who

CHAPTER 8. ZOHAR The Zohar spread among the Jews with remarkable swiftness. Scarcely ﬁfty years had passed since its appearance in Spain before it was quoted by many Kabbalists, including the Italian mystical writer Menahem Recanati and by Todros Abulaﬁa. Certain Jewish communities, however, such as the Dor Daim, Andalusian (Western Sefardic or Spanish and Portuguese Jews), and some Italian communities, never accepted it as authentic.[4]

8.2.2 Late Middle Ages By the 15th century, its authority in the Spanish Jewish community was such that Joseph ibn Shem-Tov drew from it arguments in his attacks against Maimonides, and even representatives of non-mystical Jewish thought began to assert its sacredness and invoke its authority in the decision of some ritual questions. In Jacobs’ and Broyde’s Representation of the Five Worlds with the 10 Sephirot in each, view, they were attracted by its glorification of man, its as successively smaller concentric circles, derived from the light doctrine of immortality, and its ethical principles, which of the Kav after the Tzimtzum they saw as more in keeping with the spirit of Talmudic Judaism than are those taught by the philosophers, and which was held in contrast to the view of Maimonides is supposed to have heard directly from the widow of de and his followers, who regarded man as a fragment of the Leon that her husband proclaimed authorship by Shimon universe whose immortality is dependent upon the degree bar Yochai for profit: of development of his active intellect. The Zohar instead declared Man to be the lord of the creation, whose immortality is solely dependent upon his morality.[4] A story tells that after the death of Moses Conversely, Elijah Delmedigo (c.1458 – c.1493), in his de Leon, a rich man of Avila named Joseph ofBechinat ha-Dat endeavored to show that the Zohar could fered Moses’ widow (who had been left withnot be attributed to Shimon bar Yochai, by a number of out any means of supporting herself) a large arguments. He claims that if it were his work, the Zosum of money for the original from which her har would have been mentioned by the Talmud, as has husband had made the copy. She confessed been the case with other works of the Talmudic period; he that her husband himself was the author of claims that had bar Yochai known by divine revelation the the work. She had asked him several times, hidden meaning of the precepts, his decisions on Jewish she said, why he had chosen to credit his own law from the Talmudic period would have been adopted teachings to another, and he had always anby the Talmud, that it would not contain the names of swered that doctrines put into the mouth of the rabbis who lived at a later period than that of bar Yochai; miracle-working Shimon bar Yochai would be he claims that if the Kabbalah was a revealed doctrine, a rich source of profit. The story indicates that there would have been no divergence of opinion among shortly after its appearance the work was bethe Kabbalists concerning the mystic interpretation of the lieved by some to have been written by Moses precepts.[4][19] de Leon.[4] However, Isaac evidently ignored the woman’s alleged confession in favor of the testimony of Joseph ben Todros and of Jacob, a pupil of Moses de León, both of whom assured him on oath that the work was not written by de Leon. Issac’s testimony, which appeared in the first edition (1566) of Sefer Yuchasin, was censored from the second edition (1580)[16] and remained absent from all editions thereafter until its restoration nearly 300 years later in the 1857 edition.[17][18] Over time, the general view in the Jewish community came to be one of acceptance of Moses de Leon’s claims, with the Zohar seen as an authentic book of mysticism passed down from the 2nd century.

Believers in the authenticity of the Zohar countered that the lack of references to the work in Jewish literature were because bar Yohai did not commit his teachings to writing but transmitted them orally to his disciples over generations until ﬁnally the doctrines were embodied in the Zohar. They found it unsurprising that bar Yochai should have foretold future happenings or made references to historical events of the post-Talmudic period.[4] The authenticity of the Zohar was accepted by such 16th century Jewish luminaries as R' Yosef Karo (d.1575), R' Moses Isserles (d. 1572), and R' Solomon Luria (d.1574), who wrote that Jewish law (Halacha) follows the Zohar, except where the Zohar is contradicted by the Babylonian Talmud.[20] However R Soloman Luria admits in responsa

8.2. AUTHORSHIP

98 that the zohar can't override a minhag.

8.2.3

Enlightenment period

Debate continued over the generations; Delmedigo’s arguments were echoed by Leon of Modena (d.1648) in his Ari Nohem, and a work devoted to the criticism of the Zohar, Mitpachas Sefarim, was written by Jacob Emden (d.1776), who, waging war against the remaining adherents of the Sabbatai Zevi movement (in which Zevi, a false messiah and Jewish apostate, cited Messianic prophecies from the Zohar as proof of his legitimacy), endeavored to show that the book on which Zevi based his doctrines was a forgery. Emden argued that the Zohar misquotes passages of Scripture; misunderstands the Talmud; contains some ritual observances that were ordained by later rabbinical authorities; mentions The Crusades against Muslims (who did not exist in the 2nd century); uses the expression "esnoga", a Portuguese term for "synagogue"; and gives a mystical explanation of the Hebrew vowel points, which were not introduced until long after the Talmudic period.[4] In the Ashkenazi community of Eastern Europe, religious authorities including the Vilna Gaon (d.1797) and Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (d.1812) (The Baal HaTanya) believed in the authenticity of the Zohar. The inﬂuence of the Zohar and the Kabbalah in Yemen, where it was introduced in the 17th century, contributed to the formation of the Dor Deah movement, led by Rabbi Yiḥyeh Qafeḥ in the later part of the 19th century, whose adherents believed that the core beliefs of Judaism were rapidly diminishing in favor of the mysticism of the Kabbalah. Among its objects was the opposition of the inﬂuence of the Zohar and subsequent developments in modern Kabbalah, which were then pervasive in Yemenite Jewish life, restoration of what they believed to be a rationalistic approach to Judaism rooted in authentic sources, and safeguardal of the older ("Baladi") tradition of Yemenite Jewish observance that preceded the Kabbalah. Especially controversial were the views of the Dor Daim on the Zohar, as presented in Milhamoth Hashem (Wars of the Lord),[21] written by Rabbi Qafeḥ. A group of Jerusalem rabbis published an attack on Rabbi Qafeḥ under the title of Emunat Hashem (Faith of the Lord), taking measures to ostracize members of the movement;[22] notwithstanding, not even the Yemenite rabbis who opposed the dardaim heeded this ostracization. Instead, they intermarried, sat together in batei midrash, and continued to sit with Rabbi Qafeḥ in beth din.[23]

8.2.4

Contemporary religious view

Title page of the ﬁrst printed edition of the Zohar, Mantua, 1558. Library of Congress.

til its redaction by Shimon ben Yochai. Many (most?) fully accept the claims that the Kabbalah’s teachings are in essence a revelation from God to the Biblical patriarch Abraham, Moses and other ancient ﬁgures, but were never printed and made publicly available until the time of the Zohar’s medieval publication. The greatest acceptance of this sequence of events is held within Haredi Judaism, especially Chasidic groups. R' Yechiel Michel Epstein (d.1908), and R' Yisrael Meir Kagan (d.1933) both believed in the authenticity of the Zohar. Rabbis Eliyahu Dessler (d.1953) and Gedaliah Nadel (d.2004) maintained that it is acceptable to believe that the Zohar was not written by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai and that it had a late authorship.[24] Some claim the tradition that Rabbi Shimon wrote that the concealment of the Zohar would last for exactly 1200 years from the time of destruction of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem. The Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed in 70 CE and so before revealing the Zohar in 1270, Moses De Leon uncovered the manuscripts in a cave in Israel.

Within Orthodox Judaism the traditional view that Shimon bar Yochai was the author is prevalent. R' Most of Orthodox Judaism holds that the teachings of Menachem Mendel Kasher in a 1958 article in the peKabbalah were transmitted from teacher to teacher, in riodical Sinai argues against the claims of Gershom Sca long and continuous chain, from the Biblical era un- holem that the Zohar was written in the 13th Century by

CHAPTER 8. ZOHAR

R' Moses De Leon.[25] He writes: 1.

a city Kaputkia (Cappadocia) which he states was situated in Turkey not in Israel. A city by this name located Many statements in the works of the Rishonim (me- in Israel does appear, however, in Targum Onkelos, Tardieval commentors who preceded De Leon) refer to gum Yonatan, Mishnah, Babylonian Talmud and several Medrashim that we are not aware of. He writes that Midrashim. these are in fact references to the Zohar. This has Another theory as to the authorship of the Zohar is that it also been pointed out by R' David Luria in his work was transmitted like the Talmud before it was transcribed: “Kadmus Sefer Ha'Zohar”. as an oral tradition reapplied to changing conditions and eventually recorded. This view believes that the Zohar The Zohar’s major opponent Elijah Delmedigo was not written by Shimon bar Yochai, but is a holy work refers to the Zohar as having existed for “only” 300 because it consisted of his principles. years. Even he agrees that it was extant before the Belief in the authenticity of the Zohar among Orthodox time of R' Moses De Leon. Jewish movements can be seen in various forms online toHe cites a document from R' Yitchok M' Acco who day. Featured on Chabad.org is the multi-part article, The was sent by the Ramban to investigate the Zohar. Zohar’s Mysterious Origins[26] by Moshe Miller, which The document brings witnesses that attest to the ex- views the Zohar as the product of multiple generations of istence of the manuscript. scholarship but defends the overall authenticity of the text and argues against many of the textual criticisms from ScIt is impossible to accept that R' Moshe De Leon holem and Tishby. The Zohar ﬁgures prominently in the managed to forge a work of the scope of the Zohar mysticism of Chabad. Another leading Orthodox online (1700 pages) within a period of six years as Scholem outlet, Aish.com, also shows broad acceptance of the Zoclaims. har by referencing it in many of its articles. A comparison between the Zohar and De Leon’s Some in Modern Orthodox Judaism reject the above view other works show major stylistic diﬀerences. Al- as naive. Some Orthodox Jews accept the earlier rabbinic though he made use of his manuscript of the Zo- position that the Zohar was a work written in the Middle har, many ideas presented in his works contradict Medieval Period by Moses de Leon, but argue that since or ignore ideas mentioned in the Zohar. (Luria also it is obviously based on earlier materials, it can still be points this out) held to be authentic, but not as authoritative or without

6. Many of the Midrashic works achieved their final redaction in the Geonic period. Some of the anachronistic terminology of the Zohar may date from that time. 7. Out of the thousands of words used in the Zohar, Scholem finds two anachronistic terms and nine cases of ungrammatical usage of words. This proves that the majority of the Zohar was written within the accepted time frame and only a small amount was added later (in the Geonic period as mentioned). 8. Some hard to understand terms may be attributed to acronyms or codes. He finds corollaries to such a practice in other ancient manuscripts.

error as others within Orthodoxy might hold. Jews in non-Orthodox Jewish denominations accept the conclusions of historical academic studies on the Zohar and other kabbalistic texts. As such, most non-Orthodox Jews have long viewed the Zohar as pseudepigraphy and apocrypha. Nonetheless, many accepted that some of its contents had meaning for modern Judaism. Siddurim edited by non-Orthodox Jews often have excerpts from the Zohar and other kabbalistic works, e.g. Siddur Sim Shalom edited by Jules Harlow, even though the editors are not kabbalists.

In recent years there has been a growing willingness of non-Orthodox Jews to study the Zohar, and a growing minority have a position that is similar to the Modern Orthodox position described above. This seems pronounced 9. The “borrowings” from medieval commentaries among Jews who follow the path of Jewish Renewal. may be explained in a simple manner. It is not unheard of that a note written on the side of a text should on later copying be added into the main part of the text. The Talmud itself has Geonic additions 8.2.5 Modern critical views from such a cause. Certainly this would apply to the Zohar to which there did not exist other manuscripts The ﬁrst systematic and critical academic proof for the authorship of Moses de Leon was given by Adolf Jellinek to compare it with. in his 1851 monograph “Moses ben Shem-tob de Leon 10. He cites an ancient manuscript that refers to a book und sein Verhältnis zum Sohar” and later adopted by the Sod Gadol that seems to in fact be the Zohar. historian Heinrich Graetz in his “History of the Jews”, vol. 7. The young kabbalah scholar Gershom Scholem Concerning the Zohar’s lack of knowledge of the land began his career at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem of Israel, Scholem bases this on the many references to with a famous lecture in which he promised to refute

8.3. CONTENTS Graetz and Jellinek, but after years of strained research Gershom Scholem contended in 1941 that de Leon himself was the most likely author of the Zohar. Among other things, Scholem noticed the Zohar’s frequent errors in Aramaic grammar, its suspicious traces of Spanish words and sentence patterns, and its lack of knowledge of the land of Israel. Yeshayahu Leibowitz, noted professor of philosophy at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, claimed “It is clear that the Zohar was written by de Leon as it is clear that Theodore Herzl wrote Medinat HaYehudim (The Jewish State).” Other Jewish scholars have also suggested the possibility that the Zohar was written by a group of people, including de Leon. This theory generally presents de Leon as having been the leader of a mystical school, whose collective effort resulted in the Zohar. Even if de Leon wrote the text, the entire contents of the book may not be fraudulent. Parts of it may be based on older works, and it was a common practice to ascribe the authorship of a document to an ancient rabbi in order to give the document more weight. It is possible that Moses de Leon considered himself to be channeling the words of Rabbi Shimon. In the Encyclopaedia Judaica article written by Professor Gershom Scholem of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem there is an extensive discussion of the sources cited in the Zohar. Scholem views the author of the Zohar as having based the Zohar on a wide variety of pre-existing Jewish sources, while at the same time inventing a number of fictitious works that the Zohar supposedly quotes, e.g., the Sifra de-Adam, the Sifra de-Hanokh, the Sifra di-Shelomo Malka, the Sifra de-Rav Hamnuna Sava, the Sifra de-Rav Yeiva Sava, the Sifra de-Aggadeta, the Raza de-Razin and many others. Scholem’s views are widely held as accurate among historians of the Kabbalah, but like all textual historical investigations, are not uncritically accepted; most of the following conclusions are still accepted as accurate, although academic analysis of the original texts has progressed dramatically since Scholem’s ground-breaking research. Scholars that continue to research the background of the Zohar include Yehudah Liebes (who wrote his doctorate degree for Scholem on the subject of a Dictionary of the Vocabulary of the Zohar in 1976), and Daniel C. Matt, also a student of Scholem, who is currently reconstructing a critical edition of the Zohar based on original unpublished manuscripts. While many original ideas in the Zohar are presented as being from (fictitious) Jewish mystical works, many ancient and clearly rabbinic mystical teachings are presented without their real, identifiable sources being named. Academic studies of the Zohar show that many of its ideas are based in the Talmud, various works of midrash, and earlier Jewish mystical works. Scholem writes:

87 The writer had expert knowledge of the early material and he often used it as a foundation for his expositions, putting into it variations of his own. His main sources were the Babylonian Talmud, the complete Midrash Rabbah, the Midrash Tanhuma, and the two Pesiktot (Pesikta De-Rav Kahana or Pesikta Rabbati), the Midrash on Psalms, the Pirkei de-Rabbi Eliezer, and the Targum Onkelos. Generally speaking they are not quoted exactly, but translated into the peculiar style of the Zohar and summarized.... ... Less use is made of the halakhic Midrashim, the Jerusalem Talmud, and the other Targums, nor of the Midrashim like the Aggadat Shir haShirim, the Midrash on Proverbs, and the Alfabet de-R. Akiva. It is not clear whether the author used the Yalkut Shimoni, or whether he knew the sources of its aggadah separately. Of the smaller Midrashim he used the Heikhalot Rabbati, the Alfabet de-Ben Sira, the Sefer Zerubabel, the Baraita de-Ma'aseh Bereshit, [and many others]... The author of the Zohar drew upon the Bible commentaries written by medieval rabbis, including Rashi, Abraham ibn Ezra, David Kimhi and even authorities as late as Nahmanides and Maimonides. Scholem gives a variety of examples of such borrowings. The Zohar draws upon early mystical texts such as the Sefer Yetzirah and the Bahir, and the early medieval writings of the Hasidei Ashkenaz. Another inﬂuence on the Zohar that Scholem, and scholars like Yehudah Liebes and Ronit Meroz have identiﬁed[2] was a circle of Spanish Kabbalists in Castile who dealt with the appearance of an evil side emanating from within the world of the sephirot. Scholem saw this dualism of good and evil within the Godhead as a kind of "gnostic" inclination within Kabbalah, and as a predecessor of the Sitra Ahra (the other, evil side) in the Zohar. The main text of the Castile circle, the Treatise on the Left Emanation, was written by Jacob ha-Cohen in around 1265.[27]

8.3 Contents The Tikunei haZohar was first printed in Mantua in 1557. The main body of the Zohar was printed in Cremona in 1558 (a one-volume edition), in Mantua in 1558-1560 (a three-volume edition), and in Salonika in 1597 (a twovolume edition). Each of these editions included somewhat different texts.[28] When they were printed there were many partial manuscripts in circulation that were not available to the first printers. These were later printed as "Zohar Chadash" (lit. “New Zohar”), but Zohar Chadash

CHAPTER 8. ZOHAR

actually contains parts that pertain to the Zohar, as well as Tikunim (plural of Tikun, “Repair”) that are akin to Tikunei haZohar, as described below. The term “Zohar”, in usage, may refer to just the ﬁrst Zohar collection, with or without the applicable sections of Zohar Chadash, or to the entire Zohar and Tikunim. Citations referring to the Zohar conventionally follow the volume and page numbers of the Mantua edition; while citations referring to Tikkunei haZohar follow the edition of Ortakoy (Constantinople) 1719 whose text and pagination became the basis for most subsequent editions. Volumes II and III begin their numbering anew, so citation can be made by parashah and page number (e.g. Zohar: Nasso 127a), or by volume and page number (e.g. Zohar III:127a).

Rabbi Shalom Buzaglo said, "Rashbi – may his merit protect us – said (Zohar Vol. 2, page 176a), Sifra diTzni'uta is five chapters that are included in a Great Palace and fill the entire earth,' meaning, these five paragraphs include all the wisdom of Kabbalah... for, Sifra diTzni'uta is the 'little that holds the much'; brevity with wonderful and glorious wisdom.”[30]

There are those who attribute Sifra diTzni'uta to the patriarch Yaakov; however, Rabbi Eliezer Tzvi of Kamarno in his book Zohar Chai wrote,[31] "Sifra diTzni'uta was composed by Rashbi... and he arranged [it] from baraitas that were transmitted to Tannaim from mount Sinai from the days of Moshe, similar to the way Rabeinu HaKadosh arranged the six orders of Mishnah from that which was Unlike other Jewish traditions, which depict God in rel- repeated from before.” atively simple terms, the Zohar is intentionally obscure. Idra Rabba/The Great Assembly (‫)אדרא רבא‬ As a work it is full of neologisms, linguistic borrowings, The Idra Rabba is found in the Zohar Vol. 3, parashat occasional grammatical mistakes, and inspired wordplay Nasso (pp. 127b-145a), and its name means, “The Great on rabbinic and biblical passages. Its ideas are often in- Assembly”. "Idra" is a sitting-place of sages, usually circonsistent and conﬂicting, referring to abstract concepts cular, and the word "Rabba/Great” diﬀerentiates this secthat are never completely expressed.[2] tion from the section Idra Zuta, which was an assembly of fewer sages that occurred later, as mentioned below.

8.3.1

Zohar

The earlier part of the Zohar, also known as Zohar 'Al haTorah (Zohar on the Torah, ‫ )זוהר על התורה‬or Midrash Rashbi, contains several smaller “books”, as described below. This book was published in three volumes: Volume 1 on Bereishit (Genesis), Volume 2 on Shemot (Exodus) and Volume 3 on Vayikra, Bamidbar and Devarim (Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy). At the start of the ﬁrst volume is printed a “Preface to the Book of the Zohar” (pages 1a to 14b). After this introduction is the Zohar’s commentary on most of the parashahs of the Torah. There is Zohar on all of the parashahs of Bereishit through the book of Vayikra; in Bamidbar there is no Zohar on the last two parashas: Matot (although on this parashah there is a small paragraph on page 259b) and Mas’ei. In Devarim there is no Zohar on Devarim, Re'eh, Ki-Tavo, Nitzavim, and veZot haBerakhah. Printed within these three volumes are these smaller books:[29] Sifra diTzni'uta/Book of the Hidden (‫)ספרא דצניעותא‬ This small “book”, three pages long (Volume 2, parashat Teruma, pages 176b-179a), the name of which, “Book of the Hidden”, attests to its veiled and cryptic character, is considered by some an important and concentrated part of the Zohar. Its enumerations and anatomical references are reminiscent of the Sefer Yetzirah, the latter being remazim (hints) of divine characteristics. Externally it is a commentary on seminal verses in Bereishit (and therefore in the version published in Cremona it is printed in parashat Bereishit). It has ﬁve chapters. Intrinsically it includes, according to Rashbi, the foundation of Kabbalah, which is explained at length in the Zohar and in the books of Kabbalah after it.[29]

Idra Rabba contains the discussion of nine of Rashbi’s friends, who gathered together to discuss great and deep secrets of Kabbalah. The nine are: Rabbi Elazar his son, Rabbi Abba, Rabbi Yehuda, Rabbi Yossi bar Yaakov, Rabbi Yitzchak, Rabbi Chezkiyah bar Rav, Rabbi Chiyya, Rabbi Yossi and Rabbi Yisa. After the opening of the discussion by Rashbi, the sages rise, one after the other, and lecture on the secret of Divinity, while Rashbi adds to and responds to their words. The lectures in this section mainly explain the words of the Sifra diTzni'uta, in a similar manner as the Gemara explains the Mishnah.[29] As described in the Idra Rabba, before the Idra disjourned, three of the students died: Rabbi Yossi bar Yaakov, Rabbi Chezkiyah bar Rav, and Rabbi Yisa. As it is told, these students ﬁlled up with Godly light and therefore journeyed to the eternal world after their deaths. The remaining students saw their friends being carried away by angels. Rabbi Shimon said some words and they were calmed. He shouted out, “Perhaps, God forbid, a decree has been passed upon us to be punished, for through us has been revealed that which has not been revealed since the time Moshe stood on Mount Sinai!" At that instant a heavenly voice emerged and said, “Fortunate are you Rabbi Shimon! and fortunate is your portion and the portion of the friends who remain alive with you! For it has been revealed to you that which has not been revealed to all the upper hosts.”[32] Idra Zuta/The Smaller Assembly (‫)אדרא זוטא‬ The Idra Zuta is found in the Zohar Vol. 3, parashat Haazinu (p. 287b to 296b), and is called "Idra Zuta", which means, “The Smaller Assembly”, distinguishing it from the aforementioned Greater Assembly, the Idra Rabba. In the Idra Zuta, Rashbi’s colleagues convene

8.3. CONTENTS again, this time seven in number, after the three mentioned above died. In the Idra Zuta the Chevraya Kadisha are privileged to hear teachings from Rashbi that conclude the words that were explained in the Idra Rabba. Ra'aya Meheimna/The Faithful Shepherd (‫רעיא‬ ‫)מהימנא‬ The book Ra'aya Meheimna, the title of which means “The Faithful Shepherd”, and which is by far the largest “book” included in the book of the Zohar, is what Moshe, the “Faithful Shepherd”, teaches and reveals to Rashbi and his friends, who include Tannaim and Amoraim. In this assembly of Holy Friends, which took place in the Beit Midrash of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, secrets of and revelations on mitzvot of the Torah are explained and clariﬁed — roots and deep meanings of mitzvot. Since it deals with mitzvot, from Ra'aya Meheimna it is possible to learn very much about the ways of the halakhic rulings of the Rabbis.[29] Ra'aya Meheimna is distributed over several parashiyot throughout the Zohar. Part of it is known and even printed on separate pages, and part of it is weaved into the body of the Zohar. Ra'aya Meiheimna is found in Vols. 2 and 3 of the Zohar, but is not found explicitly in Vol. 1. Several great rabbis and sages have tried to ﬁnd the Ra'aya Meheimna, which originally is a vast book on all the 613 mitzvot, and arrange it according to the order of positive commandments and negative commandments, and even print it as a book on its own.[29] In the lessons at the end of the Zohar, Ra'aya Meheimna is sometimes referred to as "Chibra Kadma'ah" — “the preceding book”.

89 shamah. And this derush is founded on the neshamah; its name beﬁts it – Midrash haNe'elam.[34] The language of Midrash haNe'elam is sometimes Hebrew, sometimes Aramaic, and sometimes both mixed. Unlike the body of the Zohar, its drashas are short and not long. Also, the topics it discusses — the work of Creation, the nature the soul, the days of Mashiach, and Olam Haba — are not of the type found in the Zohar, which are the nature of God, the emanation of worlds, the “forces” of evil, and more. Idra deVei Mashkana, Heikhalot, Raza deRazin, Saba deMishpatim, Tosefta, and Sitrei Torah In the Zohar there are more sections that are of different nature with regard to their contents and importance, as follows: Idra deVei Mashkana (“Assembly of the House of the Tabernacle”) deals mainly with the secrets of prayer, and is found in the Zohar Vol. 2, parashat Mishpatim (pp. 122b-123b). Heikhalot (“Palaces”) deals in describing the palaces of Gan Eden, and Gehinom, and contains many matters related to prayer. It is found in the Zohar Vol. 1, parashat Bereishit (pp 38a-45b); Vol. 2 parashat Pekudei (pp. 244b-262b, heikhalot of holiness; pp. 262b-268b, heikhalot of impurity). Raza deRazin (“Secret of Secrets”) deals with revealing the essence of a man via the features of his face and hands. It is found in the Zohar Vol. 2,parashat Yitro (pp. 70a-75a). Saba deMishpatim (“The Elder on Statutes”) is the commentary of Rav Yiba Saba regarding transmigration of souls, and punishments of the body in the grave. It is found in the Zohar Vol. 2,parashat Mishpatim (pp. 94a-114a). Tosefta are paragraphs containing the beginnings of chapters on the wisdom of the Kabbalah of the Zohar, and it is dispersed in all three volumes of the Zohar. Sitrei Torah are drashas of verses from the Torah regarding matters of the soul and the secret of Divinity, and they are dispersed in the Zohar Vol. 1.[29]

Regarding the importance of Ra'aya Meheimna, Rabbi Moshe Cordovero said, “Know that this book, which is called Ra'aya Meheimna, which Rashbi made with the tzadikim who are in Gan Eden, was a repair of the Shekhinah, and an aid and support for it in the exile, for there is no aid or support for the Shekhinah besides the For more books and sources mentioned in the Zohar, see secrets of the Torah... And everything that he says here also below. of the secrets and the concepts—it is all with the intention of unifying the Shekhinah and aiding it during the 8.3.2 Zohar Chadash/The New Zohar (‫זוהר‬ exile.[33] Midrash haNe'elam/The Hidden Midrash (‫מדרש‬ ‫)הנעלם‬ Midrash haNe'elam is located within the body of the Zohar (parashat Vayera, Chayei Sarah, Toldot) and the Zohar Chadash (pp. 2b-30b; 46b-47b (in the Zohar Chadash edition by Rav Reuven Margoliot), and in parashat Balak, Ki Teitze, and the entire Zohar Chadash on Shir haShirim, Ruth, and Eikah.) According to Ramaz, it is ﬁt to be called Midrash haNe'elam because “its topic is mostly the neshamah (an upper level of soul), the source of which is in Beri'ah, which is the place of the upper Gan Eden; and it is written in the Pardes that drash is in Beri'ah... and the revealed midrash is the secret of externality, and Midrash haNe'elam is the secret of internality, which is the ne-

‫)חדש‬

After the book of the Zohar had been printed (in Mantua and in Cremona, in the Jewish years 5318-5320 or 15581560? CE), many more manuscripts were found that included paragraphs pertaining to the Zohar in their content and had not been included in printed editions. The manuscripts pertained also to all parts of the Zohar; some were similar to Zohar on the Torah, some were similar to the inner parts of the Zohar (Midrash haNe'elam, Sitrei Otiyot and more), and some pertained to Tikunei haZohar. Some thirty years after the ﬁrst edition of the Zohar was printed, the manuscripts were gathered and arranged according to the parashas of the Torah and the megillot (apparently the arrangement was done by the Kabbalist, Rabbi Avraham haLevi of Tsfat), and were printed ﬁrst

CHAPTER 8. ZOHAR

in Salonika in Jewish year 5357 (1587? CE), and then them (such as Sifra deTzni'uta; see above), and some parts in Kraków (5363), and afterwards many times in various were written or arranged in generations after Rashbi’s editions.[29] passing (for example, Tannaim after Rashbi’s time are ocThere is Zohar Chadash on the Torah for many parashas casionally mentioned). However, aside from the parts of across the chumash, namely, on chumash Bereishit: the Zohar mentioned above, in the Zohar are mentioned Bereishit, Noach, Lekh Lekha, Vayeira, Vayeishev; on tens of earlier sources that Rashbi and his Chevraya chumash Shemot: Beshalach, Yitro, Terumah, Ki Tissa; Kadisha had, and they were apparently the foundation on chumash Vayikra: Tzav, Acharei, Behar; on chumash of the Kabbalistic tradition of the Zohar. These include Sefer Raziel, Sifra de'Agad'ta, Sifra de'Adam haRBamidbar: Chukat, Balak, Matot; on chumash Devarim: ishon, Sifra de'Ashmedai, Sifra Chakhmeta 'Ila'ah diVnei [29] Va'etchanan, Ki Tetze, Ki Tavo. Kedem, Sifra deChinukh, Sifra diShlomoh Malka, Sifra Within the paragraphs of Zohar Chadash are inserted Kadma'i, Tzerufei de'Atvun de'Itmasru le'Adam beGan Sitrei Otiyot (“Secrets of the Letters”) and Midrash 'Eden, and more. In the Jewish view this indicates more, haNe'elam, on separate pages. Afterwards follows the that the teaching of the Sod in the book of the Zohar was midrashim – Midrash haNe'elam on the megillot: Shir not invented in the Tannaic period, but rather it is a trahaShirim, Ruth, and Eikhah. And at the end are printed dition from ancient times that Rashbi and his Chevraya Tikunim (Tikunei Zohar Chadash, ‫)תיקוני זוהר חדש‬, like Kadisha used and upon which they built and founded their the Tikunei haZohar.[29] Kabbalah, and also that its roots are in the Torah that was given by Hashem to Moshe on Sinai.[29]

8.3.3

Tikunei haZohar/Rectiﬁcations of the Zohar (‫)תיקוני הזוהר‬ 8.3.5 Viewpoint and exegesis: Rabbinic view Main article: Tikunei haZohar Tikunei haZohar, which was printed as separate book, includes seventy commentaries called "Tikunim" (lit. Repairs) and an additional eleven Tikkunim. In some editions Tikunim are printed that were already printed in the Zohar Chadash, which in their content and style also pertain to Tikunei haZohar.[29] Each of the seventy Tikunim of Tikunei haZohar begins by explaining the word "Bereishit" (‫)בראשית‬, and continues by explaining other verses, mainly in parashat Bereishit, and also from the rest of Tanakh. And all this is in the way of Sod, in commentaries that reveal the hidden and mystical aspects of the Torah.

According to the Zohar, the moral perfection of man influences the ideal world of the Sefirot; for although the Sefirot accept everything from the Ein Sof (Heb. ‫אין סוף‬, infinity), the Tree of Life itself is dependent upon man: he alone can bring about the divine effusion.[4] This concept is somewhat akin to the concept of Tikkun olam. The dew that vivifies the universe flows from the just.[4] By the practice of virtue and by moral perfection, man may increase the outpouring of heavenly grace.[4] Even physical life is subservient to virtue.[4] This, says the Zohar, is indicated in the words “for the Lord God had not caused it to rain” (Gen. 2:5), which means that there had not yet been beneficent action in heaven, because man had not yet been created to pray for it.[4]

Tikunei haZohar and Ra'aya Meheimna are similar in style, language, and concepts, and are diﬀerent from The Zohar assumes four kinds of Biblical text exegesis, the rest of the Zohar. For example, the idea of the from the literal to the more mystical: Four Worlds is found in Tikunei haZohar and Ra'aya Meheimna but not elsewhere, as is true of the very use of 1. The simple, literal meaning of the text: Peshat the term “Kabbalah”. In terminology, what is called Kabbalah in →Tikunei haZohar and Ra'aya Meheimna is sim2. The allusion or hinted/allegorical meaning: Remez ply called razin (clues or hints) in the rest of the Zohar.[35] In Tikunei haZohar there are many references to "chibura kadma'ah" (meaning “the earlier book”). This refers to 3. The rabbinic comparison through sermon or illusthe main body of the Zohar.[35] tration and metaphor: Derash

8.3.4

Parts of the Zohar: summary of Rabbinic view

The traditional Rabbinic view is that most of the Zohar and the parts included in it (i.e. those parts mentioned above) were written and compiled by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, but some parts preceded Rashbi and he used

4. The secret/mysterious/hidden meaning: Sod[4] The initial letters of these words (P, R, D, S) form together the word PaRDeS (“paradise/orchard”), which became the designation for the Zohar’s view of a fourfold meaning of the text, of which the mystical sense is considered the highest part.[4]

8.5. INFLUENCE

8.3.6

Academic views

A full translation of the Zohar into Hebrew was made by the late Rabbi Daniel Frish of Jerusalem under the title In Eros and Kabbalah, Moshe Idel (Professor of Jew- Masok MiDvash. ish Mysticism, Hebrew University in Jerusalem) argues that the fundamental distinction between the rationalphilosophic strain of Judaism and mystical Judaism, as 8.5 Influence exemplified by the Zohar, is the mystical belief that the Godhead is complex, rather than simple, and that divinity is dynamic and incorporates gender, having both male 8.5.1 Judaism and female dimensions. These polarities must be conjoined (have yihud, “union”) to maintain the harmony of On the one hand, the Zohar was lauded by many rabbis the cosmos. Idel characterizes this metaphysical point of because it opposed religious formalism, stimulated one’s view as “ditheism”, holding that there are two aspects to imagination and emotions, and for many people helped [4] God, and the process of union as “theoeroticism”. This reinvigorate the experience of prayer. In many places ditheism, the dynamics it entails, and its reverberations prayer had become a mere external religious exercise, within creation is arguably the central interest of the Zo- while prayer was supposed to be a means of transcending [4] har, making up a huge proportion of its discourse (pp. earthly affairs and placing oneself in union with God. 5–56). According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, “On the other Mention should also be made of the work of Elliot Wolf- hand, the Zohar was censured by many rabbis because son (Professor of Jewish Mysticism, New York Univer- it propagated many superstitious beliefs, and produced sity), who has almost single-handedly challenged the con- a host of mystical dreamers, whose overexcited imagiventional view, which is affirmed by Idel as well. Wolf- nations peopled the world with spirits, demons, and all [4] son likewise recognizes the importance of heteroerotic kinds of good and bad influences.” Many classical rabsymbolism in the kabbalistic understanding of the divine bis, especially Maimonides, viewed all such beliefs as a nature. The oneness of God is perceived in androgynous violation of Judaic principles of faith. terms as the pairing of male and female, the former char- Its mystic mode of explaining some commandments was acterized as the capacity to overflow and the latter as the applied by its commentators to all religious observances, potential to receive. Where Wolfson breaks with Idel and and produced a strong tendency to substitute mystic Juother scholars of the kabbalah is in his insistence that the daism in the place of traditional rabbinic Judaism.[4] consequence of that heteroerotic union is the restoration For example, Shabbat, the Jewish Sabbath, began to be of the female to the male. Just as, in the case of the looked upon as the embodiment of God in temporal life, original Adam, woman was constructed from man, and and every ceremony performed on that day was considtheir carnal cleaving together was portrayed as becoming ered to have an influence upon the superior world.[4] one flesh, so the ideal for kabbalists is the reconstitution of what Wolfson calls the male androgyne. Much closer Elements of the Zohar crept into the liturgy of the 16th in spirit to some ancient Gnostic dicta, Wolfson under- and 17th centuries, and the religious poets not only used stands the eschatological ideal in traditional kabbalah to the allegorism and symbolism of the Zohar in their comhave been the female becoming male (see his Circle in the positions, but even adopted its style, e.g. the use of erotic terminology to illustrate the relations between man and Square and Language, Eros, Being). God.[4] Thus, in the language of some Jewish poets, the beloved one’s curls indicate the mysteries of the Deity; sensuous pleasures, and especially intoxication, typify the highest degree of divine love as ecstatic contemplation; 8.4 Commentaries while the wine-room represents merely the state through which the human qualities merge or are exalted into those The first known commentary on the book of Zohar, of God.[4] “Ketem Paz”, was written by Rabbi Shimon Lavi of In the 17th century, it was proposed that only Jewish men Libya. who were at least 40 years old could study Kabbalah, and Another important and influential commentary on Zohar, by extension read the Zohar, because it was believed to be 22-volume “Or Yakar”, was written by Rabbi Moshe Cor- too powerful for those less emotionally mature and expedovero of the Tzfat (i.e. Safed) kabbalistic school in the rienced. 16th century. The Vilna Gaon authored a commentary on the Zohar.

8.5.2 Neo-Platonism

Rabbi Tzvi Hirsch of Ziditchov wrote a commentary on the Zohar entitled Ateres Tzvi. Founded in the 3rd century CE by Plotinus, The A major commentary on the Zohar is the Sulam written Neoplatonist tradition has clear echoes in the Zohar, as by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag. indeed in many forms of mystical spirituality, whether

CHAPTER 8. ZOHAR

Jewish, Christian or Muslim (see Avicenna, Maimonides, and Aquinas). The concept of creation by successive emanations of God in particular is characteristic of neoplatonist thought. In both Kabbalistic and Neoplatonist systems, the Logos, or Divine Wisdom, is the primordial archetype of the universe, and mediates between the divine idea and the material world. For example, the neoplatonist Proclus describes the Logos in terms of the “One beyond being”. This primordial unity then, though selfcomplete, overﬂows with potency and from this power creates the manifold world beneath it. This downward movement from unity to multiplicity he calls Procession. The reverse process of Reversion is then the lower lifeforms, such as humanity, ascending back toward God through spiritual contemplation. Jewish commentators on the Zohar expressly noted these Greek inﬂuences.[36]

8.5.3

Christian mysticism

According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, “The enthusiasm felt for the Zohar was shared by many Christian scholars, such as Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Johann Reuchlin, Aegidius of Viterbo, etc., all of whom believed that the book contained proofs of the truth of Christianity.[37] They were led to this belief by the analogies existing between some of the teachings of the Zohar and certain Christian dogmas, such as the fall and redemption of man, and the dogma of the Trinity, which seems to be expressed in the Zohar in the following terms: 'The Ancient of Days has three heads. He reveals himself in three archetypes, all three forming but one. He is thus symbolized by the number Three. They are revealed in one another. [These are:] ﬁrst, secret, hidden 'Wisdom'; above that the Holy Ancient One; and above Him the Unknowable One. None knows what He contains; He is above all conception. He is therefore called for man 'Non-Existing' [Ayin]'"[37] (Zohar, iii. 288b). According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, “This and other similar doctrines found in the Zohar are now known to be much older than Christianity, but the Christian scholars who were led by the similarity of these teachings to certain Christian dogmas deemed it their duty to propagate the Zohar.”[37] However, fundamental to the Zohar are descriptions of the absolute Unity and uniqueness of God, in the Jewish understanding of it, rather than a trinity or other plurality. One of the most common phrases in the Zohar is "raza d'yichuda “the secret of his Unity”, which describes the Oneness of God as completely indivisible, even in spiritual terms. A central passage, Patach Eliyahu (introduction to Tikunei Zohar 17a), for example, says: Elijah opened and said: “Master of the

worlds! You are One, but not in number. You are He Who is Highest of the High, Most Hidden of the Hidden; no thought can grasp You at all...And there is no image or likeness of You, inside or out...And aside from You, there is no unity on High or Below. And You are acknowledged as the Cause of everything and the Master of everything...And You are the completion of them all. And as soon as You remove Yourself from them, all the Names remain like a body without a soul...All is to show how You conduct the world, but not that You have a known righteousness that is just, nor a known judgement that is merciful, nor any of these attributes at all...Blessed is God forever, amen and amen! The meaning of the three heads of Keter, according to the kabbalists, has extremely different connotations from ascribing validity to any compound or plurality in God, even if the compound is viewed as unified. In Kabbalah, while God is an absolutely simple (non-compound), infinite Unity beyond grasp, as described in Jewish philosophy by Maimonides, through His Kabbalistic manifestations such as the Sephirot and the Shekhinah (Divine Presence), we relate to the living dynamic Divinity that emanates, enclothes, is revealed in, and incorporates, the multifarious spiritual and physical plurality of Creation within the Infinite Unity. Creation is plural, while God is Unity. Kabbalistic theology unites the two in the paradox of human versus Divine perspectives. The spiritual role of Judaism is to reach the level of perceiving the truth of the paradox, that all is One, spiritual and physical Creation being nullified into absolute Divine Monotheism. Ascribing any independent validity to the plural perspective is idolatry. Nonetheless, through the personalised aspects of God, revealing the concealed mystery from within the Divine Unity, man can perceive and relate to God, who otherwise would be unbridgably far, as the supernal Divine emanations are mirrored in the mystical Divine nature of man’s soul. The relationship between God’s absolute Unity and Divine manifestations, may be compared to a man in a room - there is the man himself, and his presence and relationship to others in the room. In Hebrew, this is known as the Shekhinah. It is also the concept of God’s Name - it is His relationship and presence in the world towards us. The Wisdom (literally written as Field of Apples) in kabbalistic terms refers to the Shekhinah, the Divine Presence. The Unknowable One (literally written as the Miniature Presence) refers to events on earth when events can be understood as natural happenings instead of God’s act, although it is actually the act of God. This is known as perceiving the Shekhinah through a blurry, cloudy lens. This means to say, although we see God’s Presence (not God Himself) through natural occurrences, it is only through a blurry lens; as opposed to miracles, in which we clearly see and recognize God’s presence in the world. The Holy

8.6. ZOHAR STUDY (JEWISH VIEW) Ancient One refers to God Himself, Who is imperceivable. (see Minchas Yaakov and anonymous commentary in the Siddur Beis Yaakov on the Sabbath hymn of Askinu Seudasa, composed by the Arizal based on this lofty concept of the Zohar). Within the descending Four Worlds of Creation, each successive realm perceives Divinity less and apparent independence more. The highest realm AtziluthEmanation, termed the “Realm of Unity”, is distinguished from the lower three realms, termed the “Realm of Separation”, by still having no self-awareness; absolute Divine Unity is revealed and Creation is nullified in its source. The lower three Worlds feel progressive degrees of independence from God. Where lower Creation can mistake the different Divine emmanations as plural, Atziluth feels their non-existent unity in God. Within the constricted appearance of Creation, God is revealed through various and any plural numbers. God uses each number to represent a different supernal aspect of reality that He creates, to reflect their comprehensive inclusion in His absolute Oneness: 10 Sephirot, 12 Partzufim, 2 forms of Light, 2 Partzufim and 3 Heads in Keter, 4 letters of the Tetragrammaton, 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, 13 Attributes of Mercy, etc. All such forms when traced back to their source in God’s infinite light, return to their state of absolute Oneness. This is the consciousness of Atziluth. In Kabbalah, this perception is considered subconsciously innate to the souls of Israel, rooted in Atzilut.[38] The souls of the Nations are elevated to this perception through adherence to the 7 Laws of Noah, that bring them to absolute Divine Unity and away from any false plural persepectives.

93 of Creation. However, the impure distortion results from human ascription of false validity and worship to Divine manifestations, rather than realising their nulliﬁcation to God’s Unity alone.[40] In normative Christian theology, as well as the declaration of the First Council of Nicaea, God is declared to be “one”. Declarations such as “God is three” or “God is two” are condemned in later counsels as entirely heretical and idolatrous. The beginning of the essential declaration of belief for Christians, the Nicene Creed (somewhat equivalent to Maimonides’ 13 principles of Faith), starts with the Shema inﬂuenced[41] declaration that “We Believe in One God...” Like Judaism, Christianity asserts the absolute monotheism of God.[42]

Unlike the Zohar, Christianity interprets the coming of the Messiah as the arrival of the true immanence of God. Like the Zohar the Messiah is believed to be the bringer of Divine Light: “The Light (the Messiah) shineth in the Darkness and the Darkness has never put it out”, yet the Light, although being God, is separable within God since no one has seen God in flesh: “for no man has seen God...” (John 1).[43] It is through the belief that Jesus Christ is the Messiah, since God had vindicated him by raising him from the dead, that Christians believe that Jesus is paradoxically and substantially God, despite God’s simple undivided unity. The belief that Jesus Christ is “God from God, Light from Light” is assigned as a mystery and weakness of the human mind affecting and effecting our comprehension of him. The mystery of the Trinity and our mystical union with the Ancient of Days will only be made, like in the Zohar, in the new Garden of Eden, which is made holy by the Light of God where people’s There is an alternative notion of three in the Zohar that love for God is unending. are One, “Israel, the Torah and the Holy One Blessed Be He are One.”[39] From the perspective of God, before constriction in Creation, these three are revealed in their 8.6 Zohar study (Jewish view) source as a simple (non-compound) absolute Unity, as is all potential Creation from God’s perspective. In Kabbalah, especially in Hasidism, the communal divinity of Who Should Study Tikunei haZohar Israel is revealed Below in the righteous Tzadik Jewish Despite the preeminence of Tikunei haZohar and despite leader of each generation who is a collective soul of the the topmost priority of Torah study in Judaism, much of people. In the view of Kabbalah, however, no Jew would the Zohar has been relatively obscure and unread in the worship the supernal community souls of the Jewish peo- Jewish world in recent times, particularly outside of Israel ple, or the Rabbinic leader of the generation, nor the total- and outside of Chasidic groups. Although some rabbis ity of Creation’s unity in God itself, as Judaism innately since the Shabbetai Tzvi debacle still maintain that one perceives the absolute Monotheism of God. In a Kab- should be married and forty years old in order to study balistic phrase, one prays “to Him, not to His attributes”. Kabbalah, since the time of Baal Shem Tov there has been As Kabbalah sees the Torah as the Divine blueprint of relaxation of such stringency, and many maintain that it Creation, so any entity or idea in Creation receives its ex- is sufficient to be married and knowledgeable in halakhah istence through an ultimate lifeforce in Torah interpreta- and hence permitted to study Kabbalah and by inclusion, tion. However, in the descent of Creation, the Tzimtzum Tikunei haZohar; and some rabbis will advise learning constrictions and impure Qliphoth side of false indepen- Kabbalah without restrictions of marriage or age.[44] In dence from God results in distortion of the original vital- any case the aim of such caution is to not become caught ity source and idea. Accordingly, in the Kabbalistic view, up in Kabbalah to the extent of departing from reality or the non-Jewish belief in the Trinity, as well as the be- halakhah. liefs of all religions, have parallel, supernal notions within Kabbalah from which they ultimately exist in the process Rabbinic Accolades; the Importance of Studying Tikunei haZohar

CHAPTER 8. ZOHAR

Many eminent rabbis and sages have echoed the Zohar’s own urgings for Jews to study it, and have and urged people in the strongest of terms to be involved with it. To quote from the Zohar and from some of those rabbis: "Vehamaskilim yavinu/But they that are wise will understand” (Dan. 12:10) – from the side of Binah (understanding), which is the Tree of Life. Therefore it is said, "Vehamaskilim yaz'hiru kezohar haraki'a"/And they that are wise will shine like the radiance of the sky” (Dan. 12:3) – by means of this book of yours, which is the book of the Zohar, from the radiance (Zohar) of Ima Ila'ah (the “Higher Mother”, the higher of the two primary partzuﬁm that develop from Binah) [which is] teshuvah; with those [who study this work], trial is not needed. And because Yisrael will in the future taste from the Tree of Life, which is this book of the Zohar, they will go out, with it, from Exile, in a merciful manner, and with them will be fulﬁlled, "Hashem badad yanchenu, ve'ein 'imo El nechar/Hashem alone will lead them, and there is no strange god with Him” (Deut. 32:12). — Zohar, parashat Nasso, 124b, Ra'aya Meheimna

Woe to the [people of the] world who hide the heart and cover the eyes, not gazing into the secrets of the Torah! — Zohar Vol 1, p. 28a

Rabbi Nachman of Breslov said the following praise of the Zohar’s effect in motivating mitzvah performance, which is a main focus in Judaism: It is [already] known that learning the Zohar is very, very mesugal [capable of bringing good effects]. Now know, that by learning the Zohar, desire is generated for all types of study of the holy Torah; and the holy wording of the Zohar greatly arouses [a person] towards service of Hashem Yitbarakh. Namely, the praise with which it praises and glorifies a person who serves Hashem, that is, the common expression of the Zohar in saying, "Zaka'ah/Fortunate!" etc. regarding any mitzvah; and vice-versa, the cry that it shouts out, “Vai!" etc., "Vai leh, Vai lenishmateh/Woe to him! Woe to his soul!" regarding one who turns away from the service of Hashem — these expressions greatly arouse the man for the service of the Blessed One. — Sichot Haran #108

8.7 English translations • Zohar Pages in English, at ha-zohar.net, including the Introduction translated in English • Berg, Michael: Zohar 23 Volume Set- The Kabbalah Centre International. Full 23 Volumes English translation with commentary and annotations. • Matt, Daniel C. & Nathan Wolski, trans. Zohar: Pritzker Edition (10 vols. to date). Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004-2016. (The ﬁrst ten volumes of a projected 12-volume, comprehensively annotated English translation) • Matt, Daniel C. Zohar: Annotated and Explained. Woodstock, Vt.: SkyLights Paths Publishing Co., 2002. (Selections) • Matt, Daniel C. Zohar: The Book of Enlightenment. New York: Paulist Press, 1983. (Selections) • Scholem, Gershom, ed. Zohar: The Book of Splendor. New York: Schocken Books, 1963. (Selections) • Sperling, Harry and Maurice Simon, eds. The Zohar (5 vols.). London: Soncino Press. • Tishby, Isaiah, ed. The Wisdom of the Zohar: An Anthology of Texts (3 vols.). Translated from the Hebrew by David Goldstein. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. • Shimon Bar Yochai. Sefer ha Zohar (Vol. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 English). Createspace, 2015

8.8 See also • Bahir • Baqashot • Dor Daim • Kabbalah: Primary texts • Moses de León • Sepher Yetzirah • Simeon bar Yochai • Treatise on the Left Emanation

8.9. REFERENCES

8.9 References [1] Scholem, Gershom and Melila Hellner-Eshed. “Zohar”. Encyclopaedia Judaica. Ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 21. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. 647–664. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Gale. [2] https://www.bostonglobe.com/ideas/2016/06/25/ glinter-kabbalah/cz5YaC9jDc3ZVwTB6L7e7L/story. html [3] Beyer 1986: 38–43; Casey 1998: 83–6, 88, 89–93; Eerdmans 1975: 72. [4] Jacobs, Joseph; Broydé, Isaac. “Zohar”. Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk & Wagnalls Company. [5] Scharfstein, Sol (2004). Jewish History and You II. Jewish History and You. Jersey City, New Jersey: KTAV Publishing House. p. 24. [6] “Rabbi Shimon Bar Yochai - Lag BaOmer at”. Ou.org. Retrieved 2012-06-06. [7] e.g. Siddur Sim Shalom edited by Jules Harlow [8] “Enter The Zohar”. enterthezohar.com. Retrieved 201206-06. [9] “Revealing The Zohar”. kabbalah.info. Retrieved 201206-06. [10] “The purpose of this work [the Holy Zohar] was to bring the remedy before the disease, to help Yisrael in the Exile through the unifications and the things that are accomplished through them [i.e. the unifications] in order to increase the strength of holiness, and so that the generation would learn the secrets of the Torah... and so that they would know how to awaken [Divine] mercy and be saved from evil decrees.” – Sefer Or Yakar, Shaar Alef, Siman Hei [11] “For, the segulah [special charm and efficacy] of this book [Tikunei haZohar] is to bring the Redemption and freedom from the Exile. And although all the books of Rashbi draw the Redeemer closer... behold, the book of Tikkunim does so especially, because for this purpose he compiled it ...” – The beginning of the introduction of the commentary Kisse Melekh by Rabbi Shalom Buzaglo on Tikunei haZohar [12] “And because Yisrael will in the future taste from the Tree of Life, which is this book of the Zohar, they will go out, with it, from Exile, in a merciful manner.” – Zohar, Vol. 3, 124b, Ra'aya Meheimna; et al. [13] "... the children [of Yisrael] below will shout out in unison and say, “Shem'a Yisrael/Hear O Yisrael!" but there will be no voice and no reply... so is whoever causes the Kabbalah and the Wisdom to be removed from the Oral Torah and from the Written Torah, and causes people to not endeavor in them, and says that there is nothing other than the pshat in the Torah and the Talmud. Certainly it is as if he removes the flow from that River and from that Garden. Woe to him! Better for him that he were not created in the world and did not learn that Written Torah and Oral

Torah! For it is considered of him as if he returned the world to tohu vavohu (unformed and void) and he causes poverty in the world and prolongs the Exile.” —Tikunei haZohar #43, p. 82a; et. al. [14] Ezekiel 8:2 [15] Daniel 12:3 [16] The Complete Yuchsin Book, third edition (5723), p. XXII "‫ובדף קל"ג השמיט המוציא לאור את המאמר על דבר ספר‬ ‫הזהר‬.” (English: And on page 133 the publisher erased the essay concerning the matter of the book of the Zohar.) [17] Available at HebrewBooks.org: ‫ספר יוחסין השלם‬, p. 8889 / 95-96 (Hebrew). [18] Dan Rabinowitz in Hakirah, The Flatbush Journal of Jewish Law and Thought, volume 2 (fall 2015), Nekkudot: The Dots that Connect Us, p. 64. [19] Bechinat ha-Dat ed. Vienna, 1833, p. 43, in the Jacobs and Broyde, “The Zohar”, Jewish Encyclopedia [20] See Rabbi Menachem Schneerson (the Tzemach Tzedek), Likkutei Sichos, Vol. 33, p. 98, where the author, quoting a response Reb Hillel Paritcher related from Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (the Baal HaTanya) (quoted also in the beginning of Shar Kakolel) explains that where there is an argument between Kabbalah and Poskim (legal scholars), the former should be followed. For it is impossible to say that the Kabbalah is in contradiction with the Talmud itself. Rather, the Kabbalists and the legal scholars have variant understanding of the explanation of the Talmud. See also Rabbi David ben Solomon ibn Zimra (the Radvaz) (Chelek 4, Siman 1,111) and Rabbi Tzvi Hirsch ben Yaakov Ashkenazi (the Chacham Tzvi) (Siman 36) (cited in Shaarei Teshuva 25:14). See also the Responsa of Menachem Schneerson (Responsa Tzemach Tzedek A.H. Siman 18,4) and Divrei Nechemia (Responsa Divrei Nechemia O.H. 21). It should be noted however that the views of the Radvaz and of the Chacham Tzvi are that one should follow the opinion of the Zohar only where a conclusive statement has not been made by the legal authorities (Gemara or Poskim), or when an argument is found between the Poskim. The above quoted view, attributed to the Baal HaTanya, would thus be accepted as authoritative by followers of the Baal HaTanya, followers of the Ben Ish Chai, and followers of other Halacha codiﬁers who accept to follow the rulings of Kabala over those of the Poskim. Such include: some Chassidim, select Sefardim, and other well known groups. [21] http://www.yahadut.org.il/zohar/milhamot-hashem.pdf [22] See ‫( עמל ורעות רוח וחרמות ותשובתם‬Hebrew) by Rabbi Yiḥyeh Qafeḥ. [23] Responsa of Rabbi Ratzon Arusi (Hebrew): ‫דרדעים‬ [24] An Analysis of the Authenticity of the Zohar (2005), p. 39, with “Rav E” and “Rav G” later identiﬁed by the author as Rabbi Eliyahu Dessler and Rabbi Gedaliah Nadel, respectively (Rabbi Dr. Marc Shapiro in Milin Havivin Volume 5 [2011], Is there an obligation to believe that Rebbe Shimon bar Yochai wrote the Zohar?, p. ‫[ יב‬PDF page 133]):

CHAPTER 8. ZOHAR

“I approached Rav A [Aryeh Carmell] with some of the questions on the Zohar, and he responded to me - 'and what about nikud? Nikud is also mentioned in the Zohar despite the fact that it [is] from Geonic times!' he said. I later found this comment in the Mitpachas Seforim. I would just add that not only is nikud mentioned, but only the Tiberian Nikkud - the norm in Europe of the middle ages - is mentioned and not the Yerushalmi nikud or the Babylonian one — which was used then in the Middle East, and is still used by Yemenites today. Also the Taamay Hamikrah - the trop - are referred to in the Zohar only by their Sefardi Names. Rav A told me a remarkable piece of testimony: 'My rebbe (this is how he generally refers to Rav E [Elijah Dessler]) accepted the possibility that the Zohar was written sometime in the 13th century.'" “Rav G [Gedaliah Nadel] told me that he was still unsure as to the origin and status of the Zohar, but told me it was my absolute right to draw any conclusions I saw ﬁt regarding both the Zohar and the Ari.” [25] “Sinai”. Daat.ac.il. Retrieved 2012-06-06. [26] Miller, Moshe (2012-02-07). “The Zohar’s Mysterious Origins”. Chabad.org. Retrieved 2012-06-06. [27] Dan, Joseph Kabbalah: a Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2006, p 22 [28] Doktór, Jan; Bendowska, Magda (2012). “Sefer haZohar – the Battle for Editio Princeps”. Jewish History Quarterly. 2 (242): 141–161. Retrieved 30 January 2014. [29] Much of the information on contents and sections of the Zohar is found in the book Ohr haZohar(‫)אור הזוהר‬ by Rabbi Yehuda Shalom Gross, in Hebrew, published by Mifal Zohar Hoilumi, Ramat Beth Shemesh, Israel, Heb. year 5761 (2001 CE); also available at http://israel613.com/HA-ZOHAR/OR_HAZOHAR_ 2.htm, accessed March 1, 2012; explicit permission is given in both the printed and electronic book “to whoever desires to print paragraphs from this book, or the entire book, in any language, in any country, in order to increase Torah and fear of Heaven in the world and to awaken hearts our brothers the children of Yisrael in complete teshuvah". [30] Hadrat Melekh on Sifra diTzni'uta, at the end of paragraph 1 [31] ‫ בסיום פירושו לספד"צ‬,‫זהר חי‬ [32] Zohar Vol. 3, Idra Rabba, p. 144a [33] Ohr haChamah laZohar, part 2, p. 115b, in the name of the Ramak [34] the Ramaz, brought in Mikdash Melekh laZohar, parashat Vayeira, Zalkova edition, p. 100

Platonic philosophy. (See A.E. Waite, The Holy Kabbalah: a study of the secret tradition in Israel, London 1924, reprinted 1996), p.71ﬀ. [37] Jacobs, Joseph; Broydé, Isaac. “Zohar”. Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk & Wagnalls Company. [38] True Monotheism: Jewish Consciousness from the World of Atzilut from inner.org [39] True Monotheism: The Jewish Three that are One from inner.org [40] Mystical Concepts in Chassidism: An introduction to kabbalistic concepts and doctrines, Jacob Immanuel Schochet, Kehot publications. Chapter on Shevirat HaKeilim etc. describes the Qliphoth side of impurity deriving from the Lurianic shattered vessels of Tohu, which acted independently of each other. The fallen vessels are nurtered externally by remnants of their light. The realm of evil is characterised by falsely feeling independent, through being unaware of its true Divine source of vitality on which it depends (external nurture) [41] “The Nicene Creed — Origins and Development | Traditional Christianity”. Traditionalchristianity.wordpress.com. 2011-10-05. Retrieved 2014-08-17. [42] “CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Monotheism”. Newadvent.org. 1911-10-01. Retrieved 2014-08-17. [43] “John 1 - Matthew Henry’s Commentary - Bible Commentary”. Christnotes.org. Retrieved 2014-08-17. [44] For example, Rabbi Aryeh Rosenfeld z"l instructed Rabbi Yaakov (Jeﬀrey) Siegel to learn Zohar while he was still single. (Correspondence with ~~~Nissimnanach)

8.10 Further reading • Beyer, Klaus. “Aramaic language, its distribution and subdivisions”. 1986. (from reference 2 above) • Tenen, Stan, Zohar, “B'reshit, and the Meru Hypothesis: Scholars debate the origins of Zohar”, Meru Foundation eTorus Newsletter #40, July 2007 • Blumenthal, David R. “Three is not enough: Jewish Reﬂections on Trinitarian Thinking”, in Ethical Monotheism, Past and Present: Essays in Honor of Wendell S. Dietrich, ed. T. Vial and M. Hadley (Providence, RI), Brown Judaic Studies: • The Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic, and Mysticism, Geoﬀrey Dennis, Llewellyn Worldwide, 2007

[35] According to Rabbi Yaakov Siegel, in an email dated February 29, 2012, to ~~Nissimnanach

• Studies in the Zohar, Yehuda Liebes (Author), SUNY Press, SUNY series in Judaica: Hermeneutics, Mysticism, and Religion, 1993

[36] For example, the Porta Coelorum of Rabbi Abraham Cohen Irira, which forms the third part of Rosenroth’s Apparatus in Librum Sohar, was written expressly to exhibit the correspondences between Kabbalistic dogmas and the

• “Challenging the Master: Moshe Idel’s critique of Gershom Scholem” Micha Odenheimer, MyJewishLearning.Com, Kabbalah and Mysticism

8.11. EXTERNAL LINKS • Scholem, Gershom, Zohar in Encyclopadeia Judaica, Keter Publishing • Scholem, Gershom, “Kabbalah” in Encyclopadeia Judaica, Keter Publishing • Margolies, Reuvein “Peninim U' Margolies” and “Nitzotzei Zohar” (Heb.), Mossad R' Kook • Luria, David “Kadmus Sefer Ha'Zohar” (Heb.) • Unterman, Alan Reinterpreting Mysticism and Messianism, MyJewishLearning.Com, Kabbalah and Mysticism • Adler, Jeremy, “Beyond the Law: the artistry and enduring counter-cultural power of the kabbala”, Times Literary Supplement 24 February 2006, reviewing: Daniel C Matt, translator The Zohar; Arthur Green A Guide to the Zohar; Moshe Idel Kabbalah and Eros.

8.11 External links • Zohar Pages in English, at ha-zohar.net, including the Introduction translated in English, and The Importance of Study of the Zohar, and more • The Zohar Code: The Temple Calendar of King Solomon • Zohar and Related Booklets in various formats in PDF files • Sefer haZohar, Mantua edition (1558), at the National Library of Israel, DjVu file • Sefer haZohar, Cremona edition (1559), at the National Library of Israel, DjVu file • Zohar text files (TXT HTML) among grimoar.cz Hebrew Kabbalistic texts collection • The Zohar in English: Bereshith to Lekh Lekha • The Zohar in English: some mystical sections • The Kabbalah Center translation of the Zohar • Original Zohar with Sulam Commentary • NOTES ON THE ZOHAR IN ENGLISH: An Extensive Bibliography • 7 brief video lectures about The Zohar from Kabbalah Education & Research Institute • Daily Zohar study of Tikunei Zohar in English • Zohar Complete English Translation • The Aramaic Language of the Zohar

Chapter 9

Talmud The Talmud (/ˈtɑːlmʊd, -məd, ˈtæl-/; Hebrew: ‫ַּתְלמּוד‬ talmūd “instruction, learning”, from a root LMD “teach, study”) is a central text of Rabbinic Judaism. It is also traditionally referred to as Shas (‫)ש״ס‬, a Hebrew abbreviation of sedarim shisha, the “six orders”, a reference to the six orders of the Mishnah. The term “Talmud” normally refers to the collection of writings named speciﬁcally the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli), although there is also an earlier collection known as the Jerusalem Talmud, or Palestinian Talmud[1] (Talmud Yerushalmi). When referring to post-biblical periods, namely those of the creation of the Talmud, the Talmudic academies and the Babylonian exilarchate, Jewish sources use the term “Babylonia” long after it had become obsolete in geopolitical terms.[2] The Talmud has two components: the Mishnah (Hebrew: ‫משנה‬, c. 200 CE), a written compendium of Rabbinic Judaism’s Oral Torah, and the Gemara (c. 500 CE), an elucidation of the Mishnah and related Tannaitic writings that often ventures onto other subjects and expounds broadly on the Hebrew Bible. “Talmud” translates literally as “instruction” in Hebrew, and the term may refer to either the Gemara alone, or the Mishnah and Gemara together. The entire Talmud consists of 63 tractates, and in standard print is over 6,200 pages long. It is written in Tannaitic Hebrew and Jewish Babylonian Aramaic and contains the teachings and opinions of thousands of rabbis (dating from before the Common Era through the ﬁfth century CE) on a variety of subjects, including Halakha (law), Jewish ethics, philosophy, customs, history, lore and many other topics. The Talmud is the basis for all codes of Jewish law, and is widely quoted in rabbinic literature.

9.1 History Main article: Oral Torah Originally, Jewish scholarship was oral. Rabbis expounded and debated the Torah (the written Torah expressed in the Hebrew Bible) and discussed the Tanakh without the beneﬁt of written works (other than the Biblical books themselves), though some may have made pri-

The ﬁrst page of the Vilna Edition of the Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Berachot, folio 2a.

vate notes (setarim megillot), for example of court decisions. This situation changed drastically, mainly as the result of the destruction of the Jewish commonwealth and the Second Temple in the year 70 CE and the consequent upheaval of Jewish social and legal norms. As the Rabbis were required to face a new reality—mainly Judaism without a Temple (to serve as the center of teaching and study) and Judea without at least partial autonomy—there was a ﬂurry of legal discourse and the old system of oral scholarship could not be maintained. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing.[3][4] The earliest recorded oral Torah may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Pentateuch. But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the

9.2. STRUCTURE

year 200 CE, when Rabbi Judah the Prince redacted the bates. Statements in the Mishnah are typically terse, Mishnah (‫)משנה‬. recording brief opinions of the rabbis debating a subject; The Oral Torah was far from monolithic; rather, it var- or recording only an unattributed ruling, apparently repied among various schools. The most famous two were resenting a consensus view. The rabbis recorded in the the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel. In gen- Mishnah are known as the Tannaim. eral, all valid opinions, even the non-normative ones, were Since it sequences its laws by subject matter instead of recorded in the Talmud. by biblical context, the Mishnah discusses individual subThe oldest full manuscript of the Talmud, known as the jects more thoroughly than the Midrash, and it includes Munich Talmud (Cod.hebr. 95), dates from 1342 and is a much broader selection of halakhic subjects than the Midrash. The Mishnah’s topical organization thus beavailable online. came the framework of the Talmud as a whole. But not every tractate in the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara. Also, the order of the tractates in the Talmud 9.2 Structure differs in some cases from that in the Mishnah. The structure of the Talmud follows that of the Mishnah, in which six orders (sedarim; singular: seder) of general subject matter are divided into 60 or 63 tractates (masekhtot; singular: masekhet) of more focused subject compilations, though not all tractates have Gemara. Each tractate is divided into chapters (perakim; singular: perek), 517 in total, that are both numbered according to the Hebrew alphabet and given names, usually using the first one or two words in the first mishnah. A perek may continue over several (up to tens of) pages.[5] Each perek will contain several mishnayot [6] with their accompanying exchanges that form the “building-blocks” of the Gemara; the name for a passage of gemara is a sugya (‫ ;סוגיא‬plural sugyot). A sugya, including baraita or tosefta, will typically comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of a Mishnaic statement, whether halakhic or aggadic. A sugya may, and often does, range widely off the subject of the mishnah. The sugya is not punctuated in the conventional sense used in the English language, but by using specific expressions that help to divide the sugya into components, usually including a statement, a question on the statement, an answer, a proof for the answer or a refutation of the answer with its own proof.

9.2.2 Baraita

In a given sugya, scriptural, Tannaic and Amoraic statements are cited to support the various opinions. In so doing, the Gemara will highlight semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim (often ascribing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question), and compare the Mishnaic views with passages from the Baraita. Rarely are debates formally closed; in some instances, the ﬁnal word determines the practical law, but in many instances the issue is left unresolved. There is a whole literature on the procedural principles to be used in settling the practical law when disagreements exist: see under #Logic and methodology below.

Main article: Gemara

Main article: Baraita In addition to the Mishnah, other tannaitic teachings were current at about the same time or shortly thereafter. The Gemara frequently refers to these tannaitic statements in order to compare them to those contained in the Mishnah and to support or refute the propositions of the Amoraim. All such non-Mishnaic tannaitic sources are termed baraitot (lit. outside material, “works external to the Mishnah"; sing. baraita ‫)ברייתא‬. The baraitot cited in the Gemara are often quotations from the Tosefta (a tannaitic compendium of halakha parallel to the Mishnah) and the Midrash halakha (specifically Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre). Some baraitot, however, are known only through traditions cited in the Gemara, and are not part of any other collection.

9.2.3 Gemara

In the three centuries following the redaction of the Mishnah, rabbis in Israel and Babylonia analyzed, debated, and discussed that work. These discussions form the Gemara (‫)גמרא‬. Gemara means “completion” (from the Hebrew gamar ‫גמר‬: “to complete”) or “learning” (from the Aramaic: “study”). The Gemara mainly focuses on elucidating and elaborating the opinions of the Tannaim. The rabbis of the Gemara are known as Amoraim (sing. Amora ‫)אמורא‬.

Much of the Gemara consists of legal analysis. The starting point for the analysis is usually a legal statement found in a Mishnah. The statement is then analyzed and com9.2.1 Mishnah pared with other statements used in diﬀerent approaches to Biblical exegesis in rabbinic Judaism (or - simpler Main article: Mishnah interpretation of text in Torah study) exchanges between two (frequently anonymous and sometimes metaphorical) The Mishnah is a compilation of legal opinions and de- disputants, termed the makshan (questioner) and tartzan

100

CHAPTER 9. TALMUD

(answerer). Another important function of Gemara is to identify the correct Biblical basis for a given law presented in the Mishnah and the logical process connecting one with the other: this activity was known as talmud long before the existence of the “Talmud” as a text.[7]

9.2.4

Halakha and Aggadah

The Talmud is a wide-ranging document that touches on a great many subjects. Traditionally Talmudic statements are classiﬁed into two broad categories, halakhic and aggadic statements. Halakhic statements directly relate to questions of Jewish law and practice (halakha). Aggadic statements are not legally related, but rather are exegetical, homiletical, ethical, or historical in nature.

9.2.5

Minor tractates

Main article: Minor tractate In addition to the six Orders, the Talmud contains a series of short treatises of a later date, usually printed at the end of Seder Nezikin. These are not divided into Mishnah and Gemara.

9.3 Bavli and Yerushalmi The process of “Gemara” proceeded in what were then the two major centers of Jewish scholarship, Galilee and Babylonia. Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called the Jerusalem Talmud or the Talmud Yerushalmi. It was compiled in the 4th century CE in Galilee. The Babylonian Talmud was compiled about the year 500, although it continued to be edited later. The word “Talmud”, when used without qualiﬁcation, usually refers to the Babylonian Talmud.

A page of a medieval Jerusalem Talmud manuscript, from the Cairo Geniza.

mitted orally for centuries prior to its compilation by Jewish scholars in the Land of Israel.[9] It is a compilation of teachings of the schools of Tiberias, Sepphoris and Caesarea. It is written largely in Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, a Western Aramaic language that differs from its Babylonian counterpart. This Talmud is a synopsis of the analysis of the Mishnah that was developed over the course of nearly 200 years by the Academies in Galilee (principally those of Tiberias and Caesarea.) Because of their location, the sages of these Academies devoted considerable attention to analysis of the agricultural laws of the Land of Israel. Traditionally, this Talmud was thought to have been redacted in about the year 350 by Rav Muna and Rav Yossi in the Land of Israel. It is traditionally known as the Talmud Yerushalmi (“Jerusalem Talmud”), but the name is a misnomer, as it was not prepared in Jerusalem. It has more accurately been called “The Talmud of the Land of Israel”.[10] Its final redaction probably belongs to the end of the 4th century, but the individual scholars who brought it to its present form cannot be fixed with assurance. By this time Christianity had become the state religion of the Roman Empire and Jerusalem the holy city of Christendom. In 325, Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, said “let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd.”[11] This policy made a Jew an outcast and pauper. The compilers of the Jerusalem Talmud consequently lacked the time to produce a work of the quality they had intended. The text is evidently incomplete and is not easy to follow.

While the editors of Jerusalem Talmud and Babylonian Talmud each mention the other community, most scholars believe these documents were written independently; Louis Jacobs writes, “If the editors of either had had access to an actual text of the other, it is inconceivable that they would not have mentioned this. Here the argument The apparent cessation of work on the Jerusalem Talmud in the 5th century has been associated with the decision from silence is very convincing.”[8] of Theodosius II in 425 to suppress the Patriarchate and put an end to the practice of semikhah, formal scholarly 9.3.1 Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Tal- ordination. Some modern scholars have questioned this connection: for more detail see Jerusalem Talmud: Place mud) and date of composition. Main article: Jerusalem Talmud The Jerusalem Talmud, also known as the Palestinian Talmud, or Talmuda de-Eretz Yisrael (Talmud of the Land of Israel), was one of the two compilations of Jewish religious teachings and commentary that was trans-

Despite its incomplete state, the Jerusalem Talmud remains an indispensable source of knowledge of the development of the Jewish Law in the Holy Land. It was also an important resource in the study of the Babylonian Talmud by the Kairouan school of Chananel ben Chushiel and

9.3. BAVLI AND YERUSHALMI

101

Nissim ben Jacob, with the result that opinions ultimately The question as to when the Gemara was finally put into based on the Jerusalem Talmud found their way into both its present form is not settled among modern scholars. the Tosafot and the Mishneh Torah of Maimonides. Some, like Louis Jacobs, argue that the main body of the Gemara is not simple reportage of conversations, as Following the formation of the modern state of Israel it purports to be, but a highly elaborate structure conthere is some interest in restoring Eretz Yisrael traditions. trived by the Savoraim, who must therefore be regarded For example, Rabbi David Bar-Hayim of the Makhon as the real authors. On this view the text did not reach Shilo institute has issued a siddur reflecting Eretz Yisits final form until around 700. Some modern scholars rael practice as found in the Jerusalem Talmud and other use the term Stammaim (from the Hebrew Stam, meansources. ing “closed”, “vague” or “unattributed”) for the authors of unattributed statements in the Gemara. (See eras within Jewish law.) 9.3.2 Babylonian Talmud

9.3.3 Comparison of style and subject matter There are significant differences between the two Talmud compilations. The language of the Jerusalem Talmud is a western Aramaic dialect, which differs from the form of Aramaic in the Babylonian Talmud. The Talmud Yerushalmi is often fragmentary and difficult to read, even for experienced Talmudists. The redaction of the Talmud Bavli, on the other hand, is more careful and precise. The law as laid down in the two compilations is basically similar, except in emphasis and in minor details. The Jerusalem Talmud has not received much attention from commentators, and such traditional commentaries A full set of the Babylonian Talmud. as exist are mostly concerned with comparing its teachThe Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli) consists of ings to those of the Talmud Bavli. documents compiled over the period of Late Antiquity Neither the Jerusalem nor the Babylonian Talmud covers (3rd to 5th centuries).[12] During this time the most im- the entire Mishnah: for example, a Babylonian Gemara portant of the Jewish centres in Mesopotamia, a region exists only for 37 out of the 63 tractates of the Mishnah. called “Babylonia” in Jewish sources and later known In particular: as Iraq, were Nehardea, Nisibis (modern Nusaybin), Mahoza (al-Mada'in, just to the south of what is now • The Jerusalem Talmud covers all the tractates of Baghdad), Pumbedita (near present-day al Anbar GovZeraim, while the Babylonian Talmud covers only ernorate), and the Sura Academy, probably located about tractate Berachot. The reason might be that most 60 km south of Baghdad.[13] laws from the Orders Zeraim (agricultural laws limited to the land of Israel) had little practiThe Babylonian Talmud comprises the Mishnah and the cal relevance in Babylonia and were therefore not Babylonian Gemara, the latter representing the culminaincluded.[16] The Jerusalem Talmud has a greater fotion of more than 300 years of analysis of the Mishnah in cus on the Land of Israel and the Torah's agricultural the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia. The foundations laws pertaining to the land because it was written in of this process of analysis were laid by Abba Arika, a disthe Land of Israel where the laws applied. ciple of Judah the Prince. Tradition ascribes the compilation of the Babylonian Talmud in its present form to two • The Jerusalem Talmud does not cover the Mishnaic Babylonian sages, Rav Ashi and Ravina II.[14] Rav Ashi order of Kodashim, which deals with sacrificial rites was president of the Sura Academy from 375-427. The and laws pertaining to the Temple, while the Babywork begun by Rav Ashi was completed by Ravina, who lonian Talmud does cover it. It is not clear why this is traditionally regarded as the final Amoraic expounder. is, as the laws were not directly applicable in either Accordingly, traditionalists argue that Ravina’s death in country following the Temple’s 70 CE destruction. 475 CE[15] is the latest possible date for the completion • In both Talmuds, only one tractate of Tohorot (ritual of the redaction of the Talmud. However, even on the purity laws) is examined, that of the menstrual laws, most traditional view a few passages are regarded as the Niddah. work of a group of rabbis who edited the Talmud after the end of the Amoraic period, known as the Savoraim or Rabbanan Savora'e (meaning “reasoners” or “consid- The Babylonian Talmud records the opinions of the raberers”). bis of the Ma'arava (the West, meaning Israel/Palestine)

102 as well as of those of Babylonia, while the Jerusalem Talmud only seldom cites the Babylonian rabbis. The Babylonian version also contains the opinions of more generations because of its later date of completion. For both these reasons it is regarded as a more comprehensive collection of the opinions available. On the other hand, because of the centuries of redaction between the composition of the Jerusalem and the Babylonian Talmud, the opinions of early amoraim might be closer to their original form in the Jerusalem Talmud.

CHAPTER 9. TALMUD

9.5.1 Bomberg Talmud 1523 The ﬁrst complete edition of the Babylonian Talmud was printed in Venice by Daniel Bomberg 1520–23. In addition to the Mishnah and Gemara, Bomberg’s edition contained the commentaries of Rashi and Tosafot. Almost all printings since Bomberg have followed the same pagination. Bomberg’s edition was considered relatively free of censorship.[19]

The influence of the Babylonian Talmud has been far greater than that of the Yerushalmi. In the main, this is because the influence and prestige of the Jewish community of Israel steadily declined in contrast with the Babylonian community in the years after the redaction of the Talmud and continuing until the Gaonic era. Furthermore, the editing of the Babylonian Talmud was superior to that of the Jerusalem version, making it more accessible and readily usable. According to Maimonides (whose life began almost a hundred years after the end of the Gaonic era), all Jewish communities during the Gaonic era formally accepted the Babylonian Talmud as binding upon themselves, and modern Jewish practice follows the Babylonian Talmud’s conclusions on all areas in which the two Talmuds conflict.

9.5.2 Benveniste Talmud 1645

This diﬀerence in language is due to the long time period elapsing between the two compilations. During the period of the Tannaim (rabbis cited in the Mishnah), the spoken vernacular of Jews in Judaea was a late form of Hebrew known as Rabbinic or Mishnaic Hebrew, whereas during the period of the Amoraim (rabbis cited in the Gemara), which began around 200 CE, the spoken vernacular was Aramaic. Hebrew continued to be used for the writing of religious texts, poetry, and so forth.[18]

9.5.4 Goldschmidt Talmud 1897–1909, and German translation

Following Ambrosius Frobenius's publication of most of the Talmud in installments in Basel, Immanuel Benveniste published the whole Talmud in installments in Amsterdam 1644–1648,[20] Though according to Raphael Rabbinovicz the Benveniste Talmud may have been based on the Lublin Talmud and included many of the censors’ errors.[21]

9.5.3 Vilna Talmud, 1835

The edition of the Talmud published by the Szapira brothers in Slavuta in 1795 is particularly prized by many rebbes of Hasidic Judaism. In 1835, after an acrimonious dispute with the Szapira family, a new edition of the Talmud was printed by Menachem Romm of Vilna. Known as the Vilna Edition Shas, this edition (and later 9.4 Language ones printed by his widow and sons, the Romm publishing house) has been used in the production of more recent Of the two main components of the Babylonian Talmud, editions of Talmud Bavli. the Mishnah is written in Mishnaic Hebrew. Within A page number in the Talmud refers to a double-sided the Gemara, the quotations from the Mishnah and the page, known as a daf; each daf has two amudim labeled ‫א‬ Baraitas and verses of Tanakh quoted and embedded in and ‫ב‬, sides A and B (Recto and Verso). The referencing the Gemara are in Hebrew. The rest of the Gemara, in- by daf is relatively recent and dates from the early Talmud cluding the discussions of the Amoraim and the overall printings of the 17th century. Earlier rabbinic literature framework, is in a characteristic dialect of Jewish Baby- generally only refers to the tractate or chapters within a lonian Aramaic.[17] There are occasional quotations from tractate. Nowadays, reference is made in format [Tractate older works in other dialects of Aramaic, such as Megillat daf a/b] (e.g. Berachot 23b). In the Vilna edition of the Taanit. Overall, Hebrew constitutes somewhat less than Talmud there are 5,894 folio pages. half of the text of the Talmud.

Lazarus Goldschmidt published an edition from the “uncensored text” of the Babylonian Talmud with a German translation in 9 vols. (commenced Leipzig, 1897–1909, edition completed, following emigration to England in 1933, by 1936).[22]

9.5.5 Critical editions

9.5 Printing

The text of the Vilna editions is considered by scholars not to be uniformly reliable, and there have been a number of attempts to collate textual variants.

9.6. TRANSLATIONS 1. In the early 20th century Nathan Rabinowitz published a series of volumes called Dikduke Soferim showing textual variants from early manuscripts and printings. 2. In 1960 work started on a new edition under the name of Gemara Shelemah (complete Gemara) under the editorship of Menachem Mendel Kasher: only the volume on the ﬁrst part of tractate Pesachim appeared before the project was interrupted by his death. This edition contained a comprehensive set of textual variants and a few selected commentaries. 3. Some thirteen volumes have been published by the Institute for the Complete Israeli Talmud (a division of Yad Harav Herzog), on lines similar to Rabinowitz, containing the text and a comprehensive set of textual variants (from manuscripts, early prints and citations in secondary literature) but no commentaries.[23]

103 historical, biographical and linguistic notes in modern English translation. Opened as a Hebrew book, this edition preserves the traditional Vilna page layout and includes vowels and punctuation; the Rashi commentary too is punctuated. Opened as an English book, this edition breaks down the Talmud text into small, thematic units and features the supplementary notes along the margins. • The Schottenstein Talmud, published by ArtScroll: the ﬁrst volume was published in 1990, and the series was completed in 2004. Each page is printed in the traditional Vilna format, and accompanied by an expanded paraphrase in English, in which the translation of the text is shown in bold and explanations are interspersed in normal type. • The Metivta edition, published by the Oz ve-Hadar Institute. This contains the full text in the same format as the Vilna-based editions, with a full explanation in modern Hebrew on facing pages as well as an improved version of the traditional commentaries.[28]

There have been critical editions of particular tractates (e.g. Henry Malter's edition of Ta'anit), but there is no modern critical edition of the whole Talmud. Modern • A previous project of the same kind, called Talmud editions such as those of the Oz ve-Hadar Institute correct El Am, “Talmud to the people”, was published in misprints and restore passages that in earlier editions were Israel in the 1960s-80s. The Talmud El Am contains modiﬁed or excised by censorship but do not attempt a Hebrew text, English translation and commentary by comprehensive account of textual variants. One edition, Rabbi Dr A. Ehrman, with short 'realia', marginal by Rabbi Yosef Amar,[24] represents the Yemenite tradinotes, often illustrated, written by experts in the ﬁeld tion, and takes the form of a photostatic reproduction of for the whole of Tractate Berakhot, 2 chapters of a Vilna-based print to which Yemenite vocalization and Bava Mezia and the halachic section of Qiddushin, textual variants have been added by hand, together with chapter 1. printed introductory material. Collations of the Yemenite manuscripts of some tractates have been published by See also under Translations, below. Columbia University.[25]

9.5.6

Editions for a wider audience

9.6 Translations

A number of editions have been aimed at bringing the 9.6.1 Talmud Bavli Talmud to a wider audience. The main ones are as folThere are six contemporary translations of the Talmud lows. into English: • The Steinsaltz Talmud, which contains the text with punctuation, detailed explanations and translation. The Steinsaltz Edition is available in two formats: one with the traditional Vilna page and one without. It is available in modern Hebrew (ﬁrst volume published 1969), English (ﬁrst volume published 1989), French, Russian and other languages. • In May 2012, Koren Publishers Jerusalem launched the new Koren Talmud Bavli, a new version of the Steinsaltz Talmud which features a new, modern English translation and the commentary of Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz. This edition won widespread praise as “America’s most important Jewish event”,[26] and for its “beautiful page” and “clean type”.[27] It includes color photos and illustrations, and Steinsaltz’s

• The Noé Edition of the Koren Talmud Bavli, Adin Steinsaltz, Koren Publishers Jerusalem. This work was launched in 2012. Opened from the Hebrew side, this edition features the traditional Vilna page with vowels and punctuation in the original Aramaic text. The Rashi commentary appears in Rashi script with vowels and punctuation. Opened from the English side, the edition features bi-lingual text with side-by-side English/Aramaic translation. The margins include color maps, illustrations and notes based on Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz’s Hebrew language translation and commentary of the Talmud. Rabbi Dr. Tzvi Hersh Weinreb serves as the Editor-inChief. As of August 2015, 19 volumes have been published. The entire set will be 42 volumes.

104

CHAPTER 9. TALMUD was until recently the only translation freely available on the Web (see below, under Full text resources). There is one translation of the Talmud into Arabic, published in 2012 in Jordan by the Center for Middle Eastern Studies. The translation was carried out by a group of 90 Muslim and Christian scholars.[29] The introduction was characterized by Dr. Raquel Ukeles, Curator of the Israel National Library’s Arabic collection, as “racist”, but she considers the translation itself as “not bad”.[30]

9.6.2 Talmud Yerushalmi

Koren Talmud Bavli

• The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition Adin Steinsaltz, Random House. This work is an English edition of Rabbi Steinsaltz' complete Hebrew language translation of and commentary on the entire Talmud. Incomplete—24 volumes and a reference guide. • Schottenstein Edition of the Talmud, Mesorah Publications (73 volumes). In this translation, each English page faces the Aramaic/Hebrew page. The English pages are elucidated and heavily annotated; each Aramaic/Hebrew page of Talmud typically requires three English pages of translation. Complete. • The Soncino Talmud, Isidore Epstein, Soncino Press (26 volumes; also formerly an 18 volume edition was published). Notes on each page provide additional background material. This translation is published both on its own and in a parallel text edition, in which each English page faces the Aramaic/Hebrew page. It is available also on CD-ROM. Complete. • The Talmud of Babylonia. An American Translation, Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, others. Atlanta: 1984-1995: Scholars Press for Brown Judaic Studies. Complete. • The Babylonian Talmud, translated by Michael L. Rodkinson. (1903, contains all of the tractates in the Orders of Mo'ed/Festivals and Nezikin/Damages, plus some additional material related to these Orders.) This is inaccurate and was wholly superseded by the Soncino translation: it is sometimes linked to from the internet because, for copyright reasons, it

• Talmud of the Land of Israel: A Preliminary Translation and Explanation Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, others. University of Chicago Press. This translation uses a form-analytical presentation that makes the logical units of discourse easier to identify and follow. This work has received many positive reviews. However, some consider Neusner’s translation methodology idiosyncratic. One volume was negatively reviewed by Saul Lieberman of the Jewish Theological Seminary. • Schottenstein Edition of the Yerushalmi Talmud Mesorah/Artscroll. This translation is the counterpart to Mesorah/Artscroll’s Schottenstein Edition of the Talmud (i.e. Babylonian Talmud). • The Jerusalem Talmud, Edition, Translation and Commentary, ed. Guggenheimer, Heinrich W., Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin, Germany • German Edition, Übersetzung des Talmud Yerushalmi, published by Martin Hengel, Peter Schäfer, Hans-Jürgen Becker, Frowald Gil Hüttenmeister, Mohr&Siebeck, Tübingen, Germany • Modern Elucidated Talmud Yerushalmi, ed. Joshua Buch. Uses the Leiden manuscript as its based text corrected according to manuscripts and Geniza Fragments. Draws upon Traditional and Modern Scholarship - www.talmudyerushalmi.org/ talmud-yerushalmi-mevoar/

9.7 Talmud scholarship From the time of its completion, the Talmud became integral to Jewish scholarship. A maxim in Pirkei Avot advocates its study from the age of 15.[31] This section outlines some of the major areas of Talmudic study.

9.7. TALMUD SCHOLARSHIP

9.7.1

Geonim

The earliest Talmud commentaries were written by the Geonim (c. 800 - 1000, CE) in Babylonia. Although some direct commentaries on particular treatises are extant, our main knowledge of Gaonic era Talmud scholarship comes from statements embedded in Geonic responsa that shed light on Talmudic passages: these are arranged in the order of the Talmud in Levin’s Otzar ha-Geonim. Also important are practical abridgments of Jewish law such as Yehudai Gaon's Halachot Pesukot, Achai Gaon's Sheeltot and Simeon Kayyara's Halachot Gedolot. After the death of Hai Gaon, however, the center of Talmud scholarship shifts to Europe and North Africa.

9.7.2

Halakhic and Aggadic extractions

One area of Talmudic scholarship developed out of the need to ascertain the Halakha. Early commentators such as Rabbi Isaac Alfasi (North Africa, 1013–1103) attempted to extract and determine the binding legal opinions from the vast corpus of the Talmud. Alfasi’s work was highly inﬂuential, attracted several commentaries in its own right and later served as a basis for the creation of halakhic codes. Another inﬂuential medieval Halakhic work following the order of the Babylonian Talmud, and to some extent modelled on Alfasi, was “the Mordechai", a compilation by Mordechai ben Hillel (c. 1250 – 1298). A third such work was that of Rabbi Asher ben Yechiel (d. 1327). All these works and their commentaries are printed in the Vilna and many subsequent editions of the Talmud.

105 argumentation and then explains abbreviated passages in the Talmud by cross-referring to parallel passages where the same thought is expressed in full. Commentaries (ḥiddushim) by Joseph ibn Migash on two tractates, Bava Batra and Shevuot, based on Ḥananel and Alfasi, also survive, as does a compilation by Zechariah Aghmati called Sefer ha-Ner.[32] Using a different style, Rabbi Nathan b. Jechiel created a lexicon called the Arukh in the 11th century to help translate difficult words. By far the best known commentary on the Babylonian Talmud is that of Rashi (Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac, 1040– 1105). The commentary is comprehensive, covering almost the entire Talmud. Written as a running commentary, it provides a full explanation of the words, and explains the logical structure of each Talmudic passage. It is considered indispensable to students of the Talmud. Medieval Ashkenazic Jewry produced another major commentary known as Tosafot (“additions” or “supplements”). The Tosafot are collected commentaries by various medieval Ashkenazic Rabbis on the Talmud (known as Tosafists or Ba'alei Tosafot). One of the main goals of the Tosafot is to explain and interpret contradictory statements in the Talmud. Unlike Rashi, the Tosafot is not a running commentary, but rather comments on selected matters. Often the explanations of Tosafot differ from those of Rashi. Among the founders of the Tosafist school were Rabbi Jacob ben Meir (known as Rabbeinu Tam), who was a grandson of Rashi, and, Rabbenu Tam’s nephew, Rabbi Isaac ben Samuel. The Tosafot commentaries were collected in different editions in the various schools. The benchmark collection of Tosafot for Northern France was that of R. Eliezer of Touques. The standard collection for Spain was that of Rabbenu Asher (“Tosefot Harosh”). The Tosafot that are printed in the standard Vilna edition of the Talmud are an edited version compiled from the various medieval collections, predominantly that of Touques.[33]

A 15th-century Spanish rabbi, Jacob ibn Habib (d. 1516), composed the Ein Yaakov. Ein Yaakov (or En Ya'aqob) extracts nearly all the Aggadic material from the Talmud. It was intended to familiarize the public with the ethical parts of the Talmud and to dispute many of the accusations surrounding its contents. Over time, the approach of the Tosafists spread to other Jewish communities, particularly those in Spain. This led to the composition of many other commentaries in 9.7.3 Commentaries similar styles. Among these are the commentaries of Nachmanides (Ramban), Solomon ben Adret (Rashba), Main article: Rabbinic literature Yom Tov of Seville (Ritva) and Nissim of Gerona (Ran). A comprehensive anthology consisting of extracts from The Talmud is often cryptic and difficult to understand. all these is the Shittah Mekubbetzet of Bezalel Ashkenazi. Its language contains many Greek and Persian words Other commentaries produced in Spain and Provence that became obscure over time. A major area of Talwere not influenced by the Tosafist style. Two of the mudic scholarship developed to explain these passages most significant of these are the Yad Ramah by Rabbi and words. Some early commentators such as Rabbenu Meir Abulafia and Bet Habechirah by Rabbi Menahem Gershom of Mainz (10th century) and Rabbenu Ḥananel haMeiri, commonly referred to as “Meiri”. While the Bet (early 11th century) produced running commentaries to Habechirah is extant for all of Talmud, we only have the various tractates. These commentaries could be read with Yad Ramah for Tractates Sanhedrin, Baba Batra and Gitthe text of the Talmud and would help explain the meantin. Like the commentaries of Ramban and the others, ing of the text. Another important work is the Sefer hathese are generally printed as independent works, though Mafteaḥ (Book of the Key) by Nissim Gaon, which consome Talmud editions include the Shittah Mekubbetzet in tains a preface explaining the different forms of Talmudic

106

CHAPTER 9. TALMUD

an abbreviated form.

9.7.5 Sephardic approaches

In later centuries, focus partially shifted from direct Talmudic interpretation to the analysis of previously written Talmudic commentaries. These later commentaries include “Maharshal” (Solomon Luria), “Maharam” (Meir Lublin) and "Maharsha" (Samuel Edels), and are generally printed at the back of each tractate.

Among Sephardi and Italian Jews from the 15th century on, some authorities sought to apply the methods of Aristotelian logic, as reformulated by Averroes.[35] This method was ﬁrst recorded, though without explicit reference to Aristotle, by Isaac Campanton (d. Spain, 1463) in his Darkhei ha-Talmud (“The Ways of the Talmud”),[36] Another very useful study aid, found in almost all edi- and is also found in the works of Moses Chaim Luztions of the Talmud, consists of the marginal notes Torah zatto.[37] Or, Ein Mishpat Ner Mitzvah and Masoret ha-Shas by the Italian rabbi Joshua Boaz, which give references respec- According to the present-day Sephardi scholar José Faur, Talmud study could take place on tively to the cited Biblical passages, to the relevant ha- traditional Sephardic [38] any of three levels. lachic codes and to related Talmudic passages. Most editions of the Talmud include brief marginal notes by Akiva Eger under the name Gilyonot ha-Shas, and textual notes by Joel Sirkes and the Vilna Gaon (see Textual emendations below), on the page together with the text.

9.7.4

Pilpul

During the 15th and 16th centuries, a new intensive form of Talmud study arose. Complicated logical arguments were used to explain minor points of contradiction within the Talmud. The term pilpul was applied to this type of study. Usage of pilpul in this sense (that of “sharp analysis”) harks back to the Talmudic era and refers to the intellectual sharpness this method demanded. Pilpul practitioners posited that the Talmud could contain no redundancy or contradiction whatsoever. New categories and distinctions (hillukim) were therefore created, resolving seeming contradictions within the Talmud by novel logical means. In the Ashkenazi world the founders of pilpul are generally considered to be Jacob Pollak (1460–1541) and Shalom Shachna. This kind of study reached its height in the 16th and 17th centuries when expertise in pilpulistic analysis was considered an art form and became a goal in and of itself within the yeshivot of Poland and Lithuania. But the popular new method of Talmud study was not without critics; already in the 15th century, the ethical tract Orhot Zaddikim (“Paths of the Righteous” in Hebrew) criticized pilpul for an overemphasis on intellectual acuity. Many 16th- and 17th-century rabbis were also critical of pilpul. Among them may be noted Judah Loew ben Bezalel (the Maharal of Prague), Isaiah Horowitz, and Yair Bacharach. By the 18th century, pilpul study waned. Other styles of learning such as that of the school of Elijah b. Solomon, the Vilna Gaon, became popular. The term “pilpul” was increasingly applied derogatorily to novellae deemed casuistic and hairsplitting. Authors referred to their own commentaries as “al derekh ha-peshat” (by the simple method) to contrast them with pilpul.[34]

• The most basic level consists of literary analysis of the text without the help of commentaries, designed to bring out the tzurata di-shema'ta, i.e. the logical and narrative structure of the passage.[39] • The intermediate level, 'iyyun (concentration), consists of study with the help of commentaries such as Rashi and the Tosafot, similar to that practised among the Ashkenazim.[40] Historically Sephardim studied the Tosefot ha-Rosh and the commentaries of Nahmanides in preference to the printed Tosafot.[41] A method based on the study of Tosafot, and of Ashkenazi authorities such as Maharsha (Samuel Edels) and Maharshal (Solomon Luria), was introduced in late seventeenth century Tunisia by Rabbis Abraham Hakohen (d. 1715) and Tsemaḥ Tsarfati (d. 1717) and perpetuated by Rabbi Isaac Lumbroso[42] and is sometimes referred to as 'Iyyun Tunisa'i.[43] • The highest level, halachah (Jewish law), consists of collating the opinions set out in the Talmud with those of the halachic codes such as the Mishneh Torah and the Shulchan Aruch, so as to study the Talmud as a source of law. (A project called Halacha Brura,[44] founded by Abraham Isaac Kook, presents the Talmud and a summary of the halachic codes side by side in book form so as to enable this kind of collation.) Today most Sephardic yeshivot follow Lithuanian approaches such as the Brisker method: the traditional Sephardic methods are perpetuated informally by some individuals. 'Iyyun Tunisa'i is taught at the Kisse Rahamim yeshivah in Bnei Brak.

9.7.6 Brisker method In the late 19th century another trend in Talmud study arose. Rabbi Hayyim Soloveitchik (1853–1918) of Brisk (Brest-Litovsk) developed and reﬁned this style of study. Brisker method involves a reductionistic analysis of rabbinic arguments within the Talmud or among

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the Rishonim, explaining the diﬀering opinions by placing them within a categorical structure. The Brisker method is highly analytical and is often criticized as being a modern-day version of pilpul. Nevertheless, the inﬂuence of the Brisker method is great. Most modern day Yeshivot study the Talmud using the Brisker method in some form. One feature of this method is the use of Maimonides' Mishneh Torah as a guide to Talmudic interpretation, as distinct from its use as a source of practical halakha.

The emendations of Yoel Sirkis and the Vilna Gaon are included in all standard editions of the Talmud, in the form of marginal glosses entitled Hagahot ha-Bach and Hagahot ha-Gra respectively; further emendations by Solomon Luria are set out in commentary form at the back of each tractate. The Vilna Gaon’s emendations were often based on his quest for internal consistency in the text rather than on manuscript evidence;[47] nevertheless many of the Gaon’s emendations were later verified by textual critics, such as Solomon Schechter, who had Cairo Genizah texts with which to compare our standard Rival methods were those of the Mir and Telz editions.[48] [45] yeshivas. In the 19th century Raphael Nathan Nota Rabinovicz published a multi-volume work entitled Dikdukei Soferim, showing textual variants from the Munich and other early 9.7.7 Critical method manuscripts of the Talmud, and further variants are As a result of Jewish emancipation, Judaism underwent recorded in the Complete Israeli Talmud and Gemara enormous upheaval and transformation during the 19th Shelemah editions (see Printing, above). century. Modern methods of textual and historical anal- Today many more manuscripts have become available, ysis were applied to the Talmud. in particular from the Cairo Geniza. The Academy of Textual emendations The text of the Talmud has been subject to some level of critical scrutiny throughout its history. Rabbinic tradition holds that the people cited in both Talmuds did not have a hand in its writings; rather, their teachings were edited into a rough form around 450 CE (Talmud Yerushalmi) and 550 CE (Talmud Bavli.) The text of the Bavli especially was not firmly fixed at that time.

the Hebrew Language has prepared a text on CD-ROM for lexicographical purposes, containing the text of each tractate according to the manuscript it considers most reliable,[49] and images of some of the older manuscripts may be found on the website of the Jewish National and University Library.[50] The JNUL, the Lieberman Institute (associated with the Jewish Theological Seminary of America), the Institute for the Complete Israeli Talmud (part of Yad Harav Herzog) and the Friedberg Jewish Manuscript Society all maintain searchable websites on which the viewer can request variant manuscript readings of a given passage.[51]

The Gaonic responsa literature addresses this issue. Teshuvot Geonim Kadmonim, section 78, deals with misFurther variant readings can often be gleaned from citaken biblical readings in the Talmud. This Gaonic retations in secondary literature such as commentaries, sponsum states: in particular those of Alfasi, Rabbenu Ḥananel and Aghmati, and sometimes the later Spanish commentators "...But you must examine carefully in such as Nachmanides and Solomon ben Adret. every case when you feel uncertainty [as to the credibility of the text] - what is its source? 9.7.8 Historical analysis, and higher texWhether a scribal error? Or the superficiality tual criticism of a second rate student who was not well versed?....after the manner of many mistakes Historical study of the Talmud can be used to investigate found among those superficial second-rate a variety of concerns. One can ask questions such as: students, and certainly among those rural Do a given section’s sources date from its editor’s lifememorizers who were not familiar with the time? To what extent does a section have earlier or later biblical text. And since they erred in the first sources? Are Talmudic disputes distinguishable along place....[they compounded the error.] theological or communal lines? In what ways do different — Teshuvot Geonim Kadmonim, Ed. Cassel, sections derive from different schools of thought within Berlin 1858, Photographic reprint Tel Aviv early Judaism? Can these early sources be identified, and 1964, 23b. if so, how? Investigation of questions such as these are known as higher textual criticism. (The term “criticism”, In the early medieval era, Rashi concluded that some it should be noted, is a technical term denoting academic statements in the extant text of the Talmud were inser- study.) tions from later editors. On Shevuot 3b Rashi writes “A Religious scholars still debate the precise method by mistaken student wrote this in the margin of the Talmud, which the text of the Talmuds reached their final form. and copyists {subsequently} put it into the Gemara.”[46] Many believe that the text was continuously smoothed

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over by the savoraim.

the Gemara has had changes and additions, and contains In the 1870s and 1880s Rabbi Raphael Natan Nata Rab- statements not of the same origin as the original. See his binovitz engaged in historical study of Talmud Bavli in Yehi Yosef (Jerusalem, 1991) p. 132 “This passage does his Diqduqei Soferim. Since then many Orthodox rab- not bear the signature of the editor of the Talmud!" bis have approved of his work, including Rabbis Shlomo Orthodox scholar Daniel Sperber writes in “Legitimacy, Kluger, Yoseph Shaul Ha-Levi Natanzohn, Yaaqov Et- of Necessity, of Scientific Disciplines” that many Orthotlinger, Isaac Elhanan Spektor and Shimon Sofer. dox sources have engaged in the historical (also called During the early 19th century, leaders of the newly “scientific”) study of the Talmud. As such, the divide toevolving Reform movement, such as Abraham Geiger day between Orthodoxy and Reform is not about whether and Samuel Holdheim, subjected the Talmud to severe the Talmud may be subjected to historical study, but scrutiny as part of an effort to break with traditional rab- rather about the theological and halakhic implications of binic Judaism. They insisted that the Talmud was en- such study. tirely a work of evolution and development. This view was rejected as both academically incorrect, and reli- 9.7.9 Contemporary scholarship giously incorrect, by those who would become known as the Orthodox movement. Some Orthodox leaders such as Some trends within contemporary Talmud scholarship Moses Sofer (the Chatam Sofer) became exquisitely sen- are listed below. sitive to any change and rejected modern critical methods of Talmud study. • Orthodox Judaism maintains that the oral Torah was revealed, in some form, together with the writSome rabbis advocated a view of Talmudic study that ten Torah. As such, some adherents, most notably they held to be in-between the Reformers and the OrSamson Raphael Hirsch and his followers, resisted thodox; these were the adherents of positive-historical any effort to apply historical methods that imputed Judaism, notably Nachman Krochmal and Zecharias specific motives to the authors of the Talmud. Other Frankel. They described the Oral Torah as the result of major figures in Orthodoxy, however, took issue a historical and exegetical process, emerging over time, with Hirsch on this matter, most prominently David through the application of authorized exegetical techTzvi Hoffmann.[52] niques, and more importantly, the subjective dispositions and personalities and current historical conditions, by • Some scholars hold that there has been extensive edlearned sages. This was later developed more fully in the itorial reshaping of the stories and statements within five volume work Dor Dor ve-Dorshav by Isaac Hirsch the Talmud. Lacking outside confirming texts, they Weiss. (See Jay Harris Guiding the Perplexed in the Modhold that we cannot confirm the origin or date of ern Age Ch. 5) Eventually their work came to be one of most statements and laws, and that we can say little the formative parts of Conservative Judaism. for certain about their authorship. In this view, the Another aspect of this movement is reflected in Graetz's questions above are impossible to answer. See, for History of the Jews. Graetz attempts to deduce the perexample, the works of Louis Jacobs and Shaye J.D. sonality of the Pharisees based on the laws or aggadot that Cohen. they cite, and show that their personalities influenced the • Some scholars hold that the Talmud has been extenlaws they expounded. sively shaped by later editorial redaction, but that it The leader of Orthodox Jewry in Germany Samson contains sources we can identify and describe with Raphael Hirsch, while not rejecting the methods of scholsome level of reliability. In this view, sources can be arship in principle, hotly contested the findings of the identified by tracing the history and analyzing the Historical-Critical method. In a series of articles in his geographical regions of origin. See, for example, magazine Jeschurun (reprinted in Collected Writings Vol. the works of Lee I. Levine and David Kraemer. 5) Hirsch reiterated the traditional view, and pointed out • Some scholars hold that many or most the statements what he saw as numerous errors in the works of Graetz, and events described in the Talmud usually occurred Frankel and Geiger. more or less as described, and that they can be used On the other hand, many of the 19th century’s strongest as serious sources of historical study. In this view, critics of Reform, including strictly orthodox Rabbis historians do their best to tease out later editorial such as Zvi Hirsch Chajes, utilized this new scientific additions (itself a very difficult task) and skeptically method. The Orthodox Rabbinical seminary of Azriel view accounts of miracles, leaving behind a reliHildesheimer was founded on the idea of creating a “harable historical text. See, for example, the works of mony between Judaism and science”. Another Orthodox Saul Lieberman, David Weiss Halivni, and Avraham pioneer of scientific Talmud study was David Zvi HoffGoldberg. man. • Modern academic study attempts to separate the difThe Iraqi rabbi Yaakov Chaim Sofer notes that the text of ferent “strata” within the text, to try to interpret

9.8. ROLE IN JUDAISM each level on its own, and to identify the correlations between parallel versions of the same tradition. In recent years, the works of R. David Weiss Halivni and Dr. Shamma Friedman have suggested a paradigm shift in the understanding of the Talmud (Encyclopaedia Judaica 2nd ed. entry “Talmud, Babylonian”). The traditional understanding was to view the Talmud as a unified homogeneous work. While other scholars had also treated the Talmud as a multi-layered work, Dr. Halivni’s innovation (primarily in the second volume of his Mekorot u-Mesorot) was to differentiate between the Amoraic statements, which are generally brief Halachic decisions or inquiries, and the writings of the later “Stammaitic” (or Saboraic) authors, which are characterised by a much longer analysis that often consists of lengthy dialectic discussion. It has been noted that the Jerusalem Talmud is in fact very similar to the Babylonian Talmud minus Stammaitic activity (Encyclopaedia Judaica (2nd ed.), entry “Jerusalem Talmud”). Shamma Y. Friedman’s Talmud Aruch on the sixth chapter of Bava Metzia (1996) is the first example of a complete analysis of a Talmudic text using this method. S. Wald has followed with works on Pesachim ch. 3 (2000) and Shabbat ch. 7 (2006). Further commentaries in this sense are being published by Dr Friedman’s “Society for the Interpretation of the Talmud”.[53] • Some scholars are indeed using outside sources to help give historical and contextual understanding of certain areas of the Babylonian Talmud. See for example the works of the Prof Yaakov Elman[54] and of his student Dr. Shai Secunda[55]

9.8 Role in Judaism The Talmud represents the written record of an oral tradition. It became the basis for many rabbinic legal codes and customs, most importantly for the Mishneh Torah and for the Shulchan Aruch. Orthodox and, to a lesser extent, Conservative Judaism accepts the Talmud as authoritative, while Samaritan, Karaite, Reconstructionist, and Reform Judaism do not. This section brieﬂy outlines past and current movements and their view of the Talmud’s role.

9.8.1

Sadducees

The Jewish sect of the Sadducees ﬂourished during the Second Temple period. Principal distinctions between them and the Pharisees (later known as Rabbinic Judaism) involved their rejection of an Oral Torah and their denying a resurrection after death.

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9.8.2 Karaism Another movement that rejected the oral Torah was Karaism. It arose within two centuries of the completion of the Talmud. Karaism developed as a reaction against the Talmudic Judaism of Babylonia. The central concept of Karaism is the rejection of the Oral Torah, as embodied in the Talmud, in favor of a strict adherence to the Written Torah only. This opposes the fundamental Rabbinic concept that the Oral Torah was given to Moses on Mount Sinai together with the Written Torah. Some later Karaites took a more moderate stance, allowing that some element of tradition (called sevel ha-yerushah, the burden of inheritance) is admissible in interpreting the Torah and that some authentic traditions are contained in the Mishnah and the Talmud, though these can never supersede the plain meaning of the Written Torah.

9.8.3 Reform Judaism The rise of Reform Judaism during the 19th century saw more questioning of the authority of the Talmud. Reform Jews saw the Talmud as a product of late antiquity, having relevance merely as a historical document. For example, the “Declaration of Principles” issued by the Association of Friends of Reform Frankfurt in August 1843 states among other things that: The collection of controversies, dissertations, and prescriptions commonly designated by the name Talmud possesses for us no authority, from either the dogmatic or the practical standpoint. Some took a critical-historical view of the written Torah as well, while others appeared to adopt a neo-Karaite “back to the Bible” approach, though often with greater emphasis on the prophetic than on the legal books.

9.8.4 Humanistic Judaism Within Humanistic Judaism, Talmud is studied as a historical text, in order to discover how it can demonstrate practical relevance to living today.[56]

9.8.5 Present day See also Halakha: Views today and Halakha: The sources and process of Halakha. Orthodox Judaism continues to stress the importance of Talmud study as a central component of Yeshiva curriculum, in particular for those training to become Rabbis. This is so even though Halakha is generally studied from the medieval codes and not directly from the Talmud.

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Talmudic study amongst the laity is widespread in Orthodox Judaism, with daily or weekly Talmud study particularly common in Haredi Judaism and with Talmud study a central part of the curriculum in Orthodox Yeshivas and day schools. The regular study of Talmud among laymen has been popularized by the Daf Yomi, a daily course of Talmud study initiated by Rabbi Meir Shapiro in 1923; its 13th cycle of study began on August, 2012. The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute has popularized the “MyShiur Explorations in Talmud” to show how the Talmud is relevant to a wide range of people.[57]

• Samuel Hirszenberg, Talmudic School, c. 18951908.

Conservative Judaism similarly emphasizes the study of Talmud within its religious and rabbinic education. Generally, however, Conservative Jews study the Talmud as a historical source-text for Halakha. The Conservative approach to legal decision-making emphasizes placing classic texts and prior decisions in historical and cultural context, and examining the historical development of Halakha. This approach has resulted in greater practical ﬂexibility than that of the Orthodox. Talmud study forms part of the curriculum of Conservative parochial education at many Conservative day-schools, and an increase in Conservative day-school enrollments has resulted in an increase in Talmud study as part of Conservative Jewish education among a minority of Conservative Jews. See also: The Conservative Jewish view of the Halakha.

• Hilel’s Teachings, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah

• Adolf Behrman, Talmudists, c. 1910-1915 • Ephraim Moses Lilien, The Talmud Students, engraving, 1915 • Maurycy Trębacz, The Dispute, c. 1920-1940 • Solomon’s Haggadoth, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah, Jerusalem, by Benno Elkan, 1956.

• Jewish Mysticism: Jochanan ben Sakkai, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah

9.10 Other contexts The study of Talmud is not restricted to those of the Jewish religion and has attracted interest in other cultures. Christian scholars have long expressed an interest in the study of Talmud which has helped illuminate their own scriptures. Talmud contains biblical exegesis and commentary on Tanakh that will often clarify elliptical and esoteric passages. The Talmud contains possible references to Jesus Christ and his disciples, while the Christian canon makes mention of Talmudic ﬁgures and contains teachings that can be paralleled within the Talmud and Midrash. The Talmud provides cultural and historical context to the Gospel and the writings of the Apostles.[58]

Reform Judaism does not emphasize the study of Talmud to the same degree in their Hebrew schools, but they do teach it in their rabbinical seminaries; the world view of liberal Judaism rejects the idea of binding Jewish law, and uses the Talmud as a source of inspiration and moral instruction. Ownership and reading of the Talmud is not widespread among Reform and Reconstructionist Jews, who usually place more emphasis on the study of the He- South Koreans reportedly hope to emulate Jews’ high acabrew Bible or Tanakh. demic standards by studying Jewish literature. Almost every household has a translated copy of a book they call “Talmud”, which parents read to their children, and 9.9 Talmud in the visual arts the book is part of the primary-school curriculum.[59][60] The “Talmud” in this case is usually one of several possible volumes, the earliest translated into Korean from 9.9.1 In Carl Schleicher’s paintings the Japanese. The original Japanese books were creRabbis and talmudists studying and debating Talmud ated through the collaboration of Japanese writer Hideaki abound in the art of Austrian painter Carl Schleicher Kase and Marvin Tokayer, an Orthodox American rabbi serving in Japan in the 1960s and 70s. The first collab(1825-1903); active in Vienna, esp. c. 1859–1871. orative book was 5,000 Years of Jewish Wisdom: Secrets of the Talmud Scriptures, created over a three-day period • Jewish Scene II in 1968 and published in 1971. The book contains actual • A Controversy Whatsoever on Talmud.[1] stories from the Talmud, proverbs, ethics, Jewish legal material, biographies of Talmudic rabbis, and personal • At the Rabbi’s. stories about Tokayer and his family. Tokayer and Kase • Jewish Scene I. published a number of other books on Jewish themes together in Japanese.[61] 1. ^ See Schleicher’s paintings at MutualArt. The first South Korean publication of 5,000 Years of Jewish Wisdom was in 1974, by Tae Zang publishing house. Many different editions followed in both Korea 9.9.2 Talmud in Jewish art and China, often by black-market publishers. Between • Jews studying Talmud, París, c. 1880-1905 2007 and 2009, Reverend Yong-soo Hyun of the Shema

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Yisrael Educational Institute published a 6-volume edition of the Korean Talmud, bringing together material from a variety of Tokayer’s earlier books. He worked with Tokayer to correct errors and Tokayer is listed as the author. Tutoring centers based on this and other works called “Talmud” for both adults and children are popular in Korea and “Talmud” books (all based on Tokayer’s works and not the original Talmud) are widely read and known.[61]

to Pope Gregory IX by translating a series of blasphemous passages about Jesus, Mary or Christianity. There is a quoted Talmudic passage, for example, where Jesus of Nazareth is sent to Hell to be boiled in excrement for eternity. Donin also selected an injunction of the Talmud that permits Jews to kill non-Jews. This led to the Disputation of Paris, which took place in 1240 at the court of Louis IX of France, where four rabbis, including Yechiel of Paris and Moses ben Jacob of Coucy, defended the Talmud against the accusations of Nicholas Donin. The translation of the Talmud from Hebrew to non-Jewish languages stripped Jewish discourse from its 9.11 Criticism covering, something that was resented by Jews as a profound violation.[85] The Disputation of Paris led to the Historian Michael Levi Rodkinson, in his book The condemnation and the first burning of copies of the TalHistory of the Talmud, wrote that detractors of the mud in Paris in 1242.[86][87][88] The burning of copies of Talmud, both during and subsequent to its formation, the Talmud continued.[89] “have varied in their character, objects and actions” and the book documents a number of critics and per- The Talmud was likewise the subject of the Disputation secutors, including Nicholas Donin, Johannes Pfeffer- of Barcelona in 1263 between Nahmanides (Rabbi Moses korn, Johann Andreas Eisenmenger, the Frankists, and ben Nahman) and Christian convert, Pablo Christiani. August Rohling.[62] Many attacks come from antisemitic This same Pablo Christiani made an attack on the Talsources, particularly Christians such as Justinas Pranaitis, mud that resulted in a papal bull against the Talmud and Elizabeth Dilling or David Duke. Criticisms also arise in the first censorship, which was undertaken at Barcelona from Muslim sources,[63][64][65] Jewish sources,[66] and by a commission of Dominicans, who ordered the cancelobjectionable from a Christian atheists and skeptics.[67] Accusations against the Talmud lation of passages deemed [90][91] perspective (1264). [62][68][69][70][71][72][73] include alleged: At the Disputation of Tortosa in 1413, Geronimo de [74][75][76][77] Santa Fé brought forward a number of accusations, in1. Anti-Christian or anti-Gentile content cluding the fateful assertion that the condemnations of “pagans,” “heathens,” and “apostates” found in the Tal2. Absurd or sexually immoral content[78] mud were in reality veiled references to Christians. These 3. Falsification of scripture[79][80][81] assertions were denied by the Jewish community and its scholars, who contended that Judaic thought made a sharp Defenders of the Talmud argue that many of these criti- distinction between those classified as heathen or pagan, cisms, particularly those in antisemitic sources, are based being polytheistic, and those who acknowledge one true on quotations that are taken out of context, and thus mis- God (such as the Christians) even while worshipping the represent the meaning of the Talmud’s text. Sometimes true monotheistic God incorrectly. Thus, Jews viewed the the misrepresentation is deliberate, and other times sim- Christians as misguided and in error, but not among [91] “heathens” or “pagans” discussed in the Talmud. ply due to an inability to grasp the subtle and sometimes confusing narratives in the Talmud. Some quotations pro- Both Pablo Christiani and Geronimo de Santa Fé, in addivided by critics deliberately omit passages in order to gen- tion to criticizing the Talmud, also regarded it as a source erate quotes that appear to be offensive or insulting.[82][83] of authentic traditions, some of which could be used as arguments in favour of Christianity. Examples of such traditions were statements that the Messiah was born around 9.11.1 Middle Ages the time of the destruction of the Temple, and that the Messiah sat at the right hand of God.[92] At the very time that the Babylonian savoraim put the In 1415, Antipope Benedict XIII, who had convened finishing touches to the redaction of the Talmud, the the Tortosa disputation, issued a papal bull (which was emperor Justinian issued his edict against deuterosis (doudestined, however, to remain inoperative) forbidding the bling, repetition) of the Hebrew Bible.[84] It is disputed Jews to read the Talmud, and ordering the destruction whether, in this context, deuterosis means “Mishnah” or of all copies of it. Far more important were the charges "Targum": in patristic literature, the word is used in both made in the early part of the 16th century by the consenses. vert Johannes Pfefferkorn, the agent of the Dominicans. Full-scale attacks on the Talmud took place in the 13th The result of these accusations was a struggle in which century in France, where Talmudic study was then flour- the emperor and the pope acted as judges, the advocate ishing. In the 1230s, Nicholas Donin, a Jewish convert of the Jews being Johann Reuchlin, who was opposed by to Christianity, pressed 35 charges against the Talmud

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the obscurantists; and this controversy, which was carried 9.11.2 19th century and after on for the most part by means of pamphlets, became in The Vilna edition of the Talmud was subject to Russian the eyes of some a precursor of the Reformation.[91][93] government censorship, or self-censorship to meet govAn unexpected result of this affair was the complete ernment expectations, though this was less severe than printed edition of the Babylonian Talmud issued in 1520 some previous attempts: the title “Talmud” was retained by Daniel Bomberg at Venice, under the protection of a and the tractate Avodah Zarah was included. Most mod[94] Three years later, in 1523, Bomberg papal privilege. ern editions are either copies of or closely based on the published the first edition of the Jerusalem Talmud. AfVilna edition, and therefore still omit most of the dister thirty years the Vatican, which had first permitted the puted passages. Although they were not available for Talmud to appear in print, undertook a campaign of demany generations, the removed sections of the Talmud, struction against it. On the New Year, Rosh Hashanah Rashi, Tosafot and Maharsha were preserved through (September 9, 1553) the copies of the Talmud confisrare printings of lists of errata, known as Chesronos cated in compliance with a decree of the Inquisition were Hashas (“Omissions of the Talmud”).[101] Many of these burned at Rome, in Campo dei Fiori (auto de fé). Other censored portions were recovered ironically enough from burnings took place in other Italian cities, such as the uncensored manuscripts in the Vatican Library. Some one instigated by Joshua dei Cantori at Cremona in 1559. modern editions of the Talmud contain some or all of this Censorship of the Talmud and other Hebrew works was material, either at the back of the book, in the margin, or introduced by a papal bull issued in 1554; five years later in its original location in the text.[102] the Talmud was included in the first Index Expurgatorius; and Pope Pius IV commanded, in 1565, that the Talmud In 1830, during a debate in the French Chamber of Peers be deprived of its very name. The convention of referring regarding state recognition of the Jewish faith, Admito the work as “Shas” (shishah sidre Mishnah) instead of ral Verhuell declared himself unable to forgive the Jews whom he had met during his travels throughout the world “Talmud” dates from this time.[95] either for their refusal to recognize Jesus as the Messiah The first edition of the expurgated Talmud, on which or for their possession of the Talmud.[103] In the same most subsequent editions were based, appeared at Basel year the Abbé Chiarini published at Paris a voluminous (1578–1581) with the omission of the entire treatise work entitled “Théorie du Judaïsme,” in which he anof 'Abodah Zarah and of passages considered inimical nounced a translation of the Talmud, advocating for the to Christianity, together with modifications of certain first time a version that would make the work generally phrases. A fresh attack on the Talmud was decreed by accessible, and thus serve for attacks on Judaism: only Pope Gregory XIII (1575–85), and in 1593 Clement VIII two out of the projected six volumes of this translation renewed the old interdiction against reading or owning appeared.[104] In a like spirit 19th-century anti-Semitic it. The increasing study of the Talmud in Poland led agitators often urged that a translation be made; and this to the issue of a complete edition (Kraków, 1602-5), demand was even brought before legislative bodies, as in with a restoration of the original text; an edition conVienna. The Talmud and the “Talmud Jew” thus became taining, so far as known, only two treatises had previobjects of anti-Semitic attacks, for example in August ously been published at Lublin (1559–76). In 1707 some Rohling's Der Talmudjude (1871), although, on the other copies of the Talmud were confiscated in the province of hand, they were defended by many Christian students of Brandenburg, but were restored to their owners by comthe Talmud, notably Hermann Strack.[105] mand of Frederick, the first king of Prussia. A further attack on the Talmud took place in Poland (in what is now Further attacks from anti-Semitic sources include Ukrainian territory) in 1757, when Bishop Dembowski, Justinas Pranaitis' The Talmud Unmasked: The Secret at the instigation of the Frankists, convened a public dis- Rabbinical Teachings Concerning Christians (1892)[106] putation at Kamianets-Podilskyi, and ordered all copies and Elizabeth Dilling's The Plot against Christianity of the work found in his bishopric to be confiscated and (1964).[107] The criticisms of the Talmud in many modern pamphlets and websites are often recognisable burned.[96] as verbatim quotes from one or other of these. The external history of the Talmud includes also the literary attacks made upon it by some Christian theologians after the Reformation, since these onslaughts on 9.11.3 Contemporary accusations Judaism were directed primarily against that work, the leading example being Eisenmenger's Entdecktes Juden- Criticism of the Talmud is widespread, in great part thum (Judaism Unmasked) (1700).[97][98][99] In contrast, through the internet.[108] The Anti-Defamation League's the Talmud was a subject of rather more sympathetic report on this topic states that antisemitic critics of the study by many Christian theologians, jurists and Orien- Talmud frequently use erroneous translations or selective talists from the Renaissance on, including Johann Reuch- quotations in order to distort the meaning of the Talmud’s lin, John Selden, Petrus Cunaeus, John Lightfoot and text, and sometimes fabricate passages. In addition, the Johannes Buxtorf father and son.[100] attackers rarely provide full context of the quotations, and fail to provide contextual information about the culture

9.13. NOTES that the Talmud was composed in, nearly 2,000 years ago.[109] One such example concerns the line “If a Jew be called upon to explain any part of the rabbinic books, he ought to give only a false explanation. Who ever will violate this order shall be put to death.” alleged to be a quote from a book titled Libbre David (alternatively Livore David). No such book exists in the Talmud or elsewhere.[110] The title is assumed to be a corruption of Dibre David, a work published in 1671.[111] Reference to the quote is found in an early Holocaust Denial book, The Six Million Reconsidered by William Grimstad.[112] Gil Student, an internet author, states that many attacks on the Talmud are merely recycling discredited material that originated in the 13th-century disputations, particularly from Raymond Marti and Nicholas Donin, and that the criticisms are based on quotations taken out of context, and are sometimes entirely fabricated.[113]

9.12 See also • Baraita • Daf Yomi • Ein Yaakov • Hadran (Talmud) • Jesus in the Talmud • List of logical arguments in the Talmud • Minor Tractates • Rashi • Shas Pollak • Siyum • Siyum HaShas • Talmudic Academies in Babylonia • Talmudic Academies in Syria Palaestina • Talmudical hermeneutics

9.13 Notes [1] Goldberg, Abraham (1987). “The Palestinian Talmud”. In Safrai, Shmuel. The Literature of the Jewish People in the Period of the Second Temple and the Talmud, Volume 3 The Literature of the Sages. Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004275133_008. [2] Morris Jastrow, Jr., Robert W. Rogers, Richard Gottheil, Samuel Krauss (1901–1906). Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk and Wagnalls. Retrieved 17 September 2015. The Talmud gives the boundaries of as much of Babylonia as contained Jewish residents

113

[3] See, Strack, Hermann, Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash, Jewish Publication Society, 1945. pp.11-12. "[The Oral Torah] was handed down by word of mouth during a long period...The first attempts to write down the traditional matter, there is reason to believe, date from the first half of the second post-Christian century.” Strack theorizes that the growth of a Christian canon (the New Testament) was a factor that influenced the Rabbis to record the oral Torah in writing. [4] The theory that the destruction of the Temple and subsequent upheaval led to the committing of Oral Torah into writing was first explained in the Epistle of Sherira Gaon and often repeated. See, for example, Grayzel, A History of the Jews, Penguin Books, 1984, p. 193. [5] For the meaning of “page” in this context see under #Printing. [6] Jacobs, Louis, Structure and form in the Babylonian Talmud, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p.2 [7] e.g. Pirkei Avot 5.21: “five for the Torah, ten for Mishnah, thirteen for the commandments, fifteen for talmud". [8] “Talmud”. A Concise Companion to the Jewish Religion. Louis Jacobs. Oxford University Press, 1999, page 261 [9] “Palestinian Talmud”. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Retrieved August 4, 2010. [10] The Yerushalmi--the Talmud of the land of Israel: an introduction, Jacob Neusner, J. Aronson, 1993 [11] Eusebius (circa 330 CE). “XVIII: He speaks of their Unanimity respecting the Feast of Easter, and against the Practice of the Jews”. Vita Constantini. III. Retrieved June 21, 2009. Check date values in: |date= (help) [12] “Talmud and Midrash (Judaism) :: The making of the Talmuds: 3rd-6th century”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2008. Retrieved 28 October 2013. [13] Moshe Gil (2004). Jews in Islamic Countries in the Middle Ages. p. 507. [14] Nosson Dovid Rabinowich (ed), The Iggeres of Rav Sherira Gaon, Jerusalem 1988, pp. 79, 116 [15] Nosson Dovid Rabinowich (ed), The Iggeres of Rav Sherira Gaon, Jerusalem 1988, p. 116 [16] Steinsaltz, Adin (1976). The Essential Talmud. BasicBooks, A Division of HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-465-02063-1. [17] “Judaic Treasures of the Library of Congress: The Talmud”. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. [18] Sáenz-Badillos, Ángel and John Elwolde. 1996. A history of the Hebrew language. P.170-171: “There is general agreement that two main periods of RH (Rabbinical Hebrew) can be distinguished. The first, which lasted until the close of the Tannaitic era (around 200 CE), is characterized by RH as a spoken language gradually developing into a literary medium in which the Mishnah, Tosefta,

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baraitot, and Tannaitic midrashim would be composed. The second stage begins with the Amoraim, and sees RH being replaced by Aramaic as the spoken vernacular, surviving only as a literary language. Then it continued to be used in later rabbinic writings until the 10th century in, for example, the Hebrew portions of the two Talmuds and in midrashic and haggadic literature.” [19] Amnon Raz-Krakotzkin. The Censor, the Editor, and the Text: The Catholic Church and the Shaping of the Jewish Canon in the Sixteenth Century. Trans. Jackie Feldman. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007. viii + 314 ISBN 978-0-8122-4011-5. p104 [20] Christiane Berkvens-Stevelinck Le Magasin De L'Univers - The Dutch Republic As the Centre of the European Book Trade (Brill’s Studies in Intellectual History) [21] Printing the Talmud: a history of the individual treatises p239 Marvin J. Heller - 1999 “The Benveniste Talmud, according to Rabbinovicz, was based on the Lublin Talmud which included many of the censors’ errors” [22] The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia Isaac Landman - 1941 “His greatest work was the translation of the entire Babylonian Talmud into German, which, as it was made from the uncensored text and was the only complete translation in a European language, was of great value for students.” [23] Friedman, “Variant Readings in the Babylonian Talmud — A Methodological Study Marking the Appearance of 13 Volumes of the Institute for the Complete Israeli Talmud’s Edition,” Tarbiz 68 (1998). [24] Amar, Yosef. “Talmud Bavli be-niqqud Temani”. Nosachteiman.co.il. [25] Julius Joseph Price, The Yemenite ms. of Megilla (in the Library of Columbia university), 1916; Pesahim, 1913; Mo'ed Katon, 1920. [26] Ackerman, Matthew. “America’s Most Important Jewish Event?”, 'Commentary', June 26, 2012. [27] “Queen for a Day”, Tablet Magazine, 5 February 2013 [28] The other Oz ve-Hadar editions are similar but without the explanation in modern Hebrew. [29] http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4229886, 00.html Introducing: Talmud in Arabic [30] “Arab translation of Talmud includes anti-Israeli messages”. [31] As Pirkei Avot is a tractate of the Mishnah, and reached its ﬁnal form centuries before the compilation of either Talmud, this refers to talmud as an activity rather than to any written compilation. [32] “HebrewBooks.org Sefer Detail: -- ‫ ברכות‬- ‫ספר הנר‬ ‫ זכריה בן יהודה‬,‫"אגמתי‬. [33] For a list see Ephraim Urbach, s.v. “Tosafot,” in Encyclopedia of Religion.

[34] See Pilpul, Mordechai Breuer, in Encyclopaedia Judaica, Vol. 16, 2nd Ed (2007), Macmillan Reference, USA and H.H. Ben Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, pp. 627, 717. [35] Kol Melechet Higgayon, the Hebrew translation of Averroes’ epitome of Aristotle’s logical works, was widely studied in northern Italy, particularly Padua. [36] Boyarin, Sephardi Speculation (Hebrew) (Jerusalem 1989). [37] For a comprehensive treatment, see Ravitzky, below. [38] Faur is here describing the tradition of Damascus, though the approach in other places may have been similar. [39] Examples of lessons using this approach may be found here. [40] Cf. the distinction in the Ashkenazi yeshivah curriculum between beki'ut (basic familiarization) and 'iyyun (indepth study). [41] David ben Judah Messer Leon, Kevod Ḥakhamim, cited by Zimmels, Ashkenazim and Sephardim, pp. 151 and 154. [42] Chaim Joseph David Azulai, Shem Gedolim, cited Hirschberg, A History of the Jews in North Africa, pp 1256. [43] Joseph Ringel, “A Third Way: Iyyun Tunisai as a Traditional Critical Method of Talmud Study”, Tradition 2013 46:3. [44] Rav Avraham Yitzchok Ha-Cohen Kook, zt"l, Late Chief Rabbi of Israel (February 17, 2008). “A labor of great magnitude stands before us, to repair the break between the Talmudic deliberations and the halachic decisions... to accustom students of the Gemara to correlate knowledge of all the halacha with its source and reason...”. Halacha Brura and Birur Halacha Institute. Retrieved 20 September 2010. It should not be confused with the halachic compendium of the same name by Rabbi David Yosef. [45] For a humorous description of the different methods, see Gavriel Bechhofer’s An Analysis of Darchei HaLimud (Methodologies of Talmud Study) Centering on a Cup of Tea. [46] As Yonah Fraenkel shows in his book Darko Shel Rashi be-Ferusho la-Talmud ha-Bavli, one of Rashi’s major accomplishments was textual emendation. Rabbenu Tam, Rashi’s grandson and one of the central figures in the Tosafist academies, polemicizes against textual emendation in his less studied work Sefer ha-Yashar. However, the Tosafists, too, emended the Talmudic text (See e.g. Baba Kamma 83b s.v. af haka'ah ha'amurah or Gittin 32a s.v. mevutelet) as did many other medieval commentators (see e.g. R. Shlomo ben Aderet, Hiddushei ha-Rashb"a al ha-Sha"s to Baba Kamma 83b, or Rabbenu Nissim’s commentary to Alfasi on Gittin 32a). [47] Etkes, Immanuel (2002). The Gaon of Vilna. University of California Press. p. 16. ISBN 0-520-22394-2. [48] Solomon Schechter, Studies in Judaism p.92.

9.13. NOTES

[49] Introduction to Sokoloﬀ, Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. [50] ."‫"אוצר כתבי יד תלמודיים‬ [51] See under #Manuscripts and textual variants, below. [52] See particularly his controversial dissertation, Mar Samuel, available at archive.org (German).

115

[73] “TALMUD - JewishEncyclopedia.com”. [74] Fraade, pp. 144-146 [75] Kimmerling, Baruch, “Images of Gentiles” (book review), Journal of Palestine Studies, April 1997, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 96–98 [76] Siedman, p. 137

[53] [www.entry.co.il], entry interactive. “Igud HaTalmud”.

[77] Cohn-Sherbok, p. 48

[54] Yaacov Elman (November 2012). Steven Fine; Shai Secunda, eds. Shoshannat Yaakov: Jewish and Iranian Studies in Honor of Yaakov Elman. Brill Academic Pub Publishers. ISBN 978-9004235441. Retrieved 11 November 2013.

[78] Steinsaltz, pp. 268-270

[55] Shai Secunda (October 2013). The Iranian Talmud: Reading the Bavli in Its Sasanian Context. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812245707. Retrieved 18 November 2013. [56] “Secular Talmud Study - The City Congregation for Humanistic Judaism”. [57] Lakein, Dvora (December 28, 2007). “Chabad Unveils Talmudic Study Program In 15 Cities”. New York. Merkos L'inyonei Chinuch. [58] “Why Christians Should Study Torah and Talmud”. Bridges for Peace. Retrieved July 3, 2006. [59] Hirschfield, Tzofia (2011-05-12). “Why Koreans study Talmud”. Jewish World. Retrieved 27 June 2014. [60] Alper, Tim (2011-05-12). “Why South Koreans are in love with Judaism”. The Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 27 June 2014. [61] Ross Arbes (June 23, 2015). “How the Talmud Became a Best-Seller in South Korea”. The New Yorker. [62] Rodkinson [63] Lewis, Bernard, Semites and anti-Semites: an inquiry into conflict and prejudice, W. W. Norton & Company, 1999, p. 134 [64] Johnson, Paul, A history of the Jews, HarperCollins, 1988, p. 577 [65] Arab attitudes to Israel, Yehoshafat Harkabi, p. 248, 272 [66] Such as Uriel da Costa, Israel Shahak and Baruch Kimmerling

[79] See, for example, Uriel DaCosta, quoted by Nadler, p. 68 [80] Cohn-Sherbok, p. 47 [81] Wilhelm Bacher, “Talmud”, article in Jewish Encyclopedia [82] ADL report, p. 1-2 [83] For examples of some selective quoting and omissions, see:Responses to criticisms by Gil Student:Responses to criticisms by Michael Gruda [84] Nov. 146.1.2. [85] Naomi Seidman, Faithful Renderings: Jewish-Christian Diﬀerence and the Politics of Translation, pp. 136-138 [86] Rodkinson, pp 66–69 [87] Levy, p 701 [88] For a Hebrew account of the Paris Disputation, see Jehiel of Paris, “The Disputation of Jehiel of Paris” (Hebrew), in Collected Polemics and Disputations, ed. J. D. Eisenstein, Hebrew Publishing Company, 1922; Translated and reprinted by Hyam Maccoby in Judaism on Trial: JewishChristian Disputations in the Middle Ages, 1982 [89] James Carroll Constantine’s sword: the church and the Jews : a history [90] Cohn-Sherbok, pp 50-54 [91] Maccoby [92] Hyam Maccoby, op. cit. [93] Roth, Norman, Medieval Jewish civilization: an encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, 2003, p. 83 [94] Rodkinson, p 98 [95] Hastings, James. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 23, p 186

[67] Such as Christopher Hitchens and Denis Diderot [96] Rodkinson, pp 100-103 [68] Hyam Maccoby, Judaism on Trial [97] Rodkinson, p. 105 [69] ADL report The Talmud in Anti-Semitic Polemics, AntiDefamation League

[98] Levy, p. 210

[70] Student, Gil - Rebuttals to criticisms of Talmud

[99] Boettcher, Susan R., “Entdecktes Judenthum”, article in Levy, p. 210

[71] Bacher, Wilhelm, “Talmud”, article in Jewish Encyclope[100] Berlin, George L., Defending the faith: nineteenth-century dia, Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1901 American Jewish writings on Christianity and Jesus, SUNY [72] “TALMUD - JewishEncyclopedia.com”. Press, 1989, p 156

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CHAPTER 9. TALMUD

[101] Chesronos Hashas

[112] The Six Million Reconsidered: A Special Report by the Committee for Truth in History, p. 16 Historical Review [102] The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition, pp. 103-104 Heller, Press, 1979 Marvin J. (1999). Printing the Talmud: a history of the individual treatises printed from 1700 to 1750. Basel: Brill [113] Student, Gil (2000). “The Real Truth About The TalPublishers. pp. 17, 166. mud”. Retrieved September 16, 2010. Anti-Talmud ac[103] "Page:Archives israelites 1851 tome12.djvu/647 - Wikisource”. [104] “CHIARINI, LUIGI - JewishEncyclopedia.com”. [105] Rodkinson, pp 109-114 [106] Levy, p 564 [107] Jeansonne, Glen, Women of the Far Right: The Mothers’ Movement and World War II, University of Chicago Press, 1997, pp 168-169 [108] Jones, Jeremy (June 1999). “Talmudic Terrors”. Australia/Israel Review. Retrieved 2008-06-12. If any reader doubts the maliciousness, virulence and prevalence of such material in cyber-space, it is well worth a visit to the Internet site known as Talmud Exposé (www.geocities. com/Athens/Cyprus/8815 [now at http://www.oocities. org/athens/cyprus/8815/]), in which Melbourne’s David Maddison has performed the Herculean task of responding, one by one, to the hundreds of “anti-Talmud” quotes, lies and themes he has encountered on the Internet.. [109] “The Talmud in Anti-Semitic Polemics” (PDF) (Press release). Anti-Defamation League. February 2003. Retrieved September 16, 2010. By selectively citing various passages from the Talmud and Midrash, polemicists have sought to demonstrate that Judaism espouses hatred for non-Jews (and specifically for Christians), and promotes obscenity, sexual perversion, and other immoral behavior. To make these passages serve their purposes, these polemicists frequently mistranslate them or cite them out of context (wholesale fabrication of passages is not unknown).…In distorting the normative meanings of rabbinic texts, anti-Talmud writers frequently remove passages from their textual and historical contexts. Even when they present their citations accurately, they judge the passages based on contemporary moral standards, ignoring the fact that the majority of these passages were composed close to two thousand years ago by people living in cultures radically different from our own. They are thus able to ignore Judaism’s long history of social progress and paint it instead as a primitive and parochial religion. Those who attack the Talmud frequently cite ancient rabbinic sources without noting subsequent developments in Jewish thought, and without making a good-faith effort to consult with contemporary Jewish authorities who can explain the role of these sources in normative Jewish thought and practice. [110] Kominsky, Morris (1970). The hoaxers: plain liars, fancy liars, and damned liars. Boston: Branden Press. pp. 169– 176. ISBN 08283-1288-5. LCCN 76109134. Libbre David 37. This is a complete fabrication. No such book exists in the Talmud or in the entire Jewish literature. [111] Andrew J. Hurley (1991). Israel and the New World Order. Foundation for a New World Order, Santa Barbara,: Fithian Press. ISBN 9780931832994.

cusations have a long history dating back to the 13th century when the associates of the Inquisition attempted to defame Jews and their religion [see Yitzchak Baer, A History of Jews in Christian Spain, vol. I pp. 150-185]. The early material compiled by hateful preachers like Raymond Martini and Nicholas Donin remain the basis of all subsequent accusations against the Talmud. Some are true, most are false and based on quotations taken out of context, and some are total fabrications [see Baer, ch. 4 f. 54, 82 that it has been proven that Raymond Martini forged quotations]. On the Internet today we can ﬁnd many of these old accusations being rehashed…

9.14 References • Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo The Inﬁnite Chain: Torah, Masorah, and Man (Philipp Feldheim, 1989). ISBN 0-944070-15-9 • Aryeh Carmell (December 1986). Aiding Talmud study. Feldheim Publishers. ISBN 978-087306-428-6. Retrieved 29 August 2011. (includes Samuel ha-Nagid’s Mevo ha-Talmud, see next section) • Zvi Hirsch Chajes Mevo Hatalmud, transl. Jacob Shachter: The Students’ Guide Through The Talmud (Yashar Books, 2005). ISBN 1-933143-05-3 • Dan Cohn-Sherbok (1994). Judaism and other faiths. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-31210384-2. Retrieved 29 August 2011. • Fraade, Steven D, “Navigating the Anomalous: Non-Jews at the Intersection of Early Rabbinic Law and Narrative”, in Laurence Jay Silberstein; Robert L. Cohn (1 August 1994). The Other in Jewish thought and history: constructions of Jewish culture and identity. NYU Press. pp. 145–165. ISBN 9780-8147-7990-3. Retrieved 29 August 2011. • R. Travers Herford (15 February 2007). Christianity in Talmud and Midrash. KTAV Publishing House, Inc. ISBN 978-0-88125-930-8. Retrieved 29 August 2011. • D. Landesman A Practical Guide to Torah Learning (Jason Aronson, 1995). ISBN 1-56821-320-4 • Emmanuel Lévinas; Annette Aronowicz (February 1994). Nine Talmudic readings. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20876-7. Retrieved 29 August 2011.

9.14. REFERENCES • Levy, Richard S., Antisemitism: a historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution, Volume 2, ABCCLIO, 2005. See articles: “Talmud Trials”, “Entdecktes Judenthum”, “The Talmud Jew”, “David Duke”, “August Rohling”, and “Johannes Pfeﬀerkorn”. • Hyam Maccoby; Jehiel ben Joseph (of Paris) (1993). Judaism on trial: Jewish-Christian disputations in the Middle Ages. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-1-874774-16-7. Retrieved 29 August 2011. A compendium of primary source materials, with commentary. • Maimonides Introduction to the Mishneh Torah (English translation) • Maimonides Introduction to the Commentary on the Mishnah (Hebrew Fulltext), transl. Zvi Lampel (Judaica Press, 1998). ISBN 1-880582-28-7 • Aaron Parry The Complete Idiot’s Guide to The Talmud (Alpha Books, 2004). ISBN 1-59257-202-2

117 • Bezalel Ashkenazi, Kelale ha-Gemara • Yeshu’ah b. Yosef ha-Levi, Halichot Olam • Joseph Caro, Kelale ha-Gemara (commentary on Halichot Olam) • Solomon Algazi, Yavin Shemu’ah (commentary on Halichot Olam) • Yisrael Ya'akov Algazi, Ar'a de-Rabbanan • Serillo, Samuel, Kelale Shemuel • Horowitz, Isaiah, Shene Luchot ha-Berit (section on Torah she-be-al-Pe) • Moses Chaim Luzzatto, Derech Tevunot, translated into English as The Ways of Reason, Feldheim 1988, ISBN 978-0-87306-495-8 • same, Sefer ha-Higgayon, translated into English as The Book of Logic, Feldheim 1995, ISBN 978-0-87306-707-2

• Rodkinson, Michael Levi, The history of the Talmud from the time of its formation, about 200 B.C., up to the present time, The Talmud Society, 1918

• de Oliveira, Solomon, Darche Noam

• Jonathan Rosen (25 October 2001). The Talmud and the Internet: A Journey Between Worlds. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 9780-8264-5534-5. Retrieved 29 August 2011.

• Aryeh Leib HaCohen Heller, Shev Shema'tata

• Adin Steinsaltz (11 September 2006). The essential Talmud. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-08273-5. Retrieved 29 August 2011. Read more here. See also here.

• Malachi ha-Cohen, Yad Malachi

• Goitein, B., Kesef Nivhar • Ezechia Bolaﬃ, Ben Zekunim vol. 1 • Moshe Amiel, Ha-Middot le-Ḥeqer ha-Halachah, vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3

• Adin Steinsaltz The Talmud: A Reference Guide 9.14.2 Modern scholarly works (Random House, 1996). ISBN 0-679-77367-3 • Hanoch Albeck, Mavo la-talmudim

9.14.1

Logic and methodology

• Samuel ha-Nagid, Mevo ha-Talmud • Joseph ben Judah ibn Aknin, Mevo ha-Talmud • Zerachiah Halevi, Sefer ha-Tzava • Samson of Chinon, Sefer ha-Keritut • Jacob Hagiz, Teḥillat Ḥochmah (included in most editions of Keritut) • collective, ed. Abraham ibn Akra, Meharere Nemarim

• Daniel Boyarin, Sephardi Speculation: A Study in Methods of Talmudic Interpretation (Hebrew), Machon Ben Zvi: Jerusalem, 1989 • Yaakov Elman, “Order, Sequence, and Selection: The Mishnah’s Anthological Choices,” in David Stern, ed. The Anthology in Jewish Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) 53-80 • Y. N. Epstein, Mevo-ot le-Sifrut haTalmudim • David Weiss Halivni, Mekorot u-Mesorot (Jerusalem: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1982 on)

• Isaac Campanton, Darche ha-Talmud

• Louis Jacobs, “How Much of the Babylonian Talmud is Pseudepigraphic?" Journal of Jewish Studies 28, No. 1 (1977), pp. 46–59

• David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra, Kelale haGemara

• Saul Lieberman, Hellenism in Jewish Palestine (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1950)

• Joseph ibn Verga, She'erit Yosef

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• Moses Mielziner, Introduction to the Talmud: repr. 1997, hardback ISBN 978-0-8197-0156-5, paperback ISBN 978-0-8197-0015-5 • Jacob Neusner, Sources and Traditions: Types of Compositions in the Talmud of Babylonia (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992). • Aviram Ravitzky, Aristotelian Logic and Talmudic Methodology (Hebrew): Jerusalem 2009, ISBN 978965-493-459-6 • Andrew Schumann, Talmudic Logic: (London: College Publications 2012), ISBN 978-1-84890-072-1

• Lee Levine, Ma'amad ha-Hakhamim be-Eretz Yisrael (Jerusalem: Yad Yizhak Ben-Zvi, 1985), (=The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity) • Saul Lieberman, Hellenism in Jewish Palestine (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1950) • John W. McGinley, 'The Written' as the Vocation of Conceiving Jewishly. ISBN 0-595-40488-X • David Bigman, Finding A Home for Critical Talmud Study

• Strack, Herman L. and Stemberger, Gunter, Intro- 9.15 External links duction to the Talmud and Midrash, tr. Markus Bockmuehl: repr. 1992, hardback ISBN 978-0- 9.15.1 General 567-09509-1, paperback ISBN 978-0-8006-2524-5 • Talmud, jewishencyclopedia.com On individual tractates • Moshe Benovitz, Berakhot chapter 1: Iggud leFarshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English summary) • Stephen Wald, Shabbat chapter 7: Iggud leFarshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English summary) • Aviad Stollman, Eruvin chapter 10: Iggud leFarshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English summary)

• Talmud Commentaries, jewishencyclopedia.com • Jewish History: Talmud, aish.com • Talmud/Mishnah/Gemara, jewishvirtuallibrary.org • Jewish Law Research Guide, University of Miami Law Library • A survey of rabbinic literature, Ohr Somayach • Introduction To The Talmud For The Novice, Rabbi M. Taub • Pshita, Talmud Study 2.0 (Hebrew)

• Aaron Amit, Pesachim chapter 4: Iggud leFarshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English sum- 9.15.2 mary) • Netanel Baadani, Sanhedrin chapter 5: Iggud leFarshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English summary) • Moshe Benovitz, Sukkah chapters 4-5: Iggud leFarshanut ha-Talmud (Hebrew, with English summary)

Refutation of allegations concerning the Talmud

• Talmud: The Real Truth About The Talmud, by Gil Student • The Talmud in Anti-Semitic Polemics, AntiDefamation League. • The Real Truth about the Talmud • Falsiﬁers of the Talmud

9.14.3

Historical study

• Shalom Carmy (ed.) Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah: Contributions and Limitations Jason Aronson, Inc. • Richard Kalmin Sages, Stories, Authors and Editors in Rabbinic Babylonia Brown Judaic Studies • David C. Kraemer, On the Reliability of Attributions in the Babylonian Talmud, Hebrew Union College Annual 60 (1989), pp. 175–90

9.15.3 Full text resources • Talmud Bavli (Soncino translation) (English). The Soncino Press translation of the Talmud Bavli in downloadable PDF format. Everything is present except for the index volume and the minor-tractates volumes. About 63% of the translation is also available in the form of ordinary HTML webpages for those who prefer them. • Mishnah (Hebrew)

9.15. EXTERNAL LINKS • Tosefta (Hebrew)

119

9.15.7 Audio

• Talmud Yerushalmi (Hebrew)

• Shiurim on the Talmud, mp3shiur.com

• Talmud Bavli (Hebrew)

• MP3 Talmud Shiurim by Rav Nissan Kaplan of Mir Yeshiva, Jerusalem

• Full searchable Talmud on Snunit (Hebrew) • Rodkinson English translation See above, under #Translations of Talmud Bavli. • E-Daf Images of each page of the Babylonian Talmud • Tractate Megillah: .pdf download showing Yemenite vocalization • Shas.org Daf Viewer (Hebrew)

9.15.4

Manuscripts and textual variants

• Treasury of Talmudic Manuscripts, Jewish National and University Library • Treasury of Talmudic Manuscripts, search by tractate - search engine for readings in diﬀerent manuscripts (shows facsimile of individual pages) • The Munich Talmud (Cod.hebr. 95) • The Saul Lieberman Institute - another search engine (shows results in Hebrew text, not as facsimile) • Yad Harav Herzog: manuscript request form - a third search engine • Manuscripts and search engine hosted by the Friedberg Jewish Manuscript Society

9.15.5

Layout

• “A Page from the Babylonian Talmud” image map from Prof. Eliezer Segal

9.15.6

“Daf Yomi” program

• A general resource for Daf Yomi • Point by point summary and discussion by daf • Calendar for this Daf Yomi cycle • Daf-A-Week: A project to study a daf per week • Daf Yomi in MP3 - by Rabbi Ephraim Schreibman

• Tractate Sukkah by page, showing Yemenite vocalization and recordings of pronunciation • Shas.org • Works by Talmud at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

Chapter 10

Solomon’s Temple For the Crusader “Templum Solomonis”, see Al-Aqsa Mosque. For other uses, see Solomon’s Temple (disambiguation). According to the Hebrew Bible, Solomon’s Temple, also known as the First Temple, was the Holy Temple (Hebrew: ׁ‫ ּבֵית־ה ּ ִַמ ְקדָּש‬: Bet HaMikdash) in ancient Jerusalem before its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar II after the Siege of Jerusalem of 587 BC. The Hebrew Bible states that the temple was constructed under Solomon, king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah and that during the Kingdom of Judah, the temple was dedicated to Yahweh, and is said to have housed the Ark of the Covenant. Josephus says that “the temple was burnt four hundred and seventy years, six months, and ten days after it was built,” (Jew. Ant. 10.8.5), although rabbinic sources state that the First Temple stood for 410 years and, based on the 2nd-century work Seder Olam Rabbah, place construction in 832 BCE and destruction in 422 BCE, 165 years later than secular estimates. Because of the religious sensitivities involved, and the politically volatile situation in Jerusalem, only limited archaeological surveys of the Temple Mount have been conducted. No archaeological excavations have been allowed on the Temple Mount during modern times. Therefore, there is no archaeological evidence for the existence of Solomon’s Temple.[1] An Ivory pomegranate which mentions priests in the house “of ---h”, and an inscription recording the Temple’s restoration under Jehoash have both appeared on the antiquities market, but their authenticity has been challenged and they are the subject of controversy.

10.1 In the Hebrew Bible

In an artistic representation, King Solomon dedicates the Temple at Jerusalem (painting by James Tissot or follower, c. 1896– 1902)

Solomon’s reign are circa 970 to 931 BCE. This puts the date of its construction in the mid-10th century BCE.[3] Some scholars have speculated that a Jebusite sanctuary may have previously occupied the site.[4] 1 Kings 9:10 says that it took Solomon 20 years altogether to build the Temple and his royal palace. During the united monarchy the Temple was dedicated to Yahweh, the God of Israel, and housed the Ark of the Covenant.[5] Rabbinic sources[6] state that the First Temple stood for 410 years and, based on the 2nd-century work Seder Olam Rabbah, place construction in 832 BCE and destruction in 422 BCE (3338 AM), 165 years later than secular estimates.[7]

The only source of information on the First Temple is the Hebrew Bible, which is the base for the Old Testament.[2] According to the biblical sources, the temple was constructed under Solomon, during the united monarchy of Israel and Judah. 1 Kings 6:1 puts the date of the The exact location of the Temple is unknown: it is bebeginning of building the temple “in the fourth year of lieved to have been situated upon the hill which forms Solomon’s reign over Israel”. The conventional dates of the site of the 1st century Second Temple and present-day 120

10.1. IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

121

Temple Mount, where the Dome of the Rock is situated. According to the Hebrew Bible, the Temple was plundered by the Neo-Babylonian Empire king Nebuchadnezzar II when the Babylonians attacked Jerusalem during the brief reign of Jehoiachin c. 598 (2 Kings 24:13). A decade later, Nebuchadnezzar again besieged Jerusalem and after 30 months ﬁnally breached the city walls in 587 BCE, subsequently burning the Temple, along with most of the city (2 Kings 25). According to Jewish tradition, the Temple was destroyed on Tisha B'Av, the 9th day of Av (Hebrew calendar).[8]

10.1.1

Architectural description

Plan of Solomon’s Temple with measurements

(Heb. 9:3) was 20 cubits in length, breadth, and height. The usual explanation for the discrepancy between its height and the 30-cubit height of the temple is that its floor was elevated, like the cella of other ancient temples.[10] It was floored and wainscotted with cedar of Lebanon (1 Kings 6:16), and its walls and floor were overlaid with gold (6:20, 21, 30). It contained two cherubim of olivewood, each 10 cubits high (1 Kings 6:16, 20, 21, 23–28) and each having outspread wings of 10 cubits span, so that, since they stood side by side, the wings touched the wall on either side and met in the center of the room. There was a two-leaved door between it and the Holy Place overlaid with gold (2 Chr. 4:22); also a veil of tekhelet (blue), purple, and crimson and fine linen (2 Chr. 3:14; compare Exodus 26:33). It had no windows (1 Kings 8:12) and was considered the dwellingplace of the “name” of God. Kodesh haKodashim (the Holy of Holies) was prepared to receive and house the Ark (1 Kings 6:19); and when the Temple was dedicated, the Ark—containing the original tablets of the Ten Plan of Solomon’s Temple, published 1905 Commandments—was placed therein (1 Kings 8:6-9). When the priests emerged from the holy place after placThe Temple’s general form is reminiscent of Egyptian ing the Ark there, the Temple was filled with a cloud, “for sanctuaries and closely matches that of other ancient the glory of the Lord had filled the house of the Lord” (1 temples in the region.[9][10][11] The detailed descriptions Kings 8:10-11; 2 Chron. 5:13, 14). provided in the Tanakh are the sources for reconstructions of its appearance. Technical details are lacking, since the scribes who wrote the books were not architects Hekhal or engineers.[10] Nevertheless, the descriptions have inspired modern replicas of the temple and influenced later The Hekhal, or Holy Place, (1 Kings 8:8–10), is also structures around the world. called the “greater house” (2 Chr. 3:5) and the “temple” [10] Reconstructions differ; the following is largely based on (1 Kings 6:17); the word also means “palace”, was of the same width and height as the Holy of Holies, but 40 Easton’s Bible Dictionary and the Jewish Encyclopedia: cubits in length. Its walls were lined with cedar, on which were carved figures of cherubim, palm-trees, and open flowers, which were overlaid with gold. Chains of gold Holy of Holies further marked it off from the Holy of Holies. The floor The Holy of Holies, or Kodesh haKodashim in Hebrew, of the Temple was of fir-wood overlaid with gold. The (1 Kings 6:19; 8:6), also called the “Inner House” (6:27), door-posts, of olive-wood, supported folding-doors of fir.

122

CHAPTER 10. SOLOMON’S TEMPLE

The doors of the Holy of Holies were of olive-wood. On Chambers both sets of doors were carved cherubim, palm-trees, and flowers, all being overlaid with gold (1 Kings 6:15 et seq.) Chambers were built around the Temple on the southern, western and northern sides (1 Kings 6:5–10). These formed a part of the building and were used for storage. Etymology The Hebrew noun hekhal (Hebrew ‫ )היכל‬in They were probably one story high at first; two more may Classical Hebrew means “a large building”. This can be have been added later.[10] either the main building of the Temple in Jerusalem (that is the nave, or sanctuary, of the Temple), or a palace such as the “palace” of Ahab, king of Samaria, or the “palace” Courts of the King of Babylon. According to the Bible, two courts surrounded the TemHekhal is used 80 times in the Masoretic Text of the ple. The Inner Court (1 Kings 6:36), or Court of the Hebrew Bible. Of these, 70 refer to the House of the Priests (2 Chr. 4:9), was separated from the space beyond LORD (in Hebrew Bible ‫ ֵּבית ְיהָוה‬beit Yahweh), the other by a wall of three courses of hewn stone, surmounted by 10 are references to palaces. There is no reference to any cedar beams (1 Kings 6:36). It contained the Altar of part of the tabernacle using this term in the Hebrew Bible. burnt-offering (2 Chr. 15:8), the Brazen Sea laver (4:2–5, 10) and ten other lavers (1 Kings 7:38, 39). A brazen altar “In the year that king Uzziah died. I saw stood before the Temple (2 Kings 16:14), its dimensions the LORD sitting upon a throne high and lifted 20 cubits square and 10 cubits high (2 Chr. 4:1). The up, and His train filled the hekhal (sanctuary).” Great Court surrounded the whole Temple (2 Chr. 4:9). Isaiah 6:1. It was here that people assembled to worship. (Jeremiah 19:14; 26:2). Use in architecture In older English versions of the Bible, including the King James, the term “temple” is used to translate hekhal. In modern versions more reflective of archaeological research, the distinction is made of different sections of the whole Temple. Scholars and archaeologists generally agree on the structure of Solomon’s Temple as described in 1 Kings 6:3-5, with the main building, the hekhal, in English now sometimes called “the sanctuary,” the devir, the inner sanctuary, and finally the Holy of Holies.[12]

Brazen Sea Main article: Brazen Sea The large basin known as the “Brazen Sea” measured 10 cubits wide brim to brim, 5 cubits deep and with a circumference of 30 cubits around the brim, rested on the backs of twelve oxen (1 Kings 7:23–26). The Book of Kings states that it contains 2,000 baths (90 cubic meters, while Chronicles (2 Chr. 4:5–6) states it can hold up to 3,000 baths (136 cubic meters) and states that its purpose was to aﬀord opportunity for the puriﬁcation by immersion of the body of the priests.

This main building was between the outer altar, where most sacrifices were performed, and inside at the far end was the entry to the Holy of Holies, originally containing the Ark of the Covenant. The main hekhal contained a number of sacred ritual objects including the seven The lavers, each of which held “forty baths” (1 Kings branched candlestick, the inner altar for incense offer7:38), rested on portable holders made of bronze, proings (also called the “Golden Altar”), and the table of the vided with wheels, and ornamented with figures of lions, showbread. cherubim, and palm-trees. The author of the books of the The same architectural layout of the temple was adopted Kings describes their minute details with great interest (1 in synagogues leading to the hekhal being applied in Kings 7:27–37). Josephus reported that the vessels in the Sephardi usage to the Ashkenazi Torah ark, the equiv- Temple were composed of orichalcum in Antiquities of alent of the nave.[13] the Jews. According to 1 Kings 7:48 there stood before the Holy of Holies a golden altar of incense and a table for showbread. This table was of gold, as were also the Porch five candlesticks on each side of it. The implements for the care of the candles–tongs, basins, snuffers, and fireThe Ulam, or porch, acted as an entrance before the Tempans–were of gold; and so were the hinges of the doors. ple on the east (1 Kings 6:3; 2 Chr. 3:4; 9:7). This was 20 cubits long (corresponding to the width of the Temple) and 10 cubits deep (1 Kings 6:3). (ESV 2 Chr. 3:4) notes that this porch was 120 cubits high. The descrip- 10.2 Archaeology tion does not specify whether a wall separated it from the next chamber. In the porch stood the two pillars Jachin Because of the religious and political sensitivities inand Boaz (1 Kings 7:21; 2 Kings 11:14; 23:3), which were volved, no archaeological excavations and only lim18 cubits in height. ited surface surveys of the Temple Mount have been

10.3. OTHER CONTEMPORARY YAHWEH TEMPLES conducted since Charles Warren's expedition of 1867– 70.[14][15][16] There is no archaeological evidence for the existence of Solomon’s Temple, and the building is not mentioned in surviving extra-biblical accounts.[17] Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman argue that the first Jewish temple in Jerusalem was not built until the end of the 7th century BCE, around three hundred years after Solomon.[17] They believe the temple should not really be assigned to Solomon, who they see as little more than a small-time hill country chieftain, and was most likely built by Josiah, who governed Judah from 639-609 BCE.[17] • An ostracon (excavated prior to 1981), sometimes referred to as the House of Yahweh ostracon, was discovered at Tel Arad, dated to 6th century BCE which mentions a temple which is probably the Temple in Jerusalem.[18] • A thumb-sized ivory pomegranate (which came to light in 1979) measuring 44 millimetres (1.7 in) in height, and bearing an ancient Hebrew inscription “Sacred donation for the priests in the House of --h,]", was believed to have adorned a sceptre used by the high priest in Solomon’s Temple. It was considered the most important item of biblical antiquities in the Israel Museum's collection.[19] However, in 2004, the Israel Antiquities Authority reported the inscription to be a forgery, though the ivory pomegranate itself was dated to the 14th or 13th century BCE.[20] This was based on the report’s claim that three incised letters in the inscription stopped short of an ancient break, as they would have if carved after the ancient break was made. Since then, it has been proven that one of the letters was indeed carved prior to the ancient break, and the status of the other two letters is now in question. Some paleographers and others have continued to insist that the inscription is ancient and the authenticity of this artifact is still the object of discussion.[21] • Another artifact, the Jehoash Inscription, which first came to notice in 2003, contains a 15-line description of King Jehoash’s ninth-century BCE restoration of the Temple. Its authenticity was called into question by a report by the Israel Antiquities Authority, which said that the surface patina contained microfossils of foraminifera. As these fossils do not dissolve in water, they cannot occur in a calcium carbonate patina, leading initial investigators to conclude that the patina must be an artificial chemical mix applied to the stone by forgers. As of late 2012, the academic community is split on whether the tablet is authentic or not. Commenting on a 2012 report by geologists arguing for the authenticity of the inscription, in October 2012, Hershel Shanks (who believes the inscription is genuine) wrote the current situation was that most Hebrew language scholars

123 believe that the inscription is a forgery and geologists that it is genuine, and thus “Because we rely on experts, and because there is an apparently irresolvable conflict of experts in this case, BAR has taken no position with respect to the authenticity of the Jehoash Inscription.”[22] • By 2006, the Temple Mount Sifting Project had recovered numerous artifacts dating from the 8th to 7th centuries BCE from soil removed in 1999 by the Islamic Religious Trust (Waqf) from the Solomon’s Stables area of the Temple Mount. These include stone weights for weighing silver and a First Temple period bulla, or seal impression, containing ancient Hebrew writing which includes the name Netanyahu ben Yaush. Netanyahu is a name mentioned several times in the Book of Jeremiah while the name Yaush appears in the Lachish letters. However, the combination of names was unknown to scholars.[23][24] • In 2007, artifacts dating to the 8th to 6th centuries BCE were described as being possibly the first physical evidence of human activity at the Temple Mount during the First Temple period. The findings included animal bones; ceramic bowl rims, bases, and body sherds; the base of a juglet used to pour oil; the handle of a small juglet; and the rim of a storage jar.[25][26]

10.3 Other contemporary Yahweh temples There is archaeological and written evidence of three Israelite temples, either contemporary or of very close date, dedicated to Yahweh (Elephantine temple, probably Arad too), either in the Land of Israel or in Egypt. Two of them have the same general outline as given by the Bible for the Jerusalem Temple. • The Israelite temple at Tel Arad in Judah, 10th to 8th/7th century BCE[27] and possibly dedicated to Yahweh and Asherah.[28] • The Jewish temple at Elephantine in Egypt, already standing in 525 BCE[29] • The Israelite temple at Tel Motza, ca. 750 BCE discovered in 2012 a few kilometres west of Jerusalem

10.4 Freemasonry Rituals in Freemasonry refer to King Solomon and the building of his Temple.[30] Masonic buildings, where Lodge members meet, are sometimes called 'temples’; an allegoric reference to King Solomon’s Temple.[31]

124

CHAPTER 10. SOLOMON’S TEMPLE

10.5 Kabbalah

[12] Peter Schäfer The Origins of Jewish Mysticism; 2011; Page 59: “Scholars have long observed that this three-part structure resembles the structure of Solomon’s Temple as described in 1 Kings 6:3, 5: the hekhal (sanctuary), the devir (inner sanctuary) or qodesh ha-qodashim (Holy of Holies)...”

Kabbalah views the design of the Temple of Solomon as representative of the metaphysical world and the descending light of the creator through Sephirot of the Tree of Life. The levels of the outer, inner and priest’s courts represent three lower worlds of Kabbalah. The Boaz and [13] Meir Ben-Dov The Golden Age: Synagogues of Spain in History and Architecture 2009 “Among Ashkenazic Jachin pillars at the entrance of the temple represent the Jewry, even though these two were the main foci of the active and passive elements of the world of Atziluth. The synagogue, the terms used for them were diﬀerent. The original menorah and its seven branches represent the hekhal (literally, “the Temple”) was known as the aron haseven lower Sephirot of the Tree of Life. The veil of the kodesh (literally, ...” Holy of Holies and the inner part of the temple represent the Veil of the Abyss on the Tree of Life, behind which [14] Warren, Charles (1876). Underground Jerusalem: An Account of Some of the Principal Diﬃculties Encountered in the Shekhina or Divine presence hovers.[32] Its Exploration and the Results Obtained. With a Narrative of an Expedition through the Jordan Valley and a Visit to the Samaritans. London: Richard Bentley.

10.6 See also

[15] Langmead, Donald; Garnaut, Christine (2001). Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats (3rd, illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576071120.

10.7 Footnotes [1] “Science & Nature - Horizon”. BBC.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-05-20.

[16] Handy, Lowell (1997). The Age of Solomon: Scholarship at the Turn of the Millennium. Brill. pp. 493–494. ISBN 978-90-04-10476-1.

[2] Dever, William G. Did God Have a Wife?: Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israe. Wm B. Eerdmans. pp. 96–97. ISBN 978-0802828521. Retrieved 7 February 2016.

[17] Finkelstein, Israel & Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. Simon & Schuster. pp. 128–129. ISBN 0-684-86912-8.

[3] Stevens, Marty E. (2006), Temples, tithes, and taxes: the temple and the economic life of ancient Israel, Hendrickson Publishers, p. 3, ISBN 1-56563-934-0

[18] T. C. Mitchell (1992). “Judah Until the Fall of Jerusalem”. In John Boardman; I. E. S. Edwards; E. Sollberger; N. G. L. Hammond. The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC. Cambridge University Press. p. 397. ISBN 978-0521227179.

[4] Peake’s commentary on the Bible [5] Achtemeier, Paul J.; Boraas, Roger S. (1996), The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary, San Francisco: HarperOne, p. 1096 [6] “Temple In Rabbinical Literature”. dia.com. Retrieved 2015-05-20.

JewishEncyclope-

[7] Yeisen, Yosef (2004), Miraculous journey: a complete history of the Jewish people from creation to the present, Targum Press, p. 56, ISBN 1-56871-323-1 [8] Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). “Ab, Ninth Day of”. Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company. Retrieved 15 July 2013. [9] Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). “Temple of Solomon”. Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company. [10] De Vaux, Roland; McHugh, John, ed. (1961). Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions. NY: McGraw-Hill. [11] According to Finkelstein in The Bible Unearthed, the description of the temple is remarkably similar to that of surviving remains of Phoenician temples of the time, and it is certainly plausible, from the point of view of archaeology, that the temple was constructed to the design of Phoenicians.

[19] Myre, Greg (December 30, 2004). “Israel Indicts 4 in 'Brother of Jesus’ Hoax and Other Forgeries”. The New York Times. [20] “Ivory pomegranate 'not Solomon’s'". BBC News. December 24, 2004. [21] Shanks, Hershel (November–December 2011). “Fudging with Forgeries”. Biblical Archaeology Review. 37 (6): 56– 58. ISSN 0098-9444. [22] Shanks, Hershel (November–December 2012). “Authentic or Forged? What to Do When Experts Disagree”. Biblical Archaeology Review. First Person (column). ISSN 0098-9444. Retrieved 2013-03-12. [23] “Building Remains From The Time Of The First Temple Were Exposed West Of The Temple Mount”. Israel Antiquities Authority. March 13, 2008. Retrieved 11 May 2015. a personal Hebrew seal made of a semi-precious stone that was apparently inlaid in a ring. The scarab-like seal is elliptical and measures c. 1.1 cm (0.4 in) x 1.4 cm (0.6 in). The surface of the seal is divided into three strips separated by a double line: in the upper strip is a chain decoration in which there are four pomegranates and in the two bottom strips is the name of the owner of the

10.9. FURTHER READING

125

seal, engraved in ancient Hebrew script. It reads: ‫לנתניהו‬ ‫[( בן יאש‬belonging] to Netanyahu ben Yaush). The two names are known in the treasury of biblical names: the name ‫( נתניהו‬Netanyahu) is mentioned a number of times in the Bible (in the Book of Jeremiah and in Chronicles) and the name ‫( יאש‬Yaush) appears in the Lachish letters. The name Yaush, like the name ‫( יאשיהו‬Yoshiyahu) is, in the opinion of Professor Shmuel Ahituv, derived from the root ‫ או"ש‬which means “he gave a present” (based on Arabic and Ugaritic). It is customary to assume that the owners of personal seals were people that held senior governmental positions. It should nevertheless be emphasized that this combination of names - ‫( נתניהו בן יאוש‬Netanyahu ben Yaush) – was unknown until now. [24] Shragai, Nadav (October 19, 2006). “Temple Mount dirt uncovers First Temple artifacts”. Haaretz.

• Finkelstein, Israel; Neil Asher Silberman. The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision. • Glueck, Nelson (Feb 1944). “On the Trail of King Solomon’s Mines”. National Geographic. 85 (2): 233–256. ISSN 0027-9358. • Goldman, Bernard (1966). The Sacred Portal: a primary symbol in ancient Judaic art. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. It has a detailed account and treatment of Solomon’s Temple and its signiﬁcance. • Hamblin, William; David Seely (2007). Solomon’s Temple: Myth and History. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-25133-9. • Mazar, Benjamin (1975). The Mountain of the Lord. NY: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-04843-2.

[25] “Temple Mount First Temple Period Discoveries”. The Friends of the Israel Antiquities Authority. Retrieved 2009-10-05.

• Young, Mike. “Temple Measurements and Photo recreations”.

[26] Milstein, Mati (October 23, 2007). “Solomon’s Temple Artifacts Found by Muslim Workers”. National Geographic News.

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). "Temple, Solomon’s". Easton’s Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.

[27] Avraham Negev & Shimon Gibson (2001). Arad (Tel). Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land. New York and London: Continuum. p. 43. ISBN 0-8264-1316-1. [28] Mazar, Amihai. “The Divided Monarchy: Comments on Some Archaeological Issues.” Pages 159–80 in The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel (Archaeology and Biblical Studies) Society of Biblical Literature (Sep 2007) ISBN 978-158983-277-0 p.176 [29] http://www.ancientsudan.org/articles_jewish_ elephantine.html

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). “Temple of Solomon”. Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.

10.9 Further reading 21st century resources

Lodgechelmsford.com.

• Barker, Margaret (2004), Temple Theology, an introduction, London: The Society For Promoting Christian Knowledge, ISBN 028105634X.

[31] Invalid Input. “Freemasons NSW & ACT - Home”. Masons.org.au. Retrieved 2015-01-29.

• Vaughn, Andrew G.; Killebrew, Ann E., eds. (2003), Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period, Society of Biblical Literature.

[30] “Lodge Chelmsford No 261”. Retrieved 2015-01-29.

[32] The Way of Kabbalah, Warren Kenton, Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi, Weiser Books, 1976, Page 24.

10.8 References • De Vaux, Roland (1961). John McHugh, ed. Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions. NY: McGrawHill.

• Stevens, Marty E. (2006), Temples, tithes, and taxes: the temple and the economic life of ancient Israel, Hendrickson Publishers, ISBN 1-56563-934-0. • Dever, William G. (2001-05-10), What Did The Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?, Wm. B. Eerdmans. • Jones, Floyd Nolen (1993–2004), The Chronology Of The Old Testament, New Leaf Publishing Group.

• Draper, Robert (Dec 2010). “Kings of Controversy”. National Geographic: 66–91. ISSN 0027- Post-1945 resources 9358. Retrieved 2010-12-18. • Elizabeth Bloch-Smith, Who is the King of Glory?: • Finkelstein, Israel; Neil Asher Silberman (2006). Solomon’s Temple and its Symbolism in Michael D. David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible’s Sacred Coogan, J. Cheryl Exum, Lawrence E. Stager (eds), Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition. Free “Scripture and Other Artifacts: Essays in Honor of Press. ISBN 0-7432-4362-5. Philip J. King” (Westminster John Knox, 1994)

126 • Gershon Galil, "The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah" (Brill, 1996) • Joseph Blenkinsopp, "Sage, Priest, Prophet: Religious and Intellectual Leadership in Ancient Israel" (Westminster John Knox Press, 1995) • Jeremy Hughes, "Secrets of the times: myth and history in biblical chronology" (Sheﬃeld Academic Press, 1990) • Edwin R. Thiele, "The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings" (Zondervan, 1983) • Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard (eds), "Mercer dictionary of the Bible" (Mercer University Press, 1990) Pre-1945 resources • Paine, T. O. (1870). Solomon’s temple: Including the tabernacle; ﬁrst temple; house of the king, or house of the forest of Lebanon; idolatrous high places; the city on the mountain ... the oblation of the holy portion; and the last temple. Boston: H.H. & T.W. Carter

10.10 External links

CHAPTER 10. SOLOMON’S TEMPLE

Chapter 11

Temple in Jerusalem Main articles: Solomon’s Temple, Second Temple, and 11.1 Etymology Third Temple The Temple in Jerusalem or Holy Temple (Hebrew: The Hebrew name given in the Hebrew Bible for the building complex is either Beit YHWH (House of Yahweh, or Jehovah), Beit HaElohim “House of God,” or simply Beiti “my house”, Beitekhah “your house” etc. The term hekhal “hall” or main building is often translated “temple” in older English Bibles. In rabbinical literature the temple is Beit HaMikdash, “The Sanctiﬁed House”, and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name.

11.2 First Temple Main article: Solomon’s Temple The Hebrew Bible says that the First Temple was built in 957 BCE[1] by King Solomon.[2] According to the Book of Deuteronomy, as the sole place of Israelite sacriﬁce (Deuteronomy 12:2-27), the Temple replaced the Tabernacle constructed in the Sinai Desert under the auspices of Moses, as well as local sanctuaries, and altars in the hills.[3] This temple was sacked a few decades later by Shoshenq I, Pharaoh of Egypt. Although eﬀorts were made at partial reconstruction, it was only in 835 BCE when Jehoash, King of Judah in the second year of his reign invested considerable sums in reconstruction, only to have it stripped again for Sennacherib, King of Assyria c. 700 BCE. The First Herod’s Temple as imagined in the Holyland Model of Jerusalem. Temple was totally destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 It is currently situated adjacent to the Shrine of the Book exhibit BCE (425 BCE according to historical Jewish sources), at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. when they sacked the city.[4] ׁ‫ ּבֵית־ה ּ ִַמ ְקדָּש‬, Modern: Bet HaMikdash, Tiberian: Beṯ HamMiqdāš, Ashkenazi: Beis HaMikdosh; Arabic: ‫بيت القدس‬: Beit al-Quds or ‫بيت المقدس‬: Bait-ulMuqaddas; Ge'ez: ቤተ መቅደስ: Betä Mäqdäs) was any of a series of structures which were located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem, the current site of the Dome of the Rock. These successive temples stood at this location and functioned as a site of ancient Israelite and later Jewish worship.

11.3 Second Temple Main article: Second Temple According to the Book of Ezra, construction of the Second Temple was authorized by Cyrus the Great and began in 538 BCE, after the fall of the Babylonian Em-

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128 pire the year before. It was completed 23 years later, on the third day of Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius the Great (12 March 515 BCE),[5] dedicated by the Jewish governor Zerubbabel. Despite the fact that the new temple was not as extravagant or imposing as its predecessor, it still dominated the Jerusalem skyline and remained an important structure throughout the time of Persian suzerainty. The temple narrowly avoided being destroyed again in 332 BCE when the Jews refused to acknowledge the deification of Alexander the Great of Macedonia. Alexander was allegedly “turned from his anger” at the last minute by astute diplomacy and flattery. After the death of Alexander on 13 June 323 BCE, and the dismembering of his empire, the Ptolemies came to rule over Judea and the Temple. Under the Ptolemies, the Jews were given many civil liberties and lived content under their rule. However, when the Ptolemaic army was defeated at Panium by Antiochus III of the Seleucids in 198 BCE, this policy changed. Antiochus wanted to Hellenize the Jews, attempting to introduce the Greek pantheon into the temple. A rebellion ensued and was brutally crushed, but no further action by Antiochus was taken. When Antiochus died in 187 BCE at Luristan, his son Seleucus IV Philopator succeeded him. However, his policies never took effect in Judea, since he was assassinated the year after his ascension. Antiochus IV Epiphanes succeeded his older brother to the Seleucid throne and immediately adopted his father’s previous policy of universal Hellenisation. The Jews rebelled again and Antiochus, in a rage, retaliated in force. Considering the previous episodes of discontent, the Jews became incensed when the religious observances of Sabbath and circumcision were officially outlawed. When Antiochus erected a statue of Zeus in their temple and Hellenic priests began sacrificing pigs (the usual sacrifice offered to the Greek gods in the Hellenic religion), their anger began to spiral. When a Greek official ordered a Jewish priest to perform a Hellenic sacrifice, the priest (Mattathias) killed him. In 167 BCE, the Jews rose up en masse behind Mattathias and his five sons to fight and win their freedom from Seleucid authority. Mattathias’ son Judas Maccabaeus, now called “The Hammer”, rededicated the temple in 165 BCE and the Jews celebrate this event to this day as a major part of the festival of Hanukkah.

CHAPTER 11. TEMPLE IN JERUSALEM 70 CE during the Siege of Jerusalem. During the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Romans in 132–135 CE, Simon bar Kokhba and Rabbi Akiva wanted to rebuild the Temple, but bar Kokhba’s revolt failed and the Jews were banned from Jerusalem (except for Tisha B'Av) by the Roman Empire. The emperor Julian allowed to have the Temple rebuilt but the Galilee earthquake of 363 ended all attempts ever since. After the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in the 7th century, Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ordered the construction of an Islamic shrine, the Dome of the Rock, on the site of the Temple. The shrine has stood on the mount since 691 CE; the al-Aqsa Mosque, from roughly the same period, also stands in the Temple courtyard.

11.4 Recent history The Temple Mount, along with the entire Old City of Jerusalem, was captured from Jordan by Israel in 1967 during the Six-Day War, allowing Jews once again to pray at the holy site. Jordan had occupied East Jerusalem and the Temple Mount immediately following Israel’s declaration of independence on May 14, 1948. Israel oﬃcially uniﬁed East Jerusalem, including the Temple Mount, with the rest of Jerusalem in 1980 under the Jerusalem Law, though United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 declared the Jerusalem Law to be in violation of international law.[11] The Muslim Waqf, based in Jordan, has administrative control of the Temple Mount.

11.5 Location There are four theories as to where the Temple stood; where the Dome of the Rock is now located, to the north of the Dome of the Rock (Professor Asher Kaufman), to the east of the Dome of the Rock (Professor Joseph Patrich of the Hebrew University).[12] and to the south of the Temple Mount on Mount Ophel.[13][14][15]

The temple was rededicated under Judas Maccabaeus in 11.6 Physical layout 164 BCE.[2] During the Roman era, Pompey entered (and thereby desecrated) the Holy of Holies in 63 BCE, but left The Temple of Solomon or First Temple consisted of the Temple intact.[6][7][8] In 54 BCE, Crassus looted the three main elements: Temple treasury,[9][10] only for him to die the year after at the Battle of Carrhae against Parthia. According to • the Great or Outer Court, where that people assemfolklore he was executed by having molten gold poured bled to worship (Jeremiah 19:14; 26:2); down his throat. When news of this reached the Jews, they revolted again, only to be put down in 43 BCE. • the Inner Court (1 Kings 6:36) or Court of the Priests (2 Chr. 4:9); Around 20 BCE, the building was renovated and expanded by Herod the Great, and became known as Herod’s Temple. It was destroyed by the Romans in and the Temple building itself, with

11.7. TEMPLE SERVICES

129 According to the Talmud, the Women’s Court was to the east and the main area of the Temple to the west.[16] The main area contained the butchering area for the sacrifices and the Outer Altar on which portions of most offerings were burned. An edifice contained the ulam (antechamber), the hekhal (the “sanctuary”), and the Holy of Holies. The sanctuary and the Holy of Holies were separated by a wall in the First Temple and by two curtains in the Second Temple. The sanctuary contained the seven branched candlestick, the table of showbread and the Incense Altar. The main courtyard had thirteen gates. On the south side, beginning with the southwest corner, there were four gates:

• the larger hekhal, or Holy Place, called the “greater house” in 2 Chr. 3:5 and the “temple” in 1 Kings 6:17, and

• Shaar Ha'Elyon (the Upper Gate) • Shaar HaDelek (the Kindling Gate), where wood was brought in • Shaar HaBechorot (the Gate of Firstborns), where people with ﬁrst-born animal oﬀerings entered. • Shaar HaMayim (the Water Gate), where the Water Libation entered on Sukkot.

• the smaller “inner sanctum”, known as the Holy of On the north side, beginning with the northwest corner, Holies or Kodesh HaKodashim. there were four gates: In the case of the last and most elaborate structure, the Herodian Temple, the structure consisted of the wider Temple precinct, the restricted Temple courts, and the Temple building itself: • Temple precinct, located on the extended Temple Mount platform, and including the Court of the Gentiles • Court of the Women or Ezrat HaNashim • Court of the Israelites, reserved for ritually pure Jewish men

• Shaar Yechonyah (The Gate of Jeconiah), where kings of the Davidic line enter and Jeconiah left for the last time to captivity • Shaar HaKorban (The gate of the Offering), where priests entered with kodshei kodashim offerings • Shaar HaNashim (The Women’s Gate), where women entered into the Azara or main courtyard to perform offerings[17] • Shaar Hashir (The Gate of Song), where the Levites entered with their musical instruments

On the east side was Shaar Nikanor, between the • Court of the Priests, whose relation to the Temple Women’s Courtyard and the main Temple Courtyard, which had two minor doorways, one on its right and one Court is interpreted in different ways by scholars on its left. On the western wall, which was relatively • Temple Court or Azarah, with the Brazen Laver unimportant, there were two gates that did not have any (kiyor), the Altar of Burnt Offerings (mizbe'ah), the name. Place of Slaughtering, and the Temple building itself The Mishnah lists concentric circles of holiness surrounding the Temple: Holy of Holies; Sanctuary; Vestibule; Court of the Priests; Court of the Israelites; Court of the The Temple edifice had three distinct chamWomen; Temple Mount; the walled city of Jerusalem; all bers: the walled cities of the Land of Israel; and the borders of the Land of Israel. • Temple vestibule or porch (ulam) • Temple sanctuary (hekhal or heikal), the main part of the building

11.7 Temple services

• Holy of Holies (Kodesh HaKodashim or debir), the Main articles: Korban and Ketoret innermost chamber

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CHAPTER 11. TEMPLE IN JERUSALEM and the ﬁre-oﬀerings of Israel and their prayer receive with favor. Blessed is He who receives the service of His people Israel with favor” (similar to what is today the 17th blessing of the Amidah), and the Priestly Blessing, and on the Sabbath they recited one blessing; “May He who causes His name to dwell in this House, cause to dwell among you love and brotherliness, peace and friendship” on behalf of the weekly Priestly Guard that departed. — Mishna Tamid 5:1

11.8 In the Talmud The Talmud (Yoma 9b) provides traditional theological reasons for the destruction: “Why was the ﬁrst Temple destroyed? Because the three cardinal sins were rampant in society: idol worship, licentiousness, and murder… And why then was the second Temple – wherein the society was involved in Torah, commandments and acts of kindness – destroyed? Because gratuitous hatred was rampant in society. This teaches you that gratuitous hatred is equal in severity to the three cardinal sins: idol worship, licentiousness, and murder.”[18][19]

11.9 Role in contemporary Jewish services Model of Second Temple made by Michael Osnis from Kedumim.

Main article: Jewish services The Temple was the place where offerings described in the course of the Hebrew Bible were carried out, including daily morning and afternoon offerings and special offerings on Sabbath and Jewish holidays. Levites recited Psalms at appropriate moments during the offerings, including the Psalm of the Day, special psalms for the new month, and other occasions, the Hallel during major Jewish holidays, and psalms for special sacrifices such as the “Psalm for the Thanksgiving Offering” (Psalm 100). As part of the daily offering, a prayer service was performed in the Temple which was used as the basis of the traditional Jewish (morning) service recited to this day, including well-known prayers such as the Shema, and the Priestly Blessing. The Mishna describes it as follows: The superintendent said to them, bless one benediction! and they blessed, and read the Ten Commandments, and the Shema, “And it shall come to pass if you will hearken”, and “And [God] spoke...”. They pronounced three benedictions with the people present: “True and firm”, and the “Avodah” “Accept, Lord our God, the service of your people Israel,

Part of the traditional Jewish morning service, the part surrounding the Shema prayer, is essentially unchanged from the daily worship service performed in the Temple. In addition, the Amidah prayer traditionally replaces the Temple’s daily tamid and special-occasion Mussaf (additional) offerings (there are separate versions for the different types of sacrifices). They are recited during the times their corresponding offerings were performed in the Temple. The Temple is mentioned extensively in Orthodox services. Conservative Judaism retains mentions of the Temple and its restoration, but removes references to the sacrifices. References to sacrifices on holidays are made in the past tense, and petitions for their restoration are removed. Mentions in Orthodox Jewish services include: • A daily recital of Biblical and Talmudic passages related to the korbanot (sacrifices) performed in the Temple (See korbanot in siddur). • References to the restoration of the Temple and sacrificial worships in the daily Amidah prayer, the central prayer in Judaism.

11.10. IN OTHER RELIGIONS

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• A traditional personal plea for the restoration of the took place at this location. At the area in which JeTemple at the end of private recitation of the Ami- sus cleanses the Temple of the moneychangers, chasing dah. various commercial traders of doves necessary for the sacrificial rituals away from the sacred precincts (Mark • A prayer for the restoration of the “house of our 11), remarkable findings were uncovered by the elder lives” and the shekhinah (divine presence) “to dwell Mazar, such as a 1st-century vessel with the Hebrew word among us” is recited during the Amidah prayer. "Korban", meaning sacrifice(s). It was believed by Benjamin Mazar that inside this vessel, merchants would have • Recitation of the Psalm of the day; the psalm sung stored the sacrifices sold at the Temple Court.[20] by the Levites in the Temple for that day during the Jesus predicts the destruction of the Second Temple daily morning service. (Matthew 24:2) and allegorically compares his body to a • Numerous psalms sung as part of the ordinary ser- Temple that will be torn down and raised up again in three vice make extensive references to the Temple and days. This idea, of the Temple as the body of Christ, became a rich and multi-layered theme in medieval ChrisTemple worship. tian thought (where Temple/body can be the heavenly • Recitation of the special Jewish holiday prayers for body of Christ, the ecclesial body of the Church, and the the restoration of the Temple and their offering, dur- Eucharistic body on the altar).[21] ing the Mussaf services on Jewish holidays. • An extensive recitation of the special Temple service 11.10.2 Islam for Yom Kippur during the service for that holiday. The Temple Mount bears significance in Islam as it acted • Special services for Sukkot (Hakafot) contain exten- as a sanctuary for many Hebrew prophets. Islamic trasive (but generally obscure) references to the special dition says that a temple was first built on the Temple Temple service performed on that day. Mount by Jacob and later renovated by Solomon, son of David. In addition, it is considered to be the site of The destruction of the Temple is mourned on the Jewish Muhammad's Night Journey and his ascent into Heaven fast day of Tisha B'Av. Three other minor fasts (Tenth (Isra and Mi'raj), one of the most significant events reof Tevet, 17th of Tammuz, and Third of Tishrei), also counted in the Qur'an. mourn events leading to or following the destruction of According to Muslim scholar Seyyed Hossein Nasr, prothe Temple. There are also mourning practices which fessor of Islamic Studies at George Washington Uniare observed at all times, for example, the requirement versity, Jerusalem has the significance as a holy site to leave part of the house unplastered. for Muslims primarily in three ways.[22] First, while in Mecca, Muhammad used the Temple in Jerusalem as his first qiblah (prayer direction); then, after Muhammad 11.10 In other religions emigrated from Mecca to Medina, Allah permitted his prophet to turn towards Mecca in prayer sixteen months after he arrived (Sura 2:144, 149-150). Second, while 11.10.1 Christianity Muhammad was still living in Mecca, he reports that he took a Night Journey to Bait-ul-Maqdis (i.e. Temple in See also: Jerusalem in Christianity Jerusalem) which is considered as a very auspicious event in Islam known as Isra. The third factor, says Nasr, is the The Temple is mentioned many times in the New Testa- Muslim belief in the Second Coming of Christ to Baitment. In these scriptures, Jesus prays there (Mark 11:12– ul-Maqdis (i.e. Temple in Jerusalem). 19) and chases away money changers and other merchants from the courtyard, turning over their tables and accus- Imam Abdul Hadi Palazzi, leader of Italian Muslim Asing them of desecrating a sacred place with secular ways. sembly, quotes the Qur'an to support Judaism’s special According to the New Testament Gospels, it was to the connection to the Temple Mount. According to Palazzi, Temple Court that Jesus was brought as a child, to be “The most authoritative Islamic sources affirm the Tempresented at the Temple (Luke 2:22) and to attend fes- ples”. He adds that Jerusalem is sacred to Muslims betivals (Luke 2:41). Jerusalem historian Dan Mazar re- cause of its prior holiness to Jews and its standing as home ported in the Jerusalem Christian Review on the numer- to the biblical prophets and kings David and Solomon, all ous archaeological discoveries made at this location by his of whom he says are sacred figures in Islam. He claims grandfather, Prof. Benjamin Mazar, which included the that the Qur'an “expressly recognizes that Jerusalem plays [23] 1st century stairs of ascent, where Jesus and his disciples the same role for Jews that Mecca has for Muslims”. preached, as well as the “mikvaot” (or baptismals) used In his 2007 book, The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, by both Christian and Jewish pilgrims. The events of the West, and the Future of the Holy City, Dore Gold calls Pentecost, which are recorded in the Book of Acts, also assertions that the Temple in Jerusalem never existed or

132 was not located on the Mount "Temple Denial". David Hazony has described the phenomenon as “a campaign of intellectual erasure [by Palestinian leaders, writers, and scholars] ... aimed at undermining the Jewish claim to any part of the land” and compared the phenomenon to Holocaust denial.[24]

11.11 Archaeological evidence

CHAPTER 11. TEMPLE IN JERUSALEM complicated political status of Jerusalem makes reconstruction difficult, while Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock have been constructed at the traditional physical location of the Temple. When the Umayyad Caliph Abdel-Malik ibn Marwan built the Dome of the Rock, some reports indicated that the Jews were filled with elation. Some even believed that this Islamic shrine was the third temple. For a century, Jews had full access to this holiest of sites. In 363 CE, the Roman emperor Julian ordered Alypius of Antioch to rebuild the Temple as part of his campaign to strengthen non-Christian religions.[26] The attempt failed, perhaps due to sabotage, an accidental fire, or an earthquake in Galilee.

11.13 In media Journalistic depiction of the controversies around the Jerusalem Temple was presented in the 2010 documentary Lost Temple by Serge Grankin. The ﬁlm contains interviews with religious and academic authorities involved in the issue. German journalist Dirk-Martin Heinzelmann, featured in the ﬁlm, presents the point of view of Prof. Joseph Patrich (the Hebrew University), stemming Main article: Archaeological remnants of the Jerusalem from the underground cistern mapping made by Charles Temple William Wilson (1836-1905).[27] The Trumpeting Place inscription, a stone (2.43×1 m) with Hebrew writing “To the Trumpeting Place” uncovered during archaeological excavations by Benjamin Mazar at the southern foot of the Temple Mount is believed to be a part of the complex of the Second Temple.

Archaeological excavations have found remnants of both the First Temple and Second Temple. Among the artifacts of the First Temple are dozens of ritual immersion or baptismal pools in this area surrounding the Temple Mount,[25] as well as a large square platform identiﬁed by architectural archaeologist Leen Ritmeye as likely being built by king Hezekiah c. 700 BCE as a gathering area in front of the Temple. Second Temple artifacts include the Trumpeting Place inscription and the Temple Warning inscription are surviving pieces of the Herodian expansion of the Temple Mount.

11.12 Building a Third Temple Main article: Third Temple

11.14 See also • Jewish Temple at Elephantine • Jewish Temple of Leontopolis

11.15 References [1] New American Heritage Dictionary, entry: 'Temple' [2] “Temple, the.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 [3] Durant, Will. Our Oriental Heritage. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1954. p. 307. See 1 Kings 3:2. [4] New American Oxford Dictionary:Temple

Ever since the Second Temple’s destruction, a prayer for the construction of a Third Temple has been a formal and, by some authorities, optional part of the thrice-daily Jewish prayer services. However, the question of whether and when to construct the Third Temple is disputed both within the Jewish community and without; groups within Judaism argue both for and against construction of a new Temple, while the expansion of Abrahamic religion since the 1st century CE has made the issue contentious within Christian and Islamic thought as well. Furthermore, the

[5] Philip E. Goble, ed. (February 2003). The Orthodox Jewish Bible: Tanakh and Orthodox Jewish Brit Chadasha. AFI International Publishers. p. 751. ISBN 978-0939341-04-7. Retrieved 11 March 2011. [6] Josephus, The New Complete Works, translated by William Whiston, Kregel Publications, 1999, “Antiquites” Book 14:4, p.459-460 [7] Michael Grant, The Jews in the Roman World, Barnes & Noble, 1973, p.54

11.17. EXTERNAL LINKS

[8] Peter Richardson, Herod: King of the Jews and Friend of the Romans, Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1996, p.98-99 [9] Josephus, The New Complete Works, translated by William Whiston, Kregel Publications, 1999, “Antiquites” Book 14:7, p.463 [10] Michael Grant, The Jews in the Roman World, Barnes & Noble, 1973, p.58 [11] Ibn Kathir (2008). “Stories of the Prophets”, p. 164-165 (Hi by Rafiq Abdur Rahman, Idara Isha'at-e-diniyat publishers, India ed.). ISBN 81-7101-558-1. [12] See article in the World Jewish Digest, April 2007 [13] Buchanan, George Wesley (August 2011). “Misunderstandings about Jerusalem’s Temple Mount”. Magazine. Washington Report on Middle Eastern Affairs. pp. 16, 64. Retrieved 20 October 2015. [14] Martin, Ernest L. '"The Temples that Jerusalem Forgot."(2000). p.iv ISBN 0-945657-95-1 [15] Gladstone, Rick (8 October 2015). “Historical Certainty Proves Elusive at Jerusalem’s Holiest Place”. Newspaper. The New York Times. Retrieved 14 October 2015. [16] Mishna Tractate Midos. [17] Sheyibaneh Beit Hamikdash: Women in the Azara? [18] Gratuitous Hatred – What is it and Why is it so bad? [19] Gratuitous hatred [20] By Dan Mazar published in Vol. 12 Issue 8 of Jerusalem Christian Review newspaper. [21] See Jennifer A. Harris, “The Body as Temple in the High Middle Ages”, in Albert I. Baumgarten ed., Sacrifice in Religious Experience, Leiden, 2002, pp. 233–256. [22] “The Spiritual Significance of Jerusalem: The Islamic Vision. The Islamic Quarterly. 4 (1998): pp.233-242 [23] Margolis, David (February 23, 2001). “The Muslim Zionist”. Los Angeles Jewish Journal. [24] Hazony, David. "Temple Denial In the Holy City", The New York Sun, March 7, 2007. [25] “Were there Jewish Temples on Temple Mount? Yes Israel News”. Haaretz.com. Retrieved 2016-08-15. [26] Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 23.1.2–3. [27] IMDb

11.16 Further reading • Biblical Archaeology Review, issues: July/August 1983, November/December 1989, March/April 1992, July/August 1999, September/October 1999, March/April 2000, September/October 2005

133 • Ritmeyer, Leen. The Quest: Revealing the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Jerusalem: Carta, 2006. ISBN 965-220-628-8 • Hamblin, William and David Seely, Solomon’s Temple: Myth and History (Thames and Hudson, 2007) ISBN 0-500-25133-9 • Yaron Eliav, God’s Mountain: The Temple Mount in Time, Place and Memory (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005) • Rachel Elior, The Jerusalem Temple: The Representation of the Imperceptible”, Studies in Spirituality 11 (2001), pp. 126–143

11.17 External links • Seek Out the Welfare of Jerusalem Analytical studies by the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson on the Rambam’s rulings concerning the construction and the design of the Beis HaMikdosh. • visit of the Temple Institute Museum in Jerusalem conducted by Rav Israel Ariel • Video tour of a model of the future temple described in Ezekiel chapters 40–49 from a Christian perspective. • The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts Coordinates: 31°46′40″N 35°14′08″E / 31.77765°N 35.23547°E • Rachel Elior, “The Jerusalem Temple - The Representation of the Imperceptible”, Studies in Spirituality 11 (2001): 126-143

Chapter 12

Second Temple Jewish eschatology includes a belief that the Second Temple will be replaced by a future Third Temple.

12.1 Biblical narrative Main article: Second Temple period The accession of Cyrus the Great of the Persian Empire in 559 BCE made the re-establishment of the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple possible.[1][2] According to the Bible, when the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem following a decree from Cyrus the Great (Ezra 1:1-4, 2 Chron 36:22-23), construction started at the original site of Solomon’s Temple, which had remained a devastated heap during the approximately 70 years of captivity (Dan. 9:1-2). After a relatively brief halt due to opposition from peoples who had ﬁlled the vacuum during the Jewish captivity (Ezra 4), work resumed c. 521 BCE under Darius the Great (Ezra 5) and was completed during the sixth year of his reign (c. 516 BCE), with the temple dedication taking place the following year.

Model of Herod’s Temple (a renovation of the Second Temple) in the Israel Museum, created in 1966 as part of the Holyland Model of Jerusalem. The model was inspired by the writings of Josephus.

The Second Temple was an important Jewish Holy Temple (Hebrew: ‫ ּבֵית־ה ּ ִַמ ְקדָּשׁ ה ַּשׁ ֵ נ ִי‬, Bet HaMikdash HaSheni; Arabic: ‫بيت القدس‬: Beit al-Quds) which stood on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem during the Second Temple period, between 516 BCE and 70 CE. According to Jewish (and subsequently, Christian and Islamic) tradition, it replaced Solomon’s Temple (the First Temple) which, according to the tradition, was destroyed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE, when Jerusalem was conquered and a portion of the population of the Kingdom of Judah was taken into exile in Babylon.

The events take place in the second half of the 5th century BCE. Listed together with the Book of Ezra as EzraNehemiah, it represents the final chapter in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible.[1] The original core of the book, the first-person memoir, may have been combined with the core of the Book of Ezra around 400 BCE. Further editing probably continued into the Hellenistic era.[3] The book tells how Nehemiah, at the court of the king in Susa, is informed that Jerusalem is without walls and resolves to restore them. The king appoints him as governor of Yehud Medinata and he travels to Jerusalem. There he rebuilds the walls, despite the opposition of Israel’s enemies, and reforms the community in conformity with the law of Moses. After 12 years in Jerusalem, he returns to Susa but subsequently revisits Jerusalem. He finds that the Israelites have been backsliding and taking non-Jewish wives, and he stays in Jerusalem to enforce the Law.

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12.2. RABBINICAL LITERATURE

135

Based on the biblical account, after the return from Baby• The Ark of the Covenant[2][5] containing the Tablets lonian captivity, arrangements were immediately made to of Stone, before which were placed[13] the pot of reorganize the desolated Yehud Province after the demise manna and Aaron’s rod[5] of the Kingdom of Judah seventy years earlier. The body • The Urim and Thummim[2][5] (divination objects of pilgrims, forming a band of 42,360,[4] having comcontained in the Hoshen) pleted the long and dreary journey of some four months, from the banks of the Euphrates to Jerusalem, were an• The holy oil[5] imated in all their proceedings by a strong religious impulse, and therefore one of their first concerns was to re• The sacred fire.[2][5] store their ancient house of worship by rebuilding their destroyed Temple[5] and reinstituting the sacrificial rituIn the Second Temple, the Kodesh Hakodashim (Holy of als known as the korbanot. Holies) was separated by curtains rather than a wall as in On the invitation of Zerubbabel, the governor, who the First Temple. Still, as in the Tabernacle, the Second showed them a remarkable example of liberality by con- Temple included: tributing personally 1,000 golden darics, besides other gifts, the people poured their gifts into the sacred treasury • The Menorah (golden lamp) for the Hekhal with great enthusiasm.[6] First they erected and dedicated the altar of God on the exact spot where it had formerly • The Table of Showbread stood, and they then cleared away the charred heaps of • The golden altar of incense, with golden censers.[5] debris which occupied the site of the old temple; and in the second month of the second year (535 BCE), amid great public excitement and rejoicing, the foundations of According to the Mishnah (Middot iii. 6), the the Second Temple were laid. A wide interest was felt in "Foundation Stone" stood where the Ark used to be, and this great movement, although it was regarded with mixed the High Priest put his censer on it on Yom Kippur.[2] feelings by the spectators.[5][7][8] The Second Temple also included many of the original The Samaritans made proposals for co-operation in the vessels of gold that had been taken by the Babylonians work. Zerubbabel and the elders, however, declined all but restored by Cyrus the Great.[5][14] According to the such cooperation, feeling that the Jews must build the Babylonian Talmud (Yoma 22b),[2] however, the Temple Temple without help. Immediately evil reports were lacked the Shekinah, the dwelling or settling divine presspread regarding the Jews. According to Ezra 4:5, the ence of God, and the Ruach HaKodesh, the Spirit of HoSamaritans sought to “frustrate their purpose” and sent liness, present in the first. messengers to Ecbatana and Susa, with the result that the work was suspended.[5] Seven years later, Cyrus the Great, who allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple, died,[9] and was succeeded by his son Cambyses. On his death, the “false Smerdis,” an imposter, occupied the throne for some seven or eight months, and then Darius I of Persia became king (522 BCE). In the second year of this monarch the work of rebuilding the temple was resumed and carried forward to its completion,[10] under the stimulus of the earnest counsels and admonitions of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE, more than twenty years after the return from captivity. The Temple was completed on the third day of the month Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of King Darius, amid great rejoicings on the part of all the people[11] although it was evident that the Jews were no longer an independent people, but were subject to a foreign power. The Book of Haggai includes a prediction that the glory of the second temple would be greater than that of the first.[5][12]

12.2 Rabbinical literature Traditional rabbinic literature state that the Second Temple stood for 420 years and based on the 2nd-century work Seder Olam Rabbah, placed construction in 350 BCE (3408 AM), 166 years later than secular estimates, and destruction in 70 CE (3829 AM).[15]

12.3 Rededication by the Maccabees

Following the conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great, it became part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE, when King Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated King Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt at the Battle of Panion.[16] Judea became at that moment part of the Seleucid empire of Syria. When the Second TemSince some of the original artifacts were, according to ple in Jerusalem was looted and its religious services the biblical account, lost after the destruction of the First stopped, Judaism was eﬀectively outlawed. In 167 BCE, Temple, the Second Temple lacked the following holy ar- Antiochus IV Epiphanes ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. He also banned circumcision and ordered ticles: pigs to be sacriﬁced at the altar of the Temple.[17]

136 Following the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid empire, the Second Temple was rededicated and became the religious pillar of the Jewish Hasmonean kingdom, as well as culturally associated with the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah.

CHAPTER 12. SECOND TEMPLE

12.5 Herod’s Temple

12.4 Hasmonean dynasty and Roman conquest There is some evidence from archaeology that further changes to the structure of the Temple and its surroundings were made during the Hasmonean rule. Salome Alexandra, the queen of Hasmonean Kingdom appointed her elder son Hyrcanus as the high priest of Judaea. Her younger son Aristobulus II was determined to have the throne, and as soon as she died he seized the throne. Hyrcanus, who was in line to be the king, agreed to be contented with being the high priest. Antipater, the governor of Idumæa, encouraged Hyrcanus not to give up his throne. Eventually Hyrcanus fled to Aretas III, king of the Nabateans, and returned with an army to take back the throne. He defeated Aristobulus and besieged Jerusalem. The Roman general Pompey, who was in Syria fighting against the Armenians in the Third Mithridatic War, sent his lieutenant to investigate the conflict in Judaea. Both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus appealed to him for support. Pompey was not diligent in making a decision about this which caused Aristobulus to march off. He was pursued by Pompey and surrendered but his followers closed Jerusalem to Pompey’s forces. The Romans besieged and took the city in 63 BCE. The priests continued with the religious practices inside the Temple during the siege. The temple was not looted or harmed by the Romans. Pompey himself, perhaps inadvertently, went into the Holy of Holies and the next day ordered the priests to repurify the Temple and resume the religious practices.[18]

Solomon’s Temple which was on the site prior to the building of the Second Temple

This picture shows the temple as imagined in 1966 in the Holyland Model of Jerusalem.

Reconstruction of the temple under Herod began with a massive expansion of the Temple Mount. Religious worship and temple rituals continued during the construction process.[19] When the Roman emperor Caligula planned to place his own statue inside the temple, Herod’s grandson Agrippa I was able to intervene and convince him against this.

12.5.1 Construction

James Tissot - Reconstruction of Jerusalem and the Temple of Herod - Brooklyn Museum

2A model of the Southern wall and Royal Colonnade

12.5. HEROD’S TEMPLE

137 rituals, called oﬀerings, were to be continued unabated for the entire time of construction, and the Temple itself would be constructed by the priests. Later the Exodus 30:13 sanctuary shekel was reinstituted to support the temple as the temple tax.

12.5.2 Platform

Eastern portion of the Southern Wall of the Temple Mount

Remains of the Hulda Gates

Marwan Mosque on the site of Solomon’s Stables

Herod’s Temple was one of the larger construction projects of the 1st century BCE.[20] Josephus records that Herod was interested in perpetuating his name through building projects, that his construction programs were extensive and paid for by heavy taxes, but that his masterpiece was the Temple of Jerusalem.[20] The old temple built by Zerubbabel was replaced by a magnificent edifice. An agreement was made between Herod and the Jewish religious authorities: the sacrificial

Mt. Moriah had a plateau at the northern end, and steeply declined on the southern slope. It was Herod’s plan that the entire mountain be turned into a giant square platform. The Temple Mount was originally intended to be 1600 feet wide by 900 feet broad by 9 stories high, with walls up to 16 feet thick, but had never been finished. To complete it, a trench was dug around the mountain, and huge stone “bricks” were laid. Some of these weighed well over 100 tons, the largest measuring 44.6 feet by 11 feet by 16.5 feet and weighing approximately 567 to 628 tons,[21][22] while most were in the range of 2.5 by 3.5 by 15 feet (approximately 28 tons). King Herod had architects from Greece, Rome and Egypt plan the construction. The blocks were presumably quarried by using pickaxes to create channels. Then they hammered in wooden beams and flushed them with water to force them out. Once they were removed, they were carved into precise squares and numbered at the quarry to show where they would be installed. The final carving would have been done by using harder stones to grind or chisel them to create precise joints. They would have been transported using oxen and specialized carts. Since the quarry was uphill from the temple they had gravity on their side but care needed to be taken to control the descent. Final installation would have been done using pulleys or cranes. Roman pulleys and cranes weren't strong enough to lift the blocks alone so they may have used multiple cranes and levers to position them.[23] As the mountainside began to rise, the western side was carved away to a vertical wall and bricks were carved to create a virtual continuation of the brick face, which was continued for a while until the northern slope reached ground level. Part of the Antonian hill to the north of Moriah was annexed to the complex and the area between was filled up with landfill. The project began with the building of giant underground vaults upon which the temple would be built so it could be larger than the small flat area on top of Mount Moriah. Ground level at the time was at least 20 ft. (6m) below the current level, as can be seen by walking the Western Wall tunnels. Legend has it that the construction of the entire complex lasted only three years, but other sources such as Josephus say that it took far longer, although the Temple itself may have taken that long. During a Passover visit by Jesus the Jews replied that it had been under construction for 46 years.[24] It is possible that the complex was only a few years completed when the future Emperor Titus destroyed the Temple in 70 CE.

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CHAPTER 12. SECOND TEMPLE

12.5.3

Court of the Gentiles

This area was primarily a bazaar, with vendors selling souvenirs, sacriﬁcial animals, food, as well as currency changers, exchanging Roman for Tyrian money because the Jews were not allowed to coin their own money and they viewed Roman currency as an abomination to the Lord,[25] as also mentioned in the New Testament account of Jesus and the Money Changers when Jerusalem was packed with Jews who had come for Passover, perhaps numbering 300,000 to 400,000 pilgrims.[26][27] Guides that provided tours of the premises were also available. Jewish males had the unique opportunity to be shown inside the temple itself.

to all Jews, male and female. Even a ritually unclean Cohen could enter to perform various housekeeping duties. There was also a place for lepers (considered ritually unclean), as well as a ritual barbershop for Nazirites. In this, the largest of the temple courts, one could see constant dancing, singing and music. Only men were allowed to enter the Court of the Israelites, where they could observe sacriﬁces of the high priest in the Court of the Priests. The Court of the Priests was reserved for Levite priests.

12.5.6 Temple sanctuary

The priests, in their white linen robes and tubular hats, were everywhere, directing pilgrims and advising them on what kinds of sacriﬁces were to be performed. Behind them, as they entered the Court of the Gentiles from the south through the Huldah Gates, was the Royal Porch, which contained a marketplace, administrative quarters, and a synagogue. On the upper ﬂoors, the great Jewish sages held court, priests and Levites performed various chores, and from there, tourists were able to observe the events. To the east of the court was Solomon’s Porch, and to the north, the soreg, the “middle wall of separation”,[28] a stone wall separating the public area from the inner sanctuary where only Jews could enter, described as being 3 cubits high by Josephus (Wars 5.5.2 [3b] 6.2.4).

12.5.4

Pinnacle

The accounts of Jesus’ temptations in Matthew’s and Luke’s gospels both suggest that the Second Temple had one or more pinnacles (Greek: το πτερυγιον του ιερου): “Then he (Satan) brought Him to Jerusalem, set Him on the pinnacle of the temple, and said to Him, “If You are the Son of God, throw Yourself down from here”.[29]

12.5.5

The Foundation Stone under the Dome of the Rock, a possible historical location for the Kodesh Hakodashim

Inside the Soreg

Between the entrance of the building and the curtain veiling the Holy of Holies were the famous vessels of the temAccording to Josephus, there were ten entrances into the ple: the menorah, the incense-burning altar, and various inner courts, four on the south, four on the north, one on other implements. the east and one leading east to west from the Court of Women to the court of the Israelites, named the Nicanor Gate.[30] The gates were: On the south side (going from west to east) the Fuel Gate, the Firstling Gate, the Water 12.6 Pilgrimages Gate. On the north side, from west to east, are the Jeconiah Gate, the Oﬀering Gate, the Women’s Gate and the See also: Pilgrimage § Judaism Song Gate. On the Eastern side, the Nicanor gate, which is where most Jewish visitors entered. A few pieces of Jews from distant parts of the Roman Empire would arthe Soreg have survived to the present day. rive by boat at the port of Jaﬀa (now part of Tel Aviv), Within this area was the Court of the Women, open where they would join a caravan for the three-day trek

12.7. DESTRUCTION

139

Proposed reconstruction of Robinson’s Arch

Robinson’s Arch - remains of the entrance built by Herod to the Royal Colonnade

Roman triumphal procession with spoils from the Temple, depicted on the inside wall of the Arch of Titus in Rome

Remnants of the 1st century Stairs of Ascent, discovered by archaeologist Benjamin Mazar, to the entrance of the Temple Courtyard. Pilgrims coming to make sacriﬁces at the Temple would have entered and exited by this stairway. The Madaba Map depiction of 6th-century Aelia Capitolina has the Cardo Maximus, the town’s main street, beginning at the northern gate, today’s Damascus Gate, and traversing the city in a straight line from north to south to “Nea Church”.

visit a mikveh, where they would ritually cleanse and purify themselves. The pilgrims would then retrieve their sacrificial animals, and head to the Huldah gates. After ascending a staircase three stories in height, and passing through the gate, the pilgrims would find themselves in to the Holy City and would then find lodgings in one of the Court of the Gentiles. the many hotels or hostelries. Then they changed some of their money from the profane standard Greek and Roman currency for Jewish and Tyrian money, the latter two considered religious.[31][32] The pilgrims would purchase sac- 12.7 Destruction rificial animals, usually a pigeon or a lamb, in preparation Main article: Siege of Jerusalem (70) for the following day’s events. The first thing pilgrims would do would be to approach the public entrance on the south side of the Temple In 66 CE the Jewish population rebelled against the RoMount complex. They would check their animals, then man Empire. Four years later, in 70 CE, Roman legions

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CHAPTER 12. SECOND TEMPLE

View of the southern part of Temple Mount

Stones from the Western Wall thrown down by Roman soldiers in 70 CE

under Titus retook and destroyed much of Jerusalem and the Second Temple. The Arch of Titus, located in Rome and built to commemorate Titus’s victory in Judea, depicts a Roman victory procession with soldiers carrying spoils from the Temple, including the Menorah; which were used to fund the construction of the Colosseum. The sects of Judaism that had their base in the Temple dwindled in importance, including the priesthood and the Sadduccees.[33] The destruction date according to the Hebrew calendar was the 9th of Av, also known as Tisha B'Av.[34] The Temple itself was located on the site of what today is the Dome of the Rock. The gates let out close to Al-Aqsa Mosque.[19] The spoils of the Second Temple were taken to Rome and sculpture of the spoils appear on the Arch of Titus. According to an inscription on the Colosseum, Emperor Vespasian built the Collosseum with war spoils in 79 CE-possibly from the spoils of the Second Temple.[35]

Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (1850 painting by David Roberts). Looking southwest

Although Jews continued to inhabit the destroyed city, Emperor Hadrian established a new city called Aelia Capitolina. At the end of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, many of the Jewish communities were massacred and Jews were banned from living inside Jerusalem. A pagan Roman temple was set up on the former site of Herod’s Temple.[18]

12.8 Archaeology

View of Temple Mount looking southwest

In 1871, a hewn stone measuring 60 x 90 cm. and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem and identiﬁed by Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau as being the Temple Warning inscription. The stone inscription outlined the prohibition extended unto those who were not of the Jewish nation to proceed beyond the wall separating the larger court of the gentiles and the inner courts. The inscription read in seven lines:

12.9. SECOND TEMPLE JUDAISM ΜΗΟΕΝΑΑΛΛΟΓΕΝΗΕΙΣΠΟ ΡΕΥΕΣΟΑΙΕΝΤΟΣΤΟΥΠΕ ΡΙΤΟΙΕΡΟΝΤΡΥΦΑΚΤΟΥΚΑΙ ΠΕΡΙΒΟΛΟΥΟΣΔΑΝΛΗ

141 • The upper corner of Herod’s temple colonnade with ancient Hebrew inscription • The Warning Inscription found in 1871

ΦΘΗΕΑΥΤΩΙΑΙΤΙΟΣΕΣ

• A copy of the inscription found in 1871

ΤΑΙΔΙΑΤΟΕΞΑΚΟΛΟΥ

• Fragment of Second Temple Warning

ΘΕΙΝΘΑΝΑΤΟΝ

• The Trumpeting Place inscription, a stone (2.43x1 m) with Hebrew inscription “To the Trumpeting Place” excavated by Benjamin Mazar at the southern foot of the Temple Mount is believed to be a part of the Second Temple.

Translation: “Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught [violating] will be held accountable for his ensuing death.” Today, the stone is preserved in Istanbul’s Museum of Antiquities. In 1936 a fragment of a similar Temple warning inscription was found. After 1967, archaeologists found that the wall extended all the way around the Temple Mount and is part of the city wall near the Lions’ Gate. Thus, the Western Wall is not the only remaining part of the Temple Mount. Currently, Robinson’s Arch (named after American Edward Robinson) remains as the beginning of an arch that spanned the gap between the top of the platform and the higher ground farther away. This had been used by the priests as an entrance. Commoners had entered through the still-extant, but now plugged, gates on the southern side which led through beautiful colonnades to the top of the platform. One of these colonnades is still extant and reachable through the Temple Mount. The Southern wall was designed as a grand entrance. Recent archeological digs have found thousands of mikvehs (ceremonial bathtubs) for the ritual puriﬁcation of the worshipers, as well as a grand stairway leading to the now blocked entrance. Inside the walls, the platform was supported by a series of vaulted archways, now called Solomon’s Stables, which still exist and whose current renovation by the Waqf is extremely controversial. The temple itself was constructed of imported white marble that gleamed in the daylight. On September 25, 2007 Yuval Baruch, archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority announced the discovery of a quarry compound which may have provided King Herod with the stones to build his Temple on the Temple Mount. Coins, pottery and an iron stake found proved the date of the quarrying to be about 19 BCE. Archaeologist Ehud Netzer conﬁrmed that the large outlines of the stone cuts is evidence that it was a massive public project worked by hundreds of slaves.[36] The Magdala stone, is thought to be a representation of the Second Temple carved before its destruction in the year 70.[37] • Magdala Stone • Bar Kokhba tetradracm showing the Jerusalem Temple façade 132-135 CE • Arch of Titus showing spoils of Jerusalem Temple

12.9 Second Temple Judaism Main article: Second Temple Judaism The period between the construction of the Second Temple in 515 BCE and its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE witnessed major historical upheavals and signiﬁcant religious changes that would aﬀect most subsequent Western (or Abrahamic) religions. The origins of the authority of scripture, of the centrality of law and morality in religion, of the synagogue and of apocalyptic expectations for the future all developed in the Judaism of this period.

12.10 See also • Herodian architecture • Jerusalem stone • Holyland Model of Jerusalem • List of artifacts signiﬁcant to the Bible • List of megalithic sites • Replicas of the Jewish Temple • Temple of Peace, Rome • Third Temple • Timeline of Jewish history

12.11 References [1] Albright, William (1963). The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra: An Historical Survey. Harpercollins College Div. ISBN 0-06-130102-7. [2] Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). “Temple, The Second”. Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.

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[3] Paul Cartledge, Peter Garnsey, Erich S. Gruen (editors), Hellenistic Constructs: Essays In Culture, History, and Historiography, page 92 (University of California Press, 1997). ISBN 0-520-20676-2 [4] Ezra 2:65 [5] Easton, Matthew George (1897). "Temple, the Second". Easton’s Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons. [6] Ezra 2 [7] Haggai 2:3 [8] Zechariah 4:10 [9] 2 Chronicles 36:22-23

CHAPTER 12. SECOND TEMPLE

[28] In verse 14 of Ephesians 2:11–18 [29] Luke 4:9 [30] Josephus, War 5.5.2; 198; m. Mid. 1.4 [31] Sanders, E. P. The historical ﬁgure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. [32] Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus, Interrupted, HarperCollins, 2009. ISBN 0-06-117393-2 [33] Alföldy, Géza (1995). “Eine Bauinschrift aus dem Colosseum”. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 109: 195–226. JSTOR 20189648. [34] Simmons, Shraga. “Tisha B'Av – Ninth of Av”. Retrieved 2013-05-20.

[10] Ezra 5:6-6:15

[35] Daily Telegraph June 15, 2001

[11] Ezra 6:15,16 [12] Haggai 2:9

[36] Gaﬀney, Sean (2007-09-24). “USATODAY.com, Report: Herod’s Temple quarry found”. Usatoday.com. Retrieved 2013-08-31.

[13] Maimonides. “Mishneh Torah, Sefer Avodah, Beis Habechirah, Chapter 4, Halacha 1”. Retrieved 2013-0520.

[37] Kershner, Isabel (8 December 2015). “A Carved Stone Block Upends Assumptions About Ancient Judaism”. New York Times. Retrieved 9 December 2015.

[14] Ezra 1:7-11 [15] Goldwurm, Hersh. History of the Jewish people: the Second Temple era, Mesorah Publications, 1982. Appendix: Year of the Destruction, pg. 213. ISBN 0-89906-454-X [16] De Bellis Antiquitatis (DBA) The Battle of Panion (200 BC) [17] Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews Jewish War i. 34 [18] Lester L. Grabbe (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. pp. 19–20, 26–29. ISBN 9780567552488. [19] Secrets of Jerusalem’s Temple Mount, Leen Ritmeyer, Kathleen Ritmeyer, 1998 [20] Flavius Josephus: The Jewish War [21] The History Channel cited the 16.5 depth 567 ton estimate in “Lost Worlds of King Herod” [22] Dan Bahat: Touching the Stones of our Heritage, Israeli ministry of Religious Aﬀairs, 2002 [23] “Modern Marvels: Bible tech” History channel [24] Gospel of John 2:20 [25] Beasley-Murray, G. (1999). Word biblical commentary: John (2 ed., Vol. 36). Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson. [26] Sanders, E. P. The historical ﬁgure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. p. 249 [27] Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.

12.12 External links • Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem • Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple, The Second • 4 Enoch: The Online Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism • Jerusalem Videos The Southern & Western walls in Jerusalem — The Temple Mount • Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem • Temple Mount Photos The Temple Mount photos including sites below the Mount itself, oﬀ limits to any non-Muslims • Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Herod and the Herodian Dynasty The Jewish History Resource Center — Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem • Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple of Herod • PBS Frontline: Temple Culture

12.12. EXTERNAL LINKS • Picture gallery of a model of the temple • Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem • Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple, The Second • 4 Enoch: The Online Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism

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Temple Mount The Temple Mount (Hebrew: ‫הַר ַה ַּבי ִת‬, Har HaBáyit, grated for a last time, this time to Jerusalem’s Western “Mount of the House [of God, i.e. the Temple]"), known Hill.[3] to Muslims as the Haram esh-Sharif (Arabic: ‫ الحرم‬According to the Bible, both Jewish Temples stood at ‫الشر يف‬, al-Ḥaram al-Šarīf, “the Noble Sanctuary”, or the Temple Mount, though archaeological evidence only , al-Ḥaram al-Qudsī al-Šarīf, “the exists for the Second Temple.[4] However, the identifiNoble Sanctuary of Jerusalem”), a hill located in the Old cation of Solomon’s Temple with the area of the TemCity of Jerusalem, is one of the most important reli- ple Mount is widespread. According to the Bible the gious sites in the world. It has been venerated as a holy site should function as the center of all national life—a site for thousands of years by Judaism, Christianity, and governmental, judicial and religious center.[5] During the Islam. The present site is dominated by three monumen- Second Temple period it functioned also as an economic tal structures from the early Umayyad period: the al-Aqsa center. According to Jewish tradition and scripture,[6] the Mosque, the Dome of the Rock and the Dome of the First Temple was built by King Solomon the son of King Chain, as well as four minarets. Herodian walls and gates David in 957 BCE and destroyed by the Babylonians in with additions dating back to the late Byzantine and early 586 BCE. The second was constructed under the auspices Islamic periods cut through the flanks of the Mount. Cur- of Zerubbabel in 516 BCE and destroyed by the Roman rently it can be reached through eleven gates, ten reserved Empire in 70 CE. In the 2nd century, the site was used for for Muslims and one for non-Muslims, with guard posts a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus. It was redeveloped folof Israeli police in the vicinity of each. lowing the Arab conquest.[7] Jewish tradition maintains it The Temple Mount is the holiest site in Judaism, which is here a Third and final Temple will also be built. The regards it as the place where God’s divine presence is location is the holiest site in Judaism and is the place Jews manifested more than in any other place. According to turn towards during prayer. Due to its extreme sanctity, the rabbinic sages whose debates produced the Talmud, many Jews will not walk on the Mount itself, to avoid unit was from here the world expanded into its present form intentionally entering the area where the Holy of Holies aspect of and where God gathered the dust used to create the first stood, since according to Rabbinical law, some [8] the divine presence is still present at the site. It was from [2] human, Adam. the Holy of Holies that the High Priest communicated diSince at least the first century CE, the site has been as- rectly with God. sociated in Judaism with Mount Moriah (Hebrew: ‫הַר‬ ‫הַמוריה‬, Har HaMōriyā); Mount Moriah is the name given The Temple was of central importance in Jewish worship, by the Hebrew Bible to the location of Abraham’s binding in the Tanakh and the Christian Old Testament. In the of Isaac,[2] this identification being perpetuated by Jewish New Testament it remains the site of several events in the life of Jesus, and Christian loyalty to it as a focal point and Christian tradition. remained long after his death.[9][10][11] After the destrucSeveral passages in the Hebrew Bible indicate that during tion of the Temple in 70 CE, which came to be regarded the time when they were written, the Temple Mount was by early Christians, as it was by Josephus and the sages of identified as Mount Zion.[3] The Mount Zion mentioned the Jerusalem Talmud, to be a divine act of punishment in the later parts of the Book of Isaiah (Isaiah 60:14), in for the sins of the Jewish people,[12][13] the Temple Mount the Book of Psalms, and the First Book of Maccabees (c. lost its significance for Christian worship with the Chris2nd century BCE) seems to refer to the top of the hill, tians considering it a fulfillment of Christ’s prophecy at, generally known as the Temple Mount.[3] According to for example, Matthew 23:28 and 24:2. It was to this end, the Book of Samuel, Mount Zion was the site of the Je- proof of a biblical prophecy fulfilled and of Christianbusite fortress called the “stronghold of Zion”, but once ity’s victory over Judaism with the New Covenant,[14] that the First Temple was erected, according to the Bible, at early Christian pilgrims also visited the site.[15] Byzantine the top of the Eastern Hill (“Temple Mount”), the name Christians, despite some signs of constructive work on “Mount Zion” migrated there too.[3] The name later mi- the esplanade,[16] generally neglected the Temple Mount,

144

13.2. HISTORY especially when a Jewish attempt to rebuilt the Temple was destroyed by the earthquake in 363.[17] and it became a desolate local rubbish dump, perhaps outside the city limits,[18] as Christian worship in Jerusalem shifted to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and Jerusalem’s centrality was replaced by Rome.[19] Almost immediately after the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in 638 CE, Caliph 'Omar ibn al Khatab, disgusted by the ﬁlth covering the site, had it thoroughly cleaned,[20] and granted Jews access to the site.[21] Among Sunni Muslims, the Mount is widely considered the third holiest site in Islam. Revered as the Noble Sanctuary, the location of Muhammad's journey to Jerusalem and ascent to heaven, the site is also associated with Jewish biblical prophets who are also venerated in Islam.[22] Muslims preferred to the esplanade as the heart for the Muslim quarter since it had been abandoned by Christians, to avoid disturbing the Christian quarters of jerusalem.[23] Umayyad Caliphs commissioned the construction of the al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock on the site.[24] The Dome was completed in 692 CE, making it one of the oldest extant Islamic structures in the world. The Al Aqsa Mosque rests on the far southern side of the Mount, facing Mecca. The Dome of the Rock currently sits in the middle, occupying or close to the area where the Holy Temple previously stood.[25] In light of the dual claims of both Judaism and Islam, it is one of the most contested religious sites in the world. Since the Crusades, the Muslim community of Jerusalem has managed the site as a Waqf, without interruption.[26] As the site is part of the Old City, controlled by Israel since 1967, both Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim sovereignty over it, and it remains a major focal point of the Arab–Israeli conﬂict.[27] In an attempt to keep the status quo, the Israeli government enforces a controversial ban on prayer by non-Muslims.[28][29][30]

145 narrow spur of hill that slopes sharply downward from north to south. Rising above the Kidron Valley to the east and Tyropoeon Valley to the west,[31] its peak reaches a height of 740 m (2,428 ft) above sea level.[32] In around 19 BCE, Herod the Great extended the Mount’s natural plateau by enclosing the area with four massive retaining walls and filling the voids. This artificial expansion resulted in a large flat expanse which today forms the eastern section of the Old City of Jerusalem. The trapezium shaped platform measures 488 m along the west, 470 m along the east, 315 m along the north and 280 m along the south, giving a total area of approximately 150,000 m2 (37 acres).[33] The northern wall of the Mount, together with the northern section of the western wall, is hidden behind residential buildings. The southern section of the western flank is revealed and contains what is known as the Western Wall. The retaining walls on these two sides descend many meters below ground level. A northern portion of the western wall may be seen from within the Western Wall Tunnel, which was excavated through buildings adjacent to the platform. On the southern and eastern sides the walls are visible almost to their full height. The platform itself is separated from the rest of the Old City by the Tyropoeon Valley, though this once deep valley is now largely hidden beneath later deposits, and is imperceptible in places. The platform can be reached via Gate of the Chain Street – a street in the Muslim Quarter at the level of the platform, actually sitting on a monumental bridge;[34] the bridge is no longer externally visible due to the change in ground level, but it can be seen from beneath via the Western Wall Tunnel. [35]

13.2 History 13.2.1 Israelite period

13.1 Location and dimensions

The hill is believed to have been inhabited since the 4th millennium BCE. Assuming colocation with the biblical Mount Zion, its southern section would have been walled at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE, in around 1850 BCE, by Canaanites who established a settlement there (or in the vicinity) named Jebus. Jewish tradition identifies it with Mount Moriah where the binding of Isaac took place. According to the Hebrew Bible, the Temple Mount was originally a threshing-floor owned by Araunah, a Jebusite. The prophet Gad suggested the area to King David as a fitting place for the erection of an altar to YHWH, since a destroying angel was standing there when God stopped a great plague in Jerusalem.[36]

David then bought the property from Araunah, for ﬁfty pieces of silver, and erected the altar. YHWH instructed David to build a sanctuary on the site, outside the city walls on the northern edge of the hill. The building was to replace the Tabernacle, and serve as the Temple of the The Temple Mount forms the northern portion of a very Israelites in Jerusalem.[37] The Temple Mount is an imThe Holyland Model of Jerusalem in the late Second Temple period. The large ﬂat expanse was a base for Herod’s Temple, in the center. The view is from outside the Eastern Wall of the Temple Mount.

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CHAPTER 13. TEMPLE MOUNT

portant part of Biblical archaeology.

13.2.2

Persian, Hasmonean and Herodian periods

The Trumpeting Place inscription, a stone (2.43x1 m) with Hebrew inscription ‫“ לבית התקיעה להב‬To the Trumpeting Place” excavated by Benjamin Mazar at the southern foot of the Temple Mount is believed to be a part of the Second Temple

Much of the Mount’s early history is synonymous with events pertaining to the Temple itself. After the destruction of Solomon’s Temple by Nebuchadnezzar II, construction of the Second Temple began under Cyrus in around 538 BCE, and was completed in 516 BCE. Evidence of a Hasmonean expansion of the Temple Mount has been recovered by archaeologist Leen Ritmeyer. Around 19 BCE, Herod the Great further expanded the Mount and rebuilt the temple. The ambitious project, which involved the employment of 10,000 workers,[38] more than doubled the size of the Temple Mount to approximately 36 acres (150,000 m2 ). Herod leveled the area by cutting away rock on the northwest side and raising the sloping ground to the south. He achieved this by constructing huge buttress walls and vaults, and ﬁlling the necessary sections with earth and rubble.[39] A basilica, called by Josephus “the Royal Stoa", was constructed on the southern end of the expanded platform, which provided a focus for the city’s commercial and legal transactions, and which was provided with separate access to the city below via the Robinson’s Arch overpass.[40] In addition to restoration of the Temple, its courtyards and porticoes, Herod also built the Antonia Fortress, abutting the northwestern corner of the Temple Mount, and a rainwater reservoir, Birket Israel, in the northeast. As a result of the First Jewish–Roman War, the fortress was destroyed in 70 CE by Titus, the army commander and son of Roman emperor Vespasian.

13.2.3

Middle Roman period

Stones from the walls of the Temple Mount

whom a temple was built on the site of the former second Jewish temple, the Temple Mount.[41] Hadrian had intended the construction of the new city as a gift to the Jews, but since he had constructed a giant statue of himself in front of the Temple of Jupiter and the Temple of Jupiter had a huge statue of Jupiter inside of it, there were on the Temple Mount now two enormous graven images, which Jews considered idolatrous. It was also customary in Roman rites to sacrifice a pig in land purification ceremonies.[42] In addition to this, Hadrian issued a decree prohibiting the practice of circumcision. These three factors, the graven images, the sacrifice of pigs before the altar, and the prohibition of circumcision, are thought to have constituted for non-Hellenized Jews a new abomination of desolation, and thus Bar Kochba launched the Third Jewish Revolt. After the Third Jewish Revolt failed, all Jews were forbidden on pain of death from entering the city or the surrounding territory around the city.[43]

13.2.4 Late Roman period From the 1st through the 7th centuries Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire, gradually became the predominant religion of Palestine and under the Byzantines Jerusalem itself was almost completely Christian, with most of the population being Jacobite Christians of the Syrian rite.[14][17]

The city of Aelia Capitolina was built in 130 CE by the Roman emperor Hadrian, and occupied by a Roman colony on the site of Jerusalem, which was still in ruins from the First Jewish Revolt in 70 CE. Aelia came from Hadrian’s nomen gentile, Aelius, while Capitolina meant Emperor Constantine I promoted the Christianization of that the new city was dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus, to Roman society, giving it precedence over pagan cults.[44]

13.2. HISTORY One consequence was that Hadrian’s Temple to Jupiter on the Temple Mount was demolished immediately following the First Council of Nicea in 325 CE on orders of Constantine.[45]

147 to the Christian population, who tore down the partially built Jewish Temple ediﬁce and turned it into a garbage dump,[52] which is what it was when the Rashidun Caliph Umar took the city in 637.

The Bordaeux Pilgrim, who visited Jerusalem in 333– 334, during the reign of Emperor Constantine I, wrote that “There are two statues of Hadrian, and, not far from 13.2.7 them, a pierced stone to which the Jews come every year and anoint. They mourn and rend their garments, and then depart.”[46] The occasion is assumed to have been Tisha b'Av, since decades later Jerome related that that was the only day on which Jews were permitted to enter Jerusalem.[47]

Early Muslim period

Constantine’s nephew Emperor Julian granted permission in the year 363 for the Jews to rebuild the Temple.[47][48] In a letter attributed to Julian he wrote to the Jews that “This you ought to do, in order that, when I have successfully concluded the war in Persia, I may rebuild by my own efforts the sacred city of Jerusalem, which for so many years you have longed to see inhabited, and may bring settlers there, and, together with you, may glorify the Most High God therein.”[47] Julian saw the Jewish God as a fitting member of the pantheon of gods Southwest qanatir of the Haram al Sharif he believed in, and he was also a strong opponent of Christianity.[47][49] Church historians wrote that the Jews began to clear away the structures and rubble on the Temple Mount but were thwarted, first by a great earthquake, and then by miracles that included fire springing from the earth.[50] However, no contemporary Jewish sources mention this episode directly.[47]

13.2.5

Byzantine period

Archaeological evidence in the form of an elaborate mosaic ﬂoor similar to the one in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and multiple fragments of an elaborate marble Templon (chancel screen) prove that an elaborate A model of the Haram-al-Sharif made in 1879 by Conrad Byzantine church or monastery or other public building Schick. The model can be seen in the Bijbels Museum in Amsterdam stood on the Temple Mount in Byzantine times.[51]

13.2.6

Sassanid period

See also: Jewish revolt against Heraclius and Byzantine– Sasanian War of 602–628 In 610, the Sassanid Empire drove the Byzantine Empire out of the Middle East, giving the Jews control of Jerusalem for the first time in centuries. The Jews in Palestine were allowed to set up a vassal state under the Sassanid Empire called the Sassanid Jewish Commonwealth which lasted for five years. Jewish rabbis ordered the restart of animal sacrifice for the first time since the time of Second Temple and started to reconstruct the Jewish Temple. Shortly before the Byzantines took the area back five years later in 615, the Persians gave control

In 637 Arabs besieged and captured the city from the Byzantine Empire, which had defeated the Persian forces and their allies, and reconquered the city. There are no contemporary records, but many traditions, about the origin of the main Islamic buildings on the mount.[53][54] A popular account from later centuries is that the Rashidun Caliph Umar was led to the place reluctantly by the Christian patriarch Sophronius.[55] He found it covered with rubbish, but the sacred Rock was found with the help of a converted Jew, Ka'b al-Ahbar.[55] Al-Ahbar advised Umar to build a mosque to the north of the rock, so that worshippers would face both the rock and Mecca, but instead Umar chose to build it to the south of the rock.[55] It became known as the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The ﬁrst known eyewitness testimony is that of the pilgrim Arculf who visited about 670. According to Arculf’s account as recorded by Adomnán, he saw a rectangu-

148

CHAPTER 13. TEMPLE MOUNT

lar wooden house of prayer built over some ruins, large of Jerusalem’s Central or Tyropoean Valey bordering the enough to hold 3,000 people.[53][56] Temple Mount from the west by constructing huge subIn 691 an octagonal Islamic building topped by a dome structures, on which they then built on a large scale. The was built by the Caliph Abd al-Malik around the rock, Mamluk-period substructures and over-ground buildings for a myriad of political, dynastic and religious reasons, are thus covering much of the Herodian western wall of built on local and Quranic traditions articulating the site’s the Temple Mount. holiness, a process in which textual and architectural narratives reinforced one another.[57] The shrine became known as the Dome of the Rock (‫قبة الصخرة‬, Qubbat as-Sakhra). (The dome itself was covered in gold in 1920.) In 715 the Umayyads, led by the Caliph al-Walid I, transformed the temple shops Chanuyot nearby into a mosque (see illustrations and detailed drawing ), which they named the Aqsa Mosque (‫المسجد الأقصى‬, al-Masjid al-Aqsa, lit. “Furthest Mosque”), corresponding to the Islamic belief of Muhammad’s miraculous nocturnal journey as recounted in the Quran and hadith. The term “Noble Sanctuary” or “Haram al-Sharif”, as it was called later by the Mamluks and Ottomans, refers to the whole area that surrounds that Rock.[58][59]

13.2.10 Ottoman period Following the Ottoman conquest of Palestine in 1516, the Ottoman authorities continued the policy of prohibiting non-Muslims from setting foot on the Temple Mount until the early 19th century, when non-Muslims were again permitted to visit the site.[59]

In 1867, a team from the Royal Engineers, led by Lieutenant Charles Warren and financed by the Palestine Exploration Fund (P.E.F.), discovered a series of underground tunnels near the Temple Mount. Warren secretly excavated some tunnels near the Temple Mount walls and was the first one to document their lower courses. WarFor Muslims, the importance of the Dome of the Rock ren also conducted some small scale excavations inside and Al-Aqsa Mosque makes Jerusalem the third-holiest the Temple Mount, by removing rubble that blocked pascity, after Mecca and Medina. The mosque and shrine are sages leading from the Double Gate chamber. currently administered by a Waqf (an Islamic trust). The various inscriptions on the Dome walls and the artistic decorations imply a symbolic eschatological significance 13.2.11 British Mandatory period of the structure. Main article: 1929 Palestine riots

13.2.8

Crusader and Ayyubid period

The Crusader period began in 1099 with the First Crusade's capture of Jerusalem. After the city’s conquest, the Crusading order Knights Templar was granted use of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount by Baldwin II of Jerusalem and Warmund, Patriarch of Jerusalem, probably at the Council of Nablus in January 1120, giving the Templars a headquarters in the captured Al-Aqsa Mosque.[60] The Temple Mount had a mystique because it was above what were believed to be the ruins of the Temple of Solomon.[61][62] The Crusaders therefore referred to the Al Aqsa Mosque as Solomon’s Temple, and it was from this location that the new Order took the name of Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple of Solomon, or “Templar” knights. In 1187, once he retook Jerusalem, Saladin removed all traces of Christian worship from the Temple Mount, returning the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque to their original purposes. Even during the relatively short periods of diplomatically-won Crusader rule after that date, the Temple Mount remained in Muslim hands.

Between 1922 and 1924, the Dome of the Rock was restored by the Islamic Higher Council.[63]

13.2.12 Jordanian period Jordan undertook two renovations of the Dome of the Rock, replacing the leaking, wooden inner dome with an aluminum dome in 1952, and, when the new dome leaked, carrying out a second restoration between 1959 and 1964.[63] Neither Israeli Arabs nor Israeli Jews could visit their holy places in the Jordanian territories during this period.[64][65]

13.2.13 Israeli period On 7 June 1967, during the Six-Day War, Israeli forces advanced beyond the 1949 Armistice Agreement Line into West Bank territories, taking control of the Old City of Jerusalem, inclusive of the Temple Mount.

The Chief Rabbi of the Israeli Defense Forces, Shlomo Goren, led the soldiers in religious celebrations on the Temple Mount and at the Western Wall. The Israeli Chief There are several Mamluk buildings on and around the Rabbinate also declared a religious holiday on the anHaram esplanade. The Mamluks also raised the level niversary, called "Yom Yerushalayim" (Jerusalem Day),

13.2.9

Mamluk period

13.3. STATUS QUO which became a national holiday to commemorate the reunification of Jerusalem. Many saw the capture of Jerusalem and the Temple Mount as a miraculous liberation of biblical-messianic proportions.[66] A few days after the war was over 200,000 Jews flocked to the Western Wall in the first mass Jewish pilgrimage near the Mount since the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. Islamic authorities did not disturb Goren when he went to pray on the Mount until, on the Ninth Day of Av, he brought 50 followers and introduced both a shofar, and a portable ark to pray, an innovation which alarmed the Waqf authorities and led to a deterioration of relations between the Muslim authorities and the Israeli government.[67] The then Prime Minister of Israel, Levi Eshkol, gave control of access to the Temple Mount to the Jerusalem Islamic Waqf. The site has since been a flash-point between Israel and local Muslims. In June 1969 an Australian tried to set fire to Al-Aqsa; on April 11, 1982 a Jew hid in the Dome of the Rock and sprayed gunfire, killing 2 Palestinians and wounding 44; in 1974, 1977 and 1983 groups led by Yoel Lerner conspired to blow up both the Dome of the Rock and AlAqsa; on 26 January 1984 Waqf guards detected members of B'nei Yehuda, a messianic cult of former gangsters turned mystics based in Lifta, trying to infiltrate the area to blow it up.[68][69][70] On October 8, 1990, Israeli forces patrolling the site blocked worshipers from accessing it. A tear gas canister was detonated among the female worshipers, which caused events to escalate. On 12 October 1990 Palestinian Muslims protested violently the intention of some extremist Jews to lay a cornerstone on the site for a New Temple as a prelude to the destruction of the Muslim mosques. The attempt was blocked by Israeli authorities but demonstrators were widely reported as having stoned Jews at the Western Wall.[68][71] According to Palestinian historian Rashid Khalidi, investigative journalism has shown this allegation to be false.[72] Rocks were eventually thrown, while security forces fired rounds that ended up killing 21 people and injuring 150 more.[68] An Israeli inquiry found Israeli forces at fault, but it also concluded that charges could not be brought against any particular individuals.[73] In December 1997, Israeli security services preempted an attempt by Jewish extremists to throw a pig’s head wrapped in the pages of the Quran into the area, in order to spark a riot and embarrass the government.[68] Between 1992 and 1994, the Jordanian government undertook the unprecedented step of gilding the dome of the Dome of the Rock, covering it with 5000 gold plates, and restoring and reinforcing the structure. The Salah Eddin minbar was also restored. The project was paid for by King Hussein personally, at a cost of $8 million.[63] The Temple Mount remains, under the terms of the 1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty, under Jordanian custodianship.[74] On September 28, 2000, Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount. He toured the site, to-

149 gether with a Likud party delegation and a large number of Israeli riot police. The visit was seen as a provocative gesture by many Palestinians, who gathered around the site. Demonstrations quickly turned violent, with rubber bullets and tear gas being used. This event is often cited as one of the catalysts of the Second Palestinian Intifada.[75] Evidence reveals, however, that one month earlier, Palestinian Authority Justice Minister Freih Abu Middein warned that: “Violence is near and the Palestinian people are willing to sacriﬁce even 5,000 casualties.”[76] A few weeks before the outbreak, the oﬃcial PA publication, Al-Sabah, declared: “The time for the Intifada has arrived... the time for jihad has arrived.”[77] Palestinian leader Marwan Barghouti would later admit that the Intifada was planned and Sharon merely “provided a good excuse” for the violence.[78]

13.3 Status quo Since 1757 a status quo has been applied for the ruling of the Holy places in Jerusalem.[79] The situation between Jews and Muslims was conﬁrmed in 1919 and Faisal–Weizmann Agreement concluded that: Article V. No regulation nor law shall be made prohibiting or interfering with the free exercice of religion; (...) Article VI. The Mohammedan Holy Places shall be under Mohammedan control.[80] In 1929 tensions around the Western Wall in which Jews were accused of violating the status quo generated riots during which 133 Jews and 110 Arabs were killed.[81][82] At the issue of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the Status quo was not respected any more after Jordan took control of the Old City of Jerusalem and Jews were prohibited from visiting their Holy Places in the city.[83]

13.3.1 Under Israeli control A few days after the Six-Day War, on June 17, 1967, a meeting was held at al-Aqsa between Moshe Dayan and Muslim religious authorities of Jerusalem reformulating the status quo.[67] Jews were given the right to visit the Temple Mount unobstructed and free of charge if they respected Muslims’ religious feelings and acted decently, but they were not allowed to pray. The Western Wall was to remain the Jewish place of prayer. 'Religious sovereignty' was to remain with the Muslims while 'overall sovereignty' became Israeli.[67] Dayan’s oﬀer was objected to by the Muslims, as they totally rejected the Israeli conquest of Jerusalem and the Mount. Some Jews, led by Shlomo Goren, then the military chief rabbi, had objected as well, claiming the decision handed over the

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complex to the Muslims, since the Western Wall’s holiness is derived from the Mount and symbolizes exile, while praying on the Mount symbolizes freedom and the return of the Jewish people to their homeland.[67] The President of the High Court of Justice, Aharon Barak, in response to an appeal in 1976 against police interference with an individual’s putative right to prayer on the site, expressed the view that, while Jews had a right to prayer there, it was not absolute but subject to the public interest and the rights of other groups. Israel’s courts have considered the issue as one beyond their remit, and, given the delicacy of the matter, under political jurisdiction.[67] He wrote: The basic principle is that every Jew has the right to enter the Temple Mount, to pray there, and to have communion with his maker. This is part of the religious freedom of worship, it is part of the freedom of expression. However, as with every human right, it is not absolute, but a relative right... Indeed, in a case where there is near certainty that injury may be caused to the public interest if a person’s rights of religious worship and freedom of expression would be realized, it is possible to limit the rights of the person in order to uphold the public interest.[67]

“holy war” and “anyone who wants to change the status quo on the Temple Mount should not be allowed up there”, citing an “extreme right-wing agenda to change the status quo on the Temple Mount"; Hamas and Islamic Jihad continue to erroneously assert that the Israeli government plans to destroy Al-Aksa Mosque, resulting in chronic terrorist attacks and rioting.[86] There have been several changes to the status quo: (1) Jewish visits are often prevented or considerably restricted. (2) Jews and other non-Islamic visitors can only visit from Sunday to Thursday, for four hours each day. (3) Visits inside the mosques are not allowed. (4) Jews with religious appearance must visit in groups monitored by Waqf guards and policemen.[85] Many Palestinians believe the status quo is threatened since right-wing Israelis have been challenging it with more force and frequency, asserting a religious right to pray there. Until Israel banned them, members of Murabitat, a group of women, cried 'Allah Akbar' at groups of Jewish visitors to remind them the Temple Mount was still in Muslim hands.[87][88]

13.4 Management and access

See also: Temple Mount entry restrictions Police continued to forbid Jews to pray on the Tem- An Islamic Waqf has managed the Temple Mount conple Mount.[67] Subsequently, several prime ministers also made attempts to change the status quo, but failed to do so. In October 1986, an agreement between the Temple Mount Faithful, the Supreme Muslim Council and police, which would allow short visits in small groups, was exercised once and never repeated, after 2,000 Muslims armed with stones and bottles attacked the group and stoned worshipers at the Western Wall. During the 1990s, additional attempts were made for Jewish prayer on the Temple Mount, which were stopped by Israeli police.[67] Until 2000, non-Muslim visitors could enter the Dome of the Rock, al-Aqsa Mosque and the Islamic Museum by getting a ticket from the Waqf. That procedure ended when the Second Intifada erupted. Fifteen years later, negotiation between Israel and Jordan might result in reopening of those sites once again.[84] In the 2010s, fear arose among Palestinians that Israel planned to change the status quo and permit Jewish prayers or that the al-Aqsa mosque might be damaged or destroyed by Israel. Al-Aqsa was used as a base for attacks on visitors and the police from which stones, ﬁrebombs and ﬁreworks were thrown. The Israeli police had never entered al-Aqsa Mosque until November 5, 2014, when dialog with the leaders of the Waqf and the rioters failed. This resulted in imposing strict limitations on entry of visitors to the Temple Mount. Israeli Sign in Hebrew and English outside the Temple Mount stating the leadership repeatedly stated that the status quo would not Chief Rabbinate’s preference that no person should enter the site, change.[85] According to then Jerusalem police commis- since it is the holiest site in Judaism sioner Yohanan Danino, the place is at the center of a

13.5. CURRENT FEATURES

151

tinuously since the Muslim reconquest of the Latin King- 13.5.2 dom of Jerusalem in 1187. On June 7, 1967, soon after Israel had taken control of the area during the SixDay War, Prime Minister Levi Eshkol assured that “no harm whatsoever shall come to the places sacred to all religions”. Together with the extension of Israeli jurisdiction and administration over east Jerusalem, the Knesset passed the Preservation of the Holy Places Law,[89] ensuring protection of the Holy Places against desecration, as well as freedom of access thereto.[90] The site remains within the area controlled by the State of Israel, with administration of the site remaining in the hands of the Jerusalem Islamic Waqf. Although freedom of access was enshrined in the law, as a security measure, the Israeli government currently enforces a ban on non-Muslim prayer on the site. NonMuslims who are observed praying on the site are subject to expulsion by the police.[91] At various times, when there is fear of Arab rioting upon the mount resulting in throwing stones from above towards the Western Wall Plaza, Israel has prevented Muslim men under 45 from praying in the compound, citing these concerns.[92] Sometimes such restrictions have coincided with Friday prayers during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan.[93] Normally, West Bank Palestinians are allowed access to Jerusalem only during Islamic holidays, with access usually restricted to men over 35 and women of any age eligible for permits to enter the city.[94] Palestinian residents of Jerusalem, which because of Israel’s annexation of Jerusalem, hold Israeli permanent residency cards, and Israeli Arabs, are permitted unrestricted access to the Temple Mount.

13.5 Current features 13.5.1

Dome of the Rock platform

A ﬂat platform was built around the peak of the Temple Mount, carrying the Dome of the Rock; the peak just breaches the ﬂoor level of the upper platform within the Dome of the Rock, in the shape of a large limestone outcrop, which is part of the bedrock. Beneath the surface of this rock there is a cave known as the Well of Souls, originally accessible only by a narrow hole in the rock itself; the Crusaders hacked open an entrance to the cave from the south, by which it can now be entered. There is also a smaller domed building on the upper platform, slightly to the east of the Dome of the Rock, known as the Dome of the Chain — traditionally the location where a chain once rose to heaven. Several stairways rise to the upper platform from the lower; that at the northwest corner is believed by some archaeologists be part of a much wider monumental staircase, mostly hidden or destroyed, and dating from the Second Temple era.

Lower platform

The al-Kas ablution fountain for Muslim worshipers on the southern portion of the lower platform.

The lower platform – which constitutes most of the surface of the Temple Mount – has at its southern end the al-Aqsa Mosque, which takes up most of the width of the Mount. Gardens take up the eastern and most of the northern side of the platform; the far north of the platform houses an Islamic school.[95] The lower platform also houses an ablution fountain (known as al-Kas), originally supplied with water via a long narrow aqueduct leading from the so-called Solomon’s Pools pools near Bethlehem, but now supplied from Jerusalem’s water mains. There are several cisterns beneath the lower platform, designed to collect rain water as a water supply. These have various forms and structures, seemingly built in diﬀerent periods, ranging from vaulted chambers built in the gap between the bedrock and the platform, to chambers cut into the bedrock itself. Of these, the most notable are (numbering traditionally follows Wilson’s scheme[96] ): • Cistern 1 (located under the northern side of the upper platform). There is a speculation that it had a function connected with the altar of the Second Temple (and possibly of the earlier Temple),[97] or with the bronze sea. • Cistern 5 (located under the south eastern corner of the upper platform) — a long and narrow chamber, with a strange anti-clockwise curved section at its north western corner, and containing within it a doorway currently blocked by earth. The cistern’s position and design is such that there has been speculation it had a function connected with the altar of the Second Temple (and possibly of the earlier Temple), or with the bronze sea. Charles Warren thought that the altar of burnt oﬀerings was located at the north western end.[98] • Cistern 8 (located just north of the al-Aqsa Mosque) — known as the Great Sea, a large rock hewn

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CHAPTER 13. TEMPLE MOUNT cavern, the roof supported by pillars carved from the rock; the chamber is particularly cave-like and atmospheric,[99] and its maximum water capacity is several hundred thousand gallons.

• Cistern 9 (located just south of cistern 8, and directly under the al-Aqsa Mosque) — known as the Well of the Leaf due to its leaf-shaped plan, also rock hewn. • Cistern 11 (located east of cistern 9) — a set of vaulted rooms forming a plan shaped like the letter E. Probably the largest cistern, it has the potential to house over 700,000 gallons of water. • Cistern 16/17 (located at the centre of the far northern end of the Temple Mount). Despite the currently narrow entrances, this cistern (17 and 16 are the same cistern) is a large vaulted chamber, which Warren described as looking like the inside of the cathedral at Cordoba (which was previously a mosque). Warren believed that it was almost certainly built for some other purpose, and was only adapted into a cistern at a later date; he suggested that it might have been part of a general vault supporting the northern side of the platform, in which case substantially more of the chamber exists than is used for a cistern.

13.5.3

Gates

Main article: Gates of the Temple Mount

The eastern set of Hulda gates.

Sealed gates The retaining walls of the platform contain several gateways, all currently blocked. In the eastern wall is the Golden Gate, through which legend states the Jewish Messiah would enter Jerusalem. On the southern face are the Hulda Gates — the triple gate (which has three arches)

Robinson’s Arch, situated on the southwestern ﬂank, once supported a staircase that led to the Mount.

and the double gate (which has two arches, and is partly obscured by a Crusader building); these were the entrance and exit (respectively) to the Temple Mount from Ophel (the oldest part of Jerusalem), and the main access to the Mount for ordinary Jews. In the western face, near the southern corner, is the Barclay’s Gate – only half visible due to a building (the “house of Abu Sa'ud”) on the northern side. Also in the western face, hidden by later construction but visible via the recent Western Wall Tunnels, and only rediscovered by Warren, is Warren’s Gate; the function of these western gates is obscure, but many Jews view Warren’s Gate as particularly holy, due to its location due west of the Dome of the Rock. Traditional belief considers the Dome of the Rock to have earlier been the location at which the Holy of Holies was placed; numerous alternative opinions exist, based on study and calculations, such as those of Tuvia Sagiv.[100] Warren was able to investigate the inside of these gates. Warren’s Gate and the Golden Gate simply head towards the centre of the Mount, fairly quickly giving access to the surface by steps.[101] Barclay’s Gate is similar, but abruptly turns south as it does so; the reason for this is currently unknown. The double and triple gates (the Huldah Gates) are more substantial; heading into the Mount for some distance they each ﬁnally have steps rising to the surface just north of the al-Aqsa Mosque.[102] The passageway for each is vaulted, and has two aisles (in the case of the triple gate, a third aisle exists for a brief distance beyond the gate); the eastern aisle of the double gates and western of the triple gates reach the surface, the other aisles terminating some way before the steps – Warren believed that one aisle of each original passage was extended when the al-Aqsa Mosque blocked the original surface exits.

13.5. CURRENT FEATURES

153

In the process of investigating Cistern 10, Warren discovered tunnels that lay under the Triple Gate passageway.[103] These passages lead in erratic directions, some leading beyond the southern edge of the Temple Mount (they are at a depth below the base of the walls); their purpose is currently unknown – as is whether they predate the Temple Mount – a situation not helped by the fact that apart from Warren’s expedition no one else is known to have visited them.

• Bab al-Ghawanima (Gate of Bani Ghanim); northwest corner

Altogether, there are six major sealed gates and a postern, listed here counterclockwise, dating from either the Roman/Herodian, Byzantine, or Early Muslim periods:

• Bab al-Matarah/Mathara (Ablution Gate); western wall (central part)

• Bab al-Majlis / an-Nazir/Nadhir (Council Gate / Inspector’s Gate); western wall (northern third) • Bab al-Hadid (Iron Gate); western wall (central part) • Bab al-Qattanin (Gate of the Cotton Merchants); western wall (central part)

Two twin gates follow south of the Ablution Gate, the • Bab al-Jana'iz/al-Buraq (Gate of the Funerals/of al- Tranquility Gate and the Gate of the Chain: Buraq); eastern wall; a hardly noticeable postern, or maybe an improvised gate, a short distance south of • Bab as-Salam / al-Sakina (Tranquility Gate / Gate of the Golden Gate the Dwelling), the northern one of the two; western wall (central part) • Golden Gate (Bab al-Zahabi); eastern wall (northern third), a double gate: Bab al-Rahma (Door of Mercy) is the southern opening, Bab al-Tauba (Door of Repentance) is the northern opening

• Bab as-Silsileh (Gate of the Chain), the southern one of the two; western wall (central part) • Bab al-Magharbeh/Maghariba (Moroccans’ Gate/Gate of the Moors); western wall (southern third); the only entrance for non-Muslims

A twelfth gate still open during Ottoman rule is now • Warren’s Gate; western wall, now only visible from closed to the public: the Western Wall Tunnel • Bab an-Nabi (Gate of the Prophet) or Barclay’s Gate; western wall, visible from the al-Buraq Mosque inside the Haram, and from the Western Wall plaza (women’s section) and the adjacent building (the so-called house of Abu Sa'ud)

• Bab as-Sarai (Gate of the Seraglio); a small gate to the former residence of the Pasha of Jerusalem; western wall, northern part (between the Bani Ghanim and Council gates).

• Double Gate (Bab al-Thulathe; possibly one of the 13.5.4 Huldah Gates); southern wall, underneath the AlAqsa Mosque

Solomon’s Mosque

Stables/Marwani

• Triple Gate; southern wall, outside Solomon’s Sta- East of and joined to the triple gate passageway is a large vaulted area, supporting the southeastern corner of the bles/Marwani Mosque Temple Mount platform – which is substantially above • Single Gate; southern wall, outside Solomon’s Sta- the bedrock at this point – the vaulted chambers here are bles/Marwani Mosque popularly referred to as Solomon’s Stables.[104] They were used as stables by the Crusaders, but were built by Herod the Great – along with the platform they were built to Open gates of the Haram support. Main article: Gates of the Temple Mount

13.5.5 Minarets There are currently eleven open gates oﬀering access to the Muslim Haram al-Sharif. Main article: Minarets of the Temple Mount • Bab al-Asbat (Gate of the Tribes); north-east corner The existing four minarets include three near the Western • Bab al-Hitta/Huttah (Gate of Remission, Pardon, or Wall and one near the northern wall. The ﬁrst minaret was constructed on the southwest corner of the Temple Absolution); northern wall Mount in 1278. The second was built in 1297 by order • Bab al-Atim/'Atm/Attim (Gate of Darkness); north- of a Mameluk king, the third by a governor of Jerusalem ern wall in 1329, and the last in 1367.

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13.6 Alterations to antiquities and damage to existing structures Main article: Excavations at the Temple Mount

CHAPTER 13. TEMPLE MOUNT in 70 CE emblazoned with the words “Freedom of Zion” • Arrowheads shot by Babylonian archers 2,500 years ago, and others launched by Roman siege machinery 500 years later.

Due to the extreme political sensitivity of the site, no real archaeological excavations have ever been conducted on the Temple Mount itself. Protests commonly oc• Unique floor slabs of the 'opus sectile' technique that cur whenever archaeologists conduct projects near the were used to pave the Temple Mount courts. This is Mount. This sensitivity has not, however, prevented the also mentioned in Josephus accounts and the BabyMuslim Waqf from destroying archeological evidence on lonian Talmud. a number of occasions.[105][106][107][108] Aside from visual observation of surface features, most other archaeological knowledge of the site comes from the 19th-century survey carried out by Charles Wilson and Charles War- In late 2002, a bulge of about 700 mm was reported in the southern retaining wall part of the Temple Mount. A ren and others. Jordanian team of engineers recommended replacing or After the Six-Day War of 1967, Israeli archeologists be- resetting most of the stones in the affected area.[113] In gan a series of excavations near the site at the southern February 2004, the eastern wall of the Mount was damwall that uncovered finds from the Second Temple pe- aged by an earthquake. The damage threatened to topriod through Roman, Umayyad and Crusader times.[109] ple sections of the wall into the area known as Solomon’s Over the period 1970–88, a number of tunnels were exca- Stables.[114] A few days later, a portion of retaining wall, vated in the vicinity, including one that passed to the west supporting the earthen ramp that led from the Westof the Mount and became known as the Western Wall ern Wall plaza to the Gate of the Moors on the TemTunnel, which was opened to the public in 1996.[110][111] ple Mount, collapsed.[115] In 2007 the Israel Antiquities The same year the Waqf began construction of a new Authority started work on the construction of a tempomosque in the structures known since Crusader times rary wooden pedestrian pathway to replace the Mugrabi as Solomon’s Stables. Many Israelis regarded this as a Gate ramp after a landslide in 2005 made it unsafe and in radical change of the status quo, which should not have danger of collapse.[116] The works sparked condemnation been undertaken without first consulting the Israeli gov- from Arab leaders.[117] ernment. The project was done without attention to the possibility of disturbing historically significant archaeo- In July 2007 the Muslim religious trust which administers digging a 400-metre-long, 1.5-metrelogical material, with stone and ancient artifacts treated the Mount began [118] deep trench from the northern side of the Temple without regard to their preservation.[112] Mount compound to the Dome of the Rock[119] in order In October 1999, the Islamic Waqf, and the Islamic to replace 40-year-old[120] electric cables in the area. IsMovement conducted an illegal dig which inflicted much raeli archaeologists accused the waqf of a deliberate act archaeological damage. The earth from this operation, of cultural vandalism.[119] which has archeological wealth relevant to Jewish, Christian and Muslim history, was removed by heavy machinery and unceremoniously dumped by trucks into the nearby Kidron Valley. Although the archeological finds in the earth are already not in situ, this soil still contains great archeological potential. No archeological excavation was ever conducted on the Temple Mount, and this soil was the only archeological information that has ever Southern Wall of Temple Mount, southwestern corner. been available to anyone. For this reason Israeli archaeologists Dr. Gabriel Barkay and Zachi Zweig established Israelis allege that Palestinians are deliberately removing a project sifting all the earth in this dump: the Temple significant amounts of archaeological evidence about the Mount Sifting Project. Among finds uncovered in rubble Jewish past of the site and claim to have found significant removed from the Temple Mount were: artifacts in the fill removed by bulldozers and trucks from the Temple Mount. Since the Waqf is granted almost full • The imprint of a seal thought to have belonged to a autonomy on the Islamic holy sites, Israeli archaeologists priestly Jewish family mentioned in the Old Testahave been prevented from inspecting the area, and are ment’s Book of Jeremiah. restricted to conducting excavations around the Temple • More than 4300 coins from various periods. Many Mount. Muslims allege that the Israelis are deliberately of them are from the Jewish revolt that preceded the damaging the remains of Islamic-era buildings found in destruction of the Second Temple by Roman legions their excavations.[121]

13.7. RELIGIOUS ATTITUDES

13.7 Religious attitudes 13.7.1

In Judaism

155 Due to religious restrictions on entering the most sacred areas of the Temple Mount (see following section), the Western Wall, a retaining wall for the Temple Mount and remnant of the Second Temple structure, is considered by some rabbinical authorities to be the holiest accessible site for Jews to pray at. Jewish texts predict that the Mount will be the site of the Third Temple, which will be rebuilt with the coming of the Jewish Messiah. A number of vocal Jewish groups now advocate building the Third Holy Temple without delay in order to bring to pass God’s “end-time prophetic plans for Israel and the entire world.”[129] A 2013 Knesset committee hearing considered allowing Jews to pray at the site, amidst heated debate. ArabIsraeli MPs were ejected for disrupting the hearing, after shouting at the chairman, calling her a “pyromaniac”. Religious Aﬀairs Minister Eli Ben-Dahan of Jewish Home said his ministry was seeking legal ways to enable Jews to pray at the site.[130] Jewish religious law concerning entry to the site Main article: Temple Warning inscription

Presumed to be The Foundation Stone, or a large part of it

Jewish connection and veneration to the site arguably stems from the fact that it contains the Foundation Stone which, according to the rabbis of the Talmud, was the spot from where the world was created and expanded into its current form.[122][123] It was subsequently the Holy of Holies of the Temple, the Most Holy Place in Judaism.[59] Jewish tradition names it as the location for a number of important events which occurred in the Bible, including the Binding of Isaac, Jacob's dream, and the prayer of Isaac and Rebekah.[124] Similarly, when the Bible recounts that King David purchased a threshing ﬂoor owned by Araunah the Jebusite,[125] tradition locates it as being on this mount. An early Jewish text, the Genesis Rabba, states that this site is one of three about which the nations of the world cannot taunt Israel and say “you have stolen them,” since it was purchased “for its full price” by David.[126] According to the Bible, David wanted to construct a sanctuary there, but this was left to his son Solomon, who completed the task in c. 950 BCE with the construction of the First Temple.[127]

During Temple times, entry to the Mount was limited by a complex set of purity laws. Those who were not of the Jewish nation were prohibited from entering the inner court of the Temple. A hewn stone measuring 60 x 90 cm. and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered in 1871 near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem in which it outlined this prohibition: ΜΗΟΕΝΑΑΛΛΟΓΕΝΗΕΙΣΠΟ ΡΕΥΕΣΟΑΙΕΝΤΟΣΤΟΥΠΕ ΡΙΤΟΙΕΡΟΝΤΡΥΦΑΚΤΟΥΚΑΙ ΠΕΡΙΒΟΛΟΥΟΣΔΑΝΛΗ ΦΘΗΕΑΥΤΩΙΑΙΤΙΟΣΕΣ ΤΑΙΔΙΑΤΟΕΞΑΚΟΛΟΥ ΘΕΙΝΘΑΝΑΤΟΝ Translation: “Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught [violating] will be held accountable for his ensuing death.” Today, the stone is preserved in Istanbul’s Museum of Antiquities.

Maimonides wrote that it was only permitted to enter the site to fulfill a religious precept. After the destruction of the Temple there was discussion as to whether the site, bereft of the Temple, still maintained its holiness or not. Jewish codifiers accepted the opinion of Maimonides In 1217, Spanish Rabbi Judah al-Harizi found the sight of who ruled that the holiness of the Temple sanctified the the Muslim structures on the mount profoundly disturb- site for eternity and consequently the restrictions on ening. “What torment to see our holy courts converted into try to the site are still currently in force.[59] While secular Jews ascend freely, the question of whether ascendan alien temple!" he wrote.[128]

156 ing is permitted is a matter of some debate among religious authorities, with a majority holding that it is permitted to ascend to the Temple Mount, but not to step on the site of the inner courtyards of the ancient Temple.[59] The question then becomes whether the site can be ascertained accurately.[59] A second complex legal debate centers around the precise divine punishment for stepping onto these forbidden spots.

CHAPTER 13. TEMPLE MOUNT titioned the government to close off the Mount to Jews and non-Jews alike.[136] Later he established his office on the Mount and conducted a series of demonstrations on the Mount in support of the right of Jewish men to enter there.[135] His behavior displeased the government, which restricted his public actions, censored his writings, and in August prevented him from attending the annual Oral Law Conference at which the question of access to the Mount was debated.[137] Although there was considerable opposition, the conference consensus was to confirm the ban on entry to Jews.[137] The ruling said “We have been warned, since time immemorial [lit. for generations and generations], against entering the entire area of the Temple Mount and have indeed avoided doing so.”[136][137] According to Ron Hassner, the ruling “brilliantly” solved the government’s problem of avoiding ethnic conflict, since those Jews who most respected rabbinical authority were those most likely to clash with Muslims on the Mount.[137]

There is debate over whether reports that Maimonides himself ascended the Mount are reliable.[131] One such report claims that he did so on Thursday, October 21, 1165, during the Crusader period. Some early scholars however, claim that entry onto certain areas of the Mount is permitted. It appears that Radbaz also entered the Mount and advised others how to do this. He permits entry from all the gates into the 135×135 cubits of the Women’s Courtyard in the east, since the biblical prohibition only applies to the 187×135 cubits of the Temple in the west.[132] There are also Christian and Islamic sources which indicate that Jews accessed the site,[133] but these Rabbinical consensus in the post-1967 period, held that visits may have been made under duress.[134] it is forbidden for Jews to enter any part of the Temple Mount,[138] and in January 2005 a declaration was signed conﬁrming the 1967 decision.[139]

1978 sign warning against entry to the Mount

Opinions of contemporary rabbis concerning entry to the site A few hours after the Temple Mount came under Israeli control during the Six-Day War, a message from the Chief Rabbis of Israel, Isser Yehuda Unterman and Yitzhak Nissim was broadcast, warning that Jews were not permitted to enter the site.[135] This warning was reiterated by the Council of the Chief Rabbinate a few days later, which issued an explanation written by Rabbi Bezalel Jolti (Zolti) that “Since the sanctity of the site has never ended, it is forbidden to enter the Temple Mount until the Temple is built.”[135] The signatures of more than 300 prominent rabbis were later obtained.[136] A major critic of the decision of the Chief Rabbinate was Rabbi Shlomo Goren, the chief rabbi of the IDF.[135] According to General Uzi Narkiss, who led the Israeli force that conquered the Temple Mount, Goren proposed to him that the Dome of the Rock be immediately blown up.[136] After Narkiss refused, Goren unsuccessfully pe-

While Rabbi Moshe Feinstein permitted, in principle, entry to some parts of the site,[140] most other Haredi rabbis are of the opinion that the Mount is off limits to Jews and non-Jews alike.[141] Their opinions against entering the Temple Mount are based on the current political climate surrounding the Mount,[142] along with the potential danger of entering the hallowed area of the Temple courtyard and the impossibility of fulfilling the ritual requirement of cleansing oneself with the ashes of a red heifer.[143][144] The boundaries of the areas which are completely forbidden, while having large portions in common, are delineated differently by various rabbinic authorities. However, there is a growing body of Modern Orthodox and national religious rabbis who encourage visits to certain parts of the Mount, which they believe are permitted according to most medieval rabbinical authorities.[59] These rabbis include: Shlomo Goren (former Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Chaim David Halevi (former Chief Rabbi of Tel Aviv and Yaffo); Dov Lior (Rabbi of Kiryat Arba); Yosef Elboim; Yisrael Ariel; She'ar Yashuv Cohen (Chief Rabbi of Haifa); Yuval Sherlo (rosh yeshiva of the hesder yeshiva of Petah Tikva); Meir Kahane. One of them, Shlomo Goren, held that it is possible that Jews are even allowed to enter the heart of the Dome of the Rock in time of war, according to Jewish Law of Conquest.[145] These authorities demand an attitude of veneration on the part of Jews ascending the Temple Mount, ablution in a mikveh prior to the ascent, and the wearing of non-leather shoes.[59] Some rabbinic authorities are now of the opinion that it is imperative for Jews to ascend in order to halt the ongoing process of Islamization of the Temple Mount. Maimonides, perhaps the greatest codifier of Jewish Law, wrote in Laws of the Chosen House ch 7 Law 15 “One may bring a dead body

13.7. RELIGIOUS ATTITUDES in to the (lower sanctified areas of the) Temple Mount and there is no need to say that the ritually impure (from the dead) may enter there, because the dead body itself can enter”. One who is ritually impure through direct or in-direct contact of the dead cannot walk in the higher sanctified areas. For those who are visibly Jewish, they have no choice, but to follow this peripheral route as it has become unofficially part of the status quo on the Mount. Many of these recent opinions rely on archaeological evidence.[59] In December 2013, the two Chief Rabbis of Israel, David Lau and Yitzhak Yosef, reiterated the ban on Jews entering the Temple Mount.[146] They wrote, “In light of [those] neglecting [this ruling], we once again warn that nothing has changed and this strict prohibition remains in effect for the entire area [of the Temple Mount]".[146] In November 2014, the Sephardic chief rabbi Yitzhak Yosef, reiterated the point of view held by many rabbinic authorities that Jews should not visit the Mount.[74] On the occasion of an upsurge in Palestinian knifing attacks on Israelis, associated with fears that Israel was changing the status quo on the Mount, the Haredi newspaper Mishpacha ran a notification in Arabic asking 'their cousins’, Palestinians, to stop trying to murder members of their congregation, since they were vehemently opposed to ascending the Mount and consider such visits proscribed by Jewish law.[147]

13.7.2

In Islam

157 posed giving any undue religious honors to mosques (even that of Jerusalem), to approach or rival in any way the perceived Islamic sanctity of the two most holy mosques within Islam, Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca) and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Madina).[148] Muslims view the site as being one of the earliest and most noteworthy places of worship of God. For a few years in the early stages of Islam, Muhammad instructed his followers to face the Mount during prayer. The site is also important as being the site of the “Farthest Mosque” (mentioned in the Quran as the location of Muhammad’s miraculous Night Journey) to heaven.: “Exalted is He who took His Servant by night from alMasjid al-Haram (the Sacred Mosque) to al-Masjid alAqsa (the Further Mosque), whose surroundings We have blessed, to show him of Our signs. Indeed, He is the Hearing, the Seeing.” Quran 17:1[149] The hadith, a collection of the sayings of the Prophet Mohammad, conﬁrm that the location of the Al-Aqsa mosque is indeed in Jerusalem: “When the people of Quraish did not believe me (i.e. the story of my Night Journey), I stood up in Al-Hijr and Allah displayed Jerusalem in front of me, and I began describing Jerusalem to them while I was looking at it.” Sahih Bukhari: Volume 5, Book 58, Number 226.[150] Muslim interpretations of the Quran agree that the Mount is the site of a Temple built by Sulayman, considered a prophet in Islam, that was later destroyed.[151] After the construction, Muslims believe, the temple was used for the worship of one God by many prophets of Islam, including Jesus.[152][153][154] Other Muslim scholars have used the Torah (called Tawrat in Arabic) to expand on the details of the temple.[155]

13.7.3 In Christianity See also: Jerusalem in Christianity

Facade of the Al-Aqsa Mosque

In Islam, the Mount is called the Noble Sanctuary or Haram al-Sharif. The site contains the Al-Aqsa Mosque, a mosque that is regarded as being the third holiest site in Islam. A 13th-century claim to an extended region of holiness was made by Ibn Taymiyyah who asserted: “Al-Masjid al-Aqsa is the name for the whole of the place of worship built by Sulaymaan...” which, according to western tradition, presents: "...the place of worship built by Solomon" known as Solomon’s Temple. Ibn Taymiyyah had also op-

The Mount has great signiﬁcance in Christianity due to the role Herod’s Temple played in the life of Jesus. As a twelve-year-old boy, Jesus was found in the Temple where he confounded the Jewish theologians with his knowledge of the Torah. (Luke 2:41-50) During his ministry, Jesus asserted the corruption of those who used the Temple for commerce and extortion (Matthew 21:1217) and prophesied the temple’s destruction, which came to pass in AD 70. (Mark 13:1-2) In Christian art, the Circumcision of Jesus was conventionally depicted as taking place at the Temple, even though European artists until recently had no way of knowing what the Temple looked like and the Gospels do not state that the event took place at the Temple.[156] During the Byzantine era, Jerusalem was primarily Christian and pilgrims came by the tens of thousands to experience the places where Jesus

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walked.

by Jews as vandalism. The carving was attributed to a team of Jordanian engineers and Palestinian laborers in charge of strengthening that section of the wall. The discovery caused outrage among Israeli archaeologists and many Jews were angered by the inscription at Judaism’s holiest site.[161]

After the Persian invasion in 614 many churches were razed and the site was turned into a dumpyard. The Arabs conquered the city from the Byzantine Empire which had retaken it in 629. The Byzantine ban on the Jews was lifted and they were allowed to live inside the city and visit the places of worship. Christian pilgrims were October 2006 Synagogue proposal: Uri Ariel, a memable to come and experience the Temple Mount area.[157] ber of the Knesset from the National Union party The war between Seljuqs and Byzantine Empire and in(a right wing opposition party) ascended to the creasing Muslim violence against Christian pilgrims to mount,[162] and said that he is preparing a plan where Jerusalem instigated the Crusades. The Crusaders capa synagogue will be built on the mount. His protured Jerusalem in 1099 and the Dome of the Rock was posed synagogue would not be built instead of the given to the Augustinians, who turned it into a church, and mosques but in a separate area in accordance with the Al-Aqsa Mosque became the royal palace of Baldwin rulings of 'prominent rabbis.' He said he believed I of Jerusalem in 1104. The Knights Templar, who bethat this will be correcting a historical injustice and lieved the Dome of the Rock was the site of the Solomon’s that it is an opportunity for the Muslim world to Temple, gave it the name "Templum Domini" and set up prove that it is tolerant to all faiths.[163] their headquarters in the Al-Aqsa Mosque adjacent to the Dome for much of the 12th century. Minaret proposal: Plans are mooted to build a new minaret on the mount, the first of its Though some Christians believe that the Temple will kind for 600 years.[164] King Abdullah II of be reconstructed before, or concurrent with, the Second Jordan announced a competition to design a Coming of Jesus (also see dispensationalism), pilgrimage fifth minaret for the walls of the Temple Mount to the Temple Mount is not viewed as essential in the becomplex. He said it would “reflect the Isliefs and worship of most Christians. The New Testament lamic significance and sanctity of the mosque”. recounts a story of a Samaritan woman asking Jesus about The scheme, estimated to cost $300,000, is for the appropriate place to worship, Jerusalem or the Samara seven-sided tower – after the seven-pointed itan holy place at Mount Gerizim, to which Jesus replies, Hashemite star – and at 42 metres (138 ft), it would be 3.5 metres (11 ft) taller than the “Woman, believe me, the hour is coming next-largest minaret. The minaret would be when neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem constructed on the eastern wall of the Temple will you worship the Father. You worship what Mount near the Golden Gate. you do not know; we worship what we know, for salvation is from the Jews. But the hour is February 2007 Mugrabi Gate ramp reconstruction: coming, and is now here, when the true worRepairs to an earthen ramp leading to the Mugrabi shipers will worship the Father in spirit and Gate sparked Arab protests. in truth, for the Father is seeking such people to worship him. God is spirit, and those who worship him must worship in spirit and truth."(John 4:21-24) This has been construed to mean that Jesus dispensed with physical location for worship, which was a matter rather of spirit and truth.[158]

13.8 Recent events February 2004 Partially collapsed MughrabiBridge: An 800-year-old wall holding back part of the hill jutting out from the Western Wall leading up to the Mughrabi Gate partially collapsed. Authorities believed a recent earthquake may have been responsible.[159][160] March 2005 Allah inscription: The word "Allah", in approximately a foot-tall Arabic script, was found newly carved into the ancient stones, an act viewed

May 2007 Right-wing Jews ascend the Mount: A group of right-wing Religious Zionist rabbis entered the Temple Mount.[165] This elicited widespread criticism from other religious Jews and from secular Israelis, accusing the rabbis of provoking the Arabs. An editorial in the newspaper Haaretz accused the rabbis of 'knowingly and irresponsibly bringing a burning torch closer to the most ﬂammable hill in the Middle East,' and noted that rabbinical consensus in both the Haredi and the Religious Zionist worlds forbids Jews from entering the Temple Mount.[166] On May 16, Rabbi Avraham Shapira, former Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel and rosh yeshiva of the Mercaz HaRav yeshiva, reiterated his opinion that it is forbidden for Jews to enter the Temple Mount.[167] The Litvish Haredi newspaper Yated Ne'eman, which is controlled by leading Litvish Haredi rabbis including Rabbi Yosef Shalom Eliashiv and Rabbi Nissim Karelitz, accused the rabbis of transgressing a decree punishable by 'death through the hands of heaven.'[144]

13.9. PANORAMA July 2007 Temple Mount cable replacement: The Waqf began digging a ditch from the northern side of the Temple Mount compound to the Dome of the Rock as a prelude to infrastructure work in the area. Although the dig was approved by the police, it generated protests from archaeologists.

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13.9 Panorama

October 2009 Clashes: Palestinian protesters gathered at the site after rumours that an extreme Israeli group would harm the site, which the Israeli government denied.[168] Israeli police assembled at the Temple Mount complex to disperse Palestinian protesters who were throwing stones at them. The police used stun grenades on the protesters, of which 15 were later arrested, including the Palestinian President’s adviser on Jerusalem aﬀairs.[169][170] 18 Palestinians and 3 police oﬃcers were injured.[171]

of the Temple Mount, seen from the Mount of Olives

July 2010 A public opinion poll in Israel showed that 49% of Israelis want the Temple to be rebuilt, with 27% saying the government should make active steps towards such reconstruction. The poll was conducted by channel 99, the government-owned Knesset channel, in advance of the 9th day of the Hebrew month of Av, on which Jews commemorate the destruction of both the ﬁrst and second Temples, which stood at this site.[172]

13.10 See also • Jerusalem in Judaism • Jerusalem in Christianity • Jerusalem in Islam • Excavations at the Temple Mount • Gates of the Temple Mount • Committee for the Prevention of Destruction of Antiquities on the Temple Mount • Temple Mount Sifting Project • Ayodhya dispute - similarly disputed location in India

July 2010 Knesset Member Danny Danon visited the Temple Mount in accordance with rabbinical views of Jewish Law on the 9th of the Hebrew Month of Av, which commemorates the destruction of both the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem. The Knesset Member condemned the conditions imposed by Muslims upon religious Jews at the site and vowed to work to better conditions.[173]

13.11 References [1] “New Jerusalem Finds Point to the Temple Mount”. cbn.com. [2] Carol Delaney, Abraham on Trial: The Social Legacy of Biblical Myth, Princeton University Press 2000 p.120.

160

[3] Bargil Pixner (2010). Rainer Riesner, ed. Paths of the Messiah. Translated by Keith Myrick, Miriam Randall. Ignatius Press. pp. 320–322. ISBN 978-0-89870-865-3. [4] “BBC - Science & Nature - Horizon”. bbc.co.uk. [5] Deuteronomy 12:5-26; 14:23-25; 15:20; 16:2-16; 17:810; 26: 2; 31: 11; Isaiah 2: 2-5; Obadiah 1:21; Psalms 48 [6] 2 Chron. 3:1-2. [7] “Dictionary of Islamic Architecture”. google.com. [8] Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Avoda (Divine Service): The laws of the Temple in Jerusalem, chapter 6, rule 14 [9] Jonathan Klawans, Purity, Sacrifice, and the Temple: Symbolism and Supersessionism in the Study of Ancient Judaism, Oxford University Press, USA, 2006 p.236:'Some analyses rest on the assumption that the ancient Jewish temple was inherently flawed, and in need of replacement. This kind of approach is contradicted by the rather significant evidence that can be marshaled to the effect that early Christians remained loyal to the Jerusalem temple, long after Jesus’ death.'

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[20] Michael D. Coogan The Oxford History of the Biblical World, Oxford University Press, 2001 p.443[21] Daniel Frank, Search Scripture Well: Karaite Exegetes and the Origins of the Jewish Bible Commentary in the Islamic , East BRILL, 2004 p.209. [22] Quran 2:4, 34:13-14. [23] Gideon Avni, https://books.google.com/books?id= ZLucAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 p.136. [24] Nicolle, David (1994). Yarmuk AD 636: The Muslim Conquest of Syria. Osprey Publishing. [25] Rizwi Faizer (1998). “The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem”. Rizwi’s Bibliography for Medieval Islam. Archived from the original on 2002-02-10. [26] Haram al-Sharif, ArchNet [27] Israeli Police Storm Disputed Jerusalem Holy Site [28] Gilbert, Lela (21 September 2015). “The Temple Mount – Outrageous Lies and Escalating Dangers”. Hudson Institute. Retrieved 4 November 2015.

[10] Jacob Jervell, The Theology of the Acts of the Apostles, Cambridge University Press 1996 p.45.

[29] Yashar, Ari (28 October 2015). “Watch: Waqf bans 'Religious Christians’ from Temple Mount”. Arutz Sheva. Retrieved 4 November 2015.

[11] Jeﬀ S. Anderson, The Internal Diversiﬁcation of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period, University Press of America, 2002 p.132.

[30] “The Temple Mount”. Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 4 November 2015.

[12] Catherine Hezser, 'The (In)Signiﬁcance of Jerusalem in the Yerushalmi Talmud,' in Peter Schäfer, Catherine Hezser (eds.)The Talmud Yerushalmi and Graeco-Roman Culture, Mohr Siebeck, Volume 2, 2000 pp.11-49, p.17. [13] Jonathan Klawans, Josephus and the Theologies of Ancient Judaism, Oxford University Press, 2013 p.13. [14] Andrew Marsham, ‘The Architecture of Allegiance in Early Islamic Late Antiquity,’ in Alexander Beihammer, Stavroula Constantinou, Maria G. Parani (eds.), Court Ceremonies and Rituals of Power in Byzantium and the Medieval Mediterranean: Comparative Perspectives , BRILL, 2013 pp.87-114, p.106. [15] Arieh Kofsky Eusebius of Caesarea Against Paganism, BRILL, 2000 p.303. [16] Gideon Avni, The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach , Oxford University Press, 2014 p.132. [17] Robert Shick, ‘A Christian City with a Major Muslim Shrine: Jerusalem in the Umayyad Period,’ in Arietta Papaconstantinou (ed.), Conversion in Late Antiquity: Christianity, Islam, and Beyond: Papers from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Sawyer Seminar, University of Oxford, 2009-2010 pp.299-317 p.300, Routledge 2016 p.300.

[31] Gonen (2003), pp. 9-11 [32] Lundquist (2007), p. 103 [33] Finkelstein, Horbury, Davies & Sturdy (1999), p. 43 [34] Bible Walks, Temple Mount: Chain gate and Minaret [35] Simon Sebag Monteﬁore,Jerusalem: The Biography, p.371. Knopf 2011, ISBN 9780307266514 [36] II Sam. xxiv. 16 et seq.; I Chron. xxi. 15 et seq. [37] “Moriah”. Easton’s Bible Dictionary. Retrieved July 14, 2008. [38] Gonen (2003), p. 69 [39] Negev (2005), p. 265 [40] Mazar (1975), pp. 124-126, 132 [41] Encyclopædia Britannica 11th Edition, 1911encyclopedia.org; accessed 27 November 2014. [42] Brian J. Incigneri,The Gospel to the Romans:the setting and rhetoric of Mark’s gospel, BRILL 2003 p.192.

[18] Shick p.301.

[43] Lester L. Grabbe (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. pp. 19–20, 26–29. ISBN 9780567552488.

[19] John M. Lundquist, The Temple of Jerusalem: Past, Present, and Future, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008 p.158.

[44] Timothy D. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, Harvard University Press 1981 pp.50-53, pp.201ﬀ., p.211.,pp.245ﬀ.

13.11. REFERENCES

[45] John M. Lundquist, The Temple of Jerusalem: Past, Present, and Future, Greenwood Publishing Group 2008 p.156. [46] F. E. Peters (1985). Jerusalem. Princeton University Press. p. 143. [47] Yoram Tsafrir (2009). “70–638: The Temple-less Mountain”. In Oleg Grabar and Benjamin Z. Kedar. Where Heaven and Earth Meet: Jerusalem’s Sacred Esplanade. University of Texas Press. pp. 86–87. [48] Har-El, Menashe Golden Jerusalem” Gefen Books 2004 p. 29 [49] Hagith Sivan (2008). Palestine in Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press. p. 205. [50] F. E. Peters (1985). Jerusalem. Princeton University Press. pp. 145–147. [51] Was the Aksa Mosque built over the remains of a Byzantine church?, By Etgar Lefkovits, Jerusalem Post, November 16, 2008 [52] Karmi, Ghada (1997). Jerusalem Today: What Future for the Peace Process?. Garnet & Ithaca Press. p. 116. ISBN 0-86372-226-1. [53] Dan Bahat (1990). The Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem. Simon & Schuster. pp. 81–82. [54] Andreas Kaplony (2009). “635/638–1099: The Mosque of Jerusalem (Masjid Bayt al-Maqdis)". In Oleg Grabar and Benjamin Z. Kedar. Where Heaven and Earth Meet: Jerusalem’s Sacred Esplanade. Yad Ben-Zvi Press. pp. 100–131. [55] F. E. Peters (1985). Jerusalem. Princeton University Press. pp. 186–192. [56] John Wilkinson (2002). Jerusalem Pilgrims before the Crusades. p. 170. [57] The Dome of the Rock as Palimpsest, Necipoglu, Muqarnas 2008 [58] Oleg Grabar, The Haram ak-Sharif: An essay in interpretation, BRIIFS vol. 2 no 2 (Autumn 2000).

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[65] Israeli, Raphael (2002). “Introduction: Everyday Life in Divided Jerusalem”. Jerusalem Divided: The Armistice Regime, 1947–1967. Jerusalem: Routledge. p. 23. ISBN 0-7146-5266-0. [66] David S. New,Holy War: The Rise of Militant Christian, Jewish and Islamic Fundamentalism, McFarland, 2001 pp.140ﬀ. [67] Gonen, Rivka (2003). Contested holiness : Jewish, Muslim, and Christian perspectives on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Jersey City (N. J.): KTAV. pp. 149–155. ISBN 9780881257984. [68] Menachem Klein, Jerusalem: The Contested City, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2001 pp.54-63 [69] Urî Huppert, Back to the ghetto: Zionism in retreat, Prometheus Books 1988 p.108. [70] Oﬁra Seliktar, New Zionism and the Foreign Policy System of Israel, Routledge 2015 p.267 [71] “RECONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS (REVISED) ALHARAM AL-SHARIF, JERUSALEM MONDAY, 8 OCTOBER 1990”. United Nations. October 8, 1990. Retrieved April 12, 2012. [72] Rashid Khalidi, Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness, Columbia University Press, 2010 pp.215-216 n.22:'The pretext later invoked for the shootings was that the Palestinians inside the Haram were throwing stones at Jewish worshippers at the Wailing Wall plaza below, an allegation that careful journalistic investigation later revealed was false. It is impossible to be able to see the plaza from the Haram, given the high arcade that surrounds that latter, and the Palestinians were in fact throwing stones at Israeli security forces shooting at them from atop the Haram’s western wall and adjacent roofs. It has since been established that most Jewish worshippers were gone before stones thrown at the soldiers went over the arcade and into the plaza. See Michael Emery,"New videotapes Reveal Israeli Coverup,” The Village Voice, November 13, 1990, pp.25-29 and the reportage by Mike Wallace on 60 Minutes, December 2, 1990. For a detailed account based on testimonies of eyewitnesses, see Raja Shehadeh The Sealed Room, (London: Quartet, 1992) pp.24-99'.

[59] “Entering the Temple Mount - in Halacha and Jewish History”‫ ת‬Gedalia Meyer and Henoch Messner, PDF available at , Vol 10, Summer 2010, Hakirah.

[73] “Judge Blames Israeli Police In Killing Of Palestinians”. Sun Sentinel. July 19, 1991. Retrieved April 12, 2012.

[60] Selwood, Dominic. “Birth of the Order”. Retrieved 20 April 2013.

[74] Itamar Sharon, 'Jews must stop Temple Mount visits, Sephardi chief rabbi says’, The Times of Israel, 7 November 2014.

[61] The History Channel, Decoding the Past: The Templar Code, 7 November 2005, video documentary written by Marcy Marzuni.

[75] “2000: 'Provocative' mosque visit sparks riots”. BBC. April 12, 2012. Retrieved April 12, 2012.

[62] Barber, The New Knighthood, p. 7.

[76] Al-Hayat Al-Jadida (Palestinian Authority), August 24, 2000.

[63] “Hashemite Restorations of the Islamic Holy Places in Jerusalem”, Jordanian government website.

[77] Al-Sabah (Palestinian Authority), September 11, 2000

[64] Martin Gilbert, Jerusalem in the Twentieth Century (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996, p254.

[78] Jeﬀrey Goldberg, “Arafat’s Gift,” The New Yorker, January 29, 2001

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[79] Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia, edited by Michael Dumper, Bruce E. Stanley P 209 [80] Enrico Molinaro, The Holy Places of Jerusalem in Middle East Peace Agreements: The Conﬂict Between Global and State Identities, Sussex Academic Press, 2009, p.55.

CHAPTER 13. TEMPLE MOUNT

[98] “Researcher says found location of the Holy Temple”. Ynetnews. February 9, 2007. Retrieved March 4, 2007. Archaeology Professor Joseph Patrich uncovered a large water cistern that points, in his opinion, to the exact location of the altar and sanctuary on the Temple Mount. According to his ﬁndings, the rock on which the Dome of the Rock is built is outside the conﬁnes of the Temple.

[81] Kotzin, Daniel P. (2010). Judah L. Magnes: An American [99] Under the Temple Mount Jewish Nonconformist. Syracuse University Press. p. 222. ISBN 0815651090. [100] “Determination of the location of the Temple based on the angle of sight of Agrippa II”. templemount.org. [82] Armstrong, Karen (2011). Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 382. ISBN [101] Photograph of the inside of the Golden Gate 0307798593. [102] image of the double gate passage [83] Narkiss, Bezalel (1988). The real and ideal Jerusalem in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic art. Center for Jewish Art, [103] Photograph of one of the chambers under the Triple Gate passageway Hebrew University of Jerusalem. p. 247. ISBN 965-391007-8. [104] Photograph of King Solomon’s Stables [84] “Report: Israel, Jordan in Talks to Readmit non-Muslim Visitors to Temple Mount Sites”. Haaretz. June 30, 2015. [105] See “The Washington Post, Opinion Columns, July 17, 2000 Protect the Temple Mount by Hershel Shanks [85] Nadav Shragai (November 13, 2014). “The “Status Quo” [106] “Policeman Assaulted Trying to Stop Illegal Temple on the Temple Mount”. JCPA. Mount Dig”. Arutz Sheva. [86] It’s a mistake to allow right-wing MKs on Temple Mount, Police Chief Danino says, Jerusalem Post, 25 November [107] “Jerusalem’s Temple Mount Flap - Archaeology Magazine Archive”. archaeology.org. 2014. [87] Staton, Bethan. “The women of al-Aqsa: the compound’s [108] “Waqf Temple Mount excavation raises archaeologists’ protests”. Haaretz.com. 11 July 2007. self-appointed guardians”. Middle East Eye. [88] “Israel Bans Two Muslim Activist Groups From Temple [109] Jacqueline Schaalje, Special: Jerusalem. Mount”. Haaretz. September 9, 2015. [89] Preservation of the Holy Places Law, 1967.

The Temple Mount in

[110] Violent clashes at key Jerusalem mosque on 'day of anger', timesonline, accessdate=5 May 2009

[90] Jerusalem - The Legal and Political Background, Ministry [111] Mayor halts Temple Mount dig, BBC, accessdate = 5 May of Foreign Affairs, Government of Israel. 2009 [91] Nadav Shragai, “Three Jews expelled from Temple Mount [112] Temple Mount destruction stirred archaeologist to action, for praying”. February 8, 2005 | by Michael McCormack, Baptist Press [92] "Heavy security around al-Aqsa,” Al Jazeera English, October 5, 2009. [113] Esther Hecht, Battle of the Bulge [93] "PROTECTION OF CIVILIANS 16 – 29 SEPTEMBER 2009", UNITED NATIONS Office for the Coordination of [114] Jerusalem Post Humanitarian Affairs occupied Palestinian territory. [115] “On-the-Spot Report from the Kotel Women´s Section Construction”. Arutz Sheva. [94] http://news.yahoo.com/ palestinians-flock-jerusalem-israeli-restrictions-eased-152403694. [116] Fendel, Hillel (February 7, 2007). “Jerusalem Arabs html Riot, Kassams Fired, After Old City Excavations”. Arutz Sheva. Retrieved February 7, 2007. [95] Photograph of the northern wall area [96] Wilson’s map of the features under the Temple Mount [97] Kaufman, Asher (May 23, 1991). “The Temple Site” (Abstract). The Jerusalem Post. p. 13. Retrieved March 4, 2007. The most important findings of the superposition of the Second Temple on the Temple area are that the Dome of the Rock was not built on the site of the Temple, and that the Temple was taper-shaped on the western side, a form hitherto unknown to the scholars.

[117] Weiss, Efrat (February 7, 2007). “Syria slams Jerusalem works”. Yedioth Ahronoth. Retrieved February 7, 2007. Israeli excavation works near the al-Aqsa mosque in the holy city of Jerusalem have led to a dangerous rise in Middle East tensions and could derail revival of Arab-Israeli peace talks... what Israel is doing in its practices and attacks against our sacred Muslim sites in Jerusalem and alAqsa is a blatant violation that is not acceptable under any pretext

13.11. REFERENCES

163

[118] Fendel, Hillel (September 9, 2007). “Silence in the Face [136] Yoel Cohen (1999). “The Political Role of the Israeli of Continued Temple Mount Destruction”. Arutz Sheva. Chief Rabbinate in the Temple Mount Question”. JewRetrieved 2007-09-07. ish Political Studies Review. 11 (1–2): 101–126. [119] Rapoport, Meron (July 7, 2007). “Waqf Temple Mount [137] Ron E. Hassner (2009). War on Sacred Grounds. Cornell excavation raises archaeologists’ protests”. Haaretz. ReUniversity Press. pp. 113–133. trieved 2007-07-11. [138] Rabbis who support this opinion include: Mordechai [120] Teible, Amy (August 31, 2007). “Jerusalem Holy Site Dig Eliyahu, former Sefardi Chief Rabbi of Israel; Zalman Questioned”. The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-09-07. Baruch Melamed, rosh yeshiva of the Beit El yeshiva; Eliezer Waldenberg, former rabbinical judge in the Rab[121] “Revoking the death warrant”. Al-Ahram Weekly. binical Supreme Court of the State of Israel; Avraham Yitzchak Kook, Chief Rabbi of Palestine (Mikdash-Build [122] Babylonian Talmud Yoma 54b (Vol. I, No. 26)); Avigdor Nebenzahl, Rabbi of the Old City of Jerusalem. [123] “Jerusalem: Eye of the Universe - Torah.org”. torah.org. [124] Toledot 25:21 [125] 2 Samuel 24:18–25

[139] These rabbis include: Rabbis Yona Metzger (Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Shlomo Amar (Sefardi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Ovadia Yosef (spiritual leader of Sefardi Haredi Judaism and of the Shas party, and former Sefardi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Eliyahu Bakshi-Doron (former Sefardi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Shmuel Rabinowitz (rabbi of the Western Wall); Avraham Shapiro (former Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Shlomo Aviner (rosh yeshiva of Ateret Cohanim); Yisrael Meir Lau (former Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel and current Chief Rabbi of Tel Aviv). Source: Leading rabbis rule Temple Mount is oﬀlimits to Jews

[126] Genesis Rabba 79.7: “And he bought the parcel of ground, where he had spread his tent...for a hundred pieces of money.” Rav Yudan son of Shimon said: 'This is one of the three places where the non-Jews cannot deceive the Jewish People by saying that they stole it from them, and these are the places: Ma'arat HaMachpela, the Temple and Joseph’s burial place. Ma'arat HaMachpela because it is written: 'And Abraham hearkened unto Ephron; and Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver,' (Genesis, 23:16); the Temple because it is written: 'So David gave to Ornan [140] Meyer, Gedalia; Messner, Henoch (2010). “Entering the Temple Mount—in Halacha and Jewish History”. Hakifor the place,' (I Chronicles, 21:26); and Joseph’s burial rah. 10: 29. ISBN 0-9765665-9-1. place because it is written: 'And he bought the parcel of ground...Jacob bought Shechem.' (Genesis, 33:19).” See also: Kook, Abraham Issac, Moadei Hare'iya, pp. 413– [141] These rabbis include: Yaakov Yisrael Kanievsky (Thoughts on the 28th of Iyar - Yom Yerushalayim); 415. Yosef Sholom Eliashiv (Rabbi Eliashiv: Don't go to Temple Mount) [127] “1 Kings - EasyEnglish Bible”. easyenglish.info.

[128] Karen Armstrong (29 April 1997). Jerusalem: one city, [142] Margalit, Ruth (2014). “The Politics of Prayer at the Temple Mount”. The New Yorker. three faiths. Ballantine Books. p. 229. Retrieved 25 May 2011. [143] Yoel Cohen, The political role of the Israeli Chief Rabbinate in the Temple Mount question [129] Todd Gitlin,'Apocalypse Soonest,' Tablet 11 November 2014. [144] Yated Ne'eman article [130] “Israel MPs mull Jewish prayer at al-Aqsa site”. al[145] Nadav Shragai (May 26, 2006). “In the Holy of Holies”. jazeera.com. Haaretz. [131] Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva, Chapter 3; Shu"t Min[146] Jeremy Sharon (December 2, 2013). “Chief Rabbis reimchas Yitzchok, vol. 6 pose ban on Jews visiting Temple Mount”. Jerusalem Post. [132] Shaarei Teshuvah, Orach Chaim 561:1; cf. Teshuvoth [147] 'Orthodox Jewish newspaper asks Arabs to avoid killing Radbaz 691 Haredi Jews,' Ma'an News Agency 29 October 2015. [133] Moshe Sharon. “Islam on the Temple Mount” Biblical Archaeology Review July/August 2006. p. 36–47, 68. “Im- [148] “A Muslim Iconoclast (Ibn Taymiyyeh) on the 'Merits’ of Jerusalem and Palestine”, by Charles D. Matthews, Jourmediately after its construction, ﬁve Jewish families from nal of the American Oriental Society, volume 56 (1935), Jerusalem were employed to clean the Dome of the Rock pp. 1–21. [Includes Arabic text of manuscript of Ibn and to prepare wicks for its lamps” Taymiyya’s short work Qa'ida ﬁ Ziyarat Bayt-il-Maqdis [134] The Kaf hachaim (Orach Chaim 94:1:4 citing Radvaz Vol. ‫]قاعدة في زيارة بيت المقدس‬ 2; Ch. 648) mentions a case of a Jew who was forced onto [149] The Night Journey, Qurandislam the Temple Mount. [135] Motti Inbari (2009). Jewish Fundamentalism and the [150] “Merits of the Helpers in Madinah (Ansaar) - Hadith Temple Mount. SUNY Press. pp. 22–24. Sahih Bukhari”. haditsbukharionline.blogspot.ca.

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[151] “The Farthest Mosque must refer to the site of the Jerusalem,' which is Bayt al-Maqdis and the Rock Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem on the hill of Moriah, at which is called Haykal.” al-Wasati, Fada'il al Bayt or near which stands the Dome of the Rock... it was a saal-Muqaddas, ed. Izhak Hasson (Jerusalem, 1979) cred place to both Jews and Christians... The chief dates pp. 72ff. in connection with the Temple in Jerusalem are: It was finished by Solomon about 1004 BCE; destroyed by the [156] Schiller, Gertud. Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar about 586 BCE; reLondon, ISBN 0-85331-270-2; Penny, Nicholas. Nabuilt under Ezra and Nehemiah about 515 BCE; turned tional Gallery Catalogues (new series): The Sixteenth Ceninto a heathen idol temple by one of Alexander the Great's tury Italian Paintings, Volume I, 2004, National Gallery successors, Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 BCE; restored by Publications Ltd, ISBN 1-85709-908-7. Herod, 17 BCE to 29; and completely razed to the ground by the Emperor Titus in 70. These ups and downs are among the greater signs in religious history.” (Yusuf Ali, [157] Davidson, Linda Kay and David Martin Gitlitz “Pilgrimage: From the Ganges to Graceland : an Commentary on the Koran, 2168. Encyclopedia” Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, Inc, Santa [152] “The city of Jerusalem was chosen at the command of AlBarbara, CA 2002, p. 274. lah by Prophet David in the tenth century BCE. After him his son Prophet Solomon built a mosque in Jerusalem ac- [158] Andreas J. Köstenberger, 'The Destruction of the Second cording to the revelation that he received from Allah. For Temple and the Composition of the Fourth Gospel ,' in several centuries this mosque was used for the worship John Lierman (ed.)Challenging Perspectives on the Gospel of Allah by many Prophets and Messengers of Allah. It of John, Mohr Siebeck 2006 pp.69-108, pp.101-102. was destroyed by the Babylonians in the year 586 BCE., but it was soon rebuilt and was rededicated to the worship [159] “BBC NEWS - Middle East - Warning over Jerusalem of Allah in 516 BCE. It continued afterwards for several holy site”. bbc.co.uk. centuries until the time of Prophet Jesus. After he departed this world, it was destroyed by the Romans in the [160] “Jerusalem wall collapse sparks Jewish-Muslim row”. year 70 CE.” (Siddiqi, Dr. Muzammil. Status of Al-Aqsa smh.com.au. Mosque, IslamOnline, May 21, 2007. Retrieved July 12, 2007.) [161] “Arabs Vandalize Judaism’s Holiest Site”. Arutz Sheva. March 31, 2005. Retrieved July 11, 2007. [153] “Early Muslims regarded the building and destruction of the Temple of Solomon as a major historical and reli- [162] “Rightist MK Ariel visits Temple Mount as thousands gious event, and accounts of the Temple are offered by throng Wall”. Haaretz.com. 9 October 2006. many of the early Muslim historians and geographers (including Ibn Qutayba, Ibn al-Faqih, Mas’udi, Muhallabi, [163] Wagner, Matthew (October 10, 2006). Rabbis split on and Biruni). Fantastic tales of Solomon’s construction Temple Mount synagogue plan. The Jerusalem Post. of the Temple also appear in the Qisas al-anbiya', the medieval compendia of Muslim legends about the pre- [164] “UK News, World News and Opinion”. timesonline.co.uk. Islamic prophets.” (Kramer, Martin. The Temples of Jerusalem in Islam, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, [165] “Rabbis visiting Temple Mount 'hope for an awakening'". September 18, 2000. Retrieved November 21, 2007.) ynet. • “While there is no scientific evidence that Solomon’s Temple existed, all believers in any of [166] “A provocation in religious clothing”. Haaretz.com. 15 May 2007. the Abrahamic faiths perforce must accept that it did.” (Khalidi, Rashid. Transforming the Face [167] Sela, Neta (May 16, 2007). “Rabbi Shapira forbids visitof the Holy City: Political Messages in the Built ing temple Mount”. Ynet. Retrieved May 17, 2007. Topography of Jerusalem, Bir Zeit University, November 12, 1998.) [168] Kyzer, Liel (October 25, 2009). Israel Police battle Arab rioters on Temple Mount; PA official arrested. Haaretz. [154] A Brief Guide to al-Haram al-Sharif, a booklet published in 1925 (and earlier) by the “Supreme Moslem Council”, a body established by the British government to adminis- [169] Arrests at holy site in Jerusalem. BBC News. October 25, 2009. ter waqfs and headed by Hajj Amin al-Husayni during the British Mandate period, states on page 4: “The site is one of the oldest in the world. Its sanctity dates from the earli- [170] Jerusalem holy site stormed. The Straits Times. October 25, 2009. est (perhaps from pre-historic) times. Its identity with the site of Solomon’s Temple is beyond dispute. This, too, is the spot, according to universal belief, on which 'David [171] Clashes erupt at Aqsa compound. Al Jazeera. October 25, 2009. built there an altar unto the Lord, and offered burnt offerings and peace offerings.'(2 Samuel 24:25)" [172] “Half the Public Wants to See Holy Temple Rebuilt”. [155] • “The Rock was in the time of Solomon the son of Arutz Sheva. David 12 cubits high and there was a dome over it...It is written in the Tawrat [Bible]: 'Be happy [173] “Israeli lawmaker visits flashpoint religious site”. Reuters.

13.13. EXTERNAL LINKS

13.12 Bibliography Books • Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William; Davies, William David; Sturdy, John. The Cambridge History of Judaism, Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-521-24377-7 • Gonen, Rivka. Contested Holiness, KTAV Publishing House, 2003. ISBN 0-88125-799-0 • Ha'ivri, David. Reclaiming the Temple Mount, HaMeir L'David, 2006 ISBN 965-90509-6-8 • Hassner, Ron E., “War on Sacred Grounds,” Cornell University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-8014-4806-5 • Lundquist, John. The Temple of Jerusalem, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. ISBN 0-275-983390 • Benjamin Mazar: The Mountain of the Lord. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1975. ISBN 0-385-04843-2 • Negev, Avraham & Gibson, Shimon. Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005. ISBN 0-82648571-5

13.13 External links • Templemount.org • New Evidence of the Royal Stoa and Roman Flames Biblical Archaeology Review • Virtual Walking Tour of Al-Haram Al-Sharif (“The Noble Sanctuary”) • Mount Sifting Project

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Jordan This article is about the country. For other uses, see mated 2.1 million Palestinians and the 1.4 million Syrian refugees residing in the country.[13] The kingdom is also a Jordan (disambiguation). refuge to thousands of Iraqi Christians fleeing the Islamic [14] Jordan (/ˈdʒɔːrdən/; Arabic: ‫ الأردن‬Al-Urdunn), offi- State. While Jordan continues to accept refugees, the strain on cially The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Arabic: recent large influx from Syria placed substantial national resources and infrastructure.[15] ‫ المملـكة الأردنية الهاشمية‬Al-Mamlakah Al-Urdunnīyah AlHāshimīyah), is an Arab kingdom in Western Asia, on Jordan is classified as a country of “high human develthe East Bank of the Jordan River. Jordan is bordered opment” with an “upper middle income” economy. The by Saudi Arabia to the east and south, Iraq to the north- Jordanian economy is attractive to foreign investors based east, Syria to the north, Israel, Palestine and the Dead Sea upon a skilled workforce.[16] The country is a major to the west and the Red Sea in its extreme south-west.[6] tourist destination, and also attracts medical tourism due Jordan is strategically located at the crossroads of Asia, to its well developed health sector.[17] A lack of natuAfrica and Europe.[7] The capital, Amman, is Jordan’s ral resources, large flow of refugees and regional turmoil most populous city as well as the country’s economic and have crippled economic growth.[18] cultural centre.[8] What is now Jordan has been inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic period. Three stable kingdoms emerged there at the end of the Bronze Age: Ammon, Moab and Edom. Later rulers include the Nabataean Kingdom, the Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire.[9] After the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans in 1916 during World War I, the Ottoman Empire was partitioned by Britain and France. The Emirate of Transjordan was established in 1921 by the then Emir Abdullah I and became a British protectorate. In 1946, Jordan became an independent state officially known as The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. Jordan captured the West Bank during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and the name of the state was changed to The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1949.[10] Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and is one of two Arab states to have signed a peace treaty with Israel. The country is a constitutional monarchy, but the king holds wide executive and legislative powers.[11] Jordan is a relatively small semi-arid almost landlocked country with a population numbering at 9.5 million. Sunni Islam, practiced by around 92% of the population, is the dominant religion in Jordan. It coexists with an indigenous Christian minority. Jordan is considered to be among the safest of Arab countries in the Middle East, and has avoided long-term terrorism and instability.[12] In the midst of surrounding turmoil, it has been greatly hospitable, accepting refugees from almost all surrounding conflicts as early as 1948, with most notably the esti-

14.1 Etymology Jordan is named after the Jordan River. The origin of the river’s name is debated, but the most common explanation is that it derives from the word “yarad” (the descender, “Yarden” is the Hebrew name for the river), found in Hebrew, Aramaic, and other Semitic languages. Others regard that the name as having an Indo-Aryan origin, combining the words “yor” (year) and “don” (river), reﬂecting the river’s perennial nature. Another theory is that it is from the Arabic root word “wrd” (to come to), as in people coming to a major source of water.[19] The name Jordan appears in an ancient Egyptian papyrus called Papyrus Anastasi I, dating back to around 1000 BC.[20] The lands of modern-day Jordan were historically called "Transjordan", meaning “beyond the Jordan River”. The name was Arabized into "Al-Urdunn" during the Muslim conquest of the Levant. During crusader rule, it was called "Oultrejordain". In 1921, the Emirate of Transjordan was established and after it gained its independence in 1946, it became “The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan”. The name was changed in 1949 into “The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan”. "Hashemite" is the house name of the royal family.[21]

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14.2. HISTORY

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14.2 History Main article: History of Jordan

14.2.1

Ancient period

The 'Ain Ghazal Statues are some of the oldest human statues ever found, dating to about 7250 BC. They are on display at the The Jordan Museum.

Jordan is rich in Paleolithic remains, holding evidence of inhabitance by Homo erectus, Neanderthal and modern humans.[22] The oldest evidence of inhabitants by humans dates back around 250,000 years.[23] The Kharanah area in eastern Jordan has evidence of human huts from about 20,000 years ago.[24] Other Paleolithic sites include Pella and Al-Azraq.[25] In the Neolithic period, several settlements began to develop, most notably an agricultural community called 'Ain Ghazal in what is now Amman,[26] one of the largest known prehistoric settlements in the Near East.[27] Plaster statues estimated to date back to around 7250 BC were uncovered there, and are among the oldest large human statues ever found.[28][29] Villages of Bab edh-Dhra in the Dead Sea area, Tal Hujayrat AlGhuzlan in Aqaba and Tulaylet Ghassul in the Jordan Valley all date to the Chalcolithic period.[30] The prehistoric period of Jordan ended at around 2000 BC when the Semitic nomads known as the Amorites entered the region. During the Bronze Age and Iron Age, present-day Jordan was home to several ancient kingdoms, whose populations spoke Semitic languages of the Canaanite group.[31] Among them were Ammon, Edom and Moab, which are described as tribal kingdoms rather than states. They are mentioned in ancient texts such as the Old Testament. Archaeology ﬁnds have shown that Ammon was in the area of the modern city of Amman, Moab controlled the highlands east of the Dead Sea and Edom controlled the area around Wadi Araba.[32] These Transjordanian kingdoms were in continuous conﬂict with the neighboring Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah, centered west of the Jordan River, though Israel was known to have at times controlled small parts east of the River.[34] Frequent confrontations ensued and

The Mesha Stele recorded the glory of Mesha, the king of Moab, inscribed around 840 BC. It is on display at the Louvre museum.[33]

tensions between them increased. One record of this is the Mesha Stele erected by the Moabite king Mesha around 840 BC on which he lauds himself for the building projects that he initiated in Moab and commemorates his glory and victory against the Israelites.[35] The stele constitutes one of the most important direct accounts of Biblical history.[33] Subsequently, the Assyrian Empire reduced these kingdoms to vassals. When the region was later under the influence of the Babylonians, the Old Testament mentions that these kingdoms aided them in the 597 BC sack of Jerusalem.[36] These kingdoms are believed to have existed throughout fluctuations in regional rule and influence. They passed through the control of several distant empires, including the Akkadian Empire (2335–2193 BC), Ancient Egypt (1500–1300 BC), the Hittite Empire (1400–1300 BC), the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC), the NeoAssyrian Empire (911–605 BC), the Neo-Babylonian Empire (604–539 BC), the Achaemenid Empire (539– 332 BC) and the Hellenistic Empire of Macedonia.[9] However, by the time of Roman rule in the Levant around 63 BC, the people of Ammon, Edom and Moab had lost their distinct identities, and were assimilated into Roman culture.[32]

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14.2.2

CHAPTER 14. JORDAN

Classical period

Main article: Transjordan (region) Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire in 332 BC introduced Hellenistic culture to the Middle East. After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, his empire split among his generals and in the end, much of the land of modern-day Jordan was disputed between the Ptolemies based in Egypt and the Seleucids based in Syria.[37] In the south and east, the Nabataeans had an independent kingdom.[37] Campaigns by diﬀerent Greek generals aspiring to annex the Nabataean Kingdom were unsuccessful.[38]

deserts and their talent for carving structures such as the Al-Khazneh temple into solid rocks.[38] These nomads spoke Arabic and wrote in Nabataean alphabets, which were developed from Aramaic script during the 2nd century BC, and are regarded by scholars to have evolved into the Arabic alphabet around the 4th century AD.[39] The Greeks founded new cities in Jordan including Philadelphia (Amman), Gerasa (Jerash), Gedara (Umm Qays), Pella (Tabaqat Fahl) and Arbila (Irbid). Later, under Roman rule, these joined other Hellenistic cities in Palestine and Syria to form the Decapolis League, a loose confederation linked by economic and cultural interests: Scythopolis, Hippos, Capitolias, Canatha and Damascus were among its members.[40] The most notable Hellenistic site in Jordan is at Iraq Al-Amir, just west of modernday Amman.[9] Roman legions under Pompey conquered much of the Levant in 63 BC, inaugurating a period of Roman rule that lasted for centuries.[9] In 106 AD, Emperor Trajan annexed the nearby Nabataean Kingdom without any opposition, and rebuilt the King’s Highway which became known as the Via Traiana Nova road.[41] During Roman rule the Nabataeans continued to flourish and replaced their local gods with Christianity.[42] Roman remains include, in Amman, the Temple of Hercules at the Amman Citadel and the Roman theater. Jerash contains a wellpreserved Roman city that had 15,000 inhabitants at its height.[43] Jerash was visited by Emperor Hadrian during his journey to Palestine.[42] In 324 AD, the Roman Empire split, and the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire) continued to control or influence the region until 636 AD. Christianity had become legal within the empire in 313 AD and the official state religion in 390 AD, after Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity.[42]

Ayla city (modern day Aqaba) in southern Jordan also came under Byzantine Empire rule. The Aqaba Church was built around 300 AD, and is considered the world’s first purpose built Christian church.[44] The Byzantines built 16 churches just south of Amman in Umm arRasas.[45] Administratively the area of Jordan fell under the Diocese of the East, and was divided between the provinces of Palaestina Secunda in the north-west and Arabia Petraea in the south and east. Palaestina Salutaris The Treasury in the ancient city of Petra, which was carved into in the south was split off from Arabia Petraea in the late [46] The Sassanian Empire in the east became the rock in 312 BC by the Arab Nabataeans, is one of the New 4th century. the Byzantines’ rivals, and frequent confrontations someSeven Wonders of the World. times led to the Sassanids controlling some parts of the [47] The Nabataeans were nomadic Arabs who derived wealth region, including Transjordan. from their capital Petra, whose proximity to major trade routes led to it becoming a regional hub.[38] The Ptolemies were eventually displaced from the region by 14.2.3 Islamic era the Seleucid Empire. The conflict between these two groups enabled the Nabataeans to extend their king- Main article: Jund Al-Urdunn dom northwards well beyond Petra in Edom.[37] The Nabataeans are known for their great ability in con- Muslims from what is now Saudi Arabia invaded the restructing efficient water collecting methods in the barren gion from the south.[42] The Arab Christian Ghassanids,

14.2. HISTORY clients of the Byzantines, were defeated despite imperial support.[48] While the Muslim forces lost to the Byzantines in their ﬁrst direct engagement during the Battle of Mu'tah in 629, in what is now the Karak Governorate, the Byzantines lost control of the Levant when they were defeated by the Rashidun army in 636 at the Battle of Yarmouk just north of modern-day Jordan. The region was Arabized, and the Arabic language became widespread.[42] Transjordan was an essential territory for the conquest of nearby Damascus.[49] The ﬁrst, or Rashidun, caliphate was followed by that of the Ummayad (661–750). Under Umayyads rule, several desert castles were constructed, such as Qasr Al-Mshatta, Qasr Al-Hallabat, Qasr Al-Kharanah, Qasr Tuba, Qasr Amra, and a large administrative palace in Amman.[50] The Abbasid campaign to take over the Umayyad empire began in the region of Transjordan. After the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, the area was ruled by the Fatimids, then by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (1115–1189).[49]

169 Ottoman sultan, rooted out the Wahhabis between 1811 and 1818.[37] In 1833 Ibrahim Pasha turned on the Ottomans and established his rule over the Levant. His oppressive policies led to the unsuccessful peasants’ revolt in Palestine in 1834.[53] The cities of Al-Salt and Al-Karak were destroyed by Ibrahim Pasha’s forces for harboring a peasants’ revolt leader. Egyptian rule was later forcibly ended, with Ottoman rule restored.[53] Russian persecution of Sunni Muslim Circassians and Chechens led to their immigration into the region in 1867, where today they form a small part of the country’s ethnic fabric.[54] Overall population however declined due to oppression and neglect.[55] Urban settlements with small populations included: Al-Salt, Irbid, Jerash and AlKarak.[56] The under-development of urban life in Jordan was exacerbated by the settlements being sometimes raided by Bedouins.[23] Ottoman oppression provoked the region’s both non-Bedouin and Bedouin tribes to revolt, Bedouin tribes like; Adwan, Bani Hassan, Bani Sakhr and the Howeitat. The most notable revolts were the Shoubak Revolt (1905) and the Karak Revolt (1910), which were brutally suppressed.[54] Jordan’s location lies on a pilgrimage route taken by Muslims going to Mecca, which helped the population economically when the Ottomans constructed the Hejaz Railway linking Mecca with Istanbul in 1908. Before the construction of the railway, the Ottomans built fortresses along the Hajj route to secure pilgrims’ caravans.[57]

14.2.4 Modern era Ajloun Castle in Ajloun built by the Ayyubid Muslim leader Saladin in the 12th century AD for use in his wars against the Crusaders.

The Crusaders constructed about nine Crusader castles as part of the lordship of Oultrejordain, including those of Montreal, Al-Karak and Wu'ayra (in Petra).[50] In the 12th century, the Crusaders were defeated by Saladin, the founder of the Ayyubids dynasty (1189–1260). The Ayyubids built a new castle at Ajloun and rebuilt the former Roman fort of Qasr Azraq. Several of these castles were used and expanded by the Mamluks (1260-1516), who divided Jordan between the provinces of Karak and Damascus. During the next century Transjordan experienced Mongol attacks, but the Mongols were ultimately repelled by the Mamluks after the Battle of Ain Jalut (1260).[50] In 1516, Ottoman forces conquered Mamluk territory.[51] Agricultural villages in Jordan witnessed a period of relative prosperity in the 16th century, but were later abandoned.[52] For the next centuries, Ottoman rule in the region, at times, was virtually absent and reduced to annual tax collection visits.[52] This led to a short-lived occupation by the Wahhabi forces (1803-1812), an ultraorthodox Islamic movement that emerged in Najd in modern-day Saudi Arabia.[37] Ibrahim Pasha, son of the governor of the Egypt Eyalet under the request of the

Main articles: Great Arab Revolt and Emirate of Transjordan Four centuries of stagnation during Ottoman rule ended

Soldiers of the Hashemite Arab Army holding the ﬂag of the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire in 1916.

during World War I when the Arab Revolt occurred in 1916, driving by long-term Arab resentment towards the Ottoman authorities[55] and the emergence of Arab nationalism.[58] The revolt was launched by the Hashemite clan of Hejaz, who claim descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca.[59] The conquest of Transjordan garnered the support of the local Bedouin tribes, Circassians and Christians.[60] The

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revolt was supported by the Allies of World War I includ- 14.2.5 Post-independence ing Britain and France.[61] Main article: Timeline of the Hashemite Kingdom of The Great Arab Revolt successfully gained control of Jordan most of territories of the Hejaz and the Levant, including the region east of the Jordan River. However, it failed to gain international recognition as an independent The Treaty of London, signed by the British Governstate, due mainly to the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement ment and the Emir of Transjordan on 22 March 1946, of 1916 and the Balfour Declaration of 1917. This was recognised the independence of Transjordan upon ratifiseen by the Hashemites and the Arabs as a betrayal of cation by both countries parliaments.[66] On 25 May 1946 their previous agreements with the British, including the the Emirate of Transjordan became “The Hashemite McMahon–Hussein Correspondence of 1915, in which Kingdom of Transjordan”, as the ruling Emir was rethe British stated their willingness to recognize the inde- designated as “King” by the parliament of Transjordan pendence of a unified Arab state stretching from Aleppo on the day it ratified the Treaty of London.[67] The name to Aden under the rule of the Hashemites. The region was was changed to “The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan” in divided and Abdullah I, the second son of Sharif Hussein 1949. Jordan became a member of the United Nations arrived from Hejaz by train in Ma'an in southern Jordan, on 14 December 1955.[10] where he was greeted by Transjordanian leaders.[37] Abdullah established the Emirate of Transjordan in 1921, which then became a British protectorate.[62]

King Hussein after checking an abandoned Israeli tank in the aftermath of the Battle of Karameh in 1968.

The ﬁrst visit of the High Commissioner for Palestine to Al-Salt city in Transjordan in 1920.

The ﬁrst organized army in Jordan was established on 22 October 1920, and was named the "Arab Legion". The Legion grew from 150 men in 1920 to 8,000 in 1946.[63] Multiple diﬃculties emerged upon the assumption of power in the region by the Hashemite leadership. In Transjordan, small local rebellions at Kura in 1921 and 1923 were suppressed by Emir Abdullah with the help of British forces.[37] Wahhabis from Najd regained strength and repeatedly raided the southern parts of his territory in (1922-1924), seriously threatening the Emir’s position.[37] The Emir was unable to repel those raids without the aid of the local Bedouin tribes and the British, who maintained a military base with a small RAF detachment close to Amman.[37] In September 1922, the Council of the League of Nations recognized Transjordan as a state under the British Mandate for Palestine and the Transjordan memorandum, and excluded the territories east of the Jordan River from the provisions of the mandate dealing with Jewish settlement.[64] Transjordan remained a British mandate until 1946.[65]

On 15 May 1948, as part of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jordan invaded Palestine together with other Arab states.[68] Following the war, Jordan occupied the West Bank and on 24 April 1950 Jordan formally annexed these territories. In response, some Arab countries demanded Jordan’s expulsion from the Arab League.[69] On 12 June 1950, the Arab League declared the annexation was a temporary, practical measure and that Jordan was holding the territory as a “trustee” pending a future settlement.[70] King Abdullah was assassinated at the Al-Aqsa Mosque in 1951 by a Palestinian militant, amid rumors he intended to sign a peace treaty with Israel. Abdullah was succeeded by his son Talal, however Talal soon abdicated due to illness in favor of his eldest son Hussein, who ascended the throne in 1953.[71] On 1 March 1956, King Hussein sacked a number of British personnel serving in the Jordanian Army, an act of Arabization made to ensure the complete sovereignty of Jordan.[72] Neighboring Iraq was also ruled by a Hashemite monarchy; Faisal II of Iraq, who was Hussein’s cousin. 1958 witnessed the emergence of the Arab Federation between the two kingdoms, as a response to the formation of the United Arab Republic between Egypt and Syria. The union lasted only six months, being dissolved after Faisal II was deposed by

14.3. GEOGRAPHY a military coup.[73] Jordan signed a military pact with Egypt just before Israel launched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin the SixDay War in June 1967, where Jordan and Syria joined the war. It ended in an Arab defeat and the West Bank came under Israeli control. Jordan also fought in the War of Attrition, which included the 1968 Battle of Karameh where the combined forces of the Jordanian Armed Forces and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) repelled an Israeli attack on the Karameh camp on the Jordanian border with the West Bank.[74] Despite the fact that the Palestinians had limited involvement against the Israeli forces, the events at Karameh gained wide recognition and acclaim in the Arab world. As a result, the time period following the battle witnessed an upsurge of support for Palestinian paramilitary elements (the fedayeen) within Jordan from other Arab countries, the fedayeen soon became a threat to Jordan’s rule of law. In September 1970, the Jordanian army targeted the fedayeen and the resultant ﬁghting led to the expulsion of Palestinian ﬁghters from various PLO groups into Lebanon, in a civil war that became known as Black September.[75]

171 Rabat summit conference in 1974, Jordan agreed, along with the rest of the Arab League, that the PLO was the “sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people”. Subsequently, Jordan renounced its claims to the West Bank in 1988.[75] At the 1991 Madrid Conference, Jordan agreed to negotiate a peace treaty sponsored by the US and the Soviet Union. The Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace was signed on 26 October 1994.[75] In 1997, Israeli agents allegedly entered Jordan using Canadian passports and poisoned Khaled Meshal, a senior Hamas leader. Israel provided an antidote to the poison and released dozens of political prisoners, including Sheikh Ahmed Yassin after King Hussein threatened to annul the peace treaty.[75] On 7 February 1999, Abdullah II ascended the throne upon the death of his father Hussein.[76] Jordan’s economy has improved since then. Abdullah II has been credited with increasing foreign investment, improving public-private partnerships and providing the foundation for Aqaba's free-trade zone and Jordan’s flourishing information and communication technology (ICT) sector. He also set up five other special economic zones. As a result of these reforms, Jordan’s economic growth has doubled to 6% annually compared to the latter half of the 1990s.[77] However, the Great Recession and regional turmoil in the 2010s has severely crippled the Jordanian economy and its growth, making it increasingly reliant on foreign aid.[78] Al-Qaeda under Abu Musab al-Zarqawi's leadership launched coordinated explosions in three hotel lobbies in Amman on 9 November 2005, resulting in 60 deaths and 115 injured. The bombings, which targeted civilians, caused widespread outrage among Jordanians.[79] The attack is considered to be a rare event in the country, and Jordan’s internal security was dramatically improved afterwards. No major terrorist attacks have occurred since then.[80] The Arab Spring began sweeping the Arab world in 2011, where large scale protests erupted demanding economic and political reforms. However, many of these protests in some countries turned into civil wars and more instability. In Jordan, in response to domestic unrest, Abdullah II replaced his prime minister and introduced a number of reforms including; amending the Constitution and establishing a number of governmental commissions.[81] The King told the new prime minister to “take quick, concrete and practical steps to launch a genuine political reform process, to strengthen democracy and provide Jordanians with the dignified life they deserve”.[82]

A Jordanian Bedouin forces oﬃcer in Petra 2004.

During the Yom Kippur War in 1973, Arab league forces 14.3 Geography waged a war on Israel and ﬁghting occurred along the 1967 Jordan River cease-ﬁre line. Jordan sent a brigade Main article: Geography of Jordan to Syria to attack Israeli units on Syrian territory but did Jordan sits strategically at the crossroads of the connot engage Israeli forces from Jordanian territory. At the tinents of Asia, Africa and Europe,[7] in the Levant

172

Wadi Rum's resemblance to the surface of Mars has made it a popular ﬁlming and tourist attraction, including scenes in The Martian (2015).

area of the Fertile Crescent, a cradle of civilization.[83] It is 89,341 square kilometres (34,495 sq mi) large, and 400 kilometres (250 mi) long between its northernmost and southernmost points; Umm Qais and Aqaba respectively.[84] The kingdom lies between 29° and 34° N, and 34° and 40° E. The east is an arid plateau irrigated by oases and seasonal water streams.[84] Major cities are overwhelmingly located on the north-western part of the kingdom due to its fertile soils and relatively abundant rainfall. These include Irbid, Jerash and Zarqa in the northwest, the capital Amman and Al-Salt in the central west, and Madaba, Al-Karak and Aqaba in the southwest.[85] Major towns in the eastern part of the country are the oasis towns of Azraq and Ruwaished.[83] In the west a highland area of arable land and Mediterranean evergreen forestry drops suddenly into the Jordan Rift Valley. The rift valley contains the Jordan River and the Dead Sea, which separates Jordan from Israel and the Palestinian Territories. Jordan has a 26 kilometres (16 mi) shoreline on the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea, but is otherwise landlocked.[6] The Yarmouk River, an eastern tributary of the Jordan, forms part of the boundary between Jordan and Syria (including the occupied Golan Heights) to the north. The other boundaries are formed by several international and local agreements and do not follow well-deﬁned natural features. The highest point is Jabal Umm al Dami, at 1,854 m (6,083 ft) above sea level, while the lowest is the Dead Sea −420 m (−1,378 ft), the lowest land point on earth.[83] Jordan has a diverse range of habitats, ecosystems and biota due, to its varied landscapes and environments.[86] The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature was set up in 1966 to protect and manage Jordan’s natural resources. Nature reserves in Jordan include the Dana Biosphere Reserve, the Azraq Wetland Reserve, the Shaumari Wildlife Reserve and the Mujib Nature Reserve.[87]

CHAPTER 14. JORDAN

The Dead Sea is the saltiest water body and the lowest point on earth, swimmers can float effortlessly while receiving health benefits.[83]

etation depends largely on the levels of precipitation. The mountainous regions in the northwest are clothed in forests, while further south and east the vegetation becomes more scrubby and transitions to steppe-type vegetation.[89] Forests cover 1.5 million dunums (1,500 km2 ), less than 2% of Jordan, making Jordan among the world’s least forested countries, the internationally average being 15%.[90]

14.3.1 Climate Main article: Climate of Jordan The climate in Jordan varies greatly. Generally, the further inland from the Mediterranean, greater contrasts in temperature occur and the less rainfall there is. The country’s average elevation is 812 m (2,664 ft) (SL).[84] The highlands above the Jordan Valley, mountains of the Dead Sea and Wadi Araba and as far south as Ras Al-Naqab are dominated by a Mediterranean climate, while the eastern and northeastern areas of the country are arid desert.[91] Although the desert parts of the kingdom reach high temperatures, the heat is usually moderated by low humidity and a daytime breeze, while the nights are cool.[92] Summers, lasting from May to September, are hot and dry, with temperatures averaging around 32 °C (90 °F) and sometimes exceeding 40 °C (104 °F) between July and August.[92] The winter, lasting from November to March, is relatively cool, with temperatures averaging around 13 °C (55 °F). Winter also sees frequent showers and occasional snowfall in some western elevated areas.[91]

14.4 Politics and government

Over two thousand plant species have been recorded in Jordan.[88] Many of the ﬂowering plants bloom in Main article: Politics of Jordan the spring after the winter rains and the type of veg-

14.4. POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT Jordan is a constitutional monarchy, but the King holds wide executive and legislative powers. He serves as Head of State and Commander-in-Chief and appoints the prime minister and heads of security directorates. The prime minister is free to choose his own cabinet and regional governors.[11] However, the king may dissolve parliament and dismiss the government.[93] The capital city of Jordan is Amman, located in north-central Jordan.[8]

173 missed by a two-thirds vote of "no conﬁdence" by the Chamber of Deputies. Political parties come under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Interior, and may not be established on the basis of religion.[100] The Constitution of Jordan was adopted in 1952 and has been amended a number of times, most recently in 2016.[101] Article 97 of Jordan’s constitution guarantees the independence of the judicial branch, stating that judges are “subject to no authority but that of the law.” Article 99 divides the courts into three categories: civil, religious, and special. The civil courts deal with civil and criminal matters, and have jurisdiction over all persons in all matters civil and criminal, including cases brought against the government. The civil courts include Magistrate Courts, Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal,[102] High Administrative Courts which hear cases relating to administrative matters,[103] and the Constitutional Court which was set up in 2012 in order to hear cases regarding the constitutionality of laws.[104] The religious court system’s jurisdiction extends to matters of personal status such as divorce and inheritance, and is partially based on Sharia Islamic law.[105] The special court deals with cases forwarded by the civil one.[106]

The current monarch, Abdullah II, ascended the throne in February 1999 after the death of his father Hussein. Abdullah reaffirmed Jordan’s commitment to the peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the United States. He refocused the government’s agenda on economic reThe current King of Jordan is Abdullah II who assumed the form, during his first year. King Abdullah’s eldest son, Prince Hussein is the current Crown Prince of Jordan.[107] throne in 1999. The current prime minister is Hani Al-Mulki who reJordan is divided into 12 governorates (muhafazah) (in- ceived his position on 29 May 2016.[108] formally grouped into three regions: northern, central, The 2010 Arab Democracy Index from the Arab Resouthern). These are subdivided into a total of 52 nawahi, form Initiative ranked Jordan first in the state of demowhich are further divided into neighborhoods in urban cratic reforms out of fifteen Arab countries.[109] Jordan areas or into towns in rural ones.[94] The Parliament of ranked first among the Arab states and 78th globally in Jordan consists of two chambers: the lower Chamber of the Human Freedom Index in 2015,[110] and ranked 55th Deputies (Arabic: ‫ مجلس النواب‬Majlis Al-Nuwab) and the out of 175 countries in the Corruption Perceptions Inupper Senate (Arabic: ‫ مجلس الأعيان‬Majlis Al-'Aayan). dex (CPI) issued by Transparency International in 2014, All 75 members of the Senate are directly appointed where 175th is most corrupt.[111] In the 2016 Press Freeby the King, they are usually veteran politicians or are dom Index maintained by Reporters Without Borders, known to have held previous positions in the Chamber Jordan ranked 135th out of 180 countries worldwide, and of Deputies or in the government.[95] The 130 members 5th of 19 countries in the Middle East and North Africa of the Chamber of Deputies are elected through propor- region. Jordan’s score was 44 on a scale from 0 (most tional representation in 23 constituencies on nationwide free) to 105 (least free). The report added “the Arab party lists for a 4-year election cycle.[96] Minimum quo- Spring and the Syrian conflict have led the authorities tas exist in the Chamber of Deputies for women (15 seats, to tighten their grip on the media and, in particular, the though they won 19 seats in the 2013 election), Christians Internet, despite an outcry from civil society”.[112] Jor(9 seats), Circassians (3 seats) and Chechens (1 seat).[97] danian media consists of public and private institutions. Three constituencies are allocated for the Bedouins of the Popular Jordanian newspapers include: Ammon News, northern, central and southern Badias.[98] Ad-Dustour and Jordan Times. The most two watched [113] Jordan has multiple political parties though they formerly local TV stations are Ro'ya TV and Jordan TV. [114]Intercontested fewer than a fifth of the seats; the remainder net penetration in Jordan reached 76% in 2015. belonged to independent politicians, due to the one-man one-vote system.[99] The system was changed in 2015 and this is expected to empower political parties, which number around 30 parties.[98] The government can be dis-

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CHAPTER 14. JORDAN mer’s role in protecting the Muslim and Christian sites in Jerusalem.[118] Jordan is a founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and of the Arab League.[119][120] It enjoys “advanced status” with the European Union and is part of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims to increase links between the EU and its neighbours.[121] Jordan and Morocco tried to join the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 2011, but the Gulf countries oﬀered a ﬁve-year development aid programme instead.[122]

A forest in Ajloun, northern Jordan.

14.4.1

Administrative divisions

14.4.2

Foreign relations

14.4.3 Military, crime and law enforcement Main articles: Jordanian Armed Forces and Law enforcement in Jordan

The first organized army in Jordan was established on 22 Main article: Foreign relations of Jordan October 1920, and was named the "Arab Legion". JorThe kingdom has followed a pro-Western foreign policy dan’s capture of the West Bank during the 1948 ArabIsraeli War proved that the Arab Legion, known today as the Jordan Armed Forces, was the most effective among the Arab troops involved in the war.[63] The Royal Jordanian Army, which boasts around 110,000 personnel, is considered to be among the most professional in the region, due to being particularly well-trained and organized.[63] The Jordanian military enjoys strong support and aid from the United States, the United Kingdom and France. This is due to Jordan’s critical position in the Middle East.[63] The development of Special Operations Forces has been particularly significant, enhancing the capability of the military to react rapidly to threats to homeland security, as well as training special King Abdullah II shows his son, Crown Prince Hussein, a photo forces from the region and beyond.[123] Jordan provides given to them by U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry. extensive training to the security forces of several Arab countries.[124] and maintained close relations with the United States and the United Kingdom. During the first Gulf War (1990), There are about 50,000 Jordanian troops working with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions across the these relations were damaged by Jordan’s neutrality and in participation its maintenance of relations with Iraq. Later, Jordan re- world. Jordan ranks third internationally in U.N. peacekeeping missions,[125] with one of the highstored its relations with Western countries through its partroop contributions of all U.N. ticipation in the enforcement of UN sanctions against Iraq est levels of peacekeeping [126] member states. Jordan has dispatched several field and in the Southwest Asia peace process. After King hospitals to conflict zones and areas affected by natural Hussein’s death in 1999, relations between Jordan and the [127] disasters across the region. [115] Persian Gulf countries greatly improved. Jordan is a key ally of the USA and UK and, together In 2014, Jordan joined an aerial bombardment campaign with Egypt, is one of only two Arab nations to have signed by an international coalition led by the United States as part of its intervention in peace treaties with Israel, Jordan’s direct neighbour.[116] against the Islamic State [128] the Syrian Civil War. In 2015, Jordan participated Jordan supports Palestinian statehood through the TwoSaudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen in the [117] state solution. The ruling Hashemite family has had against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former Prescustodianship over holy sites in Jerusalem since the beAli Abdullah Saleh, who was deposed in the 2011 ident ginning of the 20th century, a position reinforced in the [129] uprising. Israel–Jordan peace treaty. Turmoil in Jerusalem’s AlAqsa mosque between Israelis and Palestinians created Jordan’s law enforcement is under the purview of the tensions between Jordan and Israel concerning the for- Public Security Directorate (which includes approxi-

14.5. ECONOMY

175 in the 1990s.[135]

An Amman City Centre Police Vehicle.

mately 40,000 persons). The Jordanian national police is subordinate to the Public Security Directorate of the Ministry of Interior. The first police force in the Jordanian state was organized after the fall of the Ottoman Empire on 11 April 1921.[130] Until 1956 police duties were carried out by the Arab Legion and the Transjordan Frontier Force. After that year the Public Safety Directorate was established.[130] The number of female police officers is increasing. In the 1970s, it was the first Arab country to include females in its police force.[131] Jordan’s law enforcement was ranked 37th in the world and 3rd in the Middle East, in terms of police services’ performance, by the 2016 World Internal Security and Police Index.[12][132]

Jordan’s economy is relatively well diversified. Trade and finance combined account for nearly one-third of GDP; transportation and communication, public utilities, and construction account for one-fifth, and mining and manufacturing constitute nearly another fifth. Despite plans to expand the private sector, the state remains the dominant force in Jordan’s economy.[18] Net official development assistance to Jordan in 2009 totalled USD 761 million; according to the government, approximately two-thirds of this was allocated as grants, of which half was direct budget support.[134] The official currency is the Jordanian dinar, which is pegged to the IMF’s special drawing rights (SDRs), equivalent to an exchange rate of 1 US$ ≡ 0.709 dinar, or approximately 1 dinar ≡ 1.41044 dollars.[136] In 2000, Jordan joined the World Trade Organization and signed the Jordan–United States Free Trade Agreement, thus becoming the first Arab country to establish a free trade agreement with the United States. Jordan also has free trade agreements with Turkey and Canada.[137] Jordan enjoys advanced status with the EU, which has facilitated greater access to export to European markets.[138] Due to slow domestic growth, high energy and food subsidies and a bloated public-sector workforce, Jordan usually runs annual budget deficits. These are partially offset by international aid.[139]

14.5 Economy Main article: Economy of Jordan Jordan is classiﬁed by the World Bank as an “upper-

View of a part of the capital Amman.

A proportional representation of Jordan’s exports.

The Great Recession and the turmoil caused by the Arab Spring have depressed Jordan’s GDP growth, impacting trade, industry, construction and tourism.[84] Tourist arrivals have dropped sharply since 2011.[140] Jordan’s ﬁnances have also been severely strained by 32 attacks on the natural gas pipeline in Sinai supplying Jordan from Egypt by Islamic State aﬃliates, causing it to substitute more expensive heavy-fuel oils to generate electricity.[141] In November 2012, the government cut subsidies on fuel, increasing its price.[142] The decision, which was later revoked, caused large scale protests to break out across the country.[139][140]

middle income” country; however, approximately 14.4% (as of 2010) of the population lives below the national poverty line.[133] The economy, which boasts a GDP of $38.210 billion (as of 2015),[3] grew at an average rate of 4.3% per annum between 2005 and 2010, and around Jordan’s total foreign debt in 2012 was $22 billion, rep2.5% 2010 onwards.[134] GDP per capita rose by 351% resenting 72% of its GDP.[142] In 2016, the debt reached in the 1970s, declined 30% in the 1980s, and rose 36% $35.1 billion representing 90.6% of its GDP. This sub-

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stantial increase is attributed to eﬀects of regional instability causing; decrease in tourist activity, decreased foreign investments, increased military expenditure, electrical company debts due to attacks on Egyptian pipeline, accumulated interests from loans, the collapse of trade with Iraq and Syria and expenses from hosting Syrian refugees.[78] According to the World Bank, Syrian refugees have cost Jordan more than $2.5 billion a year, amounting to 6% of the GDP and 25% of the government’s annual revenue.[143] Foreign aid covers only a small part of these costs, 63% of the total costs are covered by Jordan.[144]

its air-conditioning units reaching NASA.[148] Jordan is now considered to be a leading pharmaceuticals manufacturer in the MENA region led by Jordanian pharmaceutical company Hikma.[149]

Jordan’s military industry thrived after the King Abdullah Design and Development Bureau (KADDB) defence company was established by King Abdullah II in 1999, to provide an indigenous capability for the supply of scientiﬁc and technical services to the Jordanian Armed Forces, and to become a global hub in security research and development. It manufactures all types of military products, many of which are presented at the bi-annually The proportion of skilled workers in Jordan is among held international military exhibition SOFEX. In 2015, the highest in the region in sectors such as ICT and in- KADDB exported $72 million worth of industries to over dustry, due to a relatively modern educational system. 42 countries.[150] This has attracted large foreign investments to Jordan and has enabled the country to export its workforce to Persian Gulf countries.[16] Flows of remittances to Jor- 14.5.2 Tourism dan grew rapidly, particularly during the end of the 1970s and 1980s, and remains an important source of exter- Main article: Tourism in Jordan nal funding.[145] Remittances from Jordanian expatriates The tourism sector is considered a cornerstone of the were $3.8 billion in 2015, a notable rise in the amount of transfers compared to 2014 where remittances reached over $3.66 billion listing Jordan as fourth largest recipient in the region.[146]

14.5.1

Industry

Al-Maghtas ruins on the Jordanian side of the Jordan River are the location for the Baptism of Jesus and the ministry of John the Baptist.

The Aqaba Flagpole in the southernmost city of Aqaba, Jordan’s only coastal city and outlet.

Jordan’s well developed industrial sector, which includes mining, manufacturing, construction, and power, accounted for approximately 26% of the GDP in 2004 (including manufacturing, 16.2%; construction, 4.6%; and mining, 3.1%). More than 21% of Jordan’s labor force was employed in industry in 2002. In 2014, industry accounted for 6% of the GDP.[147] The main industrial products are potash, phosphates, cement, clothes, and fertilizers. The most promising segment of this sector is construction. Petra Engineering Industries Company which is considered to be one of the main pillars of Jordanian industry, has gained international recognition with

economy, being a large source of employment, hard currency and economic growth. In 2010, there were 8 million visitors to Jordan. The result was $3.4 billion in tourism revenues, $4.4 billion with the inclusion of medical tourists.[151] The majority of tourists coming to Jordan are from European and Arab countries.[17] The tourism sector in Jordan has been severely aﬀected by regional turbulence.[60] The most recent impact to the tourism sector was caused by the Arab Spring, which scared oﬀ tourists from the entire region. Jordan experienced a 70% decrease in the number of tourists from 2010 to 2015.[152] According to the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Jordan is home to around 100,000 archaeological and tourist sites.[153] Some very well preserved historical cities include Petra and Jerash, the former being Jordan’s most popular tourist attraction and an icon of the kingdom.[152] Jordan is part of the Holy Land and has several biblical attractions that attract pilgrimage activities.

14.5. ECONOMY

177

Biblical sites include: Al-Maghtas where Jesus was bap- 14.5.3 Natural resources tized by John the Baptist, Mount Nebo, Umm ar-Rasas, Madaba and Machaerus.[154] Islamic sites include shrines See also: Energy in Jordan of the prophet Muhammad's companions such as 'Abd Jordan is the world’s second poorest country in terms Allah ibn Rawahah, Zayd ibn Harithah and Muadh ibn [155] Jabal. Ajlun Castle built by Muslim Ayyubid leader Saladin in the 12th century AD during his wars with the Crusaders, is also a popular tourist attraction.[7]

A phosphate train at Ram station.

Dana Biosphere Reserve in south-central Jordan is a popular tourist attraction.

Modern entertainment and recreation in urban areas, mostly in Amman, also attract tourists. Recently, the nightlife in Amman, Aqaba and Irbid has started to emerge and the number of bars, discos and nightclubs is on the rise. However, most nightclubs have a restriction on unescorted males.[156] Alcohol is widely available in tourist restaurants, liquor stores and even some supermarkets.[157] Valleys like Wadi Mujib and hiking trails in different parts of the country attract adventurers. Moreover, seaside recreation is present in on the shores of Aqaba and the Dead Sea through several international resorts.[158] Jordan has been a medical tourism destination in the Middle East since the 1970s. A study conducted by Jordan’s Private Hospitals Association found that 250,000 patients from 102 countries received treatment in Jordan in 2010, compared to 190,000 in 2007, bringing over $1 billion in revenue. Jordan is the region’s top medical tourism destination, as rated by the World Bank, and fifth in the world overall.[159] The majority of patients come from Yemen, Libya and Syria due to the ongoing civil wars in those countries. Jordanian doctors and medical staff have gained experience in dealing with war patients through years of receiving such cases from various conflict zones in the region.[160] Jordan also is a hub for natural treatment methods in both Ma'in Hot Springs and the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is often described as a 'natural spa'. It contains 10 times more salt than the average ocean, which makes it impossible to sink in. The high salt concentration of the Dead Sea has been proven as therapeutic for many skin diseases. The uniqueness of this lake attracts several Jordanian and foreign vacationers, which boosted investments in the hotel sector in the area.[161]

of water resources per capita, and scarce water resources were aggravated by the influx of Syrian refugees.[162] Water from Disi aquifer and ten major dams play a large role in providing Jordan’s need for fresh water.[163] Phosphate mines in the south have made Jordan one of the largest producers and exporters of this mineral in the world.[164] Despite the fact that reserves of crude oil are noncommercial, Jordan has the 5th largest oil-shale reserves in the world that could be commercially exploited in the central and northern regions west of the country.[165] Official figures estimate the kingdom’s oil shale reserves at more than 70 billion tonnes. Attarat Power Plant is a $2.2 billion oil shale-dependent power plant which will be completed in 2019 with a total capacity of 470 megawatts. The project is part of the kingdom’s 2025 vision that aims at diversifying its energy resources.[166] The extraction of oil shale had been delayed by a couple of years due to the advanced level of technology that is required to extract it and its relatively higher cost.[167] Jordan aims to benefit from its large uranium reserves with two nuclear plants scheduled for completion in 2025.[168] Natural gas was discovered in Jordan in 1987. The estimated size of the reserve discovered was about 230 billion cubic feet, a modest quantity compared with its other Arabian neighbours. The Risha field, in the eastern desert beside the Iraqi border, produces nearly 35 million cubic feet of gas a day, which is sent to a nearby power plant to produce nearly 10% of Jordan’s electricity needs.[169] Jordan receives 330 days of sunshine per year, and wind speeds reach over 7 m/s over the mountainous areas.[170] For this reason, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources launched several projects like Tafila Wind Farm and have set a target to obtain 10% of Jordan’s electrical consumption from renewable resources by 2020.[171]

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14.5.4

CHAPTER 14. JORDAN

Transportation

minal” in the Middle East by Lloyd’s List. The port was chosen due to it being a transit cargo port for other Main article: Transport in Jordan neighboring countries, its location between four countries and three continents, being an exclusive gateway for the and for the improvements it has recently Jordan ranked as having the 35th best infrastructure in local market [176] witnessed. the world, one of the highest rankings in the developing world, according to the World Economic Forum’s Index of Economic Competitiveness. This high infrastructural development is necessitated by its role as a transit country 14.5.5 Science and technology for goods and services to the Palestine and Iraq. Palestinians use Jordan as a transit country due to the Israeli Main article: Science and technology in Jordan restrictions and Iraqis use Jordan due to the instability in Science and technology is the country’s fastest developIraq.[172]

Queen Alia International Airport near Amman was chosen as the best airport in the Middle East for 2014 and 2015 by ASQ.

According to data from the Jordanian Ministry of Public Works and Housing, as of 2011, the Jordanian road network consisted of 2,878 km (1,788 mi) of main roads; 2,592 km (1,611 mi) of rural roads and 1,733 km (1,077 mi) of side roads. The Hejaz Railway built during the Ottoman Empire which extended from Damascus to Mecca will act as a base for future railway expansion plans. Currently, the railway has barely any civilian activity, it is primarily used for transporting goods. A national railway project is currently undergoing studies and seeking funding sources.[173] Jordan has three commercial airports, all receiving and dispatching international flights. Two are in Amman and the third is in Aqaba, King Hussein International Airport. Amman Civil Airport serves several regional routes and charter flights while Queen Alia International Airport is the major international airport in Jordan and is the hub for Royal Jordanian, the flag carrier. Queen Alia International Airport expansion was completed in 2013 with new terminals costing $700 million, to handle over 16 million passengers annually.[174] It is now considered a state-ofthe-art airport and was awarded 'the best airport by region: Middle East' for 2014 and 2015 by Airport Service Quality (ASQ) survey, the world’s leading airport passenger satisfaction benchmark program.[175]

A solar charging station in King Hussein Business Park.

ing economic sector. This growth occurs across multiple industries including Information and Communications Technology (ICT) and nuclear technology. Jordan contributes to 75% of the Arabic content on the Internet.[177] In 2014, the ICT sector accounted for more than 84,000 jobs, and contributed to 12% of the GDP. More than 400 companies are active in telecom, IT and video game development. While there are 600 companies operating in active technologies and 300 startup companies.[177] Nuclear science and technology is also expanding; nuclear facilities are undergoing construction. Jordan Research and Training Reactor is a 5MW training reactor located in Jordan University of Science and Technology; the reactor is expected to start operations in 2017 and will be used by the university to train their students in the already existing nuclear engineering program.[178] Jordan signed a contract with Russian company Rosatom in 2014 for the construction of two $5 billion nuclear reactors which are currently under planning and are expected to start delivering electricity in 2025.[168]

Jordan was also selected as the location for the Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME) facility, which is supported by UNESCO and CERN. This particle accelerator, which is expected to start operations in 2017, will The Port of Aqaba is the only port in Jordan. In 2006, allow collaboration between scientists across the Middle the port was ranked as being the “Best Container Ter- East despite the political conﬂicts.[179]

14.6. DEMOGRAPHICS

14.6 Demographics Main article: Demographics of Jordan The latest census, taken in 2015, showed the population numbered some 9.5 million. 2.9 million (30%) were non-citizens, a ﬁgure including refugees and illegal immigrants.[13] There were 1,977,534 households in Jordan in 2015, with an average of 4.8 persons per household (compared to 6.7 persons per household for the census of 1979).[13] The vast majority of Jordanians are Arabs, accounting for 98% of the population. The rest is attributed to Circassians, Chechens and Armenians.[84] As the population has increased, it has become more settled and urban. In 1922 almost half the population (around 103,000) were nomadic, whereas nomads made up only 6% of the population in 2015. The population in Amman, 65,754 in 1946, has grown to over 4 million in 2015.[180]

14.6.1

Immigrants and refugees

Jordan was home to 2,117,361 Palestinians in 2015, most of them Jordanian citizens.[181] The ﬁrst wave of Palestinian refugees began arriving during the 1948 Arab Israeli war and peaked in the 1967 Six Day War and the 1990 Gulf War. In the past, Jordan had given many Palestinian refugees citizenship, however recently Jordanian citizenship is given only in rare cases. 370,000 of these Palestinians live in UNRWA refugee camps.[181] Following the capture of the West Bank by Israel in 1967, Jordan revoked the citizenship of thousands of Palestinians to thwart any attempt to permanently resettle from the West Bank to Jordan. West Bank Palestinians with family in Jordan or Jordanian citizenship were issued yellow cards guaranteeing them all the rights of Jordanian citizenship if requested.[182]

179 lowing the 2006 Lebanon War.[185] Since 2010, over 1.4 million Syrian refugees have fled to Jordan to escape the violence in Syria.[13] The kingdom has continued to demonstrate hospitality, despite the substantial strain the flux of Syrian refugees places on the country. The effects are largely affecting Jordanian communities, as the vast majority of Syrian refugees do not live in camps. The refugee crisis effects include competition for job opportunities, water resources and other state provided services, along with the strain on the national infrastructure.[15] In 2007, Assyrian Christians accounted for up to 150,000 persons, most are Eastern Aramaic speaking refugees from Iraq.[186] Kurds number some 30,000 people, and like the Assyrians, many are refugees from Iraq, Iran and Turkey.[187] Descendants of Armenians that sought refuge in the Levant during the 1915 Armenian Genocide number approximately 5,000 persons, mainly residing in Amman.[188] A small number of ethnic Mandeans also reside in Jordan, again mainly refugees from Iraq.[189] Several thousand Libyans, Yemenis and Sudanese have also sought asylum in Jordan to escape instability and violence in their respective countries.[15] The 2015 Jordanian census recorded that there are 1,265,000 Syrians, 636,270 Egyptians, 634,182 Palestinians, 130,911 Iraqis, 31,163 Yemenis, 22,700 Libyans and 197,385 from other nationalities residing in the country.[13] There are around 1.2 million illegal and some 500,000 legal migrant workers in the kingdom.[190] Thousands of foreign women, mostly from Greater Middle East and Eastern Europe, work in nightclubs, hotels and bars across the kingdom.[191][192][193] American and European expatriate communities are concentrated in the capital, as the city is home to many international organizations and diplomatic missions.[157]

14.6.2 Religion and languages Main article: Religion in Jordan Sunni Islam is the dominant religion in Jordan. Muslims make up about 92% of the country’s population; in turn, 93% of those self-identify as Sunnis—the highest percentage in the world.[194] There are also a small number of Ahmadi Muslims,[195] and some Shiites. Many Shia are Iraqi and Lebanese refugees.[196] Muslims who convert to another religion as well as missionaries from other religions face societal and legal discrimination.[197]

Jordan contains some of the oldest Christian communities in the world, dating as early as the 1st century AD after the cruciﬁxion of Jesus Christ.[198] Christians today While some 700,000–1,000,000 Iraqis came to Jordan make up about 4% of the population,[199] down from 20% following the Iraq War in 2003, most have returned.[183] in 1930.[14] This is due to high immigration rates of MusMany Iraqi Christians (Assyrians/Chaldeans) however lims into Jordan, higher emigration rates of Christians settled temporarily or permanently in Jordan.[184] Im- to the west and higher birth rates for Muslims.[200] Jormigrants also include 15,000 Lebanese who arrived fol- danian Christians number around 250,000, all of whom An aerial view of a portion of the Zaatari refugee camp which only contains a population of 80,000 Syrian refugees.

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14.7.1 Arts, cinema, museums and music Main articles: Jordanian art, Cinema of Jordan, and Music of Jordan Many institutions in Jordan aim to increase cultural

Marsa Zayed mosque in Aqaba.

are Arabic-speaking, according to a 2014 estimate by the Orthodox Church. The study excluded minority Christian groups and the thousands of western, Iraqi and Syrian Christians residing in Jordan.[199] Christians are exceptionally well integrated in the Jordanian society and enjoy a high level of freedom, though they are not free to evangelize Muslims.[201] Christians traditionally occupy two cabinet posts, and are reserved 9 seats out of the 130 in the parliament.[202] The highest political position reached by a Christian is deputy prime minister, held by Marwan al-Muasher in 2005.[203] Christians are also influential in media.[204] Smaller religious minorities include Druze and Bahá'ís. Most Jordanian Druze live in the eastern oasis town of Azraq, some villages on the Syrian border, and the city of Zarqa, while most Jordanian Bahá'ís live in the village of Adassiyeh bordering the Jordan Valley.[205] The official language is Modern Standard Arabic, a literary language taught in the schools.[206] Most Jordanians natively speak one of the non-standard Arabic dialects known as Jordanian Arabic. Jordanian Sign Language is the language of the deaf community. English, though without official status, is widely spoken throughout the country and is the de facto language of commerce and banking, as well as a co-official status in the education sector; almost all university-level classes are held in English and almost all public schools teach English along with Standard Arabic.[206] Chechen, Circassian, Armenian, Tagalog, and Russian are popular among their communities.[207] French is elective in many schools, mainly in the private sector.[206] German is an increasingly popular language among the elite and the educated; it’s been most likely introduced at a larger scale after the début of the German-Jordanian University in 2005.[208]

14.7 Culture Main article: Culture of Jordan

Jordanian military marching band playing bagpipes at Jerash.

awareness of Jordanian Art and to represent Jordan’s artistic movements in fields such as paintings, sculpture, graffiti and photography.[209] The art scene has been developing in the past few years[210] and Jordan has been a haven for artists from surrounding countries.[211] In January 2016, for the first time ever, a Jordanian film called Theeb was nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film.[212] Music in Jordan is now developing with a lot of new bands and artists, who are now popular in the Middle East. Artists such as Omar Al-Abdallat, Toni Qattan and Hani Metwasi have increased the popularity of Jordanian music.[213] The Jerash Festival is an annual music event that features popular Arab singers.[213] Pianist and composer Zade Dirani has gained wide international popularity.[214] There is also an increasing growth of alternative Arabic music bands, who are dominating the scene in the Arab World, including; El Morabba3, Autostrad, JadaL, Akher Zapheer and Ayloul.[215] The largest museum in Jordan is The Jordan Museum. It contains much of the valuable archaeological findings in the country, including some of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Neolithic limestone statues of 'Ain Ghazal and a copy of the Mesha Stele.[216] Most museums in Jordan are located in Amman including the The Children’s Museum Jordan, The Martyr’s Memorial and Museum and the Royal Automobile Museum. Museums outside Amman include the Aqaba Archaeological Museum.[217] The Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts is a major contemporary art museum located in Amman.[217]

14.7.2 Sports Main article: Sport in Jordan Football is the most popular sport in Jordan.[157] The

14.8. HEALTH AND EDUCATION

King Abdullah II Stadium in Amman.

national football team has improved in recent years, though it has yet to qualify for the World Cup.[217] In 2013, Jordan lost a chance to play at the 2014 World Cup when they lost to Uruguay during inter-confederation play-oﬀs. This was the highest that Jordan had advanced in the World Cup qualifying rounds since 1986.[218] The women’s football team is also gaining reputation,[219] and in March 2016 ranked 58th in the world.[220] Jordan is hosting the 2016 FIFA U-17 Women’s World Cup in September, the ﬁrst women’s sports tournament in the Middle East.[221]

181

Traditional dish of Jordan; Mansaf. Inspired from Bedouin culture, it is a symbol of Jordanian hospitality.

same dishes, served without alcoholic drinks, can also be termed “muqabbilat” (starters) in Arabic.[157] The most distinctive Jordanian dish is mansaf, the national dish of Jordan. The dish is a symbol for Jordanian hospitality and is influenced by the Bedouin culture. Mansaf is eaten on different occasions such as funerals, weddings and on religious holidays. It consists of a plate of rice with meat that was boiled in thick yogurt, sprayed with nuts and sometimes herbs. As an old tradition, the dish is eaten using one’s hands, but the tradition is not always used.[227] Simple fresh fruit is often served towards the end of a Jordanian meal, but there is also dessert, such as baklava, hareeseh, knafeh, halva and qatayef, a dish made specially for Ramadan. In Jordanian cuisine, drinking coffee and tea flavored with na'na or meramiyyeh is almost a ritual.[228]

Less common sports are gaining popularity. Rugby is increasing in popularity, a Rugby Union is recognized by the Jordan Olympic Committee which supervises three national teams.[222] Although cycling is not widespread in Jordan, the sport is developing rapidly as a lifestyle and a new way to travel especially among the youth.[223] In 2014, a NGO Make Life Skate Life completed con- 14.8 Health and education struction of the 7Hills Skatepark, the ﬁrst skatepark in the country located in Downtown Amman.[224] JorJordan dan’s national basketball team is participating in vari- Main articles: Health in Jordan and Education in [84] ous international and Middle Eastern tournaments. Local Life expectancy in Jordan is around 74.35 years. The basketball teams include: Al-Orthodoxi Club, Al-Riyadi, Zain, Al-Hussein and Al-Jazeera.[225]

14.7.3

Cuisine

Main article: Jordanian cuisine As the 8th largest producer of olives in the world, olive oil is the main cooking oil in Jordan.[226] A common appetizer is hummus, which is a puree of chick peas blended with tahini, lemon, and garlic. Ful medames is another well-known appetiser. A typical worker’s meal, it has since made its way to the tables of the upper class. A typical Jordanian meze often contains koubba maqliya, labaneh, baba ghanoush, tabbouleh, olives and pickles.[227] Meze is generally accompanied by the Levantine alcoholic drink arak, which is made from grapes and aniseed and is similar to ouzo, rakı and pastis. Jordanian wine and beer are also sometimes used. The

Jordanian girls pictured reading in a public school.

leading cause of death is cardiovascular diseases, followed by cancer.[229] Childhood immunization rates have increased steadily over the past 15 years; by 2002 immunizations and vaccines reached more than 95% of chil-

182 dren under five.[230] Water and sanitation, available to only 10% of the population in 1950, now reach 98% of Jordanians.[231] Jordan prides itself on its health services, some of the best in the region.[232] Qualified medics, favorable investment climate and Jordan’s stability has contributed to the success of this sector.[233] The country’s health care system is divided between public and private institutions. On 1 June 2007, Jordan Hospital (as the biggest private hospital) was the first general specialty hospital to gain the international accreditation JCAHO.[230] The King Hussein Cancer Center is a leading cancer treatment center.[234] 66% of Jordanians have medical insurance.[13]

CHAPTER 14. JORDAN

Neutral Governance. Brill. p. 87. ISBN 90-04-18148-2. Retrieved 20 March 2016. [2] “Population clock”. Jordan Department of Statistics. Retrieved 18 June 2016. [3] “Jordan”. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 20 March 2016. [4] “Gini index”. World Bank. Retrieved 14 June 2016. [5] “2015 Human Development Report Summary” (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 1 January 2015. pp. 21–25. Retrieved 6 June 2016. [6] McColl, R. W. (14 May 2014). Encyclopedia of World Geography. Infobase Publishing. p. 498. Retrieved 15 June 2016.

The Jordanian educational system consists of a two-year cycle of pre-school education, ten years of compulsory basic education, and two years of secondary academic [7] or vocational education, after which the students sit for the Tawjihi exams.[235] 79% of children go through primary education, while secondary school enrollment has [8] increased from 63% to 97% of high school aged students in Jordan. Between 79% and 85% of high school students in Jordan move on to higher education.[236] According to [9] the CIA World Factbook, the literacy rate in 2015 was 95.4%.[84] UNESCO ranked Jordan’s education system 18th out of 94 nations for providing gender equality in [10] education.[237] Education is not free in Jordan.[238] Jordan has 10 public universities, 16 private universities and 54 community colleges, of which 14 are public, 24 private and others aﬃliated with the Jordanian Armed Forces, the Civil Defense Department, the Ministry of Health and UNRWA.[239] There are over 200,000 Jordanian students enrolled in universities each year. An additional 20,000 Jordanians pursue higher education abroad primarily in the United States and Europe.[240] According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the University of Jordan (UJ) (1,010th worldwide), Jordan University of Science & Technology (JUST) (1,907th) and Yarmouk University (1,969th).[241] UJ and JUST occupy 8th and 10th between Arab universities.[242] Jordan has 2,000 researchers per million people.[243]

14.9 See also • Human rights in Jordan • List of World Heritage Sites in Jordan • Index of Jordan-related articles • Outline of Jordan

14.10 References [1] Temperman, Jeroen (2010). State-Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously

Teller, Matthew (2002). Jordan. Rough Guides. pp. 173, 408. Retrieved 9 April 2016. Al-Asad, Mohammad (22 April 2004). “The Domination of Amman Urban Crossroads”. CSBE. Retrieved 8 June 2016. “The History of a Land”. Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities. The Department Of Antiquities (Jordan). Retrieved 30 September 2015. Khalil, Muhammad (1962). The Arab States and the Arab League: a Documentary Record. Beirut: Khayats. pp. 53–54.

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14.10. REFERENCES

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[195] Kurshid, Ahmad. “Propagation of Islam”. Al Islam. Re- [212] "'Theeb' becomes first Jordanian film to receive Oscar trieved 16 June 2016. nod”. The Jordan Times. Agencies. 14 January 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2016. [196] Nicky, Adam (27 November 2012). “Shiites in Jordan maintained low profile while marking Ashura obser- [213] “The stars come out for Jordan’s Jerash Festival”. Al Bawaba. 16 July 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016. vance”. The Media Line. The Jewish Journal. Retrieved 16 March 2016. [214] “Pianist finds Positano enchanting”. Chicago Tribune. 19 June 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2016. [197] “Jordan 2014 International Religious Freedom Report” (PDF). U.S. Department of State. 1 January 2014. Re[215] Edwards, Madeline (13 May 2015). “The promise of Amtrieved 16 June 2016. man’s independent music scene”. Your Middle East. Retrieved 23 September 2015. [198] Moujaes, Anthony (29 April 2015). “Four refugee families living in Jordan share their stories with Mid-East dele[216] “Scrolling through the millennia at the new Jordan Mugation”. United Church of Christ. Retrieved 27 July 2016. seum in Amman”. The National. 13 March 2014. Retrieved 25 September 2015. [199] Kildani, Hanna (8 July 2015). ":‫ حنا كلداني‬.‫الأب د‬ ‫نسبة الأردنيين المسيحيين المقيمين‬3.68%" [Fa[217] French, Carole (2012). Jordan. Bradt Travel Guides. pp. ther Hanna Kildani: the percentage of Christians residing 122, 35, 81. Retrieved 15 October 2015. in Jordan is 3.68%] (in Arabic). Abouna.org. Retrieved 17 July 2016. [218] Bannayan, Aline (5 March 2016). “Jordan remains in 82nd spot in FIFA World Rankings”. The Jordan Times. [200] Fleishman, Jeffrey (10 May 2009). “For Christian enclave Retrieved 13 March 2016. in Jordan, tribal lands are sacred”. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 10 May 2016. [219] El-Shamayleh, Nisreen (23 June 2015). “Jordan taking giant strides in women’s football”. Al Jazeera. Retrieved [201] Miller, Duane Alexander (November 2011). “The Epis13 March 2016. copal Church in Jordan: Identity, Liturgy, and Mission”. Journal of Anglican Studies. 9 (2): 134–153. Retrieved [220] “Fifa world ranking for women”. FIFA. 1 March 2016. 16 June 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2016. [202] “Jordan”. European Forum for Democracy and Solidarity. [221] Omari, Raed (1 January 2014). “Women’s football in16 January 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2015. creasingly popular in Jordan”. Al Arabiya. Retrieved 8 March 2016. [203] Al-Qassemi, Sultan Sooud (14 June 2009). “Shameful Plight of the Middle East’s Christians”. The Huffington [222] Eastwood, Jack (4 November 2014). “Against all odds, Post. Retrieved 26 October 2015. Jordan’s rugby greats are set to storm the Dubai Sevens”. Al Bawaba. Retrieved 9 April 2016. [204] “Jordan’s Christian Arabs, A Small Minority, Play A Major Role”. The New York Times. 7 January 1987. Re- [223] ‫"مشروع "بسكليتات المدينة الرياضية" يجمع هواة‬ [" "‫الدراجات لممارسة الرياضة والترفيه‬Project” Biskltrieved 9 April 2016. itat Sports City “brings together amateur cycling for exer[205] Castellino, Joshua; Cavanaugh, Kathleen A. (25 April cise and recreation .]Al-Ghad (in Arabic). 30 September 2013). Minority Rights in the Middle East. Oxford Uni2013. Retrieved 16 July 2016. versity Press. p. 135. Retrieved 12 October 2015. [224] Mustefa, Zab; Reznick, Alisa (12 February 2015). [206] de Gruyter, Walter (2006). Sociolinguistics: An Interna“Volunteers open Jordan’s first skate park”. Al Jazeera. tional Handbook of the Science of Language and Society. Retrieved 30 September 2015. Ulrich Ammon. p. 1921. Retrieved 15 June 2016. [225] Bannayan, Aline (14 September 2015). “Jordan counts [207] Shoup, John (2007). Culture and Customs of Jordan. down to Asian basketball tourney”. The Jordan Times. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 45. Retrieved 12 OcRetrieved 15 October 2015. tober 2015. [226] “Jordan among world’s top 10 producers of olive, olive [208] Luebbe, Sascha (12 February 2015). “German language oil”. The Jordan Times. 21 March 2015. Retrieved 18 becoming opportunity for professional development”. The June 2016. Jordan Times. Retrieved 7 March 2016. [227] Albala, Ken (25 May 2012). Food Cultures of the World [209] [ "‫"الفن التشكيلي‬Fine Arts .]Jordan Ministry of CulEncyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 269, 273. Retrieved 13 ture (in Arabic). Archived from the original on 15 July October 2015. 2014. Retrieved 16 July 2016. [228] [ "‫ متعة ما بعد الإفطار‬..‫"الحلويات في رمضان‬Sweets [210] Rawashdeh, Saeb (24 February 2015). “Jordanian artists in Ramadan .. what fun after breakfast( ]in Arabic ).Alseeks to connect local, int'l art scenes”. The Jordan Times. Ghad. 30 June 2015. Retrieved 16 June 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2016. [229] Malkawi, Khetam (14 March 2015). “Cancer second [211] Boarini, Silvia (24 May 2015). “Jordan a 'haven' for remost common cause of death in Jordan”. The Jordan gional artists”. Al Jazeera. Retrieved 15 March 2016. Times. Retrieved 13 March 2016.

14.12. EXTERNAL LINKS

189

[230] “Jordan country proﬁle” (PDF). US Library of Congress. Retrieved 17 January 2016.

• Ryan, Curt. Jordan in Transition: From Hussein to Abdullah (2002).

[231] “Jordan: estimates on the use of water sources and sanitation facilities (1980 - 2015)". World Health Organization. 1 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2016.

• Salibi, Kamal S. The Modern History of Jordan (1998).

[232] “Jordan proﬁle – Overview”. BBC. 18 November 2012. Retrieved 18 December 2015. [233] Malkawi, Khetam (30 May 2015). “Sector leaders highlight potential for further growth in medical tourism”. The Jordan Times. Retrieved 13 March 2016. [234] Colditz, Graham (11 August 2015). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Cancer and Society. SAGE Publications. p. 640. Retrieved 13 October 2015. [235] “Jordan- Education”. USAID. 12 June 2006. Archived from the original on 25 April 2006. Retrieved 15 June 2016. [236] “Education Reform for the Knowledge Economy II” (PDF). World Bank. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2016. [237] “Education system in Jordan scoring well”. Global Arab Network. 21 October 2009. Retrieved 15 June 2016. [238] Alayan, Samira; Rohde, Achim; Dhouib, Sarhan (15 June 2015). The Politics of Education Reform in the Middle East: Self and Other in Textbooks and Curricula. Berghahn Books. p. 61. Retrieved 13 March 2016. [239] “Jordan raises admission scores for private universities”. AMEinfo.com. Archived from the original on 1 March 2010. Retrieved 15 June 2016. [240] Cantini, Daniele (27 January 2011). Youth and Education in the Middle East: Assessing the Performance and Practice of Urban Environments. I.B.Tauris. p. 45. Retrieved 16 June 2016. [241] “Jordan”. Ranking Web of Universities. 1 January 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2016. [242] “2014 QS University Rankings – Arab Region”. 1 January 2016. Archived from the original on 1 March 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2016. [243] Butler, D. (2006). “Islam and Science: The data gap”. Nature. 444 (7115): 26–7. doi:10.1038/444026a. PMID 17080058.

14.11 Further reading • El-Anis, Imad. Jordan and the United States: The Political Economy of Trade and Economic Reform in the Middle East (I.B. Tauris, distributed by Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 320 pages; case studies of trade in textiles, pharmaceuticals, and ﬁnancial services. • Goichon, Amélie-Marie. Jordanie réelle. Paris: Desclée de Brouwer (1967–1972). 2 vol., ill. • Robins, Philip. A History of Jordan (2004).

• Teller, Matthew. The Rough Guide to Jordan (4th ed., 2009).

14.12 External links • Government of Jordan • “Jordan”. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. • Jordan proﬁle from the BBC News • Wikimedia Atlas of Jordan • Google Street View locations Coordinates: 31°14′N 36°31′E / 31.24°N 36.51°E

Chapter 15

Land of Israel “Eretz Yisrael” redirects here. For the newspaper, see between God and Abram for his descendants.[2] Abram’s Haaretz. For other uses, see Israel (disambiguation). name was later changed to Abraham, with the promise The Land of Israel (Hebrew: ‫ ֶאֶרץ ִיְׂשָרֵאל‬ʼÉreṣ Yiśrāʼēl, reﬁned to pass through his son Isaac and to the Israelites, descendants of Jacob, Abraham’s grandson. This belief is not shared by most adherents of replacement theology (or supersessionism), who hold the view that the Old Testament prophecies were superseded by the coming of Jesus,[3] a view often repudiated by Christian Zionists as a theological error.[4] Evangelical Zionists variously claim that Israel has title to the land by divine right,[5] or by a theological, historical and moral grounding of attachment to the land unique to Judaism (James Parkes),[6] The idea that ancient religious texts can be warrant or divine right for a modern claim has often been challenged,[7][8] and Israeli courts have rejected land claims based on religious motivations.[9]

The Valley of Elah, near Adullam

Eretz Yisrael) is one of several names for an area of indefinite geographical extension in the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine (q.v. Israel (disambiguation)). The definitions of the limits of this territory vary between passages in the Hebrew Bible, with specific mentions in Genesis 15, Exodus 23, Numbers 34 and Ezekiel 47. Nine times elsewhere in the Bible, the settled land is referred as "from Dan to Beersheba, and three times it is referred as “from the entrance of Hamath unto the brook of Egypt” (1 Kings 8:65, 1 Chronicles 13:5 and 2 Chronicles 7:8).”. These biblical limits for the land differ from the borders of established historical Israelite and later Jewish kingdoms; over time these have included the United Kingdom of Israel, the two separated kingdoms of Israel (Samaria) and Judah, the Hasmonean Kingdom, and the Herodian Kingdom, which at their heights ruled lands with similar but not identical boundaries. The Jewish religious belief that the area is a God-given inheritance of the Jewish people is based on the Torah, particularly in the books of Genesis and Exodus, as well as in the later Prophets.[1] According to the Book of Genesis, the land was first promised by God to the descendants of Abram; the text is explicit that this is a covenant

During the mandatory period (1920-1948) the term “Eretz Yisrael” or the “Land of Israel” was part of the official Hebrew name of Mandatory Palestine. Official Hebrew documents used the Hebrew transliteration of the word “Palestine” ‫( פלשתינה‬Palestina) followed always by the two initial letters of “Eretz Yisrael”, ‫ א״י‬AlephYod.[10][11] The Land of Israel concept has been evoked by the founders of the State of Israel. It often surfaces in political debates on the status of the West Bank, which is referred to in official Israeli discourse as Judea and Samaria, from the names of the two historical Jewish kingdoms.[12]

15.1 Etymology and biblical roots The term “Land of Israel” is a direct translation of the Hebrew phrase ‫( ארץ ישראל‬Eretz Yisrael), which occurs occasionally in the Bible,[13] and is ﬁrst mentioned in the Tanakh at 1 Samuel 13:19, following the Exodus when the Israelite tribes were already in the Land of Canaan.[14] The words are used sparsely in the Bible: King David is ordered to gather 'strangers to the land of Israel'(hag-gêrîm ’ăšer, bə’ereṣ yiśrā’êl) for building purposes (1 Chronicles 22:2), and the same phrasing is used in reference to King Solomon's census of all of the 'strangers in the Land of Israel' (11 Chronicles 2:17).

190

15.2. BIBLICAL INTERPRETATIONS OF THE BORDERS

191 Deuteronomy 1:8 in which it is promised explicitly to “Abraham, Isaac and Jacob... and to their descendants after them,” whilst Numbers 34:1–15 describes the “Land of Canaan” (Eretz Kna'an) which is allocated to nine and half of the twelve Israelite tribes after the Exodus. The expression “Land of Israel” is first used in a later book, 1 Samuel 13:19. It is defined in detail in the exilic Book of Ezekiel as a land where both the twelve tribes and the “strangers in (their) midst”, can claim inheritance.[21] The name “Israel” first appears in the Hebrew Bible as the name given by God to the patriarch Jacob (Genesis 32:28). Deriving from the name “Israel”, other designations that came to be associated with the Jewish people have included the "Children of Israel" or “Israelite”.

1916 map of the Fertile Crescent by James Henry Breasted. The names used for the land are “Canaan” “Judah” “Palestine” and “Israel”

The term 'Land of Israel' (γῆ Ἰσραήλ) occurs in one episode in the New Testament (Matthew 2:20–21), where, according to Shlomo Sand, it bears the unusual sense of 'the area surrounding Jerusalem'.[20] The section in which it appears was written as a parallel to the earlier Book of Exodus.[22]

15.2 Biblical interpretations of the borders

Map of Eretz Israel in 1695 Amsterdam Haggada by Abraham Bar-Jacob.

Ezekiel, though generally preferring the phrase 'soil of Israel' (’admat yiśrā’êl), employs eretz israel twice, respectively at Ezechiel 40:2 and Ezechiel 47:18.[15] According to Martin Noth, the term is not an “authen- 15 (describing “this land”) tic and original name for this land”, but instead serves as “a somewhat flexible description of the area which the Israelite tribes had their settlements”.[16] According to Anita Shapira, the term “Eretz Yisrael” was a holy term, vague as far as the exact boundaries of the territories are concerned but clearly defining ownership.[17] The sanctity of the land (kedushat ha-aretz) developed rich associations in rabbinical thought,[18] where it assumes a highly symbolic and mythological status infused with promise, though always connected to a geographical location.[19] Nur Masalha argues that the biblical boundaries are “enNum. 34 ("Canaan") & Eze. 47 tirely fictitious”, and bore simply religious connotations (“this land”) in Diaspora Judaism, with the term only coming into asInterpretations of the borders of the Promised Land, cendency with the rise of Zionism.[13] based on scriptural verses The Hebrew Bible provides three specific sets of borders for the "Promised Land", each with a different purpose. Neither of the terms “Promised Land” (Ha'Aretz HaMuvtahat) or “Land of Israel” are used in these pas- 15.2.1 Genesis 15 sages: Genesis 15:13–21, Genesis 17:8[20] and Ezekiel 47:13–20 use the term “the land” (ha'aretz), as does Genesis 15:18–21 describes what are known as “Borders

Genesis

192

CHAPTER 15. LAND OF ISRAEL

of the Land” (Gevulot Ha-aretz),[23] which in Jewish tradition deﬁnes the extent of the land promised to the descendants of Abraham, through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob.[24] The passage describes the area as the land of the ten named ancient peoples then living there. More precise geographical borders are given Exodus 23:31 which describes borders as marked by the Red Sea (see debate below), the “Sea of the Philistines” i.e., the Mediterranean, and the “River”, the Euphrates), the traditional furthest extent of the Kingdom of David.[25][26] Genesis gives the border with Egypt as Nahar Mitzrayim – nahar in Hebrew denotes a large river, never a wadi.

15.2.2

Exodus 23

Ham who with his descendents had seized the land from the descendents of Shem according to the Book of Jubilees. Jewish tradition thus refers to the region as Canaan during the period between the Flood and the Israelite settlement. Eliezer Schweid sees Canaan as a geographical name, and Israel the spiritual name of the land. He writes: The uniqueness of the Land of Israel is thus “geotheological” and not merely climatic. This is the land which faces the entrance of the spiritual world, that sphere of existence that lies beyond the physical world known to us through our senses. This is the key to the land’s unique status with regard to prophecy and prayer, and also with regard to the commandments.[27] Thus, the renaming of this landmarks a change in religious status, the origin of the Holy Land concept. Numbers 34:1–13 uses the term Canaan strictly for the land west of the Jordan, but Land of Israel is used in Jewish tradition to denote the entire land of the Israelites. The English expression "Promised Land" can denote either the land promised to Abraham in Genesis or the land of Canaan, although the latter meaning is more common.

A slightly more detailed definition is given in Exodus 23:31, which describes the borders as “from the sea of reeds (Red Sea) to the Sea of the Philistines (Mediterranean sea) and from the desert to the Euphrates River”, though the Hebrew text of the Bible uses the name, “the The border with Egypt is given as the Nachal Mitzrayim River”, to refer to the Euphrates. (Brook of Egypt) in Numbers, as well as in DeuteronOnly the “Red Sea” (Exodus 23:31) and the Euphrates omy and Ezekiel. Jewish tradition (as expressed in the are mentioned to define the southern and eastern borcommentaries of Rashi and Yehuda Halevi, as well as ders of the full land promised to the Israelites. The “Red the Aramaic Targums) understand this as referring to the Sea” corresponding to Hebrew Yam Suf was understood Nile; more precisely the Pelusian branch of the Nile Delta in ancient times to be the Erythraean Sea, as reflected in according to Halevi—a view supported by Egyptian and the Septuagint translation. Although the English name Assyrian texts. Saadia Gaon identified it as the “Wadi of “Red Sea” is derived from this name (“Erythraean” deEl-Arish”, referring to the biblical Sukkot near Faiyum. rives from the Greek for red), the term denoted all the Kaftor Vaferech placed it in the same region, which apwaters surrounding Arabia—including the Indian Ocean proximates the location of the former Pelusian branch of and the Persian Gulf, not merely the sea lying to the west the Nile. 19th century Bible commentaries understood of Arabia bearing this name in modern English. Thus the identification as a reference to the Wadi of the coastal the entire Arabian peninsula lies within the borders delocality called El-Arish. Easton’s, however, notes a loscribed. Modern maps depicting the region take a retical tradition that the course of the river had changed and cent view and often leave the southern and eastern borthere was once a branch of the Nile where today there is a ders vaguely defined. The borders of the land to be conwadi. Biblical minimalists have suggested that the Besor quered given in Numbers have a precisely defined eastern is intended. border which included the Arabah and Jordan.

15.2.3

Numbers 34

Main article: Tribal allotments of Israel Numbers 34:1–15 describes the land allocated to the Israelite tribes after the Exodus. The tribes of Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh received land east of the Jordan as explained in Numbers 34:14–15. Numbers 34:1–13 provides a detailed description of the borders of the land to be conquered west of the Jordan for the remaining tribes. The region is called “the Land of Canaan" (Eretz Kna'an) in Numbers 34:2 and the borders are known in Jewish tradition as the “borders for those coming out of Egypt”. These borders are again mentioned in Deuteronomy 1:6– 8, 11:24 and Joshua 1:4.

15.2.4 Deuteronomy 19 Deuteronomy 19:8 indicates a certain ﬂuidity of the borders of the promised land when it refers to the possibility that God would “enlarge your borders.” This expansion of territory means that Israel would receive “all the land he promised to give to your fathers”, which implies that the settlement actually fell short of what was promised. According to Jacob Milgrom, Deuteronomy refers to a more utopian map of the promised land, whose eastern border is the wilderness rather than the Jordan.[28]

Paul R. Williamson notes that a “close examination of the relevant promissory texts” supports a “wider interpretation of the promised land” in which it is not “restricted absolutely to one geographical locale.” He argues that “the map of the promised land was never seen permanently According to the Hebrew Bible, Canaan was the son of ﬁxed, but was subject to at least some degree of expan-

15.3. JEWISH BELIEFS sion and redeﬁnition.”[29]

15.2.5

Ezekiel 47

Ezekiel 47:13–20 provides a definition of borders of land in which the twelve tribes of Israel will live during the final redemption, at the end of days. The borders of the land described by the text in Ezekiel include the northern border of modern Lebanon, eastwards (the way of Hethlon) to Zedad and Hazar-enan in modern Syria; south by southwest to the area of Busra on the Syrian border (area of Hauran in Ezekiel); follows the Jordan River between the West Bank and the land of Gilead to Tamar (Ein Gedi) on the western shore of the Dead Sea; From Tamar to Meribah Kadesh (Kadesh Barnea), then along the Brook of Egypt (see debate below) to the Mediterranean Sea. The territory defined by these borders is divided into twelve strips, one for each of the twelve tribes.

193 god of the Moabites, and Molek the god of the Ammonites, and have not walked in obedience to me, nor done what is right in my eyes, nor kept my decrees and laws as David, Solomon’s father, did.34 “‘But I will not take the whole kingdom out of Solomon’s hand; I have made him ruler all the days of his life for the sake of David my servant, whom I chose and who obeyed my commands and decrees. 35 I will take the kingdom from his son’s hands and give you ten tribes. 36 I will give one tribe to his son so that David my servant may always have a lamp before me in Jerusalem, the city where I chose to put my Name. — Kings 1, 11:30-11:36[30]

15.3 Jewish beliefs

Hence, Numbers 34 and Ezekiel 47 deﬁne diﬀerent but similar borders which include the whole of contemporary Lebanon, both the West Bank and the Gaza Strip 15.3.1 Rabbinic laws in the Land of Israel and Israel, except for the South Negev and Eilat. Small Main article: Laws and customs of the Land of Israel in parts of Syria are also included. Judaism

15.2.6

From Dan to Beersheba

Further information: From Dan to Beersheba The common biblical phrase used to refer to the territories actually settled by the Israelites (as opposed to military conquests) is “from Dan to Beersheba" (or its variant “from Beersheba to Dan”), which occurs many times in the Bible. It is found in the biblical verses Judges 20:1, 1 Samuel 3:20, 2 Samuel 3:10, 2 Samuel 17:11, 2 Samuel 24:2, 2 Samuel 24:15, 1 Kings 4:25, 1 Chronicles 21:2, and 2 Chronicles 30:5.

According to Menachem Lorberbaum, In Rabbinic tradition, the land of Israel consecrated by the returning exiles was signiﬁcantly diﬀerent in it(s?) boundaries from both the prescribed biblical borders and the actual borders of the pre-Exilic kingdoms. It ranged roughly from Acre in the north to Ashkelon in the south along the Mediterranean, and included Galilee and the Golan. Yet there was no settlement in Samaria.[31]

According to Jewish religious law (halakha), some laws only apply to Jews living in the Land of Israel and some areas in Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria (which are thought The 12 tribes of Israel are divided in 1 Kings 11. In the to be part of biblical Israel). These include agricultural chapter, King Solomon's sins lead to Israelites forfeiting laws such as the Shmita (Sabbatical year); tithing laws such as the Maaser Rishon (Levite Tithe), Maaser sheni, 10 of the 12 tribes: and Maaser ani (poor tithe); charitable practices during farming, such as pe'ah; and laws regarding taxation. One 30 and Ahijah took hold of the new cloak popular source lists 26 of the 613 mitzvot as contingent he was wearing and tore it into twelve pieces. upon the Land of Israel.[32] 31 Then he said to Jeroboam, “Take ten pieces Many of the religious laws which applied in ancient times for yourself, for this is what the Lord, the God are applied in the modern State of Israel; others have not of Israel, says: ‘See, I am going to tear the been revived, since the State of Israel does not adhere to kingdom out of Solomon’s hand and give you traditional Jewish law. However, certain parts of the curten tribes. 32 But for the sake of my servant rent territory of the State of Israel, such as the Arabah, David and the city of Jerusalem, which I have are considered by some religious authorities to be outside chosen out of all the tribes of Israel, he will the Land of Israel for purposes of Jewish law. Accordhave one tribe. 33 I will do this because they ing to these authorities, the religious laws do not apply have forsaken me and worshiped Ashtoreth the goddess of the Sidonians, Chemosh the there.[33]

15.2.7

Division of Tribes

194

CHAPTER 15. LAND OF ISRAEL

According to some Jewish religious authorities, every Jew 15.4 has an obligation to dwell in the Land of Israel and may not leave except for speciﬁcally permitted reasons (e.g., to get married).[34] 15.4.1

Christian beliefs Inheritance of the promise

There are also many laws dealing with how to treat the land. The laws apply to all Jews, and the giving of the During the early 5th century, Saint Augustine of Hippo land itself in the covenant, applies to all Jews, including argued in his City of God that the earthly or “carnal” kingconverts.[35] dom of Israel achieved its peak during the reigns of David and his son Solomon.[50] He goes on to say however, that this possession was conditional: "...the Hebrew nation should remain in the same land by the succession of pos15.3.2 Inheritance of the promise terity in an unshaken state even to the end of this mortal age, if it obeyed the laws of the Lord its God.” Traditional religious Jewish interpretation, and that of He goes on to say that the failure of the Hebrew nation to most Christian commentators, deﬁne Abraham’s descen- adhere to this condition resulted in its revocation and the dants only as Abraham’s seed through his son Isaac and making of a second covenant and cites Jeremiah 31:31– his grandson Jacob.[24][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45] 32: “Behold, the days come, says the Lord, that I will Johann Friedrich Karl Keil is less clear, as he states make for the house of Israel, and for the house of Judah, that the covenant is through Isaac, but also notes that a new testament: not according to the testament that I Ishmael's descendants, generally the Arabs, have held settled for their fathers in the day when I laid hold of their much of that land through time.[46] hand to lead them out of the land of Egypt; because they continued not in my testament, and I regarded them not, says the Lord.”

15.3.3

Modern Jewish debates on the Land Augustine concludes that this other promise, revealed in the New Testament, was about to be fulﬁlled through the of Israel incarnation of Christ: “I will give my laws in their mind,

The Land of Israel concept has been evoked by the founders of the State of Israel. It often surfaces in political debates on the status of the West Bank, which is referred to in oﬃcial Israeli discourse as Judea and Samaria, from the names of the two historical Israelite and Judean kingdoms.[12] These debates frequently invoke religious principles, despite the little weight these principles typically carry in Israeli secular politics.

and will write them upon their hearts, and I will see to them; and I will be to them a God, and they shall be to me a people”. Notwithstanding this doctrine stated by Augustine and also by the Apostle Paul in his Epistle to the Romans (Ch. 11), the phenomenon of Christian Zionism is widely noted today, especially among evangelical Protestants. Other Protestant groups and churches reject Christian Zionism on various grounds.

Ideas about the need for Jewish control of the land of Israel have been propounded by figures such as Rabbi Yitzhak Ginsburg, who has written about the historical entitlement that Jews have to the whole Land of Israel.[47] Ginsburgh’s ideas about the need for Jewish 15.5 Modern history control over the land has some popularity within contemporary West Bank settlements.[48] However, there are also strong backlashes from the Jewish community regarding Jewish religious tradition does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities.[51] these ideas.[48] Nonetheless, during two millennia of exile and with a The Satmar Hasidic community in particular denounces continuous yet small Jewish presence in the land, a strong any geographic or political establishment of Israel, deem- sense of bondedness exists throughout this tradition, exing this establishment has directly interfering with God’s pressed in terms of people-hood; from the very beginplan for Jewish redemption. Joel Teitelbaum was a fore- ning, this concept was identified with that ancestral biblimost figure in this denouncement, calling the Land and cal land or, to use the traditional religious and modern State of Israel a vehicle for idol worship, as well as a Hebrew term, Eretz Yisrael. Religiously and culturally smokescreen for Satan’s workings.[49] the area was seen broadly as a land of destiny, and always Divisions within the Jewish community concerning Israel with hope for some form of redemption and return. It was speak to how Israel not only represents an international later seen as a national home and refuge, intimately repoint of contention, but also a continuous ideological and lated to that traditional sense of people-hood, and meant internal introspection and negotiation specific to the Jew- to show continuity that this land was always seen as cenish community and its larger history. tral to Jewish life, in theory if not in practice.[52]

15.5. MODERN HISTORY

15.5.1

Early Zionism

195

15.5.2 British Mandate

Main article: Zionism Having already used another religious term of great importance, Zion (Jerusalem), to coin the name of their movement, being associated with the return to Zion [53] the term was considered appropriate for the secular Jewish political movement of Zionism to adopt at the turn of the 20th century; it was used to refer to their proposed national homeland in the area then controlled by the Ottoman Empire and generally known as the Holy Land or Palestine.[54] Different geographic and political definitions for the “Land of Israel” later developed among competing Zionist ideologies during their nationalist struggle. These differences relate to the importance of the idea and its land, as well as the internationally recognized borders of the State of Israel and the Jewish State’s secure and democratic existence. Many current governments, politicians and commentators question The British Mandate for Palestine covered Palestine 1923–1948 these differences. and Transjordan 1923–1946.[57] When Israel was founded in 1948, the majority Labor leadership, which governed for three decades after independence, accepted the partition of the previous British Mandate of Palestine into independent Jewish and Arab states as a pragmatic solution to the political and demographic issues of the territory, with the description Land of Israel applying to the territory of the State of Israel within the Green Line. The then opposition revisionists, who evolved into today’s Likud party, however, regarded the rightful Land of Israel as Eretz Yisrael Ha-Shlema (literally, the whole Land of Israel), which came to be referred to as Greater Israel.[55] Joel Greenberg, writing in The New York Times relates subsequent events this way:[55] The seed was sown in 1977, when Menachem Begin of Likud brought his party to power for the first time in a stunning election victory over Labor. A decade before, in the 1967 war, Israeli troops had in effect undone the partition accepted in 1948 by overrunning the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Ever since, Mr. Begin had preached undying loyalty to what he called Judea and Samaria (the West Bank lands) and promoted Jewish settlement there. But he did not annex the West Bank and Gaza to Israel after he took office, reflecting a recognition that absorbing the Palestinians could turn Israel it into a binational state instead of a Jewish one. Following the Six Day War in 1967, the 1977 elections and the Oslo Accords, the term Eretz Israel became increasingly associated with right-wing expansionist groups who sought to conform the borders of the State of Israel with the biblical Eretz Yisrael.[56]

The Biblical concept of Eretz Israel, and its reestablishment as a state in the modern era, was a basic tenet of the original Zionist program. This program however, saw little success until the British acceptance of “the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people” in the Balfour Declaration of 1917. Chaim Weizmann, as leader of the Zionist delegation, at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference presented a Zionist Statement on 3 February. Among other things, he presented a plan for development together with a map of the proposed homeland. The statement noted the Jewish historical connection with "Palestine".[58] It also declared the Zionists’ proposed borders and resources “essential for the necessary economic foundation of the country” including “the control of its rivers and their headwaters”. These borders included present day Israel and the occupied territories, western Jordan, southwestern Syria and southern Lebanon “in the vicinity south of Sidon”.[59] The subsequent British occupation and British acceptance of the July 1922 League of Nations Mandate for Palestine,[60] advanced the Zionist cause. Early in the deliberations toward British civilian administration, two fundamental decisions were taken, which bear upon the status of the Jews as a nation; the first was the recognition of Hebrew as an official language, along with English and Arabic, and the second concerned the Hebrew name of the country. In 1920, the Jewish members of the first High Commissioner's advisory council objected to the Hebrew transliteration of the word “Palestine” ‫( פלשתינה‬Palestina) on the ground that the traditional name was ‫( ארץ ישראל‬Eretz Yisrael), but the Arab members would not agree to this designation, which in their view, had political significance. The High Commissioner Herbert Samuel, himself a Zionist, decided that the Hebrew transliteration

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This 1920 stamp, issued by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, set a precedent for the wording of subsequent Mandate stamps.

mise. Dr. Salem wanted to omit 'Aleph' 'Yod' and Mr. Yellin wanted to omit 'Palestine'. The right solution would be to retain both.” —Minutes of the meeting on November 9, 1920.[62] The compromise was later noted as among Arab grievances before the League’s Permanent Mandate [63] During the Mandate, the name Eretz YisThree proposals for the post World War I administration of Commission. Palestine. The red line is the “International Administration” pro- rael (abbreviated ‫ א״י‬Aleph-Yod), was part of the ofposed in the 1916 Sykes–Picot Agreement, the dashed blue line is ficial name for the territory, when written in Hebrew. the 1919 Zionist Organization proposal at the Paris Peace Con- These official names for Palestine were minted on the ference, and the thin blue line refers to the final borders of the Mandate coins and early stamps (pictured) in English, 1923–48 Mandatory Palestine. Hebrew "(‫( "פלשתינה )א״י‬Palestina E"Y) and Arabic "( ‫)"فلسطين‬. Consequently, in 20th century political usage, the term “Land of Israel” usually denotes only those should be used, followed always by the two initial letters parts of the land which came under the British mandate, [61] of “Eretz Yisrael,” ‫ א״י‬Aleph-Yod: i.e. the land currently controlled by the State of Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip, and sometimes also Transjordan (now the Kingdom of Jordan).[64] He was aware that there was no other name in the Hebrew language for this land except 'Eretz-Israel'. At the same time he thought that 15.5.3 Declaration of Independence of Isif 'Eretz-Israel' only were used, it might not be rael regarded by the outside world as a correct rendering of the word 'Palestine', and in the case of On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Aspassports or certificates of nationality, it might sembly adopted a resolution (United Nations General Asperhaps give rise to passports or certificates of sembly Resolution 181(II)) recommending “to the United nationality, it might perhaps give rise to difKingdom, as the mandatory Power for Palestine, and to ficulties, so it was decided to print 'Palestine' all other Members of the United Nations the adoption and in Hebrew letters and to add after it the letters implementation, with regard to the future government of 'Aleph' 'Yod', which constitute a recognised Palestine, of the Plan of Partition with Economic Union.” abbreviation of the Hebrew name. His ExcelThe Resolution contained a plan to partition Palestine lency still thought that this was a good compro-

15.6. SEE ALSO

197

into “Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Spe- to the establishment of an agreed border between the two cial International Regime for the City of Jerusalem.”[65] nations, and subsequently the state of Israel has no terOn May 14, 1948, the day the British Mandate over Pales- ritorial claims in the parts of the historic Land of Israel tine expired, the Jewish People’s Council gathered at the lying east of the Jordan river. Tel Aviv Museum, and approved a proclamation, in which it declared “the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz- 15.5.5 Israel, to be known as the State of Israel.”[66]

15.5.4

Usage in Israeli politics

Early government usage of the term, following Israel’s establishment, continued the historical link and possible Zionist intentions. In 1951–2 David Ben-Gurion wrote “Only now, after seventy years of pioneer striving, have we reached the beginning of independence in a part of our small country.”[67] Soon afterwards he wrote “It has already been said that when the State was established it held only six percent of the Jewish people remaining alive after the Nazi cataclysm. It must now be said that it has been established in only a portion of the Land of Israel. Even those who are dubious as to the restoration of the historical frontiers, as fixed and crystallised and given from the beginning of time, will hardly deny the anomaly of the boundaries of the new State.”[68] The 1955 Israeli government year-book said, “It is called the 'State of Israel' because it is part of the Land of Israel and not merely a Jewish State. The creation of the new State by no means derogates from the scope of historical Eretz Israel”.[69] Herut and Gush Emunim were among the first Israeli political parties basing their land policies on the Biblical narrative discussed above. They attracted attention following the capture of additional territory in the 1967 Six-Day War. They argue that the West Bank should be annexed permanently to Israel for both ideological and religious reasons. This position is in conflict with the basic "land for peace" settlement formula included in UN242. The Likud party, in the platform it maintained until prior to the 2013 elections, had proclaimed its support for maintaining Jewish settlement communities in the West Bank and Gaza, as the territory is considered part of the historical land of Israel.[70] In her 2009 bid for Prime Minister, Kadima leader Tzipi Livni used the expression, noting, “we need to give up parts of the Land of Israel”, in exchange for peace with the Palestinians and to maintain Israel as a Jewish state; this drew a clear distinction with the position of her Likud rival and winner, Benjamin Netanyahu.[71] However, soon after winning the 2009 elections, Netanyahu delivered an address[72] at the Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies at Bar-Ilan University that was broadcast live in Israel and across parts of the Arab world, on the topic of the Middle East peace process. He endorsed for the first time the notion of a Palestinian state alongside Israel, while asserting the right to a sovereign state in Israel arises from the land being “the homeland of the Jewish people”.[73] The Israel–Jordan Treaty of Peace, signed on 1993, led

Palestinian viewpoints

According to Palestinian historian Nur Masalha, Eretz Israel was a religious concept which was turned by Zionists into a political doctrine in order to emphasize an exclusive Jewish right of possession regardless of the Arab presence.[74] Masalha wrote that the Zionist movement has not given up on an expansive deﬁnition of the territory, including Jordan and more, even though political pragmatism has engendered a focus on the region west of the Jordan River.[75]

15.6 See also • For the history of the region: • History of Israel • History of Palestine • History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel • History of ancient Israel and Judah • List of Jewish leaders in the Land of Israel • For related toponyms see: • Canaan • Greater Israel • Holy Land • Promised land • Palestine • Transjordan (Bible)#Status

15.7 Notes [1] “Exodus 6:4 I also established my covenant with them to give them the land of Canaan, where they resided as foreigners”. Bible.cc. Retrieved 2013-08-11. [2] “Gen 15:18–21; NIV; - On that day the LORD made a covenant”. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2013-08-11. [3] Michael J. Vlach, Has the Church Replaced Israel?: A Theological Evaluation, B&H Publishing Group, 2010 pp.3-5. [4] Stephen Spector,Evangelicals and Israel: The Story of American Christian Zionism, Oxford University Press, 2009 p.21. [5] Donald E. Wagner, Walter T. Davis, Zionism and the Quest for Justice in the Holy Land, The Lutterworth Press, 2014 p.161.

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CHAPTER 15. LAND OF ISRAEL

[6] Anthony J. Kenny, Catholics, Jews, and the State of Israel, Paulist Press, 1993 pp.75-78.

of Israel' may serve as a somewhat ﬂexible description of the area which the Israelite tribes had their settlements.

[7] Michael Prior, The Bible and Colonialism: A Moral Critique, A&C Black 1997 p.171: ‘As an agent of legitimacy in international law, the Zionist appeal to Tanakh for legitimation of its claims to Eretz Israel is not much more compelling than if the Portuguese and Spanish Governments today presented to the UN the bulls oﬀ Nicholas V and Alexander VI, which also claimed divine authority, in their bid to reclaim the lands of the New World. p.171.

[17] Anita Shapira, 1992, Land and Power, ISBN 0-19506104-7, p. ix

[8] Ian Bickerton, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Guide for the Perplexed, A&C Black, 2012 p.13. [9] Eugene Cotran, Chibli Mallat, David Stott, (eds.) The Arab-Israeli Accords: Legal Perspectives, BRILL, 1996 pp.11-12. [10] The Holy Land in History and Thought: Papers Submitted to the International conference edited by Moše Šārôn [11] Israel Cohen, A Short History of Zionism, p.96, London, Frederick Muller Co., 1951 [12] Emma Playfair (1992). International Law and the Administration of Occupied Territories: Two Decades of Israeli Occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Oxford University Press. p. 41. On 17 December 1967, the Israeli military government issued an order stating that “the term 'Judea and Samaria region' shall be identical in meaning for all purposes . .to the term 'the West Bank Region'". This change in terminology, which has been followed in Israeli official statements since that time, reflected a historic attachment to these areas and rejection of a name that was seen as implying Jordanian sovereignty over them. [13] Masalha 2007, p. 32. [14] Keith W. Whitelam, The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History, (1996) Routledge 2013, page 43. [15] Joseph Blenkinsopp, Ezekiel, Westminster John Knox Press, 1990, p.152: Quote: “It may be surprising to learn that the designation “the land of Israel” (’ereṣ yiśrā’êl), in common use today, occurs for the first time in Ezekiel (40:2; 47:18) and very rarely elsewhere (I Chron. 22:2; II Chron. 2:17), apart from the more restrictive allusion to the Northern Kingdom. By preference, however, Ezekiel speaks of the “soil of Israel” (’admat yiśrā’êl), a phrase that occurs eighteen times in the book and nowhere else in the Hebrew Bible. (The title “holy land,” literally “holy soil”, used preferentially by Christians, occurs only once, at Zech. 2:12.)" [16] Noth, Martin (1960). “The Land of Israel”. The history of Israel. Harper. p. 8. An authentic and original name for this land as a whole has not come down to us from Old Testament times, and presumably no such ever existed; since as a natural phenomenon it was never a homogeneous, self-contained entity and was never occupied by a homogeneous population, and it was hardly at any time the scene of a political organisation which substantially coincided with its actual area. So the expression 'the land

[18] Bradley Shavit Artson, 'Our Covenant with Stones: A Jewish Ecology of Earth,' in Judaism and Envirobnmental Ehics: A Reader,Lexington Books, 2001 pp.161171,p.162 [19] Michael L. Satlow, Creating Judaism: History, Tradition, Practice, p.160, Columbia University Press, 2006. [20] Sand 2012, p. 27. [21] Rachel Havrelock, River Jordan: The Mythology of a Dividing Line,University of Chicago Press, 2011, p.21. [22] Goldberg 2001, p. 147: The parallels between this narrative and that of Exodus continue to be drawn. Like Pharaoh before him, Herod, having been frustrated in his original efforts, now seeks to achieve his objectives by implementing a program of infanticide. As a result, here as in Exodus - rescuing the hero’s life from the clutches of the evil king necessitates a sudden flight to another country. And finally, in perhaps the most vivid parallel of all, the present narrative uses virtually the same words of the earlier one to provide the information that the coast is clear for the herds safe return: here, in Matthew 2:20, “go [back]… for those who sought the Child’s life are dead"; there, in Exodus 4:19, “go back… for all the men who sought your life are dead.” [23] Kol Torah, vol. 13, no. 9, Torah Academy of Bergen County, 8 November 2003 [24] See 6th and 7th portion commentaries by Rashi [25] Stuart, Douglas K., Exodus, B&H Publishing Group, 2006, p. 549 [26] Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Walter A. Elwell, Philip Wesley Comfort, Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 2001, p. 984 [27] The Land of Israel: National Home Or Land of Destiny, By Eliezer Schweid, Translated by Deborah Greniman, Published 1985 Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, ISBN 08386-3234-3, p.56. [28] Jacob Milgrom, Numbers (JPS Torah Commentary; Philadelphia: JPS, 1990), 502. [29] Paul R. Williamson, “Promise and Fulfilment: The Territorial Inheritance”, in Philip Johnston and Peter Walker (eds.), The Land of Promise: Biblical, Theological and Contemporary Perspectives (Leicester: Apollos, 2000), 20–21. [30] “1 Kings 11 NIV - Solomon’s Wives - King Solomon”. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2013-08-11. [31] Menachem Lorberbaum, ‘Making and Unmaking the Boundaries of Holy Land,’ in Allen E. Buchanan, Margaret Moore (eds) States, nations, and borders: the ethics of making boundaries. Cambridge University Press, 2003 pp19-40 p.24

15.7. NOTES

[32] p.xxxv, R. Yisrael Meir haKohen (Chofetz Chayim), The Concise Book of Mitzvoth. This version of the list was prepared in 1968. [33] Yeshivat Ohr Yerushalayim, Shmita [34] The Ramban's addition to the Rambam's Sefer HaMitzvot. [35] Ezekiel 47:21 “You are to distribute this land among yourselves according to the tribes of Israel. 22 You are to allot it as an inheritance for yourselves and for the aliens who have settled among you and who have children. You are to consider them as native-born Israelites; along with you they are to be allotted an inheritance among the tribes of Israel. 23 In whatever tribe the alien settles, there you are to give him his inheritance,” declares the Sovereign LORD. [36] “Edersheim Bible History – Bk. 1, Ch. 10”. Godrules.net. 19 December 2006. Retrieved 13 November 2011. [37] “Edersheim Bible History – Bk. 1, Ch. 13”. Godrules.net. 19 December 2006. Retrieved 13 November 2011. [38] “Albert Barnes Notes on the Bible – Genesis 15”. Gotothebible.com. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

199

[50] Augustine, The City of God (Book XVII), Chapter II. “And it was fulﬁlled through David, and Solomon his son, whose kingdom was extended over the whole promised space; for they subdued all those nations, and made them tributary. And thus, under those kings, the seed of Abraham was established in the land of promise according to the ﬂesh, that is, in the land of Canaan...” [51] Solomon Zeitlin, The Jews. Race, Nation, or Religion? (Philadelphia: Dropsie College Press, 1936). Cited in, Edelheit and Edelheit, History of Zionism: A Handbook and Dictionary [52] Hershel Edelheit and Abraham J. Edelheit, History of Zionism: A Handbook and Dictionary, Westview Press, 2000. p 3. [53] De Lange, Nicholas, An Introduction to Judaism, Cambridge University Press (2000), p. 30. ISBN 0-52146624-5. The term “Zionism” was derived from the word Zion,which is the other name for Jerusalem, and is associated with the Return to Zion and coined by Austrian Nathan Birnbaum, in his journal Selbstemanzipation (Self Emancipation) in 1890. [54] “The First Zionist Congress and the Basel Program”. Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[39] “Genesis – Chapter 15 – Verse 13 – The New John Gill Exposition of the Entire Bible on”. Studylight.org. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[55] “The World: Pursuing Peace; Netanyahu and His Party Turn Away from Greater Israel”. The New York Times. 22 November 1998. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[40] “Parshah In-Depth – Lech-Lecha”. Chabad.org. Retrieved 13 November 2011.

[56] Raﬀaella A. Del Sarto, Israel’s Contested Identity and the Mediterranean, The territorial-political axis: Eretz Israel versus Medinat Israel, p. 8

[41] “Did God send the angel to save Ishmael so that Islam could exist since Moslems believe Ishmael is the father of the Arabs?". Bible.org. Retrieved 13 November 2011. [42] “Reformed Answers: Ishmael and Esau”. Thirdmill.org. Retrieved 13 November 2011. [43] “The Promises to Isaac and Ishmael”. Christianleadershipcenter.org. Retrieved 13 November 2011. [44] “God Calls Abram Abraham”. Washingtonubf.org. Retrieved 13 November 2011. [45] “Nigeriaworld Feature Article – The Abrahamic Covenant: Its scope and signiﬁcance – A commentary on Dr. Malcolm Fabiyi’s essay”. Nigeriaworld.com. 17 March 2006. Retrieved 13 November 2011. [46] Keil, Carl Friedrich; Delitzsch, Franz (1866). “Biblical commentary on the Old Testament”. [47] Yitzhak Ginsburgh, Rectifying the State of Israel (Israel: Gal Einai Institute, 2002), 52. [48] “Pinḥas, the Quest for Purity, and the Dangers of Tikkun Olam”. www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2015-12-11. [49] Teitelbaum, Al Ha-Ge‘ulah ve-al Ha-Temurah (1967), pp. 7-9, 20, as translated in Ravitzky, Messianism, Zionism, and Jewish Religious Radicalism, 75.

Reflecting the traditional divisions within the Zionist movement, this axis invokes two concepts, namely Eretz Israel, i.e. the biblical “Land of Israel”, and Medinat Israel, i.e. the Jewish and democratic State of Israel. While the concept of Medinat Israel dominated the first decades of statehood in accordance with the aspirations of Labour Zionism, the 1967 conquest of land that was part of “biblical Israel” provided a material basis for the ascent of the concept of Eretz Israel. Expressing the perception of rightful Jewish claims on “biblical land”, the construction of Jewish settlements in the conquered territories intensified after the 1977 elections, which ended the dominance of the Labour Party. Yet as the first Intifada made disturbingly visible, Israel’s de facto rule over the Palestinian population created a dilemma of democracy versus Jewish majority in the long run. With the beginning of Oslo and the option of territorial compromise, the rift between supporters of Eretz Israel and Medinat Israel deepened to an unprecedented degree, the assassination of Prime Minister Rabin in November 1995 being the most dramatic evidence. [57] “British control: Mandate Palestine”. news.bbc.co.uk. BBC. Retrieved 13 July 2016.

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[58] 3 Feb 1919 Statement, quote "... recognize the historic title of the Jewish people to Palestine and the right of Jews to reconstitute in Palestine their National Home” [59] “Zionist Organization Statement on Palestine, Paris Peace Conference, (February 3, 1919)". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 13 November 2011. [60] “League of Nations Mandate for Palestine”. Israeli Ministry of Foreign Aﬀairs. 24 July 1922. Retrieved 4 July 2012. [61] Israel Cohen, A Short History of Zionism, p.96, London, Frederick Muller Co., 1951, [62] Meeting on November 9, 1920, quoted in: Memorandum No. 33, “Use of the Name Eretz-Israel’,” in the Report by the Palestine Royal Commission, 1937, Memoranda Prepared by the Government of Palestine, C. O. No. 133. [63] League of Nations, Permanent Mandate Commission, Minutes of the Ninth Session (Arab Grievances), Held at Geneva from 8 to 25 June 1926 [64] Israel’s declaration of independence says “the British Mandate over Eretz Yisrael, and the Israeli law uses the term Eretz Yisrael to denote the territory subject directly to the British Mandate law, e.g. Article 11 of the “Government and Law Ordinance 1948” issued by Israel’s Provisional State Council. [65] “UNITED NATIONS ''General Assembly: A/RES/181(II):29 November 1947Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine'': Retrieved 24 April 2012”. Domino.un.org. Retrieved 2013-08-11. [66] Israel Ministry of Foreign Aﬀairs: THE DECLARATION OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE STATE OF ISRAEL: May 14, 1948: Retrieved 24 April 2012 [67] David Ben-Gurion, “The Call of Spirit in Israel”, in State of Israel, Government Yearbook, 5712 (1951/1952), page x. [68] David Ben-Gurion, “Israel among the Nations”, in State of Israel, Government Year-book, 5713 (1952), page 15. [69] State of Israel, “Israel, the State and the Nation” in Government Year-book, 5716 (1955), page 320. [70] Likud – Platform, knesset.gov.il, archived from the original on 2012-02-04, retrieved 4 September 2008 [71] “Tzipi Livni: give up half of Land of Israel”. The Telegraph. 2009-02-16. Retrieved 2015-04-23. [72] “Full text of Binyamin Netanyahu’s Bar Ilan speech”. Haaretz. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 15 June 2009. [73] Keinon, Herb (14 June 2009). “Netanyahu wants demilitarized PA state”. The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 6 March 2013. [74] Masalha 2007, p. 2-6. [75] Masalha 2007, pp. 32–38.

CHAPTER 15. LAND OF ISRAEL

15.8 Further reading • Davies, W. D., The Territorial Dimension of Judaism (1982), University of California Press • Goldberg, Michael (2001). Jews and Christians: Getting Our Stories Straight. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 9781579107765. • Keith, Alexander. The Land of Israel: According to the Covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and Jacob, W. Whyte & Co, 1844. • Masalha, Nur (2007). The Bible & Zionism; Invented Traditions, Archaeology and PostColonialism in Israel-Palestine. Zed Books. pp. 2– 6. ISBN 9781842777619. • McTernan, John P. As America Has Done to Israel, Whitaker House Publishers, 2008. ISBN 978-160374-038-8 • Sand, Shlomo (2012). The Invention of the Land of Israel: From Holy Land to Homeland. Verso Books. • Schweid, Eliezer. The Land of Israel: National Home Or Land of Destiny, translated by Deborah Greniman, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1985. ISBN 0-8386-3234-3 • Sedykh, Andreĭ. This Land of Israel, Macmillan, 1967. • Stewart, Robert Laird. The Land of Israel, Revell, 1899.

15.9 External links

15.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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15.10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 15.10.1

Text

• Rabbinic literature Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbinic_literature?oldid=729334664 Contributors: Mav, RK, Danny, Toby Bartels, Ezra Wax, IZAK, Uriber, Mirv, Gidonb, Zigger, Jfdwolff, Dovi, Fintor, Jayjg, YUL89YYZ, Jguk 2, Ogress, AviGilChaitovsky, Jnothman, SlimVirgin, Fawcett5, Wdfarmer, Sir Joseph, Cuchullain, Zzedar, Josh Parris, Koavf, RachelBrown, RobotE, Pigman, Bachrach44, Zwobot, Open2universe, Sardanaphalus, Valley2city, Garrick.linn, Yeshol, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, RandomP, Andrew c, Eliyak, Euchiasmus, Shlomke, Shilonite, Dfass, TheEditrix, Karimarie, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, PKT, Jimhoward72, Nick Number, WinBot, Hanina, Yahel Guhan, Accipiter66, Jms2000, Jewishprincess, Jerry, VolkovBot, Java7837, StAnselm, Lostvelt, Anchor Link Bot, ClueBot, Enthusiast01, RafaAzevedo, Chefallen, Rebele, April8, Kwork2, Addbot, Crazy Ivan, Debresser, Edster619, Lightbot, Luckasbot, Yobot, Rabbinical11232223385, Tonyelsnow, RavShimon, 'Inyan, Curlyqueen24, Lotje, Evanh2008, ZéroBot, Dante8, Moreh405, Noah Bernstein, Arminden, Viewmont Viking, CsDix, Leahnaiman, ColRad85, Yodnip, DaoXan, Johnmcintyre1959, Chighel and Anonymous: 31 • Ancient Egypt Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt?oldid=738246225 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Andre Engels, LA2, Danny, Fredbauder, Lloy0076, William Avery, SimonP, Maury Markowitz, Heron, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, Mahjongg, Kku, Ahoerstemeier, Pjamescowie, William M. Connolley, Jebba, Kingturtle, Darkwind, Evercat, GCarty, Mxn, Smack, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, EmphasisMine, Dcoetzee, Reddi, JCarriker, Jitse Niesen, Greenrd, Hao2lian, CBDunkerson, Peregrine981, Tpbradbury, Mrand, Morwen, Nv8200pa, Tempshill, Topbanana, HarryHenryGebel, Wetman, Zestauferov, Adam Carr, Finlay McWalter, Hajor, Dimadick, Phil Boswell, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, RichiH, Murray Langton, ChrisO~enwiki, Chris 73, Schutz, Mayooranathan, Chris Roy, Yosri, Sverdrup, Academic Challenger, Rursus, Caknuck, Tobycat, Sunray, Hadal, Stay cool~enwiki, Ianml, Lupo, JerryFriedman, SoLando, Alan Liefting, Dave6, Centrx, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Jacoplane, Jyril, Cobaltbluetony, Tom harrison, Lupin, HangingCurve, Herbee, Everyking, Michael Devore, Gamaliel, Chameleon, Bobblewik, Bookcat, Utcursch, Sonjaaa, Quadell, Antandrus, Onco p53, MisfitToys, Kaldari, Jossi, MacGyverMagic, Rdsmith4, Xandar, RetiredUser2, Pmanderson, KarlHenner, Sam Hocevar, Gscshoyru, Nickptar, Beginning, Raylu, Neutrality, Ukexpat, Dcandeto, Vsb, Waza, Hillel, Deeceevoice, Zondor, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Grunt, Lacrimosus, Zro, Mike Rosoft, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, EugeneZelenko, Indosauros, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, NrDg, Cacycle, Hidaspal, Cnyborg, Florian Blaschke, Silence, Francis Schonken, Mjpieters, Arthur Holland, Dbachmann, Mani1, Bender235, ESkog, Zaslav, FrankCostanza, Ben Standeven, Neko-chan, Violetriga, Brian0918, Pmetzger, CanisRufus, Pissipo, Kwamikagami, Kross, Chairboy, Shanes, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Cacophony, Adambro, Peter Greenwell, Bobo192, Yonghokim, Longhair, Smalljim, Enric Naval, R. S. Shaw, Clarkbhm, Joeedh, Pokrajac, Jojit fb, Nk, Microtony, Deryck Chan, PWilkinson, Pperos, MPerel, WMMartin, Kaf, Nsaa, Merope, Ogress, Espoo, Kubiwan, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Stephen G. Brown, Alansohn, Gary, Mark Dingemanse, Arthena, Hipocrite, Logologist, Riana, Lectonar, Splat, RoySmith, Viridian, Mailer diablo, InShaneee, Cdc, Rohirok, Malo, Bart133, DreamGuy, Wtmitchell, Dschwen, BanyanTree, Suruena, Garzo, Harej, RainbowOfLight, Sciurinæ, Inge-Lyubov, Sumergocognito, Danthemankhan, LFaraone, Computerjoe, Jguk, Itsmine, Redvers, Heronimo sehmi, LukeSurl, HenryLi, Ceyockey, TShilo12, Ron Ritzman, Zntrip, Roylee, Roland2~enwiki, Angr, Pekinensis, OwenX, Woohookitty, RHaworth, LOL, Rocastelo, Grillo, Carcharoth, Benbest, Commander Keane, Nefertum17, WadeSimMiser, Psiphim6, MONGO, -Ril-, Twthmoses, Firien, Casius, Wayward, Prashanthns, Dysepsion, Tslocum, Plushpuffin, Aarghdvaark, Deltabeignet, Ilya, BD2412, Bunchofgrapes, Pmj, Edison, Search4Lancer, Canderson7, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Nightscream, Koavf, Zbxgscqf, NatusRoma, Wipfeln, Tangotango, Sdornan, Captmondo, Nneonneo, Ligulem, Boccobrock, The wub, Bhadani, Yuber, Sango123, FuriousFreddy, Yamamoto Ichiro, Pruneau, CDThieme, RobertG, Caid, Mishuletz, AdnanSa, Master Thief Garrett, Crazycomputers, Vandal B, Who, Nivix, RexNL, Gurch, A.K.Karthikeyan, Mathrick, Markh, Codex Sinaiticus, John Maynard Friedman, Noitall, Physchim62, Butros, Chobot, Sbrools, Zyzzy, Sharkface217, Karch, VolatileChemical, Cactus.man, Albrozdude, Kjlewis, Imsoclever, Elfguy, Roboto de Ajvol, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Sortan, Sceptre, Stan2525, Hairy Dude, RussBot, No Account, Crazytales, Arado, Jtkiefer, Pigman, Chris Capoccia, Bergsten, SpuriousQ, CanadianCaesar, Kirill Lokshin, Lar, Stephenb, Rintrah, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Eleassar, Wimt, Lee d, Ugur Basak, Anomalocaris, K.C. Tang, Alynna Kasmira, Shanel, NawlinWiki, IAMTHEEGGMAN, Adidasx007, SEWilcoBot, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, The Ogre, Badagnani, Zaphnathpaaneah, Joelr31, Moonbeast, Irishguy, Nick, Kdbuffalo, Renata3, Toncek, Ruhrfisch, Qviri, Aldux, Raven4x4x, Denihilonihil, Nick C, Tony1, Deucalionite, Franck Ver Stut, Lockesdonkey, BOT-Superzerocool, Rwalker, CDA, M24~enwiki, DeadEyeArrow, Ejl, CKarnstein, Derek.cashman, Tachyon01, Phenz, Igiffin, As286, Tigershrike, Jkelly, FF2010, Bcshell, PetriFB~enwiki, Roy Lee’s Junior, Zzuuzz, Barryob, Closedmouth, Pietdesomere, Xaxafrad, Brina700, GraemeL, For7thGen, JoanneB, Chrishmt0423, Peter, Kevin, 4shizzal, ArielGold, Phsource, Thefirstdude02, DoriSmith, GMan552, Bluezy, Junglecat, Teth22, Mmcannis, NeilN, Carlosguitar, Greece666, Thamis, Yohannes, SkerHawx, DVD R W, Kf4bdy, Bibliomaniac15, That Guy, From That Show!, robot, Arcadie, Sycthos, MaeseLeon, Wai Hong, TravisTX, Sardanaphalus, Amalthea, SmackBot, Selfworm, PiCo, BionicWilliam, Herostratus, Tarret, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Zerida, DarbyAsh, Bigbluefish, Pgk, C.Fred, ParkerHiggins, Jagged 85, Big Adamsky, Alksub, Delldot, Jab843, Doc Strange, MrShapeUK, Kintetsubuffalo, DreamBoy, TheFourthWay, Flamarande, HalfShadow, Alsandro, Alex earlier account, Francisco Valverde, Yamaguchi , Aksi great, PeterSymonds, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Portillo, Folajimi, Hmains, Andy M. Wang, Chris the speller, Nativeborncal, Keegan, Full Shunyata, Persian Poet Gal, Telempe, GCap Media Employee 101, Postoak, Iatom, Tree Biting Conspiracy, MalafayaBot, SchfiftyThree, Hibernian, The Rogue Penguin, Neo-Jay, Sadads, PureRED, HubHikari, Ctbolt, Kungming2, Baa, Cornflake pirate, DHN-bot~enwiki, Neil Bowes, Arsonal, Konstable, William Allen Simpson, AKMask, Gracenotes, Panoramic Views, D-Rock, MaxSem, Deenoe, Scwlong, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, MyNameIsVlad, Lchiarav, Kelvin Case, Thisisbossi, ChosenSeeker, TonySt, Dmoon1, VMS Mosaic, Greenshed, Jablair51, Pax85, Kyle sb, Steven X, Mikedow, Flyguy649, Dejo~enwiki, Downwards, Makemi, Nakon, Savidan, MHoerich, John D. Croft, MichaelBillington, RaCha'ar, Matwat22, Raudalesdarwin~enwiki, Dreadstar, RandomP, Jbergquist, Merlin-UK, Jklin, DMacks, Yom, Henning Makholm, Xiutwel, Enriquecardova, Fireswordfight, Bejnar, Pilotguy, Ceoil, GoldenTorc, The undertow, SashatoBot, Zchenyu, Nishkid64, Swatjester, Harryboyles, Thanatosimii, Sophia, 3dnatureguy, Kuru, Akendall, John, Naphureya, J 1982, SilkTork, Pat Payne, Edwy, Hemmingsen, Jazriel, Missus Pounce Purr, Mgiganteus1, ManiF, Reuvenk, Peterlewis, Fontenot 1031, Ocatecir, CredoFromStart, Scetoaux, Aleenf1, IronGargoyle, Delta Mars, A. Parrot, J Crow, Benjaminlobato, Slakr, Special-T, Werdan7, DigiFluid, LuYiSi, Mr Stephen, Amphoterik, Maksim L., SandyGeorgia, Doczilla, Nageeb, Midnightblueowl, Kanon6996, Ryulong, Jose77, Beepsie, Legars~enwiki, Mego'brien, Quaeler, BranStark, Nehrams2020, Iridescent, Sander Goes, Toira~enwiki, Theone00, Shoeofdeath, Pooua, Locojefe, J Di, IvanLanin, Casull, Tony Fox, CapitalR, MottyGlix, Ewulp, Civil Engineer III, JLCA, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Ru48669, Ghaly, TheHorseCollector, Lahiru k, Switchercat, Joostvandeputte~enwiki, Hjonelynas, JForget, Lemonade8228, Planktonbot, CRGreathouse, CmdrObot, Code E, Ale jrb, Car wizz, Picaroon, KyraVixen, RedRollerskate, JohnCD, Wichienmaat, CWY2190, BKalesti, THF, Ferdiaob, WeggeBot, Neelix, NE Ent, Gregbard, Shanew2, Nauticashades, Nilfanion, Coldbringer, Michfan2123, Cydebot, Bill (who is cool!), Dumpkin the

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CHAPTER 15. LAND OF ISRAEL

kiu, Sainthazard, Aristophanes68, Mato, Gogo Dodo, Blank357, Life is like a box of chocolates, Hebrides, Egyptianfreak, JamesLucas, Amandajm, Tawkerbot4, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, I3ad I3oyz, Chrislk02, Lee, Kozuch, Editor at Large, NMChico24, Omicronpersei8, Lo2u, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, King Bee, Subliminal., Jmg38, Iiron munat, Daniel, Mojo Hand, Mdawg728, Headbomb, Djfeldman, Marek69, Bruske, West Brom 4ever, Frank, Picus viridis, Cool Blue, BehnamFarid, Kislay, Renamed user 5197261az5af96as6aa, Sven Erixon, Dr. Friendly, Dfrg.msc, NigelR, CharlotteWebb, The Hybrid, Ludde23, Michael A. White, Eddie Tor, Pruy0001, Wikidenizen, Dawnseeker2000, Natalie Erin, Amun1, RoboServien, Escarbot, Oreo Priest, Dantheman531, Mentifisto, Porqin, KrakatoaKatie, Gossamers, AntiVandalBot, Teentje, Chaleyer61, Majorly, Yonatan, Sebeex3, Luna Santin, Adammgriggs, Wengero, Quintote, DarkAudit, Drakonicon, D. Webb, Modernist, Bluetooth954, Spencer, Fireice, TuvicBot, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Mainstreamegypt, WANAX, Husond, Forthnoggin, Zaloopa, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Ericoides, Skufcakk, Vergiljtm, Jindalakshay, Struthious Bandersnatch, Hut 8.5, Time3000, East718, Snowolfd4, Warthog32, Alastair Haines, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, *KING*, Lester Long, Owen998, Nunki~enwiki, Natski-asnd8, Bibi Saint-Pol, Exo81, Magioladitis, Ray & hay, WolfmanSF, Freedomlinux, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Jeff Dahl, Dekimasu, Alexgt, Shotput king, MastCell, Hasek is the best, ‫باسم‬, Ling.Nut, Tedickey, CTF83!, Singularity, Dinosaur puppy, Steven Walling, WODUP, Zephyr2k~enwiki, Avicennasis, Indon, Animum, Robotman1974, Andi d, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Lethaniol, David Eppstein, LorenzoB, Cpl Syx, Kingdomkey01, Glen, Chris G, DerHexer, JaGa, T55648L, Wdflake, Esanchez7587, TheRanger, Szechen, Gun Powder Ma, WriterArtistDC, Nilemadden, Hdt83, MartinBot, Sp0, GoldenMeadows, The Irb Goti, Arjun01, WikiTownsvillian, Jim.henderson, Roastytoast, Sm8900, Mschel, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Gold-Horn, Fuckmeintheass, Bwb11, Lilac Soul, J.delanoy, Sasajid, Nev1, Padishah5000, DrKay, Trusilver, King of Hearts81, Cyborg Ninja, Catmoongirl, Karanacs, Thegreenj, Extransit, Vanished user 342562, Suikoman444, SU Linguist, Georgiou, Patronise, Acalamari, Bot-Schafter, Katalaveno, Johnbod, Mr Rookles, Darkspots, Mahewa, Ncmvocalist, Stefonalfaro, HumanDictionary117, Gil Grissom~enwiki, Pyrospirit, Chriswiki, DjScrawl, AntiSpamBot, RoboMaxCyberSem, Alexb102072, Hiimbrady, Matthardingu, SJP, Bobianite, Gregfitzy, 83d40m, Aquatics, DesertMoh, Lanternix, Nsl1646, Sunderland06, Sigmundur, KylieTastic, Joshua Issac, Juliancolton, WJBscribe, Tiggerjay, Rohitht, Jevansen, Gcpeoples, Natl1, Ministry of truth 02, IceDragon64, Andy Marchbanks, JavierMC, S (usurped also), Chach456, Davecrosby uk, Idioma-bot, Redtigerxyz, Lights, Vranak, King Lopez, VolkovBot, CWii, Halayman, DSRH, Superball, It64, Webkami, VasilievVV, Super Knuckles, SexyBern, Jedravent, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Keeg bob, GimmeBot, Cosmic Latte, Runningcupcake03, MeStevo, Davehi1, Kww, Pspman123, Caster23, Miranda, Satseshat, Deep Atlantic Blue, Woodsstock, Qxz, Vanished user ikijeirw34iuaeolaseriffic, Retiono Virginian, Ocolon, Andrein, Beyond silence, Seraphim, Corvus cornix, Slysplace, Elkadio1, LeaveSleaves, Cremepuff222, Natg 19, Wtt, Shane0016, WIKIWIKIWIKIWOO9292, Tipou, Wenli, Enigmaman, Skunyote, Strangerer, Anna512, Gunslayer123, Tcrichards, Letterare, Why Not A Duck, Agüeybaná, Chenzw, Vscel4, Mikeygunit, Onceonthisisland, AlleborgoBot, Shawnvd, Movedgood, PericlesofAthens, FlyingLeopard2014, D. Recorder, Hmwith, April Is Really Fooled, Adyrichter, SieBot, Nihil novi, Scarian, Speed Air Man, Weeliljimmy, Jauerback, Caltas, Kaci12~enwiki, RJaguar3, Iheartcoop, Yintan, WiKKKipedia, Frost000, Slide Maintenance, Duplicity, Mark Burgess, Eaomatrix, Keilana, Donnyj, Xenophon777, Android Mouse, Tiptoety, Oda Mari, Jasgrider, Dman646, Buster+dom, Faegrrrl, Ms2150, Timelesseyes, Mimihitam, Oxymoron83, Monkyboy98, Pretty Green, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Tombomp, Ealdgyth, Hobartimus, Nskillen, B-mcadbr, Danelo, BenoniBot~enwiki, Lowrider 211, Gunmetal Angel, GiLcY, Southsidney, IdreamofJeanie, AuburnPiIot, Slumach, Maelgwnbot, Liamdanny2, SiefkinDR, Anchor Link Bot, Tomakiv, TaerkastUA, Spotty11222, Felizdenovo, Pinkadelica, Jons63, Gr8opinionater, ImageRemovalBot, , Loren.wilton, Martarius, Albert Krantz, ClueBot, PipepBot, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Xav71176, Ndenison, XPTO, Luminez, Drmies, Anthonydapropo, Timberframe, Stone Heart8, Fenwayguy, Peanut4, Wee-Kee-Pee-Dee-Ah, LizardJr8, Ashleyzilla, Parkwells, MKP5996, Goldkingtut5, Piledhigheranddeeper, Foohy46, ChandlerMapBot, Puchiko, Razorazar69, Ashashyou, Mspraveen, DragonBot, Excirial, AssegaiAli, Malachirality, Mashmallow273, Canis Lupus, Jusdafax, CrazyChemGuy, Wikiscribe, 12 Noon, Whoisthecatalyst, Kidquill, Winston365, Ludwigs2, Abrech, Duncan1800, Lartoven, Sun Creator, Carsrac, Coinmanj, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, Jotterbot, Promethean, Kareem ayoub, Rainbow brite chick, Razorflame, Wdford, Readyman, MaxX232489, Finalfantasy7maniac, SchreiberBike, Gghhyytt, Froogle62, BOTarate, La Pianista, Thingg, Aitias, Dana boomer, Kevinli123, Phynicen, Apparition11, Zykasaa, Stoljaroff1987, LightAnkh, Faulcon DeLacy, Maloney.john, Tammoor, Pichpich, Sumerophile, Rror, Ost316, AndreNatas, IanCheesman, Galyet, WikHead, SilvonenBot, Mifter, Mm40, HarlandQPitt, WikiDao, Vianello, CandiMiami2014, ElMeBot, Xp54321, Proofreader77, DangerTM, Hapydays101, Nubia123, DOI bot, Andochine, Wsvlqc, Jezza540, Captain-tucker, 11montel, ImogenPacker, GamemasterJJ, Ras4788, TutterMouse, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Crappyhead121, Looie496, MrOllie, CarsracBot, RTG, Favonian, Exor674, LinkFA-Bot, Mmhrycak, Vyom25, Chopme, Hellobye11, Tutthoth-Ankhre, Barrydawsonisthecougar, Ranjith221, Magic 3151, Aaronaaronaaron, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Bbernet13, Tide rolls, MZaplotnik, Bfigura’s puppy, Gail, MuZemike, Jarble, Quantumobserver, Sun0004, Abellamar, Ret.Prof, ReeewQ, Falloutboyrocks0772, Fishthrowing16, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Cimbom-fan, Senator Palpatine, Legobot II, Vandalizehahalol, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Ojay123, MarcoAurelio, Ajh16, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, 2012sorreej, Andvd, Spaceinput120, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fasdsopa, Poo.bot.deluxe, 1exec1, Derfet, Taam, Bballover, AdjustShift, Zatoino, Theseeker4, Jo3sampl, Ulric1313, HappyTesting, JasonB007, Bobandjo520, Flewis, Materialscientist, D3ath2people, Citation bot, Twiceuponatime, Rockoprem, ArthurBot, DirlBot, LilHelpa, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, NisarPakistani, Kea003, CoolingGibbon, 4twenty42o, Nfr-Maat, EgyptianWikipedian, Br77rino, Julle, Mayfarouk, Jolly Janner, Jhbdel, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, The Interior, Multixfer, Rachida10z, GhalyBot, Moxy, Astatine-210, Cekli829, JMCC1, Legobot III, Hope&Act3!, Tagrawo, Prari, FrescoBot, MuhammedAkbarKhan, Tobby72, Flygongengar, Urgos, RoyGoldsmith, Jonathansuh, Jgw71, Свифт, Mfwitten, Wdwaltman, Soufray, Citation bot 1, Tkuvho, Pinethicket, Haaqfun, Laboris Dulcedo, Alonso de Mendoza, 10metreh, Vladmirfish, SolLuna, Doom2508, Deranged Dodo, Ilovesweatymen, Dead666666666, Meaghan, Secret Saturdays, Barras, Reconsider the static, Amourabunny, Mnlira013, Cnwilliams, Samuel Salzman, Diddud97, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Hawesomeman, Deelybobber, Gaius Octavius Princeps, Orsd, TayyabSaeed, Stegop, Yeng-Wang-Yeh, Nascar1996, Tbhotch, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Ripchip Bot, Mandolinface, DASHBot, DiogenesTCP, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Lalaithion, Distal24, Dewritech, Sinharib99, Dcirovic, K6ka, Thecheesykid, Italia2006, Werieth, Jg2904, ZéroBot, Hit45, Antigrandiose, Xtzou, MithrandirAgain, Oncenawhile, Renato de carvalho ferreira, Hazard-SJ, Everard Proudfoot, EddieDrood, Lawl95, Fabian Hassler, QwerpQwertus, SporkBot, AManWithNoPlan, Ocaasi, Copenhagen4, Raashi.swanlake, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Brandmeister, Sahimrobot, L Kensington, Capolinho, ChuispastonBot, Ihardlythinkso, GermanJoe, Ariyonna11, Clarionk, Enika, Duryodhan kumar, Massimocicc, ClueBot NG, Alexcoldcasefan, , Justlettersandnumbers, Iritakamas, MasriDefend, Ottermaton, Bucoli, Frietjes, Delusion23, Runehelmet, Morgan Riley, Danim, Chitt66, Fpan020, Platonicmaria, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, VitoPisani, Sterling.M.Archer, Vagobot, Jay8g, Kndimov, George Ponderevo, Gabriel Yuji, Whitehex, AvocatoBot, FutureTrillionaire, OttawaAC, Michael Barera, Dailey78, Drift chambers, The Almightey Drill, Minsbot, BattyBot, MahdiBot, David B Stephens, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, StovePicture, Laberkiste, Heba.amir, Extratall, Siuenti, JYBot, Dexbot, Crumpled Fire, Webclient101, Fady Lahoud, WroteOddly, Krakkos, Benjaminsvejgaard, Ld2601, Redd Foxx 1991, FillsHerTease, CensoredScribe, LouisAragon, Monochrome Monitor, Eagle3399, Valery Staricov, Limnalid, Fitzcarmalan, BenEsq, Monkbot, ShawntheGod, ‫אפונה‬, Johnsoniensis, Rogueblack, Kaitlyn153, EChastain, Cartakes, Billytnjng, TVShowFan122, KasparBot, Airplane Maniac, The name, Thursby16, Zenedits, Morel8910, Deeznuts1111, Timbuktu123, Smaha2109, Robot psychiatrist, Motivação and Anonymous: 1723 • Synagogue Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synagogue?oldid=738210763 Contributors: Mav, Zundark, RK, Andre Engels, Danny,

15.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

203

William Avery, Youandme, Olivier, Michael Hardy, Modster, IZAK, Sannse, Ahoerstemeier, Andrewa, Glenn, Andres, Grin, Focus mankind~enwiki, Etaoin, WhisperToMe, CBDunkerson, Nv8200pa, AnonMoos, Jusjih, Qertis, Carlossuarez46, Chuunen Baka, Bearcat, Robbot, Palnu, The Phoenix, Owain, Greudin, YBeayf, Gidonb, Humus sapiens, JesseW, JerryFriedman, Guy Peters, DocWatson42, Meursault2004, Zigger, Emuzesto~enwiki, Electric goat, Mellum, Varlaam, Jfdwolff, Alensha, Bobblewik, Wiki Wikardo, Stevietheman, Gadfium, Jpkoester1, Zeimusu, Antandrus, MacGyverMagic, CaribDigita, Untifler, Lumidek, Neutrality, Jcw69, Robin klein, Clemwang, Fanghong~enwiki, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, TheCustomOfLife, Jayjg, CALR, Twenex, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, ArnoldReinhold, YUL89YYZ, Jetfire85, Bender235, Kaisershatner, LuciferBlack, El C, Stesmo, Func, BrokenSegue, Olve Utne, Nomist, Man vyi, Jaredfaulkner, MPerel, Hagerman, HasharBot~enwiki, BroadArrow, Alansohn, Arthena, User6854, Ynhockey, Hu, SidP, Amorymeltzer, Ghirlandajo, Red dwarf, Tariqabjotu, TShilo12, Sheynhertz-Unbayg, Mwalcoff, Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, Grylliade, Gruepig, Kokoriko, Davidkazuhiro, Robert K S, Briangotts, Pol098, Jules2850, Kelisi, Palica, Ekehoe, Mandarax, The lesbian, Ashmoo, Keeves, Qwertyus, Melesse, Mendaliv, Sjö, Sjakkalle, Angusmclellan, Gryffindor, PinchasC, Jearthoven, Ev, Yamamoto Ichiro, Robert Fraser, RexNL, Malhonen, Valentinian, DVdm, Bgwhite, Samwaltz, Cornellrockey, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Sceptre, TodorBozhinov, RussBot, Conscious, Briaboru, AVM, Pigman, Epolk, Maor X, Akamad, Stephenb, Rsrikanth05, MosheA, NawlinWiki, Trademarx, Camerafiend, Jndrline, Yoninah, Cleared as filed, Irishguy, Misza13, FlyingPenguins, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Cccc3333, Avraham, Jezzabr, Sandstein, Zello, Lt-wiki-bot, Poldy Bloom, Saranghae honey, KGasso, RickReinckens, Anclation~enwiki, Daniel575, Airodyssey, GrinBot~enwiki, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, Amalthea, SmackBot, XYaAsehShalomX, Colinstu, Reedy, Joaquin Murietta, Stephensuleeman, Edgar181, Alsandro, Yamaguchi , Zozoulia, Gilliam, Hmains, Valley2city, Chris the speller, Keegan, Persian Poet Gal, GregRM, Footodors, Baronnet, Colonies Chris, Gracenotes, Emrrans, Shuki, WSaindon, Onorem, Intelligent Mr Toad, Super knower, Kcordina, Cameron Nedland, Ryan Roos, Smerus, Kukini, Eliyak, Mksword, J 1982, Michael.passman, Javit, Marian Gladis, A. Parrot, Hvn0413, Mdshualy, Waggers, CharlesMartel, Ryulong, Peter Horn, Nehrams2020, Toddsschneider, Igoldste, MGlosenger, Gilabrand, Tawkerbot2, INkubusse, Xcentaur, JForget, Rambam rashi, Eino81, IP Address, Baiji, BassBone, Mindfruit, Fairsing, Cydebot, Stebbins, Karimarie, Beek man, Ntsimp, Ashpaa, Hebrides, Muhandis, Soetermans, B, Ghostexorcist, Optimist on the run, Dleisawitz, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Judae1, Aerostrato, John254, Benqish, Civertan, Escarbot, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, NYC2TLV, Storkk, Myanw, Chocolatepizza, MikeLynch, DOSGuy, JAnDbot, Dinurcenter, D99figge, Epeefleche, Qasamaan~enwiki, Hut 8.5, PhilKnight, Yahel Guhan, Twanderson, Bongwarrior, Kolindigo, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Mclay1, Chesdovi, Catgut, ArmadilloFromHell, DerHexer, Purslane, DGG, Ekki01, QuaziK, Rukaribe, Terageorge, Bus stop, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, VirtualDelight, Iijjccoo, Zorkfan, 7day, Zorkael, Zorkmin, J.delanoy, Mraleph, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nived 90, BaseballDetective, Pyrospirit, Yukeldukel, SlavPoland, BigHairRef, Natl1, Useight, Idioma-bot, Yehoishophot Oliver, Malik Shabazz, Deor, VolkovBot, Tourbillon, Off-shell, ABF, Jeff G., Dmrenna, Elieson, Epson291, Philip Trueman, Glebmelk, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, BuickCenturyDriver, Asarlaí, TorahJew, Ifalcon, Ask123, JerseyRabbi, Littlealien182, Rich Janis, AsifSeedat, Kpria, FFMG, Uannis~enwiki, Lerdthenerd, Orestek, Monty845, AlleborgoBot, Jasonld81, Theoneintraining, AdRock, Yabti, Kb3mlmsk, SieBot, Rascofettish, Portalian, Tiddly Tom, Jauerback, Toddst1, Flyer22 Reborn, Exert, Harry-, Lightmouse, Nn123645, Hadseys, Gr8opinionater, ImageRemovalBot, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, LAX, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rjd0060, Paulspaper, Olevy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Joao Xavier, SuperHamster, Excirial, Alexbot, Lartoven, NuclearWarfare, Lauolive, Iohannes Animosus, Larsklintwallmalmqvist~enwiki, Sir Tobek, Itsabouttime, Saebjorn, Shlishke, Calor, Thingg, Cph770, SoxBot III, Editor2020, Runefrost, DumZiBoT, Meryl-H, Beria, XLinkBot, April8, Jan D. Berends, Fede.Campana, Rror, Dubaicreek, WikHead, Noctibus, Wa2, Curtdogface, HexaChord, Felix Folio Secundus, Massimo Catarinella, Addbot, Aussieturk79, Queenmomcat, IXavier, Colibri37, PaterMcFly, Ironholds, Fluffernutter, Download, Debresser, Doniago, Elan26, Esprit de corps, Sardur, Eragon22125, Danb2009, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Kyuko, Suzumebachisecret, Yehudi hamacabbi, Abonazzi, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, Yobot, Cflm001, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Vincent Steenberg, AnomieBOT, Quangbao, Piano non troppo, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Jakeblackyband, Bob Burkhardt, Xqbot, Historicist, Cureden, The Banner, Mononomic, Spoilt,x, OldShul, Maddie!, HUZZAH HANUKKAH, GrouchoBot, Vipgam, One-Off Contributor, Frosted14, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Headhitter, Bpselvam, Shadowjams, Rabbi Orr Cohen, Colt .55, Mikejones770011, Munsin41, FrescoBot, Pob1984, Nicksonn, Brownstowne, Grayze, Casteeng, Mcgeever212, Bison51, VI, Doremo, Polyxeros, Qpickk, Cannolis, Pinethicket, Lighthouse770, Pharmerr, Fhilipino22, Jilldre, Angenhariaus, RedBot, Serols, BankiSun, Primaler, Bigfatciaran, 1sjose, Jauhienij, Tim1357, Throwaway85, Lotje, Bisshu, Ollios, Vrenator, Vancouver Outlaw, Nrgbooster~enwiki, Joshi1067, Brian the Editor, Brambleclawx, Jessetheduck, Mean as custard, Geonat1, Smartiger, Jakebowles, In ictu oculi, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, -- -- --, Katherine, 08DAShipway, ZxxZxxZ, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, Evanh2008, Udvarias, ServelanBlake, PBS-AWB, Ida Shaw, Nahado, RoblesXIV, Zahidulla, Tolly4bolly, RaptureBot, Aidarzver, Δ, RosanneBoas, Donner60, ChuispastonBot, RayneVanDunem, DASHBotAV, Roylindman, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Droomwereld, Richard1954, L69, Cntras, Moneya, Masssly, Widr, Regulov, BG19bot, ‫קוק ווינקל‬, Keivan.f, Anarchyinyourcountry, Adriano.93, Tony Tan, Devadhwana, J R Gainey, B.Andersohn, Miszatomic, ~riley, Pratyya Ghosh, Salem121, Finnegas, Dexbot, Natuur12, Jjgw, Sqartyu, Stormwatch77, AcegikmLST, CsDix, Bricking, Tentinator, Yehuda613, Doivood, Wagnerslove, ElHef, Nikolay Omonov, Moseley3, Akhooha, LieutenantLatvia, Tomloops, VeryCrocker, Sefer book, Empire of War, Monkbot, József Rozsnyai, JackTorrance311, BethNaught, Helveticus96, SamiLayfi, DaoXan, Whoopiesilverstunna, KasparBot, Durene, Tamunia6, Bludmir6, Jazzawazza, Jstephanopoulos, Freakiejason, Jakeybobs23q, Havradim, Qnekit and Anonymous: 644 • Babylonia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonia?oldid=737234644 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, DanKeshet, Unukorno, SimonP, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Maury Markowitz, Ellmist, Heron, Olivier, Edward, Infrogmation, D, Michael Hardy, Zingarello, Delirium, Docu, Darkwind, Александър, Glenn, Silthor~enwiki, Evercat, Raven in Orbit, RickK, Jm34harvey, Selket, Timc, Peregrine981, Taxman, Bevo, Penfold, Carlossuarez46, Robbot, ChrisO~enwiki, Romanm, Mayooranathan, Xanzzibar, Dina, Giftlite, Jao, Jyril, Tom harrison, Lupin, Everyking, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Roisterer, RetiredUser2, Bumm13, Trilobite, Sdrawkcab, Random contributor, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Brutannica, EliasAlucard, MeltBanana, Xgenei, Dbachmann, Grutter, Bender235, Fenice, Pedant, El C, Joanjoc~enwiki, Kwamikagami, Bobo192, Smalljim, Kundor, Nsaa, Ogress, Storm Rider, Alansohn, Buaidh, Tek022, Joolz, Atlant, Jeltz, WTGDMan1986, Andrewpmk, Riana, Sligocki, Carmelbuck, Bingitz, Malo, Zsero, Wtmitchell, Velella, Jguk, Bkobres, Adrian.benko, Dismas, Zntrip, Weyes, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Kelly Martin, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Briangotts, WadeSimMiser, MONGO, Jerkmonster, Contele de Grozavesti, JRHorse, Macaddct1984, Marudubshinki, RuM, Mandarax, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Amir85, Ketiltrout, Bbullot~enwiki, Algebra, Nihiltres, Crazycomputers, Gurch, Codex Sinaiticus, Bmicomp, Chobot, The One True Fred, 334a, Bgwhite, Banaticus, Stan2525, Pip2andahalf, Phantomsteve, Jtkiefer, Muchness, Pigman, RadioFan, Pseudomonas, Jaremfan, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Fheaney, Astral, Markwiki, Robertvan1, Snek01, Dureo, JFD, Jpbowen, Benne, Durval, BOTSuperzerocool, Ribbentrop, Wknight94, BazookaJoe, Deville, Closedmouth, Pietdesomere, Jolt76, Barbatus, ArielGold, Junglecat, Attilios, A bit iffy, SmackBot, Ttzz, Reedy, Olorin28, Hydrogen Iodide, David.Mestel, Jagged 85, Anastrophe, Onebravemonkey, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Alsandro, Yamaguchi , PeterSymonds, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Taric25, TimBentley, Jprg1966, Stubblyhead, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Hibernian, Bazonka, FARAZ, Baa, DTR, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Ioscius, Vanished User 0001, Anthon.Eff, Mitrius, TheLateDentarthurdent, Nakon, Funky Monkey, RandomP, Hammer1980, DMacks, Terrasidius, Er Komandante, Kurrupt3d, Richard0612, Kukini, Chaldean, Esrever, Nishkid64, Gwinerreniwg, Quendus, Thanatosimii, Kuru, Khazar, General Ization, Naphureya,

204

CHAPTER 15. LAND OF ISRAEL

J 1982, SilkTork, Onlim, Angyansheng, Scetoaux, IronGargoyle, A. Parrot, Special-T, Stwalkerster, TomNor, LarryBH, Optakeover, Bad germ, Keitei, Nehrams2020, Iridescent, JMK, Zmmz, Maestlin, Igoldste, Revcasy, JForget, Ale jrb, Lighthead, JohnCD, Basawala, THF, ShelfSkewed, Frankly Man, Casper2k3, Nauticashades, Nilfanion, Slazenger, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, JoeDonahue.org, Gogo Dodo, Catalyst in Society, GRBerry, Grinning Fool, Tawkerbot4, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Thesecondworldwar.net, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Andrew.hermiz, Pajz, Marek69, Missvain, Doyley, JustAGal, Nineveh 209, Rompe, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, Chaleyer61, Luna Santin, CZmarlin, AstroLynx, Quintote, Squadnleedah, Cloachland, Dr. Submillimeter, Storkk, Myanw, Wahabijaz, Gökhan, JAnDbot, Xhienne, MER-C, Andonic, PhilKnight, MegX, Acroterion, Gert7, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Mjw65, JNW, JamesBWatson, WHSmarchr1990, KConWiki, Catgut, Not a dog, Zhanghia, Animum, Aziz1005, MapMaster, Gldavies, Chris G, DerHexer, Cocytus, Forai, Geboy, MartinBot, Counterboint, Jona Lendering~enwiki, Rettetast, Anaxial, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Artaxiad, Dinkytown, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Svetovid, Rgoodermote, Bogey97, A Nobody, Jerry, Bot-Schafter, HornColumbia, Ncmvocalist, Cromdog, Jasonasosa, AntiSpamBot, Hiddenhearts, NewEnglandYankee, Student7, Skryinv~enwiki, Treisijs, Kvdveer, Nick Greenwood, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot, Wikieditor06, CWii, ABF, Jeff G., Butwhatdoiknow, Šarukinu, Philip Trueman, Oddboy10, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Malinaccier, Havityourwy, Gwinva, SteveStrummer, Arnon Chaffin, Anna Lincoln, IronMaidenRocks, Mussav, BotKung, Maxim, Saturn star, Suriel1981, Burntsauce, Grahamboat, RaseaC, Insanity Incarnate, EunseokLee, Quantpole, PericlesofAthens, Pare Mo, SieBot, Sonicology, Zasimon, Tiddly Tom, Sharkentile, Hertz1888, Dawn Bard, Viskonsas, Caltas, Slide Maintenance, Til Eulenspiegel, Keilana, Joe Gatt, Flyer22 Reborn, Radon210, Oda Mari, JSpung, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Helikophis, Hobartimus, Ks0stm, Mygerardromance, Morstar, Vonones, Kurihaya, Atif.t2, Sfan00 IMG, Elassint, ClueBot, Darinparker, GorillaWarfare, PipepBot, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be, Gawaxay, Nnemo, Unbuttered Parsnip, R000t, Cptmurdok, Drmies, Der Golem, SuperHamster, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, BlueAmethyst, Excirial, Kain Nihil, Jusdafax, Muenda, Lartoven, Techbo, Arjayay, Madgamer129, S19991002, SchreiberBike, Jimmy Fleischer, Thingg, Acabashi, Bosingwa, Aitias, Zoezoo, Versus22, SoxBot III, Editor2020, B'er Rabbit, Skunkboy74, Dark Mage, BodhisattvaBot, Clockwrist, GameLegend, AndreNatas, Profepstein, SilvonenBot, Mifter, Hosnnan38, Good Olfactory, Ejosse1, Transparagon, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Tcncv, Non-dropframe, Blethering Scot, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Laurinavicius, Wikiman725, CanadianLinuxUser, Chamal N, BepBot, Glane23, Twofistedcoffeedrinker, Debresser, 5 albert square, Aacugna, AgadaUrbanit, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Apteva, Qemist, Gail, Zorrobot, IansAwesomePizza, Ochib, Legobot, Drpickem, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Fraggle81, Cflm001, Nallimbot, QueenCake, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Jim1138, IRP, AdjustShift, LlywelynII, Ulric1313, Mallag, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Felyza, Bob Burkhardt, ChrisCPearson, Frankenpuppy, Xqbot, Nasnema, GenQuest, Jmundo, OnlyStrife, J04n, GrouchoBot, Hquon19, Appple, Omnipaedista, Shadowjams, Erik9, Haploidavey, Амартүвшин, Ahmed Nisar, Rto1997, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, Hopkins123, LoserJones, Izzedine, HJ Mitchell, Talskubilos, Drew R. Smith, DivineAlpha, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Edderso, Serols, SpaceFlight89, Meaghan, Merlion444, Vkil, Kgrad, FoxBot, Hanay, Zoeperkoe, Vrenator, Diannaa, 56maniac, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Nederlandse Leeuw, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, NerdyScienceDude, BCtl, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, Carlotm, Look2See1, Dewritech, Sinharib99, Nightslayer83, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, , Anirudh Emani, ZéroBot, John Cline, PBS-AWB, Bongoramsey, Everard Proudfoot, Yiosie2356, EddieDrood, Tolly4bolly, Erianna, Jsayre64, Flightx52, Donner60, ChuispastonBot, GermanJoe, Nz101, Forever Dusk, Neil P. Quinn, DASHBotAV, JoWheel, ClueBot NG, , O.Koslowski, Mannanan51, Widr, Antiqueight, Appelboim, Lengend1998, Helpful Pixie Bot, Strike Eagle, WNYY98, BigEars42, BG19bot, Whattheheckisavailable, S.R.Madden, PhnomPencil, MusikAnimal, Marcocapelle, Onewhohelps, Merrifs, HotshotCleaner, Arminden, Irānshahr, YodaRULZ, Jason56757, Osmanlidevleti, DPL bot, Ferrari C, Noah25114, Pikks, Suryoye85, Rutebega, Anbu121, Smarandi, David.moreno72, Gazkthul, EuroCarGT, Dexbot, Mogism, Lugia2453, Frosty, Kevin12xd, Neelkamala, Micolnator, Yoyopoppop123, Henrycircut, Vanamonde93, Lemnaminor, Wolfmanarm123, AmaryllisGardener, Eyesnore, Harlem Baker Hughes, Tentinator, DavidLeighEllis, LouisAragon, Haminoon, Monochrome Monitor, MSperbeck, Ginsuloft, Kaitymh, Surfer43 (usurped), Meganesia, 3mayo5, JhaiufjglahuHGIUH, Asiannndog, Muneeb abdelhadi, Hjaltland Collection, Abna z backman, Attar-Aram syria, Cinna3377, Drchillin, Mr.peabody123456789, Leisha123, TROLOOLOOLOOL, Ovensofa, TerryAlex, Hamigdal, HMSLavender, Mr. Lunt, Anonymous233388, Lillypad12353, Eteethan, ScrapIronIV, Bestanimallovers, Raftra55, ChaldeanEthnicity, Thatswagboy, KasparBot, Philip Mexico, History of Persia, Aaron yu 2004, Originizawesome, Dsfgnchmj,dsbak, Teenween, Babylonianworshiper and Anonymous: 948 • Babylonian captivity Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_captivity?oldid=737526809 Contributors: Slrubenstein, PierreAbbat, Ellmist, Panairjdde~enwiki, Dwmyers, JohnOwens, Llywrch, IZAK, Delirium, Mcarling, Minesweeper, J'raxis, Jebba, John K, Emperorbma, Charles Matthews, DJ Clayworth, Maximus Rex, Itai, Shizhao, Fredrik, Ruakh, Cautious, Sethoeph, Everyking, Jfdwolff, KevinTernes, Masterhomer, Soman, Discospinster, Guanabot, Dbachmann, Bender235, Kaisershatner, Huntster, MPS, ADM, Hackwrench, Redfarmer, Garzo, SteinbDJ, TLG, Nemonoman, SDC, Dodo78, Stefanomione, Kbdank71, CheshireKatz, Canderson7, Coemgenus, NekoDaemon, Codex Sinaiticus, Glenn L, Sus scrofa, YurikBot, Jadon, RussBot, Sasuke Sarutobi, Ewx, Grafen, Jndrline, Black Falcon, Tomisti, Phenz, LeonardoRob0t, Thomas Blomberg, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, FocalPoint, PiCo, Elonka, David Kernow, Diggers2004, InverseHypercube, Hydrogen Iodide, Istvan, Eskimbot, Ws, Yamaguchi , Zozoulia, Hmains, Skizzik, Jeffro77, Valley2city, Zouf, Cush, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Bonesiii, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Rogermw, Crillion~enwiki, Savidan, John D. Croft, Daykart, Eliyak, Bo99, KarlM, Korovioff, OnBeyondZebrax, Lord Anubis, Happy-melon, Tawkerbot2, Shirahadasha, CmdrObot, Patchouli, Umedard, Lazulilasher, Karimarie, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Steve kap, Travelbird, Tawkerbot4, Doug Weller, DBaba, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Rob.au, Marokwitz, Tangerines, Matt Giwer, Fayenatic london, Vanjagenije, JAnDbot, Delowing, .anacondabot, Yahel Guhan, Magioladitis, Redaktor, Afaprof01, Outlook, Cocytus, DGG, Tonicthebrown, Ianfines, J.delanoy, OttoMäkelä, Genegladden, Itohacs, MarcoLittel, Crazy coyote, Jorfer, Pinea, STBotD, BernardZ, Jeff G., Evil-mer0dach, TXiKiBoT, Himmelmann00, Rei-bot, Piperh, Broadbot, Authoritative, Pare Mo, SieBot, StAnselm, Tresiden, Hertz1888, Gerakibot, Rykalski, Flyer22 Reborn, Jack1956, AngelOfSadness, AMbot, Calatayudboy, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Mojoworker, Pinkadelica, Hirkimer, ClueBot, Neptunes2007, Enthusiast01, Drmies, SuperHamster, Soccergirl2749, Feline Hymnic, Itsabouttime, Thingg, Carmelo sorita, Editor2020, Ninja247, Swift as an Eagle, Ieremias, Airplaneman, Addbot, Ronhjones, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, LaaknorBot, Glane23, Blueberrybuttermilkpancakes, Debresser, FineYoungGenius, Lightbot, Vasiľ, John Belushi, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Angel ivanov angelov, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Ryannlovett, Materialscientist, Bob Burkhardt, Xqbot, Sionus, Cool232, Almabot, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Lipsquid, Izzedine, Tom.Reding, Dazedbythebell, Lotje, Ray2lach, Cowlibob, Suffusion of Yellow, Lolcatzz, Cacjosh, Adrianaloys, Alfons2, EmausBot, Marecheth Ho'eElohuth, Solarra, Tommy2010, AvicBot, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, MisterDub, TyA, Usb10, DASHBotAV, Satualm, ClueBot NG, Dr. Persi, Mannanan51, Telpardec, BG19bot, Smeat75, CitationCleanerBot, David42718, Willietell, BattyBot, Triggerhippie4, AthanasiusOfAlex, Citablesources, ComfyKem, Jdcve, Epicgenius, CsDix, RoyBurtonson, Duckymac01, Throwaway8675309, Bdmulneaux, DavidLeighEllis, Monochrome Monitor, JaconaFrere, Thegreatmuka, Horseless Headman, Adriane.bien, Apologist en, JQTriple7, Isambard Kingdom, DaoXan, Cnbr15, Diamond power happy, Sweepy, JeremiahY, Maureendepresident, Johnmcintyre1959, Beukford, ImHere2015, GSS-1987 and Anonymous: 260 • Torah Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah?oldid=736967938 Contributors: AxelBoldt, MichaelTinkler, Wesley, Uriyan, Zundark, The Anome, Slrubenstein, Jeronimo, Malcolm Farmer, Sjc, RK, Andre Engels, PierreAbbat, William Avery, Soulpatch, Rickyrab, Mkm-

15.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

205

cconn, Elian, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Ezra Wax, Ixfd64, IZAK, Shoaler, Ducker, Looxix~enwiki, Ronabop, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Neudorf~enwiki, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Theresa knott, Nahum, Александър, Usedbook, Jschwa1, Nikai, Kwekubo, JASpencer, Val42, Epl18, Anjouli, RadicalBender, Fredrik, Kizor, RedWolf, Altenmann, Ajd, Auric, Humus sapiens, 75th Trombone, HaeB, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Admbws, Gwalla, Smjg, Pretzelpaws, Meursault2004, HangingCurve, Aphaia, Zigger, Herbee, Suitov, Alison, Jdavidb, Cantus, Jfdwolff, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Sihan, Kpalion, Mboverload, Ragib, Yoshiah ap, Slowking Man, Antandrus, Loremaster, Savant1984, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Neutrality, Dovi, Fintor, Frikle, Squash, Ussakli, Flex, Mike Rosoft, ChanochGruenman, Jayjg, ChrisRuvolo, Discospinster, FT2, Gadykozma, Freestylefrappe, YUL89YYZ, Eric Shalov, Dbachmann, Bender235, ESkog, Kaisershatner, Mattisgoo, Shrike, Art LaPella, Prsephone1674, Jerchower, Longhair, Shenme, Mikel Ward, Jguk 2, Sampo Torgo, Bgeer, Juzeris, Jerryseinfeld, Sriram sh, MOE37x3, MPerel, Jonathunder, Nsaa, Ogress, Msh210, Alansohn, Alfanje~enwiki, Walter Görlitz, AzaToth, SlimVirgin, Redfarmer, Snowolf, Immanuel Giel, Rebroad, Jheald, Mikeo, Versageek, Hoziron, Angr, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Simetrical, Woohookitty, E=MC^2, Jeff3000, Exxolon, Mpatel, Keta, Wayward, Ashmoo, Graham87, Keeves, BD2412, Chun-hian, Kbdank71, Arikrak, Canderson7, Crzrussian, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, PinchasC, Amire80, JHMM13, AwkwardSocks, SMC, Mo-Al, The wub, Bryan H Bell, MarnetteD, Fred Bradstadt, GregAsche, Yamamoto Ichiro, Naraht, SchuminWeb, RexNL, Vilcxjo, Rgordey, Malhonen, Thecurran, Vanished user psdfiwnef3niurunfiuh234ruhfwdb7, DVdm, Bgwhite, Dúnadan, Wingchi, SujinYH, Slasher600, HG1, Sputnikcccp, Anonymous editor, AVM, Russell C. Sibley, Fabricationary, Kirill Lokshin, Pvasiliadis, Van der Hoorn, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, Wimt, Big Brother 1984, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Jndrline, Irishguy, DeadEyeArrow, Derek.cashman, DRosenbach, Avraham, Sandstein, 21655, Zzuuzz, Kgyt, Lt-wiki-bot, RDF, Nikkimaria, Saranghae honey, Ben Qish, HereToHelp, Ephilei, Kungfuadam, Serendipodous, Shadowin, DVD R W, Eykanal, Luk, Johnmarkh, Sardanaphalus, Sassisch, Amalthea, SmackBot, FocalPoint, PiCo, Meshach, Mangoe, David Kernow, Zazaban, InverseHypercube, DrJ1m, Dauster, TXFirebear, Pgk, AndreasJS, Jab843, HalfShadow, Bengtang, Khepidjemwa'atnefru, Yamaguchi , Vassyana, Gilliam, Hmains, Carl.bunderson, Valley2city, Cush, Jon513, Liamdaly620, LaggedOnUser, Donnie Love, Rcbutcher, Rlevse, Diyako, Gsp8181, Royboycrashfan, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, John Hyams, Skoglund, Benceno, Metallurgist, Solarix, Max David, Neo139, OrphanBot, Vanished User 0001, David.ilyas, Rrburke, Alieseraj, Mr.Z-man, Diament, HeteroZellous, Ourhomeplanet, Flyguy649, Giffmex, Jiddisch~enwiki, MichaelBillington, TGC55, Jeff Wheeler, Dantadd, KI, Reb Roovie, Andrew c, DMacks, Kukini, Lambiam, Eliyak, Rory096, John, Anagram, Dfass, Stjamie, A. Parrot, Slakr, Ems2, 2T, Sasq, Andreworkney, Keahapana, Hu12, Iridescent, Antonio Prates, Metre01, Imad marie, CapitalR, Dhruv167, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Shirahadasha, CmdrObot, TheEditrix, Iuio, Makeemlighter, OMGsplosion, Neelix, FilipeS, Cydebot, Karimarie, W.F.Galway, Jonathan Tweet, Steel, Aristophanes68, Gogo Dodo, JFreeman, Agne27, RivkaRebecca, Synergy, Naudefj, Shirulashem, Doug Weller, Avi4now, DumbBOT, DBaba, Nickleus, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Davidhof, Crum375, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Bloger, N5iln, Mareoftenebrae, Ntsukunyane Mphanya, Missvain, John254, Tapir Terrific, Thomprod, Grayshi, Matthew Proctor, HalfOfElement29, Escarbot, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, The Obento Musubi, RobotG, Luna Santin, QuiteUnusual, Julia Rossi, Waerloeg, Fayenatic london, Smartse, Lortron, North Shoreman, Alphachimpbot, Wahabijaz, Colin MacLaurin, JAnDbot, Zzmonty, Deflective, MER-C, Epeefleche, Denimadept, LittleOldMe, Jed S, Yahel Guhan, MrDrak, YodeaHakol, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Adamapple1, MastCell, JamesBWatson, Pete.k, Lošmi, Soleado, Octologue, Catgut, Zelator, Lutzv, Thernlund, Mark3, Afaprof01, Allstarecho, Schumi555, Benjamintchip, Knoxbury, To Serve Man, Rickterp, B9 hummingbird hovering, FisherQueen, Baobhan-sith, MartinBot, BetBot~enwiki, John Millikin, Bus stop, CommonsDelinker, Serenaacw, Wikitiki89, Beit Or, J.delanoy, Kimse, Edgeweyes, Neutron Jack, Hans Dunkelberg, Maurice Carbonaro, Davesnyd, KeepItClean, Extransit, TomS TDotO, Bluesquareapple, Aaronkmthomas, Katalaveno, Johnbod, Gurchzilla, Mrg3105, Belovedfreak, Jmshaw, AA, Bobianite, Ahuskay, KCinDC, Danielb613, Student7, Largoplazo, Pontors1, Juliancolton, Rtelkin, Uhai, YoavD, Vanished user 39948282, Enochmetatron, Natl1, Spensers, Idioma-bot, Jonspapa, Glossologist, Lights, Goalie1998, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, CWii, Alpha774, Gypaetus, Brando130, Mjx3, Hallyerin83, Craobh sidhe, Stelker, DancingMan, TXiKiBoT, Davehi1, Java7837, Azdiyy, Joybucket, Namikiw, Crohnie, Someguy1221, Greg847, Steven J. Anderson, John Carter, Rich Janis, Leraconteur, Gekritzl, LeaveSleaves, Andrewrost3241981, Christopher Connor, Ollige, Wiae, Lisa, Ondrei~enwiki, Haseo9999, Mauk, Jpeeling, Synthebot, Historygypsy, Enviroboy, Vector Potential, GlassFET, Cnilep, Samson Ben-Manoach, Alancoughlin, Logicker, Ishboyfay, FlyingLeopard2014, AdRock, SieBot, StAnselm, Tiddly Tom, Al-qamar, Dawn Bard, Triwbe, Emyloulou67, M.thoriyan, Aillema, Tiptoety, Karlarmson, Colfer2, JSpung, Indoles, Nuttycoconut, KPH2293, Mahomet, Lightmouse, Hobartimus, AMbot, Dear Reader, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Alatari, Alpha166, Mygerardromance, WikiLaurent, Wikiskimmer, Shlomoeliezerzev, Myrvin, Angel caboodle, Mr. Granger, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Jbening, Dempasar, GorillaWarfare, WilliamRoper, The Thing That Should Not Be, Plastikspork, EoGuy, Enthusiast01, Unbuttered Parsnip, Drmies, Cp111, Moshababo, ZMWalter, Blanchardb, Aezook, Crunchberries, Leadwind, MosheEmes, Bensci54, Arunsingh16, Brewcrewer, Vegetarianbchris419, Excirial, Sirjj, Farrukh38, Sun Creator, Ice Cold Beer, Cenarium, Peter.C, DeltaQuad, Jbabrams2, Itsabouttime, Joshman62, BOTarate, Thingg, Faramarz.M, BlueDevil, SoxBot III, Editor2020, Logical2007, XLinkBot, AshleyStarr x, RekonDog, Yesisgood, Rror, Nepenthes, Avoided, WikiDao, ZooFari, Lofarabia, Creatorrrr, Toplegochamp, NCDane, Smarchand11, Addbot, RamonaKay7, Imeriki al-Shimoni, Dawynn, Jojhutton, Elazeez, Aussieturk79, Yelud enosh, F31h1, Fieldday-sunday, Conan10~enwiki, NjardarBot, Cst17, MrOllie, Glane23, Lihaas, Debresser, Favonian, Meieimatai, Numbo3-bot, Dansultan87, Lolicakes101, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Raphael26, Sadlylacking, KamikazeBot, AnakngAraw, Bbb23, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Quangbao, Jim1138, Bolamasi, JackieBot, TaliTorah, SanfordDaniel, RandomAct, Csigabi, Flewis, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, LilHelpa, Schoener alltag, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Aquila89, Bihco, Matthew2618, 661kts, J218, Mediterraneoxxx, Aa22554, Pigby, Omnipaedista, Basharh, Mi Young, Shadowjams, RavShimon, Rabbi Orr Cohen, Joe mama1234567890, A.amitkumar, Dougofborg, Adamlance, Mavieblack1, Mrfunnyguy, Avrum84, Paine Ellsworth, JohnMorra, VS6507, Recognizance, HJ Mitchell, Oldcellphone, Finalius, Peace4all613, Woods0900, Airborne84, Zach7775, Citation bot 1, Sibian, Slashx60, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Adamgold33, MastiBot, ElNuevoEinstein, Jeppiz, Reconsider the static, Jauhienij, SkyMachine, TobeBot, Throwaway85, Lotje, Mitchell Powell, Comet Tuttle, Gejyspa, Pborhauer, Vrenator, Jimsm, Peacedance, Tbhotch, Wachiman589, Mean as custard, TjBot, Aleksig6, MShabazz, In ictu oculi, Rebecca99, Bamtelim, Smccauslin, DASHBot, J36miles, EmausBot, John of Reading, -- -- --, JoeBrooklyn1969, Griswaldo, GoingBatty, RA0808, Bull Market, Seriouscorrector, Tommy2010, Torahshul, Darkfight, Lucas Thoms, Savh, CreateW, Mz7, Evanh2008, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, Jewchild909, Shuipzv3, Imadjafar, MeHaveBigTurban, Moto53, ZH2010, MajorVariola, VictorFlaushenstein, Ben Ammi, Someone65, Randykessler, Aoffen, Pumpkinking0192, L Kensington, Rrstern25, Donner60, Mardge.humphrey, Zachariah62, Matarippis, Broomstick33, DASHBotAV, July89, Roylindman, Lkb2010, Qwerty458, SS2011, Turmerick, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Fvolcov, Morgankevinj huggle, Bonkie1, Beantownmh, Ypnypn, This lousy T-shirt, KIeio, Chester Markel, L69, Frietjes, Chavrusah, Vacybermaven, Widr, Redbull132, Telpardec, Antiqueight, Newyorkadam, KoakhtzvigadMobile, Helpful Pixie Bot, Novusuna, Jwills6912, HMSSolent, Titodutta, Bergersg, Regulov, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Vagobot, Northamerica1000, MusikAnimal, EshKidon, Marcocapelle, Cwb122870, Mark Arsten, Plopet, Atomician, Noah Bernstein, Mukilteoedits, Gallifreylord, Glacialfox, H. 217.83, Maryester, Rcunderw, The Editor4cheesepuffs, Desser18, Taylorsixtwo886, Tkbx, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Ollychristensen, Logographicthings, Matanel11111, Tahc, Доктор прагматик, Webclient101, Ortha-doxa, Tellonlytruth, Education613, Shirapp, PretoriaTravel, Imrankakkazhom, Teachingyeshua, Jackthepriest, KingQueenPrince, Robot wagner, GonzaloTroller42, Proud Novice, Jamesmcmahon0, Nassar13, DavidLeighEllis, Wamiq,

206

CHAPTER 15. LAND OF ISRAEL

Ginsuloft, Sam Sailor, Davidbena, EV1L DUCKEY, Mattytoller123, Library Guy, Teacum, Erick Shepherd, Melcous, Itamarkalimi, Ibnezra, Chailomit, Chicagoveter, Hijigne, Dubstep03, Noushi44, Ali69eh, JudeccaXIII, DWellsJr, Theredheifer, Zppix, BlueFenixReborn, Cocoppa, Rachel pinsky, Halmun, Theultimatepikachu2510, Isambard Kingdom, DaoXan, Nidafatimashahi, J.mari79, Antonio Bononcini, KasparBot, MusikBot, Godograpes, Mrcreepercjb, Max97121, AddMore der Zweite, Kdahjbfdsa, Moise.nedjar, Maureendepresident, Scotty85z, Oeuvres du Mahj, Dfrizz80, Johnmcintyre1959, Mrsmmah, Bhughes22, Smocabee, Fountains-of-Paris, Isit2004, Jeffr19, “Tecumseh”, Boyblackhat, DifensorFidelis, Bethhfox, JamesGordon2341, Thephilosopher6, ASchurman and Anonymous: 970 • Kingdom of Judah Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah?oldid=737527290 Contributors: Wesley, Tarquin, Amillar, Danny, PierreAbbat, Zoe, Zocky, Llywrch, IZAK, Andrewa, John K, Mxn, Andrewman327, Furrykef, AnonMoos, PuzzletChung, Robbot, Chrism, Chris Roy, Humus sapiens, Jsonitsac, OneVoice, Unyounyo, Unfree, Jdavidb, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Jason Quinn, Bobblewik, Golbez, Skywaker~enwiki, Chowbok, Gdr, Antandrus, Domino theory, SimonArlott, Kelson, Joyous!, JohnArmagh, Klemen Kocjancic, Mike Rosoft, Jayjg, Rich Farmbrough, Mani1, Bender235, Kaisershatner, Huntster, Mjk2357, Gilgamesh he, Reinyday, Cmdrjameson, Jguk 2, Giraffedata, Jonathunder, Yonatano, Ogress, Ricky81682, Zippanova, SlimVirgin, Ynhockey, Zsero, Melaen, Velella, HenkvD, Jheald, Bsadowski1, Jguk, LordAmeth, GringoInChile, Japanese Searobin, Brookie, Nuno Tavares, Briangotts, Alakhriveion, Grace Note, G.W., Qwertyus, Search4Lancer, Koavf, Hiberniantears, CDThieme, Fischersc, Crazycomputers, RobyWayne, Str1977, Chobot, YurikBot, Sortan, Hairy Dude, RussBot, CambridgeBayWeather, Bachrach44, Lockesdonkey, Bota47, Rob117, Nlu, Natgoo, Yaron Livne, Gator1, Yahnatan, Luk, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, PiCo, Slashme, Finavon, WookieInHeat, Gilliam, Hmains, Ingsoc, Armeria, Cush, TimBentley, Jprg1966, Neo-Jay, DHN-bot~enwiki, Drsmoo, Greenshed, Jiddisch~enwiki, John D. Croft, Metebelis, RandomP, Andrew c, Eliyak, TheKid, OmnipotentEntity, Ybact, Mbralchenko, Hmbr, Jose77, Dp462090, Gilabrand, Idols of Mud, Reahad, Wikieditor101, Cydebot, Karimarie, B, Doug Weller, Sweetmoose6, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Therealmikelvee, Escarbot, Jayron32, Jj137, Matt Giwer, Fayenatic london, Twirk88, JAnDbot, Dinurcenter, Natureguy1980, Spooky turnip, Supermant, Redaktor, Fab1uk, Atarr, MeteorMaker, J.delanoy, G. Campbell, Carlo ms06, MarcoLittel, Geagea, Student7, Jevansen, Steel1943, Idioma-bot, Bluesharkz4, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Java7837, Franco56, Mowsbury, Steven J. Anderson, IronMaidenRocks, Don4of4, PawełS, Mr. Absurd, Malus Catulus, EllenS, Lerdthenerd, Historygypsy, FinnWiki, Ponyo, KaliqX, SieBot, StAnselm, Brazzouk, FunkMonk, LordGorval, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Anchor Link Bot, Squash Racket, ClueBot, Statalyzer, PipepBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Enthusiast01, Drmies, DragonBot, Jnate19, Editor2020, Caoanroad4800, DumZiBoT, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, Ninja247, MystBot, Good Olfactory, NCDane, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, CanadianLinuxUser, OsotedeMonte, MrOllie, LaaknorBot, Debresser, ChenzwBot, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Kyuko, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Angel ivanov angelov, AnomieBOT, Pagepage~enwiki, Materialscientist, Professor alacarte, Xqbot, Shaihen, TechBot, Nasnema, Wikidolmetscher, J04n, GrouchoBot, Armbrust, Jsp722, Dailycare, FrescoBot, Altay8, Midrashah, Alxeedo, Izzedine, Craig Pemberton, Dannijal, Estudyante, Elockid, Jonesey95, Tahir mq, 2ko, Lightlowemon, Zoeperkoe, Peacedance, MShabazz, NameIsRon, Cybersystem, EmausBot, -- -- --, Look2See1, Yoyod, ZéroBot, Oncenawhile, Greyshark09, HammerFilmFan, Senjuto, ClamDip, Aurasium, Mhgibbons, ClueBot NG, Jeff Song, Rmaad Daamr, RoyYa, Navops47, Frietjes, Telpardec, Marco bisnar, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, All Rows4, Marcocapelle, Arminden, TheReclaimist, David.moreno72, Choy4311, Triggerhippie4, WmTyndale, Eharding, Cyberbot II, Khazar2, Egeymi, Hmainsbot1, Avusi nabusi, Do not collect, Lfdder, ArmbrustBot, Monochrome Monitor, Wlglunight93, Daylight15, Infantom, 1990’sguy, American Starkiller, Dtr1604, JudeccaXIII, Crapapple, Narky Blert, Entropyandvodka, Theredheifer, Darlene Hutchins, Rivalitaet, Isambard Kingdom, DaoXan, MB298, ISavedPvtRyan, Johnmcintyre1959, Beukford, BartPR, Infotryman, AddMore-III, Guns of brixham and Anonymous: 215 • Zohar Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zohar?oldid=737479184 Contributors: Slrubenstein, RK, Danny, XJaM, Bolo~enwiki, Netesq, Stevertigo, D, IZAK, Sannse, Andres, Tristanb, Deisenbe, Iorsh, Charles Matthews, Carol Fenijn, Topbanana, Washu~enwiki, Goethean, Kielsky, Hidoshi, Blainster, DocWatson42, Joe Kress, Jfdwolff, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Big Mac, Sihan, Eequor, LucasVB, Savant1984, DNewhall, Kevin B12, Fintor, Mike Rosoft, Jayjg, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Cacycle, YUL89YYZ, Bender235, Mateo SA, Kaisershatner, Bitkower, Carltonh, Olve Utne, Haham hanuka, SpaceFalcon2001, Pouya, SlimVirgin, Ynhockey, Sir Joseph, Fivetrees, TShilo12, Angr, Woohookitty, JarlaxleArtemis, Josephf, E=MC^2, Robert K S, BlankVerse, Jeff3000, BD2412, Porcher, Rjwilmsi, PinchasC, Amire80, FlaBot, Omegarad, Gringo300, RexNL, Arithmomaniac, Narvalo, Haldrik, Skraz, Kummi, YurikBot, Ugha, Wavelength, AVM, Hede2000, Maxim Leyenson, Gaius Cornelius, Moris~enwiki, Anomalocaris, Bachrach44, Magicmonster, Adamrush, Isolani, Number 57, Quillercouch, Pok148, MSJapan, Asarelah, Avraham, J S Ayer, Lt-wiki-bot, GraemeL, ArielGold, Greatal386, Xtraeme, Sassisch, SmackBot, Bobover1, KocjoBot~enwiki, Gilliam, Hmains, Keegan, Ryan Paddy, William Allen Simpson, John Reaves, DLand, Drsmoo, Vanished User 0001, JonHarder, Spliph, Harvestman, PuckSmith, Nelamm, Nesher, Eliyak, Jamesshanbrom, WIZARD826, Dfass, CharlesMartel, BrooklynHabiru, Keahapana, Iridescent, Poweron, Jbolden1517, Fdssdf, CmdrObot, Shorespirit, BeenAroundAWhile, Lighthead, Gregbard, Doug Weller, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, PKT, Wikid77, Missvain, James086, Itsmejudith, Jimhoward72, Nick Number, Deipnosophista, Escarbot, WinBot, Geogeogeo, Dinurcenter, Magioladitis, Mark3, Markdf10825, MartinBot, FrummerThanThou, TomyDuby, Geekdiva, Choronzonclub, S. Craig Wilson, Radicaltorahthought, Avick~enwiki, Haim Berman, DISEman, Java7837, BeIsKr, Robert1947, Falcon8765, Oldwes, Wolf2191, StAnselm, WereSpielChequers, BotMultichill, Dk0618, Perspicacite, Malchut~enwiki, OKBot, Rupertskin, Tesi1700, Hoplon, Leushenko, ClueBot, Metzujan, Stealthepiscopalian, Johngw, Trivialist, DragonBot, Evangeline.a, Canadien errant, Shoteh, DumZiBoT, April8, Kwork2, Amosflamos, Addbot, Debresser, SamatBot, Peter Napkin Dance Party, Flange the Flee, Unibond, BrianKnez, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Zorrobot, Yobot, Empireheart, AlexLevyOne, Alessio.aguirre, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Citation bot, QaBobAllah, LilHelpa, TPaineTX, Jeffrey Mall, Nissimnanach, Almabot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Asfarer, Abushai, FrescoBot, AlexanderKaras, Adlerbot, Moonraker, Orenburg1, ‫אומנות‬, Lotje, Gejyspa, Jesse V., ‫روخو‬, GiovanniVegaz, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Davedave88, Jordanled, L Kensington, Slightadjustments, Kingofthebritons, The soft voice of Judaism, ‫ג'ים‬ ‫הווארד‬, ClueBot NG, ‫אלימיט‬, Thorn0, Twillisjr, Widr, Baruch60610, Helpful Pixie Bot, Robert Towers, GeorgeY, BG19bot, StevenJ81, H. 217.83, Sfarney, Monozigote, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, ColdNorthWind2, Debouch, Edwardsm9668, Konveyor Belt, Monkbot, Alrah Fraser, Contributor613, DaoXan, Elizarob1, Sadya goan, Guarding the guards, Johanna dinkelbrät and Anonymous: 195 • Talmud Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud?oldid=737715630 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Bryan Derksen, Slrubenstein, RK, Danny, PierreAbbat, SJK, William Avery, Olivier, Rickyrab, Edward, Ubiquity, Michael Hardy, Ezra Wax, Gabbe, IZAK, Delirium, Eric119, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Yaronf, Nahum, Darkwind, Ineuw, Focus mankind~enwiki, Coren, Drshafer, Charles Matthews, ShaunOfTheLive, DJ Clayworth, Heshy, Zero0000, Juggleandhope, Topbanana, Dbabbitt, Bloodshedder, Epl18, Michael Glass, PuzzletChung, Modulatum, Sam Spade, Mirv, Judaeosemitist, Wjhonson, Texture, Humus sapiens, Hippietrail, Raeky, Cypherx, David Gerard, Zigger, Everyking, Jfdwolff, VampWillow, Neilc, Yoshiah ap, Masterhomer, Pgan002, Zeimusu, Antandrus, Billposer, Kelson, Dovi, Oknazevad, Fintor, Wasabe3543, Frikle, D6, Jayjg, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Quodlibetarian, Wclark, ArnoldReinhold, YUL89YYZ, Dbachmann, SpookyMulder, Bender235, ESkog, Kaisershatner, Syp, Ylee, El C, Shrike, Summer Song, RoyBoy, Bobo192, Stesmo, NetBot, Gartogg, Olve Utne, Viriditas, Jguk 2, Giraffedata, Flammifer, Rje, MPerel, Glaucus, Nsaa, Ogress, St0rm~enwiki, Kuratowski’s Ghost, AviGilChaitovsky, Alansohn, Mo0, Eric Kvaalen, Craigy144, Cjthellama, JoaoRicardo, Jnothman, Batmanand, Gaurav1146, Snowolf, Evil Monkey, Jheald, Patito, Chamaeleon, Sheynhertz-Unbayg, Mwalcoff, Simetrical, Woohookitty, PatGallacher, Briangotts, Jeff3000, Dzordzm, Palica, Mandarax, Magister Mathematicae, Keeves, BD2412, Josh Parris, Crzrussian, Rjwilmsi,

15.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

207

PinchasC, Tawker, Chiefmartinez, The wub, Sango123, FayssalF, Yellowmellow45, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Avichsc, Ariel Sokolovsky, Alphachimp, Chobot, HKT, Rigel.j, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Sputnikcccp, Lincolnite, John Quincy Adding Machine, Hede2000, Pigman, Qbzzt, Kirill Lokshin, Rsrikanth05, Nevreware, Neilbeach, Sjb90, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Jamesgibbon, GrumpyTroll, Justin Eiler, Jndrline, Gary Hoggatt, Yoninah, Dwragg, Dogcow, Misza13, TheMcManusBro, Yoshi Hayabusa, Morgan Leigh, Tomisti, Phenz, Avraham, FF2010, JEdgar, Thnidu, Jwissick, HereToHelp, Daniel575, Allens, Appleseed, Selkem, Mebden, Doom127, Andrew73, Huldra, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, Crystallina, Tadorne, SmackBot, Yodamace1, David Kernow, KnowledgeOfSelf, Dauster, Bobover1, RowBean, Stephensuleeman, Nickwolf, GoOdCoNtEnT, BiT, Lexo, Yamaguchi , Unforgettableid, Gilliam, Betacommand, Carl.bunderson, Kevinalewis, Keegan, Jon513, WikiFlier, Hibernian, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Jeff5102, RDT, Colonies Chris, Gracenotes, Gsp8181, Emrrans, Shuki, Jahiegel, Eliyahu S, Writtenright, ShalomShlomo, DovidMenachem, KevM, JonHarder, Rrburke, Dmoon1, Geekish, Alieseraj, Jmlk17, Gabrielwittes, Decltype, Paul H., PuckSmith, Minority2005, Yserbius, Bejnar, Nesher, Will Beback, DavidHallett, Yirmiyahou, Eliyak, Rory096, Jjjjjjjjjj, Harryboyles, Kuru, Khazar, Wtwilson3, Mike1901, Chodorkovskiy, Reuvenk, Osel, Pikipiki, A. Parrot, Noleander, Alexander Gieg, Keycard, DwightKingsbury, Kencf0618, Yodin, SnowyDay, Zionist2, MottyGlix, Michaeldg, Zadil, Tawkerbot2, Bwolper, Shirahadasha, Eastlaw, JForget, Jerry Jones, Ibadibam, Shykee, IrishJew, Zmjezhd, Sinamohajer, Cydebot, Karimarie, Jonathan Tweet, Meno25, Bellerophon5685, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, NMChico24, Wexcan, YCubed, Eliyyahu, Qwyrxian, Judae1, Ebernie79, Marek69, Missvain, DoomsDay349, Ahogan2, Klausness, Natalie Erin, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Ar2yeh, Luna Santin, Tamardc, Lkitrossky, Jayrav, PloniAlmoni, Fennessy, JAnDbot, TalmudDefender, Deflective, MER-C, Fetchcomms, Hanina, Yahel Guhan, Guedalia D'Montenegro, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Cadsuane Melaidhrin, Redaktor, Nyttend, Chesdovi, EmeZxX, WhatamIdoing, Jms2000, Khazaei.mr, Sesesq, Allstarecho, Plutochaun, Markco1, Seba5618, Ekki01, MartinBot, Ariel., Jewishprincess, Jonathan Hall, Bus stop, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, J.delanoy, Wideshanks, Kudpung, Wealthy, FrummerThanThou, Dispenser, McSly, Tony360X, Floaterfluss, Dillouz, In Transit, SJP, Largoplazo, KarlCz, Oberst59, Zhitel, Izno, KGV, Ichormosquito, Embargo, Wikieditor06, Goalie1998, Yehoishophot Oliver, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, Hdisvd, Epson291, Mlaric, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Java7837, Qxz, Steven J. Anderson, Leafyplant, GlobeGores, Jackfork, Arnehalbakken, Bearian, Mckaywiii, Gilisa, Omar 180, Samson Ben-Manoach, Koalorka, Wolf2191, Miryam bella, SieBot, StAnselm, Gerakibot, Vanished user skj3ioo3jwifjsek35y, NachSak, Flyer22 Reborn, David Adam Lewis, Lightmouse, Kathleen Powers, Sanya3, Robertroberg, Gr8opinionater, Jurd54634, Martarius, ClueBot, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, Meisterkoch, Fivmkf, Enthusiast01, Laudak, Niceguyedc, Jonund, Blanchardb, Leadwind, Auntof6, Excirial, Jusdafax, Eeekster, Sun Creator, Chefallen, Lifeweaver, SchreiberBike, Versus22, Technetium25, Editor2020, Shoteh, DumZiBoT, Rebele, XLinkBot, Fastily, Koumz, Guideheads11, SilvonenBot, Alexius08, Luckynumbers, Addbot, Yoenit, Non-dropframe, TutterMouse, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, MrOllie, Blueberrybuttermilkpancakes, AndersBot, Debresser, ChenzwBot, Meieimatai, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Xenobot, Jarble, Lilweezyfbaby, Ettrig, Ret.Prof, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Ascendam, Xevorim, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, DoctorJoeE, Jim1138, IRP, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Rabbishish, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Zad68, Spaduro, Aliljeho, Champlax, GrouchoBot, Standforder, Sophiee1, Omnipaedista, David009, Brandon5485, RibotBOT, Carneadiiz, Nickidewbear, Sheryl Abbey, RavShimon, Plot Spoiler, Cekli829, Green Cardamom, Contraverse, FrescoBot, StanWire, ReneVenegas95, Gonenutsbrb, Sławomir Biały, Chlomoh, Winterst, Jonesey95, Calmer Waters, Yahia.barie, Vikashgd, BRUTE, MastiBot, Turian, Jauhienij, FoxBot, Thái Nhi, Tbhotch, Doede1, MShabazz, YaakovHalevi, Alfons2, In ictu oculi, WildBot, Slon02, LcawteHuggle, Hermitstudy, Orphan Wiki, -- -- --, Truth matters all, T3dkjn89q00vl02Cxp1kqs3x7, ScottyBerg, Faceless Enemy, Edlitz36, Dishcmds, Winner 42, Jordanled, Dcirovic, Akhilan, Noyiddites, Sreifa, Werieth, Evanh2008, ZéroBot, Jar631, Ida Shaw, Akerans, Coagulans, Refael benvenisti, Prsaucer1958, Unreal7, Donner60, Mejcpp15, BobM3, ClamDip, MacStep, LikeLakers2, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Yambaram, Ypnypn, Chester Markel, Magister Scienta, Haneelam, Rabbidev, Bazuz, Anonim feat. bug mafia, O.Koslowski, Dream of Nyx, Rezabot, Widr, Ryan Vesey, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Сол-раз, Willemj, Northamerica1000, Azuizo, StevenJ81, Toromo1, Mark Arsten, Noah Bernstein, Arminden, HT.43, Scottlovessue, J R Gainey, Mr.briancochran, Maryester, Filing Flunky, Rcunderw, Muhammad Shuaib Nadwi, Jonadin93, BattyBot, Solntsa90, Psteinb, Sfarney, Yjsinger, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, ChrisGualtieri, Infinitive Split, Hydre, AusCanBri, Jethro B, Markuswoodrow1, Dexbot, TwoTwoHello, Falcon003, Oceanyam, Nphar, Torahenthusiast, Santurwoman, Westonvanhise, Robot wagner, Minski gaon, Blaue Max, Zack14981, Nonsenseferret, ‫הגהות הגרא‬, EvergreenFir, DavidLeighEllis, Btk13, Mpszafir, Ugog Nizdast, Ginsuloft, Davidbena, Calimeronte, Trinacrialucente, Antrocent, Beni62, Eli48264, Monkbot, Tre12345678910, Par Ah Dux, SupaFly1818, Adamreinman, Crystallizedcarbon, Jhggft, Calvinjohnson8123, Eteethan, YitzchokG22, Isambard Kingdom, DaoXan, Israelforlife, ‫גור אריה יהודה‬, Opdire657, Cnbr15, KasparBot, MusikBot, Chuxes, Btk15, JJMC89, Loomsmewls, Saiga12boy, Johnmcintyre1959, Jake516, TRM001, Seattle62, Mar11, Orin Dion (Oren Dayan), PanKaycke, JudgeRM, Judenshizer, Cowhead123 and Anonymous: 764 • Solomon’s Temple Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon’{}s_Temple?oldid=735646505 Contributors: Andre Engels, Danny, Olivier, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, IZAK, GTBacchus, KAMiKAZOW, Error, Andres, Uriber, Charles Matthews, Reddi, Zero0000, Warofdreams, Kenatipo, Wetman, Jamesday, Psmith, Pigsonthewing, Jmabel, Mirv, Henrygb, Gidonb, Humus sapiens, Bkell, UtherSRG, Guy Peters, Somercet, DocWatson42, Fastfission, Everyking, Niteowlneils, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Brockert, SarekOfVulcan, Loremaster, Neutrality, GdB, Jayjg, Guanabot, Vsmith, YUL89YYZ, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, Bender235, ESkog, TerraFrost, Cyclopia, Aranel, Kwamikagami, Wareh, Rpresser, Bobo192, Sentience, Smalljim, Viriditas, MPLX, Kuratowski’s Ghost, Grutness, Alansohn, Ungtss, Ricky81682, CheeseDreams, Ynhockey, Olaf Simons, Malo, Stillnotelf, MrBudgens, Oneliner, Jheald, Tony Sidaway, Grenavitar, BDD, Killing Vector, Deror avi, Hijiri88, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Tabletop, Wikiklrsc, GregorB, Sethimothy, Funhistory, Toussaint, BD2412, Melesse, Grammarbot, Edison, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Rogerd, E. Underwood, Vegaswikian, The wub, Bhadani, E-Man, Nihiltres, Tombombadil, Zef, The One True Fred, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, RussBot, Hede2000, Gardar Rurak, CanadianCaesar, Okedem, Darren.bowles, Msoos, Logawi, Billspry, Stijn Calle, Pok148, Avalonbound, Rktect, Rob117, Black Falcon, Tomisti, Avraham, DieWeisseRose, PetriFB~enwiki, SteveWells, Fram, Shyam, Rearden9, Kungfuadam, JDspeeder1, Chic happens, DVD R W, Tom Morris, Xtraeme, Amalthea, Joshbuddy, SmackBot, PiCo, C.Fred, Grye, HalfShadow, Alsandro, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Carl.bunderson, Mairibot, Chris the speller, Cush, Pylori, Rjones26, Thief12, John Hyams, Cplakidas, EvelinaB, Spinfrog, Blueboar, Radagast83, Khukri, Derek R Bullamore, Andrew c, DMacks, Baked, Andrew Dalby, Galut5, Eliyak, Banzoo, J 1982, Adrift*, Shlomke, 041744, Loadmaster, CharlesMartel, Abe.Froman, Noleander, Peyre, Andreworkney, DabMachine, Imad marie, Az1568, Courcelles, JayP4, Shirahadasha, Will Pittenger, Donour, Kotzker, Mellery, Ale jrb, Funkybuddy82, Ken Gallager, Richard Keatinge, Cydebot, Gproud, B, Doug Weller, Sweetmoose6, Nishidani, Epbr123, Bytebear, Crash777, Faigl.ladislav, Kablammo, Marek69, Astynax, Paith, NERIUM, Nick Number, Tiamut, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, Augusta2, Quintote, Fayenatic london, Silver seren, Danny lost, Expert12, Alphachimpbot, Natelewis, Prezza100, JAnDbot, Epeefleche, Amoruso, KonstableBot, RR, Jimmy1988, Acroterion, DoohanOK, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Hb2019, Redaktor, Tedickey, Sodabottle, Nyttend, Chesdovi, The Anomebot2, LorenzoB, Echinoman, Valerius Tygart, Robin S, Jonomacdrones, Antissimo, FisherQueen, MartinBot, EyeSerene, Bus stop, R'n'B, VirtualDelight, J.delanoy, Uncle Dick, 72Dino, Phalanxes, Whitebox, Iordanis 777, Airbagger117, McSly, MarcoLittel, Mrg3105, Theknowledgeable, Nnatan, Vanished user 39948282, Joshpinner, WLRoss, Bricology, Drchrisheard, Hugo999, TreasuryTag, Carter, Jeff G., Tommyboy101, Michaelpremsrirat, ChristopherLJackson, FergusM1970, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Steven J. Anderson, John Carter, Sintaku, Clarince63, Wiae, Lisa, SwordSmurf, Enigmaman, FinnWiki,

208

CHAPTER 15. LAND OF ISRAEL

Spinningspark, Dmcq, HiDrNick, Chrisbak, Authoritative, W4chris, Ericmahr, Manlymandan, SieBot, StAnselm, Hertz1888, Ninington, Amabbi, DeborahCme, Rykalski, Reb Arie, RatatoskJones, Wilson44691, Mimihitam, Aqccorp, Oxymoron83, Jack1956, Avnjay, Lightmouse, IdreamofJeanie, JohnSawyer, Calatayudboy, Dcattell, Yair rand, Nn123645, RegentsPark, Hashtin al hakir, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Reargunner, The Thing That Should Not Be, Mattgirling, Kiac, Enthusiast01, Boltach, Der Golem, Niceguyedc, RafaAzevedo, Leadwind, Jeffjeffkm, Puchiko, Zxcv9, Wikionego, Jusdafax, Gtstricky, Cliffymac, Bluex33BaBii13, Stepheng3, Aitias, Blehtova, Johnuniq, Editor2020, Liberal Humanist, DumZiBoT, Finalnight, Darkicebot, Legacybrat, Heironymous Rowe, XLinkBot, Jytdog, Bernardoni, SilvonenBot, Moisesencyclopedia, Good Olfactory, Shamanstk, Epictatus, Hanfangem, Addbot, Willking1979, Amandude13, Binary TSO, Rich jj, Submitter to Truth, Wintermole, AndersBot, Debresser, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Nizil Shah, Tide rolls, Flyingjholt, Arxiloxos, Legobot, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, MyOlmec, Becky Sayles, Reenem, Infero Veritas, Luizdl, Marshall Williams2, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Jim1138, Glenfarclas, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Xqbot, Historicist, GenQuest, Rdy66044, J04n, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Dukeonyx, Wikime345, Caleb Jon, 768gvg6gfvff, Zembry, Rj107, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Calmer Waters, Geogene, Meaghan, Jeppiz, Koakhtzvigad, NickVertical, Steenblikrs, Ron asquith, Mr. Anteater, Tbhotch, Potter’s best, RjwilmsiBot, Aleksig6, Zachiz, Look2See1, Marecheth Ho'eElohuth, RA0808, Prentice1024, Dcirovic, Cofey, Bollyjeff, Oncenawhile, Nzk10, Taleb3elm, Ocaasi, Rcsprinter123, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Xamot, S.A.Farabi, Pianista6, Mike-Man12, ClueBot NG, Yambaram, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Greatwolflodge37, Widr, Hawkrawkr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, JMvanDijk, Lowercase sigmabot, Iselilja, Tritomex, Jacobobrien, Mark Arsten, 391 loser, Smeat75, Arminden, Szeget, Joshuapalmgren, Newmancbn, Chief387, Cw3ag, BattyBot, Fiddlersmouth, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, ChrisGualtieri, Saxophilist, Yamum246, Jagerwhoodie, Yomon98, Zahav511, Webclient101, Josephk, Lugia2453, Simbastrainer, Purpleclothmerchant, Santurwoman, Gabby Merger, Dara Allarah, AmaryllisGardener, ArmbrustBot, Hahaha1234567, Monochrome Monitor, Rod99, Anekdotsejarah, Leno405, Academicassasin, Monkbot, Sinnersunited, Chelm261, Ghalibmeer, Lor, Masterofthename, Browcoww77, TheMagikCow, Suleiman Sheba, Baatarsaikan, James MacBryde, 777solomon, Heyitshebster, MusikBot, Sadya goan, Choclatedan, CLCStudent, Lachie15, Readarealhistorybook, The nazz are blue 22, Oinkie69 and Anonymous: 536 • Temple in Jerusalem Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem?oldid=738187381 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Brion VIBBER, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Wesley, Uriyan, Bryan Derksen, DanKeshet, Verloren, RK, Fubar Obfusco, Sfdan, Olivier, Leandrod, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Ezra Wax, EvanProdromou, GUllman, BoNoMoJo (old), Ixfd64, IZAK, Ahoerstemeier, Andrewa, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Reddi, Magnus.de, Tschild, Zero0000, JorgeGG, Robbot, Pfortuny, Mirv, Ashley Y, Gidonb, Humus sapiens, Saforrest, JamesMLane, Thv, DocWatson42, Cokoli, Nat Krause, Zigger, Wwoods, Everyking, Varlaam, Yakkity0, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Jds, Hannes Karnoefel, Wmahan, Ato, Andycjp, Antandrus, Beland, DNewhall, Administer, One Salient Oversight, Bumm13, Kevin B12, PFHLai, Talrias, Neutrality, Dovi, Jayjg, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, DavidBarak, Pie4all88, YUL89YYZ, Dave souza, Gimferrer, Dbachmann, Uppland, Bender235, Kaisershatner, Summer Song, Madler, Thuresson, Bobo192, Smalljim, Olve Utne, Jguk 2, CoolGuy, The Ephialtist, Chuckstar, MPLX, Chad A. Woodburn, Pearle, Orzetto, Alansohn, Jnothman, SlimVirgin, Goodoldpolonius2, Snowolf, Sir Joseph, Oneliner, Satanjeev, Killing Vector, TShilo12, SP-KP, Commander Keane, Lapsed Pacifist, Husainweb, Jdunlevy, Toussaint, Shanedidona, Junjk, KHM03, Tydaj, Cuchullain, Bunchofgrapes, PinchasC, Vegaswikian, Matt Deres, Sango123, Titoxd, DDerby, Redwolf24, CJLL Wright, Gdrbot, Hall Monitor, Gwernol, JPD, YurikBot, Ugha, Hairy Dude, Quince, RussBot, Epolk, Meamcat, Raquel Baranow, Pvasiliadis, Okedem, Gaius Cornelius, Wimt, Dmlandfair, Manxruler, MosheA, NawlinWiki, Bachrach44, Grafen, Howcheng, Joelr31, Yoninah, Lexicon, Yym, Dsol, T, DRosenbach, Botteville, Rob117, Tomisti, JoanneB, RobertBorgersen, HereToHelp, ArielGold, Neoaeolian, Hirudo, DVD R W, Yahnatan, Gray62, Sardanaphalus, Sassisch, SmackBot, Ts2do, PiCo, Elonka, Tom Lougheed, Grye, Delldot, Eskimbot, Arcan~enwiki, UrbanTerrorist, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Kevinalewis, Scaife, Chris the speller, Cush, Chabuk, Jon513, OrangeDog, DHN-bot~enwiki, Darth Panda, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Shuki, DHeyward, Metallurgist, Eliyahu S, Nixeagle, Snowmanradio, AMK152, Greenshed, Krich, Ritchie333, Savidan, Das Baz, O RLY?, Nelamm, Jgrimmer, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Esrever, Galut5, Eliyak, Arunpnair, Macomrade, A. Parrot, CharlesMartel, MTSbot~enwiki, Belfry, Brainout~enwiki, Cheesemaster, Zero sharp, Jjoplin, Tawkerbot2, Kevin Murray, Cryptic C62, Connection, Shirahadasha, JForget, Iced Kola, Tolleranza, Bilcarter, Ibadibam, Dgw, IntrigueBlue, Bnwwf91, Sdorrance, Gorte, Chicheley, Cydebot, Stebbins, Karimarie, Red Director, Sullivan9211, Ninja Joey, Gproud, ADMH, B, Doug Weller, SteveMcCluskey, Sweetmoose6, Matt Drums, Mkooiman, Keraunos, Sobreira, Marek69, Remort, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, Escarbot, Yonatan, Marokwitz, Danny lost, Obdigobin, JAnDbot, Bigjimslade, MER-C, Epeefleche, Amoruso, KonstableBot, QuantumEngineer, Hobson, PhilKnight, StavinChain, Yahel Guhan, Biblical1, VoABot II, Icy118, ***Ria777, Chesdovi, The Anomebot2, Jms2000, DerHexer, Thestick, DGG, Flaxmoore, Richardperry, Gkklein, Lance6968, Wikitiki89, 029598, Matthewrlee, J.delanoy, Sayanvala, Trusilver, Yonidebot, Geagea, Rocket71048576, SJP, Theknowledgeable, 2help, Cometstyles, Tiggerjay, Nnatan, Jamesontai, Mike V, MishaPan, Q1000101, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, CWii, Philip Trueman, Caelon, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Berthold Werner, NRHarris, Hqb, Steven J. Anderson, Klezfiddle1, Peachy802, VanishedUserABC, Authoritative, D. Recorder, SieBot, StAnselm, Hertz1888, VVVBot, Beavis5000, Daniel Ventura~enwiki, Salehko, Jsholtz, Wilson44691, Shuey123, Aqccorp, Oxymoron83, Puuropyssy, Fratrep, Rundcirkel, Calatayudboy, Martarius, ClueBot, Rumping, Fyyer, Metzujan, Winsteps, Boing! said Zebedee, Zachrey, Leadwind, John J. Bulten, Brewcrewer, DragonBot, Wikitumnus, Saadinfo, KC109, Estirabot, Jcstrummer, CowboySpartan, Elizium23, Muro Bot, BOTarate, Shlishke, Thingg, Aitias, SoxBot III, Editor2020, Random Jedi, XLinkBot, Ghinozzi, Little Mountain 5, Nicolae Coman, Addbot, Elazeez, Rich jj, TutterMouse, MrOllie, CarsracBot, Debresser, Doob of doom, Hsteach, Wikihi1, Tide rolls, Lightbot, ‫דוד‬55, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, Legobot II, Fiddler7, AnakngAraw, AnomieBOT, Arjun G. Menon, Ciphers, Pyrrhus16, Mogollon, Contrieng, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Roux-HG, LovesMacs, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Historicist, Tad Lincoln, Tyrol5, Mikeetg, Omnipaedista, Victorsachse, Mattis, FrescoBot, Avrum84, 08loredana.meogrossi, Zembry, Rj107, Drew R. Smith, Xhaoz, Shanghainese.ua, Elockid, Sebastimau, MJ94, Blairra, RedBot, Md iet, Full-date unlinking bot, Jeppiz, Koakhtzvigad, Tim1357, DeSaulcy, Hwgeek, Beartechnc, Ely1, TeaStew, Jeffrd10, ‫בנילה‬, Tbhotch, Ms. 45, FKLS, Aleksig6, Wordoftruth5511, Beyond My Ken, In ictu oculi, DASHBot, J36miles, EmausBot, Dolescum, Orphan Wiki, Observer6, Or24, Passionless, Yafehmeod, Jkangel, Mdseverson, Evanh2008, Oncenawhile, Mostafa.Hassan, Wayne Slam, HammerFilmFan, MichiganY, L Kensington, HupHollandHup, ‫אתר בית המקדש‬, Flightx52, Xamot, Zfish118, NTox, Omarello2, ChoG, ClueBot NG, Cwmhiraeth, Djkas14, The Master of Mayhem, Frietjes, Biosketch, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Dolphinjamez, Iste Praetor, Truthful history, Calabe1992, Dugit, MusikAnimal, IsraelAc, Atomician, Arminden, AntanO, Kxcd, EricEnfermero, Hghyux, Enterprisey, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Dbulgrien, Lugia2453, Santurwoman, DHdrizzle, Ritmeyer, CsDix, ArmbrustBot, ‫עודד פרידמן‬, Goldenboy12345678910, Cocoamelia, Connormmullen, Corini1978, Unician, LM14058, E.M.Gregory, Isambard Kingdom, DaoXan, MusikBot, Sadya goan, FaterNatan, Maureendepresident, Clarifié, LivyLoopy, Epson Salts, Oinkie691, Oinkie914, Oinkie345, Oinkie9870 and Anonymous: 573 • Second Temple Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Temple?oldid=729867887 Contributors: Andre Engels, Renata, Stevertigo, Llywrch, IZAK, KAMiKAZOW, Reddi, Warofdreams, Anthony Fok, Mirv, Humus sapiens, Somercet, Nat Krause, Joe Kress, Jdavidb, Jfdwolff, Masterhomer, J0m1eisler, TJSwoboda, Acad Ronin, Yonkeltron, Jayjg, NightMonkey, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, YUL89YYZ, LindsayH, Paul August, Bender235, Vortexrealm, Johnteslade, Chad A. Woodburn, Jonathunder, Ricky81682, Hadžija, Super-Magician, Knowledge Seeker, Woohookitty, Briangotts, Funhistory, Toussaint, Edison, Koavf, Vegaswikian, Sango123, Gurch, Joonasl, Gdrbot, Wavelength, RussBot, Hede2000, Almogo, Gaius Cornelius, Curtis Clark, Grafen, Billspry, PhilipC, Black Falcon, Avra-

15.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

209

ham, Crisco 1492, Alecmconroy, Silverhorse, Fram, NeilN, DVD R W, SmackBot, Clpo13, Stepa, WookieInHeat, Alsandro, Gilliam, Hmains, Julian Diamond, Carl.bunderson, Andy M. Wang, Cush, SchfiftyThree, Colonies Chris, Rcbutcher, John Hyams, JonHarder, Lyran, Monosig, Esrever, Rklawton, Kashk, J 1982, Korovioff, Martinp23, Jpetersen46321, CharlesMartel, Digsdirt, Peyre, ‫דניאל צבי‬, JMK, Yodin, Gilabrand, Tawkerbot2, Shirahadasha, ConstantinetheGreat~enwiki, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Stebbins, Aristophanes68, Flymeoutofhere, Doug Weller, Nsaum75, Sweetmoose6, Squallgreg, Fneep, Faigl.ladislav, Sobreira, Marek69, Nick Number, Ohtaryon, Jayron32, Fayenatic london, Silver seren, Danny lost, JAnDbot, Amoruso, Benschellack, Cynwolfe, VoABot II, Sodabottle, Chesdovi, Jewishprincess, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Maurice Carbonaro, Maestaru, Eschatology 101, Ritarius, Student7, Theknowledgeable, Hugo999, TreasuryTag, Jeff G., Mocirne, Lamo99, ArnoldPettybone, Berthold Werner, Franco56, Jdcrutch, CoJaBo, Steven J. Anderson, Wiae, Gilisa, Omar 180, FinnWiki, Zigon11, Authoritative, Yngvarr, Hertz1888, Xymmax, Flyer22 Reborn, Mathetes59, Mimihitam, Skippydo, Rundcirkel, Calatayudboy, Sean.hoyland, Florentino floro, RegentsPark, Sfan00 IMG, CorenSearchBot, Kendo70133, Enthusiast01, Hafspajen, Brewcrewer, Feline Hymnic, Nableezy, Jcstrummer, Deepocean9, Editor2020, Gawain VIII, Kolyma, CalumH93, Addbot, Yoenit, Lindert, MrOllie, LaaknorBot, Jjstott, Pericusmeus~enwiki, Debresser, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Eddau~enwiki, Numbo3bot, Dougbateman, Litev, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Fiddler7, AnomieBOT, Dapilars, Jim1138, BobKilcoyne, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Historicist, TheCuriousGnome, Ani medjool, Omnipaedista, Error Corrected, Hope&Act3!, FrescoBot, MBelzer, Joelbentzion, Slivicon, Zembry, Rj107, Kullock, HRoestBot, Poliocretes, Supreme Deliciousness, FormerIP, Lotje, Beartechnc, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Aa42john, MShabazz, In ictu oculi, EmausBot, John of Reading, -- -- --, WikitanvirBot, Shelby67Corba, Michael.thames, Sreifa, Italia2006, Linda Olive, Oncenawhile, Kevjonesin, BrokenAnchorBot, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Noodleki, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Yambaram, Telpardec, WilliamJustinM, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Ovularity, MickeyDonald, ISTB351, AvocatoBot, FoxCE, Arminden, Zeke256, Janus945, Nmcnms, ChrisGualtieri, Tahc, Kanghuitari, JFKAR, BlindBadger, Mogism, Pagingpage, KahnJohn27, Santurwoman, PhantomTech, Segevsh, King Philip V of Spain, PeterWaldon, ArmbrustBot, Davidbena, Paul88998, BethNaught, Bigmccc, Unician, JudeccaXIII, E.M.Gregory, TeaLover1996, WolfieWonder111, Ddoocey, MusikBot, SadsadsdaA, DjdjdnsnA, History of Persia, LoveFerguson, Zeus&Dionysus, Jarmunn and Anonymous: 254 • Temple Mount Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_Mount?oldid=736109246 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Wesley, Uriyan, Ed Poor, RK, Danny, Karen Johnson, William Avery, Shii, Jennifer~enwiki, Galizia, Blue~enwiki, Olivier, Rickyrab, Mkmcconn, Stevertigo, Hfastedge, Ezra Wax, DopefishJustin, IZAK, Александър, Deisenbe, JamesReyes, Vargenau, JASpencer, Hike395, Reddi, AWhiteC, Zero0000, Jason M, Bearcat, Moriori, Naddy, Mirv, Desmay, Gidonb, Humus sapiens, Bkell, OneVoice, DocWatson42, Palapala, Wwoods, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Jason Quinn, Mboverload, Wilberth, Bobblewik, Wmahan, Mustafaa, Beland, Cjewell, Noirum, One Salient Oversight, Tothebarricades.tk, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Thorsten1, Agari, Klemen Kocjancic, Grm wnr, Blorg, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, Jrp, Discospinster, Guanabot, Loganberry, Wclark, Wikiacc, Ibnraza, LindsayH, VT hawkeye, Martpol, Bender235, Sunborn, Doron, Shrike, Marcok, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Smalljim, Holgate, Viriditas, MPLX, Pschemp, Pearle, Jonathunder, Irishpunktom, Leifern, Kingsindian, Zachlipton, Alansohn, Eric Kvaalen, Arthena, SlimVirgin, Ynhockey, UnHoly, Wdfarmer, Sir Joseph, Knowledge Seeker, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Evil Monkey, Guy Montag, GabrielF, Versageek, Lday, FrScooper, Notcarlos, Deror avi, OwenX, Ghane, PatGallacher, SP-KP, Former user 2, Tedneeman, Mpatel, Kelisi, Husainweb, GregorB, Pfalstad, BD2412, Search4Lancer, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Koavf, Vary, Amire80, Jrn0074, Funnyhat, Narcissus14, Yuber, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, DebateGod, RexNL, Gurch, Str1977, Benanhalt, NEWUSER, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Revolution~enwiki, YurikBot, Alanromero, RussBot, Ramallite, Epolk, Netscott, Akamad, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Anomalocaris, Bachrach44, Kingjeff, Kitabparast, Toya, Derex, Epugachev, Xdenizen, Tony1, Gadget850, Sandstein, Dbratton, Zzuuzz, Rms125a@hotmail.com, Toddgee, FDuffy, Fram, Daniel575, Jonathan.s.kt, Carlosguitar, Huldra, Tyomitch, Yoshm, Sardanaphalus, Remiel, Laurence Boyce, SmackBot, Elonka, Tomer yaffe, KnowledgeOfSelf, Midway, Arcan~enwiki, IronDuke, Gilliam, Hmains, Quadratic, Bluebot, TimBentley, Rakela, MalafayaBot, Droll, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Delta Tango, Colonies Chris, Rcbutcher, Margavriel, Tewfik, Shuki, Shalom Yechiel, Historian2, OrphanBot, Nixeagle, JonHarder, Xeeron, Yidisheryid, Bolivian Unicyclist, Threeafterthree, Khoikhoi, Pepsidrinka, Krich, PiMaster3, Shamir1, RolandR, Monosig, Pockets23, MatthewBChambers, Ohconfucius, FAH1223, ZScarpia, The undertow, Eliyak, Stoykeberlin, PBarak, Asad112, Hmbr, Dnavin, Shilonite, Musashiaharon, Bapples81, Striatum~enwiki, A. Parrot, Bless sins, TheHYPO, MTN~enwiki, Eldrin2002, Sifaka, ‫דניאל צבי‬, Politepunk, Theegrateone, Iridescent, Sinaloa, Imad marie, Yearn~enwiki, Gilabrand, ChrisCork, Lokiloki, Shirahadasha, CmdrObot, Mattbr, Scohoust, Bnwwf91, Sdorrance, Ken Gallager, IrishJew, Chicheley, Jgrischow1, Cydebot, Mato, Hebrides, DumbBOT, Bookgrrl, Kuti013, Lo2u, Gimmetrow, Nishidani, Epbr123, Eliyyahu, Keraunos, Sobreira, Astynax, J.christianson, Hcobb, Tiamut, Luna Santin, Etc. gamma, Rabbi-m, Eric1985, Yellowdesk, David Shankbone, JAnDbot, MER-C, Epeefleche, Amoruso, Ebeili, Hanina, Robpinion, SiobhanHansa, Yahel Guhan, Naval Scene, Deposuit, Eisenmond, Pedro, VoABot II, Misheu, Chesdovi, The Anomebot2, Cgingold, A student of history, Mithgol the Webmaster, DerHexer, JaGa, Sharthopor, Thestick, 0rdinator, Fab1uk, SquidSK, Ekki01, Richardperry, Onaraighl, Almaqdisi, Bus stop, Evert100, CommonsDelinker, Dajamminman, Beit Or, J.delanoy, DrKay, Issam1, Nature loves all, Steve3742, MatchStickEleven, Nonignavus, Mdabasel, Ashley kennedy3, Kraftlos, Biglovinb, Theknowledgeable, Ledenierhomme, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, Gajh, Golem52, Epson291, TXiKiBoT, Joopercoopers, Oshwah, Berthold Werner, Dirubin, Tovojolo, 71firebird, Technopat, Oxfordwang, Anna Lincoln, Steven J. Anderson, Broadbot, Bcrawford92, Xavcam, Dirkbb, Omar 180, Syed s, Y, Adam.J.W.C., Historygypsy, Tetracyanoethylene, Athena’s daughter, Authoritative, ForrestSjap, Al Ameer son, Obaidz96, Tpb, SieBot, StAnselm, XUYT64KX84EV, Huggy82, Brenont, Hertz1888, Gwgoldb, Rabbeinu, Wilson44691, Lightmouse, KathrynLybarger, Mátyás, JohnSawyer, Vice regent, XKV8R, Mcsisson, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, XPTO, Ashmaster211, RafaAzevedo, Arbeit Sockenpuppe, Simonooze, SamuelTheGhost, Brewcrewer, Jusdafax, Nudve, Nableezy, D-Zeuf, Wajahat malik, Hanastop, SchreiberBike, Muro Bot, Jowki~enwiki, Callinus, DumZiBoT, Doctorman, XLinkBot, Middleasternguy, Ost316, SilvonenBot, MagnesianPhoenix, A Knavish Bonded, Samin096, Addbot, Piz d'Es-Cha, Blanche of King’s Lynn, Blueflashmakom, Uruk2008, Zozo2kx, Wickey-nl, Non-dropframe, AkhtaBot, Mww113, CanadianLinuxUser, Download, EdgarMCMLXXXI, Lihaas, Debresser, Favonian, Anam Gumnam, Heshamdiab116, 'Merikan, Bookitybook, LamaLoLeshLa, AgadaUrbanit, Lightbot, Kyuko, Rivea, Tundrabuggy, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Michaelidarecis, Kipoc, Metts0, AnomieBOT, DoctorJoeE, Cptnono, LlywelynII, Copytopic1, AMuseo, Djampa, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Gilgulim, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Historicist, Yos Ben Yitzchak, Jmundo, Srich32977, Shakarian141, Appleville, No More Mr Nice Guy, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, 15InfiniteJest, Dove220, Amnidab, Jalapenos do exist, Suneet87, MerlLinkBot, E0steven, Dougofborg, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot, Recognizance, Athanasius1, WhizzWr, Footyfanatic3000, Hareb97, Abductive, Poliocretes, ‫أسمى‬, Supreme Deliciousness, Ymbhyi, Brucewh, Jamescooly, Md iet, Jeppiz, Noufalom, Newmanyb, Judea09, Apesteilen, Tim1357, FoxBot, ‫קול ציון‬, Callanecc, GregKaye, Charlapg, Tbhotch, J. in Jerusalem, Do u smoke weed, MShabazz, P Aculeius, Sameerlakho, Gould363, Deagle AP, Zachiz, Letdemsay, EmausBot, Broad Wall, Tommy2010, Sreifa, ZéroBot, Linda Olive, Oncenawhile, Moto53, H3llBot, Wkpgilad, Darkefire, Thine Antique Pen, Someone65, L1A1 FAL, Shlib92, Screwbiedooo, Brandmeister, Ghoomas, Xamot, Sailsbystars, Algy Moncrieff, Jewmount, LibiBamizrach, Pinetreejungle, Jrr483, ‫عمرو بن كلثوم‬, Zaza8675, Shahirmihad, ClueBot NG, Yambaram, Dartii62, MarleneWilkinson, Helpful Pixie Bot, Proctoronline, Andolan1, BG19bot, Buzzyleaonard, Cwinsal, Marcocapelle, Ronniesudani, Anthro22, Arminden, Meatsgains, Hamish59, Jtmount, JudeaForever, Jewtemp, TheGoodBadWorst, Triggerhippie4, Laberkiste, Mogism, Pluto2012, Ekomik, Namskii, Bnaveed, Gnomeoftherock, KahnJohn27, Vyacheslav84, Inkbug, Godot13, Lfdder, Artusri12, Gransar, Monochrome Monitor,

210

CHAPTER 15. LAND OF ISRAEL

YiFeiBot, AddWittyNameHere, Motique, Davidbena, Kristacy98, Monkbot, Bolter21, ShulMaven, Unician, Roverlager, Makeandtoss, Naytz, Fazeela Jahangir, E.M.Gregory, Pelle Ican, Hajyahiaameen, Peter154W, Keramiton, AbuMohammad84, Star72, Mohannadtbele, SmartIsrael, I prefer to eat hicks, ‫محمد مجیب‬, Baatarsaikan, Isambard Kingdom, DaoXan, Editorkolker, MusikBot, Settleman, Foreach n everyday, Johnmcintyre1959, AttilaTotalWar, TRM001, Dan Holsinger, Acc BasilM.Hajeer, Hiat1222, Maherodeh84, JamesGordon2341 and Anonymous: 529 • Jordan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan?oldid=738018500 Contributors: Paul Drye, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Jeronimo, -- April, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Scipius, Branden, William Avery, SimonP, Drbug, Camembert, KF, Olivier, Paul Ebermann, Leandrod, Kemkim, Stevertigo, Edward, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Rabin, Liftarn, Gabbe, Mic, Ixfd64, IZAK, Goatasaur, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Stan Shebs, Samuelsen, Snoyes, CatherineMunro, TUF-KAT, Notheruser, Angela, Jebba, Jdforrester, Александър, LittleDan, Glenn, Andres, Evercat, Iorsh, Liesel Hess, CarlKenner, Tobias Conradi, Uriber, PatriceNeff, Pascal, Popsracer, Adam Bishop, Dysprosia, Lou Sander, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Selket, DJ Clayworth, Vancouverguy, Tpbradbury, Grendelkhan, Saltine, Val42, Zero0000, Philopp, Wernher, Fvw, Wetman, Francs2000, Hajor, Dimadick, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, Lambda, Vardion, Astronautics~enwiki, ChrisO~enwiki, Fredrik, Alouden, Psychonaut, Romanm, Sparky, Samrolken, Mirv, Academic Challenger, Hemanshu, Texture, Gidonb, Humus sapiens, Leumi, Bkell, Hadal, UtherSRG, Profoss, Mushroom, DigiBullet, SoLando, PBP, Dina, Exploding Boy, Knobunc, Graeme Bartlett, DocWatson42, Isam, Nichalp, Tom harrison, Orangemike, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Bkonrad, Cantus, Rick Block, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Golbez, Chowbok, Gadfium, Pgan002, Alexf, Maron daniel, Geni, Ebear422, Dvavasour, Knutux, Yardcock, Quadell, Antandrus, MisfitToys, Eregli bob, PDH, Jossi, Billposer, Mikko Paananen, Secfan, Al-Andalus, M.e, Paul99, Joyous!, Frau Holle, MementoVivere, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Thorwald, Talkstosocks, Mike Rosoft, Tungol, Kmccoy, D6, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, Poccil, Nimbulan, Imroy, DanielCD, John Ball, EugeneZelenko, Cruvers, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Vsmith, Pmaccabe, HeikoEvermann, Ahkond, HCA, Mjpieters, Quiensabe, Roodog2k, Ibagli, Pavel Vozenilek, SamEV, Bender235, ESkog, Android79, Lance6Wins, Mashford, Brian0918, MBisanz, Sfahey, El C, Shrike, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Phoenix Hacker, Momotaro, Aude, Shanes, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Amerika, Jpgordon, Bastique, Bobo192, Ypacaraí, Smalljim, Dejitarob, Palmiro, Alberuni, Giraffedata, Nk, Darwinek, PeterisP, Thewayforward, MPerel, Sam Korn, Pharos, Pearle, Irishpunktom, Nsaa, Mareino, A2Kafir, Nickfraser, Jumbuck, Jadmadi, OneGuy, Storm Rider, Msh210, Alansohn, Gary, Mduvekot, Walter Görlitz, Qwghlm, Buaidh, Jonathas, Jeltz, Improv, Craigy144, Lord Pistachio, Riana, Manos, Trjumpet, Mac Davis, Ynhockey, Dark Shikari, UnHoly, Malo, Snowolf, Hyperlink~enwiki, Wtmitchell, Ronark, Cyberanto, Cburnett, Garzo, KapilTagore, RJFJR, Sciurinæ, Inge-Lyubov, Bsadowski1, Ianblair23, Alai, Nightstallion, Harvestdancer, TShilo12, Johnwcowan, Empoor, Bobrayner, Ithinktfiam, Angr, Velho, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, LOL, Yansa, Sburke, BillC, KrisK, Fbv65edel, WadeSimMiser, Jeff3000, Tabletop, Tbc2, I64s, SDC, Brendanconway, Wayward, Toussaint, Prashanthns, Cedrus-Libani, LinkTiger, Zpb52, Pfalstad, RSieradzki, Dysepsion, Paxsimius, RichardWeiss, NonComposMentis, Ashmoo, Graham87, Tovias, A Train, Deadcorpse, Chunhian, FreplySpang, JamesBurns, Jclemens, Fox Mccloud, Electionworld, Jdcooper, Canderson7, Douzzer, Jorunn, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Susan Davis, Koavf, Саша Стефановић, Chipuni, Jake Wartenberg, Gryffindor, Panoptical, Browned, Tangotango, Feydey, Pabix, Dergrosse, Lairor, Matt Deres, FlavrSavr, Yuber, Sango123, Hanifh, FayssalF, Titoxd, FlaBot, Pruneau, Eyas, Ian Pitchford, Ground Zero, Latka, Jak123, Estrellador*, Crazycomputers, Mattnik, RexNL, Gurch, Karrmann, Atrix20, Codex Sinaiticus, Atitarev, Malhonen, McDogm, Gareth E. Kegg, Erp, Idaltu, Valentinian, Chobot, Jared Preston, DVdm, Volunteer Marek, 334a, Bgwhite, Skraz, E Pluribus Anthony, Wjfox2005, Mercury McKinnon, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Jzylstra, Neitherday, Sceptre, CltFn, Kordas, RussBot, Rxnd, Arnieroy, Anonymous editor, Ivirivi00, Ribrsiq, Ramallite, Elrith, HVH, RadioFan, Stephenb, Okedem, CambridgeBayWeather, Theelf29, Rsrikanth05, Cryptic, Bovineone, Wimt, Bullzeye, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Welsh, ZacBowling, Rjensen, Tejas81, Kufat, Piratesswoop, Equilibrial, Shadowfax0, D. F. Schmidt, Brandon, Matticus78, Dputig07, Aldux, Danlaycock, Voidxor, AlbertR, Tbook~enwiki, Tony1, BOT-Superzerocool, DeadEyeArrow, Bota47, Tachs, Robin.r, Tachyon01, TimK MSI, Josce~enwiki, Jpeob, Brisvegas, Martinwilke1980, Black Falcon, Nlu, Thane Eichenauer, Mfirdaus89, AjaxSmack, TransUtopian, Tigershrike, RR68, Kmusser, Vpendse, Itake, Zzuuzz, The-, Nikkimaria, Theda, Closedmouth, E Wing, KGasso, Brian Tvedt, Dspradau, Livitup, Cybjorg, Thomas Auge, BorgQueen, Bkwrm18, Black-Velvet, JoanneB, Alasdair, CWenger, Fram, Yodakii, JLaTondre, Radioflux, Spliffy, Nais, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, NeilN, Gator1, Paul Erik, GrinBot~enwiki, Peeteeree, Mikegrant, Amberrock, DVD R W, West Virginian, Octavian X, Attilios, 6SJ7, Robfenix, SmackBot, 4dhayman, David Kernow, Aiman abmajid, Reedy, Rose Garden, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, CSZero, Pgk, Sek51186, Goldfishbutt, Vedantdotcom, Jacek Kendysz, Yuyudevil, Soms, Davewild, Big Adamsky, Clpo13, Jfurr1981, WookieInHeat, EncycloPetey, Jab843, Ajm81, Canthusus, Kintetsubuffalo, Swerdnaneb, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Srnec, Asb63, SmartGuy Old, Müslimix, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, Polaron, Cs-wolves, ERcheck, EddyH, Iancaddy, Tv316, Chris the speller, Bluebot, TimBentley, Timbouctou, Philosopher, Sully54, Bartimaeus, Persian Poet Gal, Jprg1966, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot, Roscelese, SchfiftyThree, Deli nk, Akanemoto, Bazonka, Octahedron80, Baa, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Darth Panda, VirtualSteve, GoodDay, MaxSem, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, Shuki, HoodedMan, Drsmoo, OOODDD, MJCdetroit, JonHarder, EvelinaB, Addshore, RedHillian, Edivorce, Celarnor, Pax85, SundarBot, Phaedriel, Omernos, AndySimpson, Rarelibra, Khoikhoi, Pepsidrinka, Mistico, PiMaster3, Zrulli, Gabi S., Waleg, Nakon, Magore, Mistamagic28, Shamir1, Shadow1, Basel jaber, DMacks, Yom, KeithB, DavidMann, Pilotguy, Kukini, Drmaik, Ceoil, SashatoBot, Chaldean, ArglebargleIV, Rory096, Robomaeyhem, Randwick~enwiki, Swatjester, Zahid Abdassabur, AlanD, Kuru, John, MayerG, Ybact, Assouli, Johanna-Hypatia, J 1982, SilkTork, Hmbr, Gobonobo, Jperrylsu, Wikirecon, Vlatkoto, Shadowlynk, Genesiskw, Accurizer, Joffeloff, NYCJosh, Green Giant, Razishaban, Aleenf1, IronGargoyle, Ckatz, Pikipiki, Jovita07, A. Parrot, Roger Danger Field, Bless sins, Slakr, Timmeh, Stinkywafflechunks, Shangrilaista, Noah Salzman, Martinp23, Mr Stephen, AxG, Moszczynski, Yozzy, Maksim L., Waggers, McTrixie, Whomp, Ryulong, Peter Horn, Scorpion0422, Galactor213, Hectorian, ShakingSpirit, Levineps, Hetar, BranStark, HelloAnnyong, Iridescent, RoyalTS, Walton One, Greenc, ArchonMeld, Amakuru, CapitalR, Bobamnertiopsis, Harlan wilkerson, Az1568, Courcelles, Gilabrand, Issagm, Banimustafa, Thricecube, Blame 1, JoannaSerah, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Daniel5127, Ouishoebean, RaviC, George100, ChrisCork, GerryWolff, Eastlaw, Teetsomatic, SkyWalker, JForget, Matthaeus123, Deon, Sir Vicious, Earthlyreason, Drlowell, Eric, KyraVixen, Otsego, Awarli, Icanandibill, Delaraha, Itaqallah, Megahmad, Adaobi, Zurkhardo, Ken Gallager, MrFish, Hemlock Martinis, Nilfanion, Cydebot, Black Nikon, Machtslaus, ChristTrekker, Henrymrx, Vanished user vjhsduheuiui4t5hjri, Meno25, George Al-Shami, Gogo Dodo, Tora Bora, Ttenchantr, Difluoroethene, Codingmasters, Themasteroftheuniverse, Tawkerbot4, Doug Weller, Crimson3981, DumbBOT, Ameliorate!, Quadrius, Optimist on the run, Knight45, Kozuch, Cortneyrocks123, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Gimmetrow, RickDC, Satori Son, Aditya Kabir, Numen, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Dbarnes99, Biruitorul, Btball, Eliyyahu, Ut Libet, Vrillon, Qwyrxian, Cipriano, Cmart1, Fhilal, Sagaciousuk, Danlibbo, Sobreira, Marek69, A3RO, Neil916, Kathovo, Java13690, E. Ripley, Sinn, Therequiembellishere, Nick Number, Jaime Bob, Big Bird, Heroeswithmetaphors, Dawnseeker2000, CTZMSC3, AlefZet, Escarbot, Al-tamimi emad, Trengarasu, Mentifisto, Porqin, Sidasta, Valentino122, AntiVandalBot, Konman72, Yonatan, Luna Santin, Mvjs, Why My Fleece?, Seaphoto, Opelio, Augusta2, SummerPhD, Quintote, Doc Tropics, Jj137, Fayenatic london, Schmidter, Heavymetal85, Todddc, Firas79, Amjra, Danger, Farosdaughter, THEunique, Credema, North Shoreman, Lbarclay, Spencer, Mr. Yooper, Ithinkhelikesit, Philotas, Kuteni, Gökhan, TuvicBot, Golgofrinchian, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Dogru144, Deflective, Leuko, TostitosAreGross, Barek, ArRoos, MER-C, ElComandanteChe, Epeefleche, Amoruso, The Transhumanist, Bože pravde, Instinct, Scythian1, TFighterPilot, Basik, Albany NY, Andonic, Hut 8.5, PhilKnight, Kirrages, Kerotan, Cyn-

15.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

211

wolfe, Rockower, The Myotis, Magioladitis, Creationlaw, Dp76764, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Scanlan, Brrrrrett, JNW, Shmuelakam, JamesBWatson, Alexander Domanda, Jay Gatsby, Paris1975, ‫باسم‬, Think outside the box, Flayer, Doroawen, RobotApocalypse, Drelectro, ISanych, Steven Walling, Nyttend, Twsx, Altfm, LeoMaheo, Brusegadi, KConWiki, Fabrictramp, Indon, Jaakobou, GrammarNSpellChecker, IkonicDeath, Omar qaqish, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Hikma, Beagel, Nmuqbel, Spellmaster, Rif Winfield, DerHexer, JaGa, Freedom-Fighter, Pan Dan, Johnbrownsbody, Pax:Vobiscum, TheRanger, To Serve Man, Mschiffler, Gjd001, Palestine48, FisherQueen, Hdt83, MartinBot, Lahaun, ScorpO, Keith D, Azalea pomp, MeteorMaker, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Pbroks13, PrestonH, Smokizzy, Lilac Soul, AnonHat, Zerebruin, Yjwong, Kiwizoid, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Jahanas, Trusilver, EscapingLife, Ali, JamesR, Bogey97, Numbo3, Writegeist, Uncle Dick, Peytonbland, J intela, Kown, Bakkouz, Ownage2214, Darkhour, SubwayEater, Darth Mike, Mjanzen, Acalamari, Jordan13r, The Human Trumpet Solo, St.daniel, LordAnubisBOT, Aboosh, Gman124, Jordan1234, Sjharten, Little Professor, Aboutmovies, Skier Dude, Gurchzilla, Coppertwig, Chriswiki, M-le-mot-dit, Squrban~enwiki, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Ahuskay, MKoltnow, KCinDC, Toon05, Flatterworld, FJPB, Pantsless91, Slackerlawstudent, Rumpelstiltskin223, Largoplazo, BigHairRef, Puppy441, Hanacy, Jackgod, Oligopolistic, Juliancolton, Skullsarecheerful, Jordanashley11, LordCo Centre, Gharaibeh, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Vanished user 39948282, Inter16, Bonadea, Wikimandia, Scott Illini, Pdcook, Ja 62, Andy Marchbanks, Jackloon, Monkeyrule, Neil fisher, Battlecrabs, D4rkk1tt3n, Useight, Regenspaziergang, Manbeasty, Xiahou, CardinalDan, Conte di Cavour, Idioma-bot, Mastrchf91, Finns, Lights, Vranak, Hellsyatoallthemhoes, Jobo55, MBlue2020, Deor, King Lopez, Roxanna samii, VolkovBot, DSRH, Jeff G., Nburden, TheMindsEye, Jtsai256, AlnoktaBOT, Vince Navarro, Shereennino, Sirpunked, Soliloquial, Husamabbas, FatUglyJo, Al.locke, Maxtremus, Philip Trueman, Rkt2312, Greatwalk, TXiKiBoT, Teefoz, Oshwah, Berthold Werner, Rightfully in First Place, Dhiren.probably, Hqb, Xerxesnine, GDonato, Anonymous Dissident, Tnnn, Arnon Chaffin, Aymatth2, Someguy1221, MINGESELLE299, Luke vickery, Martin451, JhsBot, Sirkad, DyceBot, LeaveSleaves, Tsob, Drappel, Seb az86556, PoohBear14, Justinfr, Ilyushka88, Soccergrl806, Wiae, RiverStyx23, Rastrojo, Madhero88, Guérin Nicolas, Napoleon535, SheffieldSteel, Blurpeace, Llajwa, Kommisar yan, BobTheTomato, Dirkbb, Smartgia, Synthebot, Historygypsy, Falcon8765, Pinkbandit456, Seresin, Koolkid90, Grsz11, 1-555-confide, Insanity Incarnate, Herut, Alcmaeonid, AlkaSeltzerGod, Michael Safyan, Twooars, Sue Rangell, AlleborgoBot, Bluedenim, PGWG, Jtarr, Munci, Shayne8, Rohdeaa, EmxBot, Red, Steven Weston, D. 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Fairbairn, Quebec99, Cliftonian, Cheryl.c.moor, LilHelpa, Freedom’s Falcon 222, Bonerfire12, Tatarian, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Usmausma, Timir2, Ulysses elias, Ymousa, Victory’s Spear, NJT90, Czech160, Capricorn42, Estlandia~enwiki, Renaissancee, Lemquat, Hellofanvampire, Gilo1969, Davshul, Stamname9, Tad Lincoln, Grim23, Hoping To Help, Jordan cakau Ha, AmirCohen, BritishWatcher, Nanalover2000, Sorun, Terrendusratliff, J04n, Gabz80, GrouchoBot, Joeyui95, Plaugexl, Extraice, Granty95, Frankie0607, RibotBOT, Hagilboa, Movel3itch, Headhitter, Siwillgetyou, PICmeUp, Cyfraw, GhalyBot, Moxy, MerlLinkBot, Montana2009, Shadowjams, Pinkfinkle, Joshua Darkins, Fotaun, A.amitkumar, Theman7777, Dougofborg, 000002m, Ashyboo6507, Bkenison, Hushpuckena, Zaps93, George2001hi, FrescoBot, Nedaa8080, Surv1v4l1st, Jordy152, 215PriCar, Tobby72, Pdugsin, Sky Attacker, Doombehafe, ThiagoRuiz, Raadyboy, RichardVonHammond, Hopeyousmellgood, Jordanwikiman, Sohmati, Izzedine, Haeinous, WurzelT, Finalius, Sandersson, Bambuway, Soufray, Jerashray, A little insignificant, Louperibot, Mazajnet, Citation bot 1, Aldy, Ema92, ZoleX, Redrose64, Aliveworth1, Wannabet13, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, AnOicheGhealai, Hlabod, Elockid, Jordandeese, Adlerbot, Poliocretes, Alonso de Mendoza, Jivee Blau, Elijahhee, Athompso99, Jonesey95, Rameshngbot, Aws abu eid, Wikilovergurl, Sivret20, Supreme Deliciousness, Azdro, BigDwiki, ‫אצטרובל‬, A8UDI, Igorp lj, Jschnur, Overkill82, Jaguar, A997aa, Masterchiefsexyladyman, Information yes, SpaceFlight89, ContinueWithCaution, Île flottante, Linly, Zaid2999, Alfrhed, Reconsider the static, Stevebrandabure, Koakhtzvigad, Judea09, Cnwilliams, Shexxehbeast2, Meganie, FoxBot, Family jules, Knight Prince - Sage Veritas, TobeBot, Cyberfox1954, Zexial, Noiseidea123, Wetrawek1234, Lotje, Hammamhasan, Careyrox, Gulbenk, Fhani, Vrenator, Hadger, Bobbyconder, 777sms, Hancock10, Pamela Miller, Firmlikemutton, Samjohn95, Schwede66, Jeffrd10, Underlying lk, Noongah, Talhouni, IRISZOOM, Tbhotch, Reach Out

212

CHAPTER 15. LAND OF ISRAEL

to the Truth, Pelukin10, Gustavo Rubén, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Sixyuz, Manna389, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Chipmunkdavis, SandAndArt, Wiki id2, Moligoonium, Ripchip Bot, Tantawi82, Auburntigers17, Jhezzy, Airsplit, Peaceworld111, Datmanbb, Jimtaip, Mileylover135, Yaac1976, Skamecrazy123, Kamran the Great, DASHBot, Ali Khaled, Layoub85, SashaJohn, Esoglou, EmausBot, Yorudun, John of Reading, Ykantor, Orphan Wiki, Acather96, Proud Liberal 6, WikitanvirBot, Parkywiki, Immunize, Gfoley4, Look2See1, Jordanmalll, AnonDelivarz, Zollerriia, Mayshat, Jschwedler, Csukljian, Dewritech, Wimbex, Embarrassedjim, GoingBatty, RA0808, Marco Guzman, Jr, Uishaki, Ben10Joshua, EME44, Mesgul82, Laurel Lodged, Fjustinbieber, Bull Market, Jordanruls, Oczaq, Winner 42, Arildto, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Heha1221, K6ka, Djembayz, Mindshare2000, Erpert, Funfun5, Bashar77, Potato37, JSquish, Daonguyen95, Illegitimate Barrister, Bdore37, Kristen1948, J0rdanian4life, Yezan, Alcea setosa, Oncenawhile, Tom-L, Sipio, Mutamarrid, Omar-Toons, Eskadenia 2000, Ὁ οἶστρος, Moto53, Nick78504, H3llBot, Jthacker94, Jordii123, Caspertheghost, Greyshark09, SporkBot, Rosemachinegun, Jsqs, Wayne Slam, Ocaasi, OnePt618, Tolly4bolly, Abulmus, L1A1 FAL, W163, Gev-Weasley, LWG, CN3777, ShapsougSochi1864, Jerash, Deutschgirl, MonoAV, Donner60, Tjerkessi, E.abbaszahid, Zibran 2, Raszoo, ElockidAlternate, Orange Suede Sofa, Historydocumentation, ErinGoBragh555, GAN-London, Hazard-Bot, Omar-toons, ChuispastonBot, Nicepepper, Melishe, Verysomenotes, Neil P. Quinn, RenamedUser jaskldjslak9032, Vilebloke, Whoop whoop pull up, Dmd05, TheAlpha31, Mjbmrbot, Jordan Health, TheTimesAreAChanging, E. Fokker, Jimmynudes2, Xanchester, 2010angels, ClueBot NG, Faizanalivarya, ‫الجامعة العربية‬, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Ratirat1, Teh4rab, Jack Greenmaven, Ratirat2, Defender Owl, FesCityRaver, Omar Fayez, Cuty101101, Osario~enwiki, MelbourneStar, Satellizer, Paterimon, Movses-bot, Vc basketball15, Avicenna1985, Frietjes, Cntras, Wrathkind, Freevibe24, Insituteforeconomicsandpeace, Tiller22, Jashubert, LG x Recon, Widr, Santacloud, Wllmevans, Michael5046, StillPlayinCOD, Tomseattle, North Atlanticist Usonian, Moath700, Asalrifai, Helpful Pixie Bot, Rebekahw7, Bobherry, HMSSolent, Strike Eagle, Wbm1058, Berzeg, Hamzahs1999, Ashkaf, Doyna Yar, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Ahmetkova, Mackoy20, Islam almasri, Mohamed CJ, Sematz, NacowY, Kaltenmeyer, Adiarida, PhnomPencil, Jennifer levnson, HIDECCHI001, Wallawooo111, AvocatoBot, Tachfin, Yotme, Marcocapelle, Modinyr, Compfreak7, Matrix501016, Serafín33, Mmovchin, Joydeep, Arminden, Adel Tigris, Boobytuppy12, TheTruthUnchanged, SmartyPantsCutie, Mideastwhoswho, MorrisIV, Bill duck, 55losers, Asrefaei, TomeHale, Zetrs, Ihatecats789, Itrollbud, Fotoriety, Mathiaslsn, Minsbot, Loriendrew, Acb405, Hello kitty1111111111, Shredder2012, Andron35, Historyfeelings, Wakwakwiki, BattyBot, Tutelary, David.moreno72, 3Princip, Alexanderaminwain, Johnsc12, ~riley, StarryGrandma, Jorhead, WmTyndale, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Glaxal, Randomness12345, Khazar2, Suck my hazza, Ramox5, Harshesh7102011, JYBot, RAntonello, IsraphelMac, Randomrose101, Treemapper, Dexbot, Zeeyanwiki, Profpremrajpushpakaran, Cwobeel, TRoll00ldasdf, Hmainsbot1, Gblack509, Charles Essie, Mymis, Rigby98, Mogism, Michael hassard, Pluto2012, Wensgot, Hkhadash, Lugia2453, Nadeemazizu, Giobrixton, Frosty, Graphium, 069952497a, Latristelagrima, Sepsis II, Einsatzgruppe C, Stateofkuwait14, Jd97milan, Epicgenius, Lemnaminor, Ruby Murray, Rob984, JewishAngle2013, ReggyLiz, Howicus, Eng mohammad2013, ‫איתן‬, Melonkelon, ProtossPylon, Tentinator, EvergreenFir, RickHindi, Fk14weez, Takeorleave, Cherubinirules, LePatro, Backendgaming, RabeaMalah, Indefatigable2, 123hgt, Kharkiv07, Jelly1234, ‫عراقي‬1, Ginsuloft, Eurofan88, J272943, Jelloweeps, Dan.mitroi89, Kind Tennis Fan, Usama Abu Sa'da, Agrso, SJ Defender, Hofman20, Andreas11213, Ali Zifan, ThecentreCZ, N0n3up, Robevans123, Fearless513, Mamoun it, Bigtimegangstah, Daawsome12, Theparties, Visigodred, Andrew J.Kurbiko, Ahmadwael, Bad Dryer, Kickoo~enwiki, Abbyco, Nflamigni, USERNAME Jordan, Ryk72, Monkbot, Idekkkk, AttarAram syria, DacianMiclea, Bolter21, Cmcunningham, Jordan401, Filedelinkerbot, Marvstig, Int.amb.93, Hjalnobel, Yolu920, Septate, Monopoly31121993, Jojothemonkeyman, Stenfeio, Syria221, Betarabbit, Amortias, Ameen1986, Malek305, Vicky1920, Jordandadonkey, Sigehelmus, Shilou44, Cuisinart84, Bruno Liandro, Changeferbooter, Makeandtoss, SA 13 Bro, Mahmoud abu halawa, Hollth, Sophiedoodle, MahmoudFayyad12, MahmoudFayyad13, AbuKhalilHalawa, Trucet, Julietdeltalima, Redflorist, Psycho1717, Bluejay157558, Parj57828, Ecohen12, JordanCiccio, Weawpew, GildaVerdi01, Armouti0 0, Franca1962, Mll mitch, Isambard Kingdom, MickeyJavier, XMZee, Issamfayyad, Ncousins007, Gamingforfun365, Freetheants, Truman098, Ob21cms, Ghaziassaf, Alhusanala, GeneralizationsAreBad, Opdire657, Vincentbarnhard, MidasHotel20, Potatofart2000, LiXuanze, Jordan is hot, Prinsgezinde, Dafactmanftw, KasparBot, MusikBot, Farahdiabian, When Other Legends Are Forgotten, WigglesJohn, BU Rob13, ThePencilOfDoom, SSTflyer, Sumi.Doqa, Pajagonde, Mrgoog, Maltrópa, TheReferenceProvider, MediaKill13, Yamamura Sadako, Jok121, Ahusami, Johnny cage, BrettBerstein, Tpdwkouaa, HiudhuiqhxdyScatguy2003, Shuglashgla123, Royalskies14, Nizaralmasri20000, Bolt4783, Egyptgovermentlaws, Omarshihab, Retention7, Kerküklümustafa, Huaquangthai, AntiMuslim2, Vivaespaña016, Hamzeh.jabri, Jhussin, Hawaan12, Tutu87!812601514, Omni Flames, Anticla rutila, GreenC bot, Temahazaimeh2000, ThePlatypusofDoom, LaughTrack07, EinsteinReplica, BobWiki143, Buffalojake, Mr KEBAB, Emxbay, Katylanders, RanaRomoh, Emir of Wikipedia and Anonymous: 2887 • Land of Israel Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_of_Israel?oldid=735679551 Contributors: Gareth Owen, Galizia, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, DopefishJustin, IZAK, Tregoweth, Efghij, Uriber, Reddi, DJ Clayworth, Zero0000, AnonMoos, Bearcat, Humus sapiens, Leumi, Mattflaschen, DocWatson42, Cokoli, Barbara Shack, Dissident, Marcika, Jfdwolff, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Margana, Kusunose, Savant1984, Kaldari, DNewhall, Zondor, Mike Rosoft, Jayjg, Discospinster, Dbachmann, Mani1, Bender235, Kaisershatner, El C, Shrike, Jpgordon, AladdinSE, Defrosted, The Ephialtist, MPerel, Irishpunktom, M5, Kuratowski’s Ghost, Grutness, Alansohn, Ynhockey, Avenue, SidP, Frankman, Guy Montag, Dan100, CONFIQ, MickWest, Camw, Josephf, ^demon, Dysepsion, BD2412, JIP, Somnior, Bill37212, Vegaswikian, Ian Pitchford, Crazycomputers, Last1in, NekoDaemon, Equitor, R Lee E, 334a, Bgwhite, Adoniscik, Noclador, HG1, RussBot, Okedem, Emmanuelm, Gaius Cornelius, Uncle Al, Wimt, Anomalocaris, Ozzykhan, Grafen, Jaxl, Welsh, Toya, Yoninah, Deodar~enwiki, Formeruser-82, Lockesdonkey, Gadget850, Igiffin, Heptazane, Theda, Esprit15d, Fram, Yaron Livne, Joshbuddy, Remiel, SmackBot, PiCo, David Kernow, Federalist51, Od Mishehu, Big Adamsky, Ssbohio, Dandin1, Delldot, Marbux, Rotemliss, Portillo, AnotherBDA, Jon513, William Allen Simpson, Tewfik, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Drsmoo, Rrburke, TonySt, Scottie theNerd, PiMaster3, Gabi S., EVula, Horses In The Sky, Monosig, Andrew c, Kendrick7, Adnanmuf, Kevin co, Ohconfucius, ZScarpia, Rakach, Eliyak, Acidburn24m, Loodog, Mrlopez2681, Green Giant, Mobius024, Aleenf1, Shilonite, Itzse, Slakr, George The Dragon, EdC~enwiki, Pipedreambomb, Civil Engineer III, Gilabrand, Tawkerbot2, Shirahadasha, Fvasconcellos, DanielRigal, Cydebot, Karimarie, David Betesh, ThreeVryl, Doug Weller, Ward3001, Nishidani, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Eliyyahu, WilliamH, Marek69, OrenBochman, CowboyWisdom, OuroborosCobra, Tiamut, Escarbot, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Macmedic892, Seaphoto, QuiteUnusual, Carolmooredc, Yisraeldov, Fayenatic london, SadanYagci, Danny lost, Res2216firestar, JAnDbot, MER-C, Amoruso, Wser, Lawilkin, Adderabbi, Freidoun, AuburnPilot, JNW, Keith H., CTF83!, Rami R, Chesdovi, Catgut, Jaakobou, DerHexer, Grantsky, MartinBot, MeteorMaker, Philip wik, Hillela, BaseballDetective, Bailo26, MarcoLittel, Geagea, Dillouz, Pundit, Hapsguy, Natl1, Izno, Malik Shabazz, DICKERSON3870, VolkovBot, AlnoktaBOT, HIZKIAH, Philip Trueman, Andreas Kaganov, Lradrama, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Wiae, Y, Brianga, Logan, Tumadoireacht, Sfmammamia, David305, Sposer, BPP-baller, StAnselm, Hertz1888, Gerakibot, Caltas, Yintan, Rabbeinu, S711, Keilana, Komusou, Terper, Mimihitam, Oxymoron83, Lightmouse, AMbot, OKBot, Maelgwnbot, Sean.hoyland, Mr. Stradivarius, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Lawrence Cohen, Enthusiast01, Treborresro, CasualObserver'48, Mild Bill Hiccup, JaapBoBo, Joaopaulopontes, Handcloud Handcloud, Michael2314, Sun Creator, Morel, Dj manton, Mikaey, EivindJ, Lx 121, SoxBot III, Editor2020, Shoteh, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, Jan D. Berends, Dthomsen8, WikHead, ThoughtPoliced, Mm40, Deeznuts69, Addbot, Determom, Submitter to Truth, Dorankian, LaaknorBot, Lihaas, AndersBot, Debresser, Favonian, Elan26, Organic Cabbage, SaintHammett, Granpuff, KirkCliff2, Mikhailovich, AnomieBOT, Dwayne, JackieBot, Damzow, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Raymolayenie,

15.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

213

Cliftonian, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Historicist, Capricorn42, Ched, Trahelliven, ThePhantomCopyEditor, No More Mr Nice Guy, Omnipaedista, Ojh23, Elithejew, FrescoBot, Izzedine, Citation bot 1, Adamgold33, Moonraker, RedBot, Avivbehisrael, Σ, Jiujitsuguy, Trappist the monk, Eliscoming1234, DixonDBot, Khalid ibn al-Walid, ‫יוסאריאן‬, Lotje, Javierito92, Tbhotch, The Fifth Column, Breein1007, MShabazz, DASHBot, EmausBot, Dewritech, GoingBatty, RA0808, RenamedUser01302013, Laurel Lodged, ZéroBot, Gomeril, Oncenawhile, Mar4d, Cobaltcigs, Greyshark09, JoeSperrazza, CN3777, Loggerjack, YX1, Elliot Warshawski, Mhiji, ClueBot NG, Yambaram, Tanbircdq, Kvitlach, Talknic, Twillisjr, O.Koslowski, Andrewbarber79, Telpardec, MerlIwBot, Atefrat, Citrussino, BG19bot, Dalai lama ding dong, Kaltenmeyer, Tritomex, JohnChrysostom, Marcocapelle, MrQueequeg1, Eleanor1944, EricEnfermero, BattyBot, Dlv999, Triggerhippie4, Warfare19144, ScottyNolan, Mogism, Dorpwnz, VoRo1ze, CsDix, Save1234567, ChristianChivalry, BreakfastJr, Darkangelus333, Monochrome Monitor, SaulBental, DSDSGA, Rogttender, Davidbena, Urs Etan, Daylight15, Infantom, Bolter21, Aryehh89, Tolstoyan at Heart, DaoXan, Israelforlife, ‫גור אריה יהודה‬, Elishebabb, Johnmcintyre1959, ModernJewishThought, Max384, JLL2015, Dzevel55 and Anonymous: 325

15.10.2

Images

• File:030Arab.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/030Arab.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.syrianhistory.com/photos/030.jpg Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:1695_Eretz_Israel_map_in_Amsterdam_Haggada_by_Abraham_Bar-Jacob.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/b/b9/1695_Eretz_Israel_map_in_Amsterdam_Haggada_by_Abraham_Bar-Jacob.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: user:Humus sapiens • File:20080909_K.A.M._Isaiah_Israel_Temple_and_Obama_security_detail.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/4/41/20080909_K.A.M._Isaiah_Israel_Temple_and_Obama_security_detail.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: I created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist: TonyTheTiger (t/c/bio/WP:CHICAGO/WP:LOTM) • File:20100923_amman37.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/20100923_amman37.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jean Housen • File:ABDALI-Sunrise.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/ABDALI-Sunrise.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Producer. Original artist: The original uploader was Joeyzaza at English Wikipedia • File:Adolf_Behrman_-_Talmudysci.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Adolf_Behrman_-_ Talmudysci.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Zbiory ŻIH (Żydowski Instytut Historyczny) Original artist: Adolf Behrman (1876 – 1942) • File:Ajloun_Castle_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Ajloun_Castle_1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/uwebrodrecht/25520953293/ Original artist: Uwe Brodrecht • File:Ajlun_Green.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Ajlun_Green.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by bobamnertiopsis. Original artist: Smart Viral at English Wikipedia • File:Al-Aqsa05.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Al-Aqsa05.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Photograph taken by Mark A. Wilson (Department of Geology, The College of Wooster). [1] Original artist: Wilson44691 at English Wikipedia • File:Al_Khazneh_Petra_edit_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Al_Khazneh_Petra_edit_2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: • Al_Khazneh_Petra.jpg Original artist: Al_Khazneh_Petra.jpg: Graham Racher from London, UK • File:Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.aleppocodex.org Original artist: see en:Aleppo Codex; scanned by http://www. aleppocodex.org • File:Alexander_the_Great,_100_B.C.E._–_100_C.E.,_54.162.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/ Alexander_the_Great%2C_100_B.C.E._%E2%80%93_100_C.E.%2C_54.162.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Brooklyn Museum Original artist: Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund • File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: All Gizah Pyramids Original artist: Ricardo Liberato • File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs) • File:An_Aerial_View_of_the_Za'atri_Refugee_Camp.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/An_ Aerial_View_of_the_Za%27atri_Refugee_Camp.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/statephotos/ 9312291491/sizes/o/in/photostream/ Original artist: U.S. Department of State • File:Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Ancient_Egypt_map-en.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work. See [#References #References] for references used creating the map. Original artist: Jeff Dahl • File:Ancient_Egyptian_Seafaring_Ship.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Ancient_Egyptian_ Seafaring_Ship.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Memphis University Press Original artist: Hateshepsut Deir-Bahari temple wall relief • File:Ancient_Egyptian_medical_instruments.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Ancient_Egyptian_ medical_instruments.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: self-made, taken May 2005 Original artist: Jeff Dahl

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CHAPTER 15. LAND OF ISRAEL

• File:Anubis_attending_the_mummy_of_Sennedjem.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Anubis_ attending_the_mummy_of_Sennedjem.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: website Original artist: self • File:Aqaba.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Aqaba.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aviad2001 • File:Aqaba_Mosque.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Aqaba_Mosque.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/68469607@N00/13250331403/ Original artist: xorge • File:Aqaba_Railway_Corporation_BW_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Aqaba_Railway_ Corporation_BW_1.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Berthold Werner • File:Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Sdrtirs using CommonsHelper. Original artist: murraytheb • File:Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: • Arc_de_Triumph_copy.jpg Original artist: • derivative work: Steerpike (talk) • File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_ projection%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Map by Ssolbergj Aquarius.geomar.de Original artist:Koyos + Ssolbergj (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ssolbergj' title='User talk:Ssolbergj'>talk</a>) • File:BD_Hunefer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/BD_Hunefer.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jon Bodsworth (photographer) Original artist: unknown Egyptian artisan • File:Babylonlion.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Babylonlion.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: ? • File:Belz_World_Center_Inside.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Belz_World_Center_Inside.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Berlin_Neue_Synagoge_Innenansicht_BusB.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Berlin_Neue_ Synagoge_Innenansicht_BusB.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Berlin und seine Bauten, Verlag Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn 1896 Original artist: ? • File:Bethany_(5).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Bethany_%285%29.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Producer (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Producer' title='User talk: Producer'>talk</a>) • File:BialyBimah.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/BialyBimah.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Juda S. Engelmayer Original artist: Juda S. Engelmayer • File:BritishMandatePalestine1930s.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/ BritishMandatePalestine1930s.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zero0000 • File:Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e15_669-0.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 7/74/Brockhaus_and_Efron_Jewish_Encyclopedia_e15_669-0.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: .torrent with info-hash 323EBA8FBD7C6A3F30C1147B39760E978C95BB9B Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Reconstruction_of_Jerusalem_and_the_Temple_of_Herod_(Réconstitution_de_Jérusalem_et_ du_temple_d'Hérode)_-_James_Tissot.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Brooklyn_Museum_-_ Reconstruction_of_Jerusalem_and_the_Temple_of_Herod_%28R%C3%A9constitution_de_J%C3%A9rusalem_et_du_temple_d% 27H%C3%A9rode%29_-_James_Tissot.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Online Collection of Brooklyn Museum; Photo: Brooklyn Museum, 2006, 00.159.6_PS1.jpg Original artist: James Tissot • File:Chanukia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Chanukia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ladislav Faigl • File:Coat_of_arms_of_Israel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Emblem_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Contributors: symbol created in 1948. Original artist: Original design by Max and Gabriel Shamir; Tonyjeff, based on national symbol. • File:Coat_of_arms_of_Jordan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Coat_of_arms_of_Jordan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://vector-images.com/image.php?epsid=7040 Original artist: • File:Coffre_et_rouleau_de_Torah_ayant_appartenu_à_Abraham_de_Camondo_chef_de_la_communauté_juive_de_ Constantinople_1860_-_Musée_d'Art_et_d'Histoire_du_Judaïsme.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 1/1b/Coffre_et_rouleau_de_Torah_ayant_appartenu_%C3%A0_Abraham_de_Camondo_chef_de_la_communaut%C3%A9_juive_de_ Constantinople_1860_-_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_et_d%27Histoire_du_Juda%C3%AFsme.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Compass_rose_pale.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Compass_rose_pale.svg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: svg version of Image:Compass-rose-pale.png, made to look similar to Image:Reinel compass rose.svg. Original artist: Fibonacci

15.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

215

• File:Cylinder_Seal,_Old_Babylonian,_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_09.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Cylinder_Seal%2C_Old_Babylonian%2C_formerly_in_the_Charterhouse_Collection_09.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hjaltland Collection • File:Cylinder_seal_lions_Louvre_MNB1167_n2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Cylinder_seal_ lions_Louvre_MNB1167_n2.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2010) Original artist: ? • File:Dana_Reserve_07.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Dana_Reserve_07.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bernard Gagnon • File:Dead_sea_newspaper.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Dead_sea_newspaper.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Uploaded to en: by Pete, on 14 May 2005 Original artist: ? • File:Dome_of_the_Rock1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Dome_of_the_Rock1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Israel Original artist: Paolo Massa from Trento, Italy • File:Duraeuropa-1-.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Duraeuropa-1-.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.library.yale.edu/exhibition/judaica/jcsml.2.html Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:EEF_Palestine_Eretz_Yisrael_stamp_1920_grey.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/EEF_ Palestine_Eretz_Yisrael_stamp_1920_grey.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.sandafayre.com/gallery/stamp_659.htm Original artist: Sandafayre on-line • File:East.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Boxed_East_arrow.svg License: Public domain Contributors: DarkEvil. Original artist: DarkEvil • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus_v2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Edited version of Image:EdSmPaPlateVIandVIIPrintsx.jpg Original artist: Jeff Dahl • File:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Most likely Hamish2k, the first uploader Original artist: Most likely Hamish2k, the first uploader • File:Egypt_NK_edit.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Egypt_NK_edit.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Modified from en:Image:Egypt_1450_BC.svg by en:User:Andrei Nacu, modified by uploader Original artist: Original by en:User:Andrei Nacu, edits by Jeff Dahl • File:Egypte_louvre_231_visage.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Egypte_louvre_231_visage.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (Guillaume Blanchard) Original artist: ? • File:Egypte_louvre_316.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Egypte_louvre_316.jpg License: CC BY-SA 1.0 Contributors: Guillaume Blanchard, Juillet 2004, Fujifilm S6900 Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Egyptian-Chariot.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Egyptian-Chariot.png License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from Nineveh and Its Palaces, by Joseph Bonomi, figure 108 Original artist: Joseph Bonomi • File:Egyptian_Doctor_healing_laborers_on_papyrus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Egyptian_ Doctor_healing_laborers_on_papyrus.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own workFlickr photo Original artist: GoShow • File:Egyptian_Vase.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Egyptian_Vase.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Thursby16 • File:Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Egyptian_glass_jar.jpg License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: http://www.egyptarchive.co.uk/html/louvre_museum/louvre_museum_frame.html Original artist: Jon Bodsworth • File:Ein_sof.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/15/Ein_sof.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Elah_Valley_below_Adullam.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Elah_Valley_below_Adullam. jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: With my Fuji XF1 digital camera Previously published: Never before published Original artist: Davidbena • File:Emanu-elNYjeh.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Emanu-elNYjeh.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jim.henderson • File:Emanuel_de_Witte_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Emanuel_de_Witte_002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Emanuel de Witte • File:Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_ League.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jeff Dahl

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• File:Exterior_of_kaifeng_synagogue.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7c/Exterior_of_kaifeng_synagogue. JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Fayum-22.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Fayum-22.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Fertile_Crescent_concept_1916.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Fertile_Crescent_concept_ 1916.png License: Public domain Contributors: Breasted, James Henry (1916) Ancient times, a history of the early world: an introduction to the study of ancient history and the career of early man, Boston: Ginn, pp. 100–101 “The Ancient Oriental World” map is inserted between pages 100 and 101 Original artist: James Henry Breasted • File:First_page_of_the_first_tractate_of_the_Talmud_(Daf_Beis_of_Maseches_Brachos).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/First_page_of_the_first_tractate_of_the_Talmud_%28Daf_Beis_of_Maseches_Brachos%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.talmud.de Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Djibouti.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Flag_of_Djibouti.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art • File:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_Eritrea.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: [[user:]] • File:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ethiopar.net/type/Amharic/hopre/bills/1998/654.ae..pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • File:Flag_of_Israel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Flag%20and%20the%20Emblem Original artist: “The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel” of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides the official specification for the design of the Israeli flag. • File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Palestine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Flag_of_Palestine.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on Law No. 5 for the year 2006 amending some provisions of Law No. 22 for the year 2005 on the Sanctity of the Palestinian Flag Original artist: Orionist, previous versions by Makaristos, Mysid, etc. • File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg License: CC0 Contributors: the actual flag Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata: Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo. svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/ 40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Flag_of_Somalia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: see below Original artist: see upload history • File:Flag_of_Sudan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: www.vexilla-mundi.com Original artist: Vzb83 • File:Flag_of_Syria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: see below Original artist: see below • File:Flag_of_Yemen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art website Original artist: ? • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? 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Original artist: ? • File:SWqanatirTempleMount.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/SWqanatirTempleMount.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wilson44691 • File:S_F-E-CAMERON_EGYPT_2006_FEB_00289.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/S_ F-E-CAMERON_EGYPT_2006_FEB_00289.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Steve F-E-Cameron (Merlin-UK) • File:Sakib_mansaf.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Sakib_mansaf.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Historyfeelings • File:Sardis_Synagogue_courtyard.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Sardis_Synagogue_courtyard. 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Original artist: ? • File:Sinagoga-kahal-zur-israel-recife.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/ Sinagoga-kahal-zur-israel-recife.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: taken by Ricardo André Frantz Original artist: Ricardo André Frantz (User:Tetraktys) • File:Slavebeating.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Slavebeating.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/egypt/people/picture/slavebeating.jpg Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:SolomonsTemple.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/SolomonsTemple.png License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:South.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/South.svg License: Public domain Contributors: DarkEvil. Original artist: DarkEvil • File:South_Temple_Mount.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d7/South_Temple_Mount.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Stamped-bulla_seal-side.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9b/Stamped-bulla_seal-side.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? 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Original artist: ? • File:Synagogue_Florence_Italy.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Synagogue_Florence_Italy.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Toksave • File:TM_washing.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/TM_washing.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Photograph taken by Mark A. Wilson (Department of Geology, The College of Wooster). [1] Original artist: Wilson44691 at English Wikipedia • File:Talmud_Set.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a6/Talmud_Set.png License: CC-BY-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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• File:Talmud_set.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Talmud_set.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Reuvenk • File:Tempelberg_Bijbels_museum.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Tempelberg_Bijbels_ museum.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Evert100 • File:TempleStepsMay2009.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/TempleStepsMay2009.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wilson44691 • File:Temple_Mount_(Aerial_view,_2007)_03.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Temple_Mount_ %28Aerial_view%2C_2007%29_03.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Godot13 • File:Temple_Mount_southern_wall_200509.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Temple_Mount_ southern_wall_200509.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Oren Rozen • File:TemplesholomChicago.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5d/TemplesholomChicago.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? 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• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Original artist:Nicholas Moreau • File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky • File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw • File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BYSA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally created by Smurrayinchester • File:Yerushalmi_Talmud.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Yerushalmi_Talmud.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Young_girls_reading_-_Government_primary_school_in_Amman,_Jordan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/9/95/Young_girls_reading_-_Government_primary_school_in_Amman%2C_Jordan.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0-igo Contributors: This ﬁle has been provided by UNESCO (unesco.org) as part of a GLAM-Wiki partnership. Original artist: Tanya Habjouqa • File:ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/ZodiacMosaicTzippori.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-published work by G.dallorto Original artist: G.dallorto • File:Zohar.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Zohar.png License: Public domain Contributors: Originally transferred from en wikipedia. Original artist: Possibly Simeon bar Yochai • File:Ägyptischer_Maler_um_1400_v._Chr._001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Musicians_and_ dancers_on_fresco_at_Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Ägyptischer Maler um 1400 v. Chr. • File:Łańcut_synagoga_08.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/%C5%81a%C5%84cut_synagoga_08. jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jarosław Ratajczyk

15.10.3 Content license • Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 • Converted from EPS to SVG by: Oren neu dag • This image is based on the CIA Factbook, and the website of Oﬃce of the President of Iraq, vectorized by User:Militaryace Original artist: Unknown, published by Iraqi governemt, vectorized by User:Militaryace based on the work of User:Hoshie • King_Abdullah_-_World_Economic_Forum_on_the_Middle_East_2008.jpg • Regno di Davide.svg • Oldtidens_Israel_&_Judea.svg • Is-map.PNG